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CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA 


CHAMBERS'S 


ENCYCLOPEDIA: 


A  DICTIONARY 


OF  UNIVERSAL  KNOWLEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE, 


ILLUSTRATED. 


VOL.  VII. 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  &  CO. 

EDINBURGH:   W.   &   R.    CHAMBERS. 

187  0. 


r .. 


C 


HA.-?  A'..')  CCIIEGE  LIPRARY 
ff  ..'   riit   :...HAKY  OF 

JuNt  2o,  1U38 


BDtered,  acoocdlng  to  Act  of  CongresB,  in  the  year  1866,  by 

J.  B.  LIPPINOOTT  k  GO, 

In  the  Clerk's  OflSce  of  the  District  Ooort  of  the  United  States  for  the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 


raiTERSiX  KNOWIEDGE  FOR  THE  PEOPLE 


KUMISMATIOSL 


ITTTMISMATICS  (Lat  nummvi  and  nvmirma, 
moaej ;  Or.  nomimia,  fram  nomot,  law,  a  medinm 
tl  eidutnge  eatabliilied  by  law),  the  icience  which 
trekia  of  coins  And  medali.  A  coin  U  a  piece  of 
metal  of  a  filed  weiaht  stamped  by  authority  of 
■ovemmeDt,  and  employed  aa  a  ciranlatiDg  medium. 
A  medal  is  a  piece  struck  to  commemorate  on 
erent  The  study  of  nnmiamaticE  has  an  important 
beiiiog  on  history.  Coiog  have  been  liia  means 
of  ascertaining  the  names  of  forgotten  couDtries 
and  cities,  their  position,  their  chronology,  the 
■accession  of  their  lanss,  their  nssges  civil,  militair, 
and  lelij^oos,  and  the  style  of  their  art.  On 
their  respective  coins  we  can  look  on  nndoabtedly 
accurate  representationa  of  Mithridktes,  Jiilins 
Cssar,  Augustus,  Nero,  CaracallA,  and.  read  their 
character  and  features. 

The  r 

eom»ge  ---  _-^ , „— 

n  comprued  the  alloy  occaaioDally  lubstitnted  far 
it.  aa  electrum  (an  alloy  of  gold  and  silver)  for  gold, 
billon  for  ailver,  bronze  for  copper,  and  potin  (an 
aJloy  soft«r  than  billon)  for  silver  and  copper.  The 
aide  of  a  coin  which  bean  the  most  important  device 
K  inscription  is  called  tbe  o&ferM,  the  other  side  the 
rncrse.  The  words  or  letters  on  a  coin  are  called 
its  inacription  ;  an  inscription  Bun-oiiDdiQg  the 
border  ia  called  the  legrnd.  When  the  lower  part 
of  tlie  reverse  ii  diBtioctly  •eporated  from  the  main 
device,  it  is  called  the  cterjTHe  (Gr.  ei  ergon,  without 
the  work),  and  often  bean  a  secondary  inscription, 
wHh  the  date  or  plaoe  of  mintage.  Tbe  field  u  the 
■pace  on  the  surface  of  the  cmn  nnoccnpied  by  the 
pnndpal  device  or  insciiption. 

The  nae  of  coined  money  cannot  be  traced  further 
back  than  the  9th  e.  B-o.  Uoney,  however,  as  a 
mediam  of  exchange,  existed  much  earlier,  and 
when  of  metal  it  pasBed  by  weight,  no  piece  being 
adjusted  to  anypreoise  weight,  and  all  money  being 
weighed  irhen  exchanged.  Early  metallic  money 
WM  in  tii«  form  of  bars,  spikes,  and  rings ;  the  ring 
kl3 


money  eonldbe  opened,  closed,  and  linked  in  a  chain 
for  convenience  of  carriage. 

The  Lvdians  are  supposed  to  have  been  the  fint 
people  who  used  coined  money,  about  700  or  800  years 
before  the  Christian  era;  and  their  example  was 
soon  after  followed  by  the  different  states  of  Qreeot^. 
the  earliest  Greek  ooins  being  those  of  ^^na.  In 
its  early  stages  the  process  3  coining  consisted  in 
placing  a  lump  of  metal  of  k  fixed  weight,  and 
approaching  to  a  globular  form,  over  a  die,  on  which 
was  engraved  the  religions  or  national  symbol  to  be 
impretaed.  A  wedge  or  punch  placed  at  the  back 
of  tiia  metal  was  held  steadily  with  one  hand,  and 
stmck  by  a  hammer  with  the  other,  till  the  metal 
was  snmcientiv  filed  in  the  die  to  receive  a  good 
impression.  The  impression  was  a  guarantee  of  tha 
weight  of  the  piece.  From  tbe  natnre  of  the  pro- 
cess, the  earheat  coins  hod  a  lumpish  appearonce, 
their  reverse  was  a  rough,  irregular,  hoUow 


steady  when  struck  by  the  coining  ban 
original  coins  of  Asia  Minor  were  of  gold,  those  of 
Greece  of  silver.  The  earliest  coins  bear  emblems- 
of  a  sacred  character,  often  eujbodpng  some  legend 
regarding  the  foundation  of  the  state,  aa  the  phoea 
or  seal  on  the  coins  of  tbe  Fhooians,  which  alludes. 
to  the  shoal  of  wait  said  to  have  followed  tbe  Qeet> 


I1«.L 


during  the  emigration  of  the  people.  JTig.  I.  repi«k 
sents  a  very  early  double  stater  of  Miletna,  in 
Ionia,  of  which  the  type  ii  the  Iiod's'  head,  derived 


mTMISMATICa. 


from  PenU  and  Amtim,  and  MSocUted  trittt  the 
wonilup  of  Cybele,  a  Bymbol  which  ii  continued  in 
the  later  coinsge  of  Miletui.  Types  of  this  hind 
irere  Buoceeded  bj  poitnita  of  protecting  deities. 
The  earliest  coins  of  Athetu  have  the  owl,  a«  type  of 
the  goddess  Athene ;  at  a  later  period,  the  head  of 
the  ^mUlcBS  herself  takes  ita  ]ilac«^  the  owl  afterwaida 
le-sppearing  on  the  reverse.  The  puDch-mark, 
at  tint  a  rudely -roughed  square,  soon  assumed  the 
more  sightly  form  of  deep,  wedge- like  indents,  which 
in  later  spedmena  become  more  regular,  till  they 
form  themselTee  inte  a  tolerably  symiuetricat  square. 
In  the  next  staga,  the  indents  become  shallower, 
and  consist  of  four  squares  forming  one  large  one. 
Theaurroundingof  the  punch- 
mark  with  a  band  bearing  a 
tiame,  and  the  introduction  of 
s  head  in  its  centre,  as  in  the 
1  annexed  figure  (lig.  2),  gradu- 
I  ally  led  to  the  perfect  reverse. 
J  There  is  a  remarkable  series 
so-called  '  encased'  coins 
lick  in  Magna  Grjecia,  of 
which  the  reverse  is  an  exact 


Fig.! 


repetition   in  concave  of  the 
relief  of  the  obverse.    These 
coins  are  thin,  flat,  sharp  in 
relief,  and  beautifully  executed. 

The  leading  coin  of  Greece  and  the  Greek  coloaiea 
was  the  stater,  so  called  because  fouoded  on  a  staa- 
dard  of  weight  generally  received  before  the  intro- 
duction of  coined  money-  There  were  double  statera, 
and  half,  third,  and  quarter  staters,  and  the  stater 
was  equivalent  in  value  to  sii  of  the  silver  pieces 
called  drachmte.  The  oboius  was  one-sixth  of  the 
drachma,  at  first  ttmck  in  silver,  in  later  times  in 

■oopper. 

The  inscriptions  on  the  earliest  Greek  coins  consist 

>of  a  single  letter,  the  initial  of  the  city  where 
they  were  struck.  The  remaining  letters,  or  a 
portion  of  them,  were  afterwards  added,  the  name, 
when  in  full,  being  in  the  genitive  case.    Mono- 

,  grama  sometimes  occur  in  addition  to  the  name, 
or  part  name,  of  the  place.    The  tirst  coin  bearing 
the  name  of  a  king  is  the  tetradrschm  (or  piece  of 
four  drachmie}  of  Alexander  L  of  Macedon. 
Among  the  early  coins  of  Asia,  one  of  the  most 

.celebrated  is  the  stater  Daricus  or  Dane,  named 
from  Darius   Ilyataapea      It  had   for  symtwl   an 

.Mcher  kneeling  on  one  knee,  and  seems  to  have 
been  coined  for  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  by 
their  Persian  conquerors.  In  the  reign  of  Philip  of 
Macedon,  the  coinage  of  Greece  had  attained  its  full 
development,  having  a  perfect  reverse.  One  of  the 
earliest  specimens  of  ttie  complete  coin  is  a  beau- 

itiful  medal  struck  at  Syracuse,  with  the  head  of 


on  the  nvetse  of  the  ttaten  of  Philip  of  Maoedon, 
known  as  Philips,  and  largely  imitated  by  other 
states.  CtHns  of  Alexander  the  Great  are  abundant, 
many  having  been  struck  after  bis  conquests  in  tlu 
Greek  towns  of  Asia.  A  tt»e  distioguiahes  thoaa 
struck  at  Rhodes,  a  bee  those  struck  at  Ephesus, 
Sx. ;  these  are  all  types  generally  accompanying 
the  figure  of  Zeus  on  the  reverse ;  on  the  obversa 
is  the  head  of  Hercules,  which  has  sometimes  been 
supposed  to  be  that  of  Alexander  himself.  It  ' 
would  rather  seem,  however,  that  the  conquerort 
immediate  successois  were  the  iirst  who  placed 
their  portrait  on  the  ooins,  and  that  under  a  shallow 
pretence  of  deiUcatiou,  Lyaimacbus  as  a  descendant 
of  Bacchus,  and  Seleuons  of  Apollo,  clothed  in  th* 
attributes  of  these  deities,  Two  moKt  beautiful  and 
important  series  of  Greek  coins  are  tho*e  of  tha 
Seteucidte,  iu  Asia,  of  silver,  and  of  the  Lagidte  or 
Pttdemies,  in  Egy[it,  of  gold. 

In  Palestine  there  is  an  interesting  series  of  coiiw 
founded  on  the  religious  history  of  tbe  Jewish 
nation,  and  assigned  to  Simon  Maccabisns.  Their 
are  shekels  and  half-shekels,  equivalent  to  two  Attio 
drachmae  and  one  drachma  respectively.  The  shekels 
bear  on  the  obverse  the  pit  of  manna,  with  the 
inscrij>tioD  'Schehel  Israel '  (the  Shekel  of  Israel) ;  on 
Aaron's  rod  with  three  flowers,  and 


character.  The  succcMors  of  Simon  assumed  tha 
title  of  king,  and  placed  their  portraits  On  the  coiu^ 
~tth  inseriptienB  in  Greek  as  well  as  in  Hebrew. 

Soman   coins  belong  to    three    different    serie*| 
known  as  the  Bepublican,  the    Family,  and  tha 


-iat. 


called  Kepoblioan,  Urn  eaiUsBt  otrinage, 
began  at  an  early  period  of  Bomau  history,  and 
ibaisted  tiU  about  60  B.  a  Its  standard  metal 
as  copper,  or  rather  <h  or  bfotuc^  an  klloy  of 


pTMerpine  accompanied 't^  dolplnna,  and  for  reverse 
■  Victor  in  the  Olympic  games  m  a  chariot  receiving 
»  wreath  from  Xicto^-~^a  type  which  is  also  found 


ng.«. 

copper.     The  standard  unit  waa  the  poundwaiglik 
divided  into  twelve  ounces.    The  cm,  or  at,  or  pound 
of  bronze,  is  said  to  have  received  a  state  impress  aa 
early  as  the  reign  of  Serviui  TuUius,  578 
B.  c     This  oigantio  pieoa  was  oblong  lilu 
a  britk,  and  stamped  with  the  representa- 
tion of  an  ox  or  sheep,  whence  the  word 
ptcunUt,  from  pecua,  cattle.   The  full  pouud 
of  the  aa  was  gradually  reduced,  aJwaya 
retaining    the   twelve   (nominally)    uncial 
subdivisions,  till  its  actual   weight  came 
to  be  DO  more  tlian  a  quarter  of  an  ounoe. 
About  the  time  when  the  as  had  dimin- 
ished to  nine  ounces,  the  square  form  waa 
exchanged  for   tbe  oircular.      Thia    larga 
copper  coin,  called  the  '  as  grave,'  waa  not 
struck  with  the  punch,  but  oast,  and  exhi- 
bited ou  the  obverse  the  Janus  bifrons; 
and  on  the  revewe,  the  prow  of  a  ship,  with 
the  numeral  L     Ot   the  fractions  of  tha 
as,  the  sextans,  or  sixth  part,  generally  bears  tha 
head  of  Mercury,  and  the  uncia,  or  ounce  piece 
(tig.  4),  that  of  Minerva ;  these  pieoea  being  further 


KTJMISMATlOaL 


dntiDgoidied  by  dots  or  knobs,  one  for  each  onnce.    Jtidsea.    The  Colosseum  appears  on  a  sestertins  of 

fifL _f 1 _i i^'—t    «_   xv_   J :_       XT-. 1 rm. _   _-i #  »«      •  .««... 


Antonine, 
coined  till  the  weisht  of  the  as  had  diminished  to  |  Marcus  Aiuielius,  and  the  two  Faustinas  are  well 
four  ounces.  The  Itoman  uncial  coinajj^e  extended  I  executed ;  as  are  also  tiiose  of  Commodus,  of  whom 
to  the  other  states  of  Italy,  where  a  variety  of  types  a  remarkable  medidlion  relates  to  the  conquest  of 
▼ere  introduced,  including  mythological  heads  and  ;  Britain.  There  is  a  rapid  falling  off  in  design  after 
animals.  In  the  reign  of  Augustus,  the  as  was  ;  the  time  of  Commodus,  and  base  silver  comes  exten- 
virtiutlly  superseded  by  the  sestertius,  called  by  sively  into  use  in  the  reign  of  Caracalla.  Gallienus 
nnmismatists  the  first  bronze,  about  the  size  of  our  introduced  the  practice  of  coining  money  of  copper 
penny,  which  was  at  first  of  the  value  of  24,  after-    washed  with,  silver. 

wards  of  4  asses.  The  sestertius  derived  its  value  The  colonial  and  provincial  money  of  this  period 
fifom  the  silver  denarius,  of  which  it  was  the  fourth.  !  was  ver^  inferior  to  that  coined  in  Rome.  In  the 
Ihe  half  of  the  sestertius  was  the  dupondius  (known  coins  of  the  provinces  which  had  been  formed  out 
as  the  second  bronze),  and  the  half  of  the  dupondius  of  the  Greek  empire,  the  obverse  bears  the  emperor's 
was  called  the  assarium,  an  old  name  of  the  as.  '  head,  and  the  reverse  generally  the  chief  tempk  of 
The  assarium  is  known  to  numismatists  as  the  i  the  gods  in  the  ci^  of  coinage ;  the  inscriptions  are 
third  bronze.  in   Greek.      In  the  imi>erial  coins  of  idezandria 

Silver  was  first  coined  at  Rome  about  281  B.  a,  I  appear  such  characteristic  devices  as  the  heads  of 
the  standard  being  founded  on  the  Greek  drachma, '  Jupiter  Ammon,  Isis,  and  Canopus,  the  sphinx,  the 
then  equivalent  in  value  to  ten  asses ;  the  new  coin  serpent,  the  lotus,  and  the  wneat-ear.  Colonial 
was  therefore  called  a  denarius,  or  piece  of  ten  asses,  i  coins  were  at  first  distinguished  by  a  team  of  oxen. 
The  earliest  silver  coined  at  Rome  has  on  the  afterwards  by  banners,  the  numl)er  of  which  indi- 
obverse  the  head  of  Roma  (differing  from  Minerva  cated  the  number  of  legions  from  which  the  colony 
by  having  wings  attached  to  the  helmet) ;  on  the    had  been  drawn. 

reverse  ia  a  quadriga  or  biga,  or  the  Dioscuri.  After  the  time  of  Gallienus,  the  colonial  money 
Among  various  other  types  which  occur  in  the  and  the  Greek  imperial  money,  except  that  of 
silver  of  the  Italian  towns  subject  to  Rome  are  the  '  Alexandria,  ceased,  and  much  of  the  Roman  coinage 
horse's  head,  and  galloping  horse,  both  very  beauti-  was  executed  in  the  provinces,  the  name  of  the 
fuL  During  the  social  war,  the  revolted  states  town  of  issue  appearing  on  the  exergue.  Diocletian 
coined  money  independently  of  Rome,  and  used  introduced  a  new  piece  of  money,  called  the  foltis, 
various  devices  to  distinguish  it  as  Italian  and  not  which  became  the  chief  coin  of  the  lower  empire, 
fioman  money.  |  The  first  bronze  has  disappeared  after  Gallienus, 

The  earliest  gold  coins  seem  to  have  been  issued  and  the  second  diaapi)ears  after  Diocletian,  the  third 
about  90  B.  a,  and  consisted  cf  the  scrupulum,  {  bronze  diminishing  to  -/^th  of  an  ounce.  With  the 
equivalent  to  20  sestertii,  and  the  double  and!^  treble  '  establishment  of  Christianity  under  Constantine,  a 
icnipuluni.  These  pieces  bear  the  head  of  Mars  on  ;  few  Christian  types  are  introduced.  The  third  bronze 
the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  an  eagle  standing  of  that  emperor  has  the  Labarum  (a.  v.),  with  the 
on  a  thunderbolt,  with  the  inscription  '  Roma  *  on  ,  monogram  IHS.  Large  medallions,  called  oontorrUatif 
the  exergueu  The  large  early  repuolican  coins  were  encircled  with  a  deep  groove,  belong  to  this  ^riod, 
cast,  not  struck.  ;  and  seem  to  have  been  prizes  for  distribution  at 

The  Family  Coins  becin  altout  170  B.C.,  and  the  public  games.  Pagan  types  recur  on  the  coins 
about  80  B.  a  they  entirely  supersede  the  coins  first  of  Julian ;  and  after  his  time  the  third  bronae 
descrilied.     Those  families  who    successively  held  .  disappears. 

offices  connected  with  the  public  mint  acquired  the  !  The  money  of  the  Byzantine  empire  forms  a  link 
right  first  to  inscribe  their  names  on  the  money,  between  the  subject  of  ancient  ana  that  of  modem 
afterwards  to  introduce  symbols  of  events  in  their  coins.  The  portrait  of  the  emperor  on  the  obverse 
own  family  history.  These  types  gradually  super-  is  after  the  10th  c.  supported  by  some  protecting 
8e<led  the  natural  ones ;  the  portrait  of  an  ancestor  saint.  The  reverse  has  at  first  such  types  as 
followed ;  and  then  the  portrait  of  a  living  citizen.  Victory  with  a  cross,  afterwards  a  representation  of 
Julius  Csesar,  !  the  Saviour  or  the  Virgin ;  in  some  instances,  the 

Vndcr  the  emmre,  the  copi)er  sestertius,  which  Vir^n  supporting  the  walls  of  Constantinople, 
had  displaced  the  as,  continued  the  monetary  |  Latm  is  gradually  superseded  by  Greek  in  the 
standardL  A  magnificent  series  exists  of  the  first  inscriptions,  and  wholly  disappears  by  the  time  of 
bmnzea  of  the  emperors  from  Augustus' to  Gallienus.  '  Alexius  L  The  chief  gold  piece  was  the  solidus  or 
While  it  was  the  privilege  of  the  emperors  to  coin  ,  nomisma,  which  was,  long  famed  in  commerce  for  its 
gold  and  silver,  copper  could  only  be  coined  ex  purity,  and  circulated  largely  in  the  west  as  well  as 
muOuscansuUo,  which  from  the  time  of  Augustus    the  east  of  Europe. 

was  expressed  on  the  coins  by  the  letters  S.C.,  or  Of  the  coins  of  the  middle  ages,  the  most  import- 
KX  S.C.  The  obverse  of  the  imperial  coins  bears  ant  is  the  silver  denier  or  penny,  derived  from  the 
the  portraits  of  the  successive  emperors,  sometimes  Latin  denarius.  Its  half  was  the  obole,  first  of 
of  tne  empress  or  other  members  of  the  imperial  |  silver,  afterwards  of  billon.  Coins  of  this  descrip- 
(amily;  and  the  reverse  represents  some  event,  '  tion  were  issued  in  the  German  empire,  France, 
military  or  social,  of  the  emperor^s  reign,  sometimes  ,  England,  and  the  Scandinavian  states,  and  in  many 
allegorised.  The  emi)eror  s  name  and  title  are  ,  cases  by  ecclesiastical  princes  and  feudal  lords  as 
inscribed  on  the  obverse,  and  sometimes  jiartly  j  well  as  sovereigns.  The  obverse  of  the  regal  coin 
continued  on  the  reverse ;  the  inscription  on  the  '  of  the  early  middle  ages  is  generally  the  bust  of  the 
reverse  generally  relates  to  the  subject  delineated ;  I  sovereign,  and  the  reverse  a  Greek  crosiL  accom- 
and  towards  the  close  of  the  Sd  c.,  the  exergue  of  panied  by  the  royal  name  or  title,  and  the  place  of 
the  reverse  is  occupied  by  the  name  of  the  town  mintage  or  the  moneyer  (see  Mint).  The  arms  of 
where  the  coin  is  struck.  The  coins  of  Augustus  the  country  were  introduced  in  the  12th  e.,  in  eon- 
and  those  of  Livia,  Antonia,  and  Agrippina  the  .  junction  with  the  cross,  and  afterwards  superseded 
Elder  have  much  artistic  merit  The  workmanship  i  it  In  the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  eoina  began  to 
of  Nero's  sestertii  is  very  beautiful  The  coins  of  be  issued  by  free  imperial  cities  or  corporations  of 
Vespasiaii  4"<^  Titus  commemorate  the  conquest  of   towns ;  and  there  prevailed  extensively  throughoui 


NVMISMA'nca 


Germuir  knd  other  parts  of  £uTO|>a  k  thin  piece 
ciiUed  abriLcteate,  in  relief  on  one  Bide,  and  hollow 
on  the  other,  often  not  bearing  a  Bingle  letter,  and 
rarely  %  fi>U  inicriptioii.  Down  to  the  14th  c,  the 
reiief  of  the  medieval  coim  is  vety  inconaiderable, 
the  pieces  thin,  and  the  art  poor. 

Britain  received  the  Roman  money  oa  its  aubjii- 

Etioo.  Cuustantine  seems  to  have  had  ft  mint  in 
ludoD,  and  the  Soman  currency  continued  to 
circulate  for  a  time  after  the  departure  of  the 
conquerors.  The  fiist  indepecdent  coinage,  however, 
siicws  hardly  a  tmce  of  the  iiiHueDM  of  Home;  it 
ronsiats  of  tvo  BmaU  coins,  called  theakeatta  and 
Ntyea,  the  former  of  silver,  the  latter  of  copper, 
l^jth  seoui  to  belong  solely  to  the  Saxon  kingdnm  of 
l-iji-thumbria ;  they  are  without  inscrijiUone ;  a 
h  I'd,  a  rude  profile,  and  several  unintelligilile  sym- 
1 1  lis  appear  Od  them,  and  their  art  is  of  the  moat 
lii'based  kind.  In  the  other  kingdoms  of  the  hep- 
t.irchy  silver  penoies  were  coined,  first  intended  to 
l>e  jjn^ii  of  a  pound  weijiht ;  on  the  disappearoDce 
of  skeattce  and  atycie,  the^  form,  with  the  occa- 
sional addition  of  halfpennies,  the  sole  currency  of 
England  down  to  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL  The 
pennies  of  the  heptarchy  bear  the  name  of  the  king 
or  of  the  moneyer  ;  a  cross  eometinieB  appears  after 
the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  in  later  times  a 
rude  head  ot  the  king  or  queen.  The  pennies  of  the 
Sbxsd  and  Danish  sole  monarchs  of  England,  have 
a  somewhat  similar  oharacter.  Alfred's  earlier  coina 
have  a  grotea^ue'looking  portrait,  and  on  the  reverse 


%  monogram  of  London ;  in  his  later  coins  the  head 
disappears,  and  a  croes  and  circle  take  its  place. 
A  cross,  variously  ornamented  with  three  pellets  in 
each  angle,  contmoes  to  be  the  nsnal  reverse  of  the 
Saxon,  Norman,  and  Flantagenet  coius.  The  coins 
of  Edward  IIL  are  a  great  fistic  advance  on  those 
that  preceded  them.  The  silver  coiuase  of  that  king 
consisted  not  only  of  pennies,  halfpennies,  and 
farthings,  but  also  of  groats  and  half-groats.  The 
obverse  of  the  groat  th^ars  a  conventional  crowned 
head  within  a  flowered  circle  of  nine  arch^  the 
words  'Dei  Gratia'  and  the  title  'Kei  Francis' 
appearing  for  the  first  time  in  the  legend.  The 
Teverae  has  the  motto  '  Posui  Deum  odjutorem 
menm,'  which  continued  on  the  coinage  tUl  the 
time  of  Edward  V.  But  thd  great  numismatic 
feotiire  of  Edward  IIL's  reign  U  the  issue  of  mid 
nobles,  worth  six  shillings  and  eightpence.  The 
obverse  of  those  beautiful  coins  represent  the  king 
in  a  ship,  a  sword  in  his  right  hand,  in  his  left  a 
shield  with  the  quartered  arms  of  France  and 
Elngland.  The  revene  is  a  rich  cross  flory  within 
a  circle  of  eight  archea,  and  a  lion  under  a  crown 
in  each  angle  of  the  cross,  the  legend  being  '  Ihesus 
BDtem  transiens  per  medium  illorum  tbat.'  Half 
and  quarter  nobles  were  also  coined.  The  nohle 
having  increased  in  value,  a  coin  called  an  angel, 
of  the  former  value  of  a  noble,  was  issued  by  Henry 
VI.  and  Edwaid  IV.  The  obverse  represented  St 
Michael  tntnsfiring  a  dragon ;  the  reverse  a  ship, 
with  a  cross  for  the  mast. 
A*  we  approach  the  period  of  the  Befornution, 


of  that  coin  had  been  fixed  at  ten  shilliags,  wen 
called  rials  (a  name  derived  from  a  French  cain), 
and  the  double  rial  or  sovereign  was  brst  coined 
by  Henry  VIL  The  obverse  has  the  king  on 
his  throne  with  sceptre  and  orb,  and  on  the  reverse 
in  the  centre  of  a  heraldic  full-blown  rose,  ia 
a  shield  with  th«  arms  of  France  and  En)|,'Lind. 
The  testoon,  or  shilling,  valued  at  twelve  peuce, 
also  flrst  appeared  in  this  reign,  with  the  royal 
profile  crowned  on  the  obverse,  and  the  roy^  arms 

3uaM«red  by  the  cross  ou  the  reverse.  A  great 
ebasement  of  the  coinage  took  place  in  the  rrign 
of  Henry  VIIL  The  rcvei^  of  the  farthing  of  that 
monarch  bears  a  portcuUis,  tbat  of  the  shillinus  a 
rose  surmounted  by  a  crown,  and  of  the  soverfigna, 
the  royai  arms  supported  by  a  lion  and  dragon.  A 
noble  was  coined  with  St  George  and  the  dragon  .on 
the  obverse,  and  on  the  reverse  a  ship  with  tbre« 
crosses  for  masts,  and  a  rose  on  the  centre  mast. 
On  the  coins  of  Henry  VIIL  the  title  'Hilieniira 
Kez '  tirst  appeared,  former  kings  having  only  styled 
themselves  'Dominus  Hibcmiie,'  Ireland  not  being 
accounted  a  kinedom.  Under  Edward  VI.,  tba 
silver  coins  called  Crowns  and  half-crowns  api>ear, 
having  for  device  the  king  crowned  on  horseback  in 
the  armour  of  the  period.  They  derived  their  name 
from  coins  circulating  on  the  continent,  which  had 
for  device  a  crown.  The  royal  aims  in  an  oval 
shield  without  the  cross  are  introduced  as  tha 
reverse  of  the  shilling.  From  this  period  there  is  a 
very  obvious  decline  in  the  artistic  feelina  of  the 
English  ooins.  On  some  of  the  shillings  of  Mary,  her 
bust  and  that  of  Philip  face  each  other,  the  insignik 
of  Spain  and  England  impaled  occupying  the  reverse ; 
aft^words  the  king's  head  occupies  one  side  of  the 
coin,  and  the  queen's  the  other.  Half-euvcruigna, 
or  rials,  and  angels  were  coined  of  the  old  type  of 
Edward  IV.  'llie  great  event  in  the  coinage  of 
Elizabeth's  reign  was  the  temporary  introii  uctioQ 
of  tha  piill  and  screw,  instead  of  the  hammer  and 
punch,  producing  coins  of  a  more  rcgidar  anil  work- 
manlike appearance.  The  profile  bust  of  Jajnes  I., 
crowned  and  in  armour,  spjieara  on  his  shilliags  and 


1  half-ci 


shell 


the  c       ^ 
kohlea   coined 


_,,    The 

r  Edward   IV.,  aft«r  the  valne 


represented  on  horseback  ; 

Juartered  arms  of  the  three  kingdoms  (the  harp  of 
reland  appearing  for  the  first  time  on  the  coinage), 
with  the  motto  '  Que  Dens  conjunxit  nemo  separcb' 
Copper  fart)iinye,  with  crown,  sceptre,  and  sword 
on  the  obverae,  and  a  hnrp  ou  the  reverse,  were 
coined  for  England  as  neU  as  Ireland,  the  first 
copper  money  issued  in  England  since  tha  styca. 
Pnvate  tokens  of  copper,  issued  by  tradesmen  and 
others,  had,  however,  been  in  circulation  before,  and 
came  again  into  use  to  a  large  extent  at  a  later 
period.  Charles  L  coined  ten  and  twenty  shillins 
pieces  of  silver,  the  former  a  very  noble  coin,  witfi 
a  representation  of  the  king  on  horseback.  A  crown, 
struck  at  Oxford,  bears  on  the  obverse  the  king  on 
horseback,  with  a  representation  of  the  town,  and 
on  the  reverse  the  heads  of  the  Oxford  declaration. 
The  guinea,  tirst  coined  in  this  reign,  was  so  called 
from  the  metal  being  procured  from  the  coaeit  of 
Guinea ;  its  original  value  was  but  twenty  shillinn. 
The  coins  of  the  Commonwealth  exhibit  a  ehield 
with  the  cross  of  St  George  surrounded  by  a  palm 
and  olive  branch,  and  have  for  legend  '  'fhe  Com- 
monwealth of  England.'  On  the  reverse  are  two 
shields  accoll^e,  with  the  cross  of  St  George  and  the 
harp  of  Ireland,  and  the  motto  'God  with  us.' 
Coins  far  superior  in  character  were  executed  by 
Cromwell,  with  bis  laureated  bust  and  title  «a 
Protector,  and  on  the  reverse  a  crowned  shield 
quartering  the  cross  of  St  George,  of  St  Andrew 
and  the  harp,  with  the  Protector's  paternal  arms  in 
snriout ;  but  few  of  these  were  issued.   In  the  early 


NUMISMATICS. 


euBs  of  Charles  IL,  tliat  monarch  is  crowned,  and 
in  the  dress  of  the  time ;  in  his  later  money  he  is  in 
eoDventionalised  Roman  drapery,  with  the  head 
turned  to  the  left,  and  from  that  time  it  has  heen 
the  practice  to  turn  every  king's  head  the  reverse 
way  from  that  of  his  predecessor.    The  four  shields 
on  the  reverse  are  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  cross 
(an  arrangement  which  continaed  till  tiie  reisn  of 
Oeoree  II.),  and  on  the  edge  of  the  crowns  and  naif- 
crow  us  is  the  legend '  Decus  et  tntamen.'    Charles  IL 
issued  a  copper  coinage  of  halfpennies  and  farthings ; 
on  the  former  appears  the  device  of  Britannia,  taken 
from  the  Roman  coins  relating  to  Britain.    Pennies 
were  not  coined  till  George  ItL's  reign.    The  coins 
of  William  and  Mary  have  the  profiles  of  the  king 
and  qneen  one  over  the  other,  and  the  shields  m. 
the  three  kingdoms  in  the  form  of  a  cross  on  the 
reverse,  with  Nassau  in  the  centre.    The  coinage  of 
William  alone,  after  the  death  of  Mary,  is  of  some- 
what improved  design.  Sir  Isaac  Newton  being  then 
Master  of  the  Mint.    Little  change  in  the  general 
desi*^  of  the  coin  occurs  in  the  reiffns  of  Anne  and 
George  L     On  the  accession  of  the  House  of  Hano- 
ver, tne  Hanoverian  arms  are  placed  in  the  four& 
shield,  and  George  IV.  substitutetl  a  quartered  shield 
with  Nassau  en  surtout  for  the  four  shields  on  the 
reverse  of  his  gold  coins.    During  the  greater  part 
of   George    IlL's    reign  the    coinage   was  utterly 
neglected  and  the  silver  pieces  in  circulation  were 
worn  perfectly  smooth.    When  coins  were  at  last 
issued,  the  Roman  oonventionalism  of  the  previous 
reiirns  gave  way  to  a  now  fashionable  Greek  con- 
ventionaliBm.    The  quartered  shield  supplanted  the 
fonr  shields,  and    on  the  reverse    of  the   crown 
appeared  a  Grecianised  St  George  and  the  dragon. 
George  IV.'s  bust  is  taken  from  Chantrey^s  statue; 
the  rose,   thistle,  and  shamrock,  united  under  a 
cruwn,  appear  on  the  reverse  of  his  shilling.     Silver 
groats  were  issued  in  the  reign  of  William  IV.    The 
ensigns  of  Hanover  disappeared  at  the  beginning  of 
the  present  reign ;   the  reverse  of  the   shilling  is 
even  poorer  than  that  of  George  IV.,  the  words 
'One  shilling'  occupy  the  tield,  surrounded  by  an 
oak  branch  and  a  laurel  branch ;  silver  pieces  of  three- 
pence have  been  introduced.     But  the  principal 
monetary  event  is  the  issue  of  the  silver  florin,  in 
value  equivalent  to  two  shillings,  looked  on  as  a 
step  towards  the  institution  of  a  decimal  coinage. 
It  represents  the  head  of  the  Queen  crowned,  with 
the  legend  in  old  English  character,  and  for  reverse 
the  four  shields  are  once  more  placed  in  the  form  of 
across. 

No  native  Scottish  coinage  existed  earlier  than 
the  llth  century.     Coins  are  extant  of  Somerled, 

r'nce  of  the  Isles  of  that  century,  and  of  Alexander 
of  the  century  following.  The  silver  pennies  of 
William  the  Lion,  and  Alexander  II.  and  III.,  are 
like  contemporary  English  money,  but  ruder,  and 
bear  the  names  of  the  moneyers  and  place  of  mintoge, 
generally  Edinburgh,  Perth,  or  Berwick.  The 
profiles  on  the  coins  of  John  Baliol,  Robert  Bruce, 
and  David  II.  are  attempts  at  portraiture.  A 
remarkable  gold  piece,  first  coined  by  Robert  II.,  is 
the  St  Andrew,  with  the  arms  of  Scotland  on  the 
obverse,  and  St  Andrew  on  his  cross  on  the  reverse. 
In  the  four  succeeding  reigns  the  weight  of  the 
tQver  coins  rapidly  decreased,  and  coins  of  billon,  or 
base  metal,  were  issued,  nominally  pennies,  but 
three  and  a  half  of  which  eventually  passed  for  a 
silver  penny.  The  evil  increased,  and  baser  and 
bsser  alloy  was  used.  Groats  of  billon,  known 
as  placks  and  half-placks,  were  coined  by  James 
IlL  James  IV.'s  coins  have  a  characteristic 
portrait,  and  a  good  deal  of  artistic  feeling. 
James  IIL  and  IV.  issued  well-executed  gold 
pieces^  called  imiooms   and  riders,   the  type   of 


the  one  being  the  unicorn,  of  the  other  the  king  on 
horseback.  A  still  more  beautiful  coin  was  the 
gold  bonnet  piece  of  James  V.,  so  call^  fix>m  thft 
cap  in  the  kmg's  portrait.  Of  Mary,  there  are  a 
great  variety  of  interesting  pieces.  The  portrait  is 
sometimes  croiK'ned,  sometimes  uncrowned,  and  on 
the  coin  issued  soon  after  Francis's  death,  has  a 
widow's  cap  and  high-frilled  dieaa.  The  types  in 
James  VL's  reign  are  also  very  vaiioua  On  his 
accession  to  the  English  throne,  the  relative 
value  of  English  and  Scottish  coins  was  declared 
to  be  as  12  to  1.  The  coins  afterwards  issued 
from  the  Scottish  mint  differed  from  the  English, 
chiefly  in  having  Scotland  in  the  first  quarter 
in  the  royal  shield.  The  last  Scottish  gold  coinage 
consisted  of  pistoles  and  half-pistoles  of  Darien 
gold,  about  the  size  of  a  guinea  and  half-guinea, 
struck  by  William  III. ;  the  pistole  distinguidbed 
by  a  rising  sun  under  the  bust  of  the  king. 

The  coina^  of  Ireland  is  scanty  and  immteresting 
compared  with  that  of  Scotland.  The  coins  of 
English  monarchs  struck  in  Dublin  resemble  much 
those  current  in  England.  Henry  VIIL  first  placed 
a  harp  on  the  Irish  coins. 

In  France,  the  earliest  coins  are  those  of  the 
Merovingian  kings,  rude  imitations  of  the  late 
Roman  and  early  Byzantine  money,  and  mostly  of 
gold.  Under  the  Carlovin^an  dynasty,  deniers  and 
oboles  are  the  prevailing  comage,  remarkably  nide  in 
fabric,  without  portrait,  and  baring  the  name  of  the 
king  and  place  of  mintage.  Some  coins  of  Charle- 
magne, struck  at  Rome,  are  of  better  workmanship. 
They  contain  one  letter  of  *  Roma  *  at  each  extremity 
of  the  cross,  with  the  legend  'Carolus  IP.'  The 
coinage  improved  under  theCapetian  kings ;  the  fleur- 
de-lis  appears  in  addition  to  the  cross.  &.  the  13th  o. 
gold  pieces  were  issued,  and  in  the  time  of  Philip 
VL  both  the  design  and  the  execution  of  the  coins 
are  beautiful  The  coins  of  Louis  XIL  are  the  first 
that  bear  the  royal  portrait.  The  modern  coinage 
may  be  said  to  begin  under  Henry  II.,  whose 
portrait  is  good.  The  seignorial  coins  of  France  in 
the  middle  ages  are  of  considerable  importance,  and 
the  medals  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Napoleon  I.  are  much 
more  interesting  than  the  modem  coins. 

The  medieval  coinage  of  Italy  is  of  great  interests 
The  money  of  the  Lombard  kings  of  Italy  and 
Dukes  of  Benevento,  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  the 
Greek  emj^erors.  There  is  a  beautiful  series  of 
gold  and  silver  pieces  belonging  to  Venice,  bearing 
the  names  of  the  do^es,  and  having  genendly  for 
type  the  doge  receiving  the  gonfalon,  or  staudaiKi 
of  St  Mark.  The  gold  florins  of  Florence,  with  the 
lily  for  device,  are  no  lees  celebrated,  and  were 
imitated  by  other  states.  Florence  had  also  a 
remarkable  series  of  medals,  with  admirable 
portraits  of  persons  of  note.  The  coins  of  the  popes, 
rrom  Hadrian  I.  down  to  the  14th  c,  bear  the  name 
of  the  pope  and  emperor  of  the  west ;  those  of  later 
date  are  beautiful  in  execution,  and  have  seated 
2)ortraits  of  the  pontiffs,  with  the  cross-keys  and 
mitre  for  reverse.  A  remarkable  series  of  medals 
commemorates  the  chief  events  of  each  reigu,  oive 
of  which,  struck  after  the  massacre  of  St  Bartholo- 
mew, has  for  type  an  angel  slaying  the  Huguenots, 
and  the  inscription  *Ugonottorum  strages/  Tiie 
coins  of  the  Norman  princes  of  Naples  stnick  in 
Sicily,  have  the  legends  partly  or  wholly  in  Arabic 
Malta  has  a  series,  witn  the  arms  and  efiigies  of 
the  grand-masters. 

The  medieval  money  of  Germany  comprises  coins 
of  the  emperors,  the  electors,  the  smaller  princes, 
the  religious  houses,  and  the  towns.  The  imi)erial 
series  is  extensive  and  very  interesting,  though,  till 
near  the  close  of  the  middle  ages,  it  is  rather  back- 
ward in  its  art     About  the  Reformation  period^ 

ft 


KUMISMATICS^KUN. 


however,  there  are  Tigorous  portraits  both  on  its 
current  coins  and  on  Sie  me<!Al8,  and  those  double 
dollars  which  are  virtually  medals.  The  coins  of 
th3  Dukes  of  Saxony,  with  their  portraits,  are 
equally  remarkable.  The  coins  of  the  archbishops 
01  Cologne,  Mainz,  and  Treves  form  a  very  inter- 
esting series,  the  first  more  especially,  with  a 
representation  of  the  cathedral 

The  coins  of  the  Low  Countries  resemble  those 
c£  France  and  Germany.  The  Dutch  medals  are 
of  interest,  more  especially  those  struck  in  com- 
memoration of  events  in  the  war  with  Spain. 

The  coins  of  the  Swiss  cantons  and  towns  during 
the  early  period  of  Swiss  independence  bore  the 
heraldic  snield  of  each,  drawn  with  vigorous 
grotesqueness.  There  are  also  pieces  struck  by 
ecclesiastical  lords,  and  by  different  families  who 
had  a  right  of  coinage. 

The  coins  of  Spain  begin  with  those  of  the  Oothic 
princes,  which  are  chiefly  of  gold,  and  on  the  model 
of  the  trientes  and  semisses  of  the  lower  empire. 
Some  of  the  early  pieces  have  a  rude  head  of  the 
monarch  on  one  side,  and  of  the  emperor  on  the 
other.  Afterwards,  the  obverse  bears  the  profile  of 
the  monarch,  and  the  reverse  a  cross  of  some 
description,  with  the  name  of  the  place  of  mintage, 
and  tne  word  'Pius'  for  legend.  In  later  times, 
there  are  two  interesting  series  of  coins  belonging  to 
the  kingdom  of  Aragon  and  to  the  kingdom  of 
Castile  and  Leon. 

The  coinages  of  Norway  and  Sweden  at  first 
resembled  the  British,  and  afterwards  the  German 
type.  From  the  10th  to  the  14th  c.,  bracteates 
were  issued  by  the  ecclesiastics.  The  coinage  of 
Hungary  begins  in  the  11th  c.,  and  has  the  por- 
traits of  the  monarchs.  The  Russian  coinage  is 
Byzantine  in  character,  and  rude  in  its  art  ''The 
earliest  pieces  are  the  silver  darga  of  the  14th  c, 
of  an  oblong  shape,  with  representations  of  the 
prince  on  horseback,  and  various  l^endary  sub- 

Iects.  Peter  the  Great  introduced  the  usual 
European  type.  There  is  an  important  series  of 
bronze  coins  of  the  Crusaders,  beginning  with 
Tancred,  and  coming  down  to  the  end  of  the  15th 
c,  including  money  of  the  kings  of  Cyprus  and 
Jerusalem,  and  other  princes  establishea  in  the 
east. 

In  India,  the  succession  of  the  kings  of  Bactria, 
the  •  remotest  of  the  dynasties  founded  on  the 
ruins  of  Alexander's  empire,  has  only  become 
known  through  their  recently-discovered  coins. 
There  are  eany  rude  Hindu  coins  of  the  Gupta 
line,  with  figures  of  the  Brahminical  divinities  of 
a  type  still  in  use. 

Of  the  coins  of  the  Mohammedan  princes,  the 
oldest  gold  pieces  are  the  bilingual  coins  of  cities  of 
Syria  and  Palestine,  of  the  middle  of  the  7th  c 
(a.  h.  78),  barbarous  imitations  of  the  latest  Byzan- 
tine money  of  Alexandria.  Most  of  the  Mohamme- 
dan coins  are  covered  exclusively  by  inscriptions 
expressive  of  the  elementary  principles  of  the 
Mohammedan  faith.  For  some  centuries,  no  sove- 
reign except  the  calif  was  allowed  to  inscribe  his 
name  on  the  coin.  Large  gold  coins  of  great  purity 
were  issued  by  the  Moslem  kings  of  Granada  in 
Spain. 

The  high  prices  given  for  ancient  coins  have  led 
to  numerous  forgeries  from  the  15th  c.  downwards. 
Against  such  imitations,  collectors  require  to  be  on 
their  guanL 

Among  the  best  works  on  numismatics  are 
Eckhel,  Doctrina  Numorum  Veterum  (Vienna,  17U2 
— 1708) ;  Hennin,  Manuel  de  NumUtmatique  An- 
denne  (Paris,  18^);  Grasset,  Handbuck  der  alten 
Numigmatik  (Leipsic,  1852—1853) ;  Leake,  Numia- 
wuUa  HifUenlca  (London,  1854) ;  Euding's  AnuaU  qf 


the  Coinage  qf  Oreat  Britain  (London,  1840) ; 
Lindsay's  View  of  Uie  Coinage  of  Scotland  (Cork, 
1845) ;  Leblanc,  TraiU  Historique  des  Monnoi^s  de 
France  (Paris,  1G90) ;  Cappe,  Die  MUnzen  der 
Deutschen  Kaiser  und  KCnige  des  Mittelaltrrs 
(Dresden,  1848  — 1850)  ;  Marsden,  NtLintstnuia 
OrientaUa  lUustrata  (London,  1823- 1825). 

NU'MMULITE  LIMESTONB,  an  important 
member  of  the  Middle  Eocene  period,  oonsistiog  of 
a  limestone  composed  of  nummolites  held  togewer 
by  a  matrix  formed  of  the  comminuted  particles  of 
their  shells,  and  of  smaller  foraminifera.  It  forma 
immense  masses  of  the  strata  which  are  raised  up 
on  the  sides  of  the  Alps  and  Himidayas,  and  may 
be  traoed  as  a  broad  band  often  1800  miles  in 
breadth,  and  frequently  of  enonaous  thickness, 
from  the  Atlantic  shores  of  Europe  and  Africa, 
through  Western  Asia,  to  Northern  India  and 
China.  It  is  known  also  to  eover  vsst  areas  in 
North  America. 

NUMMULITBS,  or  NUMMULTNA  (Or. 
money-fossil),  a  genus  of  fossil  foraminifera,  the 
shells  of  which  form  immense  masses  of  rock  of 
Eocene  age.  See  Nummttlite  Limestone.  Up- 
wards of  50  species  have  been  described.  They  are 
circular  bodies  of  a  lenticular  shape,  varying  in 
magnitude  from  the  merest  point  to  the  size  of  a 
crown-piece.  The  shell  is  composed  of  a  series  at 
small  chambers  arranged  in  a  concentric  manner. 
The  growth  of  the  shell  does  not  take  place  only 
around  the  circamferenoe,  but  each  whorl  invests 
all  the  preceding  whorls,  so  as  to  form  a  new  layer 
over  the  entire  surface  of  the  disk,  thus  adding  to 
the  thickness  as  well  as  the  breadth,  and  ^ving  the 
fossil  its  lenticular  fonn.  A  thin  intervening  space 
separates  each  layer  from  the  one  which 'it  covers, 
and  this  space  at  the  margin  swells  out  to  form  the 
chamber.  All  the  internal  cavities,  however,  seem 
to  have  been  occupied  with  the  living  sarcode,  and 
an  intimate  connection  was  maintained  between 
them  by  means  of  innumerable  parallel  tubuli, 
which  everywhere  pass  from  one  siulace  to  another, 
and  which  permitted  the  passage  of  the  sarcode  as 
freely  as  do  the  minute  pores  or  foramina  of  the 
living  foraminifera. 

The  name  is  given  to  tiiem  from  their  resem- 
blance to  coins.  In  Egypt,  where  the  whole  of  the 
Mokkadam  Mountains,  from  tiie  stone  of  which 
the  pyramids  were  built,  is  formed  of  them,  they 
are  caJled  by  the  natives  *  Pharaoh's  Pencew' 

NUN,  a  member  of  a  religious  order  of  womezL 
The  etymology, of  this  name  is  a  subject  of  some 
controversy,  but  there  seems  every  reason  to  believe 
that  it  is  from  a  Coptic  or  £^yptian  root,  which 
signiiies  *  virgin.*  It  is  found  in  use  as  a  Latin 
word  as  early  as  the  time  of  St  Jerome  {En.  to 
JfJustachirtSf  p.  22,  c.  6).  The  general  characteristics 
of  the  religious  orders  will  be  found  under  the  head 
MoNACHTSM  (q.  v.),  and  under  Uiose  of  the  several 
orders.  It  is  only  necessary  here  to  specify  a  few 
particulars  peculiar  to  the  religious  orders  of  females. 
Of  these  the  most  striking  perhaps  is  the  strictness 
in  the  regularly  authorisea  orders  of  nuns  of  the 
'  cloister,*  or  enclosure,  which  no  extern  is  ever  per- 
mitted to  enter,  and  beyond  which  the  nuns  are 
never  permitted  to  pass,  without  ex])re3S  leave  ol 
the  bisliop.  The  su]>eriors  of  convents  of  nuus  are 
called  by  the  names  Abbess,  Prioresi*,  and,  in  gt'iieral. 
Mother  Superior.  Th^y  are,  ordinarily  Bjiuakingy 
elected  by  chanters  of  their  own  body,  with  the 
approval  of  the  bishop,  unless  the  convent  be  one  of 
the  class  called  exempt  houses,  which  are  imme- 
diately subject  to  the  authority  of  the  Holy  Seeu 
Ti.e  ceremony  of  the  solemn  Uessiitg  or  inaugura- 
tion of  the  abbess  is  reserved  to  ue  bishops  or 


NUNC  DIMima-NURNBEBO. 


fc  »  pm*  delegated  by  tlie  bishop.  The  »nthority 
of  the  sbbeaa  over  her  nan»  is  very  compreheMive, 
bat  a  pttcisa  Hue  is  dnwn  between  ker  powen  )  ' 
thjse  of  the  priestly  offioe,  from  which  she 
Itnctly  debured.  The  nune  of  nun  is  given 
geaeiu  to  the  sistera  of  all  religious  congregations 
of  fenulM  who  lire  in  retirement  and  aiebound  by 
rnlc  1  but  it  is  primitiTelT  aikI  properly  applioabje 
eolv  to  asters  of  the  rdigioos  oideia  strictly  to 
caUed.    See  Momachism. 

NUNC  DIMI'TTia,  the  nwne  Riven  to  C 
eanticle  of  Simeon  (Lnka  iL  29—32),  wfaicb  forms  part 
of  the  cnmitline  ofGce  of  the  BtKnan  Breviary,  and 

il  retained  in  the  evenins '--    -*■'--    ■ 

Church  when  it  follows  tfai 

grsat  festivals  in  Lent,  the .  „ 

•specially  grand  and  impoaing. 

jrU'NCIO  (ItaL  nuiaio,  1*1  nunrfw,  ■ 

ger),  the  name  given  to  Uie  superior  grade  ot  the 
ambaasadors  sent  by  the  pope  to  foreign  courta, 
who  are  aU  called  by  the  D;eneral  name  of  Leoatx 
(q.  v.).  A  nuncio  is  an  ambasaador  to  the  oouit  of 
an  emperor  or  king.  The  ambasBadot  to  a  republio, 
Of  to  the  court  of  a     '  


tr  savereigii,is  called  Inteb- 


b«t  in  caaes  of  anldien  ao^  aailors,  a  verbal  ._ 
BiiDcupatire  will  is  held  to  b*  good,  on  the  ground 
that  there  is  often  no  time  to  draw  up  a  formal 
will  in  writing. 

KUNEATOIT,  a  nnall  market-town  of  Eaffkud, 
in  the  oonnty  of  Warwick,  and  18  miles  north-east 
of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  contains  a  smijl 
parish  church  in  Gothic,  and  its  Free  Grammar 
School,  founded  by  Eilward  VI.  in  1553,  has  an 
annual  income  from  endowment  of  abont  jCSOOl 
Uannfoctarea  of  ribbons  and  cotton  goods  are 
earned  on.      Pop.  (ISSl)  W4B. 

NU'NQFAM     IKDEHITATUS, 
I^w,  means  a  iites  or  defence  to  an  action 
debt   that  the  defendant  never  was  ii^ebted ;  in 
other  words,  that  no  debt  is  due. 

MURAQHB,  the  name  of  oertain  stractnrea,  at 
ooaical  shape,  in  the  island  of  Sardinia,  rising  M  or 
40  feet  above  the  gninnd,  with  two  or  three  storiea 
ct  domed  chamber*  oonnscted  by  a  spiral  stmroaaa. 


EJInslish 


Tiaw  vt  the  Nannie  of  Chmi,  In  Baidinla. 


a  we  small  and  low,  and  when  thqr  Itava 


chamber*  of  two  storieii  the  upper  chambtr  is 
reached  by  the  spiral  staircase  whjch  has  loophole* 
to  admit  the  light  The  top*  are  suppoetjd  to  have 
had  a  ton-ace.  Although  8000  of  them  eiist,  noua 
are  perfect  Their  mason^  is  irregular,  but  not 
polygonal,  and  resembles  the  style  of  work  called 


^an  and  Elevation  of  the  Nniaghs  of  GonI,  In 

Asiatio.  like  the  roond  towers  of  Ireland,  and 
other  UDinsdibed  monuments,  their  object  anJ. 
antiquity  are  envetr^Md  in  moch  doubt.  I'hey  have 
been  su]>poBed  to  be  the  work  of  the  Pelasgi,  tla 
Fhcenieian^  or  Carthaginiaus,  and  to  have  beem 
ancient  sepolchres,  ThoU  or  JJaaioJio,  constructed  ia 
heroic  time*.  Skeletons,  and  other  funeral  para- 
phernalia, have  been  found  in  diem.  They  nav* 
many  poiata  of  resemblance  to  the  'Burghs'  or 
'  Duns  on  the  northern  shore*  of  Scutland,  at 
which  the  Bar^b  of  Moosa,  in  Shetland,  is  perhap* 
the  beat  example.— De  la  Haimora,  Voyage  m 
Sardaigivi,  torn.  iL  ;  Petit  Badel,  Nvragha  (Pari^ 
1826—1828);  Mioali,  AnL  Pop.  Ital  it  p.  43; 
Dennis,  Citia  and  Can.  tffEtnma,  iL  p^  181. 

KU'BNBBEG  (Iforimbfrga,  Noriea),  a  fortified 
city  of  the  Bavarian  province  of  Middle  Franconia, 
situated  in  49"  28'  N.  lat.  and  11*  C  a  long. 
Population,  at  the  close  of  1881,62,797.  N.  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  and  interesting  citie* 
of  Germany,  on  account  of  the  nun 
of  medievd  archHeetnre  which  it  i 


picturesque  streets,  with  their  gi 
balconies,  and  quaint  oarvings. 


^  led  houses,  itona 
lalconies,  and  quaint  oarvings.  No  citv  retain*  ■ 
stronger  impress  of  the  characteristics  which  distin- 
gnisbed  the  wealthy  bargfaer-dasaes  in  the  middle 
ages,  while  ita  donble  lines  of  fortified  walls,  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  by  public  walks  and  garden^ 
and  guarded  by  TO  towers,  together  with  the  numer- 
oiu  bridges  which  span  the  Pej^ita,  on  whose  banks 
the  dty  is  built,  give  it  distinctive  feature*  of  ita 
own.  Among  the  most  remarkable  of  ita  numeron* 
puUic  buildings  are  the  old  palace  or  castle,  com- 
manding, from  it*  high  position,  a  glorious  view  of 
the  aurrounding  country,  and  tntereatiug  for  it* 
antiqnity.  and  for  its  gallery  of  paintirigs,  rich  in 
gems  of  early  Oermao  art ;  the  town-linll,  which 
nuxks  amongst  the  noblest  of  ita  kind  in  Oermany, 
and  is  adorned  with  works  of  Albert  DUrer,  and 
Gabriel  Weyher;  the  noble  Qothic  fountain  oppoaitB 
the  cathedral  by  Schonhofer,  with  ita  numerona 
groups  of  figures,  beaotifnlly  reet<H«d  ie  modem 
lamee  ;  aikd  many  other  fcvntains  deserving  notiea. 
Of  tbe  numerous  churchsa  of  N.,  the  following  an 
the  most  remarkable :  St  Lawrence,  built  betwesa 
1370—1478,  with  its  beantifnl  painted-glan 
windows,  ita  noble  towers  and  doorway,  and  tlw 
celebrated  stone  pyx,  completed  in  IfiOO,  by  Adaas 
Kraft,  after  five  yean'  SMdootN  Ubonr  j  and  tto 


NURSE— NUT. 


cocqnisite  wood-carvings  of  Veit  StoBS ;  St  Sebald's, 
witn  its  numerous  fine  glass-paintings  and  frescoes 
by  Peter  Visscher  and  other  German  masters ;  the 
cathedral,  or  Our  Lady's,  built  in  1631,  similarly 
enriched.  N.  is  well  provided  with  ciducationiu 
establishments,  and  besides  a  good  gymnasium  and 
polytechnic  institution,  has  good  schools  of  art, 
normal  and  other  training  colleges,  a  public  library 


Nurses,  who  take  care  of  the  siok  in  their  wards  ia 
Military  Hospitals. 

NUORSERTy  a  garden  or  portion  of  a  garden 
devoted  to  the  raising  of  young  plants,  to  be  after- 
wards planted  elsewhere.  The  ripening  of  garden- 
seeds  for  sale  is  generally  also  an  important  part  of 
the  trade  of  the  public  nurserjrman.    Many  culinary 


of  60,000  vols.,  gaUeriee  ol  art  wllectiSns,  museum^  ▼ecetables  are  very  commonly  raised  from  seed  in 
Ac.;  while  the  numerous  institutions  of  benevo-  f^\^  nurseries,  and  sold  as  young  plants;  the 
lence  are  liberaUy  endowed  and  well  maintained.    J™"^^«  ^^  ™JJ">«  *^«^"»  »?^  gardens  being  found 


carvings,  and  Sldren's  toys  and  dolls,  which  find  ,  S^^^^!  &c.  in  fresh  and  healthful  condition.  Many 
a  ready  sale  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and  are  largely  £owenng  plants,  as  wallflower,  stock,  sweet-william, 
exported  to  Americi  and  the  EasP  In  addition  to  ;  *^'  J?"  "^^  "^'^^  ^^  "^^^  ^y.  -^urserymen. 
its  own  industrial  commerce,  is  the  seat  of  a  large  ^,^^*^^J  ,^**  "f  ^1  *^®  nursery  is  the  rearing 
transfer  arid  exchange  business,  which  owes  much  ^^.  ^^f  trees.  In  the  nursery,  the  stocks  are 
of  its  importance  to  the  faciUties  of  intercommuni-  V^^  ^^^  ^^  *^®  groftmg  is  performed,  and  the 
cation  a&rded  by  the  net-work  of  railway  lines  *rai°\ng  of  the  young  teee,  whether  for  standard, 
with  which  the  city  is  connected.  I  fapalier,  or  wall  tree,  is  begun.    As,  with  regard  to 


N.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial  city  fniit-teees,  the  selection  of  grafte  is  of  the  utmost 
by  the  Emperor  Henry  V.,  in  1219,  previous  to  ^Portance,  the  reputation  of  the  nurseryman  is 
wliich    tim^Henry  IV.  had  ennobled  38  of  the    P^r**^"^*^^^  *«  ^  ^.^°«^?^,^y  the  purchaser ;  nor 

principal  burgher  families,  who  forthwith  arrogated  ,  "  ^^^^  "^^  t"^^®  "^  ^^^^  *]?«  >«  ^""^  generally 
«    ••   '      -     ®  .,     ^*  .      f>  necessary,   months,  or   sometimes   years    elapsing 

ds  purehased  can  be 

The  principal,    and 

Britain  are  well  sup- 

lich  is  the  case  also  in 

measure  put  a  aton  to  the  feuda  ■  ""^"^  .v«u«v««  w  wxiwmcuwit  Europe  and  in  North 


to  themselves  supreme  power  over  the  N.  terntory.    S!S^*^'   "'"'J-]^  ^^v!^"^^^   years    elape 
In  the  13th  c  we  find  iVunder  the  title  of  a  burg- ,  ^^^^  the  quahty  of  the  goods  purehased  can 
graviato  in  the  hands  of  the  HohenzoUem  family,  I  e^Penmentally    ascertained;      The  pnncipn      and 
who,  in  1417,  ceded  for  a  sum  of  money  all  their   ™?^  ^f  *^«  »?*"«'  *»^°»  of  Britain  are  well  sup- 
territorial  and  manorial  rights  to  the  ma^staucy  of  ;  P^«^  ^*^  pubhc  nurseries,  which  is  the  case  also 
*v^  ^n,,.     Ti,:-  «.« .  ^.,x  -  -4.«^  4.^  *u^  *^.,  J-    many  countries  of  contmental  Europe  and  in  Noi 


tracfe.  which  it  had  long  maintained^tween  the !  J^®  ,^*^*  """«".^'  however,  sre  very  muc^ 
traders  of  the  East  and  the  other  European  marts  f^'^oted  to  tiie  rearing  of  ornamental  shru^  and 
of  commerce.  The  discovery  of  the  passage  by  the  *!!^'  *°^  "^i  forest-tre^.  Plantations  of  forest- 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  by  or;ining  new  channels  of  ^  ^^^^  "T^^?  """^  extensive,  are  now  generally, 
communication  between  Asia  and  Europe,  deprived  ^^ough  not  always,  made  with  plants  obtained 
N.  of  its  ancient  monopoly.  The  Thirty  Vears'  ^"^  public  nursenes.  The  exertions  miuie  by 
War  completed  the  decay  of  the  city,  which  suffered  n^^rsfymen  to  obtain  new  plants  from  foreign 
•sverely  from  both  parties  in  turi.  The  ancient  ^^^^tries,  have  contributed  much,  not  only  to  the 
reputation  of  N.  as  a  wealthy  and  loyal  city  of  Ger-  i  advancement  of  gardening  in  its  vanous  depart- 
many  secured  to  it.  however,  special  consideration ;  S^^'^k^^^r?*  arbonculture^  but  also  of  botany  - 
and  in  1806,  when  the  imperiSTmmissioners  re^  i  ^^^  benefit  also  results  from  tje  exchange  of  the 
oiganised  some  of  the  dism^bered  parte  of  the  old  R'L^^"*'^..?^  *!'^_"?"_^^.^^L,^?^^^ 
emp 
witl 
40,0 

guldens;    but  in  consequence 

which  the  free  city  became  involved  with  the  kinj?  .,    -      .,       j.jx-xl       ^    j. 

of  Prussia,  who  lid  some  hereditary  claim  on  thi  ^".^  thoroughly  adapted  to  the  plants,  produce 

ancient  burggraviate,  N.,  alarmed  at  the  prospect  ^^^^.  ^~P«  ^^J"  ^^^  """"^  "^  *  ^^^^'  ^^^^t^ 

of  still  ereitor  embarraUments,  entered  mto^e  or  under  a  cloudier  sky. 


greater  embarrassments, 
Bhenish  Confederation,  and  as  the  result  of  this 
alliance,  was  transferred,  in  1806,  with  the  surrender 
of  ito  entire  domain  and  all  righte  of  sovereignty, 
to  the  king  of  Bavaria. 

NURSE,  MiLrrART.    In  continental  armies,  the 


NUT,  in  popular  language,  is  the  name  given  to 
all  those  fruits  which  nave  the  seed  encloeed  in  a 
bony,  woody,  or  leathery  pericarp,  not  opening 
when  ripe.  Amongst  the  best  known  ana  most 
valuable  nute  are  the  Hazel-nut,  Brazil  nut.  Walnut. 


*  sisters  of  charity '  usually  carry  their  mission  of  |  Chestnut,  and  Cocoa-nut,  all  of  which  are  edible, 
merey  into  the  military  hosjutals.  Protestant  Eng- 1  Other  nute  are  used  in  medicine,  and  for  purposes 
land  having  no  such  organisation  to  fall  back  upon,  connected  with  the  arts.  Some  of  the  edible  nuta 
the  soldiers  have  been  dependent  on  the  regular   abound  in  a  bland  oil,  which  is  used  for  variooa 


male  hospital  attendante  for  their  care  during  sick- 
ness, or  when  sufFerin;^;  from  wounds.  The  Crimean 
eampaiffn,  however,  disclosed  so  melancholy  a  pic- 
tare  of  the  want  of  women's  co-operation,  that  a 
band  of  self-sacrificing  ladies,  headed  by  Miss 
Nightingale  (q.  v.),  preceded  to  Turkey,  and  were 
aoon  acknowledged  as  messengers  of  health  and 
life  by  the  nnfortonato  woundM.  This  experience 
bas  been  turned  to  account,  and  a  staff  of  female 


Surposes. — In  Botany,  the  term  nut  (nux)  is  used  to 
esignate  a  one-celled  fruit,  with  a  hardened  peii- 
carn,  containing,  when  mature,  only  one  seed.  The 
Aaienium  (q.  v.)  was  by  the  older  botoninta  gene- 
rally included  in  this  term.  Some  of  the  fruits  to 
which  it  is  popularly  applied  scarcely  receive  it  aa 
their  popular  designation.  The  hazel-nut  is  an 
excellent  example  S  the  true  nut  of  botanists.  —The 
name  nut,  witnout  distinctive  prefix,  is  popularly 


nurses  has  been  organised,  under  the  control  of  a  '  given  in  Britain  to  the  hazel-nut,  but  in  many  p«rt8 
lady  styled  the  Superintendent  General  of  Army  |  of  Europe  to  the  walnut 


NUTATION— NTJT-HATCH. 


Hut 


ue  the  H&zel-uut  uid  ita  T&rietieB,  the  Block 
gpaziiali,  the  Barcelona,  the  Smyrna,  the  Jeniaalelu 
fillmt,  and  the  common  filbert ;  the  Walnut,  Cbeat- 
nat,  Hickor;,  uiil  Pecan ;  the  Souari,  the  Cocoa  or 
Coker  nuta,  and  the  Brazil  or  Parn  nut. 

The  Barcelona  and  Black  Spaniih,  oa  thur  names 
imply,  ar«  from  Spain  -,  the  former  u  the  commonest 
nut  of  our  ohopa.  About  120,000  bags,  averaging  14 
biuhel  each,  or  150,000  buahelo,  are  annually  imjiorted 
into  GiTeat  Britain.  The  import  Tolue  ia  about  33a. 
per  bag.  They  are  always  kiln-dried  when  ve 
lEceire  them.  Thli  is  not  the  caae  with  the  block 
SpiDuh,  of  which  only  about  12,000  Uiree-bnahel 
bags,  or  about  37,1)00  bushels,  are  imported  in  the 
beginnins  of  the  season,  when  their  value  is  about 
14k  per  bushel  From  the  Black  Sea  we  receive 
acniiany  about  68,000  buehehi  of  hozel-nuta,  worth 
lOt.  per  bushel,  with  from  500  to  1000  bogs  of  the 
•O-ealted  Jemsalem  and  Moimt  Atlas  fillwrta.  Of 
cfaestnats  from  Leghorn,  Naples,  Spain,  France,  and 
Portugal,  we  receive  annoally  about  20,000  buahels. 
The  trade  is  walnuts  is  very  uncertain,  and  prob- 
ably never  exceeds  6000  bushels.  Of  the  ciiriout 
three-cornered  or  Brazil  nut  from  Fara  and  Motiui- 
ham,  the  importation  is  also  very  irregular,  voryinA 
from  300  to  lOdO  tons,  or  1200  to  4000  busheU  per 
aouaiii.  About  two  miUions  of  cocoa-nuts  are  also 
imported.  The  other  kinds  of  nuts  are  too  irregular 
in  their  importations  to  supply  any  reliable  statis- 
tica  The  annual  value  of  ell  the  nuts  imported  for 
BM  as  fmit  is  computed  at  about  £103,000; 

HUTATION  is  a  slight  oecillatoiy  movement 
of  the  earth's  axis,  wbicn  disturbs  the  otbemise 
drcular  path  described  by  the  pole  of  the  earth  round 
tkat  of  the  ecliptic,  known  as  the  'precession  of  the 
eqoinoieo-'  It  is  produced  by  the  same  cause*,  via. 
the  attraction  of  the  snn,  moon,  and  planets  (the 
attraction  of  the  last  mentioned  being  So  small  as 
to  be  quite  imperceptible)  upon  tiie  bulging  zona 
about  the  earth's  equator,  tliough  in  this  oase  it  is  the 
moon  alone  that  ia  the  effective  uent.  It  also,  for 
reason*  which  need  not  be  given  here,  depends,  for 
the  moat  part,  not  upon  the  position  of  the  mooo  in 
her  orbit,  but  of  the  moon's  node,  li  there  was  no 
prcceesion  of  the  equinoxes,  nutation  would  appear 
as  a  small  elliptical  motion  of  the  earth's  axis,  pei^ 
formed  in  the  same  time  as  the  moon's  nodes  take 
to  complete  a  revolutioo,  the  axes  of  the  ellijise  being 
RCpectively  IS^'S  and  13"'7,  the  longer  axis  being 


£rected  towards  the  pole  of  the  ediptia  But  thia 
motion,  when  combined  wilL  the  more  rapid  one  of 
preceasion,  causes  the  pole  of  the  earth  s  axis  to 
deccribe  a  wavy  line  round  F,  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic 
The  effect  of  nutation,  when  referred  to  the 
•inator  and  ei^ptic,  ia  to  produce  a  periodical 
ctaan^  in  the  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  and  in  the 
Telocity  of  retrogiadation  of  the  equinoctial  points- 
It  Uuu  gives  rise  to  the  distinction  of  '  apparent' 


from  'mean'  right  Moensirai  and  declination,  tha 

former  involving,  and  the  latter  being  freed  from 
the  SuctnatioDS  arising  from  nutation.  This  motion 
is  common  to  all  the  planets. 

NUT-ORACKBR  (yucUrofja  or  CaTyoaUaeta), 
a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Cornida,  with  a 
straight  conical  bill,  "both  mandibles  terminating 
in  an  obtuse  point,  and  taU  nearly  square  at  the 
end.  The  form  and  characters  ore  nearly  similar 
to  those  of  crows,  bnt  the  habits  ore  rather  those 
of  jays,  and  in  some  respects  indicate  an  approach 
to  woodpeckers.    One  species  {^.  earyoeatactet'ot 


Clark's  Nat-«ia«ker  {yucifras/a  Clarleii). 

0.  nveifraga)  ii  ocooaioDally  seen  in  Britain,  and  » 
not  uncommon  in  many  parts  of  Europe  and  of 
Asia,  particularly  in  mountainons  legions  covered 
with  pines.  It  is  about  the  size  of  a  jackdaw,  but 
'  '    Lger  tail     The  plumage  is  lijjht  brown. 


quents  the  tops  of  high  pines,  and  is  a  shy  bird. 

KUT-HATCH  iSitla),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  CeriHada,  having  a  atroight  conicsi  or  pria- 


Enropean  Nnt-hatdi  ISitla  Eiavfaa). 

matio  bill,  short  legs,  the  hind-toe  very  strong.  They 
run  up  and  down  trees  with  great  agilitt,  moving 
with  equal  ease  in  either  direutiou,  an^  without 
hopping,  so  that  the  motion  is  rather  like  that  of 
a  mouse  than  of  a  bird.  They  feed  on  insecta,  in 
)>urauit  of  which  they  examine  the  crevices,  and 
remove  the  scales  of  the  bark ;  also  on  seeds,  oa 
those  of  pines,  and  the  kernels  of  nuts,  to  obtain 
which  they  faaten  the  nut  Gimly  in  some  crevioa 


MUTMEQ— HUTRITION. 


of  bark  or  otber  tach  ritnatioTi,  and  peck  at  it 
until  tne  Ui«ll  U  broken,  ao  placing  tbentelvM 
that  thej  away  not  merely  the  bead,  but  the  wbole 
body,  1,0  give  force  to  the  rtJoke.  The  English 
name  in  eaid  to  have  been  originally  i^ul^aot  One 
■peeiea,  tbe  Eukopeik  N.  {8.  Snri^iaa),  m  common 
in  most  partB  of  Europe,  and  ia  fonnd  in  ntoat  of 
tbe  woof'xed  dirtricta  of  EnglaDd.  Its  lAole  Imi^ 
M  about  ax  iaches.  U  taken  young,  it  ia  eaoly 
tamed,  and  becomes  very  familiar  and  BBunaing ; 
but  an  old  bird  caught  and  pst  iato  a  cage,  ia  apt 
to  kill  itself  by  violently  peeking  to  ffnce  a  way 
out  It  soon  deetroya  the  wood  of  a  o^e.-— Other 
ipedea  are  foaod  in  the  East  and  in  Nor^  America, 
where  the  genus  is  particolarly  abundant.  Birds 
nearly  allied  are  found  in  Anstralia. 

NUTMEGi  This  well-known  and  favourite 
spice  ia  the  kernel— mostly  consisting  of  the  albu- 
men— of  the  fruit  of  awcral  spedea  of  IfyrUliea. 
This  genua  belongs  to  a  natural  order  of  exogens 
oallod  Mi/rilliciuxrt,  which  oontaina  about  forty 
spedes,  all  tropical  trees  or  ahruba,  natives  of  Asia, 
Mada^ecar,  and  America.  Thiy  generally  have 
red  juiue,  or  a  juice  which  become*  red  oa  exiioeure 
to  air.  The  order  ia  allied  to  LauTium.  The  leavea 
•re  alternate  aod  without  stipules.  The  flowers  ore 
OJUBexiiaJ,  the  periaath  gena^ly  trifid,  the  filaments 
nnited  into  a  coiumn.  The  fruit  ii  succulent,  yet 
opens  like  a  capsule  by  two  Talvea.  The  seed  ia 
nut-like,  covered  with  a  laciniated  fleshy  aril,  and 
baa  an  albumen  penetrated  by  its  membranous 
oovering.  The  ipeciea  of  this  order  are  generally 
more  or  less  aromatic  in  all  their  parts ;  their  juice 
is  styptic  and  somewhat  acrid ;  the  ^bumen  and 
■ril  contain  both  a  fixed  and  an  eMential  oil,  and 
those  of  soma  apecies  are  used  as  spicea.  Tbe  genus 
Uj/riMiea  has  the  anthera  onitad  in  a  oylindiical 


odumu,  and  the  cotyledons  folded.  He  species 
which  furnishes  the  greater  part  of  the  nutmegs 
ef  commeree  ia  M.  fragraiu  or  motchata ;  but  the 
long  K.  {It.  fatva),  from  the  Banda  Islea,  ia  now 
■ot  onoommon  in  onr  markets.  The  common 
N.'tne  is  about  26  feet  in  height,  with  oblong 
leaves,  and  axillair  few-flowered  racemes  ;  the  fruit 
is  of  Qie  siie  and  appearauoe  of  a  roondish  jiear, 
golden  yellow  in  colour  when  ripe.  The  fleshy 
part  of  me  fruit  is  rather  hard,  and  is  of  a  pecnliar 
oonaiatanM^  reoembliog  candied  fmltj   it  u  often 


preserved  and  eaten  as  a  sweetmeaL  Within  is  tbe 
not,  enveloped  in  the  eimons  yellowish-red  sltiI,  the 
Mtux  ((].  *.),  under  wh^  b  a  thin  shining  brown 
shell,  sligbtiy  grooved  bf  the  pressure  of  the  mace, 
and  within  is  the  karael  or  nutmeg,  l^pto  1796,  tbo 
Dutch  being  the  poBsessora  of  tbe  Bauda  Isles, 
jealously  prevented  the  N.  from  being  carried  in 
a  living  state  to  any  oUicT  place ;  but  during  the 
conquest  and  retention  of  the  islands  by  the  British, 
ctuv  was  taken  to  spread  tlie  culture  of  this  valuable 
spice,  and  plants  were  sent  to  Fenang,  India,  and 
other  places,  where  they  are  now  successfullv  cnlti- 
vated ;  indeed,  they  have  now  become  established 
in  the  West  India  Islands,  and  both  Jamaica  and 
Trinidad  produce  excellent  nutmegs.  Brazil  ia  alao 
fonnd  favourable  to  their  culture.  The  N.  is  veiy 
liable  to  the  attack  of  a  beetle,  which  is  velj 
destructive,  and  it  is  a  common  practice  to  give 
them  a  coating  of  lime  before  ehipjiing  them  to 
Europe,  in  order  to  protect  them  from  ita  ravajtea. 
The  Dutch  or  Bstavian  nutmegs  are  nearly  always 
limed,  but  those  from  Penang  are  not.  and  ara 
oousequeutly  of  a  greater  value.  The  N.  yieldiL 
by  expression,  a  peculiar  yellow  fat,  called  oil  of 
mace,  because,  from  its  colour  and  flavour,  it  waa 
generally  supposed  to  be  derived  &-om  mace ;  and 
by  distillation  ia  obtained  an  almost  colourless 
essential  oil,  which  hoa  very  fully  the  flavour  Ot 
tbe  nutmeg.  Her  own  settlements  now  furnish 
Oreat  Britam  with  tbe  greater  [ 
but  some  lots  of  Batavian  also  c( 

»  nearly  '^mfiVlh 
umbers,  £70,0Oa 

Nntmegs  'are  chiefly  used  as  a  spice ;  but  medj . 
oinally  they  are  stimulant  and  carminative.  Thef 
poasesa  narcotic  properties,  and  in  large  doses  pro- 
duce stnpehction  and  delirium,  so  that  they  ought 
not  to  be  used  where  afftetiona  of  the  brain  exist  or 
are  amMvhended. 

Other  species  of  HyrUtiea,  besides  those  alreadj 
named,  yield  nutmegs  sometimes  need,  but  of  Teiy 
inferior  qnality. — The  fruits  of  several  species  of 
LauToiMB  also  resemble  nutmef:s  in  their  oromatia 
and  other  pn^iertiea ;  as  the  cotyledons  of  Nettandra 
/"ueftxry,  tbe  Piebnrim  Beans  of  Commerce,  and  th« 
fmit  of  Aendididium  camara,  a  tree  of  Guiana,  tlM 
Camara  or  Ackawai  nutmeg.  The  clove  nutmegs 
of  Uadagaacar  are  the  fruit  of  AgaiheiphyUujn  aro- 
ma&mit,  and  the  Broiilisn  nutmegs  of  Crifptorarya 
moKhata,  All  these  belong  to  the  order  Zituraetia, 
The  Calabash  N.  is  tbe  fmit  of  itoHodora  myrittiat, 
of  the  natural  order  Anoaactie. 

NUTRIA.     See  CoYFU  and  Racoons  a. 

NUTRITION.  The  blood  which  is  carried  bw 
tbe  capillaries  to  the  several  tissues  of  the  bndy  is 
the  source  from  whence  all  the  organs  deriVa  the 
materials  of  their  growth  and  development;  and  it 
is  found  that  there  is  direot  proportion  between  the 
vascularity  of  any  part  and  the  activity  of  tbe 
nutrient  operationa  which  take  plaoa  in  it  Thn^ 
in  nervous  tissue  and  muscle,  in  mucous  membrane  i 
and  in  skin,  a  rapid  decay  and  renovation  of  tinsue 
are  constAntly  going  on,  and  these  at«  ports  in  which 
tbe  capillaries  are  tbe  most  abundant ;  while  in 
cartilage  and  bone,  tendon  and  ligament,  the  dis- 
integration of  tissue  is  comparativeK'  slow,  and  tlM 
canillarieaaremuchlessabundant.  ^belementary 
celt  or  particle  of  a  tissue  seems  to  have  a  sort  of 
gland-like  power  not  only  of  attracting  materials 
from  tbe  blood,  but  of  causing  them  to  assume  its 
structure,  and  participate  in  its  properties.  Tfaua, 
from  i^e  same  common  sour^^,  nerves  form  nervous 
tissue,  muscles  muscular  sabstance,  and  even  morbid 
growths,  snch  m  oanoer,  have  on  f«^'n'''oting 
power. 


NUTRITION. 


Before    euteriag    foriher   into   the    subject   of  the  oorpuBcles  of  the  first  set  will  be,  07  the  same 

Bntrition,   it   is  necessary  to   understand  how  it  time,  prolonged. 

differs  from  the  allied  processes  of  development  and  For  the    due   performance  of   the    function  of 

cTowth.    All  these  processes  ate  the  results  of  the  nutrition,  certain  conditions  are  necessary,  of  which 


plastic  or  assimilative  foroe  by  which  living  bodies 
are  able  to  form  themselves  &om  dissimilar  mate* 
rials  (as  when  an  animal  subsists  on  vegetables, 
or  when  a  plant  i^ws  by  appropriatinj|[  the  elements 
of  water,  carbonic  acid,  and  ammonia) ;  but  they 
are  the  results  of  tiiis  force  acting  under  different 
conditions. 
Development  is  the  process  by  which  each  tissue 


the  most  important  are — 1,  a  right  state  and  com- 
position of  the  blood,  from  which  the  materials  of 
nutrition  are  derived;  2,  a  r^;ular  and  not  far 
distant  supply  of  such  blood ;  3,  a  certain  influence 
of  the  nervous  system ;  and  4^  a  natural  state  of 
the  part  to  be  nourished. 

1.  There  must  be  a  certain  adaptation  peculiar 
to  each  individual  between  the  blooa  and  the  tissuesu 


or  organ  of  a  living  body  is  first  formed,  or  b^  ,  Such  an  adaptation  is  determined  in  its  first  forma- 
which  one,  being  aSready  incom^>letely  formed,  is  '  tion,  and  is  maintained  in  the  concurrent  develop- 
so  changed  in  shape  and  composition,  as  to  be  fitted  ment  and  increase  of  both  blood  and  tissues.  This 
lor  a  function  of  a  higher  kino,  or  finally  is  advanced  !  maintenance  of  the  sameness  of  the  blood  is  w^ 


to  the  state  in  which  it  exists  in  the  most  perfect 
condition  of  the  species. 
Growth,  which  commonly  concurs  with  develop 


illustrated  by  the  action  of  vaccine  matter.  By  the 
insertion  of  the  most  minute  portion  of  the  virus 
into  the  system,  the  blood  undergoes  an  alteration 


ment,  and  continues  after  it,  is  properly  mere  '  which,  although  it  must  be  inconceivably  slight,  is 
increase  of  a  part  by  the  insertion  or  superaddition  maintained  for  several  years;  for  even  very  long  after 
of  materials  similar  to  those  of  which  it  already  .  a  successful  vaccination,  a  second  insertion  of  the 
consists.  In  growth,  properly  so  called,  no  change  .  vims  may  have  no  effect  because  the  new  blood  formed 
of  form  or  composition  occurs ;  parts  only  increase  after  the  vaccination  continues  to  be  made  similar 
in  weight,  and  usually  in  size ;  and  if  they  acquire  ,  to  the  blood  as  altered  by  the  vaccine  matter.  So,  in 
more  power,  it  is  only  more  power  of  the  same  '  all  probability,  are  maintained  the  morbid  states  of 
kind  as  that  which  they  before  enjoyed.  the  blood  which  exist  in  syphilis  and  many  other 

Nutrition,  on  the  other  hand,  is  the  process  by  chronic  diseases ;  the  blood  once  inoculated,  retaining 
which  the  various  parts  are  maintained  in  the  same  ;  for  years  the  taint  which  it  once  received.  The 
general  conditions  of  form,  size,  and  composition, '  power  of  assimilation  which  the  blood  exercises  in 
which  they  have  alreadv  by  development  and  these  cases  is  exactly  comparable  with  that  of  main- 
growth  attained.  It  is  by  this  process  that  an  tenance  by  nutrition  in  the  tissues ;  and  evidence 
adult  iierson  in  health  maintains  for  a  considerable  of  the  adaptation  between  the  blood  and  the  tissues* 
number  of  years  the  same  general  outline  of  ^  and  of  the  delicacy  of  the  adjustment  by  which  it  is 
features,  and  nearly  the  same  size  and  weight, :  maintained,  is  afforded  by  the  phenomena  of  sym- 
although  during  all  this  time  the  several  tissues  of  metrical  diseases  (especiaUy  of  we  skin  and  bones), 
his  hody  are  undergoing  perpetual  decay  and  |  in  which,  in  consequence  of  some  morbid  condition 
renovation.  In  many  parts,  this  removal  and  of  the  blood,  a  change  of  structure  affects  in  an 
lene^ival  of  the  particles  is  evident  In  the  glands  exactly  similar  way  the  precisely  corresponding 
^-the  Kidneys  (q.v.),  for  example — the  cells  of  which  parts  on  the  two  sides  of  we  bodv,  and  no  other 
they  are  mainly  composed  are  being  constantly  parts  of  even  the  same  tissue.  These  phenomena 
cast  off;  yet  each  sland  maintains  its  form  and  ,  (of  which  numerous  examples  are  given  in  two 
proper  composition,  because  for  every  cell  that  is  papers  by  Dr  W.  Budd  and  Mr  Paget  in  the  25th 
thrown  off,  a  new  one  is  produced.  In  the  volume  of  the  Medioo-chirurgictil  Trawiaciions)  can 
epidermis  of  the  skin,  a  similar  process  is  per-  j  only  be  explained  on  the  assumption — 1st,  of  the 
petually  goin^  on  before  our  eyes.  In  the '  complete  and  peculiar  identity  m  composition  in 
muscles,  a  similar  change  may  be  readily  traced, !  corresponding  parts  of  opposite  sides  of  the  body ; 
for,  within  certain  Umits,  an  increased  amount  of  and  2dly,  of  so  precise  and  complete  an  adaptation 
exercise  is  directly  followed  by  an  increased  excre-  between  the  Uood  and  the  several  parts  of  each 
tion  of  the  ordinary  products  of  the  decomposition  tissue,  that  a  morbid  material  being  present  in  the 
of  the  nitrogenous  tissues — ^vis.  urea,  car}M>nic  acid,  blood,  may  destroy  its  fitness  for  the  nutrition  of 
and  water.  Again,  alter  prolonged  mental  exer- ,  one  or  two  portions  of  a  tissue,  without  affecting  its 
tion,  there  is  often  a  very  marked  increase  in  the  fitness  for  the  maintenance  of  the  other  portions  of 
soaoant  of  alkaline  phospnates  in  the  urine,  which  the  same  tissue.  If,  then,  the  blood  can  be  fit  for  the 
•eems  to  Aew  that  in  these  cases  there  is  an  ^  maintenance  of  one  part,  and  unfit  for  the  mainten- 
axceasive  oxidation  of  the  phosphorus  of  the  brain ;  ance  of  another  part  of  the  same  tissue  (as  the  skin 
and  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  activity  of  the  or  bone),  how  precise  must  be  that  adaptation  of 
reparative  process,  neither  the  muscles  nor  the  the  blood  to  the  whole  body,  by  which  in  health  it 
brain  diminish  in  siza  I  is  alwavs  capable  of  maintainmg  all  the  different 

It  may  be  regarded  as  an  established  fact  in   parts  of  the  numerous  organs  and  tissues  in  a  state 
physiology,  that  every  particle  of  the  body  is  formed   of  int^rity. 


for  a  certain  poriod  of  existence  in  the  ordinary 
oonditions  of  active  life,  at  the  end  of  which  period, 
if  not  previously  destroyed  by  excessive  exercise. 


2.  I%e  necessity  of  an  adequate  supply  of  appro- 
priate blood  in  or  near  the  part  to  be  nourished,  is 
shewn  in  the  frequent  examples  of  atrophy  of  parts 


it  is  absorbed  or  dies,  and  is  cast  off.  (The  hair ,  to  which  too  little  blood  is  sent,  of  mortification 
and  deciduous  or  milk  teeth  afford  good  illustra- 1  when  the  supply  of  blood  is  entirely  cut  off,  and  of 
tions  df  this  law.)  The  less  a  part  is  exercised,  the  :  defective  nutntion  when  the  blood  is  stagnant  in  a 
kmger  its  component  particles  appear  to  liveu  Thus,  part  The  blood-vessels  themselves  take  no  shars 
Mr  Pafiet  found  that  if  the  general  development  of  ,  m  the  process,  except  as  the  carriers  of  the  nutritive 
the  tadpole  be  retarded  by  keeping  it  in  a  oold, '  matter;  and  provided  they  come  so  near  that  the 
dark  place,  and  if  hopeby  the  fonctions  of  the  blood  latter  may  pass  by  imbibition,  it  is  comparatively 
eorpusdes  ne  slowly  and  imperteotly  discharged,  \  unimportant  whether  they  ramify  within  the  sttl> 
the  animal  will  retain  its  embryonic  state  for  stance  of  the  tissue,  or  (as  in  the  case  <^  the  non^ 
several  weeks  longer  than  usual,  and  the  develop-  j  vascular  tissues,  such  as  the  epidermis,  cornea,  kc.) 
ment  of  the  second  set  of  oori>nscles  will  be  pro-  1  are  distributed  only  over  its  surface  or  border. 
portianally  postponed,  while  the  individual  life  of  1     &  Nnmsroiis  cases  of  vaiioas  kinds  mi^dit  bo 


KUTEinON-NUX  VOMICA. 


nadily'  mddnced  to  prove  thkt  a  certain  inflnence  of 

the  nerviKiB  iyst^m  it  eBseDtial  to  healthy  Diitrition. 
InjurieB  ol  the  Hpinsl  cord  are  not  unfreqnently  fol' 
loved  bj  iDOTtificatioii  of  portioiu  of  the  parslyted 
parta ;  aod  both  experimenta  aod  clinical  caaea 
■hew  that  the  repair  of  injuriea  takea  place  \em 
oompletelj  in  parta  [Mi.tlyteu  by  leaion  of  the  apiual 
cord  than  in  ordinary  cases.  Diviuon  of  the  trunk 
of  the  trifacial  nerve  has  been  followed  b;  incom- 
plete nutrition  of  the  correapomting  iide  uf  the  face, 
and  ulceration  of  the  comea  ia  a  frequent  conse- 
quence uf  the  nperation. 

4.  The  fourth  condition  ia  so  obTions  as  to  require 
no  special  illiiatratiun. 

For  farther  information  on  this  meet  important 
department  of  [ihy siolot^,  the  reader  is  referred  to 
Mr  Pa)(et's  SurjpixU  Pathology,  or  to  his  original 
Feoturea  on  Nutrition,  Hypertrophy,  and  Atrophy 
(pnblished  in  volume  39  of  The  Afrdtcal  GmtUt),  or  t 
the  chapter  on  *  Nutrition  and  Grosi-th,'  in  Kirkes' 
Handhook  of  Phjiiolofiy.  which  contains  an  eiceilent 
abstract  of  Mr  Fagtt's  views,  and  to  which  we  an 
indebted  for  the  greater  part  of  this  article. 

KUX  VO'MICA  is  the  phannacopceial  name  of 
tite  seed  of  Blrychnoi  Sux  Vomica,  or  PoUon  Nvt. 
The  folloffing  are  the  characters  of  these  Becds, 
which  are  im])orted  from  the  East  Indies  :  'Nearly 
drciilar  and  flat,  about  an  inch  in  diameter,  umbili- 
cated  and  alightly  convex  on  one  side,  externally  of 
•n  ash-gray  colour,  thickly  covered  with  short  satiny 
hairs,  internally  trail aluceut,  tough  and  homy,  '"-'- 
bteiiaely  bitter,  iuodocvos.' — The  BritUk  Pki 
topieia,  p.  99. 

For  the  genuine  character*,  see  the  article 
ftryc/ino*.— The  N.  V.  tree  ie  a  native  of  Coro- 
mandel,  Ceylon,  and  other  parts  of  the  EmI  Indies. 
It  is  a  tree  of  moderate  size,  with  roundish-oblong, 
■talked,  smooth  leaves,  and  terminal  corymbs.  The 
fruit  ia  a  globular  berry,  about  a«  Urge  a«  a  uuuU 


poisona  on  the  animal  frame,  and  speedily  ocoasioa 
violent  tetanic  cODVulaions  and  death.  These  alka- 
loids or  base*  are  named  Strydiaia,  Brucia,  and 
Igamria,  and  exist  in  the  seeds  in  combination 
with  lactic  and  strychnic  (or  igasuric)  acid.  For  a 
Eood  method  of  obtaining  pure  strychnia,  which  ia 
by  far  the  most  important  of  the  three  bases,  the 
reader  ia  referred  to  p.  328  of  ^Ac  Brttiih  Pharma- 

Sltychnia  (C^^N,OJ  oocan  'in  right  aqtuwv 
octohedrons  or  prisma,  colourless  and  inodorous, 
scarcely  soluble  in  water,  but  easily  soluble  in  boil- 
ing rectified  spirit,  in  ether,  and  in  chloroform. 
Pure  sulgihuric  acid  forma  with  it  a  colourless  solu- 
tion, which,  on  the  addition  of  bichromate  of 
potash,  acquires  an  intensely  violet  hue,  8|)eedily 
jiaa«ing  through  red  to  yellow.' — Op.  fit.  In  nitrio 
acid,  it  ought,  if  pure,  to  form  a  colourless  aolntioa  ; 
if  the  solution  is  reddiah,  it  is  a  sign  that  brucia  is 
also  present.  Strychnia  combines  with  niimemus 
acids,  and  forma  well- marked  salta,  which  are 
amenable  (o  the  same  teeta  as  the  bsse  itself. 

Brueia  (C^,Hj,N,0,  +  8  Aq)  ie  insoluble  in  ether, 
but  more  soluble  in  water  and  in  strung  alcohol 
than  strj'chuia  ;  and  it  is  the  most  abundant  of  the 
three  alkaloids  in  nux  vomica  It  acts  on  the 
animal  economy  similarly  to.  but  mach  less  actively 
than  strychuia,  from  which  it  may  bs  diatinj,n>iehed 
not  only  by  its  dttfereut  solubility,  but  by  the  red 
colour  which  is  imparted  to  it  by  nitric  acid,  and 
.which  change*  to  a  tine  violet  on  the  addition  of 
protochloride    of   tin.      Like   strychnia,    it    forma 


•range,  one-celled,  with  a  brittle  shell,  and  several 
■eeda  lodged  in  a  white  gelatinous  pulp.— The  bark 
is  known  as  Falte  Angotlura  Bark,  having  been 
onfounded  with  Angostura  Bark,  in  comequenoe  of 
*  eommercial  fraud,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
praaent  o. ;  but  its  properties  are  very  diffennt,  ■■ . 
it  is  very  poisonous.  i 

The  seeds  contain  (in  addition  to  inert  matters, 
■nch  as  gum,  starch,  woody  fibre,  Ac)  three  alkaloids 
closely  related  to  eouh  other,  which  aot  •■  powerful  | 


lijaturia  seems  closely  to  resemble  brucia  in  most 
reimecta.     Little  is  known  regarding  Tijaturic  A  cid. 

Strychnia,  brucia,  and  ifnauria  occur  not  only  ia 
nun  vomica  but  in  the  seeds  of  Slryrhnm  ytial'i  (St 
Ignatiua's  beam),  and  in  tlie  seeita  and  otlter  part* 
of  several  plants  of  the  genus  Slryr/inon.  The 
amount  of  strychnia  present  in  thes«  substances 
varies  from  05  to  I'C  per  cent 

Nux  vomica,  acconjiiig  to  the  ezperiments  of 
Marcet,  acta  on  vegetables  aa  a  poison.  His  experi- 
ments were,  however,  contiueil  to  the  haricot  bean 
and  the  lilac  It  is  poisonous  in  a  greater  or  lesser 
degree  to  most  animals,  though  larger  qnontitiea 
■re  required  to  kill  herbivoiMus  than  caniivori>ua 
■nimsla  Thus,  a  few  grains  will  kill  a  dog,  but 
some  ounces  are  required  to  destroy  a  Lorae.  It  is 
believed,  however,  that  the  bird  called  Bucroa 
RldnoarQi  eats  the  nuta  with  impunity;  and  a 
peculiar  kind  of  Aearus  lives  and  thrives  in  the 
ixtract  of  the  nuta.  Dr  Pereira  describes  three 
legreea  of  the  operation  of  tliia  substance  on  man. 
.  In  very  small  doses,  its  effects  are  tonic  and 
diuretic,  and  often  slightly  a]>erient.  2.  In  larger 
doses,  there  is  a  disordered  state  of  the  muscular 
system  ;  the  limbs  tmnble ;  a  alight  rigidity  or 
stiffness  ie  felt  when  so  attempt  ia  made  to  put  the 
muscles  in  action ;  and  the  [laUent  experiences  a 
difficulty  in  keeping  the  erect  uttture.  If  the  use 
of  the  medicine  be  continued,  these  effects  increase 
in  intensity,  and  the  voluntary  muscles  are  thrown 
into  a  convulsed  state  by  very  alii<ht  causes,  aa,  for 
tample,  by  inspirins  more  deeply  than  usual,  or 
ren  by  turning  in  bed.  It  is  remarkable  that 
paralysis  the  eHecte  i  <     <   -        . 


paridysed  parts.  3.  In  poisonouBdosea,thesymi]toins 
are   tetanus   and    asiihyxiss    followed    by    dea  ' 

After  swallowing  ■  lan^e   dose   of    strychnii 


whioh  the  poisonous  effects  of 

depend),  the  following  phenomena  occurred  .  _ 
case  recorded  by  Taylor  in  his  ^edicii  Juru/iru. 
denee :  'A  young  man,  aged  seventeen,  swallowed 
forty  grains  of  strychnia.  The  symptoms  came  on 
in  about  a   quarter   (rf   an    hour ;   lock-jaw   Aod 


N'YANZA— NYAYA. 


ipAsmodic  contraction  of  all  the  muscles  speedily 
set  in,  the  whole  body  becoming  as  stiff  as  a  ooard ; 
the  lower  extremities  were  extended  and  stiff,  and 
the  soles  of  the  feet  concav^a  The  skin  became 
livid,  the  eyeballs  prominent,  and  the  pupils  dilated 
and  insensible ;  the  patient  lay  for  a  few  minutes 
without  consciousness,  and  in  a  state  of  universal 
tetanus.  A  remission  occurred,  but  the  symptoms 
became  aggravated,  and  the  patient  died  asphyxiated 
from  the  spasm  of  the  chest  in  about  an  hour  and  a 
half  after  taking  the  poison.*  It  is  difficult  to  say 
what  is  the  smallest  aose  that  would  prove  fatal  to 
an  adult  Thirty  grains  of  the  powdered  nuts,  given 
by  mistake  to  a  patient,  destroyed  life.  Three 
grains  of  the  extract  have  proved  fatal ;  and  in  a 
case  quoted  by  Taylor  {op,  ciL)j  half  a  grain  of 
•olphate  of  strychnia  caused  death  in  14  minutes. 

The  preparations  of  nux  vomica  are  the  powdered 
nuts,  the  extracts,  the  tincture,  and  strychnia ;  the 
alkaloid  being  usually  preferable,  in  consequence  of 
its  more  constant  strength.  In  various  forms  of 
paralysis,  especially  where  there  is  no  apparent 
lesion  of  structure,  nux  vomica  is  a  most  successful 
remedy;  although  there  are  cases  in  which  it  is 
positively  injurious.  It  is  also  of  service  in  various 
affections  of  the  stomach,  such  as  dyspepsia,  gastro- 
dynia»  and  pyrosis.  The  average  dose  of  the  powder 
is  two  or  three  -grains,  gradually  increased  ;  that  of 
the  tincture,  10  or  15  minims;  and  that  of  the 
extract  half  a  gntin*  gradually  increased  to  two  or 
three  grainSb  The  dose  of  strychnia,  when  given 
in  cases  of  paralysis,  is  at  the  commencement  one- 
twentieth  of  a  grain  three  times  a  day,  the  dose 
bebg  gradually  increased,  tiU  ^^ht  muscular 
twitchines  are  observed.  For  gastnc  disorders,  a 
still  smaller  dose  is  usually  sufficient,  as,  for  example, 
one-fortieth  of  a  grain. 

N'TA'KZA,  a  great  fresh- water  lake  in  Central 
Africa,  discovered  by  Captain  Speke  in  1858,  and 
more  fully  explored  by  Speke  and  Grant  in  1862. 
The  native  name  N.  signifies  simply  '  the  water ; ' 
bat  Speke  proposes  to  call  it  Victoria  N'yanza.  Its 
southern  point  is  in  lat.  2*  44'  S.,  long.  33^  £L  Its 
northern  shore  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator,  and 
is  about  20  miles  to  the  north  of  it.  Speke  supposes 
that  formerly  it  covered  a  larger  area ;  at  present, 
it  is  estimated  to  be  220  miles  in  length,  and  fully 
as  mnch  in  breadth.  It  is  of  no  great  depth ;  the 
surface  is  3740  feet  above  sea-leyeL  There  are  fleets 
d  canoes  on  the  lake,  and  yet  there  is  no  communi- 
cation between  the  tribes  on  ite  opposite  shores, 
who  are  quite  unknown  to  each  other.  At  its 
north-east  extremity.  Lake  Baringo,  described  by 
the  natives  as  a  long  narrow  basin,  is  probably 
oonnectod  with  the  ITyanza.  The  countries  on  the 
west  shores  of  the  liJke  enjoy  a  mild  and  genial 
climate,  equal  to  that  of  England  in  summer ;  and, 
contrary  to  expectation,  the  rain-fall  is  below  that 
of  many  parts  of  Britain,  being  only  49  inches.  The 
natives  of  Kan^6  and  Uninda,  on  the  western 
shores,  are  superior  races,  witn  a  considerable  degree 
of  civilisation.  The  banana,  coffee,  and  date-palm 
abound,  and  hundreds  of  white  hornless  cattle  were 
seen  browsing  in  the  richest  pasture-lands.  The  prin- 
cipal feeder  of  the  N.  on  the  west  is  the  Kitangtlld, 
and  from  ite  northern  side  issue  several  streams, 
which  unite  to  form  the  Nile  (q.  v.).  The  principal 
of  these  flows  through  Napoleon  Channel,  over  the 
Ripon  Falls.  North-west  from  Lake  N.  lies  the 
htUe  L6ta  N'ZigS  Lake  (see  map  accompanying  art. 
Kile),  which  is  described  as  a  narrow  reservoir 
afaoot  230  miles  long,  through  the  northern  end  of 
which  the  Nile  passes.  It  is  quite  shallow,  and 
believed  to  be  <Mijy  a  backwater  of  the  Nile; 

STA'SSA,  or  NYANJA  (apparently  identical 


with  name  N'yanza),  another  lake  in  the  interior  of 
Africa,  which  Dr  Livingstone  discovered  in  1861  by 
ascending  the  river  Shire  (q.  v.).  The  southern  end 
of  the  Nyassa,  or  Star  Lake,  is  in  lat.  14**  45'  S.,  and 
it  is  supposed  to  extend  northwards  beyond  the  par- 
allel of  10"  S.  It  is  350  miles  inland  from  the  coast 
of  Mozambique,  and  ite  surface  is  1200  feet  above 
the  sea.  Dr  Livin^tone  explored  200  miles  of  the 
western  shores.  *The  lake  has  something  of  the 
boot-shape  of  Italy,'  and  appears  to  vary  from  20  to 
50  or  60  miles  in  width.  Most  of  the  land  near  the 
lake  is  low  and  marshy ;  on  the  east,  at  a  distence 
of  eight  or  ten  miles  there  are  ranges  of  high  and 
well-wooded  granite  hills.  Except  near  the  shore^ 
the  lake  is  deep;  the  temperature  of  the  water, 
which  is  sweet,  was  72%  The  lake  abounds  in  fish ; 
and  the  southern  shores  are  closely  beset  with 
villages,  whose  inhabitante  are  hardy  fishermen  and 
industrious  cultivators  of  the  soiL  Something  had 
previously  been  known  about  this  lake  under  the 
name  of  the  Maravi ;  but  the  acoounte  were  so 
vague,  that  latterly  it  was  omitted  from  the  maps 
of  Africa. 

NTAYA  (from  the  Sanscrit  nt,  into,  and  AtfOf 
going,  a  derivative  from  t,  to  go;  hence  literally 
'entering,*  and  figuratively,  'investigating  analyti- 
cally'), 18  the  name  of  the  second  of  the  three 
^reat  systems  of  ancient  Hindu  philosojihy ;  and  it 
18  apparently  so  called  because  it  treats  analytically, 
as  it  were,  of  the  objects  of  human  knowledge,  hoih 
materifld  and  spiritual,  distributed  by  it  under 
different  heads  or  topics;  unlike,  therefore,  the 
Veddnta  (q.  v.)  and  Sdnkhya  (q.  v.),  which  follow  a 
synthetic  method  of  reasoning,  the  former  of  these 
systems  being  chiefly  concerned  in  spiritual  and 
divine  matters,  and  the  latter  in  subjects  relating  to 
the  material  world  and  man.  The  Ny&ya  consists, 
like  the  two  other  great  systems  of  Hindu  philo- 
sophy (see  MImAnsA  and  SAnkhta),  of  two  divisions. 
The  former  is  called  NtAya  (proper),  and  will  be 
exdnsively  considered  in  this  article;  the  other  is 
known  under  the  name  of  Vais'eshika  (q.  v.). 
With  the  other  s^tems  of  ]>hilosophv,  it  concurs 
in  promising  beatitude,  that  is,  final  deliverance  of 
the  soul  from  re-birth  or  transmigration,  to  those 
who  acquire  truth,  which,  in  the  case  of  the  Nyllya, 
means  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  principles  teught 
by  this  pEurticnlar  system. 

The  topics  treated  of  by  the  Nyftya  are  briefly  the 
following :  1.  The  pramdn'a,  or  instruments  of  right 
notion.  They  are :  a.  Knowledge  which  has  arisen 
from  the  contact  of  a  sense  with  its  object;  ft. 
Inference  of  three  sorts  (d  priori,  d  postenori,  and 
from  analogy) ;  e.  Comparison ;  and  d.  Knowledge, 
veibally  communicated,  which  may  be  knowledge 
of  '  that  whereof  the  matter  is  seen,  and  knowledge 
of  *that  whereof  the  matter  is  unseen'  (revelation^. 
2.  The  objecte  or  matters  about  which  the  inquiry  is 
concerned  {prameya).  They  are :  cu  The  Soul  {dtman). 
It  is  the  site  of  knowledge  or  sentiment,  different 
for  ea^  individual  ooexist^t  person,  infinite,  eternal, 
&c.  Souls  are  therefore  numerous,  but  the  supreme 
soul  is  one ;  it  is  demonstrated  as  the  creator  of  all 
things,  h.  Body  {^arira).  It  is  the  site  of  action, 
of  the  oreans  of  sensation,  and  of  the  sentimento  of 
pain  or  pleasure.  It  is  composed  of  parts,  a  framed 
substance,  not  inchoative,  and  not  consisting  of  the 
three  elements,  earth,  water,  and  fire,  as  some  say, 
nor  of  four  or  adl  the  five  elements  (viz.  air  and  ether 
in  addition  to  tiie  former),  as  others  maintain,  but 
merely  earthy,  e.  Organa  of  mMOtion  (indriya) ; 
from  the  elements,  earth,  water,  light,  air,  and 
ether,  they  are  smell,  taste,  sight,  touch,  and 
hearing,  d.  Their  objecti  {artha).  They  are  the 
qualities  of  earth,  &a— viz.  odour,  savour,  colour, 
tangibility,  and  sound,    e,  Underttanding  {buddhi)f 

is 


NYATA. 


ftt  apprehenghn  {vpfdabd^,  or  eoneeplhH  (fndna), 
terms  which  are  used  synonymoasiy.  It  is  not 
eternal,  as  the  S&nkhya  maintains,  but  transitory. 
/  The  organ  qf  ima^ttaHon  and  volUhn  {manaa). 
Its  property  is  the  not  giring  rise  simultaneously 
to  more  notions  than  one.  g,  Acthrity  (pravr^UU), 
or  that  which  originates  the  utterances  of  the  vtrice, 
the  cognitions  of  the  understanding,  and  the  gestures 
ai  the  body.  It  is  therefore  oral,  mental,  or  cor- 
poreal, and  the  reason  of  all  worldly  proceeding 
A.  FauU$  or  fcuUngg  {dosha),  which  cause  actinty 
— viz.  affection,  aversion,  and  bewilderment,  t, 
TrangmigraHon  {pretgabhdva,  literally,  the  becom- 
ing bom  after  having  died),  or  the  regeneration 
<tf  the  soul,  which  commences  with  one's  first 
birth,  and  ends  only  with  final  emancipation.  It 
does  not  belong  to  the  body,  because  the  latter 
is  different  in  suocessive  births,  but  t<Pthe  soul, 
because  it  is  eternal,  k.  Fruit  or  retribution 
(phala),  or  that  which  aocmes  from  activity  and 
foilings.  It  is  the  consciousness  of  pleasure  or 
of  pain.  I  Pain  {duhfkha),  or  that  which  has  the 
characteristic  mark  of  causing  vexation.  It  is 
defined  as  'the  occurrence  of  birth,*  or  the 
orijODating  of  '  body,'  since  body  is  associated 
wiui  various  kinds  of  distress.  Pleasure  is  not 
denied  to  exist,  but,  according  to  the  Nyftya,  it 
deserves  little  consideration,  since  it  is  ever  <uosely 
connected  with  pain.  m.  Ahsolute  deliverance  or 
emancipation  (apavarga).  It  is  annihilation  of 
pain,  or  absolute  cessation  of  one's  troubles  once 
for  flJL 

After  (I)  'instruments  of  right  notion,*  and  (2) 
*  the  objects  of  inquirv,'  the  Ny&ya  proceeds  to  tilie 
investigation  of  the  following  topics. 

3.  Doubt  {Bam'^aya).  It  arises  from  unsteadiness 
in  tiie  recognition  or  non-recognition  of  some  mark, 
which,  if  we  were  sure  of  its  presence  or  absence, 
would  determine  the  subject  to  be  so  or  so,  or 
not  to  be  so  or  80 ;  but  it  may  also  arise  from  con- 
flicting testimony.  4  Motive  (prayoijana\  or  that 
by  which  a  person  is  moved  to  action,  fi.  A  fami- 
liar caee  {driskUdnta)^  or  that  in  regard  to  which  a 
man  of  an  ordinary  and  a  man  of  a  superior  intel- 
lect entertain  the  same  opinion.  6.  Tenet  or  dogma 
{aiddhdnta).  It  is  either  *a  tenet  of  all  schools,' 
i  e.  universally  acknowledged,  or  '  a  tenet  peculiar 
to  some  school,'  L  e.  partiaQy  acknowledged ;  or  *  a 
hypothetical  dogma,  i.e.  one  which  rests  on  the 
supposed  truth  of  another  dogma ;  or  '  an  implied 
dogma,'  ie.  one  the  correctness  of  which  is  not 
expressly  proved,  but  tacitly  admitted  by  the 
Nyftya.  7.  The  different  members  (avayatm)  of  a 
r^ular  argument  or  eyllogiem  (nydMa).  S.  CoT\fiir 
tation  or  rrauction  to  absurdity  {tarka).  It  consists 
in  directing  a  person  who  does  not  apprehend  the 
force  of  the  argument  as  first  presented  to  him,  to 
look  at  it  from  an  opposite  point  of  view.  9.  Aaoer- 
tainment  (nun'oga).  It  is  the  determination  of  a 
question  by  hearing  both  what  is  to  be  said  for  and 
against  it,  sfter  having  been  in  doubts  The  three 
next  topics  relate  to  the  topic  of  controversy,  viz. 
10.  DiecuBOLn  {vdda)^  which  is  defined  as  consisting 
in  the  defending  by  proofs  on  the  part  of  the  one 
disputant,  and  the  controverting  it  by  objections 
on  the  part  of  the  other,  without  discordance  in 
respect  of  the  principles  on  which  ^e  conclusion 
is  to  depend;  it  is,  in  short,  an  honest  sort  of 
discussion,  such,  for  instance,  as  takes  place  between 
a  preceptor  and  his  pupil,  and  where  the  debate  is 
conducted  without  ambition  of  victory.  II.  Wrong' 
hng  {ja>lpa)j  consisting  in  the  defence  or  attack  of 
a  proposition  by  means  of  tricks,  futilities,  and  such 
like  means ;  it  is  therefore  a  kind  of  discussion 
where  the  disputants  are  merely  desirous  of  victory, 
instead  of  being  desirous  of  truth.  12l  CavHUng 
14 


(viton'ef  d),  when  a  man  does  not  attempt  to  estab* 
lish  the  opposite  side  of  the  question,  but  confines 
himself  to  carping  disingenuously  at  the  ailments 
of  the  other  party.  13.  FaUacie8f  or  semblances  of 
reasons  (hetvdbhdia),  five  sorts  of  which  are  distin- 
guished, viz.  the  erratic,  the  contradictory,  the 
equally  available  on  both  sides,  that  which,  standing 
itself  in  the  need  of  proof,  does  not  differ  from  that 
which  is  to  be  proved,  and  that  which  is  adduced 
when  the  time  is  not  that  when  it  might  have 
availed.  14.  JVicks,  or  unfairness  in  disputation 
{ehhcUa)t  or  the  opposing  of  a  proposition  by  means 
of  assuming  a  different  sense  from  that  which  the 
objector  well  knows  the  propounder  intended  to 
convey  by  his  terms.  It  is  distinguished  as  verbal 
misconstruing  of  what  is  ambiguous,  as  perverting, 
in  a  literal  sense,  what  is  said  in  a  metaphorical  one, 
and  as  generalising  what  is  particular.  15.  Futile 
objections  (Jdti),  of  which  twenty-four  sorts  are 
enumerated ;  and,  16.  Failure  in  argument  or  reason 
of  defeat  {nigraha-athdna),  of  wmch  twenty-two 
distinctions  are  specified. 

The  great  prominence  ^ven  by  the  Nyftya  to  the 
method,  by  means  of  which  tnith  might  be  ascer- 
tained, has  sometimes  miBled  European  writers 
into  the  belief,  that  it  is  merely  a  system  of  formal 
logic,  not  engaged  in  metaphysiciu  investigations. 
But  though  the  foregoing  enumeratiofa  of  the  topics 
treated  by  it  could  only  touch  upon  the  main  points 
which  form  the  subject-matter  of  the  Ny^ya,  it 
will  sufficiently  shew  that  the  Nyftya  intended  to 
be  a  complete  system  of  philosophical  investigation  ;l 
and  some  questions,  such  as  the  nature  of  intellect, 
articulated  sound,  ftc.,  or  those  of  ^nus,  variety, 
and  individual,  it  has  dealt  with  in  a  masterly 
manner,  well  deserving  the  notice  of  western  specu- 
lation. That  the  atomistic  theory  has  been  ((evolved 
from  it,  will  be  seen  under  the  article  Vais'esisika. 
On  account  of  the  prpminent  position,  however, 
which  the  method  of  discussion  holds  in  this  system, 
and  the  frequent  allusion  made  by  European  writer* 
to  a  Hindu  syllogLsm,  it  will  be  expedient  to  explain 
how  the  NyAya  defines  the  '  different  members  of  a 
syllogiBm '  under  its  seventh  topic.  A  regular  argu- 
ment consists,  according  to  it,  of  five  members— > 
viz.  a.  the  proposition  {praiijnd),  or  the  declaration 
of  what  is  to  be  establiiuied  ;  b.  the  reason  {hetu),  or 
*the  means  for  the  establishing  of  what  is  to  be 
established ; '  c  the  example  {ucuiharan'a),  i  e.  some 
familiar  case  illustrating  the  fact  to  be  established, 
or  inversely,  some  familiar  case  illustrating  the 
impossibility  of  the  contrary  fact;  d,  the  appli* 
cation  [upanojfa),  or  '  re-statoment  of  that  in  re8pe<3t 
of  whidi  something  is  to  be  established ;'  and  e.  the 
oondusion  {nigamana),  or  *the  re-stating  of  the 
proposition  because  of  the  mention  of  the  reason.* 
An  instance  of  such  a  syllogism  would  nm  accord- 
ingly thus :  a.  This  hill  is  fiery,  b,  for  it  smokes,  c. 
as  a  culinary  hearth,  or  (inversely)  not  as  a  lfik.e^ 
from  which  vapour  is  seen  arising  vapour  not 
being  smoke,  because  a  lake  is  invariably  devoid  of 
fire;  d.  accordingly,  the  hill  is  smoking |  e.  there- 
fore, it  is  fiery. 

The  founder  of  the  Ny&ya  system  is  reputed 
under  the  name  of  Ootama,  or,  as  it  also  occorsi 
Oautama  (which^  would  mean  a  descendant  ci 
Gk>tama).  There  is,  however,  nothing  as  yet  known 
as  to  the  history  of  this  personsfie  or  the  time  when 
he  lived,  though  it  is  probable  wat  the  work  attri- 
buted to  him  IS,  in  its  present  shape,  later  than  the 
work  of  the  great  grammarian  P4n'ini.  It  consists 
of  five  books  or  Adhydyas^  each  divided  into  two 
'days,'  or  diurnal  lessons,  which  are  again  sub- 
divided into  sections  or  topics,  each  of  which 
contains  several  aphorisms,  or  SiUras.  See  8i>rRa. 
Like  the  text-books  of  other  sciences  among  tha 


KTCTAGmACSA— IfYL-GHATT. 


with  a  commenbiiy  by  F't«'tea)i4fAa>  lu*  been  edited 
>t  CdcaCta  (1828) ;  uid  the  Ant  tour  book^  uid 
put  of  the  fifth,  of  the  text,  with  bo  Snglish  veniDii, 
M  English  commentanr,  and  extiacti  from  the 
SvMcrit  commeaUiy  ol  Tis'waii&thK,  by  the  late 
DcJ.B.  Ball*iitTae(Allah>l»d,lSSU-lS54).  Thii 
excellent  Englisa  verdoD  and  oommeotan,  and  the 
celebrated  ^say  on  the  Nytya,  by  H.  T.  Cotebrrmke 
(Trmuaetiona  qf  the  Boyai  Atiaiie  Soeielg,  voL  i 
Loadon,  I8ZT ;  and  reprinted  in  the  Muceliananu 
£awh  ToL  L  London,  1S37),  are  Uie  beet  guide  for 
the  EuraneaD  ttudeni  ivho,  withoat  a  knowledge 
of  Saneunt,  would  wiiti  to  famiUMise  hirawlf  with 
the  Ky&ya  eyetem. 

HYCTAQINA'CR-B,  a  natona  ordot  of  exoge- 
wni  plaota,  congiBting  partly  of  herbaceoDS  pUntB, 
both  annnal  and  perennial,  and  partly  of  Bhrnba  and 
trea.  Liniiley  ranks  them  in  hie  Cheitapodal  AUi- 
lum.  The  flovere  are  either  clustered  or  aolitaiy, 
and  either  the  cluster  or  the  flower  often  has  an 


entire  or  toothed,  deciduniu.  The  atamene  are  eqaal 
in  nomber  to  the  lobea  of  the  perianth.  The  ovary 
t>  nperior.  with  one  ovule,  and  one  etyle.  The 
fnit  la  a  thin  caryopn*,  enoloeed  within  the  enlarged 
and  indurated  base  of  the  perianth. — There  are 
abont  100  known  epeciea,  Dativee  of  warm  countries. 
Slime  have  Sowers  of  considerable  beauty,  as  those 
of  the  genus  itiiabilU,  known  in  oar  gardens  as 
llarvfl  of  Poll,  one  of  which,  M.  Jalapa,  was  at  one 
lime  erroneously  supposed  to  produce  jalaps  The 
toots  of  many  are  fleshy,  pnrgative,  and  emetic 
Those  of  Bofrkaavia  pnmcalata  are  used  instead  of 
ipecsQoanha  both  in  Guiana  and  in  Java, 

NYCTBRI'BIA,  an  extremely  carious  fnnas  of 
insects,  ranked  in  the  order  Diptera,  uthough 
very  diSrrent  from  most  of  that  onler,  and  having 
neither  wings  nor  balancers.  Its  nearest  alliance  is 
with  Hippobotrida  (see  Forbt  Flt  and  Shskp 
Tick),  which  it  resembles  particulaily  in  paraaitio 
bsbita,  and  in  the  retention  of  the  wga  within  the 
abdomen  of  the  female,  until  they  Cave  not  only 
been  hatched,  but  have  passed  from  the  larva  into 
the  papa  state.  The  form,  however,  is  so  spideiv 
like,  thai  these  insects  were  at  first  ranked  among 
the  Araehnida.  The  few  s|>t>cies  known  are  all 
parasitic  on  bate,  on  which  they  run  about  with 
great  activity.  The  bead  i*  very  small,  curiously 
affiled  to  the  back  of  the  thorax,  and  when  the 
creature  sucks  the  bluod  of  the  bat,  upon  which  it 
hveo,  it  places  itself  in  a  reversed  position. 
HT'KERK,  or  NIEUWKERK,  on  the  Veluwe, 
V  flourishing  and  well-built  town,  near  the 
^  ■  ■'  e  prorince  of  GelderUnd,  Hether- 
irth-west  of  Araheim.  Pop.  800a 
It  bos  a  good  harbour,  which  is  connected  with  the 
sea  by  a  wide  canal  of  1(  miles  in  length.  In  the 
neighbourhood  ara  fine  rich  meadow- pastures  and 
bods  suited  for  all  kinds  of  groin,  tobacco,  potaton, 
kc  Tobacco  is  ertensively  grown  ;  many  cattle  are 
raised  ;  and  a  brisk  trade  carried  on  both  with  the 
surronnding  country  and  Amsterdam,  the  mvket 
to  which  tbe  cattie,  tobacco,  dairy,  and  other  agri- 
cultural produce,  together  with  much  firewood,  are 
Bpnt.  N.  has  a  handsome  Reformed  chureh,  a 
BiRuin  Catholic  chapel,  a  aynagogae,  orphan-honse, 
snd  good  auhools.  There  are  several  manufactures 
carried  on,  which  also  give  amplovment  to  the 
Hople  In  Netherlaods  church  history,  N.  ia 
Isised  aa  the  place  where  a  great  religious  move- 


very  flouj 
ier  Zee,  ii 


ment  began  at  the  middle  of  last  centni 
history  of  the  movement,  which  snread  t 
out  the  land,  contains  a'l  the  marks  of  the  later 


.  _  ..  .  .__  America,  Scodand,  and  Ireland.  Sea 
Vpey  and  Dermont's  Geachiedenii  der  Niderd.  Her. 
Kai,  voL  iv. 

NY'KOPIira,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  pleasantly 
situated  on  the  Baltic,  in  Ut  6S°  4a'  N.,  long.  IT"  11, 
about  60  miles  south-west  of  Stockholm.  It  com- 
prises amon^  its  manufacturing  products  cotton 
goods,  stookmgs,  tobacco,  Ac,  and  bos  good  shiv- 
yards,  mills,  ma  manufactoriea  for  machinery,  wbils 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  town  ore  extensive  paper-mills. 
The  ruined  old  castle  of  N.,  nearly  daetroyed  l:y  tire 
in  16C3,  and  which  ranked  in  wiint  of  strength 
next  to  those  of  Stockholm  and  Calmor,  has  expe- 
rienced many  eventfid  ricissitudcs  of  fortooe.  Kmg 
Valdemor  or  Sweden,  after  his  dethronement  im 
12SS,  was  imprisoned  here  titt  bis  death  in  1302; 
but  the  moat  tragie  iocident  connected  with  N. 
Caatla  was  the  horrible  death  within  its  walla 
of  tbe  Dukes  Eric  and  Valdemar,  who,  after  being 
entrapped  by  their  pusillanimous  brother.  King 
BiH[er,  in  1317,  were  left  to  perish  of  hunger  in 
a  i^ngeon,  the  keys  of  which  tbe  king  threw  into 
the  sea  before  he  left  tbe  castle.  Tne  horror  of 
this  deed  rooaed  the  indignation  of  the  people 
who  seixed  upon  tbe  castle,  sacked  it,  and  demoU 
■.i.i   -^     keep  and  donjons.     In  1719,  the  i 


NYL-OHATT  (Anfitqpe  picia,  or  Pmtax  Iraga- . 
camflua),  a  apecies  of  antelope,  with  somewhat 
ox-like  bead  and  body,  but  with  long  sleuder 
limbs,  and  of  great  activity  and  fleetness.  It  l* 
one  of  the  lai^iest  of  antelopes,  and  is  more  Ann 
four  feet  high  at  the  sbouliter.  Tbe  boms  of  th« 
male  are  about  as  long  as  the  eara,  smooth,  black, 
pointed,  slightly  carved  forwarda.    The  female  hsa 


Nyl-Ohan  (AntUope  picta). 

no  hom&  The  neck  it  deep  and  compressed,  not 
rounded  aa  in  most  of  the  antelopes.  A  alight  mane 
runs  along  the  neck  and  part  of  tbe  back,  and  tbe 
bt«ast  is  adorned  with  a  Iodz  hanginz  tnft  of  hair. 
The  back  is  almost  elevated  into  a  hump  between 
the  shonlders.  The  N.  inbabite  the  dense  forests  of 
India  and  Persia,  where  it  has  long  been  regarded 
as  one  of  the  noblest  kinds  of  game.  It  is  often 
taken^  like  other  large  "'i"'"l»,  by  the  enclosing  of 


KYMPHJ£ACEiB--KYSTADT. 


A  large  moe  with  nets,  and  bv  great  nnmben  of 
people^  it  is*  a  spirited  animal,  and  dangerous  to 
a  rash  assailants  It  is  capable  of  domestication, 
but  is  said  to  manifest  an  irritable  and  capricious 
temper. 

ITTMPH^A'OE JS,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  growing  in  lakes,  ponds,  ditches,  and  slow 
rivers,  where  &eir  fleshy  rootstocks  are  prostrate 
in  the  mud  at  the  bottom ;  and  their  large,  long- 
stalked,  heart-shaped,  or  Pfltate  leaves  float  on  the 
surface  of  the  water,  xheir  flowers  also  either 
float,  or  are  raised  on  their  stalks  a  little  above  the 
wat^.  The  flowers  aze  large,  and  often  very 
beautiful  and  fragrant  There  are  usually  four 
sepals,  and  numerous  petals  and  stamens,  often 
passing  gradually  into  one  another.  The  ovary  is 
many-cefied,  with  radiating  stigmas,  and  very 
numerous  ovules,  and  is  more  or  less  surrounded 
by  a  iMge  fleshy  <Ubc.  The  seeds  have  a  farinaceous 
albumen.  More  than  fifty  species  are  known,  mostly 
natives  of  warm  and  temperate  regions.  The  root- 
stocks  of  some  of  them  are  used  as  food,  and  the 
seeds  of  many.—See  Watbb-lily,  Lotus,  Victoria, 
and  EcTBTALBL— Very  nearly  allied  to  N.  are 
NdambiacecB,    See  NjELUMBa 

NYMPHS,  In  Glaasio  Mythologv,  female  divini- 
ties of  inferior  rank,  inhabiting  tne  sea,  streams, 
eroves,  meadows  and  pastures,  mrottoes,  fountains, 
niJls,  g^ens,  trees,  &a  Among  the  If  .,  diflerent  classes 
were    distinguished,    particularly    the    Oceanidea^ 


daughters  of  Oceanns  (K.  of  the  sreat  ooeaa 
which  flows  around  the  earth),  the  Ifereids, 
daughters  of  Nereus  (N.  of  the  inner  depths  of  the 
sea,  or  of  the  Inner  Sea— the  Mediterranean), 
PatameideB  (Biver  N.),  Naiads  (K.  of  fountains, 
lakes,  brooks,  wells),  Oreades  (Mountain  N.),  Drwtds 
or  Harnadryada  (Forest  K.,  who  were  believed  to 
die  with  the  trees  in  which  they  dwelt).  They 
were  the  goddesses  of  fertilising  moisture,  and  were 
represent^  as  taking  an  interest  in  the  nourish* 
ment  and  growth  of  infants,  and  as  being  addicted 
to  the  chase  (companions  of  the  divine  huntress 
Diana),  to  female  occupations,  and  to  dancing. 
Thev  are  among  the  most  beautiful  conceptions 
of  the  plastic  and  reverent  (if  credulous)  fancy  of 
the  ancient  Greeks,  who,  in  the  various  phenomena 
of  nature — ^the  rush  of  sea-waves,  the  bubble  of 
brooks,  the  play  of  sunbeams,  the  rustle  of 
leaves,  and  the  silence  of  caves — felt,  with  a  poetic 
vividness  that  our  modem  science  will  hardly 
permit  us  to  realise,  the  presence  of  unseen  joyous 
powers. 

NT'SSA.    See  Tutklo  Trkb. 

NT'STADT,  a  town  of  Finland,  on  the  eastern 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  60  miles  south  of 
Biomeborg.  Here,  in  1721,  a  treaty  was  agreed  to, 
between  Kussia  and  Sweden,  by  virtue  of  which 
aU  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great  along  tba 
coasts  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland  wm  annexed  !• 
RnssiiL    Pop.  2610. 


0 


THE  fifteentii  letter  in  tlie  Goglish 

and  in  most  western  alphabets,  is 

one  of  the  five  simple  vowel-signs 

of  the  English  language.    As  the 

language  is  at  present  pronounced, 

it  stands  for  at  least  four  distinct 

sounds,  heard  in  the  words  note,  nSr^ 

(nOt),  move,  aon.      The  primary  and 

simple  sound  of  O  is  that  heard  long  in 

nSr,  and  short  in  ndt,  ilfp.      The  sound 

given  to  it  in  such  words  as  note,  go,  is 

really  a  diphthong — a  long  o  terminating 

m  a  slight  «  or  oo  sound  (o->)*    The  corresponding 

letter  in  the  Hebrew  and  Phcenician  Alphabet  (q.  v.) 
was  called  Ayn,  L  e.,  *  eye ;  *  and  accordingly  the 
primitive  form  of  the  Phcenician  letter  was  a  roueh 
picture  of  an  eye,  which  naturally  became  a  cir3e 
with  a  dot  in  the  centre — still  to  be  seen  in  some 
ancient  inscriptiona — and  then  a  simple  circle. 

O*,  a  prefix  in  many  Irish  family  names,  serves  to 
fonn  a  patronymic,  like  M<ie  in  Gaelic  names ;  as 
O'Brien,  a  descendant  of  Brien.  By  some,  it  is 
considered  to  be  derived  from  of;  but  it  is  more 
likely  from  Ir.  ua,  GaeL  ogha,  a  grandson.  In  the 
Lowland  Scottish,  the  word  oe  is  used  for  grandson, 
and  in  some  localities  for  nephew. 

OA'HU,  one  of  the  Sandwich  Islands  (q.  v.). 

OAJA'CO,  OAXACA,  or  GUAXACA,  a  city  of 
Mexico,  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name,  stands 
on  the  river  Bio  Verde,  210  miles  south-south-east 
of  Mexica  It  covers  an  area  2  miles  in  length  by 
1}  in  breadth,  is  well  built,  with  o^ien  streets,  inter- 
spersed with  plantations,  on  which  the  cochineal 
insect  feeds,  and  has  about  25,000  inhabit<ant9.  Silk, 
cotton,  sugar,  and  chocolate  are  manufactured. 

OAK  (Qturcua),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shnibs  of 
the  natural  order  CupuU/erw,  having  a  three-celled 
ovary,  and  a  round  (not  angular)  nut — which  is 
called  an  acorn — ^placed  in  a  scaly  truncated  cup, 
the  lower  part  of  it  invested  by  the  cup.  The  species 
are  very  numerous,  natives  of  temperate  and  tropical 
countriea  A  few  species  are  found  in  Europe. 
Nnrth  America  produces  many  ;  and  many  are 
natives  of  mountainous  regions  in  the  torrid  zone  ; 
a)me  are  found  at  low  elevations  in  the  valleys  of 
the  Himalaya,  some  even  at  the  level  of  the  sea 
in  the  Malay  peninsula  and  Indian  islands.  But 
in  the  peninsula  of  India  and  in  Ceylon,  none  are 
found ;  and  none  in  tropical  Africa,  in  Australia,  or 
in  South  America.  The  oaks  have  alternate  simple 
leaves ;  which  are  entire  in  some,  but  in  the  greater 
number  variously  lobed  and  sinuated  or  cut ;  ever- 
green in  some,  but  more  generally  deciduoua  Many 
of  them  are  trees  of  great  size,  famous  for  tho 
strength  and  durability  of  their  timber,  as  well  as 
for  the  majesty  of  their  appearance,  and  their  great 
Vmgevity. — ^Throughout  all  parts  of  Europe,  except 
the  extreme  north,  two  species  are  found,  or  varieties 
of  one  species,  the  Common  Oak  (Q.  robur) ;  one 
(*  ^eg«c«to«)  having  the  «o™  on  longUh  taUus 


the  other  (Q.  $e98iliJtora)  having  them  almost  withont 
stalks.     Other  differences  have  been  pointed  out; 
but  they  are  regarded  by  some  of  the  most  eminent 
and  careful  botanists  as  merely  accidental,  and  not 
coincident  with   these;   while,   as   to  the   length 
of  the  fruit-stalks,  every  intermediate    gradation 
occurs.     Both  varieties  occur  in  Britain,  the  first 
being  the  most  prevalent,  as  it  is  generally  in  the 
north  of  Europe ;  the  second  being  more  abundant 
in  more  southern  countries.    The  short-stalked  oak 
is  sometimes  called  Durmast  Oak  in  England.    It 
has  been  much  disputed  which  is  entitled  to  be 
considered  the  true  British  oak ;  and  much  alarm 
has  occasionally  been  expressed  lest  new  plantations 
should  be  made  of  the  wrong  kind ;  whilst  the  most 
contradictory  statements  have  been  made  as  to  the 
comparative  value  and  characters  of  the  timber. 
The  oak  succeeds  best  in  loamy  soils,  and  especially 
in  those  that  are  somewhat  calcareous.     It  cannot 
endure  stagnant  water.    It  succeeds  well  on  soils 
too  poor  for  ash  or  elm ;  but  depends  much  on  the 
depth  of  the  soil,  its  roots  penetrating  more  deeply 
than  those  of  most  other  trees.    Noble  specimens 
of  oak  trees,  and  some  of  them  historically  cele- 
brated, exist  in  almost  aU  parts  of  Britain ;  but  are 
much  more  frequent  in  England  than  in  Scotland. 
The  former  existence  of  great  oak  forests  is  attested 
by  the  huge  trunks  oft^  found  in  bogs.    The  oak 
attains  a  height  of  from  60  to  100  or  even  150  or 
180  feet ;  the  trunk  being  four,  six,  or  even  eight 
feet   in  diameter.      It  sometimes  grows  tall  and 
stately,  but  often  rather  exhibits  great  thickness  of 
bole  and  magnitude  of  branches.     It  reaches  its 
greatest  magnitude  in  periods  varying  from  120  to 
400  years,  but  lives  to  the  age  of  600,  or  even  1000. 
The  timber  is  very  solid,  durable,  peculiarly  unsus- 
ceptible of  the  influence  of  moisture,  and  therefore 
eminently  adapted  for  ship-building.      It  is   also 
employed  in  carpentry,  mill-work,  &c. — The  bark 
abounds  in  tannin  ;  it  also  contains  a  peculiar  bitter 
principle  called  Quercine,  and  is  used  in  medicine, 
chiefly  in  gargles,  &c.,  on  account  of  ita  astringency, 
sometimes  also  as  a  tonic;  it  is  used  along  with 
gall-nuts  in  the  manufacture  of  ink ;  but  most  of 
all  for  tanning  (see  Bark),  and  on  this  account  the  - 
oak  is  often  planted  as  copse-wood  (see  Copse)  in 
situations  where  it  cannot  be  expected  to  attain  to 
great  size  as  a  tree;    The  timber  of  copse  oak  is 
excellent  firewood.     The  oak  is  particularly  fitted 
for  copse-wood,   by  the  readiness  with  which  it 
springs  again  from  the  stools  after  it  has  been  cut. 
— Acorns  are  very  nourishing  food  for  swine,  and  in 
times  of  scareity  have  been  often  used  for  human^ 
food,  as,  indeed,  they  commonly  are  in  some  verv 
poor  countries,  either  alone  or  mixed  with  meai^ 
The  bitterness  which  makes  them  disagreeable  is. 
said  to  be  in  part  removed  by  bui^ng  them  for  a. 
time  in  the  earth.    The  aeons  of  some  trees  are 
also  much  less  bitter  than  others,  and  oaks  of  the 
common   species   occur  which    produce  acorns  as 
sweet  as  chestnuts.    Other  varieties  of  the  common* 
oak  are  assiduously  propagated  by  nurserymen  a» 


OAK— OAKUM. 


curious  and  ornamental,  particularly  one  with 
pendulous  branchlets  (the  Weeping  Oak),  and  one 
with  branches  growing  up  close  to  the  stem,  as 
in  some  kinds  of  poplar.  Among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  the  oak  was  sacred  to  2^u8  or  Jupiter ;  and 
it  has  been  connected  with  the  religious  ooservances 
of  many  nations,  as  of  the  ancient  Celts  and  Germans. 
— The  Turkey  Oak  or  Adriatic  Oak  {Q,  cerrU), 
now  very  frequently  planted  in  Britain,  is  a  large 
and  valuable  tree,  very  common  in  the  south-east 
of  Europe,  and  in  some  parts  of  Asia.  The  timber 
is  imported  in  considerable  quantity  into  Britain 
for  ship-building  and  other  purposes.  The  leaves 
differ  rrom  those  of  the  common  oak  in  their  acute 
lobes,  and  the  cups  of  the  acorns  are  mosev,  L  e., 
have  long,  loose,  acute  scales.  Similar  to  this,  in 
both  these  respects,  are  the  Austrian  Oak  (Q. 
Austriaca)^  abundant  near  Vienna,  and  the  Spanish 
Oak  (Q.  Hispanica),—Ti\iQ  Cork  Oak  or  Cork-Treb 
{Q.  suher)  is  noticed  in  the  article  Cork  ;  the  Holm 
Oak  or  Evergreen  Oak  {Q.  ilex),  another  of  the 
species  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  in  the  article 
Ilex. — Of  the  North  American  oaks,  some  are  very 
valuable  as  timber  trees.  Perhaps  the  most  important 
is  the  White  Oak  or  Quebec  Oak  (Q.  cJba),  a  large 
tree,  the  leaves  of  which  have  a  few  rounded  lobes. 
It  is  found  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  Canada ;  and 
in  some  places  forms  the  chief  part  of  the  forest. 
The  timber  is  less  compact  than  that  of  the  British 
oak ;  that  of  young  trees  is  very  elastic. — The 
Oyercup  Oak  \Q,  li/rata),  a  majestic  tree,  highly 
esteemed  for  itis  timber,  and  having  its  acorns 
almost  covered  b]^  their  globular  cup,  grows  chiefly 
in  lands  liable  to  inundation  in  the  ^uthem  States. 
— ^The  CHEaTNUT-LEAVED  White  Oak  {Q,  prinu4) 
is  also  a  much-esteemed  timber  tree  of  the  Southern 
States.— The  Swamp  White  Oak  (Q.  bieolor),  a 
closely  allied  species,  extends  further  north. — ^The 
Ltve  Oak  {Q.  virens),  an  evergreen  species,  with 
entire  leathery  leaves,  is  regarded  as  a  tree  of  the 
first  importance  in  the  United  States,  from  the  excel- 
lence of  its  timber  and  its  value  for  ship-building,  so 
that  efforts  have  been  made  by  the  government  to 
protect  it  and  to  promote  the  planting  of  its  acoros. 
X  et  it  is  not  a  veiy  large  tree,  being  seldom  more 
than  forty-five  feet  in  height,  with  a  trunk  of  two 
feet  in  diameter.  It  grows  on  the  coasts  of  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  as  far  north  as  Virginia.  It 
once  abounded  on  the  Sea  Islands,  now  so  cde- 
brated  for  their  cotton. — The  Red  Oak  (Q.  rubra), 
a  large  tree,  with  sinuated  and  lobed  leaves,  the 
lobes  toothed  and  bristle- pointed,  yields  great  part 
of  the  Red  Oak  Staves  exported  from  Canada  and 
the  north  of  the  United  States  to  the  West  Indies ; 
but  Red  OaJs  Staves  are  also  produced  in  the  Middle 
and  Southern  States  by  the  Scarlet  Oak  (Q. 
coecinea),  a  very  similar  species,  by  the  Black  Oak 
or  Quercitron  Oak  {Q.  tinctoria)^  another  species 
with  the  lobes  of  the  leaves  bristle-pointed,  better 
known  for  the  dye-stuff  which  its  bark  vields  (see 
Quercitron),  and  by  the  Willow  Oak  (Q.  phdlos), 
a  large  tree  with  lanceolate  leaves  dud  a  willow-like 
aspe^  The  timber  of  all  these  species  is  of  very 
inferior  quality.  These  m^  the  American  oaks  of 
greatest  economical  and  commercial  importance, 
out  there  are  numerous  other  species,  some  of  them 
trees,  some  mere  shrubs,  of  which  some  grow  on 
poor  soils,  and  cover  t^em  in  compact  masses; 
resembling  in  this  a  single  European  species  (Q. 
viminalis)^  a  native  of  t^e  Vosges,  6—8  feet  high, 
with  slender  tough  branches,  which  makes  excellent 
hedges. — The  Black  Jack  {Q.  nigra)  is  an  American 
•oak,  chiefly  notable  for  the  abundance  in  which  it 
grows  on  some  of  the  poorest  soils.  It  is  a  small 
tree,  and  its  timber  of  little  value.  The  hark  is 
black. — Some  of  the  Nepaulese  oaks  are  laige  and 


valuable  trees,  as  are  some  of  those  of  China  and 
Japan,  of  Java,  of  Mexico,  kc  The  oaks  of  Java 
and  the  other  Indian  islands  have  generally  the 
leaves  quite  entire. — The  bark  of  most  of  the  3|)ecie8 
of  oak  IS  capable  of  being  used  for  tanning,  and  is 
used  in  different  countries.  The  cups  and  acorns  of 
the  Valonia  Oak  {Q.  uEgUops)  are  exported  irom 
the  Morea  and  other  paits  of  the  Levant,  in  great 
Quantities,  for  this  purpose,  under  the  name  of 
valonia.  See  Leather.  The  tree  resembles  the 
Tiurkey  Oak,  and  has  very  large  hemispherical 
moss^  cups.  The  cups  are  said  to  contain  more 
tanmn  than  any  other  vegetable  substance. — G«ll8 
(q.  V.)  or  GaU-nuts  are  in  great  part  obtained  from 
the  oak  therefore  called  the  Gall-oak  (Q.  «n/ec- 
toria),  a  scrubbv  bush,  a  native  of  Asia  Minor,  with 
bluntly  serrated,  ovate-oblong  leaves. — The  Kermes 
Oak  (Q.  cocdfaxi),  on  the  leaves  of  which  the 
Kermes  (q.  v.)  insect  is  founds  is  a  low  bush,  with 
evergreen  spinous  leaves,  much  resembling  a  holly, 
a  native  of  the  south-east  of  Europe. — Of  oaks  with 
sweet  and  edible  acorns,  may  be  mentioned  the 
Ballots  Oak  (Q,  BaUota  or  uramuntia),  an  ever* 
green  with  round  spiny-toothed  leaves,  a  native 
of  the  north  of  Africa,  the  acorns  of  which  are  regu- 
larly brought  to  market  in  Algeria  and  in  Spain, 
and  are  long  and  cylindrical;  the  Italian  Oak  (Q. 
^sculits),  closely  aUied  to  the  common  oak ;  and  the 
Dwarf  Chestnut  Oak  {Q.  chinquapin  or  prinoides) 
of  North  America,  a  small  shrubby  species,  which 
has  been  specially  recommended  to  cultivation  on 
this  account.  Other  North  American  species,  and 
some  of  the  Himalayan  species,  also  produce  edible 
acorns.  From  the  acorns  of  seme  species,  oil  is 
made  in  considerable  quantity  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  is  used  in  cookery. — The  leaves  of 
the  Manna  Oak  (Q.  manni/era) — a  native  of  the 
mountains  of  Kurdistan,  having  oblons,  blunt-lobed 
leaves — secrete  in  hot  weather  a  kind  of  manna,  a 
sweet  mucilaginous  substance,  which  is  made  into 
sweetmeats,  and  very  highly  esteemed. 

The  name  Oak  is  sometimes  popularly  applied  to 
timber  trees  of  very  different  genera.  Thus,  African 
Oak  is  another  name  of  Afncau  Teak.  See  Teak. 
Some  of  the  species  of  Cdsuarina  (q.  v.)  are  called 
Oak  in  Australia.  The  Stone  Oak  {I/Uhoearpus 
Javenensis)  of  Java,  so  named  from  the  extreme 
hardness  of  its  timber,  is  a  tree  of  the  same  family 
with  the  true  oaks. 

OAK  BEAUTY  {Biston  prodromaria),  a  moth 
of  the  family  OeometridoB,  a  native  of  England, 
about  an  inch  and  a  half  or  two  inches  in  expanse 
of  wings ;  the  upper  wings  with  two  brown  curved 
bands,  and  margined  with  black,  the  lower  wings 
with  one  brown  band.  The  caterpillar  feeds  on  the 
oak. 

OAICHAM,  the  county-town  of  Rutlandshire, 
England,  in  the  vale  of  Catmos,  25  miles  west- 
north-west  of  Peterborough.  It  is  a  station  on 
the  Syston  and  Peterborouj^h  branch  of  the  Mid- 
land Kailway.  In  former  times,  there  was  a  castle 
here ;  it  is  now  in  ruins,  with  the  exce|)tion  of  the 
portion  used  as  the  county-halL  The  church,  the 
mterior  of  which  was  beautifully  restored  in  1858, 
is  an  edifice  in  the  perpendicular  style,  and  has  a 
fine  tower  and  spire.  The  Free  Grammar-school, 
with  an  annual  endowment  of  about  £700  a  year, 
was  founded  in  1581.    Pop.  2948. 

OA'KUM  a  tangled  mass  of  tarred  hempen 
fibres,  is  made  from  old  rope  by  untwisting  the 
strands  and  rubbing  the  fibres  free  from  each  other. 
Its  principal  use  is  in  Caulking  (^.  v.)  the  seams 
between  planks,  the  space  round  nvets,  bolts,  fta, 
for  the  purpose  of  preventing  water  from  penetrat- 
ing. 


OAKITES,  the  name  of  >  BabyloniiiD  god,  who, 
ID  the  Nmt  jeKr  oF  the  foundation  of  Babylon,  is 
mid  tn  have  come  out  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  or  the 
old  Erythneaa  Sok.  adjoining  Babylon.  He  ia 
dirscrib^  as  having  the  head  uid  body  of  a  Gsh,  to 
whii'h  were  added  a  human  head  and  feet  under  the 
ftsh'a  head  and  at  the  tail.  He  lived  amoagat  men 
diuing  the  daytime,  without,  however,  taking  any 
food,  and  retired  at 
■unset  to  the  lea,  from 
which  he  had  emeriied. 
O.  had  a  human  voice, 
and  inatructed  men  in 
the  nse  of  lettcra, 
and  in  all  the  prin- 
cipal arts  aud  sdences 
of  civilisation,  which 
I  he  communicated 
them.  Such '  ia 
acconot  of  him  pre- 
served by  Beroaua  and 
ApoUodonia.  Five 
such  mni 

the  PenianGulf ;  one,  called  Anedotoa  or  Idotion,  ~ 
the  reign  of  Amenon,  the  fnnrth  Ling  of  Babyloi 
inothcT  in  that  of  the  lifth  king;  aad  the  laat, 
called  Odacon  (or  Ho  Dagon),  anparently  the  Phce- 
nidan  Dtgan,  under  the  sixUi.  Alany  ligflrea  of  O., 
roembling  that  of  a  Triton,  having  the  upper  ]  ' 
of  a  man.  and  the  lower  of  a  fish,  or  as  a  i 
covered  with  a  fish's  body,  have  been  found  in 


symbolised  the  conriuest  of  Babylonia  by  a  n 
QTihaed  nation  coming  in  ships  to  the  mouth  of  the 
biphrate* ;  but  he  is  apparently  a  water-^1,  re«em' 
bliag  in  type  and  character  the  Phoenician  Dagon, 
aod  the  Greek  Proteus  and  Triton. 

UeUadioa,   Apud  PKoL  Cod.   279,  pp.   536,  34 ; 
Bichter,  Dt  Berom  ;  Cory.  A  nt  Fraifm.  p.  30  ;  1  Sam. 
V.4;  Bnnaen,A'3i/p('»Piac«,voLi.p.  706; 
f    Lftyard,  A^'innfA,  p.  343. 

OAB,  a  wooden  instrument  by  which 
a  person  sittbig  in  a  boat  propels  it 
"  through  the  water.  The  form  found  in 
iractioe  to  combine  greatest  power  with 
iijbtnesB,  is  that  shfwn  in  the  figure. 
From  aiu  b  a  the  blnde  of  the  oar,  tbiu 
and  nearly  flat,  though  occasionally  some- 
what curved,  ao  as  to  present  a  concave 
■nrface  to  the  water ;  from  ft  to  rf  ia  round 
or  aquare,  gradually  thickenin;;  towards 
d,  that  the  part  ee  may  nearly  balance 
the  part  ac  At  de  is  the  h.indle,  which 
ia  grasped  by  one  or  both  h^iiids.  The 
oar  rests  at  c  on  the  row-fuct,  aud  iu  many 
cases  some  device  is  resorted  to.  to  retain 
the  oar  from  slipping  outwards.  In  the 
Thamea,  a  leathern  stop,  called  a  button, 
is  used ;  sometimes  a  pin  in  the  gunwale 
of  the  boat  paasea  through  the  oar  (but 
this  weakens  the  oar,  and  precludes /ro/ier- 
Bi//)  ;  at  other  times,  the  oar  is  fastened 
to  the  pin  by  a  leathern  thong.  The 
Action  of  an  oar  in  moving  a  boat  is  that 
of  a  lever,  the  rower's  hand  being  the 
power,  the  water  the  fulcrum,  against 
which  the  oar  presses,  and  the  row-lock 
the  point  at  which  the  opposition  caused 
by  the  weight  of  the  boat  and  its  cargo 
""  is  felt  FeailuTing  an  oar  consists  m 
Oar.  turning  it,  immediately  on  leaving  the 
water,  so  that  the  Hat  blade  uf  the  oar 
ii  hoiisontal,  and  in  preserving  this  position  until 
just  before    the    freah   dip,  when   of   oouras  tiie 


liiti 


vertical  position  mast  be  resumed.  Feathering 
diminishes  the  resistance  offered  by  air,  win<C 
and  small  waves  ;  it  also  adds  greatly  to  the  beauty 
and  grace  of  rowing. 

The  beat  oars  are  of  N'orway  fir,  though  some  are 
made  of  ash  and  beech. 

O'ASES.  certain  cultivated  rpots  in  the  Libyan 
deaert  (called  also  Auagii,  Ouaeis,  or  Hoa«i»] 
which  produce  vegetation,  owing  to  the  preeenco 
of  springs  isBuing  from  the  ground.  The  princi- 
pal oases  are  those  lying  to  the  west  of  £^pt, 
a  few  days'  journey  from  the  Nile,  and  known  to 
the  ancients  by  the  name  of  the  Greater  and  Lessee 
Oases,  and  that  of  Ammun.  It  is  supposed  that 
they  were  known  to  the  Egyptians  during  the  r2th 
dynasty  under  the  nAme  of  SutfTt-Khenn^  but  no 
evidence  of  their  occupation  by  the  Egyptiana 
earlier  than  Darius  has  been  found  in  eitu.  By 
some  of  the  ancients  they  were  called  the  Islands  of 
the  Blessed,  or  compared  to  the  spots  on  a  panther's 
skin.  Their  name  is  supposed  to  be  the  Coptio 
QuaJil  (Inhabited  Place).  They  ai«  first  mentioned 
by  EerodotiiB  in  his  account  of  the  destruction  of 
the  army  of  Cambyses  by  the  storm  of  sand,  or 
simoom.  Equally  celebrated  is  the  visit  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great  to  the  oasis,  which  he  successfully 
accomplished  after  the  conquest  of  Egypt,  and 
passed  throueb  the  desert  a  nine  days'  journey 
btfore  he  reached  the  Temple  of  Ammon,  the  priests 
of  which  declared  him  the  eon  of  that  god,  and  the 
future  conqueror  of  the  entire  world.  Herodotus 
describes  that  of  El  Wah,  or  the  Oasis  Magna  of 
the  Romans,  which  contained  the  oracle  of  AmmOQ, 
and  which  lies  seven  days'  journey  west  of  Thebes. 
It  appears  to  have  been  anciently  frequented  by 
caravans  going  to  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  Straut 
mentions  three  oases  ;  the  first  seven  days'  jouniey 
west  of  Abydos ;  the  second,  west  of  the  Lake  McEris ; 
the  third,  near  the  oracle  of  Ammon.  Pbny  men- 
tions  two  oases;  so, does  Ptolemy,  who  calls  them 
the  Lesser  and  Greater.  Under  the  flomao  empire, 
they  were  used  for  temporaiy  banishment  of  crimi- 
nals of  state,  and  the  poet  Juvenal  was  sent  there. 
OlympiodoruB,  a  native   of   the  Thebaid.  gives   a 

J  owing  description  of  them  in  the  days  ot  Theo- 
isiua  U>e  Younger.    Under  the  Byzantine  emperun, 


the  emperon  banished  theni  the  heada  ot  the 
Catholic  p«rty,  at  the  instigation  of  the  Arians.  in 
the    4th  c,  and  Athanaaius  himi^  is   B)ipuowd 


OASES— OAT. 


to  liftTe  taken  refuge  in  them.  In  the  6th  o^ 
Nestorius,  the  Bishop  of  Constantinople,  was 
l>aniBhed  there.  He  was  rescued  by  an  excursion 
of  the  Blemyes,  but  expired  soon  after  his  arrival 
at  the  Nile.  The  oases  were  then  a  place  of 
desolation  and  horror,  occasionally  plundered  by 
Beduins.  They  fell,  943  A.D.,  mto  the  power 
of  the  Arabs,  after  having  been  held  bv  the 
Egyptian  monarchs  and  theu:  successors  till  that 
period ;  and  they  are  described  by  Ediisi  (1150 
A.  D.)  as  uninhabited ;  by  Abulfeda  (1240  A.  D.)  and 
by  Leo  Africanus  (1513  A.D.),  as  inhabited  and 
cultivated,  and  quite  independent,  having  three 
fortresses.  The  first  modem  traveller  who  visited 
them  is  supposed  to  have  been  Ponoet  (1698  A.D.). 
Subsequently,  in  1792,  Browne  discovered  the  oasis 
of  Ammon  at  El  Siwah  ;  and  it  was  visited  in  1798 
by  Homemann,  and  in  1819  by  Oailliaud.  It  lies  in 
29"  12'  20"  N.  lat,  and  26"  6'  9^  E.  long.  Drovetti 
and  Miuutoli  also  visited  the  same  spot. 

These  oases  are  now  held  by  Mug^rebi  Arabs,  a 
powerful  race  in  the  Desert,  capable  of  raising 
30,000  men,  who  supply  camels  and  guides  to  travel- 
lers. The  oases  are  four  in  number :  1.  £1  Kbargeh, 
or  the  Oasis  Magna,  the  Greater  Oasis  of  Ptolemy ; 
2.  £1  Kasr,  or  Oasis  Parva,  the  Lesser  Oasis; 
3l  Siwah,  or  the  Oaiis  of  Ammon,  the  most 
northerly ;  4  The  Western  Oasis,  or  Dakkel, 
mentioned  by  Olympiodorus,  and  visited  by  Sir 
Archibald  Edmonstone  in  1819.  Of  El  Ehargeh, 
full  particulars  have  been  given  by  M.  Hoskius,  who 
discovered  it  lying  about  125  miles  west  of  the  Nile, 
having  a  stream  of  water  rising  near  the  village  of 
Oenah,  on  the  north-west  of  the  oasis,  and  lost  in 
the  sand.  It  is  bounded  on  the  east  by  Hagel-bel- 
Badah.  North  of  El  Gem  lies  the  metropolis. 
El  Khargeh,  which  consists  of  a  series  of  covered 
streets  and  open  bazaars.  The  temple  lies  two 
hours'  journey  from  it,  in  a  fine  situation ;  the 
iekos  has  a  vestibule  of  500  feet,  with  pylons,  or 

gateways,  the  first  of  whicH  has  a  decree  in 
reek,  dated  in  the  reign  of  Galba  (68  A.D.), 
against  forcing  persons  to  farm  the  revenue,  prevent- 
ing imprisonment  for  debt,  preserving  the  dowries 
a£  women,  and  limiting  the  office  of  strategos  for 
three  years.  The  temple  has  other  decrees  prevent- 
ing the  officers  of  government  from  smuggling.  It 
has  an  avenue  of  sphinxes  and  three  pylons ;  on 
the  third,  Darius  is  represented  offering  to  Amen 
Ra,  Osiris,  and  Isis ;  white  Nekht-her-hebi  (Nectabes) 
continued  the  ornaments  of  the  temple  about  414 — 
340  B.a  The  sekos  is  140  feet  long,  and  represents 
Darius  offering  to  Amen  Ra,  or  Khnumia,  tne  ram- 
headed  god,  and  Osiris  ;  while  in  the  accompanying 
scenes  are  seen  Anta,  or  Anaitis,  Raspu,  or  Reseph. 
In  the  vicinity  is  a  magnificent  necropolis  of  150 
sepulchres,  of  a  late  period,  with  Doric  and  Corinth- 
ian capitals.  There  are  several  temples  at  other 
spots  of  the  oases.  2.  El  Kasr,  the  Oasis  Parva, 
lies  four  or  five  days'  journey  south-east  of  Siwah, 
called  the  Wah-el-Bahnasa,  or  Wah-el-Menesheh, 
contains  no  monuments  older  than  the  Roman, 
consisting  of  a  triumphal  arch,  subterraneous 
and  other  aqueducts,  several  hot  springs,  a  necro- 
polis, and  Christian  church.  This  oasis  was  first 
conquered  by  the  Arabs;  and  in  its  vicinitv  is 
flEnotner  oasis  called  Wady  Zerzoora,  with  otners 
adjoining,  of  inferior  interest.  3.  Siwah,  or  the 
Oasis  of  Ammon — one  of  the  first  discovered,  and 
repeatedly  visited,  has,  unfortimately,  not  been  seen 
by  any  one  acquainted  with  hieroglyphics— lies 
west  of  the  Natron  Lakes.  It  would  aopear  from 
Minutoli  that  the  temple  was  built  by  Nekht-her- 
hebi,  or  Nectabee  I.,  in  honour  of  the  god  Khnum, 
Ammon  Khnumis  or  Chnebis,  who,  as  the  deity  of 
water,  presided  over  the  water  from  which  the  oasis 


originated.  The  oasis  is  nine  miles  broad  and  two 
long,  contains  ElGarah  Gharmy,  and  Mencliyeh,  has 
a  population  of  about  8000  inhabitants,  possesses  date 
and  other  trees,  grows  cereals,  and  has  suljthur- 
ous  springs,  a  salt  lake  at  Arachieh,  and  many 
niinea  temples,  a  necropolis,  and  other  remains. 
The  oracle  of  Ammon  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  a 

Elace  called  Om-Beydah,  or  the  temple  of  Nekht-her- 
ebi.  From  this,  it  would  seem  that  the  oasis  did 
not  fall  into  the  power  of  Egypt  till  a>>out  the  5th 
a  B.a  The  celebrated  Fountain  of  the  Sun  is  at 
Siwah  Shargieh.  It  is  30  paces  Ions,  20  broad,  six 
fathoms  deep,  with  bubbles  constanuy  rising  to  the 
surface,  steaming  in  the  morning,  and  warmer  at 
night  Close  to  it  are  the  remains  of  the  sanctuary 
of  Ammon.  4  El  Dakkel,  or  the  Western  Oasis,  lies 
about  78  miles  south-west  of  Siout  The  principal 
ruin  at  Dar-el-Hadjar  consists  of  a  small  temple, 
dedicated  to  Khnumis  by  the  Roman  emperors, 
Nero  and  Titus.  At  Ain  Amoor,  between  this  oasis 
and  the  Oasis  Ma^na,  is  a  temple  built  uuder  the 
Roman  empire. — Herodotus,  iii.  26 ;  Strabo,  iL  p. 
130,  xviL  pp.  790,  791,  813 ;  Ptolemy,  iv.  5,  37 ; 
Minutoli,  keiae  zum  Tempd  de8  Jupiter  Amman 
(Berlin,  1824)  ;  Hoskins,  risit  to  Hie  Great  0am 
(8vo,  Lond.  1837) ;  Champollion,  UEgypte,  p.  282. 

OAT,  or  OATS  {AvincC^,  a  genus  of  grassesi 
containing  many  species,  among  which  are  some 
valuable  for  the  grain  which  they  pcoduce,  and 
some  useful  for  hay.  The  Linnasan  genus  A  vtmoy  leas 
natural  than  most  of  the  Linoean  genera,  has  been 
much  broken  up.  The  genus,  as  now  restricted* 
has  the  spikeleto  in  loose  panicles,  the  glumes  aa 
long  as  the  florets,  and  containing  two  or  more 
florets;  the  paleas  firm,  and  almost  cartilaginous, 
the  outer  palea  of  each  floret,  or  of  one  or  more  o£ 
the  florets,  bearing  on  the  back  a  knee-jointed  awn» 
which  is  twisted  at  the  base.  The  awn,  however, 
tends  to  disappear,  and  often  wholly  disappears  in 
cidtivation.  Ihose  species  which  are  cultivated  as 
corn-plants  have  comparatively  large  spikelets  and 
seeds,  the  spikelets— at  least  after  flowering— pen- 
dulous. The  native  country  of  the  cultivated  oats 
is  unknown,  although  most  probably  it  is  Central 
Asia.  There  is  no  reference,  nowever,  to  the  oat  in 
the  Old  Testament ;  and  although  it  was  known  to 
the  Greeks,  who  called  it  Bromon,  and  to  the  Romans^ 
it  is  probable  that  they  derived  their  knowledge  of 
it  from  the  Celts,  Geituans,  and  other  nortnem 
nations.  It  is  a  grain  better  suited  to  moist  than  to 
dry,  and  to  cold  than  to  warm  climates,  although  it 
does  not  extend  so  far  north  as  the  coarse  kinds  of 
barley.  The  grain  is  either  used  in  the  form  of 
Groats  ((|.  v.)  or  made  into  meal.  Oatmeal  cakes 
and  porridge  form  great  part  of  the  food  of  the 
peasantry  of  Scotland  and  of  some  other  countries. 
No  grain  is  so  much  esteemed  for  feeding  horses. 
Besiaes  a  large  quantity  of  starch— about  65  per 
cent — and  some  sugar,  gum,  and  oil,  the  grain 
of  oats  contains  almost  20  per  cent  of  nitro- 
genous principles,  or  Protelne  (q.  v.)  compounds, 
of  which  about  16  or  17  parts  are  Aveniiie,  a  sub- 
stance very  similar  to  Cagetne  (q.  v.),  and  two 
or  three  parts  gluten,  the  remainder  albumen. 
The  husk  of  oats  is  also  nutritious,  and  is  mixed 
with  other  food  for  horses,  oxen,  and  sheep. 
From  the  starchy  particles  adhering  to  the  hiuk 
or  seeds  after  the  separation  of  the  erain,  a 
light  dish,  called  sowans,  is  made  in  Scouand  by 
means  of  boiling  water,  was  once  veiy  popular,  and 
is  verj  suitable  for  weak  stomachs.  The  gram  is 
sometimes  mixed  with  barley  for  distillation.  The 
Russian  beverage  called  quass  is  made  from  oats. 
The  straw  of  oats  is  very  useful  as  fodder,  bringing 
a  higher  price  than  any  other  kind  of  straw. 
— ^The  varieties  of  oats  m   cultivation   are   verr 


OAT— 0ATE3. 


munaroiiB.  and  lome  highly  ettenned  vkrietiet  are 
of  recent  and  well-known  orijjin.  It  U  doubtful  it 
the;  really  belong  to  more  tlian  one  species ;  but 
the  follawinK  are  very  generally  diatioj^uiahed  as 
■p«ciee ;  1.  CoHHON  Oat  [A,  loliva],  having  a  very 
InnM  panicle,  which  spreads  on  all  sid«a,  and  two  or 
three  fertile  floreta  in  each  spikelet,  the  palees  quite 
tmiMth,  not  more  than  one  ftoret  awneil ;  2.  Tar- 
TAiiAM  OiT  (A,  tyrientatit),  aim  called  Hdnoabian 


t  of  them,  whilst 
other  kinds  they  adliere  closely ;  4.  CHmsai  Oat 
{A.  lAinauii],  which  agrees  with  the  last  in  the 
chuactera  of  the  pales  and  seeds,  but  is  more  like 
the  Common  Oat  in  its  panicle,  and  has  more 
nDmeroas  florets,  4 — 8,  io  thp  spikelet ;  6.  Short 
Oat  {A.  l^erii),  which  has  a  close  panicle  turned  to 
one  aide,  the  apikelete  ooutainini^  only  one  or  two 
liurets,  each  floret  awned,  the  grains  short.  Almost 
til  the  varieties  of  oat  in  cultivation  belong  to  the 
Gnt  and  aecond  of  these  species.  The  Naked 
Oal  is  cultivated  in  Austria,  but  ia  not  much 
uteeninl.  The  Chinese  Oat,  said  to  have  been  i 
brought  by  the  Bnuian*  from  the  north  of  China, 
Is  protiiic,  bnt  the  grain  is  easily  shaken  out 
by  winds.  The  Short  Oat  is  cultivated  as  a 
graio-iMvp  on  poor  soils  at  high  elevations  in  the 
moantaiaons  parts  of  France  and  Spaiu,  ripening 
where  other  kinds  do  not;  it  is  also  ciUtivated  in 
sons  parts  of  Europe  as  a  forage  plant. — Beeides 
these,  there  is  another  kind  of  oat,  the  BsmLE- 
FOtNTED  Oat  (A.  tlrigam),  regarded  by  some 
botanists  as  belonging  even  to  a  distinct  genus, 
Am/Aoitio,  because  the  tower  palea  is  much  pro- 


of which  is  cultivated  in  some  northern  countries 
for  meal,  but  which  is  more  generally  regarded  bj 
farm-tra  as  a,  weed  to  be  extirpated,  springing  up  so 
abundantly  in  some  districts  as  to  choke  crops  <^ 


better  grain.     Its  awns  have  much  of  the  hygro- 
metricaT  property   which    gaina   for   A,    ttrrim,    a 
species  found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  ' ' 
the  Animal  Oat,  because  the  seeds  w 


twth^  extending  into  brirtfes.  The  panicli 
inclined  to  one  side,  very  little  branched ;  the  florets, 
£  or  3  in  k  snikelet,  all  awned.  the  grain  rather 
•maa  This  plant  is  oommon  in  cornfields,  is  onlti- 
Tited  in  many  countries,  but  chiefly  on  poor  soils, 
ud  was  at  one  time  muoh  oultivatM  in  ScoUaud, 


WiU  Oat  {Avim  fatua). 


M  ii  naw  Bearcely  to  be  seen  as  s  CTap..^Not 
nhke  thia,  bat  with  the  panicle  spreading  equally 
•a  all  (idea,  the  outer  palea  merely  bifid,  and  long 


found  in  the  south  of  Europe,  the 

■,  because  the  seeds  when  rii>e  and 
fallen  on  the  ground  resemble  insects,  and  mov« 
about  in  an  eitraordinsry  manner  through  the 
twisting  and  untwisting  of  the  awns.  The  seed  of 
the  Wild  Oat  has  been  sometimes  used  instead  ot 
an  artificial  fly  for  catching  trouL — Amoncat  tha 
species  of  oat  useful  not  vit  their  grain  but  for 
fodder  ara  the  Down?  Oat-orasb  [A.  pubeare.iu) 
andYxLLow  Oat-ora^  [A. flaiKxmt).'aot'ii  referred 
by  some  botanists  to  the  genua  Tris'titm — the  short 
awn  being  like  a  middle  touth  in  the  bifid  palea— 
and  both  natives  of  Britain,  the  former  grnwing  on 
light  ground  and  diy  hills,  especially  where  the 
soil  is  calcareous,  the  latter  on  light  meadow  lands, 
— Other  species  are  found  in  Britain,  continiintal 
Europe,  North  America,  Australia.  Ac.  In  some 
parte  of  the  Sahara  are  bottoms  of  ravines  richly 
productive  of  a  species  ot  oat-gTOM  {A.  Forttaliii 
much  relished  by  camels. 

Far  more  ground  is  occupied  with  oats  in  Scotland 
than  with  any  other  grain.  In  all  the  higher  dis- 
tricts, it  is  almost  the  only  kind  of  grain  which  ia 
cultivated.  Throughout  Scotland,  it  ia  the  crop 
that  ia  chiefly  sown  after  land  has  been  in  posture 
for  one  or  more  years.  The  seed  ia  generally  eowa 
broadcast  over  the  pIoUGhed  land,  which  is  after- 
wards well  harrowed  and  pulverised.  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  have  t^  latter  operations 
well  done,  as  it  prevents  the  attacks  of  insect 
larvie.  On  soils  tllat  are  infested  with  annual 
weeds,  such  as  charlock,  it  is  common  to  drill  the 
seed,  which  permits  the  land  to  be  hand-hoed  and 
thoroughly  cleaned.  Oatu  thrive  beet  upon  deep 
and  rich  aoila,  and  yield  but  poorly  on  thin  sandy 
soils,  where  they  sutfer  iooner  from  drought  than 
barley,  rye,  or  wheat.  On  good  soils,  it  is  common 
to  dress  oats  with  2  to  3  cwts.  of  ruano  to  the  acre. 
The  plant  is  not  easily  injured  by  large  application* 
of  heterogeneous  manures.  The  Potato  Oat  is  a 
variety  generally  cultivated  in  the  beat  soils  and 
climatM.  It  is  an  early  and  productive  variety. 
The  Hopet«un  Oat  is  alao  much  sown  in  the  earliest 
districts.  The  Sandy  Oat  ia  still  more  largely  sown, 
more  particularly  when  the  climate  is  inienor  and 
wet  It  is  not  liable  to  be  lodged  with  rains,  and 
the  straw  is  of  fine  quality  for  fodder,  All  these 
are  varieties  of  the  Common  Oat.  The  Whit«  and 
Black  Tartarian  are  much  cultivated  in  somo 
districts.  They  ore  very  prodnctive. —  On  the  eon- 
tinent  of  Europe,  thia  grain  is  seldom  seep  of  quality 
equal  to  what  la  produced  io  Scotland ;  and  even  in 
most  parta  of  England,  the  climate  is  less  suitabls 
to  it,  and  it  is  less  plump  and  rich. 

GATES  [alitu  AMBROSE),  Tmrs,  was  the  son  of 
■  ribbon  weaver,  who,  having  Hmt  become  an  A  na- 
bapttet  miniater  under  Cromwell,  took  orders  and  a 
benefice  in  the  English  Church  after  the  llestiira- 

tion.     Titus ._  l_.._  i .._  ,  ._.    .,.     , 

in  London- 
School,  whence  he  passed  to  Trinity  Colleue,  Cam- 
bridge, took  orders,  and  received  a  small  living 
from  the  Duke  of  Norfolk.  This  position,  however, 
he  forfeited,  in  conaequence  of  a  maUcious  prosecu- 
tion, in  which  he  narrowly  escaped  conviction  for 
perjury  ;  and  having  been  afterwards  aj>|xiinted  to 
the  chaplaincy  of  one  of  the  king's  shiis,  he  was 
eipclied  from  it  on  a  charge  still  more  disgracefuL 
In  this  extremity,  he  conformed  to  the  Koman 
Catholic  Churoh,  and  was  admitted  as  a  scholar  of 


the  Jei  nits'  College  at  ValUdoIid ;  but  wu  expelled 

tor  biiscoudact,  Mtec  a  triftl  of  H  few  inoiit1i&      He 
nas  again  received  by  the  Jesuits,  od  his  earoeit 
pratKBtattons  of  repentance,  at  St  Omer,  where  be 
Mas  DO  lese  uneucceaaful,  aod  was  finaUy  dismissed 
by  them  in  the  early  part  of  167S.     He  now,  as  a 
mere  vagabond  adventurer,  let  himself  to  live  by 
hia  wits,  in  the  evil  eiereise  of  which  he  devised, 
about  this  time,  the  atrocious  scheme  with  which 
hJB  Dame  is  identified  in  history.    JiiBt  then,  great 
excitement   and   alarm    pervaded    the    Protestant 
party  io  England.    It  was  well  known  that  Charles 
was  at  heart  a  Boman  Catholic ;  and  his  brother, 
the  Duke  of  York,   afterwards  James   II.,  was  an 
active  and  avowed  lealot  on  the  aame  side.      The 
growing  conlidenca  of  the   Boman  Catholics  was 
unconcealed;  and  with  or  without  inatant  roason, 
the  cry  SO  often  siDce  heard  arose,  and 
was    everywhere    re-echoed,    that    the 
'  Protestant  religion  was  in  danger.'    In 
this  fevered  state  o[  general  feeling,  O. 
saw   hia  opportunity,   and   dexterously 
and   boldly  availed  himself  of  it.    He 
communicated    to   the    authorities   the 
details  of  a  pretended  plot,  the  figment 
of  his  own  brain,  the  main  elements  of 
which   were   a   rising  o£   the   Catholio 
party,  a  general  massacre   of   Protest- 
anta,  the  bnming  of  the  cit^  of  Loadoii, 
the  asaasainatiou  of  the  king,  and  the 
invasion  of  Ireland  by  a  French  anuy. 
In  certain  of  its  itema,  the  fiction  wna 
devised  with    considerable  ingenuity  to 
catch  the  popular  belief.   By  the  atraugest 
coincidence,  moreover,  there  just  then 
occurred  in  aid  of  it  a  series  of  event* 
wliicb  seemed  conclusively  to  attest  ita 
geuuiueneas.      A    correspondence,    the 
object  of  which  was  the  iiropaj;ation  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion,  came  to 
Uuht  between  the  secretaJ7  of  the  Duke 
of  York  and  Pere  La  Chaise,  the  con- 
fessor   and    confidant   of    Louis    XIV, 
D.iuby,    the    prime    minister,     it      also 
a[>peareii,  had  been  bua^  with  intrigues 
in  the  same  quarter.    Finally,  Godfrey, 
the    zealous   magistrate  through    whom 
publicity  was  first  given  to  'the  plot,' 
was  found  mysteriously  murdered.    After 
this,  could  reasonable  doubt  exist?    Was 
not  the  English  St  Biirthutomew  already 
bejrunt      All    London    «'ent   wild    with 
fe:ir   and    nice  ;    and  it  aeemed  at  one 
time  likely  mat  a  maaaacre  of  Bomau 
Catholics  would  be  substituted  for  the 
dreaded  extermination  of  the  Protestants. 
The  ])arliament,  which  might  have  done 


jiulges  and  juries  Tying  with  each  other  in  their 
nnquestioning  reception  in  evideoce  of  the  grossest 
and  most  manifest  perjuries;  and  many  innocent 
Roman  Catholic  gentlemen  died  the  death  of  traitor* 
at  the  block.  Over  the  apace  of  two  yetui,  the  base 
success  of  0.  was  signalised  by  a  series  of  judicial 
murders.  Naturally,  however,  a*  reason  resumed 
its  sway,  doubts  began  to  be  felt ;  sad  on  the 
execution  of  a  venerable  and  respected  nobleman. 
Viscount  Stafford,  with  a  strong  shock  of  pity  and 
remorse,  public  suspicion  awoke,  and  a  violent 
reaction  set  in.  It  was  otily,  however,  on  the  accea- 
uon  of  James  IL  in  1685  that  retribution  overtook 
the  malefactor.  Active  steps  against  him  were  then 
taken.  He  was  tried  before  tne  Court  of  Kins'* 
Bench,  convicted  of  perjury,  and  sentenced  to  be 
pilloried,  whipped  at  the  cajt's  tail,  and  afterward* 


The 


ting  alone,  whose  life  was  thrmteucd, 

nut  who,  dissolute  and  indolent  aa  ha 

!,  vnnted  neither  courage  nor  shren 

s,  much  to  hia  honour,  acomfiitly  ini 

t  was  merely  some  insane  delusion,  aiid 


Oatee  in  the  Pillory. — From  a  Contctnpoiary  Print. 


id  thnt  the 


as  he  could,  to  control  the  e: 
lowed.  Too  probably,  his  interference  was  of  the 
cLiaracieristieally  easy,  i;wouc«i«i  kiud  ;  m  any  case, 
it  did  not  avaiL  The  story  of  0,  waa  universally 
believed  ;  and  he  became  the  pa|)ular  hero  of  the 
d,\v.  A  pension  of  £900  a  year  was  granted  him  ; 
a  suite  of  a])artment«  in  the  palace  at  Whitehall 
waa  set  ajiart  as  sacred  to  his  use  :  and  wherever  he 
went,  the  Protestant  public  wildly  cheered  him  as 
their  saviour.  With  the  aid  of  a  set  of  suborned 
ruffians,  only  one  degree  less  foul  thau  himself, 
eouvictions  of  his  victims  were   readily  obtamed. 


iprisoned  for  life.  We  might  wonder  a  little  *t 
the  leniency  oE  the  sentence,  were  it  not  thus  to 
be  explained :  it  waa  intended  that  the  severity  oE 
the  first  two  items  of  puniahmeut  sliould  render 
the  lost  one  snjierfluuus,  and  that  the  wretch 
should  die  nnder  the  laah  of  the  executioner.  But 
the  hide  of  O.  was  beyond  colcidation  tuu,;h  ; 
and  horribly  lacerated,  yet  living,  his  carcass  waa 
conveyed  to  tlie  prison,  from  which  it  was  meant 
never  more  to  issue.  Very  strangely,  howevei,  the 
next  tarn  of  the  |>olitical  wheel  brought  bacL  the 
monster  to  the  Lght  of  day  aud  to  pi-ospority. 
When  the  revolution  of  1083  placed  William  on  th^ 
throne,  the  Protestant    infiueuce    Iriumphed  ouo«> 


OATH. 


more.  In  the  oatburst  of  enthnBiaam  which  ensued, 
what  more  natuial  than  that  O.  should  be  glorified 
M  a  Protestant  martyr?  Parliament  solemnly 
declared  his  trial  an  illegal  one ;  he  was  pardoned, 
and  obtained  his  liberty ;  and  in  order  to  his  perfect 
enjoyment  of  it,  a  pension  of  £900  a  year  was 
granted  him.  He  was,  however,  no  more  heard 
of;  he  passed  hia  seventeen  remaining  years  in 
obscorit^,  and  died  in  1705  at  the  good  old  age  of 
eighty-mx. 

OATH  (Anc.-Sax.  aih,  Oer.  eidj,  in  the  religious 
use  of  the  woro,  may  be  detined  an  expressed  or  im- 
plied calling  upon  the  Almightv  to  witness  the  tnith 
of  an  asseveration,  or  the  good  faith  of  a  promise ; 
with  which  is  ordinarily  conjoined  an  imprecation 
of  his  vengeance,  or  a  renunciation  of  his  nivour,  in 
case  the  asseveration  should  be  false,  or  the  promise 
should  be  broken.  This  practice  has  prevailed, 
in  some  form  or  other,  in  almost  all  the  religions  of 
the  ancient,  as  well  as  of  the  modem  world.  It 
supposes,  however,  a  belief  of  the  existence  of  a 
provident  Supreme  Being,  in  order  to  its  moral 
efficacy  as  a  safeguard  of  truth.  Among  the  Jews, 
we  find  instances  in  Gen.  ziv.  22,  xxi.  21,  xlviL  31, 
L  5,  oonifirmed  even  by  the  example  of  God  himself, 
Kamb.  xiv.  28,  Jerem.  xliv.  26,  Isai  Ixii  8.  It 
was  strictly  forbidden  to  the  Jews  to  swear  by 
false  gods  (Amos  viii  14,  Jerem.  xil  16).  The  form 
of  oaui  was  probably  variable,  either  a  direct 
adjuration,  as  *  The  Lord  liveth,'  or  an  imprecation, 
*The  Lord  do  so  to  me;'  but  in  all  cases,  the 
strongest  denunciations  are  held  out  a^nst  the 
false  swearer  (Exod.  xx.  7,  Levit.  xix.  12).  Oaths 
were  employed,  both  judicially  and  extrajudicially, 
by  the  ancient  E^ypu&nB,  Assyrians,  Modes,  and 
Persians,  as  well  as  by  the  Greeks,  and  also  by  the 
Bomaus.  The  forms  were  very  various — one  of  the 
most  solemn  consisting  in  the  act  of  placing  the 
hand  on  the  altar  of  the  deity  who  was  invoked 
as  witness.  In  the  judicial  proceedings  of  both 
&e  last-named  nations^  oaths  were  employed,  but 
not  universally ;  and  in  examples  of  their  extra- 
judicial use,  the  literatures  of  both  abound.  In 
the  Christian  dispensation,  the  solemnity  of  an 
oath  is  enhanced  by  the  elevated  idea  of  the  sanctity 
and  perfection  of  tne  Deity. 

The  lawfulness  and  fitness  of  the  practice,  under 
circumstances  of  due  solemnity,  are  commonly 
recognised  by  Christians.  Some  communions,  of 
which  the  most  remarkable  are  the  Moravians 
and  the  Society  of  Friends,  applying  literally  the 
words  of  Christ  (Mat  v.  34),  regard  all  oaths  as 
onlawfuL  But  other  communions  generally  re- 
strict this  prohibition  to  ordinary  and  private 
discourse,  and  find  in  Rom.  i.  9,  2  Cor.  xi  21, 
GaL  L  20,  Pha  i  8,  and  1  ThessaL  ii.  5,  full 
warrant  for  the  lawfulness  of  oaths  in  judicial 
and  other  solemn  use.  From  some  passages  of  the 
Fathers,  it  might  seem  that  they  shared  the 
difficulties  of  the  Quakers  and  Moravians  on  the 
subject  of  the  lawfulness  of  swearing;  but  these 
Fathers  for  the  most  part  referred  to  the  oaths 
reouired  of  Christians  by  the  pagans,  which  gene- 
raUv  involved  a  recognition  of  particular  pa^n 
divinities  ;  and  they  condemned  these  pagan  oatns, 
rather  as  involving  or  even  directly  containing 
a  profession  of  the  popular  pa^anispai,  than  as 
nnlawfnl  in  themselves.  The  Christians  of  the 
Uter  ages  may  perhaps  be  said  to  have  multiplied 
in  an  opposite  degree  the  occasions  of  oaths; 
especially  of  what  were  called  *  purgatorial'  oaths, 
b  which  a  party  charged  with  a  crime  justified 
himself  by  swearing  his  innoksence.  These  oaths 
were  commonly  accompanied  by  some  imprecatory 
form  or  ceremonial,  and  were  often  ex])ected 
to   be  followed  by  immediate  manifestations   of 


the  divine  vengeance  upon  the  perjurer.  The 
common  instrument  of  attestation  on  oath  was  the 
Bible  or  some  portion  of  it ;  but  oaths  were  some- 
times  sworn  on  the  relics  of  saints,  or  other  aacred 
objects  ;  sometimes  simply  by  raising  the  hand  to 
heaven,  or  by  laying  it  upon  the  breast  or  the  head. 
In  canonical  processes,  the  oath  was  often  ndminis' 
tered  to  the  party  kneeling.  The  forms  varied  very 
much  ;  the  most  general  being  that  which  the 
English  oath  still  retains  [Sic  ine.  Deus  adjuvet). 
Divines  commonly  require,  in  order  to  the  lawful- 
ness of  an  oath,  three  conditions  (founded  upon 
Jerem.  iv.  2),  viz.,  truths  justice,  and  judgment 
— ^that  is  to  say  (1),  that  the  asseveration,  if  the 
oath  be  assertive,  shall  be  true^  and  that  the 
promise,  if  the  oath  be  promissory,  shall  be  made 
and  shall  be  kept  in  good  faith ;  (2),  that  the  thing 
promised  shall  oe  objectively  lawful  and  good  ;  (3), 
that  the  oath  shall  not  be  sworn  without  due  dis- 
cretion and  deliberation,  and  without  satisfactory 
reasons  founded  on  necessity,  or  at  least  on  grave 
and  manifest  utility. 

The  Mohammedans  do  not  employ  oaths  in  their 
judicial  proceedings ;  but  they^  regard  deliberate 
penury,  even  when  extrajudicially  committed,  as 
sinful,  and  deserving  of  God's  vengeance.  For 
this,  however,  they  require  that  the  oath  should 
be  an  express  adjuration  of  God  himself  by  some 
one  of  his  well-known  holy  names  ;  that  the  jurant 
should  be  of  full  age  and  intelligence ;  and  that  the 
oath  should  be  sworn  deliberately,  and  with  the 
intention  of  swearing. 

OATH,  in  point  of  law,  is  that  kind  of  solemn 
declaration  which  is  necessary  as  a  preliminary  con- 
dition to  the  filling  of  some  office  more  or  less 
public,  or  of  giving  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice,  or 
m  some  judicial  proceedings.  Oaths  have  been 
usual  in  all  civilised  countries.  Nearly  all  the  great 
public  offices  of  the  state  in  this  country  cau  onlv 
be  filled  b^  persons  who  are  willing  to  take  an  oath 
before  acting  in  such  office.  The  most  important 
office  of  all — that  of  king  or  queen  of  Great  Britain — 
requires  a  Coronation  Oath  (q.  v.).  Members  of  par- 
liament also  require  to  take  the  oaths  of  allegiance, 
supremacy,  and  abjuration,  or  rather  the  consoli- 
dated oath  which  is  now  substituted  for  these  oaths. 
See  Abjuration.  Quakers,  Moravians,  and  Sejia- 
ratists  make  an  affirmation,  instead  of  an  oath,  to 
the  same  effect.  Roman  Catholics  take  the  oath 
as  enacted  by  10  Gea  IV.  c.  7,  s.  2;  and  Jews 
may  be  allowed,  on  a  resolution  of  either  House  of 
Parliament,  to  take  the  oath,  omitting  the  words : 
*  And  I  make  this  declaration  on  the  true  faith  of 
a  Christian.*  With  respect  to  all  the  high  offices 
of  state,  and  all  offices  held  under  the  crown,  civil, 
naval,  or  military,  except  the  inferior  offices,  the 
appointee  is  bound,  under  a  penalty,  to  take  within 
SIX  months  the  oath  of  allef^ance ;  but  in  order 
to  indemnify  those  who  have  inadvertently  omitted 
to  do  so,  an  annual  act,  called  the  Indenmitv  Act, 
is  passed.  A  statute  passed  in  the  time  of  WilL 
IV.,  dispensing  with  the  formality  of  an  oath  in 
most  of  tiie  government  offices,  and  substituting  a 
declaration  instead  thereof. 

The  most  important  oaths  affecting  the  general 
public  are  those  which  are  required  to  enforce  the 
truth  from  witnesses  in  courts  of  justice.  It  may 
be  stated  tiiat  jiuymen,  where  they  are  called  upon 
to  exercise  their  functions,  are  also  required  to  take 
an  oatii.  The  oath  is  read  to  the  juror  thus—*  You 
shall  well  and  truly  try  the  issue  between  the  parties, 
and  a  true  verdict  give,  according  to  the  evidence,  so 
help  you  God  ; '  and  the  juror  kisses  the  New  Testa- 
ment. Witnesses  who  are  called  to  give  evidence 
must  all  be  first  sworn  in  a  similar  manner,  the 
words  being,  *  The  evidence  you  shall  give  shall  be 


OATH  OP  CALUMNY— OB. 


the  truth,  the  whole  truth,  and  nothing  but  the 
truth,  so  help  you  God*  Hence,  the  person  who 
is  a  witness  must  have  sufficient  understanding  to 
know  the  nature  and  obligations  of  an  oath ;  and 
on  this  ground,  young  chimren  are  incompetent  to 
be  witnesses.  Another  condition  or  qualification 
required  in  the  party  who  takes  an  oath  as  a  witness 
is,  that  he  has  a  competent  sense  of  religion,  in  other 
words,  he  must  not  only  have  some  religious  know- 
ledge, but  some  religious  beliel  He  must,  in  sub- 
stance, believe  in  the  existence  of  a  God,  and  in  the 
moral  government  of  the  world ;  and  though  he 
cannot  oe  (questioned  minutely  as  to  his  particular 
religious  opinions,  yet,  if  it  appear  that  he  does  not 
believe  in  a  God  and  future  state,  he  will  not  be 
allowed  to  give  his  evidence,  for  it  is  assumed,  that 
without  the  religious  sanction,  his  testimony  cannot 
be  relied  upon.  So  long,  however,  as  a  witness 
appears  to  possess  competent  religious  belief,  the 
mere  form  of  the  oath  is  not  material  The  usual 
practice  in  England  and  Ireland  is,  for  the  witness, 
after  hearing  the  oath  repeated  by  the  officer  of 
court,  to  kiss  the  four  gospels  by  way  of  assent; 
and  in  Scotland,  the  witness  repeats  similar  words 
after  the  judge,  standing  and  holding  up  his  right 
hand,  *  swearing  by  Almighty  God,  as  he  shall 
answer  to  God  at  the  Great  Day  of  Judgment^' 
but  without  kissing  any  book.  Jews  are  sworn  on 
the  Pentateuch,  keeping  on  their  hats,  and  tbe  oath 
ends  with  the  words,  *  so  help  you  Jehovah.'  A 
Mohammedan  is  sworn  on  the  Koran;  a  Chinese 
witness  has  been  sworn  by  kneeling  and  breaking 
a  china  saucer  i^ainst  the  witness-box.  Thus,  the 
mere  form  of  taking  the  oath  is  immaterial;  the 
witness  is  allowed  to  take  the  oath  in  whatever 
form  he  considers  most  binding  upon  his  own  con- 
science— the  essential  thing  being,  however,  that 
the  witness  acknowledge  some  binding  effect  derived 
from  his  belief  in  a  God  or  a  future  state. 

The  policy  of  insisting  upon  the  religious  forma- 
lities attending  the  taking  of  an  oath,  has  been 
much  discussed  of  late  years,  and  it  has  been  dis- 
puted whether  atheists,  who  avow  an  entire  absence 
of  all  religious  belief,  should  be  entirely  rejected 
as  witnesses  (as  is  sometimes  the  case),  and  justice 
be  thereby  fmstrated.  The  objections  of  Quakers, 
Moravians,  and  Separatists  to  taking  an  oath  have 
long  been  respected  as  not  being  fundamentally  at 
variance  with  a  due  sense  of  religious  feeling,  and 
hence  they  have  by  statute  been  allowed  to  make 
an  affirmation  instead  of  taking  the  oath.  In  1854, 
another  concession  was  made  to  those  who,  not 
being  Quakers,  yet  refuse  to  take  the  oath  from 
sincere  conscientious,  motives,  and  these  are  now 
also  allowed  to  affirm  instead  of  swear.  But  the 
law  remains  as  before,  that  atheists  and  persons 
who  admit  that  they  have  no  religious  belief 
whatever,  are  excluded  from  giving  evidence  in 
courts  of  justice. 

When  a  witness,  after  being  duly  sworn,  gives 
false  evidence  in  a  court  of  justice  or  in  a  ju£cial 
proceeding,  and  his  evidence  so  falsely  given  is 
material,  he  commits  the  offence  of  perjury ;  but 
it  is  necessary,  in  England,  not  only  that  two 
witnesses  shall  be  able  to  prove  the  falsity  of  such 
evidence,  but  also  that  the  party  should  be  pro- 
ceeded against,  in  the  first  instance,  before  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  or  by  order  of  a  judge,  or 
the  attorney-general,  it  being  found  that  frivolous 
and  unfounded  uidictments  were  often  preferred 
against  witnesses  by  disappointed  or  hostile  parties. 
As  a  general  rule,  perjury  cannot  be  committed 
ex(y?pt  in  some  judicial  proceeding,  or  rather 
the  giving  of  false  evidence  cannot  be  punished 
except  it  has  been  given  in  some  judicial  pro- 
ceeding. The  practice  formerly  existed  of  persons 
11 


voluntarily  taking  oaths  in  Tsrious  matters  not 
connected  with  any  judicial  proceeding ;  and  credi- 
tors often  in  this  manner  sought  to  add  to  other 
securities  by  insisting  on  a  formal  oath  before  a 
justice  of  the  peace,  in  some  isolated  matter  of  fact. 
This  practice  was  put  an  end  to  by  the  statute  5 
and  6  WiJL  IV.  c.  62,  by  which  justices  of  the  peaoe 
were  prohibited  from  administering  or  receiving 
such  oaths  touching  any  matter  or  thing  where<3 
such  justice  has  not  jurisdiction  or  cogmzance  by 
some  statute.  It  is  left  to  some  extent  to  the  dis- 
cretion of  the  justice  whether  the  particular  matter 
is  one  as  to  which  it  is  proper  to  administer  an 
oath ;  but  when  it  is  considered  proper,  the  dedara* 
tion  may  be  made  in  the  form  given  by  that  statute ; 
and  if  the  party  make  a  false  declaration,  he  com- 
mits a  misdemeanour.  Unlawful  oaths  generally 
mean  oaths  taken  by  members  of  secret  and  illegal 
societies  of  a  treasonable  description;  and  statutes 
long  ago  ^tassed  to  inflict  penalties  on  all  who  took 
or  administered  such  oaths. 

OATH  OF  CALUMNY,  in  Scotch  Law,  means 
an  oath  taken  by  a  party  at  the  instance  of  his 
opponent,  that  the  allegations  were  well  founded. 
Oaths  of  verity  and  credulity  are  oaths  that  a  debt 
or  claim  is  well  founded. 

OATHS,  MiLiTART.  The  taking  of  the  oath 
of  fidelity  to  government  and  obedience  to  superior 
officers,  was,  among  ancient  armies,  a  very  solemn 
affair.  A  whole  corps  took  the  oa»h  together, 
sometimes  an  entire  army.  In  modem  times,  when 
so  many  other  checks  are  used  for  maintaining 
discipline,  the  oath  has  become  little  more  than 
a  form.  In  the  United  Kingdom,  a  recruit  enlisting 
into  the  army  or  militia,  or  a  volunteer  enrolling 
himself,  swears  to  be  faithful  to  the  sovereign,  ana 
obedient  to  all  or  any  of  his  superior  officers ;  also 
to  divulge  any  facts  coming  to  his  knowledge  which 
might  affect  the  safety  of  his  sovereign,  or  the 
stability  of  that  sovereign's  government.  The 
members  of  a  court-martial  take  an  oath  to  try  the 
cases  brought  before  them  justly,  according  to  the 
evidence,  to  keep  secret  the  finding  until  confirmed 
by  the  crown,  and  to  keep  secret  always  the  opinions 
given  by  the  members  individually.  The  only  other 
military  oath  is  the  common  oath  of  a  witness 
before  a  court-martial  to  tell  the  truth,  the  whole 
truth,  and  nothing  but  the  truth. 

OB,  or  OBI,  the  great  river  of  Western  Siberia, 
rises  in  two  branches,  the  Bia  and  the  Katune  or 
Katun<ra,  both  of  which  have  their  oridn  in  the 
Altai  Mountains,  within  the  frontier  of  the  Chinese 
dominions,  about  lat.  49°  N.,  and  long.  90°  E.^ 
These  branches,  flowing  in  a  north-west  direction, 
unite  to  form  the  Ob  at  the  town  of  Biiak  in  lat. 
52°  30^  K.,  long.  85'  K  Pursuing  a  winding  course, 
with  a  general  north- west  direction,  the  Ob  reaches 
the  meridian  of  75°  R,  when  it  turns  west,  and 
maintains  that  direction  to  its  confluence  with  the 
Irtish,  the  greatest  of  its  tributaries.  It  then  flows 
north-west,  north,  and  north-east,  to  its  mouth  in 
the  Gulf  of  Ob,  which  it  reaches  after  a  course  of 
2000  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  on  the  right  are 
the  Tom— a  swifter  stream  than  the  Ob,  400  miles 
in  length,  and  navigable  for  the  last  280  miles  from 
the  beginning  of  May  till  July— the  Tchulim,  and 
the  Ket  The  principal  affluent  on  the  left  is  the 
Irtish,  which,  rising  within  the  frontier  of  the 
Chinese  territories,  traverses  the  Altai  Mountains* 
and  after  a  course  longer  than  that  of  the  Ob  itself, 
joins  that  river  250  miles  below  Tobolsk.  The 
trade  of  the  Irtish,  of  which  the  centre  is  Tobolsk, 
is  important.  The  principal  towns  on  the  banks  of 
the  Ob  are  Narim,  Saigut,  Berezow,  and  Obdorsk. 
— The  Gulf  of  Ob  is  a  long  inlet  of  the  vuroti  i  Ocoan, 


OBADIAH-OBEUSE* 


4B0  miles  in  length  by  about  100  miles  in  breadth. 
At  present,  only  a  few  steamers  ply  on  the  great 
water-system  of  the  Ob ;  bat  that  system,  oommoni- 
eatiog  as  it  does  between  Siberia,  the  Chinese  terri- 
tories, and  European  Kussia,  is,  without  doubt, 
destined  to  become  a  great  commercial  thorough- 
fsre.  This  river  is  one  of  the  richest  in  fish,  of  all 
the  rivers  belonging  to  the  Russian  empire.  Its 
waters  are  swelled  m  May  by  the  melting  of  the 
snows  of  the  plains,  and  again  in  June  and  July  by 
the  melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  Below  its 
junction  with  the  Irtish,  it  divides  itself  into  several 
psrallel  streams ;  and  in  the  flood  season  it  inun- 
dates great  tracts  of  country,  and  presents  the 
appearance  of  a  waste  of  waters,  its  desolate  uni- 
formity broken  only  by  the  occasional  tree-tops 
th«it  rise  above  the  surface.  At  Obdorsk,  about  20 
miles  south  of  the  southern  border  of  the  Gulf  of 
Ob,  the  river  freezes  in  the  middle  of  October,  and 
breaks  up  about  the  middle  of  May. 

OBADI'AH,  one  of  the  '  minor  prophets '  of  the 
Old  Testament,  regarding  whom  absolutely  nothing 
is  knowiL  His  book  or  *  vision ' — the  shortest  of 
the  Jewish  Scriptures — appears,  from  internal  evi- 
dence, to  have  been  composed  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem  by  the  Chaldteans,  588  B.O.,  and  con- 
sists of  two  parts.  The  first  is  a  prophecy  of  the 
downfall  of  £dom.  The  second  foretells  the  future 
redemption  and  glory  of  the  house  of  Jacob,  in 
which  Edom— for  his  unbrotherly  conduct — shall 
not  share,  but,  on  the  oontrary,  be  burned  up  as 
*stabble.' 

O'BAN,  a  parliamentary  bur^h  and  seaport* 
Argyleshire,  Scotland,  on  a  bav  of  the  same  name* 
20  miles  (in  direct  line)  north-west  of  Inveraray. 
The  bay  is  protected  from  every  wind  by  the  island 
of  Kerrera  on  the  west,  and  by  the  high  shores  of 
the  mainland,  and  is  overlooked  on  the  north  by 
the  picturesque  ruins  of  DunoUy  Castle.  It  is 
from  12  to  24  fathoms  deep,  and  although  the 
girdle  of  bills  that  seems  to  surround  it  gives  it  the 
appearance  of  a  lake,  it  is  easily  accessible,  and 
could  afford  anchorage  to  300  saiL  O.  is  the  great 
rendezvous  for  tourists  in  the  West  Highlands. 
Its  importance  dates  chiefly  from  the  beginning  of 
the  present  century.  The  bureh  now  contains  a 
number  of  churches,  several  hotels  and  inns,  schools, 
banks,  Ac  Witliin  three  miles  of  0.  is  Dunstaff- 
nage  Castle,  which  is  said  to  have  been  the  seat  of 
the  Scottish  monarchy  previously  to  its  transference 
to  Scone.  The  Stone  of  Destiny,  which  now  sup- 
ports the  coronation  chair  in  Westminster  Abbey, 
and  was  carried  thither  from  Scone  by  Edward  1, 
was  obtained,  in  the  first  instance,  according  to 
tiadition,  from  Dunstaffna^  Castle.  Pop.  of 
parliamentary  burgh  (which  u  one  of  the  Ayr  (q.  v.) 
group)  was  1940  in  1861. 

OB^  or  OBI  (etymology  unknown),  the  name 
given  to  the  magical  arts  or  witchcraft  practised  by 
a  class  of  persons  among  the  negroes  of  the  West 
Indies.  The  practiser  is  called  an  Oheah-man  or 
Obeah'Ufoman.  It  differs  in  no  essential  respect 
from  the  corresponding  superstitions  all  the  world 
over.    See  Maoic,  WrrcHCRAFr. 

_  # 

OBEIDISKCE,  in  Canon  Law,  means  the  duty  by 
which  the  various  gradations  in  ecclesiastical 
OTganisation  are  held  subject,  in  all  things  con- 
sistent with  the  law  of  God  or  of  the  church,  to 
the  several  superiors  placed  immediately  above  each, 
respectively,  in  the  hierarchical  scale.  Thus  priests 
ana  inferior  clergy  owe  canonical  obedience  to  the 
bishop,  and  priests  are  bound  thereto  by  a  solemn 
promise    administered  at  ordination.     The  bishop 

E'mitively  took  a  similar  oath  to  the  metropolitan ; 
b  by  tue  modem  law,  the  jurisdiction  of  the 


metropolitan  is  confined  to  the  occasions  of  his  hola« 
ing  a  visitation,  or  presiding  in  the  provincial  synod* 
Bishops,  by  the  present  law  of  the  Koman  Catholia 
Churcn,  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  the  pope. 
This  obedience,  however,  is  strictly  limited  by  tne 
canons,  and  is  only  held  to  bind  in  things  consistent 
with  the  divine  and  natural  law.  In  ecclesiastical 
history  the  word  Obedience  has  a  special  signifi- 
cation, and  is  applied  to  the  several  }>arties  in  the 
church,  which,  during  the  great  Western  Schism 
(q.  v.),  adhered  to  the  rival  ix>])e8.  Thus  we  read 
of  the  *  Roman  Obedience,'  which  included  all  who 
recognised  the  pope  chosen  at  Rome,  and  the 
*  Avignon  Obedience,'  which  meant  the  supporters 
of  the  Avi^on  pope.  So,  acain,  historians  speak  of 
'  the  Obedience  of  Gregory  X.iLy  and  *  the  Obedience 
of  Benedict  XIU.,'  &c.  Applied  to  the  .monastic 
institute,  obedience  means  the  voluntary  submissioa 
which  all  members  of  religious  orders  vow,  at  the 
religious  profession,  to  tbeir  immediate  superiors, 
of  whatever  grade  in  the  order,  as  well  as  to  the 
superior  general,  and  still  more  to  the  rules  and 
constitutions  of  the  order.  This  forms,  in  all 
orders,  one  of  the  essential  vows.  It  is,  however, 
expressly  confined  to  lawful  things ;  and  although 
it  is  held  that  a  superior  can  command  certain 
things  under  pain  of  sin,  yet  Roman  CathoUcs 
repudiate  the  notion  that  the  command  of  a 
superior  can  render  lawful,  much  less  good,  a  thins 
which  is,  of  its  own  nature,  or  by  the  law  of  Go<^ 
sinful  or  bad.  The  name  Obedience  is  some- 
times given  to  the  written  precept  or  other  formal 
instrument  by  which  a  superior  in  a  reli(];ious  order 
communicates  to  one  of  his  subjects  any  special 
precept  or  instruction — as,  for  example,  to  under- 
take a  certain  office,  to  proceed  upon  a  particular 
mission,  to  relinquish  a  certain  api)ointment,  &c 
The  instruction,  or  the  instrument  containing  it,  ia 
called  an  obedience,  because  it  is  held  to  bind  in 
virtue  of  religious  obedience. 

O'BELISK,  a  word  derived  from  the  Greek 
obdoa  and  oMmIcos^  signifying  a  spit,  applied  to 
prismatic  monuments  of  stone  and  other  materials, 
terminating  with  a  pyramidal  or  pointed  top. 
These  monuments,  called  teMe/i,  were  placed  upon 
bases  before  gateways  of  the  principal  temples 
in  Egypt,  one  on  each  side  of  the  door.  They 
served  in  Egyptian  art  for  the  same  purposes 
as  the  stekd  of  the  Greeks  and  columns  of  the 
Romans,  and  appear  to  have  been  erected  to  record 
the  honours  or  triumphs  of  the  monarch.  They 
have  four  faces,  are  cut  out  of  one  piece,  and  are 
broader  at  the  base  than  at  the  top,  at  a  short 
distance  from  which  the  sides  form  the  base  of  a 
pyramidion  in  which  the  obelisk  terminates.  They 
were  placed  upon  a  cubical  base  of  the  same 
material,  which  slightly  surpassed  the  breadth  of 
their  bause.  Each  side  of  the  obelisk  at  the  base 
measures  ^th  of  the  height  of  the  shaft,  from  the 
base  line  to  that  where  the  cap,  or  pyramidion 
commences.  The  cap  is  also  i^th  of  th^  same 
height  Their  sides  are  slightly  concave,  to  increase 
their  apparent  height.  Their  height  varies  from 
upwards  of  100  feet  to  a  few  inches,  the  tallest 
known  being  that  of  Kamuk,  which  rises  to 
105  feet  7  inches.  The  sides  are  generally  sculp* 
tured  with  hieroglyphs  and  representations,  record* 
ing  the  names  and  titles  of  kings,  generally  in 
one  line  of  deeply-cut  hieroglyphs  down  each  side. 
The  pyramid  of  obelisks  was  sometimes  decor- 
ated with  subjects.  The  mode  by  which  they 
were  made  appears  to  have  been  to  hew  them  finrt 
in  the  rough  out  of  a  solid  piece  in  the  quarries, 
and  one  unfinished  specimen  thus  prepared  stiU 
remains  in  the  Quarries  of  Syene.  They  were  tran* 
sported  down  the  Nile  duiing  the  inundation,  oa 


t 


rafta  to  the  apot  where  they  were  intended  to  be 

{tilled,  and  raised  from  their  horizontal  poeition 
y  inclined  planes,  aided  by  machinery.  Some 
obcluikca,  before  their  erection,  bad  tbeir  pyramid 
capped  with  bronze  gilded,  or  gold,  the  marks  of 
aucb  coveriog  still  being  evident  on  their  BuHacea. 
Under  the  Roman  empire,  they  were  raised  by 
pullevB  and  heavy  tackle.  The  difficulty  of 
the  fallen  onea  in  the  ages  of  the  renaisi 
also  the  mechanical  appliances  for  the  lowering  from 
its  original  site  the  obelisk  of  Luior  in  1831,  and 
erecting  it  in  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  in  1833  by 
Le  Bas,  shew  the  difficulties  experienced  by  the 
ienta.  The  use  of  obeliskn  is  ai  old  as  the 
learaoce  of  art  itself  in  Egypt ;  these  grand, 
pie,  and  geometric  forms  being  used  in  the  4th 
dvnaaty,  and  continued  till  the' time  of  the  Romans. 
Tbeir  object  is  enveloped  in  gce»t  obscurity.  At 
the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty,  it  appears  that  reli- 
gious ceremonies  and  oblations  were  ofTersd  to  the 
obelisks,  which  were  treated  as  divinities.  Their 
sepulchral  uae  is  evinced  by  their  discovery  in  the 
tomlis  of  the  4th  dynasty,  and  the  vignettes  of  early 

Spyri.  No  large  obelisk  is  older  than  that  of 
atarieh  or  Heliopolis,  erected  by  Osorteaen  L  about 
1900  B.  c. ;  and  that  of  Beggig  or  Crocodilopolis  is, 
in  reality,  only  a  stele.  Tnothmes  I.  placed  two  of 
large  size  before  the  granite  sBDctuory  of  Karnak, 
•Dd  bis  daughter  Hatasu,  two  otbeis  of  above  00 
feet  high,  before  tbe  second  propylioou.  Additional 
sculptures  were  made  on  these  obelisks  by  Setbos 
L,  who  restored  them.  Tbothmea  HI  appeara  to 
have  erected  many  obelisks.  The  oldest  is  that  of 
the  Atmeilan  or  Hippodrome  of  Constantinople, 
erected  to  record  his  conquest  of  Naharania 
or  Mesopotamia.  Two  others,  which  formerly 
stood  at  Heliopolis,  were  subsequently  re-erected 
by  Barneses  II.  at  Alexandria.  One  at  these 
still  remains  erect,  and  is 
Cleopatra's  Needle,  the  other 
have  greatly  suffered  from  the  effects  of  sea 
breezes.  The  highest  of  all  obelisks,  that  of  St  John 
of  the  Lateran,  appears  to  have  beeo  removed  from 
Thebes,  and  set  up  by  Tbothmes  IV.  35  years  after 
tiie  death  of  Thothmes  IIL  .  A  small  obehsk  of 
Amenophis  IT.,  said  to  have  been  found  in  the 
Thebaid,  apparently  from  Elepliaotine,  is  in  the 
collection  of  the  Duke  of  Northnmberiand  at  Sion. 
Sethos  I.  commenced  the  Flaminian  obelisk,  sub- 
sequently completed  by  Bameses  II.,  and  placed  at 
the  temple  of  Heliopolis.  It  was  removed  to  Rome 
by  Constantius.  and  found  16  feet  under  the  surface 
in  the  pontificate  of  Gregory  XIIL,  and  erected  in 
that  of  Sextns  V.  by  the  architect  Fontaua.  The 
other  obelisks  of  Hameses  II.  are,  the  one  at 
the  Luxor  quarterof  Thebes,  the  companion  of  which 
was  removed  to  the  Place  de  la  Concorde  at  Paris  in 
1S33 ;  the  two  obelisks  of  8aa  or  Tanis ;  that  of  the 
Boboli  Gnnlens  of  Florence,  transported  from  the 
sirens  of  Flora  at  Rome  ;  the  obelisk  of  the  Rutonda 
at  Rome,  erected  by  Clement  XII.,  1711  a.s.  ;  and 
that  of  the  Villa  Mattei,  which  decorated  the  Ara 
CebU  of  the  CapitoL  A  fragment  of  another  obeUsk 
was  in  tbe  Collegio  Romano.  No  obelisks  are  known 
of  other  monarehs  till  the  2Sth  dynasty.  That  of 
the  Mnnte  Citorio  at  ft«me,  erected  by  Psammeticbus 
IL  at  Heliopolis,  was  transi>orted  by  Augustus  to 
the  Campus  Martius,  having  been  exhumed  1748 
A^D.,  and  erected  by  the  architect  Antinori  in  that 
of  FiiiB  VI.  Two  other  obelisks  of  small  size,  made 
of  black  basalt,  dedicated  by  Nekhtherhebi  or 
Nectanebes  IL  at  Hermopolia,  commonly  known  as 
the  obelltiks  of  Cairo,  are  in  the  British  Museum. 
Ptolemy  Philodelphus  is  said  to  have  erected  in  the 
Arainoeum  at  Alexandria  a  plain  obelisk  of  80 
oabitB,  cut  in  the  quarries  by  Nectabia.     It  was  set 


up  by  the  architect  Satyms.  Two  obelisks,  erect«d 
by  Ptolemy  Euergetes  IL  and  his  wife  Cleopatra, 
stood  before  the  temple  of  PhiUe,  one  ol  which 
was  removed  to  Corfe  Castle  by  Mr  Bankes.  The 
so-called  Pamphiliano  obelisk  at  Rome,  erected  by 
K  Bemin  in  1B51,  in  the  Piazza  Navona,  under  the 
pontificate  of  Innocent  X-,  was  removed  froi 


Uireus  of  Maientius,  having,  as  their  hieroglyph ical 
legends  testify,  been  originuly  erected  by  Domitian 
before  the  Serapeum   at  Rome.     The   Ia.st  of  t 


Roman  obelisks  was  the  Barberinl,  which  w 

in  1633  on  the  site  of  the  Circus  of  Aurelian,  and 

finally  erected  in  1832  on  the  Monte  Pincio.    It  was 

E laced  by  the  Emperor  Hadrian  before  the  mauao- 
lum  or  cenota]>b  either  of  himself  or  Antinoua, 
between  132—138  A.D.  Barbareus  hieroglyphs, 
found  on  the  Sallnstian  obelisk,  are  copied  from 
the  Flaminian  obelisk.  It  is  supposed  to  have 
been  transported  to  Borne,  unadnmed  with  hiero- 
glyphs, by  Sallustius  Orispus,  prefect  of  Numidi*, 
and  to  have  been  set  up  in  the  gardens  of  Sallust,  in 
the  reign  of  Vespasian.  It  was  erected  by  Autinori, 
1789,  before  tbe  Church  of  Trinita  del  Motite.  It 
has  been  seen  how,  on  the  renaissance  of  the  arta, 
the  obelisks  were  restored  and  applied  to  tha 
embellishments  of  modem  Rome,  either  as  columna 
le  centres  of  piazzaa  or  squares,  or  else  as  the 
ornaments  uf  fountains ;  one  obelisk  being  set  up 
alone  in  the  centre  of  the  piazzas  and  places  of 
Italy  and  France,  while,  in  antiquity  they  alwajw 
stood  in  pairs  before  the  Pylons. 

Two  small  obelisks,  and  tbe  apex  of  a  third, 
have  been  foand  in  Assyria,  in  shape  of  trun- 
cated prisms,  the  apices  step-shaped.  The  most 
interesting  is  that  of  the  north-west  palace  of  Nim- 
id,  of  Qack  marble,  is  5  feet  9  inches  high. 
Each  side  has  five  comiiartments  of  bas-reliefs, 
representing  the  tribute  and  offerings  niailc  to 
Shalmanaser.    It  is  covered  with  a  ciuioiiortn 


Obelisks  in  front  of  a  Temple. 

the  tribute  of  Jehu,  king  of  Israel  A  second  obeliA;, 
of  white  marble,  measures  6  feet  S  inches  Iiigh, 
is  covered  with  bas-reliefs,  representing  scenea  nt 
war  and  tributes,  winding  round  it  like  those  of  « 
Roman  triumphal  column.  On  it  is  an  inBcrii>ti.>n 
of  Sh&mas-Pul  The  broken  apex  of  a  third  bos  m 
dedication  from  Ashur-izir-'pui  II.  An  obelisir  ol 
Semirarois  at  Babylon  is  mentioned  by  Diodorujt, 
and  another  of  Ancarus  was  Interpreted  by  Demo 
crhui.      Under  the   Roman  empire,  obelisks  ^ver* 


OBERLIN-^BESITY. 


used  as  gnomons,  placed  in  the  public  spaces,  or 
erected  in  tiie  spina  of  the  drcL    The  first  removal 
of  obelisks  to  Rome  took  place  in  the  rei^  of 
Augustus,  who  placed  one  m  the  circus,  said  to 
have  been  originally  erected  in  the  reini  of  Semen- 
pserteus,  85^  leet  high ;  and  another  ol  9  feet  less, 
m  the  Campus  Afartius,  and  had  it  adjusted  as  a 
gnomon  by  the  mathematician  Facundus  Novus ;  a 
uiird  obelisk  was  erected  in  the  Circus  of  Caligula 
and  Nero  in  the  Vatican,  and  originally  dedicated 
to  the  sun  by  Kuncoreus,  the  son  of  Sesosis,  on 
the  recovery  of  his  sight.    Two  other  small  obelisks, 
which  decorated  the  mausoleum  of  Augustus,  and 
were  erected   by  Claudius   or  Vespasian  and  his 
sons,  have  been  found.    Other  obelisks  are  known 
to  have  been  removed  by  Constautius,  354  a.  j>.    P. 
Victor,  in  his  description  of  the  (^^uarters  of  ancient 
Bome,  reckons  6  of  the  largest  size  and  42  others. 
The   Romans  added  to  them  brazen  spheres  and 
other  decorations.    Some  were  removed  to  Constan- 
tinople by  Theodosius  the  younger,  and  Valentinian, 
390  A.  D.    The  translation  of  the  inscription  of  one 
of  the  Roman  obelisks  made  by  a  Greek  or  Egyptian, 
named  Hermapion,  has  been  preserved  by  Ammianus 
MarceUinus.--lLircher,   (Edipus  JSgypiiacua   (tom. 
iii.  Rom.  1652—1654)  ;  Zoega,  De  Urigine  et   Um 
ObelUtcorum  (fa  Rom.  1797) ;  Cipriani,  Sui  Dodici 
Oheluci  di  Roma  (fo.  Rom.  1823) ;  L'Hdte,  Notice 
Historique  sur  les  OMUsques  E<jyptiens  (8vo,  Paris, 
1836) ;  Birch,  Notes  upon  Obelisks,  in  tfie  Museum  of 
Ciassieal  AiUiquities  (8vo,  Lond.  1853),  pp.  203— 
239 ;  Layard,  Nineveh  and  its  Remains^  vol.  l  p.  346 ; 
Sir  H.  Rawlinson,  A  Commentary  on  the  Cuneiform 
Inscriptions  (12mo,  Lond.  1850). 

OBBBLIK,  JoHANN  Friedrtch,  distinffuished 
for  his  active  benevolence  and  usefulness,  was  Dom  at 
Strasburg,  Slst  August  1740 ;  and  in  1766  became 
Protestant  pastor  of  Waldbach,  in  the  Ban  de  la 
Roche  or  Steinthal,  a  wild  mountainous  district  of 
Alsace.  Here  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life, 
combinii^  an  affectionate  diligence  in  the  ordinary 
duties  oi  the  pastorate,  wi&  wise  and  earnest 
endeavours  to  promote  the  education  and  general 
proeperitv  of  thepeople.  The  district  had  suffered 
terribly  m  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  the  scanty 
population  which  remained  was  sunk  in  poverty 
and  ignorance.  O.  introduced  better  methods  of 
cultivating  the  soil,  and  various  branches  of  manu- 
facture. The  population,  which  was  scarcely  500 
when  he  entered  on  his  labours,  had  increased  to 
6000  at  the  close  of  the  century.  Yet,  though 
animated  in  all  his  actions  by  the  most  pure  and 
disinterested  piety,  it  may  be  questioned  if  he  did 
not  carry  his  moral  supervision  too  far  when  he 
kept  a  register  of  the  moral  character  of  his 
parishioners,  and  'searched  with  the  minuteness 
though  not  the  motives  of  an  inquisitor,  into  the 
most  insignificant  details  of  their  private  life.  O. 
was  ably  assisted  in  his  reformatory  labours  b^  his 
pioujB  housekeeper,  Luise  Schepler,  who  survived 
ner  master  eleven  years.  He  died  Ist  June  1826. 
Kotwithstanding  the  humble  sphere  in  which  his 
days  were  spent,  his  fame  as  a  philanthropist  has 
extended  over  the  world,  and  his  example  has 
stimulated  and  guided  many.  See  Bri^  Memorials 
of  Ob&iin^  by  the  Rev.  T.  Sims,  M.A.  (Lond.  1830), 
and  also  Memoirs  of  Oberlin,  with  a  short  notice 
of  Louisa  Schepler  (Lond.  1838  and  1852). 

O'BEBOK,  the  king  of  the  Slves  or  Fairies,  and 
4he  husband  of  Titania.  The  name  is  derived  by  a 
%iiange  of  spelling  from  Auberon^  more  anciently 
Alberon^  and  that  from  the  German  Alberich,  I  e., 
king  of  the  Elves.  0.  is  first  mentioned  as  *  Roi  du 
loyaume  de  la  ftoie*  in  the  old  French  poem  ol 
Uuon  de  Bordeaux^  pair  de  France^  which  was 


afterwards  made  the  basis  of  a  popular  proan 
romance.  From  the  French,  0.  was  borrowed  by 
the  English  poets,  Chaucer,  Spenser,  and  others,  but 
he  |s  most  familiarly  known  from  his  appearance  in 
Shaks|)eare's  Midsummer  Nigti^s  Dream^  From 
old  French  sources,  also,  Wieland  derived  part  of 
the  materials  of  his  poem  of  Oberon, 

OBB'SITY,  or  CORPULENCE,  may  be  defined 
to  be  *  an  accumulation  of  fat  under  the  integument! 
or  in  the  abdomen,  or  in  both  situations,  to  such  an 
amount  as  to  embarrass  the  several  voluntary 
functions.*  A  certain  d^ree  of  fatness  is  not  only 
quite  compatible  with  health,  but,  as  has  been 
shewn  in  the  article  Fats,  Animal,  the  fatty  tissue 
is  of  considerable  use  in  the  animal  body,  partly  in 
consequence  of  its  physical,  and  partly  in  con- 
sequence of  its  chemical  properties ;  and  it  is  only 
when  the  fatness  begins  to  interfere  with  the 
discharge  of  any  of  the  vital  powers,  that  it  can  be 
regard^  as  a  morbid  condition.  Obesity  may  occur 
at  any  period  of  life,  but  it  is  most  commonly  after 
the  fortieth  year  that  the  tendency  to  an  inordinate 
accumulation  of  fat  begins  to  shew  itself.  After 
that  time,  in  the  case  of  men,  the  pleasures  of  the 
table  are  usually  more  attractive  than  in  earlier  life, 
and  much  less  muscular  exercise  is  taken ;  while  in 
women,  the  cessation  of  the  power  of  child-bearing 
induces  changes  which  tend  remiu*kably  to  the 
deposition  of  fat.  The  extent  to  whiuh  fat  may 
accumulate  in  the  human  body  is  enormous.  Daniel 
Lambert,  who  died  at  the  age  of  forty  years,  weighed 
739  lbs. ;  his  exact  height  is  not  recorded,  l>ut^ 
according  to  the  investigations  of  the  late  Dt 
Hutchinson  (the  inventor  of  the  spirometer),  the 
normal  weight  of  a  man  six  feet  high  should  not 
exceed  178  lbs.  Dr  EUiotson  has  recorded  the  case 
of  a  female  child,  a  year  old,  who  weighed  60  lbs. ; 
and  those  who  are  interested  in  the  subject  will 
find  a  large  collection  of  cases  of  obesity  in  Wadd's 
Cursory  SemarJcs  on  Corpulence, 

The  predisposing  causes  of  obesity  are  a 
peculiar  habit  of  body,  hereditarily  transmitted; 
mactivity ;  sedentary  occupations,  ic. ;  while  the 
more  immediate  or  exciting  causes  are  a  rich  diet^ 
including  fatty  matters,  and  matters  convertible  in 
the  body  into  fats,  such  as  saccharine  and  starchy 
foods,  and  the  .partaking  of  such  a  diet  to  a  greater 
extent  than  is  necessary  for  balancing  the  daily 
waste  of  the  tissues.  *  Fat  meats,  butter,  oily 
vegetable  substances,  milk,  saccharine  and  farin- 
aceous substances  are  the  most  fattening  articles 
of  food ;  whilst  malt  liquors,  particularly  rich  and 
sweet  ale  are,  of  all  beverages,  the  most  conducive 
in  promoting  obesity.  The  fattening  effect  of  figs 
and  grapes,  and  of  tne  sugar-cane,  ui)on  the  natives 
of  the  countries  where  these  are  abundant,  is  well 
known.  In  various  countries  in  Africa  and  the 
East,  where  obesity  is  much  admired  in  females, 
warm  baths,  indolence,  and  living  upon  saccharine 
and  farinaceous  articles^  upon  dates,  the  nuts  from 
which  palm-oil  is  obtained,  and  upon  various  oily 
seeds,  are  the  means  usually  employed  to  produce 
this  effect'— Copland's  Uictionary  of  Medicine, 
article  *  Obesity.'  The  knowledge  of  the  means  of 
inducing  obesity  affords  us  the  best  clue  to  the 
rationed  treatment  of  this  affection.  It  is  a  popular 
belief  that  the  administration  of  acids — vinegar,  for 
example,  or  one  of  the  mineral  acids — will  check  the 
deposition  of  fat ;  but  if  the  desired  effect  is  pro* 
duced,  it  is  only  at  the  cost  of  serious  injury  to  the 
digestive,  and  often  to  the  urinary  organs.  The 
employment  of  soap  and  alkalies,  as  advocated  a 
century  ago  by  Dr  Flemyng  (A  Discourse  o^i  the 
Nature,  Causes,  and  Cure  of  Corpulency,  1760),  is 
less  objectionable  than  that  of  acids,  but  the  pro- 
longed ose  even  of  these  is  usually  prejudicial    The 


OBIT-OBLIGATIOy. 


efficacy  of  one  of  our  oommonest  sea-weeds,  sea- 
wrack  {Fucu8  vemculosus)^  in  this  affection  has 
lately  been  strongly  advocated.  It  is  prescribed  in 
^e  form  of  an  extract,  and  its  valne  is  probably 
dependent  on  the  iodine  contained  in  it. 

A  very  interesting  Letter  on  Corpulence,  recently 
(1863)  published  by  Mr  Banting,  in  which  he 
records  the  effect  of  diet  in  bis  own  case  after 
all  medicinal  treatment  had  failed,  is  well  worthy 
of  the  attention  of  those  who  are  suffering  from 
the  affection  of  which  this  article  treats.  The 
following  are  the  leading  points  in  his  case.  He 
is  66  years  of  age,  about  5  feet  6  inches  in 
stature  (and  theretore,  according  to  Dr  Hutchin- 
son's  calculations,  ought  to  weigh  about  142  lbs.), 
and  in  August  1862  weighed  202  lbs.  *  Few  men,' 
he  observes,  *have  led  a  more  active  life  .  .  .  . 
■o  that  my  coqiulence  and  subsequent  obesity 
were  not  through  neglect  of  necessary  bodily 
activitv,  nor  from  excessive  eating,  drinking,  or 
self-indulceDoe  of  any  kind,  except  that  I  partook  of 
the  simple  aliments  of  bread,  milk,  butter,  beer, 
sugar,  and  potatoes,  more  freely  than  my  aged 
nature  required.  ....  I  could  not  stoop  to  tie  my 
shoe,  nor  attend  to  the  little  offices  humanity 
requires  without  considerable  pain  and  difficulty ;  I 
have  been  compelled  to  go  down  stairs  slowly  back- 
wards, to  save  the  jar  of  increased  weight  upon  the 
ankle  and  knee  joints,  and  been  obliged  to  puff  and 
blow  with  every  slight  exertion '  (pp.  10  and  14). 

By  the  advice  of  a  medical  friend,  he  adopted 
the  following  plan  of  diet :  *  For  breakfast  I  take 
four  or  five  ounces  of  beef,  mutton,  kidneys,  broiled 
fish,  bacon,  or  cold  meat  of  any  kind  except 
pork ;  a  large  cup  of  tea  (without  milk  or  sugar), 
a  little  biscuit,  or  one  ounce  of  dry  toast.  For 
dinner,  five  or  six  ounces  of  any  fish  except 
salmon,  any  meat  except  pork,  any  vegetable 
except  potato,  one  oimce  of  dry  toast,  fruit  out  of  a 
pudding,  any  kind  of  poultry  or  game,  and  two  or 
three  glasses  of  good  claret,  sherty,  or  Madeira : 
champagne,  port,  and  beer  forbidden.  For  tea,  two 
or  three  ounces  of  fruit,  a  rusk  or  two,  and  a  cup  of 
tea  without  milk  or  sugar.  For  supper,  three  or 
four  ounces  of  meat  or  fish,  similar  to  (Unner,  with  a 
glass  or  two  of  claret  (p.  18).  I  breakfast  between 
eieht  and  nine  o'clock,  dine  between  one  and  two ; 
take  my  slight  tea  meal  between  five  and  six  ;  and 
Bup  at  nine  *  (p.  40).  Under  this  treatment  he  lost 
in  little  more  than  a  year  (between  the  26th  of 
August  1862  and  the  12th  of  September  186.S)  46 
lbs.  of  his  bodily  weight,  while  his  girth  round  the 
waist  was  reduced  12^  inches.  He  reports  him- 
self as  restored  to  health,  as  able  to  walk  up  and 
down  stairs  like  other  men ;  to  stoop  with  ease  and 
freedom ;  and  safely  to  leave  off  knee-bandages, 
which  he  had  necessarily  worn  for  twenty  years  past. 
He  has  made  his  own  case  widely  known  by  the 
circulation  of  his  pamphlet  (which  has  now  reached 
a  third  edition) ;  and  *  numerous  reports  sent  with 
thanks  bv  strangers  as  well  as  friends,'  shew  tbat 
(to  use  his  own  words)  'the  system  is  a  great 
success  ;*  and  t.;:it  it  is  so  we  do  not  doubt^  for  it  is 
based  on  sound  physiological  principles. 

O'BIT  (Lat  obitM,  a  'going  down,*  'death'),  lite- 
rally means  the  decease  of  an  individual  But  as  a 
certain  ecclesiastical  service  was  fixed  to  be  cele- 
brated on  the  day  of  death  {in  die  obitue),  the  name 
came  to  be  applied  to  the  service  itself.  Obit  there- 
fore signifies,  in  old  church  language,  the  service 
performed  for  the  departed.  It  consisted,  in  the 
Koman  Church,  of  those  portions  of  the  Offictum 
Drfanclorum  which  are  called  Matins  and  Lauds, 
followed  by  a  Mass  of  the  Dead,  chanted,  or  occa- 
sionally read.  Similar  services  are  held  on  the  day 
of  the  funeral,  and  on  the  90th  day,  and  the  anm- 


versary ;  and  although  the  name  obit  was  primitively 
applied  only  to  the  first,  it  has  come  to  be  used  of 
them  all  indiscriminately. 

OBJECT,  in  the  lan^page  of  Metaphysics,  is 
that  of  which  any  thinking  being  or  Subject  can 
become  cognizant.  This  subject  itself,  however,  is 
capable  of  transmutation  into  an  Object,  for  one 
may  think  about  his  thinking  faculty.  To  consti- 
tute  a  metaphysical  object,  actual  existence  is  not 
necessary ;  it  is  enough  that  it  is  conceived  by  the 
subject  Nevertheless,  it  is  customary  to  em)>loy 
the  term  objective  as  synonymous  with  real,  so  that 
a  thing  is  said  to  be  'objectively'  considered  when 
regarded  in  itself,  and  according  to  its  nature  and 
properties,  ami  to  be  'subjectively'  considered,  when 
it  is  presented  in  its  relation  to  us,  or  as  it  sha^xie 
itself  in  our  apprehension.  Scepticism  denies  the 
possibility  of  objective  knowledge ;  L  e.,  it  denies  that 
we  can  ever  become  certain  that  our  cognition  of  an 
object  corresponds  with  the  actual  nature  of  that 
object  The  verbal  antithesis  of  objective  and  sub- 
jective representation  is  also  largoly  em[)loyed  in 
the  fine  arts,  but  even  here,  though  the  terms  may 
be  convenient,  the  difference  expressed  by  them  la 
only  one  of   degree,  and  not  of  kind.     When   a 

{)oem  or  a  novd,  for  example,  obtrudes  the  pecu- 
iar  genius  of  the  author  at  the  exx)ense  of  a  clear 
and  distinct  representation  of  the  incident  and 
character  appropriate  to  itself,  we  sav  it  is  a  sub- 
jective  work  ;  when,  on  the  contrary,  the  personality 
of  the  author  retires  into  the  background,  or  dis- 
appears alto;;ether,  we  call  it  objective.  The  poems 
of  Shelley  and  Byron ;  the  novels  of  Jean  Paul 
Richter,  Bulwer  Lytton,  and  Victor  Hugo  ;  and  the 
paintings  of  the  Pre-Raphaelites  belong  essentially 
to  the  former  claas ;  the  dramas  of  Shakspeare,  the 
novels  of  Scott,  and  the  poems  of  Goethe,  to  the 
latter. 

OBJECT-GLASS,  the  glass  in  a  Telescope  (q.  ▼.) 
or  Microscope  (q.  v.),  which  is  placed  at  the  end  of 
the  tube  nearest  the  object,  and  first  receives  the 
rays  of  light  reflected  from  it 

O'BL  ATES  (Lat  oblatus,  dblata,  *  offered  up '),  the 
name  of  a  class  of  religious  bodies  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  which  differ  from  the  religious 
orders  strictly  so  called,  in  not  being  bound  by  the 
solemn  vows  of  the  religious  profession.  The  institute 
of  oblatcs  was  one  of  the  many  reforms  introduced 
in  the  diocese  of  Milan  by  St  (]Sharles  Borromeo, 
towards  the  close  of  the  16th  century.  The 
members  consisted  of  secular  priests  who  lived  in 
community,  and  were  merely  Douml  by  a  X)romise 
to  the  bishop  to  devote  themselves  to  any  service 
which  he  should  consider  desirable  for  the  interest 
of  religion.  St  Charles  made  use  of  their  services 
chiefly  in  the  wild  and  inaccessible  Alpine  districts 
of  his  diocese.  This  institute  still  exists,  and  has 
been  recently  introduced  into  England.  Still  more 
modem  are  the  *  Oblates  of  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary,' 
a  body  of  French  origin,  which  arose  in  the  present 
century,  and  has  been  very  widely  extended ;  and 
whose  chief  object  is  to  assist  the  parochial  clergy, 
by  holding  missions  for  the  religious  instruction  of 
the  people  in  any  district  to  which  they  may  be 
invited.  This  body  also  has  been  estivblishod  in 
England  and  in  Ireland.  Other  similar  institutes 
might  be  enumerated,  but  the  constitution  of  all  is 
nearly  the  same.  There  is  also  a  female  institute 
of  oblates,  which  i^ras  established  in  Rome,  about 
1440,  by  St  Francisca  of  Rome,  and  which  consists 
of  ladies  associated  for  charitable  and  religious 
objects,  and  living  in  conununity,  but  bound  only 
by  promise,  and  not  by  vow. 

OBLIGATION  is  a  term  used  in  Scotch  Law  to 
denote  the  binding  effect  of  any  legal  contract,  and 


OBLIGATO— OBSERVANTISXa 


is  qften  used  aynoDymooBly  with  oootract  or  promise. 
An  obligation  is  said  to  be  pure  when  it  may  be 
instantly  demanded  (called  in  England  an  ab^^olute 
ooDtract).  An  obligation  is  conditional  when  it 
depends,  for  its  legal  effect*  on  some  event  which 
may  or  may  not  happen.  Obligations  are  also 
divided  into  verbal  and  written. 

OBLIOA'TO,  in  Musia  When  %  musical  com- 
position is  constructed  in  more  than  one  part,  any 
part  is  said  to  be  oblicato  which  is  not  merely 
employed  to  stren^heu  the  others,  but  is  necessary 
to  the  melodic  perfection  of  the  whole.  An  accom- 
jMuiiment  is  said  to  be  obligate  which  does  not  oon- 
list  of  mere  chords,  but  has  its  own  melody. 

030R    See  Hautboy. 

O'BOLUS  (6r.  obolos  or  obdos,  a  spit),  the  smallest 
of  the  four  common  Greek  ooins  and  weights,  was 
originally,  as  is  ^eneraUy  supposed,  a  smsS  piece  of 
iron  or  copper,  similar  in  fonn  to  the  head  of  a  spit, 
or  spear  h^d,  whence  its  name.  In  this  form  it  was 
ttsea  as  a  coin,  and  a  handful  of  *  oboU '  was  equi- 
valent to  a  Drachma  (q.  v.).  It  was  subsequently 
coined  of  silver,  and  in  the  ordinary  round  form, 
but  still  retained  its  original  name ;  its  value,  both 
as  a  coin  and  a  weight,  was  now  fixed  as  the  ^th 
part  of  a  drachma,  so  that  in  the  Attic  system  it 
was  equivalent  to  l|d.  and  15f  Troy  grains  respec- 
tively ;  while  the  .^^inetan  obolus  was  worth  2{d. 
as  a  coin,  and  25|  Troy  ^ains  as  a  weight.  Multiples 
and  snbmultiples  of  this  coin  were  also  used,  and 
pieces  of  the  value  of  5,  4,  3,  2,  1^  oboli,  and  of  f, 
4,  f,  and  -(  of  an  obolus  respectively,  are  to  be  found 
in  collections  of  ooins. 

O'BBIBN,  William  Smith,  bom  in  1803,  is  the 
second  son  of  the  late  Sir  Kdward  O'Brien,  Bart,  of 
I>romoland,  in  the  county  of  Clare,  Ireland,  and 
brother  of  tiie  present  Lord  Inchiquin ;  that  ancient 
barony  having  recently  passed  to  the  Dromoland 
O'Briens  on  tl^  failure  of  the  elder  branch.  W.  S.  0. 
was  educated  at  Harrow  School,  whence  he  passed 
to  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  entered  parlia- 
ment for  the  borough  of  Ennis  in  1826,  and  was  a 
Y'ann  supporter  of  Catholic  emancipation.  In  1835, 
he  was  returned  on  advanced  liberal  principles  for 
the  county  of  Limerick,  and  for  several  years 
strongly  advocated  the  claims  of  Ireland  to  a  strictly 
equal  justice  with  England,  in  legislative  as  well  as 
executive  measures.  Professing  his  inability  to 
effect  this  in  the  united  legislature,  and  having 
embroiled  himself  with  the  Sneaker  by  refusing  to 
serve  on  committees  (for  whicn  refusal  he  was  com- 
mitted to  prison  in  the  House  by  the  Speaker's 
order),  he  withdrew  from  attendance  in  parliament 
in  1841,  and  joined  actively  with  Daniel  O'Connell 
(q.  V.)  in  the  agitation  for  a  repeal  of  the  ledslative 
union  between  England  and  Ireland.  In  the  pro- 
gress of  that  agitation,  a  division  having  arisen  on 
the  question  of  moral  as  against  physical  force 
between  O'Connell  and  the  party  known  as  *  Young 
Ireland,'  0.  sided  with  the  latter;  and  when  the 
political  crisis  of  1848  eventuated  in  a  recourse 
to  arms,  he  took  part  in  an  attempt  at  rebellion  in 
the  south  of  Ireland,  which  in  a  few  days  came  to 
an  almost  ludicrous  conclusion.  He  was  in  conse- 
quence arrested,  and  having  been  convicted,  was 
sentenced  to  death.  The  sentence,  however,  was 
conmiuted  to  transportation  for  life ;  and  after  the 
restoration  of  tranquillity  in  the  public  mind  in 
Ireland,  he,  in  common  with  the  other  political 
exilea,  was  permitted  to  return  to  his  native  country. 
From  that  date  (1856)  he  has  spent  much  of  his 
time  in  foreign  travel;  and  although  he  has  written 
more  than  ouce  in  terms  of  strong  disapproval  of 
the  existing  state  of  things,  he  has  abstamed  from 


^ 

all  active  share  in  the  political  proceedings  of  any 
party. 

OBSOirKE  PRINTS,  BOOKS,  or  PIOTUBBS, 

exhibited  in  public  render  the  person  so  doing 
liable  to  be  indicted  for  a  misdemeanour.  Persons 
exposing  them  in  streets,  roads,  or  public  places, 
are  also  liable  to  be  punished  as  rogues  and 
vagabonds  with  hard  labour.  An  important  change 
in  the  law  was  effected  by  Lord  Campbell's  Act  (20 
and  21  Vict.  c.  83),  which  was  passed  to  suppress  the 
traffic  in  obscene  books,  pictures,  prints,  and  other 
articles.  Any  two  justices  of  the  peace,  or  any 
police  magistrate,  upon  complaint  mzide  before  him 
on  oath  that  such  books,  &c,  are  kept  in  any  house, 
shop,  room,  or  other  place,  for  the  purpose  of  sale,  or 
dis^bution,  or  exhibition  for  gain  or  on  hire,  and  that 
such  things  have  been  sold,  &c.,  may  authorise  a 
constable  to  enter  in  the  daytime,  and,  if  necessary, 
use  force  by  breaking  open  doors,  or  otherwise  to 
search  for  and  seize  such  oooks,  &c.,  and  carry  them 
before  the  magistrate  or  justices,  who  may,  after 
giving  due  notice  to  the  occupier  of  the  house,  and 
oeing  satisfied  as  to  the  nature  and  object  of  keeping 
the  articles,  cause  them  to  be  destroyed. 

OBSOUBA'NTISTS,  the  name  given,  originallT 
in  derision,  to  a  party  who  are  supposed  to  look 
with  dislike  and  apprehension  on  the  progress  of 
knowledge,  and  to  regard  its  general  (Effusion 
among  men,  taken  as  they  are  ordinarily  found, 
as  prejudicial  to  their  religious  welfare,  and  possibly 
injurious  to  their  material  interests.  Of  those  whn 
avow  such  a  doctrine,  and  have  written  to  explain 
and  defend  it,  it  is  only  just  to  say  that  they 
profess  earnestly  to  desire  the  progress  of  all  true 
knowledge  as  a  thyig  good  in  iteelf ;  but  they 
regard  the  attempt  to  diffuse  it  among  men,  indis* 
cnminately,  as  perilous,  and  often  hurtful,  by  pro- 
ducing presumption  and  discontent.  They  profess 
but  to  reduce  to  practice  the  motto — 

A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

It  cannot  be  doubted,  however,  that    there    are 
fanatics  of  ignorance  as  well  as  fanatics  of  science. 

OBSB'BVANTISTS,  or  OBSERVANT  FRAN- 
CISCANS. Under  the  head  Fbakciscams  (q.  v.) 
has  been  detailed  the  earlier  history  of  the  contro- 
versies in  that  order  on  the  interpretation  of  the 
original  rule  and  practice  established  by  St  Francis 
for  the  brethren,  and  of  the  separate  organisation  of 
the  two  parties  at  the  time  of  Leo  X.  The  advo- 
cates of  the  primitive  rigour  were  called  Observantes, 
or  Strictioris  ObservanticBj  but  both  bodies  were  still 
reputed  subject,  although  each  free  to  practise 
its  own  rule  in  iis  own  separate  houses,  to  the 
general  administrator  of  the  order,  who,  as  the 
rigorists  were  by  far  the  more  numerous,  was  a 
member  of  that  schooL  By  degrees,  a  second 
reform  arose  among  a  party  in  the  order,  whose 
zeal  the  rigour  of  the  0.  was  insufficient  to  satisfy, 
and  Clement  VIL  permitted  two  Spanish  friars, 
Stephen  Molena  and  Martin  Guzman,  to  carry 
out  in  Spain  these  views  in  a  distinct  branch  of 
the  order,  who  take  the  name  of  Reformatio  or 
Reformed  This  body  has  in  lator  times  been 
incorporated  with  the  0.  under  one  head.  Before 
the  ^ench  Revolution,  they  are  said  to  have  num- 
bered above  70,000,  distributed  over  more  than  30(K) 
convents.  Since  that  time,  their  number  has,  of 
course,  been  much  diminished;  but  they  still  are 
a  veiy  numerous  and  widespread  body,  as  well  in 
Europe  as  in  the  New  World,  and  in  the  missionary 
districts  of  the  East.  In  Ireland  and  England,  and 
for  a  considerable  time  in  Scotland,  they  maintained 
themselves  throughout  all  the  rigour  of  the  penal 


OBSERVATION  AND  EXPERIMENT- OBSERVATORY. 


times.  Several  oommunitieB  are  still  foand  in  the 
two  first-named  kingdoms. 

OBSERVATION  and  BXPE'RIMENT  are  the 

leading  features  of  modem  science,  as  contrasted 
with  the  philosophy  of  the  ancients.  They  are 
indispensable  as  tne  bases  of  all  human  knowledge, 
and  no  true  philosophy  has  ever  made  progress 
without  them,  either  consciously  or  unconsciously 
exercised.  Thus,  by  Socrates,  Plato,  and  Aristotie, 
no  less  than  by  Archimedes  and  the  ancient  astro- 
nomers, observation  and  experiment  are  exten- 
sively tiiough  not  prominently  or  always  obviously 
employed ;  and  it  was  by  losing  this  due  to  the 
spirit  of  their  masters*  teaching,  that  the  later  dis- 
ciples in  these  schools  of  philosophy  missed  the  path 
01  real  progress  in  the  aavancement  of  knowledge. 
It  was  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16th  c  that 
the  minds  of  philosophers  were  first  consdovsly 
awakened  to  the  importance  of  observation  and 
experiment,  as  opposed  to  authority  and  abstract 
reasoning.  This  result  was  first  occasioned  by 
the  discoveries  and  controversies  of  Galileo  in 
Florence ;  and  to  the  same  end  were  contributed 
the  simultaneous  efforts  of  a  number  of  philo- 
sophers whose  minds  were  turned  in  the  same 
direction — Tycho  Brahe  in  Holland,  Kepler  in 
Germany,  William  Gilbert  in  England,  who  were 
shortly  afterwards  followed  by  a  crowd  of  kindred 
spirits.  The  powerful  mind  of  Francis  Bacon  lent 
itself  to  describe  the  newly-awakened  spirit  of 
scientific  investigation,  and  though  he  ignored  or 
affected  to  despise  the  results  achieved  by  the  great 
philosophers  just  mentioned,  he  learned  from  them 
enough  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  philosophy  of 
inductive  science,  which,  if  we  look  at  the  course  of 
scientific  progress  since  his  day,  seems  to  have 
been  almost  prophetic  The  difference  between 
observation  and  experiment  may  be  said  to  consist 
in  this,  that  by  observation  we  note  and  'record 
the  phenomena  of  nature  as  they  are  presented  to 
us  in  her  ordinary  course ;  whereas  by  experiment 
we  note  phenomena  presented  under  circumstances 
artificially  arranged  for  the  purpose.  Experiment 
is  thus  the  more  powerful  engine  for  discovery, 
since  one  judiciously  oonductcn  experiment  may 
provide  the  data  wluch  could  only  result  from  a 
long  course  of  observations. 

OBSE'RVATORY,  an  institution  supplied  with 
instruments  for  accurately  observing  ana  recording 
the  position  of  the  heavenly  bodies,  and  superin- 
tended by  an  astronomer,  with  usually  one  or 
more  assistants.  The  objects  to  which  the  work  of 
an  observatory  is  directed  are,  1st,  The  ascertain- 
ment of  elements  necessary  to  the  science  of  theo- 
retical and  physical  astronomy ;  2d,  The  accurate 
measurement  and  publication  of  time.  A  third 
object,  namely,  the  observation  of  meteorological 
phenomena,  though  not  a  necessary  part  of  the  work 
of  an  observatory,  is  often  combined  with  the  above. 
It  often  happens  that  the  purpose  for  which  a 
particular  observatory  is  instituted  has  especial 
reference  to  one  of  the  above  objects,  and  in  most 
observatories  the  character  of  the  instruments 
possessed  is  more  especially  fitted  for  some  classes 
of  observations  than  for  other&r  Since,  therefore, 
almost  every  civilised  country  possesses  one  or  more 
observatories  of  excellent  character,  the  time  of 
the  observers  in  each  is  often  better  employed  in 
carrying  out  those  classes  of  observations  lor  which 
they  have  spe^^iai  opportunities,  than  by  attempting 
observarions  of  more  various  kind&  Thus,  almost 
every  observatory  has  some  distinctive  feature  of 
its  own. 

The  ancients  have  made  no  mention  of  observa- 
tories, though  we  are  told  that  Hipparohus  made 


his  observations  at  Rhodes,  and  Ptolemy  at  Alex- 
andria, the  latter  astronomer  possessing  the  greatest 
collection  of  astronomical  instruments  then  in  use  ; 
so  we  are  led  to  conclude,  that  among  the  ancients 
it  was  not  the  custom  to  erect  houses  exclusively 
adapted  for  astronomical  observations.  The  case 
was  very  different  with  the  Arabs,  who  erected 
observatories  in  all  parts  of  their  empire,  the  diief 
of  which  were  those  of  Cairo,  two  in  number ;  the 
Bagdad  observatory;  the  celebrated  one  of 
Meraghah,  superintended  by  Nazir^ed-din ;  and 
last,  and  greatest  of  all,  that  of  Sammicand,  erected 
by  the  celebrated  Ulugh  Beg  (q.  v.).  Observatories 
are  also  found  in  various  parts  of  China. 

The  principal  instruments  in  general  use  in  an 
observatory  are  the  Transit  Instrument  (q.  v.),  the 
Mural  Circle  (see  Cibclb,  Mural),  the  ^uatorisd 
(q.  v.),  and  the  Sidereal  Clock  (q.  v.).  The  alti- 
tude and  azimuth  instrument,  or  altazimuth 
(see  Altitude),  is  sometimes  added,  and  the 
transit  instrument  and  mural  circle  are  sometimes 
combined  in  a  single  instrument  called  the  tran- 
sit circle.  For  meteorological  observations,  the 
principal  instruments  are  the  barometer,  the  ther- 
mometer, the  rain-gauge,  and  the  anemometer  (q.  v.), 
or  instrument  for  measuring  and  renstering  the 
force  and  direction  of  the  wind.  We  proceed 
to  notice  some  of  the  principal  existing  oraerva- 
tories,  more  particularly  those  belonging  to 
Britain. 

The  principal  observatory  in  England  ia  the 
Royal  Observatory  of  Greenwich,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Astronomer- Royal  (now  Mr  Airy),  with  a 
staff  at  present  of  six  assistants  and  six  computers, 
with  other  supernumerary  computers  occasionally 
employed.  The  publications  consist  of  a  liu'ge 
volume  yearly  of  observations  in  a  reduced  form, 
prepared  under  the  superintendence  of  the  astro, 
nomer-royal,  the  initials  of  the  particular  observer 
being  given  with  each  observation.  The  most 
important  instrument  in  this  observatory  is  the 
great  transit  circle,  erected  in  the  year  1850,  and 
brought  into  use  at  the  beginning  of  1851.  It 
was  constructed  by  Messrs  Kansomee  and  May  as 
engineers,  and  Mr  Simms  as  optician.  The  length 
of  the  telescope  is  nearly  12  feet,  the  clear  aper- 
ture of  the  object-glass  8  inches,  and  the  length  of 
axis  between  the  pivots  6  feet.  For  determining 
the  error  of  coUimation  there  are  two  horizontal 
telescopes,  of  about  5  feet  focal  length,  and  4  inches 
aperture,  one  north,  and  the  other  south  of  the 
instrument.  There  is  a  chronographic  apparatus, 
which  registers  the  transits  through  a  galvanic 
contact,  made  by  the  hand  of  the  observer,  on  a 
paper  stretched  over  a  drum  in  connection  with 
the  sidereal  clock.  A  massive  altitude  and  azi- 
muth instrument,  erected  in  1847,  was  constructed 
under  the  direction  of  the  astronomer-royal,  on 
peculiar  principles  of  solidity  and  strength,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  extra- meridional  observations  of 
the  moon,  which  are  effected  by  it  with  an  accuracy 
equal  to  those  ma^e  on  the  meridian.  There  are 
three  telescopes  in  use,  with  equatorial  mounting. 
The  great  equatorial  was  constructed  by  Messrs 
Ransomes  and  Sons  as  en^neers,  and  Mr  Simma  aa 
instrument-maker  and  optician.  The  object-glass  by 
Messrs  Merz  and  Son  of  Mimich  has  a  clear  aperture 
of  about  12^  inches,  and  a  focal  length  of  16  feet  6 
inches.  The  observatory  at  Greenwich  was  the  first 
to  employ  galvanic  signals  on  an  extensive  scale  in 
the  transmission  of  time.  By  this  means,  since  the 
year  1852,  a  time-ball  has  been  dropped  on  the  dome 
of  the  Observatory,  and  also  at  the  office  of  the 
Electric  Telegraph  (Company  in  London,  at  precisely 
one  o'clock.  By  means  of  the  telegraph-wires,  also, 
the  longitude  of  the  other  principal  observatories 


OBSEEVATORY-OBSIDIAN. 


throughout  the  kingdom  hua  been  accurately 
determinecL 

The  observatory  of  Cambridge  had  its  building 
completed  in  1824,  and  its  first  director  was  Pro- 
teutxt  Woodhouae.  It  is  now  (1864)  under  the 
direction  of  Mr  Adams,  well  known  in  connection 
witii  the  discovery  of  the  planet  Keptune.  The 
observatory  was  at  first  fiimished  only  with  a 
10-feet  transit  instrument  by  DoUond.  To  this  was 
added,  in  1832,  an  8-feet  mural  circle  by  Troughton 
and  Sinuns,  and  a  5-feet  equatorial  by  Jones.  The 
Northumberland  Telescope,  so  called  from  its  donor 
the  Duke  of  Northumberland,  was  erected  under 
the  direction  of  Mr  Airy  in  1838.  This  fine  teles- 
cope, which  is  equatoriallv  mounted,  is  of  nearlv 
20  feet  focal  length,  and  has  an  object-glass  with 
a  dear  aperture  of  11}  inches.  It  has  been 
actively  employed  in  observations  of  the  planets 
and  planetoids.  The  observatory  is  about  shortly  to 
be  furnished  with  a  transit  circle,  on  the  principle 
of  the  Greenwich  instrument  (18M).  It  was  while 
in  the  Cambridge  Observatory  that  Mr  Airy  first 
introduced  the  principle  which  he  has  since  actively 
followed  up,  and  which  has  been  extensively  imi- 
tated, of  thoroughly  reducing  every  observation 
before  its  publication. 

The  Badcliffe  Observatory  at  Oxford  was  erected 
about  the  year  1774  In  July  1861  was  purchased 
for  this  observatory  Mr  Camngton's  transit  circle, 
formerly  nsed  by  him  at  Red  HUL  It  possesses  a 
fine  hdiometer,  erected  in  1860  by  the  Messrs 
Bepsold  of  Hamburg,  the  object-glass  by  Messrs 
Men  of  Munich,  of  10^  feet  focal  lengtl^  and  7i 
inches  aperture. 

The  Koyal  Observatory  of  Edinburgh  ia  situated 
on  the  Calton  Hill  tiiere.  It  had  its  origin  in  a 
private  astronomical  institution ;  but  it  has  been 
transferred  to  the  crown,  on  condition  of  the  latter 
taking  upon  itself  the  sole  charge  of  defraying  the 
expenses  of  the  establishment,  and  of  providing  for 
its  adequate  and  perpetual  maintenance.  It  has 
recently  taken  a  distinsuished  place  as  a  time- 
keeping observatory,  and  by  means  of  its  mean- 
time dock,  fitted  with  a  pendulum  on  the  principle 
of  Mr  Jones's  recent  invention  (see  Electric  Clock), 
time-gona  are  fired  from  Edinburgh  Castle,  at 
Newcastle,  and  in  Glasgow  predsely  at  one  o'clock. 
The  present  astronomer  is  Mr  Piazzi  Smyth,  who 
has  taken  an  active  part  in  the  introduction  of  these 
useful  measures. 

Amone  the  observatories  in  the  British  dominioxis, 
that  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  founded  in  1821,  in 
pursuance  of  an  order  in  council  made  in  1820  at  the 
instigation  of  the  then  existing  Board  of  Longitude, 
holds  a  disttn^shed  place,  b^h  with  regard  to  the 
excellence  of  its  instruments  and  the  importance  of 
the  obeervations  which  have  been  there  made  by 
several  of  its  directcHrS. 

Among  foreign  observatories,  those  of  most  note 
are  the  observatory  of  Paris,  commenced  under  the 
directorship  of  the  celebrated  Dominique  Cassini ; 
tfie  obeervatory  of  Berlin,  of  recent  date,  but  fitted 
with  excellent  instruments ;  the  observatories  of 
Gottingen  and  Ktfnigsberg;  those  of  Dorpat  and 
Pnlkowa,  in  Russia ;  and  those  of  Milan,  Morence, 
&&,  in  Italy. 

Of  observatories  especially  devoted  to  particular 
and  practical  objects,  the  obeervatory  of  Liverpool, 
as  conducted  under  its  present  able  director,  Mr 
Hartnup,  deserves  especial  mention.  This  obser- 
vatory was  established  in  1841  by  the  corpor- 
ataon  of  Liverpool,  in  order  to  obtain,  with  all 
practicable  accuracy,  the  longitude  of  Liverpool, 
and  then  to  obtain  and  preserve  the  Greenwich 
time  for  the  benefit  of  the  port  of  Liverpool,  by 
latang  and  testing  chronometers,  and  by  giving  the 


necessary  information  to  mariners,  chronometer- 
makers,  and  professional  raters  of  chronometers. 
On  the  8th  January  1858,  the  observatory  was 
transferred  by  an  act  of  parliament  to  the  Mersey 
Docks  and  Harbour  Boara.  The  principal  instru- 
ments possessed  by  the  observatory  for  the  carrying 
out  of  the  main  object — namely,  that  of  obtaining 
and  preserving  correct  time — are  an  excellent  tran- 
sit instrument  of  about  four  feet  focal  length,  a 
sidereal  clock,  and  a  mean-time  clock,  besides 
these  means  of  obtaining  accurate  time,  there  is 
now  in  use  an  admirable  arrangement  for  testing 
the  rates  of  chronometers  at  various  temperatures, 
in  which  branch  of  practical  horology,  as  well  as  in 
the  adaptation  of  electricity  to  the  publication  of 
time  through  the  contrivance  patented  by  Mr  R. 
L.  Jones  of  Chester,  this  observatory  has  taken 
the  lead  of  all  other  establishments  (see  Electrio 
Clock,  Horology,  Watch).  When  it  is  remem- 
bered that  each  error  of  4"  in  a  chronometer  cor- 
responds to  a  geographical  mile  of  longitude  upon 
the  equator,  the  im]X)rtance  of  extreme  accuracy  in 
these  rating  observations  cannot  be  overestimated. 
The  Liverpool  observatory  is  also  provided  with 
excdlent  meteorological  instruments,  e8])ecially  a 
self-registering  barometer  on  a  new  construction 
by  Mr  King  of  Liverpool,  and  an  anemometer, 
which  registers  the  force  and  direction  of  the  wind. 
The  record  kept  by  all  these  instruments  consists 
of  tradngs  on  a  paper,  by  which  the  registered 
phenomena  during  any  twenty-four  hours  are  seen 
at  a  glance.  The\ob8ervatory  also  possesses  a  good 
equatoriid,  which  has  been  extensively  used  for 
determining  with  accuracy  the  positions  of  the 
small  members  of  the  solar  system  revolving  be- 
tween Mars  and  Jupiter — a  class  of  observations 
to  which  the  instrument  is  peculiarly  adapted, 
and  which  are  important  towards  supplying  data 
for  increasing  the  accuracy  of  navigation. 

Private  observatories  are  perhaps  most  usefully 
directed  to  meteorological  observations,  or  to 
ol^ervations  with  one  good  telescope  equatorially 
mounted.  An  instrument  of  this  kind  has  lately 
been  very  successfully  employed  bj^  Professor 
Piazzi  Smyth  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  micrometrical 
measurement  of  double-stars,  with  reference  to 
the  determination  of  their  proper  motions.  This 
instrument  is  a  large  equatoriaUy-mounted  re- 
fracting tdescope,  erected  by  J.  W.  Grant,  Esq., 
of  Elchies,  in  Morayshire.  The  clear  aperture  of 
the  object-glass  is  11  inches;  and  the  great  weight 
and  massive  construction  of  the  larger  parts  is  the 
cause  of  a  peculiar  freedom  from  tremors,  which 
render  the  instniment  peculiarly  adapted  for 
observations  of  the  class  above  described.  These 
observations  are  recorded  in  the  Transactions  of 
the  Bof^  Society  of  Edinburgh,  vol.  xxiii.  p.  371. 
This  is  the  largest  and  best  instrument  of  the 
kind  in  Scotland. 

OBSI'DIAN,  a  mineral  accuratelv  described  by 
Pliny  imder  the  name  which  it  still  bears.  It  is  a 
true  kind  of  native  glass,  com|x>sed  of  silica  (from 
70  to  80  per  cent.),  zSumina,  lime,  soda,  potash,  and 
oxide  of  iron.  It  is  hard  and  brittle,  with  remark- 
ably vitreous  lustre,  and  perfectly  conchoidal 
fracture,  the  edges  of  the  fractures  very  sharp  and 
cutting  like  glass.  It  varies  from  semitransparency 
to  translucency  only  on  the  edges.  It  is  often 
black,  or  very  dark  gray;  sometimes  green,  red, 
brown,  striped,  or  spotted ;  and  sometimes  duUoyant 
or  avanturine.  It  occurs  in  volcanic  situations,  and 
often  in  dose  connection  with  pumice,  in  roundidi 
compact  pieces,  in  grains,  and  in  fibres.  It  ia 
capable  of  being  polished,  but  is  apt  to  break  in 
the  process.  It  is  made  into  boxes,  buttons,  ear- 
drops, and  other  ornamental  articles;  and  before 


OBVERSE-^OOGASIONALISll 


the  tues  of  the  metals  were  well  known,  it  was 
employed,  in  different  TKirts  of  the  world,  for  makine 
arrow  and  spear  heads,  knives,  &o.  It  is  found 
in  Iceland,  the  Li|)ari  Isles,  Vesuvius,  Sardinia, 
Hungary,  Spain,  Teneriffe,  Mexico,  South  America, 
Madagascar,  Siberia,  &o.  Black  O.  was  used  by 
the  ancients  for  making  mirrors,  and  for  this  pur- 
pose was  brought  to  Rome  from  Ethiopia.  It  was 
used  for  the  same  purpose  in  Peru  and  Mexico. 
Mirrors  of  Black  0.  are  indeed  BtiU  employed  by 
artists.  Chatoyant  or  Avanturine  0.  is  very  beauti- 
ful when  cut  and  polished,  and  ornaments  nuuie  of 
it  are  sold  at  a  comparativdy  high  price. 

O'BVERSE,  or  FACE,  the  side  of  a  coin  or 
medal  which  coptaina  the  principal  device  or 
inscription,  the  other  side  being  in  contradiBtinction 
called  the  Reverse.    See  Numismatics. 

OCCAM,  William  of,  snmamed  Doctor 
Sinffularia  et  InvineUnlis^  a  famous  schoolman,  was 
bom  in  England,  at  the  village  of  Ockam,  in  the 
county  of  Surrey,  about  the  year  1270.  We  do  not 
possess  any  precise  or  satisfactory  knowledge  of  his 
early  life.  He  is  said  to  have  been  educated  at 
Merton  CoUege,  Oxford,  and  to  have  held  several 
benetioes  in  his  native  country,  but  soou  after 
resigned  them  on  entering  the  Franciscan  order. 
Early  in  the  14th  o.,  it  is  supposed  he  proceeded  to 
Paris,  where  he  attended  tne  lectures  of  Duns 
Scotiu,  of  whose  philosophy  he  was  afterwards 
the  most  formidable  opponent  Here  he  soon 
became  prominent  by  the  ooldness  of  his  ecclesiaB- 
tical  views.  Philippe,  le  Bel,  king  of  Franoe,  having 
forbidden  Pope  Boniface  VIII.  to  levy  contributions 
in  his  domimons,  the  latter,  by  way  of  retaliation, 
excommunicated  himu  O.  ntshed  to  the  defence  of 
the  monarch,  and  in  his  I>isptUaHo  inUr  Clericum  et 
MUitem,  super  Potentate  Prcdatii  Ecelesim  aique 
Princip^ma  Terrarum  Commiaaa,  denies  that  the 
popes  have  any  authority  in  temporal  affairs,  and 
Doldly  declares  that  til  who  mvoured  such  a 
doctrine  ought  to  be  expelled  from  the  church  as 
heretics.  Meanwhile,  from  being  a  listener,  he  had 
become  a  lecturer  in  philosophy.  The  system  which 
he  advocated — for  he  was  not  properly  its  originator 
— ^is  known  by  the  name  of  JVomineuism  (q.  v.),  but 
it  had  never  before  received  so  rigorously  logical 
and  rational  a  treatment;  hence  his  epithet  of 
Jnvindbilis,  The  work  in  which  his  views  are  set 
forth  is  entitled  Expomtio  Aurect,  et  admodum 
ti^Ui  super  totam  Artem  Veterem.  It  contains  a 
series  of  commentaries  upon  the  Jsagogt  of  Porphyry, 
and  on  the  Categories  and  IwterpretcUion  of  Aristotle, 
with  a  special  treatise  headed  TractcLtus  Communi- 
tatum  Porphyrii,  and  a  theological  opusculum  on 
Predestination.  It  is  intended  as  a  demolition  of 
the  modems — ^L  e.,  the  scholastics— and  shews  that 
in  their  method  they  have  completely  departed 
from  the  principles  and  methods  of  the  great 
Stagyrite,  for  whom,  like  every  sound  and  solid 
thiuKer,  he  shews  the  deepest  respect  and  admira- 
tion. About  1320  or  1321,  he  again  plunged  into 
ecclesiastical  controversy.  A  certain  Narbonese 
priest,  having  affirmed  that  Jesus  Christ  and  his 
apostles  held  everything  in  common,  and  that  every 
ecclesiastical  possession  is  a  modem  abuse,  was 
pounced  upon  by  the  inquisitoi-s,  and  defended  by 
a  certain  Berenger  Talon,  a  Franciscan  monk  of 
Perpignan.  But  Berengei^s  defence  of  apostolical 
poverty  was  naturally  enough  very  disagreeable  to 
the  pope,  John  XXII.,  who  therefore  oondenmed 
it.  Berenger  was,  however,  vigorously  supported 
by  his  order,  and  among  others  by  Michael  tde 
Cesena,  the  general-superior,  Bonagratia  of  Bergamo, 
and  William  of  Occam,  who  attacked  the  pope  with 
great  vehemence  and  trenchant  Ic^gio.    Shortly  after 


they  were  arrested  as  favourers  of  heresy,  and 
imprisoned  in  Avignon.  But  while  their  trial  waa 
proceeding,  Michael  de  Cesena  and  O.,  knowing 
what  little  mercy  or  justice  they  had  to  expect 
from  their  accusers  ana  judges,  made  their  escape 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  were  received  at  a  little 
distance  off  shore  on  board  a  galley  of  Ludwi^ 
king  of  Bavaria,  the  patron  of  the  Franciscan  anti- 
pope,  Peter  of  Corbaras,  and  one  of  the  most  power- 
ful sovereigns  in  Europe.  The  remainder  of  0.*a 
life  was  spent  at  Munich,  where,  safe  from  the 
machinations  of  his  enemies,  he  continued  to  assail 
at  once  the  errors  of  papistry  in  religion,  and  of 
realism  in  philosophy.  He  died  7th  April  1347. 
It  is  impossible  to  praise  0.  too  highly.  He  was 
the  first  logician,  and  the  most  rational  philosopher 
among  the  whole  body  of  schoolmen.  We  are  often 
reminded  by  his  clear  and  vigorous  common  sense 
and  wholesome  incredulity,  that  he  was  the  country- 
man of  Locke  and  Hobbes,  and  that  he  came  of  a 
people  ever  noted  for  the  solidity  of  their  under- 
standing. Besides  the  works  already  mentioned* 
O.'s  principal  writings  are — Dialogus  in  tres  Partes 
distinctus,  quarum  prima  de  llwreticis^  secunda  de 
Erroribus  Joannis  XXII,,  terlia  de  Poteslate  Papoe^ 
Conciliorum  et  Imperatoris  ;  Opus  Nonatjinta  Dientm 
contra  Errores  Joannis  XXII,  ;  Compen.  iwm 
Errorum  Joannis  Papoi  XXI  f,  ;  Decisiones  Octo 
Quiestionum  de  Potestate  summi  Pontyicis ;  Super 
Quatuor  Libros  Sententiarum  Suhiilis8im<B  Quces- 
tiones  earumque  Deeisiones  (based  on  Peter  the 
Lombard's  famous  Sententics,  and  containing  nearly 
the  entire  theology  of  Occam.  These  Decisione§ 
were  long  almost  as  renowned  as  the  Sentential 
which  gave  them  birth) ;  AntUoquium  ThexAogieum ; 
Summa  Logices  ad  Adamum;  and  Major  Summa 
Logices, — See  Luke  Wadding's  Scriptores  Ordinis 
Minorum  (1650);  Cousin's  Histoire  de  la  PhUosopkie 
(2d  ed.  1840) ;  and  K  Haur€aWs  De  la  PhUosophU 
Scholastique  (1848). 

OCCA'SIONALISM,  or  the  doctrine  oi  OooA- 
SIGNAL  Causes  (see  Cause),  is  the  name  given  to 
the  philosophical  system  devised  by  Descartes  and 
his  school,  for  the  purpose  of  explaining  the  action 
of  mind  upon  matter,  or,  to  speak  more  correctly, 
the  combined,  or  at  least  the  synchronous  action 
of  both.  It  is  a  palpable  fact  that  certain  actions 
or  modifications  of  the  body  are  accompanied  by 
corresponding  acts  of  mind,  and  vice  versd.  This 
fact,  although  it  presents  no  difficulty  to  the  popular 
conception,  according  to  which  each  is  supposed  to 
act  directly  upon  the  other — ^body  upon  mind,  and 
mind  upon  boay^has  long  furnished  to  philosophers 
a  subject  of  much  speculation.  But  on  the  other 
hand,  it  is  difficult  to  conceive  the  possibility  of 
any  direct  mutual  interaction  of  substances  so 
dissimilar,  or  rather  so  disparate.  And  more  than 
one  system  has  been  devised  for  the  explanation  of 
the  problem,  as  to  the  relati(ms  which  subsist 
between  the  mind  and  the  body,  in  reference  to 
those  operations,  which  are  clearly  attributable 
to  them  both.  According  to  Descartes  and  the 
Occasionalists,  the  action  of  the  mind  is  not,  and 
cannot  be  the  cause  of  the  corresponding  action  of 
the  body.  But  they  hold  that  whenever  any 
action  of  the  mind  takes  place,  God  directly  pro- 
duces, in  connection  with  it,  and  by  reason  of 
it,  a  coiresponding  action  of  the  body;  and  in 
like  manner  conversely,  they  explain  the  coincident 
or  sjnachronous  actions  of  the  body  and  the  mind. 
It  was  in  opposition  to  this  view  that  Leibnits, 
believing  the  Cartesian  system  to  be  open  to 
nearly  eoual  difficulties  with  that  of  the  direct 
action,  devised  his  system  of  Pre-established 
Harmony,  See  Leibnitz.  His  real  objection  to 
the  Oocasionalist  hypothesis  is,  that  it  supposed  a 


OCOUXTATIOWS— OCHRES. 


Eeiati  toUon  of  0-^   upon  ereatnre*,  ■□<!,  in 
is  bnt  a  modiScftttou  ut  the  sjateta  ot '  direct 


OCCTTLTATIONS  (Ut  oeevUaHn.  t  conceal 
mtnt)  HTf  neither  more  nor  lees  than  'ecii, >'<''■;'  bttt 
the  latter  tcim  ii  confined  hj  usage  to  the  u'i<"m' 
ntion  of  the  buu  hy  the  moon,  and  of  the  moun 
hythe  earth's  shadow,  while  the  former  is  restricted 
to  the  eclipse*  of  stars  or  planets  by  the  n 
Ocenltations  are  phenomena  of  frequent  <n  .  .. 
trace  ;  they  are  confined  to  a  belt  of  the  heavens 
•bont  10*  174'  wide,  situated  parallel  to,  and 
both  aides  oj  the  equinniial,  and  extending 
eqoa]  distanoee  north  and  south  of  it.  beiiig 
the  belt  within  which  the  moon's  or  hit  lies. 
These  phenomena  serve  as  data  for  the  measure- 
ment of  the  moon's  parallax ;  and  they  at« 
aleo  occasionally  employed  in  the  caicniation  of 
BoDftitudes.  Aa  the  moon  moves  in  her  orbit 
from  west  to  east,  the  occultation  of  a  etar  it 
made  at  the  moon's  eastern  Umb.  and  the  star 
(merges  on  the  western  limlx  When  a  star  is 
occolted  by  the  dark  limb  of  the  moon  (a  pheno- 
menon which  can  only  occur  between  new  moon 
and  full  moon),  it  appears  to  an  obserFcr  as  if 
it  were  suddenly  ertinguiahed,  and  this  appear- 
ance LB  most  deceptive  when  the  mooo  is  only  a 
few  days  old.  When  an  occultation  occurs  betveen 
full  mooQ  and  new  moon,  the  reappearance  of  the 
star  at  the  outer  edge  of  the  dark  limb  produces 
an  equally  startling  effect.  *  It  has  often  been 
remarked,  says  Rerwhel,  '  that  when  a  star  is 
being  occulted  by  the  moon,  it  appeaoi  to  advance 
actually  upoit  and  icilAm  the  edge  of  the  disc  before 
it  (lisanpean,  and  that  sometimes  to  a  considerable 
depth.  This  phenomenon  be  considers  to  be  an 
optical  illusion,  thon^  he  admits  the  possibility  of 
ila  being  caused  by  the  existence  of  deep  fissures  in 
the  moon's  substance.  Occultations  of  stars  by 
planets  and  their  eatellites  are  of  rarer  occurrence 
than  lunar  occultations,  and  still  more  unfrequent 
ate  the  occultations  of  one  planet  by  another. 
OccQltations  are  calculated  in  the  same  way  as 
ecU)aes,  but  the  calculation  is  simplified  in  the 
caw  of  the  fixed  stars,  on  account  of  their  having 
neither  senoible  motion,  semi-diameter,  nor  parallax. 

OCEAN,  a  term  which,  like  Sf^,  in  its  general 
acceptation,  denotes  the  body  of  salt  water  that 
separates  continent  from  continent,  and  is  the 
receptacle  for  the  waters  of  rivers.  The  surface  of 
the  ocean  is  about  tbree-Hfths  of  the  whole  surface 
of  the  earth.  Although  no  portion  of  it  is  com- 
pletely detached  from  the  rest,  the  intervening 
continents  and  islands  mark  it  off  into  diviaions, 
wtiich  geographers  have  distinguished  by  special 
namesi  the  AUanlic  Ocean  (q,  v.),  between  America 
ud  Europe  and  Africa;  the  Pacific  Ocean  (g.  v.), 
between  America  and  Asia ;  the  Indian  Ocean 
(q.  v.),  lying  south  of  Asia,  and  limited  on  the  east 
and  west  by  Australasia  and  South  Africa;  the 
Arctic  Ocean  (q- v.),  surrounding  the  north  pole; 
and  Uie  AnlaTtOic  Octaa  (q.  v!),  surrounding  the 
south  pole.  The  Keoeral  features  and  characteristics 
of  the  ocean  will  be  described  under  Sea. 

OCEA'NIA,  the  name  given  to  the  fifth  division 
nS  the  globe,  comprising  aU  the  islands  which  inter- 
vene between  the  south-eastern  shores  of  the  con- 
tinent of  Asia  and  the  western  shores  of  the 
American  continent.  It  naturally  divides  itself 
into  three  great  sections— Malay  Archipeiego  (q,  v.), 
Australasia  (q.v.),  or  Melanesia  and  Polynesia  (q- v.). 

O'CELOT,  the  name  of  several  species  of  Feiidts, 
■ativea  of  the  tropical  parte  of  South  America, 
•Uied  to  the  leopanl  by  flexibility  of  body,  leneth 
<f  tail,  and  other  characters,  but  of  much  snuiUer 

au 


size.  They  sre  usually  included  ill  the  genm 
Leopardut  by  those  who  divide  the  Pelids  into  a 
nomber  of  genera.  They  are  inhabitants  oif  for^stft 
and  very  expert  in  climbing  trees.  Their  prw 
consists  in  great  port  ot  birds.  ITiey  nre  heauti- 
fuller  marked  and  coloured  The  best  known 
species,  or  Common  O.  {FetitpardaVs).  a  native  of  tlie 
warm  parts  of  America,  from  Mexico  to  Brazil,  a 


Ocelot  (Fdit  pardali*). 

&om  two  feet  nine  inches  to  four  feet  long,  ei 
of  the  tail,  which  is  from  eleven  to  fifteen  inchea, 
lesrly  of  uniform  thickness.  The  ears  are 
short,  and   pointed.      The   muzzle   is   rather 


iding  finely  with  the  dark  brown  o 
Jie  open  spots,  of  which  there  are  chsins  along 
the  sides ;  the  head,  neck,  and  legs  l>eing  also 
variously  spotted  or  barred  with  dark  b™wn  or 
black.  The  0,  is  essily  tamed,  and  is  very  gentle 
and  playfnl,  bnt  excessively  mischievous.  It  may 
be  fed  on  poiridge  and  milk,  or  other  such  food, 
and  is  said  to  be  then  mora  gentle  than  it  per- 
mitted to  indulge  in  carnivorous  oppetiteo — Very 
similar  to  the  Common  0.  are  several  other 
American  species,  as  the'  Linkkd  0.  (F.  caienala), 
the  LoNO-TiiLiD  0.  [F.  Tnaerounu),  the  CilATi 
(F.  mitU),  kc  Tlie  similarity  extends  to  habits 
and  disposition,  as  well  as  form. 

O'CHIL  HILLS,  a  hilly  range  in  Scotland, 
occupying  parts  of  the  counties  ol  Perth,  Clack- 
mannan, Stirling,  Kinross,  and  Fife,  and  extenrlina 
from  the  vicinity  of  Stirling  north-east  to  the  Firth 
of  Tay.  The  rani^  is  24  mUes  in  length,  and  shout 
12  miles  in  breadth.  The  highest  summit  ia  Ben- 
cleugh,  (2352  feet)  near  the  soutli-west  extremity. 
The  hills,  which  are  formed  chieBy  of  greenstone 
and  bssalt,  contain  silver,  copper,  and  iron  ores, 
and  offurd  excellent  pasturage. 

OCHNA'CE.E,  a  natural  order  of  exogenniu 
plau^  containinR  not  quite  100  known  s])GciB8, 
natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries.  Some 
of  them  are  h^ea.  most  ot  them  under-ahruba  ;  all 
are  remarkable  for  their  smoothueas  in  all  parts. 
Bitter  and  tonic  qualities  prevail  in  this  order,  and 
some  species  are  meilicinally  used  in  their  native 
countries.  The  seeds  of  Qoinphia  Jabolaiiita  yield 
an  oil,  which  is  used  in  salads  in  the  West  ladies 
and  South  America. 

O'OHBES,  the  name  usually  applied  to  clays 
coloured  with  the  oxides  of  iron  in  various  propor- 
tions, giving  to  the  clay  a  lighter  or  deeper  colour. 
Strictly  speaking,  the  terra  oelongs  only  to  a  com-- 
ion  of  peroxide  of  iitui  with  water.  Fmiili 
many  mines  large  quantities  of  water  charged  with. 
fermginous  mud  are  being  continually  pumped  up,. 
and  from  this  water  the  coloured  mud  or  ocbre 
settles  In  this  way  large  quantities  are  procured. 
from  the  tin  mines  of  Cornwall,  and  the  leail  and 
cop|>er  mines  of  North  Wales  and  the  Isle  of  Man,. 
Ounraa  occur  also  ready  formed,  in  beds  several  feet 


OCHRO-OOTAOON. 


thick,  in  the  variouB  geological  fonnations,  and  are 
occasionally  worked,  as  at  Shotover  Hill,  Oxford,  in 
Holland,  and  many  other  places  in  Europe  and 
America.  Very  remarkable  beds  are  worked  in 
Canada.  The  ochres  so  obtained  are  either  calcined 
for  use  or  not,  according  to  the  tint  wanted.  The 
operation  adds  much  to  the  depth  of  colour,  by 
increasing  the  degree  of  oxidation  of  the  contained 
iron.  The  most  remarkable  varieties  of  ochre  are 
the  Siena  Earth  (Terra  di  Siena)  from  Italy ;  the 
so-called  red  chalk,  with  which  sheep  are  marked ; 
Dutch  Ochre;  Armenian  Bole  or  Lemnian  Earth; 
Italian  Rouge,  and  Bitry  Ochre.  They  vary  in  colour 
from  an  Isabelline  yellow,  through  almost  every 
shade  of  brown,  up  to  a  tolerably  good  red.  The 
finest  kinds  are  used  by  painters,  the  coarsest  by 
carpenters  for  marking  out  their  work,  by  farmers 
for  marking  cattle,  kc 

O'CHRO.    See  Hibiscttb. 

OCKMU'LGEB,  a  river  in  Oeorgia,  IT.  a,  which 
rise»  in  the  northern  centre  of  the  state  by  three 
branches,  and  after  a  course  of  200  miles  south- 
sonth-east,  joins  the  Oconee,  to  form  the  Altamaha. 
It  is  navigable  to  Macon,  130  miles  above  its  mouth. 

OOO'NBB,  a  river  of  Georgia,  U.  S.,  rises  in  the 
north-east  part  of  the  state,  and  flows  southerly 
2{50  miles,  where  it  unites  with  the  Ockmnlgee  to 
form  the  Altamaha;  it  is  navigable  to  MiUedgeville, 
100  miles. 

O'CONNELL,  Danibl,  eldest  son  of  Mr  Morgan 
0*Connell  of  Darrynane,  near  Cahirciveen,  in  the 
couuty  of  Kerry,  Ireland,  was  bom  August  9,  1775. 
His  family  was  ancient,  but  straitened  in  circum- 
stances. O'O.  received  his  tirst  education  from  a 
hedge-schoolmaster,  and  after  a  further  training 
under  a  Catholic  priest  in  the  county  of  Cork,  was 
sent  in  1790  to  the  English  College  at  St  Omer.  His 
school  reputation  was  very  high  ;  but  he  was  driven 
home  prematurely  by  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolu- 
tion, and  in  1794,  entered  as  a  law-student  at  Lin- 
coln's Inn.  In  1798,  he  was  called  to  the  bar ;  and 
it  was  the  boast  of  his  later  career  as  an  advocate  of 
the  Repeal  of  the  Union  with  England,  that  his  first 
public  speech  was  delivered  at  a  meeting  in  Dublin, 
convened  for  the  pnniose  of  protesting  against  that 
projected  measure.  He  devoted  himself  assiduously, 
however,  to  the  practice  of  his  profession,  in  which 
he  rose  steadily.  By  degrees,  the  Roman  Catholic 
party  having  begim  to  rally  from  the  prostration 
mto  which  they  had  been  thrown  through  the 
rebellion  of  1798  and  its  cousequences,  O'C.  was 
drawn  into  public  ]X)litical  life.  In  all  the  meetings 
of  his  co-religionists  for  the  prosecution  of  their 
claims,  he  took  a  part,  ana  his  nncjuestioned 
.  ability  soon  made  him  a  leader.  He  was  an  active 
member  of  all  the  successive  associations  which, 
nnder  the  various  names  of  'Catholic  Board,* 
'Catholic  Committee,*  'Catholic  Association,*  &c., 
were  organised  for  tiie  purpose  of  procuring  the 
repeal  of  the  civil  disabilities  of  the  Catholic  bod^. 
■  Of  the  Catholic  Association  he  was  himself  the  ori^- 
nator ;  and  although  his  supremacy  in  ite  councils 
was  occasionally  challenged  by  some  aspiring  asso- 
ciates, he  continued  all  but  supreme  down  to  its 
final  dissolution.  By  means  of  this  association, 
and  the  'Catholic  Rent*  which  it  was  enabled 
to  raise,  he  created  so  formidable  an  organisation 
: throughout  Ireland,  that  it  gradually  became  appa- 
rent that  the  desired  measure  of  relief  could  not 
•longer  be  safely  withheld ;  and  the  crisis  was  pre- 
•cipitated  by  the  bold  expedient  adopted  by  0*C., 
•01  procuring  himself  to  be  elected  member  of  parlia- 
ment for  Clare  in  1828,  notwithstanding  his  well- 
known  legal  incapacity  to  serve  in  parliament,  in 
oonsequenoe  of   his  being   obliged  to   refuse  the 


prescribed  oaths  of  abjuration  and  sapremaey,  which 
then  formed  the  ground  of  the  exclusion  of  Roman 
Catholics  from  the  legislature.     This  decisive  step 
towards  the  settlement  of  the  ciuestion,  although  it 
failed  to  procure  for  0*C.  admission  to  parliament, 
led  to  discussions  within  the  House,  and  to  agitations 
outside,  so  formidable,  that  in  the  beginning  of  the 
year  1829,  the  Duke  of  Wellington  and  Sir  Robert 
reel  found  it  ex|)edient  to  give  way ;  and,  deserting 
their  former  party,  thev    introduced  and  carried 
through,  in  the  spring  of  that  year,  the  well-known 
measure  of  Catholic  Emancipation.     0*C.  was  at 
once  re-elected,  and  took  his  seat   for  Clare,  and 
from  that  date  until  his  death  continued  to  sit  in 
parliament.    He  was  elected  for  his  native  county 
m  1830,  for  the  city  of  Dublin  in  1836,  for  the  town 
of    Kilkenny  in  1836  (having  been  unseated  for 
Dublin  on  petition),  for  Dublin  a^n  in  1837,  and 
for  the  county  of  Cork  in  1841.    During  all  these 
years,  having  entirely  relinquished  his  practice  for 
the  purpose  of  devoting  himself  to  pubhc  a£fairs,  ha 
received,  by  means  of  an  organised  annual  siibsidy, 
a  large  yearly  income  from,  the  voluntary  contribu- 
tions of  the  people,  by  whom  ho  was  idolised  aa 
their  '  Liberator ;    and  who  joined  with  him  in  all 
the  successive  agitations  against  the  act  of  Union, 
against  the  Protestant  Church  establishment,  and 
in  favour  of  reform,  in  which  he  engaged.     In  the 
progress  of  more  than  one  of  these  political  agita- 
tions,   his    associations    were    suppressed   by    the 
fovemment ;  and  the  agitation  for  a  Repeal  of  the 
fnion,  recommenced  in   1841,  and  carried  on  bv 
'  monster  meetings*  throughout  Ireland,  at  which 
0*0.  himself  was  the  chief  speaker,  assumed  propor- 
tions so  formidable,  that  he,  m  common  with  several 
others,  was  indicted  for  a  seditious  conspiracy,  and 
after  a  long  and  memorable  trial,  was  con\nctea,  and 
sentenced  to  a  year*s  imprisonment,  with  a  fine  of 
£2000.    This  judgment  was  reversed  by  the  House 
of  Lords ;  and  0*C.,  on  his  dischai^  resumed  his 
career;  but  his  health  had  suffered  from  confinement, 
and  still  more  from  dissensions  and  opposition  in 
the  councils  of  his  party ;  and  as,  on  the  return  of  the 
Whigs  to  power  in  1846,  he  consented  to  support 
their  government,  the  malcontente  of  the  Kepeal 
Association  openly  separated  from  him,  and  a  bitter 
feud  between  '  Young*  and  *  Old'  Ireland  ensued. 
In  this   quarrel,  0*C.  steadfastly  maintained    his 
favourite  precept  of  'moral  force,*   and  was   sup- 
ported by  the  great  body  of  the  Catholic  bishops 
and  clergy ;  but  his  health  gave  way  in  the  struggle. 
He  was  ordered  to  try  a  mUder  climate ;  and  onnia 
journey  to  Rome  in  the  spring  of  1847,  he  was  sud- 
denly seized  with  paralysis,  and  died  at  Oenoa  on 
the  15th  May  of  that  ^ear.     His  eminence  as  a 
public  speaker,  and  especiall^^  as  a  master  of  popular 
eloquence,  is  universally  admitted.    Into  the  contro- 
versies as  to  his  pubHc  and  political  character,  it  is 
not  our  place  to  enter  here.    His  speeches  unfortu- 
nately were  for  the  most  part  extempore,  and  exist 
but  in  the  reports  (uncorrected  by  himself)  taken  at 
the  time.     He  published  but  a  single  volume,  A 
Memoir  of  Ireland,  Native  and  Saxon,  and  a  few 
pamphlete ;  the  most  important  of  which,  as  illus- 
trating his  personal  history  and  character,  is  A 
Letter  to  the  Earl  of  Shretotbury, — See  Life   and 
Times  qf  Daniel  G'ConneU,  by  his  son,  John  0*Oon- 
nell;    also    BecoUectiona   of  Daniel    O^ConneU,   by 
John  O'Neill  Daniel ;  and  Fagan*s  Life  qf  Daniel 
(yConneU, 

O'CTAGON,  a  plane  closed  figure  of  eight  sides. 
When  the  sides  are  equal,  and  fuso  the  angles,  the 
figure  is  called  a  *  regular  octagon  ;  *  in  this  case,  each 
angle  is  135°,  or  equal  to  three  half  right  angles.  If  the 
alternate  comers  of  a  regular  octagon  m  joined,  a 
square  is  constructed;  and  as  &e  angle  contained 


OCTAHEDRON— OD, 


between  the  aides  of  the  square  and  of  the  octagon 
is  one-fourth  of  a  right  angle,  the  octagon  may  easily 
be  constructed  from  the  square  as  a  basis. 

OCTAHEDRON  (Or.  ohto,  eight,  hadra,  base)  is 
a  solid  figure  bounded  by  eight 
trianules,  and  haying  twelve  edges 
and  six  anjs^les.  A  regular  octahedron 
has  its  eight  trian^ar  faces  all 
equilateral,  and  may,  tor  convenience, 
be  defined  as  a  figure  composed  of 
two  equal  and  similar  square  pjrramids 
with  equilateral  triangles  for  their 
sides  placed  base  to  base.  This  solid 
is  symmetrical  round  any  angle,  and 
is  one  of  Plato*s  five  re^lar  solids. 
The  octahedron  appears  in  nature 
Octahedron,  as  one  of  the  forms  of  crystals  of 
sulphur. 

O'CTAVE  (Lat  odavus,  eighth),  the  interval 
between  an^  musical  note  and  its  most  perfect 
concord,  which  is  double  its  pitch,  and  occupies  the 
position  of  the  eighth  note  trom  it  on  the  diatonic 
scale.  The  name  octave  is  often  given  to  the  eighth 
note  itself  as  well  as  to  the  interval.  There  is 
between  a  note  and  its  octave  a  far  closer  relation 
than  between  any  other  two  notes  ;  they  go  together 
ilmost  as  one  musical  sound.  In  combination,  they 
are  hardly  distinguishable  from  one  another,  and 
their  harmonics  agree  invariably,  a  coincidence  which 
occurs  in  the  case  of  no  other  interval 

OCT  A' VIA,  the  sister  of  the  Roman  emperor 
Augustus,  and  wife  of  Mark  Antony.  She  was  dis- 
tinguished for  her  beauty,  her  noble  disi)osition,  and 
womanly  virtues.  Her  first  husband  was  C.  Mar- 
cellus,  to  whom  she  was  married  50  B.a  He  died 
41  B.a,  shortly  after  which  she  consented  to  marry 
Antony,  to  niake  secure  the  reconciliation  between 
bim  and  her  brother.  The  event  was  hailed  with 
joy  by  all  classes.  In  a  few  years,  Antony  became 
tired  of  his  gentle  and  virtuous  spouse,  and  forsook 
her  for  Cleo])atra.  When  the  Parthian  War  broke 
out,  O.  wanted  to  accompany  her  husband,  and 
actually  went  as  far  as  Corcyra,  whence  Antony 
sent  her  home,  that  she  might  not  interrupt  his 
guilty  intexcourse  with  the  Egyptian  queen.  In  35 
B.C.,  0.  made  an  effort  to  rescue  him  from  a  degra- 
dation that  was  indifferent  even  to  the  honour  of 
iae  Roman  arms,  and  sailed  from  Italy  with  roin- 
lurjements;  but  a  message  reached  her  at  Athens 
ordering  her  to  return  home.  She  i)roudly  obeyed, 
but,  with  a  magnanimity  that  rominds  us  of  the 
R»man  character  in  earlier  and  better  days,  she 
forwarded  the  sup()orts  to  her  husband.  Her 
brother,  Octavian,  was  indignant  at  the  treatment 
she  received,  and  would  have  had  her  (^uit  her 
husband^s  house,  and  come  and  live  with  him ;  but 
she  refused.  In  32  B.a,  war,  long  inevitable,  broke 
out  between  Antony  and  Octavian ;  and  the  former 
crowned  his  insults  by  sending  0.  a  bill  of  divorce- 
ment But  no  injury  was  too  great  to  be  forgiven 
by  this  *  patient  Grizel'  of  the  ancient  world;  and 
after  her  husband's  death,  she  brought  up  with 
maternal  care  not  only  her  own  children,  but  also 
Cleopatra's  bastards.     Her  death  took  place  II  B.a 

OCTO'BER  (Lat  oeto,  eight)  was  the  eighth 
month  of  the  so-called  *  year  of  Romulus,'  but 
be«une  the  tenth  when  (according  to  tradition) 
Kuma  changed  the  commencement  of  the  year 
tc  the  first  of  January,  though  it  retained  its 
on^inal  name.  It  has  since  maintained  its  posi- 
tion as  the  tenth  month  oi  the  year,  and  has  31 
days.  October  preserved  its  ancient  name  notwith- 
standing the  attempts  made  by  the  Roman  senate, 
and  the  emperors  Commodus  and  Domitian,  who 
iol^titated  for  a  time  the  terms  Faustinus,  Invictus, 


Domitianus.  Many  Roman  and  Greek  festivals  feh 
to  be  celebrated  in  this  month,  the  most  remark- 
able of  which  was  the  sacrifice  at  Rome  of  a  horse 
(which  was  called  October)  to  the  god  Mars.  The 
other  festivals  wero  chiefly  bacchanalian.  Among 
the  Saxons,  it  was  styled  Wyn  moneth  or  the  wine 
month. 

OCTOTODA  (Or.  eight-footed),  a  section  of 
dibranchiate  cephalopods  (see  Cephalopoda),  having 
the  body  in  general  very  short,  the  head  very  dis- 
tinct ;  eight  arms,  not  very  unequal,  furnished  with 
simple  suckers  ;  with  or  without  a  shelly  covering. 
To  this  section  belong  Argonauts,  Poulps,  &o.  See 
these  heads. 

'  O'CTOSTYLE,  the  name  given  in  classic  archi- 
tecture to  a  portico  composed  of  eight  columns  in 
front 

OCTROI  (Lat  auctorittUy  authority),  a  term 
which  originally  meant  any  ordinance  authorised 
by  the  sovereign,  and  thence  came  to  be  restric- 
tively  applied  to  a  toll  or  tax  in  kind  levied  from 
a  very  early  period  in  France,  and  other  countries 
of  Northern  Europe,  on  articles  of  food  which  passed 
the  barrier  or  entrance  of  a  town.  The  right  to . 
levy  this  toll  was  often  delegated  to  subjects,  and 
in  order  to  increase  its  amount,  a  device  was 
resorted  to  of  raising  the  weight  of  the  pound  in 
which  the  octroi  was  taken.  The  large  pound,  an 
ounce  heavier  than  that  in  ordinary  use,  was  called 
the  livre  (Toctroiy  whence  the  expression  pound  troy. 
The  octroi  came  eventually  to  be  levied  in  money, 
and  was  al)olished  in  France  at  the  Revolution.  In 
1798,  it  was  ro-established,  under  the  pretext  that 
it  was  required  for  purposes  of  charity,  and  called 
the  octroi  de  hienfaUance^  and  it  has  been  reorganised 
in  1816,  1842,  and  1852.  Of  the  octroi  dutv  which 
is  at  present  levied  at  the  gates  of  the  French  towns, 
one-tenth  goes  to  the  imperial  treasury,  and  the  rest 
to  local  expenses.  The  octroi  ofiicers  aro  entitled 
to  searoh  all  carriages  and  individuals  entering  the 
gates  of  a  town.  From  the  octrois  of  Paris  alone 
government  derives  a  revenue^  of  about  56  million 
nancs.  In  1860,  the  Belgian  government  acquired 
great  popularity  by  abolishing  the  octroi 

The  epithet  octroyi  is  applied  by  continental 
politicians  to  a  constitution  granted  by  a  prince, 
m  contradistinction  to  one  which  is  the  result  of  a 
paction  between  the  sovereign  and  the  ropresen- 
tatives  of  the  people.  Any  public  company  pos- 
sessing an  authorised  monopoly  like  that  held  by 
the  East  India  Company,  is  said  to  be  octroyL 

OD  (from  the  same  root  as  Odin,  and  supposed  to 
mean  all-pervading),  the  name  given  by  Baron 
Reichenbach  (q.  v.)  to  a  peculiar  physical  foroe 
which  he  thought  he  had  discovereo.  This  force, 
according  to  him,  pervades  all  nature,  and  manifests 
itself  as  a  flickering  flame  or  luminous  appearance 
at  the  poles  of  magnets,  at  the  poles  of  crystals,  and 
wherover  chemiciu  action  is  going  on.  This  would 
account  for  the  luminous  figures  said  to  be  some- 
times seen  over  recent  graves.  The  od  force  has 
positive  and  negative  poles,  like  magnetisuL  The 
human  body  is  od-positive  on  the  left  side,  and 
od-negative  on  the  right  Certain  persrms,  called 
'sensitives,'  can  see  the  odic  radiation  like  a  lumi- 
nous  vapour  in  the  dark,  and  can  feel  it  by  the  touch 
like  a  breath.  As  the  meeting  of  like  odic  poles 
causes  a  disagreeable  sensation,  while  the  pairing  of 
unlike  poles  causes  a  pleasant  sensation,  we  have 
thus  a  sufficient  cause  for  those  likings  and  anti- 
pathies hitherto  held  unaccountable.  Some  sensitive 
persons  cannot  sleep  on  their  left  side  (in  the 
northern  hemisphere),  because  the  north  pole  of  the 
earth,  which  is  od-negative,  affects  unpleasantly  the 
od-negative  left  side.     All  motion  generate «  o<l; 


ODAL  OR  UDAL  RIGHT— ODER. 


why,  tiien,  may  not  a  stream  nmning  underground 
afftvt  a  sensitive  water- finder,  so  that  the  divining' 
rod  in  his  or  her  hand  shall  move  without,  it  may 
be,  any  conscious  effort  of  will?  All  the  pheno- 
mena of  mesmerism  are  ascribed  to  the  workincs  of 
this  od-force.  Reichenbach  does  not  pretend  to 
have  had  the  evidence  of  his  own  senses  for  any  of 
those  manifestations  of  his  assumed  od-force;  the 
wh^le  theory  rests  on  the  revelations  made  to  him 
by  *  sensitives.'  It  may  be  added,  that  few  if  any 
really  scientific  men  have  any  belief  in  the  exisi- 
euce  of  such  a  foroa — ^Those  curious  in  such  matters 
are  referred  for  the  details  of  the  subject  to  Reichen- 
bach's  large  work,  translated  into  English  by  Dr 
Ashbumer,  under  the  title  of  The  Dynamics  of 
Mafinetism,  or  to  a  briefer  account  in  hia  Odisch- 
Magnetiache  Briefs  (Stutt  1852). 

O'DAL  or  UDAL  RIGHT  (Celtic  od,  property), 
a  tenure  of  land  which  was  absolute,  and  not 
dependent  on  a  superior,  and  prevailed  throughout 
Northern  Europe  before  the  nse  of  feudalism.  It 
was  founded  on  the  tie  of  blood  which  connected 
freeman  with  freeman,  and  not  on  the  tie  of  service. 
It  was  the  policy  of  the  sovereign  authority  every- 
where to  make  it  advantageous  for  the  freemen  to 
exchange  the  odal  tie  for  the.  tie  of  service — a 
change  which  paved  the  way  for  the  feudal  system. 
Tlie  odallcrs  of  Orkney  were  allowed  to'  retain  or 
resume  their  ancient  privileges,  on  payinff  a  large 
contribution  to  the  erection  of  St  Mjignus^s  Cathe- 
dral at  Kirkwall ;  and  the  Odal  tenure  prevails  to 
this  day  to  a  large  extent  in  the  Orkney  and  Shet- 
land Islands,  the  right  to  land  being  completed 
without  writing  by  undisturbed  possession  proved 
by  witnesses  before  an  inquest. 

ODD-FELLOWS,  the  name  assumed  by  one 
of  the  most  extensive  self-governed  provident 
associations  in  the  world.  The  institution  was 
originated  in  Manchester  in  1812,  althoup;h  isolated 
*  IcSges*  had  existed  in  various  parts  of  the  country 
for  some  time  previouslv.  These  latter  were  gener- 
ally secret  fraternities,  humble  imitations  of  Free- 
masonry— adopting  a  similar  system  of  initiatory 
rites,  phraseology,  and  organisation — instituted  for 
social  and  convivial  purposes,  and  only  occasionally 
extending  charitable  assistaixce  to  members.  On 
its  institution  in  Manchester,  the  main  purpose  of 
Odd-fellowship  was  declared  by  its  laws  to  be,  '  to 
render  assistance  to  every  brother  who  may  apply 
through  sickness,  distress,  or  otherwise,  ii  he  be 
well  attached  to  the  Queen  and  government,  and 
faithful  to  the  order ;  *  and  this  continues  to  be  the 
basis  of  all  its  operations.  It  still,  however,  retains 
some  of  the  characteristics  of  Freemasonry,  in  pos- 
sessing pass- words  and  peculiar  'grips,'  whereby 
members  can  recognise  one  another.  The  head- 
quarters of  the  society  is  at  Manchester,  where 
reside  the  Grand  Master  and  Board  of  Directors 
of  the  'Manchester  Unity  of  the  Independent 
Order  of  Odd-fellows.'  In  Jammry  1852,  the  total 
number  of  members  was  224,441 ;  in  January 
1864,  the  number  was  358,556;  and  during  1863, 
15,603  new  members  joined.  The  lodges  number 
3555,  spread  over  440  districts ;  the  annual  income 
being  ai)out  £350,000,  with  an  expenditure  of  nearly 
£300,000.  Should  any  lodge  fail  to  meet  its  legiti- 
mate obligations,  the  oistrict  becomes  liable ;  fading 
the  district,  the  responsibility  falls  upon  the  entire 
Unity.  The  order  is  widely  spread  over  the  whole 
of  England  and  Scotland.  It  exists  independently 
in  America,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  the  West 
Indies;  but  there  are  'lodges'  in  Philadelphiis 
New  York,  in  all  the  British  colonies,  and  one  in 
Constantinople  (originated  in  1862),  which  are 
affiliated  to  and  in  connection  with  the  Manchester 


Board.  These  wide  spread  ramifications  of  thii 
society  enable  emigrant  members  to  be  at  onoe 
received  into  fellowship  in  those  countries.  In 
the  American  states,  Oild-fellowship  is  said  to 
exercise  considerable  political  influencei  A  quar 
terly  periodical,  called  the  Odd'/eUowa'  MagaxinAt 
devoted  to  its  interests,  is  published  in  Manchester. 
In  an  early  number  of  this  publication,  an  Odd- 
fellow is  described  as  '  like  a  fox  for  cunning, 
a  dove  for  tameness,  a  lamb  for  innocence,  a  lion 
for  boldness,  a  bee  for  industry,  and  a  sheep  for 
usefulness.' 

ODE  (Gr.  a  song)  originally  meant  any  Ijnrical 
piece  adapted  to  be  sung.  In  the  modem  use  of  the 
word,  odes  are  distinguished  from  songs  by  not 
being  necessarily  in  a  form  to  be  sung,  and  by 
embodying  loftier  conceptions  and  more  intense 
and  passionate  emotions.  The  l^guage  of  the 
ode  is  therefore  abrupt,  concise,  and  enei^etic ;  and 
the  highest  art  of  the  poet  is  called  into  requisition 
in  adapting  the  metres  and  cadences  to  the  varying 
thoughts  and  emotions.  Hence  the  changes  A 
metre  and  versification  that  occur  in  many  odes. 
The  rapt  state  of  inspiration  that  gives  birth  to 
the  ode,  leads  the  ^oet  to  conceive  all  nature  as 
animated  and  conscious,  and,  instead  of  speaking 
about  persons  and  objects,  to  address  tnem  as 
present. 

Among  the  highest  examples  of  the  ode  are  the 
Song  ofmosea  and  several  of  the  psalms.  Dryden^s 
Alexander' 8  Feast  is  reckoned  one  of  the  first  odes 
in  the  English  languaga  We  may  mention,  as 
additional  specimens,  Gray's  Bard^  Oollins's  Ode  to 
the  PoMionif  Bums's  Scots  tdha  haHe,  Coleridge's  Odes 
to  Memory  and  Despondency^  Shelley's  Ode  to  the 
Skylark^  and  Wordsworth's  Ode  on  the  RecoUectione 
of  Iimnortality  in  Childhood, 

O'DENSEE  (anciently  known  as  Odin's-Ey,  or 
Odin's  Oe  (i.  e.,  Odin's  Island),  the  chief  town  of  the 
Danish  island  of  FUnen,  and  the  oldest  city  of  the 
kingdom,  is  situated  in  the  amt  or  district  of  the 
same  name,  in  55'  25'  N.  lat,  and  10**  20'  E  long. 
Pop.  (1860)  14,255.  0.,  which  is  the  seat  of  the 
governor  of  the  island  and  the  see  of  a  bishop,  has 
a  gymnasium,  several  literary  societies,  and  is  an 
active,  thriving  provincial  town.  A  bishopric  was 
founded  here  in  988,  prior  to  which  time  0.  Dore  the 
reputation  of  being  the  first  city  established  by  Odin 
and  his  followers.  The  cathedral,  founded  in  1086 
by  St  Knud,  whose  remains,  like  those  of  several  of 
the  early  Danish  kings,  were  deposited  here,  is  a  tine 
specimen  of  the  early  simple  Gothic  style.  The  lay 
convent  or  college  for  ladies  contains  an  extensive 
library,  furnished  with  copies  of  all  printed  Danish 
worka  At  0.,  a  diet  was  held  in  1527,  in  which 
the  Beformed  or  Lutheran  doctrines  were  declared 
to  be  the  established  creed  of  Denmark,  and  equality 
of  rislits  was  granted  to  Protestants ;  while  another 
diet  held  there  in  1539  promulgated  the  laws  regu- 
lating the  affairs  of  the  Keformed  Church. 

O'DENWALD.    See  Hesse-Darmstadt. 

O'DER  (Lat.  ViadruSt  Slavon.  Vjodr)^  one  of  the 
principal  rivers  of  Germany,  rises  in  the  Leselberg 
on  the  table-land  of  Moravia,  more  than  1000  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  enters  Prussian 
Silesia  at  Odersberg,  after  a  course  of  some  60  miles. 
After  traversing  Brandenburg  in  a  north-west  direc- 
tion, it  crosses  Pomerania,  and  empties  itself  into 
the  Stettiner  Haff,  from  whence  it  passes  into 
the  Baltic  by  the  triple  arms  of  the  Dievenow, 
Peene,  and  Swine,  which  enclose  the  islands  of 
Wollin  and  Usedom.  The  0.  has  a  course  of  more 
than  500  miles,  and  a  river-basin  of  50,000  square 
miles.  The  rapid  flow  of  this  river,  ii.iuoed  by  its 
very  considerable  fall,  is  accelerated  by  the  sffluenoe 


ODESSA— OBIN. 


ef  leveral  important  mountain-streams,  and  thus 
contributes,  together  with  the  silting  at  the  embou- 
chures of  theae  streams,  to  render  the  navigation 
difficult ;  great  expense  and  labour  being,  moreover, 
necessary  to  keep  the  embankments  in  order,  and 
prevent  the  overflowing  of  the  river.  The  0.  has 
Dumerous  secondary  streams,  the  most  important 
of  which  are  the  Oppa,  Neisse,  Ohlau,  Klodnitz, 
Bartsh  Warte,  and  the  Ihna ;  and  is  connected  with 
the  Havel  and  thence  with  the  Elbe  by  the  Finow 
Canal,  and  with  the  Spree  by  the  Friedrich- Wilhelms 
C;inaL  The  chief  trading  port  of  the  O.  is  Swine- 
munde,  which  constitutes  an  important  centre  for 
the  transfer  of  colonial  and  other  foreign  goods  to 
Northern  Crermany  and  Poland.  At  Ratibor,  17 
miles  below  Oderberg,  the  river  becomes  navigable, 
and  is  upwards  of  100  feet  in  breadth ;  at  Oppeln, 
in  Prussian  Silesia,  it  has  a  breadth  of  238  feet.  As 
a  boundary  river,  it  is  of  considerable  importance  in 
a  military  point  of  view,  and  ia  well  defended  by 
the  fortresses  of  Kosel,  Groaaglogau,  KUstrin,  and 
Stettin. 

ODE'SSA,  an  important  seaport  and  commercial 
city  of  South  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Kherson, 
stands   on   an  acclivity  sloping  to  the  shore,  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  the  Black  Sea,  32  miles 
north-east   of  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester.      Lat 
46'  Sy  N.,  long.  30'  44'  K    The  harbour  is  formed 
by  two  large  moles  defended  by  strong  works,  and 
is  capable  of  containing  2()0  vessels.    The   bay  is 
deep  enough    even    dose  in  shore    to  admit  the 
approach  of  the  largest  men-of-war,  and  ia  hx>zen 
only  in  the  severest  winters,  and  then  only  for  a 
short  time.     The  promenade  alone  the  face  of  the 
diff,  descending  to  the  shore  by  a  broad  stone  stair 
of  204  steps,  IS  the   favourite  walk  of  the  inha- 
bitants.     Here  also  stands  l^e  monument  of  the 
Doc  de  Richelieu,  to  whom  in  great  part  ite  town 
ii  mdebted  for  its  prosperity.  In  the  pedestal  of  the 
monument  is  preserved  the  ball  by  which  he  was 
shot  during  the  bombardment  of  the  town  by  the 
allied  fleet  in  1854.     There  is  a  high  school  of  Jaw, 
literature,  and  science,  called  Richelieu^s  Lyceum, 
in  honour  of  its  founder.    The  city  contains  many 
fine  edifices,  as  the  Cathedral  of  St  Nicholas,  the 
Admiralty,  the  Custom-house,  &c.      Owing  to  the 
intensity  of  the  heat  in  summer  (rising  occasionally 
to   120°),   and  the  dryness  of  the  sod,  vegetation 
in  the  vicinity  of  0.  is  verv  poor.     In  the  neigh- 
bourhood are  quarries  of  soft  stone,  which  is  used 
for  building  jpurposes  in  O.  and  in  the  surround- 
ing towns.     One  of  the  great  deficiencies  of  0.  is 
its  want  of  good  water.   At  present  (1864),  a  project 
is  on  foot  of  drawing  water  from  the  Dniester.    0.  is 
the  seat  of  the  *  Company  for  Steam-navigation  and 
Commerce;*  but  its  progress  is  much  hindered  by 
want  of  means  of  communication  with  the  interior. 
During   spring  and  autunm,  the  roads  are  almost 
impassable  for  mud,  so  that  it  is  with  the  greatest 
difficulty  that  goods  are  conveyed  from  the  ware- 
houses to  the  place  of  lading.     The  Odessa-Parchi- 
ansky  Railway,  now  (1864)  m  process  of  construc- 
tion, will  connect  0.  with  the  Dniester ;  and  the 
Odessa- Kief  Railway,  already  authorised  by  govern- 
ment, will  have  ^reat  influence  on  the  commercial 
unportance  of  this  city.     The  principal  exports  of 
0.   are   wheat   and  other  sorts  of  grain,  linseed, 
tallow,  leather,   and    wool,  all  of  which    articles 
abound    in    South    Russia.      In    1853,    18,002,400 
bashels    of    wheat,  valued    at    about   £3,120,000, 
were  exported  from  Odessa.     The  whole  exports 
•mount    at    present    to   £6,000,000.      The    whole 
imports  amount  to  £2,100,00a   Pop.  117,9^,  chiefly 
Jews,  Greeks,  and  Italians. 

In  ancient  times,  0.  (Gr.  Odeesus)  was  inhabited 
hf  ft  Greek  colony,  and  later  by  Tartar  tribes.    In 


the  beginning  of  the  15th  c.,  the  Turks  constructed 
a  fortress  here,  which  was  taken  by  the  Russians  is 
1789.  In  1793,  a  Russian  fortress  was  built  here, 
and  became  the  nucleus  of  a  town  and  port,  which 
two  years  after  received  the  name  of  Ooessa.  The 
Due  de  Richelieu,  a  French  emigrant  in  the  Russian 
service,  was  appointed  governor  here  in  1803,  and 
during  the  eleven  years  of  his  wise  administration, 
the  town  prospered  rapidly.  Since  1823,  the  city 
has  formed  part  of  the  ^neral  ^vemorship  of  South 
Russia ;  is  the  seat  of  its  administration,  and  is  the 
residence  of  the  goveruOT-general  and  of  an  arch- 
bishopw  The  advantageous  commercial  position  of 
the  city,  and  the  privileges  granted  to  it  by  govern- 
ment, but  chiefly  the  privileges  of  a  free  port  from 
the  year  1819,  nave  developed  this  city  from  a  mere 
Turkish  fortress  into  the  chief  commercial  town  of 
the  Black  Sea,  and  the  third  in  the  Russian  empire, 
after  St  Petersburg  and  Rma.  On  the  outbreak  of 
the  Crimean  War,  April  1854,  the  British  steamer 
Ftirious  went  to  0.  for  the  pur])ose  of  bringing  away 
the  British  consuL  While  under  a  flag  of  truce, 
she  was  fired  upon  by  the  batteries  of  the  citv.  On 
the  failure  of  a  written  message  from  the  admirals 
in  command  of  the  fleet  to  obtain  explanations, 
twelve  war-steamers  invested  O.,  22d  April,  and  in 
a  few  hours  destroyed  the  fortifications,  blew  up  the 
powder-magazines,  and  took  a  number  of  Russian 
vessels. 

ODEYPOO'R,  a  town  of  British  India,  capital  of 
the  small  state  of  the  same  name,  320  miles  west  of 
Calcutta.  The  town  is  unimportant,  and  the  state, 
which  is  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  political 
agent  for  the  south-west  frontier  of  Bengal,  has  an  - 
area  of  2506  square  miles,  and  a  pop.  of  133,0001 

ODIN,  the  chief  god  of  Northern  Mytholoey. 
According  to  the  sagas,  0.  and  his  brothers,  Vile 
and  Ve,  the  sons  of  BooTf  or  the  first-bom,  slew 
Ymer  or  Chaos,  and  from  his  body  created  the 
world,  converting  his  flesh  into  dry  land ;  his  blood, 
which  at  first  occasioned  a  flood,  into  the  sea ;  his 
bones  into  mountains ;  his  skull  into  the  vault  of 
heaven  ;  and  hiB  brows  into  the  spot  known  as 
Midgcuirdj  the  middle  part  of  the  earth,  intended 
for  the  habitation  of  the  sons  of  men.  0.,  as  the 
highest  of  the  gods,  the  Ayader,  rules  heaven  and 
earth,  and  ia  omniscient.  As  ruler  of  heaven, 
his  seat  lb  Valaskjalf,  from  whence  his  two  black 
ravens,  Huginn  (Thought)  and  Muninu  (Memory), 
fly  daily  forth  to  gather  tidings  of  all  that  is  being 
done  throughout  the  world.  As  god  of  war,  he  holds 
his  court  in  Valhalla,  whither  come  all  brave  war- 
riors after  death  to  revel  in  the  tumultuous  joys  in 
which  they  took  most  pleasure  while  on  earth.  His 
greatest  treasures  are  his  eight-footed  steed  Sleipner, 
his  spear  Gungner,  and  his  ring  Draupner.  As  the 
concentration  and  source  of  all  greatness,  excellence, 
and  activity,  O.  bears  numerous  different  names. 
By  drinking  from  Mimir^s  fountain,  he  became^  the 
wisest  of  gods  and  men,  but  he  purchased  the  dis;- 
tinction  at  the  cost  of  one  eye.  He  is  the  greatest 
of  sorcerers,  and  imparts  a  knowledge  of  lus  won- 
drous arts  to  hlB  favourites.  Frigga  is  his  queen, 
and  the  mother  of  Baldnr,  the  Scanmnavian  Aix)llo ; 
but  he  has  other  wives  and  favourites,  and  a  nume- 
rous progeny  of  sons  and  daughters.  Although  the 
worship  of  0.  extended  over  all  the  Scandina- 
vian lands,  it  found  its  most  zealous  followers  in 
Denmark,  where  he  still  rides  abroad  as  the  wild 
huntsman,  rushing  over  land  and  water  in  the 
storm-beaten  skies  of  winter. 

The  historical  interpretation  of  this  myth,  as 
given  by  Snorre  Sturleson,  the  compiler  of  the 
HeimshinglOf  or  Chronicles  of  the  Kings  of  Norway 
prior    to    the    introduction    cf    Christianity,    and 


ODOACER—ODOMETEIL 


followed  in  recent  times  by  the  historian  Snhm,  is, 
that  0.  was  a  chief  of  the  (Esir,  a  Scythian  tribe,  who, 
fleeing  before  the  ruthless  aggressions  of  the  Romans, 
passed  through  Germany  to  Scandinavia,  where,  by 
their  noble  appearance,  superior  prowess,  and  higher 
intelligence,  they  easily  vanquished  the  inferior 
races  of  tiiose  lands,  and  persuaded  them  that  they 
were  of  godlike  origin.  According  to  one  tradition, 
O.  conquered  the  country  of  the  Saxons  on  his 
way ;  and  leaving  one  of  his  sons  to  rule  there,  and 
introduce  a  new  religion,  in  which  he,  as  the  chief 
god  Wuotan,  received  divine  honours,  advanced  on 
his  victorious  course,  and  making  himself  master  of 
Denmark,  placed  another  son,  Skjold,  to  reign  over 
the  land,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  dynasty 
of  the  Skjoldingar.  He  next  entered  Sweden,  where 
the  king,  Gylfi,  accepted  his  new  religion,  and  with 
the  whole  nation  worshipped  him  as  a  divinity,  and 
received  his  son  Yugni  as  their  supreme  lord  and 
high-priest,  from  whom  descended  the  royal  race  of 
the  Yuglingars,  who  long  reigned  in  Sweden.  lu 
like  manner  he  founded,  through  his  sou  Soeming,  a 
new  dynasty  in  Norway ;  and  besides  these,  many 
sovereign  families  of  Northern  Germany,  including 
our  own  Saxon  princes,  traced  their  descent  to  Odin. 
As  it  has  been  foimd  impossible  to  refer  to  one 
individual  all  the  mythical  and  historical  elements 
which  group  themselves  around  the  name  of  0., 
Wodin,  or  Wuotan,  it  has  been  suggested  by  Suhm 
and  other  historians,  that  there  mav  have  been  two 
or  three  ancient  northern  heroes  of  the  name ;  but 
notwithstanding  the  conjectures  which  have  been 
advanced  since  the  very  dawn  of  the  historical  period 
in  the  north  in  regsjrd  to  the  origin  and  native 
country  of  the  assumed  0.,  or  even  the  time  at 
which  he  lived,  all  that  relates  to  him  is  shrouded 
in  complete  obscurity.  It  is  much  more  probable, 
however,  that  the  myth  of  O.  originated  in  nature- 
worship.    See  Scandinavian  Mythology. 

OBOA'CER  (also  Odovacer,  Odobaoab,  Odo- 
YACHAR,  Otachar,  &C.,  and,  according  to  St 
Martin,  the  same  as  Ottochar,  a  name  frequent  in 
Govm-^ny  during  the  middle  ages),  the  ruler  of  Italy 
from  the  year  476  to  493,  was  the  son  of  Edecon,  a 
secretary  of  Attila,  and  one  of  his  ambassadors  to 
the  court  of  Constantinopla  This  Edecon  was  also 
captain  of  the  Scyrri,  who  formed  the  bodyguard  of 
the  king  of  the  Huns.  After  the  death  of  Attila, 
he  remained  faithful  to  the  family  of  his  master, 
but  perished  about  463  in  an  unequal  struggle  with 
the  Ostrogoths.  He  left  two  sons,  Onulf  and  Odo- 
acer,  the  former  of  whom  went  to  seek  his  fortune 
in  the  East ;  while  0.,  after  leading  for  some  time 
the  life  of  a  bandit  chief  among  the  Noric  Alps, 
determined  to  proceed  to  Italy,  whither  barbarian 
adventurers  were  flocking  from  all  Eiux)pe.  Accord- 
ing to  a  monkish  legcnc^  a  pious  hermit,  St  Seve- 
riiius,  whom  he  went  to  visit  before  his  departure, 
prophesied  his  future  creatness.  O.  entered  the 
military  service  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire,  and 
rapidly  rose  to  eminence.  He  took  part  in  the 
revolution  by  which  Orestes  (475)  drove  the  Empe- 
ror Julius  Nepos  from  the  throne,  and  conferred 
on  his  son  Romulus  the  title  of  Augustus,  which 
the  people  scoffingly  changed  into  Augustulus.  He 
soon  perceived  the  weakness  of  the  new  ruler,  and 
resolved  to  protit  by  it.  He  had  little  difficulty  in 
persuading  tne  barbarian  soldiery,  who  had  effected 
the  revolution,  that  Italv  belonged  to  them,  and  in 
their  name  demanded  of  Orestes  the  third  part  of 
the  land,  as  the  reward  of  their  help.  This  Orestes 
refused;  and  0.,  at  the  head  of  his  Herulians, 
Rugiana,  Turcilingians,  and  Scyrii,  marched  against 
Pavia,  which  Orestes  had  garrisoned,  stormed  the 
city,  and  put  his  opponent  to  death  (476).     Romulus 

Abdicated,  and    withdrew  into  .obscurity.      What 
38 


became  of  him,  is  not  known.    Thus  perished  th^ 
Roman  empire.      0.  shewed  himself  to  be  a  i^isec 
moderate,  and  politic  ruler,  quite  unlike  our  general 
notion  of  a  barbarian.    In  order  not  to  ofifend  the 
Byzantine  emperor  Zeno,  he  took  the  title  of  king 
only,  and  caused  the  senate  to  despatch  to  Constan- 
tinople a  flattering  letter,  in  whicn  it  declared  one 
emperor  to  be  enough  for  both  East  and  West ; 
renounced  its  right  of  appointing  the  emperors, 
expressed  its  confidence  in  the  civil  and  military 
talents  of  O.,  and  begged  Zeno  to  confer  upon  him 
the  administration  of  Italy.     After  some  hesitation, 
the  Byzantine  emperor  yielded  to  the  entreaties 
of  the  senate,  and  0.  received  the  title  of  Patricias, 
He  fixed  his  residence  at  Ravenna.    According  to 
his  promise,  he  divided  among  his  companions  the 
third  part  of  the  laud  of  Italy — sw  measure  far  less 
unjust  than  at  first  sight  may  seem,  for  the  penin- 
sula  was    then    almost   depopulated,    and    many 
domains  were  lying  waste  and  ownerless.     This 
barbarian  ruler  did  everything  in  his  power  to  lift 
Italy  out  of  the  deplorable  coudition  into  which 
she  had  sunk,  and  to  breathe  fresh  life  into  her 
municipal  institutions  —  those  venerable  relics  of 
nobler   days!     He   even   re-established  the   con- 
sulate,  which   was   held    by  eleven  of  the    most 
illustrious  senators  in  succession,  maintained  peace 
throughout  the  peninsula,  overawed  the  Gauls  and 
Germans,  and  reconquered  Dalmatia  and  Noricum. 
In  religion,  though  an  Arian  himself,  he  acted  with 
a  kingly  impartiality  that  more  orthodox  monarchs 
have  rarely  exhibited.    Gibbon  remarks,  with  his 
usual   pointed    sarcasm,  that    the    silence   of    the 
Catholics  attests  the  toleration  which  they  enjoyed. 
The  valoiu*,  wisdom,  and  success  of  0.  appear  to 
have  excited  the  iealous^r  and  alarm  of  Zeno,  who 
encouraged  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  a 
still  greater  warrior  and  sovereign  than  O.  nimself, 
to  undertake  an  expedition  against  Italy.    The  first 
battle  was  fought  on  the  banks  of  the  Isontius 
(mod.  Isonzo)y  28th  August  489.   O.  was  beaten,  and 
retreated.    During  his  retreat,  he  hazarded  another 
battle  at  Verona,  and  was  a^ain  beaten.    He  now 
hastened  to  Rome,  to  rouse  the  inhabitants,  but  the 
^tes  of  the  city  were  closed  against  him.    Return- 
ing northwards  to  his  capital,  Ravenna,  he  reas- 
sembled the  wrecks  of  his  army,  and  in  490  once 
more    marched    against    the    Ostrogoths,    whose 
advance-guard  he  defeated,  and  pursu^  to  the  walla 
of  Pavia.    Another  great  battle  now  took  place  on 
the  banks  of  the  Adda,  when  0.  was  vanquished  for 
the  third  time.  He  now  shut  himself  up  in  Ravenna, 
where  Theodoric  besieged  him  for  three  ^ears.     O, 
then  cai)itulated,  on  condition  that  the  kingdom  of 
Italy  should  be  shared  between  him  and  Theodoria 
This  agreement  wsjb  solemnly  sworn  to  by  both 
parties,  27th  February  493 ;  but  on  the  5th  of  March, 
0.  was  assassinated  at  a  feast,  either  by  Theodoric 
himself,  or  by  his  command. 

ODO'METER  (Gr.  o<io«,  a  road,  miffr^  a  measure), 
also  called  PerajnbulcUor,  or  surveying- tolled^  is  an 
instrument  attached  to  a  carriage  or  other  vehicle, 
for  the  purpose  of  registering  the  distance  it  has 
traveUedL  Such  machines  have  been  in  use  from  an 
early  period,  and  one  is  described  by  Vitruvius  in 
that  part  of  his  work  De  Architectura  which  is 
devoted  to  machines.  The  instrument,  as  commonly 
employed,  consists  of  a  train  of  wh«?el-work, 
which  commuuicates  motion  from  the  axle  of  the 
carriage  wheel  to  an  index  which  moves  round  the 
circumference  of  a  dial  fixed  in  one  side  id  the 
carriage  over  the  axle.  The  wheel- work  is  arranged 
so  as  to  produce  a  great  diminution  of  the  velocity 
impressed  by  the  axle  of  the  vehicle,  and  the  dial  is 
so  graduated  that  the  index  can  shew  the  number  of 
miles,  furlongs,  yards,  &o.,  traversed.  The  instrument 


O'DOKNELL— (EDEMA. 


h  also  oonstnicted  to  -work  independently,  beinff 
p«  this  case  provided  with  wheels  aad  an  axle  or 
ita  own ;  when  this  is  done,  the  wheel  is  made  of 
sach  a  size  that  its  circumference  is  an  aliquot  part 
of  a  mile,  an  arrangement  which  greatly  simphfies 
the  calculation  of  the  distance  traversed.  The  oom- 
I^ete  odometer  can  then  be  drawn  along  by  a  man 
on  foot,  or  attached  behind  a  carriage. 

O'DONNBLL,  Leopold,  Duke  of  Tetuan.  Mar- 
shal of  Spain,  bom  in  1809,  is  descended  from  an 
ancient  Irish  family.  He  entered  the  Spanish  army 
when  young,  and  bravely  espoused  the  cause  of  the 
infant  Queen  Isabella  against  her  uncle,  Don  Carlos. 
When  the  Carlists  were  overthrown,  he  was  created 
Count  of  Lucena,  made  General  of  Brieade,  and 
Chief  of  the  Staff  to  Espartero.  He  took  the  side 
of  the  Queen-mother  in  1840 ;  emigrated  with  her  to 
France,  at  the  time  when  her  cause  seemed  des- 
perate; and  took  up  his  residence  at  Orleans,  where 
he  planned  many  of  the  poUtical  risings  and  disturb- 
ances which  took  place  under  the  rule  of  Espartera 
He  headed  in  person  a  revolt  of  the  Navarrese 
against  the  minister,  but  on  its  failure  returned  to 
France.  In  1843,  his  intrigues  against  Espartero 
{q.  V.)  were  successful ;  and  he  was  rewarded  by 
the  governor-generalship  of  Cuba,  where  he  amassed 
a  large  fortune  by  favouring  the  iniquitous  trade  in 
fllave&  When  he  return^  to  Spain  (1845)  he 
intrigued  against  Bravo  Murillo  and  Narvaez ;  and 
when  the  latter  was  succeeded  by  Sartorius,  0*D., 
proscribed  by  the  government,  headed  a  military 
insurrection.  Defeated,  and  driven  into  Anda- 
lusia in  1854,  he  issued  a  liberal  manifesta  The 
profligacy  of  the  court,  and  the  despotism  of  the 
government,  favoured  the  appeal ;  ana  when  Espar- 
tero gave  in  his  adhesion,  the  Spaniards  rose  en 
nauisej  and  replaced  the  ex-regent  at  the  helm. 
JBapaitero  reversed  the  confiscation  against  0*D., 
and  made  him  a  mai*shal  and  minister  of  war. 
O'D.  again  plotted  against  his  old  benefactor,  and 
in  Jidy  1856,  supplanted  him  by  a  coup  d'etat 
Blood  was  shed  in  the  streets  of  Madrid,  but  O'D. 
remain^  president  of  the  counciL  He  was  in  three 
months'  time  succeeded  by  Narvaez  ;  but  in  1858  he 
returned  to  power  again ;  and  in  1859,  while  still 
holding  the  position  of  prime  minister,  he  assumed 
tiie  command  of  the  army  sent  to  Morocco.  The 
campaign  continued  for  many  months,  without 
leadmg  either  to  reverses  or  glory.  The  Moors 
disi)layed  an  entire  absence  ot  military  qualities; 
and  0*D.,  though  successful  in  obscure  skirmishes, 
occupied  three  months  in  the  march  from  Ceuta 
to  Tetuan.  A  battle  took  place,  February  4,  1860; 
0*D.  gained  a  complete  victory,  took  the  Moorish 
camp,  and  the  city  of  Tetuan  suiTendered  to  the 
Spaniards.  The  Elmperor  of  Morocco  submitted  to 
a  loss  of  territory,  and  O'D.  was  raised  to  the  first 
rank  of  the  Spanish  nobles  as  Duke  of  Tetuan.  He 
still  (1864)  remains  prime  minister;  and  although 
his  attempts  to  gain  for  Spain  the  rank  of  a  tirst- 
daaa  Power  have  as  vet  oeen  unsuccessful,  some 
progress  is  undoubtedly  being  made  by  the  O'D. 
ministry  towards  a  regeneration  of  the  finances, 
army,  and  administration  of  Spain. 

GSCOLAMPADIUS,  Joannes— a  name  Latin- 
ised, according  to  the  fashion  of  the  a^e,  from  the 
German  JoHiLNir  Haitsscheik— one  o!  the  most 
eminent  of  the  coadjutors  of  Zwinsli  in  the  Swiss 
Beformation,  bom  in  1482  at  Weinsberg,  in  Swabia. 
His  father  destined  him  for  the  profession  of  the 
law,  and  he  studied  for  it  in  Heidelberg  and  Bologna ; 
but  yielding  to  his  own  strong  mclination,  he 
relinquished  this  study  for  that  (n  theology,  which 
he  prosecuted  at  Heidelberg.  He  then  became 
tutor  to  the  sons  of  the  Mector  Palatine,  and  subse- 


quently preacher  in  Weinsbetg.  This  cffioe  be 
resigned  m  order  to  study  the  Greek  language  under 
Reuchlin  at  Stuttgart  He  also  learned  Hebrew 
from  a  Spanish  physician,  Matthew  Adrian.  Being 
appointed  preacher  at  Basel,  he  formed  the 
acquaintance  of  Erasmus,  who  hic;hly  appreciated 
his  classical  attainments,  and  employed  his  assist- 
ance in  his  edition  of  the  New  Testament.  In  1516, 
CE.  left  Basel  for  Augsburg,  where  also  he  filled  the 
office  of  preacher,  and  where  he  entered  into  a  con- 
vent. But  Luther's  publications  exercised  so  great 
an  influence  on  him,  that  he  left  the  convent,  and 
became  chaplain  to  Franz  von  Sickingen,  after 
whose  death  he  returned  to  Basel  in  15^,  and  in 
the  capacity  of  preacher  and  professor  of  theologv, 
conmienoed  his  career  as  a  reformer.  He  held 
disputations  with  supporters  of  the  Church  of  Rome 
in  Baden  in  1526,  and  in  Bern  in  1528.  In  the 
controversy  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  he  gradu- 
ally adopted  mor^  and  more  the  views  of  Zwingli, 
and  at  last  maintained  them  in  1525,  in  a  treatise, 
to  which  the  Swabian  ministers  replied  in  the 
Syngramma  Suevicum.  In  1529  he  disputed  with 
Luther  in  the  conference  at  Marburg.  He  died  at 
Basel,  23d  November  1631,  not  long  Stter  the  death 
of  his  friend  ZwingU.     He  was  remarkable  for  his 

fentleness  of  character.  His  treatise,  De  Ritu 
^aschali\  and  his  Epiaiola  Canonicorum  Jndoctorum 
ad  Eccium^  are  the  most  noted  of  his  works.— See 
Herzog,  Das  Leben  des  Joh.  (Eoolampadius  und  die 
Rejomiation  der  Kirche  zu  Baad  (2  vols.  Basel,  1843). 

(ECUME'NICAL  (Gr.  aikoumenike,  'of,  or  belong, 
ing  to,  the  oikoum/Rne^^  'the  world'),, the  name  given 
to  councils  of  the  entire  church,  and  synonymous 
with  the  more  ordinary  name  *  general.'  See 
Council.  The  conditions  necessary  to  constitute 
an  oecumenical  council  are  a  sitbiect  of  much  con- 
troversy. As  the  subject  is  of  less  importance 
in  Protestant  divinity,  it  will  be  enough  to  explain 
here  that  a  council  is  said  by  Roman  Catholic 
divines  to  be  oecumenical  in  three  different  ways : 
viz.,  in  convocation,  in  celebration,  and  in  accepta- 
tion. For  the  first,  the  summons  of  the  pope,  direct 
or  indirect,  is  held  to  be  necessary ;  this  summons 
must  be  addressed  to  all  the  bishops  of  the  entire 
church.  To  the  second,  it  is  necessary  that  bishops 
from  all  parts  of  the  church  should  be  present, 
and  in  sufficient  numbers  to  constitute  a  really 
representative  assembly :  they  must  be  presided 
over  by  the  pope,  or  a  delegate  or  delegates  of 
the  poiie ;  and  they  must  enjoy  liberty  of  discus- 
sion and  of  speech.  For  the  third,  the  decrees  of 
the  council  must  be  accepted  by  the  pope,  and  by 
the  body  of  the  bishops  throughout  the  church,  at 
least  tacitly.  The  last  of  these  conditions  is 
absolutely  required  to  entitle  the  decrees  of  a 
coun<dl  to  the  character  of  oecumenical ;  and  even 
the  decrees  of  provincial  or  national  councils  so 
accepted,  may  acquire  all  the  weieht  of  infallible 
decisions,  in  the  eyes  of  Roman  Catholics. 

(EDE'MA  (Gr.  a  aweUing)  is  the  term  applied  in 
Medicine  to  the  swelling  occasioned  by  the  effusion  or 
infiltration  of  serum  into  cellular  or  areolar  structures. 
The  subcutaneous  cellular  tissue  is  the  most  common, 
but  is  not  the  only  seat  of  this  affection.  It  is 
occasionally  observed  in  the  submucous  and  sub- 
serous cellular  tissue,  and  in  the  cellular  tissue  of  the 
parenchymatous  viscera ;  and  in  some  of  these  cases, 
it  gives  rise  to  symptoms  which  admit  of  easy 
recognition  during  life.  Thus  oedema  of  the  glottiiB 
(see  JLiABYNX)  and  oedema  of  the  lungs  constitute 
well-marked  and  serious  forms  of  disease;  while 
oedema  of  the  brain,  though  not  easily  recognised 
during  life,  is  not  uncommonly  met  with  in  the 

pogt'tnariem  examination  of  insane  patients. 

8f 


(EDIPUa— (EHLENSCHLAGEB. 


CUdema  may  be  either  passive  or  active,  the 
former  being  by  far  the  most  common.  Passive 
(Edema  arises  from  impeded  venons  circulation 
(as  from  obstruction  or  obliteration  of  one  or 
more  veins ;  from  varicose  veins ;  from  standing 
continuously  for  long  periods,  till  the  force  of  the 
eirculation  is  partly  overcome  by  the  physical  action 
of  gravitation ;  from  deficiency  in  the  action  of  the 
adjacent  muscles,  which  in  health  materially  aids 
the  venous  circulation,  &a) ;  from  too  weak  action 
^of  the  heart'  (as  in  dilatation  or  certain  forms  of 
valvular  disease  of  that  organ) ;  or  from  a  too  watery 
or  otherwise  diseased  state  of  the  blood  (as  in  chlo- 
rosis, scurvy,  Bright's  disease,  &a).  By  means  of 
the  knowledge  derived  from  pathological  anatomy, 
we  can  often  infer  the  cause  from  the  seat  of  the 
swelling ;  for  example,  oedema  of  the  face,  usually 
commencing  with  tne  eyelids,  is  commonly  caused 
by  obstruction  to  the  circulation  through  the  left 
side  of  the  heart,  or.  by  the  diseased  state  of  the 
blood  in  Bhght's  disease ;  and  oedema  of  the  lower 
extremities  most  commonly  arises  from  obstruction 
in  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  unless  it  can  be  traced 
to  the  pressure  of  the  gravid  uterus,  or  of  accumu- 
lated fiBces  in  the  colon,  or  to  some  other  local 
cause. 

Active  (Edema  is  associated  with  an  inflammatory 
action  of  the  cellular  tissue,  and  is  most  marked  in 
certain  forms  of  erysipelas.  It  is  firmer  to  the 
touch,  and  pressure  with  the  finger  produces  less 
pitting  than  in  the  passive  form. 

From  the  preceding  remarks,  it  will  be  seen  that 
oedema  is  not  a  disease,  but  a  symptom,  and  often 
a  symptom  indicating  great  danger  to  life.  The 
means  of  removing  it  must  be  directed  to  the 
morbid  condition  or  cause  of  which  it  is  the 
symptom. 

CE'DIPUS  (Gr.  Oidipous),  the  hero  of  a  cele- 
brated legend,  which,  thouzh  of  the  most  revolting 
nature  in  itself,  has  supplied  both  Euripides  and 
Sophocles  with  the  subject-matter  of  some  of  their 
most  celebrated  tragedies.    The  story,  as  generally 
related,  is  as  follows:   0.  was  the  son  of  Laius, 
king  of  Thebes,  by  Jocaste;  but  his  father  having 
consulted  the  oracle  to  ascertain  whether  he  should 
have  any  issue,  was  informed  that  his  wife  would 
bring  forth  a  son,  by  whom  he  (Laius)  should  ulti- 
matdy  be  slain.    Determined  to  avert  so  terrible  an 
omen,  Laius  ordered  the  son  which  Jocaste  bare 
him  to  have  his  feet  pierced  through,  and  to  be 
exposed  to  perish  on  Mount  Cithaeron.      In  this 
helpless  condition,  C&  was  discovered  by  a  herds- 
man,   and    conveyed    to    the   court    of    Polybiis, 
king  of  Corinth,  who,  in  allusion  to  the  swollen 
leet  of  the  child,  named  him  (Edipiis  (from  oid^o, 
to  swell,  and  pous,  the  foot) ;  and  along  with  his 
wife,  Merope,  brought   him   up  as  his  own  son. 
Having  come  to  man's  estate,  (£.  was  one  day 
taunted  with  the  obscurity  of  his  origin,  and  in 
consequence  proceeded  to  jDelphi,  to  consult  the 
oracle.    The  response  which  he  received  was,  that 
he  would  slay  his  father,  and  commit  incest  with 
his  mother.    To  eecai>e  this  fate,  he  avoided  return- 
ing   to    Corinth,    and    proceeded    to    Thebes,    on 
approaching  which  he  encountered  the  chariot  of 
his  father ;  and  the  charioteer  ordering  hifn  out  of 
the  way,  a  quarrel  ensued,  in  which  (£.  ignorantly 
slew  Laius,  and  thus  unconsciously  fulfilled  the  first 
part  of  the  oracle.    The  famous  Sphinx  (q.  v.)  now 
appeared  near  Thebes,  and  seating  herself  on  a  rock, 
propounded  a  riddle  to  every  one  who  passed  by, 
putting  to  death  all  who  failed  to  solve  it.    The 
terror  of  the  Thebans  was  extreme,  and  in  desjiair 
they  offered  the  kingtlom,  together  with  the  hand  of 
the  queen,  to  the  person  who  should  be  successful 
in    delivering   it  from    the    monster.      (K    came 


forward;  the  Sphinx  asked  him,  'What  being  has 
four  feet,  two  feet,  and  three  feet ;  only  one  voice ; 
but  whose  feet  vary,  and  when  it  has  most,  ii 
weakest  ?'  (E.  replied  that  it  was  *  Man ; '  where- 
upon the  Sphinx  threw  itself  headlong  from  the 
rock.  (£.  now  became  king,  and  husband  of  his 
mother,  Jocaste.  From  their  incestuous  union 
sprung  Eteocles,  Polynices,  Antigone,  and  Ismene. 
A  mysterious  plague  now  devastated  the  coimtry, 
and  when  the  oracle  declared  that  before  it  could  be 
stayed,  the  murderer  of  Laius  should  be  banished 
from  the  country,  CEL  was  told  by  the  prophet 
Tiresias  that  he  himself  had  both  murdered  his 
father  and  committed  incest  with  his  mother.  In 
his  horror  he  put  out  his  own  eyes,  that  he  might  no 
more  look  upon  his  fellow-creatures,  while  Jocaste 
hanged  herself.  Driven  from  his  throne  by  his  sons 
and  nis  brother-in-law,  Creon,  CE.  wandered  towards 
Attica,  accompanied  by  Antigone,  and  took  refuge 
in  the  grove  of  the  Eumenides,  who  charitabry 
removed  him  from  earth;  but  the  latter  part  of  his 
life  is  differentiy  told. 

(EHLENSOHLAGER,    Adam    Gottlob,    the 
greatest  poet  of  Northern  Europe,  was  bom  in  1779 
at  Copennagen.    His  early  years  were  spent  at  the 
palace  of  Fredericksborg,  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Danish  capital,  where  his  father  was  employed, 
first  as  organisti  and  afterwards  as  steward  or  bailifl^ 
During  the    absence  of   the  royal  family  in    the 
winter,  (E.  and  his  sister  amused  themselves  in 
roaming  over  the  palace,  and  examining  the  paint* 
ings  and  works  of  art  which  it  contained,  and  in 
improvising  private  theatricals,  for  which  he  sup- 
plied original  pieces.    After  an  irregular  and  desiu- 
tory  course  of  education,  CE.'s  love  of  the  drama  led 
him  to   offer  his  services  to  the  manager  of  the 
Copenhagen  theatre ;  but  discovering  soon  that  he 
had  no  chance  of  rising  above  the  rank  of  a  mere 
supernumerary,  he  entered  the  university  of  Copen- 
hagen  as  a  student  of  law.    For  a  time,  he  seems  to 
have  pursued  his  studies  with  tolerable  assidinty, 
under  the  direction  of  his  friend,  A.  8.   Oersted, 
who,  together  with  his  distinguished  brother,  H. 
C.  Oerstied  (q.  v.)  had  cemented  a  lifelong  friendship 
with  him.  <E.'s  studies  were  interrupted  in  ISOl, 
when,  on   the    bombardment    of    Copenhagen  by 
Nelson  and  Parker,  he  and  his  friends  served  in 
the  student-corps  of  volunteers.    After  this  event, 
which  roused  the  dormant  patriotism  of  the  nation, 
(E    found   the    study   of    law   too   irksome,    and 
devoted  all  his  energies  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
history  and  mythology  of  his  own  country.      In 
1803,  appeared  his  first  collection  of  poems,  including 
one  longer  dramatic  pieces   St  Hans   Aften-SpU^ 
which  attracted   favourable  notice  for  the   lively 
fancy  with  which  national  habits  and  local  charao- 
teristics  were  portrayed.    The  VatUunders  Saga  in 
the   Poeiiske  Skrifter,  published  in   1805,  and   his 
Aladdin* sforunderlige  Lampe,  oompleted  his  success, 
and  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  we  first  of  living 
Danish  poets ;  the  former  of  these  works  having 
shewn  a  marvellous  capacity  for  reflecting  the  dark 
and  stem  colouring  of  the  old  northern  SaG:aa,  while 
the  latter  gave  evidence  of  a  rich  and  genial  poetio 
fancy.     These  early  efforts  were  rewarded  by  the 
acquisition  of  a  travelling  pension,  which    enabled 
him  to  si)end  some  years  m  visiting  various  parte 
of  the  continent,  and  oecoming  acouainted  with  the 
great  literary  celebrities  of  we  day,  such,  as   the 
Weimar  circle  of  whom  Goethe  was  the  head.     CEL 
was  not  idle  with  his  pen  during  this    period   of 
comparative  recreation,  for  in  1807  he   wrote  his 
HaJeon  Jarl,  the  first  of  his  long  series  of  northern 
tragedies,  at  Halle ;  and  in  18(3,  he  compoeed  his 
Corrtggio    at    Rome.      In    1810,    CE.    returned    to 
Denmark,  where  he  was  hailed  with   acclamation 


fSSL  DE  B<EUF— -OSI 


Copenh 
fttliowei 


M  tba  gre&test  tngio  poet  Denm&rk  hod  ever 
knoim;  and  haTiug  soon  ofterwtu-ila  obtaioed  tht 
chur  af  esthetics  at  the  imiTenity,  uad  receiveo 
luiona  lulmtiLtitial  proofs  of  royal  faTour,  he 
m»nied,  and  settled  in  the  capital,  where  his  pettoo 
WM,  however,  rudely  dUturbed  by  a.  literaiy  feud 
Titfa  Baggeseo,  the  Daoisli  poet  aai)  critic,  whose 
poetical  sapremacy  bad  been  auperseded  by  that 
of  aadenBchlagar.  In  1619  app^ed  one  of  (E's 
moBt  masterly  productions,  Jfordau  Ouder,  aad 
this  and  the  numerous  dramatic  compositions  written 
about  the  Nune  period,  shew  that  the  levere  criti- 
ciini  to  which  his  writings  had  been  exposed  durinj; 
the  celebrated  Baggesen  quarrel,  had  corrected  some 
o[  Uie  faults,  and  l»Beaed  the  self-conceit  which  had 
characterised  his  earlier  works.  His  reputation 
(pread  with  his  increasing  years  both  abroad  and 
.t  home ;  and  after  having  repeatedly 


ovation  ;  and  after  having  received  repeated  marka 
of  friendahip  from  various  sovereigna.  he  was 
honoured  in  bis  own  countxy  by  tbe  celebration,  in 
1S49,  of  a  grand  public  festival  held  in  the  palace  at 
enhagen.  But  this  ovation  was  unfortunately 
wed  in  leas  than  two  months  by  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  Januai?  1850.  His  fnuenJ  was 
kept  IS  a  national  solemnity,  and  he  was  followed 
to  the  grave  by  a  civic  procession,  which  included 
memberB  of  every  class  of  society,  from  princes  to 
aitisana.  The  fame  of  CE.  will  rest  principally  on 
his  tragedies,  of  whicb  he  wrote  24,  19  of  the 
number  being  on  northern  subjects.  These  were 
all  composed  ori^ually  in  Danisb,  and  re-written 
by  himself  in  German.  Besides  those  already 
referred  to,  the  best  are  Kaud  den  Store,  Painatoke, 
Atd  og  Walhorg,  Veeringfrite  i  Miklagord. 
poems  are  for  the  moat  uai-'   -—'■'' •    — 

Danish  and  German  works  amount  in  all  to  62 
VDlumeB,  to  whioh  must  bo  added  4  volumes  of 
hii  Erindringar,  or  Autolnographical  StcolUcliont, 
published  after  bis  death. 

(EIL  DB  BtETTF,  a  French  tsrm  literally 
signifying  oz'a  eye,  appbed  in  architecture  to  those 
small  round  or  oval  openings  in  the  frieze  or  roof  of 
}trp!  buildings,  which  serve  to  give  light  to  spaces 
otherwise  dark.  The  most  famous  is  that  in  the 
anteroom  (where  tbe  courtiers  waited)  of  the 
royal  chamber  at  Versaillea.  which  gave  name  to 
tbe  apartnieut.  Hence  the  expression,  Lt»  Faatrs 
dt  f(Sil-de'B<iii/—i.e.,  Uie  history  of  the  courtiers 
of  the  Grand  Monarquc^  and  1^  extension,  of 
BDortiart  in  geneiaL 

<E'LiAND,  a  long  and  narrow  island  in  the  Baltic, 
lying  off  the  eastern  coast  of  Sweden,  opposite  to. 
and  forming  part  of,  the  1^  of  Kalmar,  and  at  a 
distance  of  irom  4  to  17  miles  from  the  shore.  It 
i)  8a  miles  in  length,  and  from  2  to  6  miles  in 
breadth.     The  ai«a  is  588  st^uare  miles,  and  the 


ant,  and  his 


pop.  35,000.  Tbe  island,  which  is  scarcely 
than  a  lime  cliS,  is  scantily  covered  with  soil,  but 
in  wme  parts  it  is  well  wooded,  and  has  good 
pasture- ground,  which  is  turned  to  account  by 
the  islanders,  who  rear  cattle,  horses,  and  sheen. 
In  favourable  seasons,  barley,  oats,  and  flax  yield 
good  crops.  The  dahing  is  eioellont  all  round  the 
coasta.  There  are  Lu-ge  alum-works  on  the  island, 
and  an  extensive  line  of  wind-mills  along  the  range 
id  the  Alwar  Hills,  near  whioh  standi  Borgholm 
(pop.  £73),  the  only  town  on  the  island,  tbe  first 
ioondationa  of  which  were  laid  in  1817.  To  tbe 
aorth  of  the  island  lies  the  ateep  but  wooded 
islaad-diS;  the  Jungfruen,  or  Blaakulla,  which  bears 
tbe  mythical  reputatioa  <k  having  been  tbe  scene  of 


various  deeds  of  witchcraft,  and  the  fi 
of  wizards  and  witches. 

OELS,  a  small  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  stand* 
on  a  plain  ou  the  Oelaa,  or  Oelse,  18  miles  east- 
north-east  of  Breslau,  Its  castle,  built  in  1558.  ia 
surrounded  by  ramparts  and  ditchee.  It  contuna 
a  gymnasium,  several  churches,  and  other  publio 
edifices.  Pop  UljSS,  who  cany  on  mauufacturea 
of  linens  and  cloth  goods. 

CBNANTHY'LIO  AOID  (CnHi,Oj.HO)  is  one  of 
tlie  volatile  fatty  acids  of  the  general  formula 
''miHtnOf.  It  is  a  colourless  oily  fluid,  with  an 
aromatic  odour,  lighter  than  water,  and  insoluble  in 
that  fluid,  but  diasolviog  readdy  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  According  to  MiUer  (Organic  CAeiaialrj/,  3d 
ed.  p.  356),  it  may  be  exposed  to  a  cold  of  0°  with- 
out becoming  solid ;  while  it  boils  and  may  be 
distilled  (with  partial  deaomposition)  at  298°.  It  it 
(like  many  of  the  allied  fatty  acids)  one  of  the 
products  of  the  oxidation  of  Oleic  AJ^id  (q.  v.)  by 
nitric  acid,  and  is  likewise  yielded  by  the  action  of 
nitric  acid  on  castor  oil,  wax,  and  various  fata.  Its 
most  characteristic  salt  is  the  cenanthylate  of  copper, 
which  crystallises  in  beautiful  green  needles. 

(EN OTHE'RA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Onajractm  {q.  v.),  havmg  four  petals  and 
eight  stameos,  the  calyx-limb  4-cleft,  the  segments 
reaoxedj  the  capsule  4-valved,  with  many  naked 
seeds.  TheEvBtHNaPniMBOBB  ({£.  Jiitnnu), a  native 
of  Virginia,  has  been  known  in  Europe  since  161^ 
and  is  now  naturalised  in  many  parti  of  Europe 


Eveidng  Frimroie  {(SnoOixra  bitmtUi : 

«  dinslKl  o(  wl^i  >nd  »rall».  to  tben  Um 

rraoUfloIioii ;  fc,  luberoui  root. 


thickets,  ou  sandy  grounds,  to.  It  is  a  b 
plant,  and  produces  in  the  first  year  elliptic  or 
obovate  obtuse  leaves,  and  in  tbe  second  year  a  stem 
of  ij — 4  feet  high,  which  bears  at  its  summit  num- 
erous yellow  flowers  in  a  leafy  suike.  The  flowers 
are  frwfant  in  the  evening.  The  root  somewhat 
rraemUes  a  carrot  in  shape,  but  ia  abort ;  it  i* 
usually  red,  fleshy,  and  tender  ;  it  is  eaten  in  salads 
or  in  soups,  and  as  a  boiled  vegetable.  Tlie  plant  is 
often  cuhivated  for  tbe  sake  of  its  large  yellow 
flowers  Several  other  species  of  (Eaoliiera,  natives 
ui  North  America,  are  ocuaaionally  cultivated  in  our 
gardens,  and  have  eatable  and  pleasant  roots. 

OERB'BKO,  an  inland  town  of  Sweden,  capital 
of  a  lUn  of  the  same  name,  is  situated  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Bwart-Elf  into  the  Heilmor  lake. 


OERSTED— (ESOPHAGUS. 


IJO  miles  west  of  Stockholm.  Pop.  in  1861,  7742. 
Ihe  town  still  retains  many  memonalB  of  its  earlier 
prosperity,  when  it  was  frequently  the  residence 
of  the  Swedish  rulers,  who  found  its  central  position 
in  the  more  fertile  southern  portion  of  the  mngdom 
favourable  both  in  regard  to  safety  and  pleasantness 
of  site.  The  old  castle  was  budt  by  jBerger  Jarl 
in  the  Idth  c,  and  was  in  after- times  frequently 
chosen  as  the  seat  of  the  national  diets.  0.  has 
manufactories  of  wax-cloth,  carpets,  wooUen  goods, 
stockings,  guns,  and  mirrors ;  and  these  industrial 
products,  together  with  the  minerals  obtained  from 
the  neighbouring  silver,  cop}>er,  and  iron  mines,  are 
conveyed  to  Gothenborg  and  Stockholm  by  means 
of  the  extensive  system  of  canals  which  connects 
the  lakes  of  the  interior  with  the  maritime  ports. 

OERSTED,  Hans  Chkistian,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  scientific  discoverers  and  physicists  of 
modem  times,  was  bom  in  1777  at  Ruokjobing,  on 
the  Danish  island  of  Langeland,  where  his  father 
practised  as  an  apothecary.  In  1794,  he  entered 
the  university  of  Copenhagen,  where  he  took  the 
degree  of  doctor  of  philosophy  in  1799,  and  soon 
afterwards  became  assistant  to  the  professor  of 
medicine,  in  which  capacity  he  gave  lectures 
on  chemistry  and  natural  philosophy.  In  1806, 
after  having  enjoyed  a  travelling  scholarship  for 
several  years,  and  visited  Holland,  the  greater  part 
of  Germany,  and  Paris,  he  was  appoints  extraoixli- 
nary  professor  of  natural  philosopny  in  the  imiversity 
of  Copenhagen.  In  1812  he  a^ain  visited  Germany 
and  France,  after  having  published  a  manual  under 
the  title  of  VidenthaJben  <mr  Naturen^s  Almindelige 
Love,  and  F&riUe  Indledning  til  den  Almindelige 
NaturUxre  (1811).  During  ms  residence  at  Berlin, 
he  wrote  his  famoius  essay  on  the  identity  of 
chemical  and  electrical  forces,  in  which  he  first 
developed  the  ideas  on  which  were  based  his  great 
discovery  of  the  intimate  connection  existing  between 
magnetism  and  electricity  and  galvanism — a  treatise 
which,  during  his  residence  in  Paris,  he  translate 
into  French,  m  conjunction  with  Marcel  de  Serres. 
In  1819,  he  made  known  these  important  tmths  in 
a  Latin  essay,  entitled  Experhnenta  drca  JCfficaciam 
Conflictus  hiectrid  in  acum  Magneticam,  which  he 
addressed  to  all  the  scientific  societies  and  the 
leading  savans  of  Europe  and  America,  and  thus 
made  good  his  claim  to  be  regarded  as  the  originator 
of  the  new  science  of  electro-magnetism.  This 
discovery,  which  formed  one  of  the  most  important 
eras  in  the  history  of  modem  physical  science, 
obtained  for  0.  the  Copley  Medal  from  the  Royal 
Society  of  England,  and  the  principal  mathematical 
prize  in  the  gift  of  the  Institute  of  Paris.  The 
oriffinal  and  leading  idea  of  this  great  discovery 
had  been  in  his  mind  sinoe  1800,  when  the  disco- 
very of  the  galvanic  battery  by  Volta  had  first 
led  him  to  enter  upon  a  course  of  experiments  on 
the  production  of  galvanic  electricity.  The  enun- 
ciation of  his  theory  of  electro-magnetism  was 
followed  by  many  important  experiments  in  regard 
to  the  compression  of  water,  and  by  numerous 
other  chemical  discoveries,  among  which  we  may 
instance  his  demonstration  of  the  existence  of  the 
metal  aluminium  in  alumina.  The  influence  which 
O.  exerted  on  the  science  of  the  day  by  his  dis> 
coveries,  was  recognised  by  the  learned  in  every 
country,  and  honours  increased  upon  him  with 
increasing  years.  He  was  corresponding  member 
of  the  French  Institute,  perpetual  secretary  to  the 
jRoyal  Society  of  Sciences  in  Copenhagen,  a  knight 
of  the  Prussian  Order  of  Ment,  of  the  French 
Legion  of  Honour,  and  of  the  Danish  Order  of  the 
Dannebrc^,  and  a  councillor  of  state.  O. ^s  great  object 
through  iSe  was  to  nuvke  science  popular  among  all 
classes,  in  furtherance  of  which  he  wrote  numerous 


works,  contributed  scientific  papers  to  the  ne wspapen 
and  magazines  of  his  own  country  and  Germany, 
and  in  addition  to  his  regular  prelections  in  the 
university,  «ive  courses  of  popular  scientific  lectures 
to  the  public  including  ladies.  Among  the  works 
specially  written  to  promote  the  diffusion  of  scien- 
tific knowledge,  those  best  known  are  Aandmi 
Naturen  (Kop.  1845),  and  Natur-keren's  Meckanitehe 
Ded  (Kop.  1847),  both  of  which  have  been  trans- 
lated into  several  other  European  languages.  The 
majority  of  his  more  imi)ortant  physical  andchemical 
papers  are  contained  in  Poggendorff's  Annalen,  and 
were  written  by  him  in  German  or  French,  both  of 
which  he  wrote  with  the  same  faciUty  as  his  own 
language.  At  the  close  of  1850,  a  national  jubilee 
was  held  in  honour  of  the  50th  anniversary  of  his 
connection  with  the  university  of  Copenhagen — a 
festival  which  he  did  not  lon^  survive,  as  his  death 
occurred  at  Copenhagen  9th  March  1851.  A  public 
funeral,  attended  by  all  persons  distinguished  b^ 
rank  or  learning  in  the  Danish  capital,  bore  testi- 
mony to  the  respect  and  esteem  with  wluch  he  was 
regarded  by  his  fellow-citizens,  among  whom  his 
memory  is  cherished,  not  merely  as  one  of  the 
greatest  scientific  benefactors  of  his  times,  but  as 
a  man  who  contributed  lai^y,  by  Ms  eloquent  and 
earnest  advocacy  of  liberal  principles,  to  the  attain- 
ment of  the  high  degree  of  constitutional  fr^dom 
which  Denmark  now  enjoys. 

CESO'PHAGUS  (Gr.  oio,  to  convey,  and  j9^em, 
to  eat),  or  GULLET,  a  membranous  canal,  about  nine 
inches  in  length,  extending  from  the  pharynx  to  the 
stomach,  and  thus  forming  a  part  of  the  ahmentary 
canaL  It  commences  at  the  lower  border  of  the 
cricoid  cartilage  of  the  larynx,  descends  in  a  nearly 
vertical  direction  along  the  front  of  the  spine, 
passes  through  an  opening  in  the  diaphragm,  and 
thus  enters  the  abdomen,  and  terminates  in  the 
cardiac  orifice  of  the  stomach,  opjxisite  the  ninth 
dorsal  vertebra.  It  has  three  coats — ^viz.,  an  exter- 
nal or  muscular  coat  (consisting  of  two  strata  of 
fibres  of  considerable  thickness— an  external,  longi- 
tudinal, and  an  internal,  circular) ;  an  internal  or 
mucous  coat,  which  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer 
of  squamous  epithelium ;  and  an  intermediate  cella- 
lar  coat,  uniting  the  muscular  and  mucous  coats. 
In  this  tissue  are  ft  large  number  of  osopha^eal 
glands,  which  open  upon  the  surface  by  a  &ng 
excretory  duct,  and  are  most  numerous  round  the 
cardiac  orifice,  where  they  form  a  complete  ring. 

The  oesophagus  is  liable  to  a  considerable  number 
of  morbid  changes,  none  of  which  are,  howeverp 
of  very  common  occurrence. 

The  most  prominent  sjrmptom  of  (Esophagitia, 
or  Inflammation  of  the  (EsophaguSf  is  pain  between 
the  shoulders,  or  behind  the  tnichea  or  sternum, 
augmented  in  deglutition,  which  is  usuallv  more  or 
less  difficult,  and  sometimes  impossible.  The  affec- 
tion is  regarded  as  a  very  rare  one,  unless  when  it 
originates  from  the  direct  application  of  irritating  or 
very  hot  substances,  or  from  mechanical  violence  ■— 
as,  for  instance,  from  the  unskilful  application  of  the 
stomach-pump  or  probang.  Dr  Coplaud,  however, 
is  of  opinion  that  it  is  not  unfreqneiit  in  children, 
particularly  during  infancy,  and  observes  that 
*  when  the  milk  is  wrown  up  unchanged,  we  should 
always  suspect  the  existence  of  iufiammation  of 
the  oesophagus.'  The  ordinary  treatment  employed 
in  inflammatory  diseases  must  be  adopted  ;  and  if 
inability  to  swallow  exists,  nourishing  liquids,  anch 
as  strong  beef-tea,  must  be  injected  mto  the  lower 
bowel 

Spasm  of  the  (Esophagua-^A  morbid  mnsctilar  oon* 
traction  of  the  tube,  proiducing  more  or  less  difficulty 
of  swallowing — ^is  a  much  more  common  affeotioa 
than  inflammation.    The  spasm  generally  oumes  oa 


(ESOPHAGUS-OFFER  AND  ACCEPTANCE. 


raddenly  dnring  a  meaL  Upon  an  attempt  to  swallow, 
the  food  is  arrested,   ana    is    either  immediately 
rejected  with  considerable  force,  or  is  retained  for 
a  time,  and  then  brought  up  by  regurgitation ;  the 
former  happening  when  the  contraction  takes  place 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  canal,  and  the  latter  when 
it  is  near  the  lower  part     In  some  cases,  solids  can 
be  swallowed,  while  liquids  excite  8]1asm ;   while 
in  other  casen  the  opposite  is  observed ;  but  in 
general  either  solids  or  liquids  suffice  to  excite  the 
contraction,  when  a   predisposition    to    it    exists. 
The  predisposition  usually  consists  in  an  excitable 
state   of   tne  nervous  system,  such  aa   exists    in 
hysteria,  hypochondriasis,  and  generally  in  a  debili> 
tated    condition    of   the   body.      An  attack  may 
consisit  of  a  single   paroxysm,  lasting  only  a  few 
hours,  or  it  may  be  more  or  less  persistent  for 
months  or  even  years.     The   treatment  must  be 
directed  to  the  establishment  of  the  general  health, 
by   the    administration    of    tonics    and    anti-spas- 
modics,  by  attention  to  the  bowels  and  the  vari- 
ous secretions,  by  exercise  in  the  open  air,  the 
shower-bath,  a  nutritious  diet,   &c. ;   and  by  the 
avoidance  of  the  excessive  use  of  strong  tea,  coffee, 
and  tobaoca      Care  must  also    be  taken  not  to 
swallow  anything  imperfectly  masticated  or  too  hot ; 
and  the  occasional  passage  of  a  bougie  is  recom- 
mended*   Brodie  relates  a  case  that  ceased  spontane- 
ously on  the  removal  of  bleeding  piles.    Strvchnia 
is  deserving  of  a  trial  when  other  means  fail ;  and 
if  the  affection  assume  a  decidedly  periodic  form, 
quinia  will  usually  prove  an  effectual  remedy. 

Paralysis  of  the  (Eaophagus  is  present  in  certain 
forms  of  organic  disease  of  the  brain  or  spinal  cord, 
which  are  seldom  amenable  to  treatment,  and  is 
often  a  very  important  part  of  the  palsy  that  so 
frequently  occurs  in  the  most  severe  and  chronic 
cases  of  insanity.  In  this  affection  there  is  inability 
to  swallow,  but  no  pain  or  other  symptom  of  spasm  ; 
aad  a  bougie  may  be  passed  without  obstruction. 
The  patient  must  be  fed  by  the  stomach-pump,  and 
nutrient  injections  of  strong  beef-tea  should  be 
thrown  into  the  lower  boweL 

Pei-nianent  or  Organic  Stricture  of  the  (Esophagus 
may  arise  from  inflammatory  thickening  and  indura- 
tion of  its  coats,  or  from  scirrhous  and  other  forma- 
tions, situated  either  in  the  walls  of  or  external  to 
the  tube.  The  most  common  seat  of  this  affection 
ii  at  its  upper  part  The  symptoms  are  persistent 
and  ^;radually  mcreasins  difficidty  of  swallowing, 
occasionally  aggravated  l>y  fits  of  spasm ;  and  a 
bougie,  when  passed,  alwajrs  meets  with  resistance 
at  tne  same  spot  When  the  contraction  is  due 
to  inflammatoiy  thickening,  it  may  arise  from  the 
abuse  of  alcoholic  drinks,  or  from  swallowing  boiling 
or  corrosive  fluids ;  and  it  is  said  that  it  has  been 
induced  by  violent  retching  in  sea-sicknesa  If 
unrelieved,  the  disease  must  prove  fatal,  either 
by  ulceration  of  the  tube  around  the  seat  of  the 
stricture,  or  by  sheer  starvation.  When  the  affec- 
tion originates  in  inflammation,  some  advantage 
may  be  derived  from  a  mild  course  of  mercurv, 
occasional  leeching,  and  narcotics ;  and  especialfv 
from  the  occasional  passage  of  a  bougie,  of  a  ball- 
probang  (an  ivory  ball  attached  to  a  piece  of  whale- 
bone), or  of  a  piece  of  sponge  moistened  with  a 
weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver.  If  it  is  dependent 
upon  malignant  disease,  and  the  tissues  have  become 
softened  by  the  infiltration  of  the  morbid  deposit, 
the  bougie  must  be  directed  with  the  greatest  care 
through  the  stricture,  as  a  false  passage  may  be 
easily  made  into  important  adjacent  cavities. 

Foreign  bodies  not  very  unfrequently  pass  into 
the  oesophaguB,  and  become  impacted  there,  giving 
fiae  to  a  sense  of  choking  and  tits  of  suffocative 
eougbf    especially  when    tLey  are    seated    in  its 


upper  part  They  may  not  only  cause  immediate 
death  by  exciting  spasm  of  the  gh'ttis,  but  if 
allowed  to  remain,  may  excite  ulceration  of  the 
parts,  and  thus  cause  death  by  exhaustion.  II 
the  body  is  small  and  sharp  (a  fish-bone,  for 
example),  it  may  often  be  got  rid  of  by  making 
the  patient  swallow  a  large  mouthful  of  bread ; 
if  it  is  lar^e  and  soft  (such  as  too  lar^e  a  mouthful 
of  meat),  it  may  generally  be  pushed  down  into  the 
stomach  with  tne  proban^ ;  while  large  hard  bodies 
(such  as  pieces  of  bone)  should  be  brought  up  either 
by  the  action  of  an  emetic,  or  by  long  curved  forceps. 
If  the  offending  body  can  neither  be  brought  up 
nor  pushed  down,  it  must  be  extracted  oy  the 
operation  of  (Esophagotomtf — an  operation  which  can 
only  be  performed  when  the  imjiacted  body  is  not 
very  low  down,  and  which  it  is  unnecessary  to 
describe  in  these  page& 

(E'STRIDiE,  a  family  of  dipterous  insects,  having 
a  mere  rudimentary  proboscis  or  none,  the  palpi 
also  sometimes  wanting,  and  the  mouth  reduced  to 
three  tubercles ;  the  antennae  short  and' enclosed  in 
a  cavity  in  the  forepart  of  the  head ;  the  abdomen 
large.  They  are  generally  very  hairy,  the  hair 
often  coloured  in  rings.  They  resemble  flesh-flies 
in  their  general  appearance,  and  are  nearly  allied  to 
Muscidce.  The  jierfect  insect  is  very  short-lived. 
The  females  deposit  their  eggs  on  different  species 
of  herbivorous  mammalia,  each  insect  being  limited 
to  a  particular  kind  of  quadruped,  and  selecting  for 
its  eggs  a  situation  on  the  animal  suitable  to  the 
habits  of  the  larva,  which  are  different  in  different 
species,  although  the  larvffi  of  all  the  8})ecies  are 
{mrasites  of  herbivorous  quadrupeds.  The  characters 
and  habits  of  some  of  the  most  notable  8i)ecies  are 
described  in  the  article  BoT.  Animals  seem  gener- 
ally to  have  a  strong  instinctive  dread  of  me  0. 
which  infest  them. 

O'FFENBACH,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river  Main, 
w^ithin  the  domains  of  the  Princes  of  Isenburg- 
Birstein,  4  miles  south-east  of  Frankfurt  Pop.  (1861) 
16,685.  0.  is  pleasantly  situated  in  one  of  the 
richest  parts  of  the  valley  of  the  Main,  and  is  one 
of  the  most  important  manufactuiing  towns  in  the 
province.  Among  the  industrial  products,  its 
carriages  have  acquired  a  pre-eminent  character  for 
excellence;  and  next  to  these,  stand  its  book- 
bindings, articles  of  jewellery,  gold  and  silver  goods, 
carpets,  and  silk  fabrics.  It  nas  also  good  manu- 
factories of  wax-cloth,  papier-m&ch6  snuff-boxes, 
tin-lackered  wares,  umbrellas  and  parasols,  wax- 
candles,  leather,  hats,  tobacco,  sugar,  and  ginger- 
bread and  spiced  cakes.  0.  has  several  churches, 
and  a  Jewish  synagogue.  The  palace  is  the  winter 
residence  of  the  Isenburg-Birstein  family,  to  whom 
the  old  castle,  now  in  ruins,  also  belongs.  A 
pontoon-bridge  across  the  river,  and  a  railway  to 
Frankfurt,  facilitate  intercommunication,  and  tend 
materially  towards  the  maintenance  of  its  active 
trade. 

OFFENCES  AGAINST  RELIGION, 
PUBLIC  PEACE,  &c.    See  Rkliqion,  Peace,  &c 

OFFER  AND  ACCEPTANCE  is  one  mode  of 
entering  into  a  contract  of  sale.  At  an  auction,  the 
highest  offer  is  generally  accepted  as  a  matter  of 
course;  and  when  accepted,  the  contract  is  com- 
pleted. An  offer  is  often  made  by  letter  from  one 
merchant  to  another  to  buy  or  sell  goods.  In  such 
a  case,  the  party  offering  is  bound  to  wait  untQ  he 
gets  an  answer  W  return  of  poet  or  messenger ;  for 
until  then  the  oSer  is  supposed  to  be  continuously 
made.  But  if  A  offer  to  B  personally  to  sell,  and  B 
ask  time  to  consider  for  a  day,  or  any  given  time,  A 
is  not  bound  to  wait  a  single  moment,  according  to 

43 


OFFEBINO-OFFIOIAL  ASSIGNEE). 


Engliah  Iaw,  and  mav  withdiaw  at  an^  time  from 
the  offer,  because  he  had  no  le^al  conaideration  for 
waiting ;  whereas,  in  Scotland,  m  the  same  circum- 
ttances,  A  would  be  bound  to  wait  the  time  agreed 
upon. 

OFFERING.  Under  the  head  Fibst-fruits 
(q.  V.)  have  been  described  the  various  offerings 
prescribed  in  the  Jewish  law.  We  shall  have 
occasion  to  consider,  under  the  head  of  Sacrifice 
(q.  v.),  some  further  questions  connected  with  the 
subject  of  offerings  in  public  worship.  In  the  Chris- 
tian community  there  appears  to  have  existed,  from 
the  earliest  times,  a  practice  of  making  voluntary 
offerings,  for  purposes  not  directly  connected  witn 
public  worship.    See  OFrxRTOBT. 

O'FFERTORY  (Lat  offertorium,  from  offero,  I 
offer)  is  the  name  given  to  that  portion  of  the 
public  liturgy  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Chiurch 
with  which  the  eucharistic  service,  strictly  so 
called,  commences.  In  the  Roman  Liturgy  it 
consists  of  .one  or  two  verses  from  some  book  of 
Scripture,  generally  from  the  Old  Testament,  but 
sometimes  also  from  the  Epistles.  In  the  Ambro- 
sian  Liturgy  it  consists  of  a  prayer,  similar  in  form 
to  the  collect  or  secret  of  the  mass ;  and  in  both,  this 
recital  is  followed  by  the  preparatory  offering  up  of 
the  bread  and  wine,  accompanied  by  certain  cere- 
monies and  forms  of  prayer. 

This  offering  of  the  bread  and  wine  in  the  public 
service  became,  from,  a  very  early  period,  the  occa- 
sion of  a  voluntary  offering,  on  the  part  of  the  faith- 
ful; originally,  it  would  seem,  ot  the  bread  and 
wine  designed  for  the  eucharistic  celebration  .and  for 
the  communion  of  the  priest  and  the  congregation, 
sometimes  even  including  the  absent  members,  and 
also  for  the  agape,  or  common  sacred  feast,  which 
accompanied  it.  That  portion  of  the  offerings 
which  remained  in  excess  of  what  was  requisite 
for  these  purposes  was  applied  to  the  relief  of 
the  poor,  and  to  the  support  of  the  clergy.  These 
offerings  were  ordinarily  made  by  the  faithful 
in  person,  and  were  laid  upon  the  altar;  and 
the  Ambrosian  rite  still  preserves  this  usage  in 
a  ceremonial  which  may  be  witnessed  in  the 
cathedral  of  Milan.  By  degrees,  other  gifts  were 
superadded  to  those  of  bread  and  wine^os  of  com, 
oil,  wax,  honey,  eggs,  butter,  fruits,  lambs,  fowl, 
and  other  animals;  and  eventually  of  equivalents  in 
money  or  other  objects  of  value.  The  last-named  class 
of  offerings,  however,  was  not  so  commonly  made 
upon  the  altar  and  during  the  public  liturgy,  as  in 
the  form  of  free  gifts  presented  on  the  occasion  of 
other  ministerial  services,  as  of  baptism,  marriages, 
funerals,  &c  ;  and  from  this  has  arisen  the  practice 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  of  the  mass-offering, 
or  honorarivm,  which  is  given  to  a  priest  with  the 
understanding  that  he  eSsJl  offer  the  mass  for  the 
intention  (whence  the  honorarium  itself  is  often 
called  an  'intention')  of  the  efferent.  In  some 
places,  however,  and  among  them  in  some  parts 
of  Ireland,  offerings  '  in  kind  *  arc  still  in  use,  not 
indeed  in  the  form  of  the  ancient  offertory,  but 
in  the  shape  of  contributions  of  corn,  hay,  &c.,  at 
stated  seasons,  for  the  use  of  the  parochial  clergy. 
At  weddings  also,  and  in  some  places  at  funerals, 
offerings  in  monev  are  made  by^the  relations  and 
friends  of  the  newly  married  or  of  the  deceased.  In 
the  Litui^  of  the  English  Church  allusion  is  made 
to  the  practice  of  oblations,  and  some  of  the  recent 
controversies  have  turned  upon  the  revival  of  the 
*  offertory,'  which  has  found  some  advocates. 

OFFICE,  The  Divinb  (Lat  officium,  duty),  is 
the  name  popularly  given  to  the  Canonical  Hours 
(q.  V.)  prescribed  to  be  read  each  day  by  bishops, 
priests,  deacona^  and  sub-deacona  in   the  Ronian 


dSathoUo  Churoh.  Under  the  head  Brstiar7  will 
be  found  a  general  description  of  the  contents  and 
the  arrangement  of  that  great  service-book.  The 
special  portions  assigned  for  any  particular  day 
constitute  what  is  called  the  divine  office  for  that 
day ;  and  each  person  who  is  bound  in  virtue  of  hi« 
order  to  recite  the  Breviary,  is  obliged,  under  paia 
of  sin,  to  read,  not  merdy  with  the  eye,  but 
with  distinct,  although  it  may  be  silent,  articulation, 
each  and  all  these  portions.  The  adjustment  of 
the  portions  of  the  office  of  each  day,  the  com- 
bination of  the  'ordinary'  portions  which  are 
read  every  day  in  conmion,  with  the  parte  *  proper ' 
for  each  particular  dav,  is  a  matter  oi  oonsiderablo 
difficulty,  and  is  regulated  by  a  complicated  system 
of  Rubrics  (q.  v.). 

OFFICE,  Holt,  Conoreoation  of  the.  Tn  the 
article  Inquisition  (q.  v.)  it  has  been  explained  that 
that  tribunal  is  sometimes  called  by  the  name  Holy 
Office.  That  title,  however,  proixjrly  belongs  to 
the  *  Congregation '  at  Rome,  to  which  the  direction 
of  the  Roman  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  is  subject. 
This  Congregation  was  established  by  Paul  III.  in 
1542,  and  its  organisation  was  completed  by  Sixtus 
V.  It  consists  of  twelve  cardinals,  a  commissary, 
a  number  of  'theologians*  and  canonists  who  are 
styled  *  consulters,*  and  of  another  class  of  officials 
caJled  'qualifiers,*  whose  duty  it  is  to  report  on 
each  case  for  the  information  of  the  cardinals.  In 
the  most  solemn  sessions  of  the  Holy  Office  the 
pope  himself  presides  in  person.  The  action  of  the 
Holy  Office,  in  addition  to  questions  of  heresy  and 
crimes  against  faitli,  also  extends  to  ecclesiastical 
offences,  especially  in  connection  with  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacraments. 

OFFICE  COPT  is  a  oop^  made  of  a  document 
by  some  officer  of  a  court  in  whose  custody  the 
document  is ;  and  in  general  such  copies  are  receiv- 
able in  evidence,  without  further  proof,  in  the  same 
court,  but  not  in  other  courts,  except  some  statute 
makes  them  evidence. 

OFFICERS,  Military  and  Naval.— Jfcftfitory 
Officers  are  combatant,  and  non-combatant,  the 
latter  term  including  paymasters,  medical  officers, 
commissariat,  and  other  civil  officers.  The  great 
divisions  of  rank  are  commissioned,  warrant,  and 
non-commissioned  officers.  Commissioned  officers 
are  those  holding  commissions  from  the  crown,  or  a 
lord-lieutenant,  and  comprise  all  holding  the  rank  of 
ensign,  or  corresponding  or  superior  rank.  Divided 
by  duties,  they  are  Staff  Officers  (see  Staff),  or 
Kezimental  Officers  (see  Regiment)  ;  divided  by 
rank,  General  Officers  (q.  v.),  Field-Officers  (q.  v.), 
and  troop  or  comi)any  officers.  The  last  are  captains, 
lieutenants,  and  comets  or  ensigns,  and,  except  in 
the  cavalry,  are  unmounted.  The  different  systems 
of  promotion  for  officers,  and  especially  the  intricacies 
of  the  purchase  system,  will  be  explained  under 
Promotion,  Army,  and  Purchase  System.  The 
only  warraht  officers  in  the  army  are  Master- 
gunners  (see  Gunner)  and  Schoolmasters.  Kou- 
commissioned  officers  are  described  under  that 
heading. 

Officers,  Kavalf  are  commissioned,  warrant,  and 
petty  officers.  (Commissioned  officers  are  admirals, 
captains,  commanders,  lieutenants,  arid  sub-lieu*  • 
tenants,  described  under  their  respective  titles. 
Warrant  Officers  (q.  v.)  are  boatswains,  carpenters, 
gunners,  and  one  class  of  engineers  Petty  officers 
will  be  described  under  that  heading,  and  constitute 
a  very  important  portion  of  the  management  in  a 
ship-of-war. 

OFFI'CIAL  ASSIGNEE',  in  English   Law,  is 
an  officer  of  the  Bankruptcy  Courts  in   whom  m 


OFFIdKAL  PLANTS -OGHAMS. 


bftnkiupt's  estate  yeats  the  moment  an  adjudication 
d  bankraptoy  ia  made.  He  ia  the  manager  of  the 
property,  and  can  sell  the  estate  under  the  direotions 
of  the  court  in  urgent  cases,  such  as  where  the 
^oodB  are  perishable ;  but  in  general,  he  is  assisted 
ID  the  maniu^ment  by  the  creditors*  assignees,  who 
are  selected  nom  the  Dody  of  creditors  by  the  other 
creditors*  votes.  The  official  assignee  is  appointed 
by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  being  selected  from  the 
body  of  merchants,  brokers,  or  accountants.  He  is 
bound  to  find  security  to  the  extent  of  £6000.  He 
is  prohibited  from  carrying  on  trade  on  his  own 
account    The  saUiry  is  £1000. 

OFFICI'NAL  PLANTS  (Lai  offlcina,  a  shop) 
are  those  medicinal  plants  which  have  a  place  m 
the  pharmacopoeias  of  different  countries,  and  which 
are  therefore  sold — or  some  of  their  products  or 
preparations  of  them — by  apothecaries  and  druggists. 
Ihe  medicinal  plants  cultivated  to  any  considerable 

extent  are  all  officinal,  but  many 
are  also  officinal  which  are  not  culti- 
vated.   See  Medicinal  Piantb. 

OFFSET,  or  SET-OFF,  the  splay 
or  sloping  part  of  a  wall,  ftc,  joining 
parallel  surfaces  when  the  upper 
face  recedes  from  the  lower.  Tnis 
frequently  occurs  on  buttresses  (see 
^f^.).  The  O.  is  usually  protected 
with  dressed  stones,  having  a  pro- 
jection or  drip  on  the  lower  edge 
to  prevent  the  rain  from  running 
down  the  walL 

OFFSETS,  a  term  used  by  gprdeners  to  desi^ate 
the  young  bulbs,  which  springing  from  the  axils  of 
the  scales  of  a  bulb  (q.  v.),  grow  Inside  it,  exhausting 
its  strength,  but  which  serve  for  the  propagation  m 
the  plantw  A  crop  of  shallots,  or  of  potato  onions, 
consists  entirely  oi  the  offsets  of  the  bulbs  planted 
in  spring  ;  although  the  term  is  not  commonly  used 
except  as  to  bulm>us-rooted  plants  prized  for  the 
beauty  of  their  flowers. 

OFFSBTa    Let  AEF B....D 0  be  a 

field  with  veiy  irr^pilar  sides ;  take  the  points 
A,  O,  M,  C  at  or  as  near  the  comers  as  convenient^ 
the  object  being  to  endose  aa  much  of  the  Held  as 
poaribfe  within  the  quadrilateral  AOMC ;  and  for  this 


Oflbefe. 


Kg.L 

pnrpose  it  is  sometimes  neeessaiv,  as  in  the  present 
ease,  to  include  a  comer  (as  SRQ)  which  is  outside 
the  field.  The  area  AOCD  is  found  by  means  of 
tiie  dJagonal  AM,  and  theperpendicnlars  on  it 
from  G  and  O.    The  area  AS^ ....  BL  is  found 


by  dividing  it  into  triangles  and  trapezoids  hf 
means  of  perpendiculars  (to  which  the  term  offsett 
was  originally  applied,  though  it  now  denotes  the 
irreffular  area  before  mentioned)  from  the  corners 
E,  G,  H,  Ac.  (see  Triajtolb  and  Trapezoid),  and 
adding  together  the  areas  of  the  separate  figures 
AEF,  FG^,  GKgfL  Ac.  Similarly  the  are^  of 
OLN . . . .  D  and  MDUW  are  found.  To  the  sum  of 
these  must  be  added  the  areas  of  the  triangles 
ATS,  QPC,  diminished  by  the  area  of  SKQ,  and  the 
result  is  the  whole  area  of  the  field.  If  the  ofiset 
have  no  distinct  comers,  as  (tig.  2)  ABLMN ....  OK, 


then  the  pase  AK  is  divided  into  equal  parts  by 
perpendiculars  ABL2,  Mm,  Nn,  &c.,  and  the  area 
of  the  offset  is  found  approximately  as  follows :  the 
whole  otEaet  =  ABL2  +  L2Mm  +  MmNn  +  Ac.  + 
PpOK  =  Ai  X  4  (AB  ■\-IJ)  +  lmXi{U+  Mm)  + 
m»  X  4  (Mm  +  Nn)  -i- . . . .  +  pK  x  ^  (pP  +  OK)  =■ 

S since  the  divisions  of  the  base  are  equal)  A^  x  |> 
AB  +  2L«  +  2Mm  +  2N»  -!-....-»-  2pP  +  OK}  = 

A/x  1^^— -|.LZ-|-Mm-».N»  +  ....-»-Pp}5 

i  e.,  the  area  of  an  ofi&et  is  found  approximately  by 
adding  the  intermediate  perpendiculars  to  the  semi- 
sum  of  the  first  and  last,  and  multiplying  the  sum- 
total  by  the  length  of  a  division  of  the  base,  the 
divisions  being  equal ;  and  the  greater  the  number 
of  perpendicuGirs,  the  nearer  the  result  is  to  the 
true  area. 

O'GDENSBURG,  a  village  and  port  of  entry  in 
New  York,  U.  6.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  nver 
St  Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of  tiie  Oswegatchie,  210 
miles  north-west  of  Albany,  and  at  uie  western' 
terminus  of  the  Northern  Railway.  It  has  a  large 
lake  and  river  trade,  mills  and  factories,  custom* 
house,  town-hall,  &c,  and  a  steam-ferry 'to  Prescott^ 
Oanada.    Pop.  in  1860,  7410. 

OGEE',  a  moulding  consisting  of  two  curves,  one 
concave  and  the  other 
convex  (a).  It  is 
called  (in  Glaasic 
Architecture)  Cyma- 
ftum  or  Cyma  Beversa 
(see  Moulding).  The 
ogee  is  also  much 
used  in  Gothic  airlu- 
tecture.  An  ai-ch 
having     each     side 


Ogee. 


formed  with  two  contrasted  curves  is  called  an 
oaee  arch  (&).  Figure  a  represents  Hogarth's  line 
of  beauty. 

O'GH  AMS,  the  name  ^ven  to  the  letters  or  signs 
of  a  secret  alphabet  long  m  use  among  the  Irish  and 
some  other  Celtic  nations.  Neither  the  origin  nor 
the  meaning  of  the  name  has  been  satisfactorily 
exj^ainedi 

The  alphabet  itself  is  called  BethltUsnin,  at 
BeOduis,  &om  its  first  two  letters,  <  6,'  called  *  fteAA' 
(birch),  and  *  2,'  called  '  Zum'  (quicken).  1\»  charac- 
ters are  lines,  or  groups  of  lines,  deriving  their 
significance  from  their  position  on  a  single  stem  or 
chief  line— over,  under,  or  through  which  they  are 
drawn  either  straight  or  oblique.  In  some  cases, 
the  edge  of  the  stone  or  other  substance  on  which 
the  Oghams  are  indeed,  serves  the  puipose  of  the 
stem  or  chief  Una    About  eighty  different  forms  of 


OGHAMS-OHIO. 


ik«  alpbabet  are  known.    The  following  ib  the  one 
most  commonly  uaed : 


'f  f]  ifi  rfrr 

I  n  III  nil  mil 


I  11  III  1111  mil 


c         f 


Ogham  Alphabet. 


These  seem  to  have  been  all  the  letters  of  the  first 
Ogham  flklphabet.  Five  characters  were  afterwards 
added  to  represent  diphthongs  : 


a& 


The  aign  for  the  diphthong  <  ea '  is  said  to  be  the 
only  one  which  has  been  observed  on  ancient  monu- 
ments. It  is  added  that  the  sign  for  '  uV  sometimes 
stands  for  *y/  that  the  sign  for  *ia*  sometimes 
stands  for  *p,'  and  that  the  sign  for  *  a« '  stands  also 
for  *  a;/  for  *  cc,*  for  *  cA,*  for  *  <wA,*  and  for  *  uchJ* 

Ogham  inscriptions  generally  beffin  from  the 
bottom,  and  are  read  upwards  from  Ibft  to  right  to 
the  top,  when  they  are  carried  over,  and  run  down 
another  side  or  angle.  Most  of  those  which  have 
been  read  nve  merely  a  proper  name  with  its 
patronymic,  l>oth  in  the  genitive  case.  The  stones 
on  which  Oghams  are  cut  would  seem,  for  the  most 
part,  to  have  been  sepulchral  Oghams  are  of  most 
irequent  occurrence  in  Ireland,  where  they  are 
found  both  written  on  books  and  inscribed  on 
stones,  metals,  or  bones.  The  Oghams  on  stones 
are  most  numerous  in  the  counties  of  Kerry  and 
GOTk.  A  few  O^ham  inscriptions  on  stones  have 
been  discovered  m  Wales — as  at  St  Dogmael's,  in 
Pembrokeshire ;  near  Margam,  in  Glamor^nshire ; 
and  near  Crickhowel,  in  Brecknockshire.  There  are 
a  few  in  Scotland,  as  on  the  Newton  Stone  and  the 
Logie  Stone  in  Aberdeenshire,  on  the  Golsme  Stone 
in  Sutherland,  and  on  the  Bressay  Stone  in  Shetland. 
One  has  been  found  in  England — at  Fardel,  in 
Devonshire.  Oghams  have  Men  observed  on  an 
ancient  MS.  of  Priscian,  which  belonged  to  the 
famous  Swiss  monastery  founded  in  the  7th  o.  by 
the  Irish  missionary,  St  Gall  (q.  v.). 

The  difficulties  of  deciphering  Ogham  inscriptions 
cannot  be  said  to  have  been  as  yet  altogether 
overcome.  It  is  confessed  by  the  most  learned  and 
judicious  of  Ogham  scholars,  the  Rev.  Charles 
Graves,  D.D.,  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  that  the 
nature  of  the  character  is  such  that  it  does  not  at 
once  appear  which,  of  four  different  ways  of 
reading,  is  the  right  one ;  that  the  words  being 
written  continuously,  as  in  ancient  MSS.,  there  is 
great  chance  of  error  in  dividing  them ;  and  that 
tne  Celtic  names  inscribed  are  generally  Latinised 
in  such  a  manner  as  not  readily  to  be  recognised. 

The  old  school  of  Irish  antiquaries  contended  that 
the  Oghams  were  of  Persian  or  Phoenician  origin, 
and  were  in  use  in  Ireland  long  before  the  intro- 
duction of  Christianity.  But  tnis  theory  is  now 
generally  discarded,  as  not  only  unsupiwrted,  but  as 
contradicted  by  facts.  A  comparison  of  the  Ogham 
alphabet,  with  the  alphabets  of  Perseijolis  and 
Carthage,  shews  that  there  is  no  likeness  between 
them.  The  great  majority  of  Ogham  monuments, 
it  has  been  observed,  bear  more  or  less  distinct 
marks  of  Christian  hands.  Several  are  inscribed 
with  crosses,  as  old,  to  aU  ap]>earance,  as  the  Oghams 
themselves.      Many  stand  in    Christian    borying- 


gronnds,  or  beside  GhxistiMi  cells  or  oratories. 
Some  still  bear  the  names  of  primitive  saints.  At 
least  one  is  inscribed  with  a  Christian  name ;  and 
some  of  the  inscriptions  betray  an  undeniable  know- 
ledge of  Latin.  At  the  same  time,  it  has  been 
allied  by  one  of  the  most  learned  of  Celtic  philo- 
logists, Mr  Whitley  Stokes,  that  *  the  circnmstanoe 
that  genuine  Ognam  inscriptions  exist  both  in 
Ireland  and  in  Wales  which  present  grammatical 
fonns  agreeing  with  those  of  tne  Gaulish  linguistic 
monuments,  is  enough  to  shew  that  some  of  the 
Celts  of  these  islands  wrote  their  language  before  the 
5th  o.,  the  time  at  which  Christianity  is  supposed 
to  have  been  introduced  into  Ireland.'  It  has  been 
observed  by  Dr  Graves,  on  the  other  hand,  that 
there  are  many  points  of  resemblance  between  the 
Oghams  of  the  Celts  and  the  Runes  of  the  Norse- 
men; and,  indeed,  one  Irish  MS.  asserts  that  the 
Oghams  came  to  Ireland  from  Scandinavia : 

'  Hither  was  brought,  in  the  sword  sheath  of  Lochlan*s 

The  Ogham  across  the  sea.    It  was  his  own  hand  tlial 
out  it.' 

The  Ogham  is  said  to  have  been  in  use  so  recently 
as  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  when  it  was  employed 
in  the  correspondence  between  King  Charles  L  and 
the  Earl  of  Glamorgan. 

The  best  account  of  Oghams  is  in  Dr  Graves's 
papers  in  the  Prooeedinga  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy, 
I  vol.  iv.  pp.  70,  173,  183.  254;  voL  v.  pp.  234,  401 ; 
I  vol  vi  pp.  71,  209,  248;  and  the  Catalogue  of  ihe 
\  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy,  pp.  134 — 140 ; 
'  and  in  Mr  Whitley  Stokes's  Three  Irish  Glossaries, 
pp.  55 — 57,  compared  with  Thomas  Innes*s  Critical 
Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabitants  qf  Scotland^  vol.  ii. 
pp.  440—466.    Dr  Graves  has  had  a  work  for  some 
tmie  in  the  press,  the  issue  of  which  is  looked  for 
with  considerable  interest — A  Treatise  on  the  Oghajn 
or  Occult  Forms  of  Writing  of  the  A  ncient  Irish,  from 
a  MS,  in  the  Library  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin,  with 
a  Translation  and  Notes,  and  a  Preliminary  Disser- 
tation,   It  is  to  be  printed  for  the  Irish  ArchsBolo- 
ffical  and  Celtic  Society.    Ogham  inscriptions  may 
be  seen  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy 
at  Dublin,  in  the  Museum  of  the  Society  of  Antiqua- 
ries of  Scotland  at  Edinburgh,  and  in  the  British 
Museum  at  London. 

O'GIYES,  the  arches  in  pointed  Gothic  vanlting 
which  cross  the  vault  diagonally  from  one  angle  to 
another. 

OGT'GES,  the  earliest  king  of  Attica  and  Boeotia 
named  in  Greek  legend,  m  his  time  (according 
to  Larcher,  about  1759  B.a)  a  great  flood  took  place, 
called  the  Ogysian  Flood,  which 
desolated  all  the  lower  districts 
of  both  countries,  and  destroyed 
their  inhabitants.  The  different 
legends  lead  to  the  supposition 
that  under  O.  an  Egyptiim  colony 
came  to  Bceotia,  and  thence  to 
Attica.  From  hun  Boeotia  took 
the  name  of  Ogygia. 

OGY'GI A,  a  cenus  of  Trilobites 
peculiar  to  the  liandeilo  flags  of 
the  Lower  Silurian  period.     Six     Ogygia  Buohii. 
species  have  been  described. 

OHro,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America* 
Ues  between  hit  38'  17'— 41*  54'  N.,  and  loua. 
80**  34  .-84*  40'  W. ;  225  miles  in  extent  from 
east  to  west,  and  nearly  200  miks  from  north  to 
south ;  containing  39,964  s<}uare  miles,  or  25,576,960 
acres ;  bounded  N.  by  Michigan  and  Lake  £rie, 
R  by  Pennsylvania  and  Virginia,  from  which  it 
is    separated    by   the   Ohio    River^    which     al^o 


OraO-OIL  PAL^ 


fofiM  its  toatheni  boundary,  Beparating  it  £mfm 
Viiginia  and  Kentucky,  and  W.  by  Indiana. 
Hie  Ohio  Kiver  fonns  ita  boundaiy  for  436 
miles,  and  its  lake  ahore  is  230  milee.  The  high 
tahie-landa  hUly,  and  in  parts  mountainous 
regioDs  of  O.,  are  drained  by  numerous  rivers, 
among  ▼hich  are  the  Great  and  Little  Miami, 
Sciota,  and  Muskingum,  affluents  of  the  Ohio ;  and 
the  Maumee,  Sandusky,  Huron,  Vermillion,  Cuya- 
ho|;a,  and  Ashtabula,  which  empty  into  Lake 
£ne;  Drift  formations  prevail  in  the  north,  alluvium 
ia  the  south,  with  extensive  coal-meaftuies,  and 
limestone  strata,  shales,  marls,  and  gypsum,  giving 
the  whole  state  a  wonderful  fertility.  The  coal- 
beds  of  Eastern  Ohio  cover  10,000  square  miles, 
with  abundant  deposits  of  iron  ore.  In  the  north 
are  valuable  deposits  of  buhrstone,  a  fossiliferous 
flinty  quartz,  used  for  millstones.  The  salt  wells  of 
Pomeroy  yield  1,000,000  bushels  per  annum,  witii 
a  plentiful  eticspe  of  eas.  Oil  wells  have  also  been 
opened.  The  soil,  ricn  everywhere,  is  so  fertile  in 
ine  river  bottoms  as  to  have  borne  heavy  cereal 
erops  fifty  successive  years  without  manuring ; 
the  climate  is  temperate,  with  a  liability  to  a  cold 
in  winter  reaching  sometimes  to  20"  below  zera  It 
is  healthy,  except  lowlands  liable  to  fever  and  ague. 
The  foiesta,  which  still  cover  large  portions  of  the 
state,  are  rich  in  oak,  black  walnut,  maple,  &c. ;  the 
chief  agricultural  productions  are  Indian  com, 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  nay,  sorghum,  tobacco,  hemp, 
peaches,  apples,  grapes,  cattle,  sheep,  8>vine,  the 
latter  being  one  of  its  chief  exports.  The  farms 
average  84  acres;  there  are  310,000  proprietors. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  iron,  clothing,  furniture, 
spirits,  wines,  cotton,  and  woollen.  A  large  oom- 
merce  is  carried  on  by  the  Ohio  River,  tiie  lakes, 
two  caxuils  which  connect  Lake  £<rie  and  the  Ohio, 
and  numerous  railways.  The  state  is  organised  in 
88  counties.  The  chief  towns  are  Cincinnati,  Cleve- 
land, Columbus  the  capital,  Sandusky,  Zanesville, 
Ac.  There  is  a  state  bank,  with  36  branches ;  the 
state  revenue  is  4,000,000  dollars.  Among  the 
state  institutions  are  4  lunatic  asylums,  asylums  for 
deal  and  dumb,  blind,  idiots,  penitentiary,  refor- 
matories, &C.  In  1860,  933  convicts  earned  295 
dollars  over  their  expenses.  The  niunber  of  paupers 
was  15,148.  There  are  5277  churches.  Every  36th 
quarter  mile  section  of  land  is  appropriated  to  the 
support  of  free  schools,  and  two  townships  of  69,120 
acres  for  colleges.  The  expenditure  for  education 
is  2,760,000  dollars.  There  are  22  colleges,  11 
theological  institutions,  10  medical,  90  academies, 
and  extensive  state  and  school  libraries.  There  are 
261  periodical  publications,  of  which  26  are  daily. 

0.  was  organised  and  admitted  as  a  state  in 
180a  The  population  in  1800  was  45,365 ;  1820, 
581,434 ;  1840,  1,519,467 ;  1860,  2,339,599,  of  whom 
111,257  were  Germans,  51,562  Irish,  36,000  English 
and  Scotch. 

OHIO,  a  river  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
eslled  by  the  French  explorers,  after  its  Indian 
name,  la  BeUe  RivUre^  next  to  the  Missouri,  the 
largest  affluent  of  the  Mississippi,  is  formed  by  the 
anion  of  the  Alleghanv  and  Monon^hela,  at  the 
western  foot  of  the  AUeghanies,  at  rittsburgh,  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  flows  west-south-west  950  miles, 
with  a  breadth  of  1200  to  4000  feet,  draining,  with 
its  tributaries,  an  area  of  202,400  square  miles.  In 
its  course  it  separates  the  northern  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  from  the  southern  states  of 
Vimiua  and  Kentucky.  The  principal  towns  upon 
its  banks  are  Cincinnati,  Louisville  (where  there  are 
rapids  of  22  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a  steam-boat  canal), 
^Hieeling,  Maysville,  and  Pittsburgh  and  Cairo  at  its 
source  and  mouth.  It  is  narigable  from  Wheeling, 
100  milea  bekw  Fittsbui^    The  banks  of  the  0.  are 


generally  high  and  terraced.  It  is  often  shallow 
and  scarcely  navigable,  sometimes  frozen,  and 
Subject  to  floods  of  50  or  60  feet  above  low-water. 
Bordered  by  a  rich  country,  and  great  deposits  of 
coal  and  iron,  it  is  the  channel  of  a  vast  conunerce, 
which  it  shares  with  its  chief  branches,  the  Ten- 
nessee, Cumberland,  Wabash,  Green,  &c 

OIL-CAKES,  the  cake  which  remains  in  the  press, 
when  seeds  are  crushed  to  express  the  oil  which 
they  contain.  Oil-cake  still  retains  a  portion  of  the 
oil  of  the  seed,  along  with  almost  all  its  other  con- 
stituents, and  is  valuable  either  for  feeding  cattle  or 
for  manure.  Linseed-cake  is  so  much  more  largely 
used  in  Britain  than  any  other  kind,  that  the  name 
oil-cake  is  in  general  exclusively  appropriated  to  it, 
the  other  kinds  being  known  as  Bape-cake,  Poppy- 
cake,  Hemp-cake,  Coka-cake,  Ac,  according  to  the 
plant  from  the  seed  of  which  they  are  produced. 
The  use  of  oil-cake  for  feeding  cattle  has  very  much 
increased  of  late  years,  and  it  is  an  article  of  com- 
mercial importance.  Large  quantities  are  imported 
into  Britain  from  different  parts  of  the  continent  of 
Europe,  and  from  North  America.  But  English 
Linseed-cake^cB}Le  made  at  oil-nulls  in  England, 
mostly  from  imported  seed — is  preferred  to  any 
other,  because  heat  not  beinff  so  freely  applied 
during  the  expression  of  the  oil,  more  oil  is  left  in 
the  cake,  and  also  because  foreign  cake  often  suffers 
from  dajoipness  both  before  and  diuing  the  sea 
passage.  Besides  the  oil  which  remams  in  it, 
tinseea-cake  contains  from  24  to  33  per  cent,  of 
nitrogenous  substances  or  protein  compounds,  which 
make  it  very  valuable  both  for  feeding  cattle  and 
for  manure.  The  value  of  linseed-cake  for  feeding 
is  greater  tiian  that  of  any  kind  of  grain  or  pulse. — 
Rape-cake  is,  next  to  linseed-cake,  the  kina  of  oil- 
cake best  known  in  Britain.  It  is  much  cheaper  than 
linseed-cake,  but  is  not  relished  by  cattle,  having  a 
hot  taste,  and  a  tendency  to  become  rancid.  Sheep, 
however,  eat  it  readily,  and  it  is  often  employed  for 
fattening  them.  It  is  often  also  groimd  to  a  coarse 
powder  {rape-dustj,  and  used  as  a  manure.  Its 
fertilising  power  u  great,  and  it  is  used  bjr  the 
Flemish  farmers  as  {]|iiano  now  is  by  those  of  Britain. 
— Cotton  Seed-cake  is  much  used  as  a  manure  in 
some  parts  of  North  America. — Cocoa-nut-cake  is 
used  in  the  south  of  India,  both  for  feeding  cattle 
and  for  manure. — Other  kmds  of  cake  are  noticed, 
if  sufficiently  important,  under  the  plants  from 
which   they    are    derived.     Their    properties    are 

generally  similar  to  those  of  linseed-cake,  although 
tie  pungency  of  some,  as  Mustard-cake,  renders 
them  unsuitable  for  feeding  cattle.  See  also  Oii^ 
Plants. 

OILLE'TS,  or  (EILLETS,  small  openings,  often 
circular,  used  in  medieval  buildings  for  dischargiug 
arrows,  &c.,  through. 

OIL  MILL.    See  Oil& 

OIL  PALM  {Elceis),  a  genus  of  palms,  of  the 
same  tribe  with  the  cocoa-nut  palm.  The  best 
known  species,  the  O.  P.  of  tropical  Africa,  some- 
times attains  a  height  of  60 — 80  feetb  The  stems  are 
thickest  in  the  middle,  tapering  chiefly  upwards. 
The  leaves  are  pinnate,  their  footstalks  spiny.  The 
flowers  have  a  strong  peculiar  smell,  like  that  of 
anise  or  cherviL  The  fniit  forms  an  immense  head, 
like  a  mat  pine-apple,  consisting  of  a  great  number 
of  bright  orange-coloured  drupes,  having  a  thin  skin, 
an  oily  pulp,  and  a  hard  stona  The  pulf)  of  the 
drupes,  forming  about  three-fourths  of  their  whole 
bulk,  jrields,  by  bruising  and  boiling,  an  oil,  which 
when  fresh  has  a  pleasant  odour  of  violets,  and 
when  removed  into  colder  regions  acquires  the 
consistency  of  butter.  This  oil  is  now  very  largely 
imported  from  tropical  Africa  into  Britain,  and  ia 

a 


OIL-REPmiNtl-OILS. 


Bnch  used  for  many  pnrpnm,  a»  for  m&kin^  candles, 
toilet  KiapB,  tc,  and  for  I  ubrieati  ng  maeh]  nery  and 
the  wheelK  of  railway  caniaceik  When  fresh,  it  is 
eaten  like  batter.  See  O11&  The  nut  wai 
formerly  rejected  M  nBeleaa  after  the  oil  had  been 
obtained  from  the  fruit ;  but  from  its  kernel  a  Rxed 
oil  is  now  ertraoted,  called  Pii.M-spT  On, ;  which 
VI  clear  and  limpid,  and  baa  become  to  lome  extent 
Ml  article  of  commerce.  The  O.  P.  abonods  in 
mangrove  swampa,  but  is  also  a  oonipicuoua  feature 


of  the  landscape  on  sandy  coasta  in  the  tropical 
parte  of  Western  Africa.  It  yields  from  its  trunk 
abundance  of  a  pleasant  and  harmless  beverage, 
which,  however,  becomes  intoxicating  in  a  few 
hours ;  called  Malotxi  in  Angola,  and  mach  ased 
there  as  an  alcoholic  stimulant.  The  unripe  nuts  of 
theO.  P.  are  used  in  some  parts  of  Africa  for  making 
an  excellent  kind  of  soap.  The  0.  P.  has  been 
introduced  into  some  parts  of  America,  and  ia  now 
abundant  in  them. 

OID-REPmiNO.  Several  oils,  from  the  mode 
of  their  extraction,  are  neceisarily  impnre,  and 
various  means  are  taken  for  relinius  or  purifying 
them  :  thus,  the  so-called  fiah-oiU — ^at  is,  whale, 
■eol,  cod,  &C.— are  clariSed  either  by  mixing  them 
with  a  chemical  solution,  or  by  poasiog  steam 
through  them  and  filtering  through  coarse  charooaL 
The  chemical  solutions  employed  are  vartoua  One 
method  is.  to  use  a  strong  solution  of  oak  bark,  the 
tannic  acid  in  which  combines  sdth  the  albuminous 
matters  present  in  the  oil.  and  precipitates  them ; 
another  plan  is,  to  agitato  bleaching -powder,  formed 
into  a  milk  with  n'oter,  with  the  oil ;  and  then, 
after  subsidence  of  the  chloride  of  lime  and  water, 
to  wash  the  oil  with  water,  or  jets  of  steam  passed 
through  it.  A  more  simple  and  very  effective  plan, 
invented  bj  Mr  Daon,  is  to  apply  a  steam  heat  not 
exceeding  200°  P.,  and  then  pass  a  curtenb  of  air  of 
the  same  terapemtnre  throngh  it  continuously  for 
some  time  :  this  effectually  bleaches  the  oiL 

Olive,  and  some  other  vegetable  oils,  are  refined  by 
^taCing  them  with  a  saturated  solution  of  canstio 
soda.  This  readers  the  whole  soapy ;  but  after  a 
time  the  oil  precipitates  a  saponaceous  deposit,  and 
the  remainder  becomes  quite  clear  and  pure,  and  is 
then  poured  off.  The  value  of  several  of  the  most 
important  oils  of  commerce  is  so  greatly  increased 
by  refining,  that  this  art  has  now  became  a  very 
important  Dranch  of  bminess,  and  is  carried  out  on 
aUrge  scale. 


OILS  (including  Fats).    The  fats  and  fixed  oils 


the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  They  are  not 
simple  organic  compounds,  but  each  of  them  is  a 
mixture  of  several  such  compounds  to  which  the 
term  glycarida  is  applied ;  and  the  glyceride*  which 
by  their  mixture  in  various  proportions  form  the 
numerous  fats  and  oils  are  mainly  those  of  palmitic, 
stearic,  and  oleic  acids  —if  we  adopt  the  recent  view 
that  Maraario  Acid  (q.  v.)  bos  no  independent  exist- 
ence— and  to  a  less  extent  those  of  other  fatty  acids, 
which  will  be  presently  noticed,  sach  as  bntyric, 
caproic,  caprylic,  and  catnio  acids,  which  are  obtained 
from  bntter;  myristio  acid,  which  is  obtained 
from  cocoa-nut  oil,  ix.  The  members  of  thia 
group  may  be  solid  and  hard,  like  suet ;  semi-solid 
and  soft,  like  butter  and  lard;  or  finid,  like  the 
oils.  The  solid  and  semi-solid  are,  however,  gene- 
rally placed  together  and  termed  fats,  in  oon- 
tradiatinction  to  the  fluid  oils.  The  most  solid 
fata  are  readily  fusible,  and  become  reduced  to 
a  fluid  or  oily  state  at  a  temperature  lower  than 
that  of  the  boiling-point  of  water.  They  are  not 
volatile,  or,  in  other  words,  they  cannot  be  distilled 
without  decomposition,  and  it  is  not  until  a  tem- 
I>erature  of  between  SOO"  and  600"  is  reached  that 
they  begin  nearly  aimultaneoualy  to  boil  and  to 
nndeq;o  decomposition,  giving  off  acroleine  (an  acrid 
product  of  the  dirtillation  irf  glvcorinG)  and  other 
compounds.  In  conseqnenoe  of  this  property,  these 
oils  are  termed  fixfd  oUg,  in  contradistiDotion  to  a 
perfectly  separate  group  of  oily  matters,  on  which 
the  odoriferous  properties  of  plants  depend,  and 
which,  from  their  being  able  to  bear  distillation 
without  cbanee,  are  known  aa  volatile  oUt.  ThrtfO, 
which  are  also  known  as  aaaUial  or  eOierecd  oH», 
differ  tn  toto  in  their  chemical  composition  from  the 
compounds  we  are  now  oonsidermg,  and  will  be 
sepaiately  noticed  in  the  latter  part  of  this  article. 
All  the  fata  and  oils  are  lighter  than  water,  oad  are 
perfectly  insoluble  in  that  fluid.  Their  specilio 
gravity  ranges  from  about  091  to  094.  They  dia- 
aotve'  m  ether,  oil  of  turpentine  (one  of  the  vol&tile 
oils),  benzol,  and  to  a  certain  extent  in  alcohol; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  they  act  as  solvents  for 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  tia.  If  a  fatty  matter  ba 
shaken  with  a  watery  solution  of  albumen,  gum,  01 
some  other  substance  that  increases  the  density  of  tba 
water,  and  renders  it  viscid,  the  mixture  SHSiunee  ■ 
milky  appearance,  in  consequence  of  the  suspension 
of  the  fat  or  oil  in  the  form  of  microscopic  gfobulea, 
and  is  termed  an  emuigion.  These  bodies  posaen 
the  property  of  penetrating  paper  and  other  fabric^ 
rendering  Uiem  transparent,  and  producing  what  is 
well  known  as  a  greasy  stain.  Tney  are  not  readily 
inflammable  unless  with  the  agency  of  a  wick,  when 
they  burn  with  a  bright  flame.  In  a  pure  and  fresh 
state  they  are  devoid  of  taste  and  smell,  but  oa 
eipoBul'S  to  the  air  they  become  oxidised  and  acid, 
assume  a  deeper  colour,  evolve  a  disagreeable  odour, 
and  are  acrid  to  the  taste  ;  or,  in  popular  language 
they  become  ronciil.  The  rapidity  with  whi{m  tnia 
change  occurs  is  considerably  increased  by  the 
presence  of  mucilaginous  or  albumiuous  bodies. 
The  lancidity  may  bo  removed  by  shaking  the  oil 
in  hot  water  in  which  a  little  hydrated  magnesia 
is  suspended. 

The  general  diffiiaion  of  &ts  and  oils  in  the  animal 
kingdom  has  been  already  described.  (See  Fats, 
Aniiui.)  In  the  vegetable  kingdom  they  are 
equally  widely  distributed,  there  being  scarcely  any 
tissue  of  any  plant  in  which  traces  of  them  may  not 
be  detected  ;  but  they  are  specially  abundant  in  the 
seeds.  The  seeds  of  the  ertici/i-rai  are  remarkably 
rich  in  oil ;  linseed  yielding  fully  20  per  oent.,  m^^ 


OILS. 


npMeed  aboat  40  yer  cent,  of  oil ;  and  some  fruits, 
as  thoee  of  the  olive  ana  oil-palm,  yield  an  abun- 
dance of  oiL 

The  oies  of  the  oile  and  fats  are  nnmeroaB,  and 
highly  important,  various  members  oi  this  group 
beiD^  extensively  employed  as  articles  of  luixl.  as 
medicines,  as  lubricating  agents,  in  the  preparatiuii 
of  snaps,  plasters,  ointments,  varnishes,  pi^ents, 
eaadles  and  other  means  of  illumination,  for  the 
porpose  of  dressing  leather,  &c  The  following  are 
the  most  important  members  of  the  group : 

1.  VegetaoUFcUs. — The  chief  solid  fats  of  vege- 
table origin  are  cocoa-nut  oil,  nutm^  butter,  and 
paJm  oil  The  fluid  vegetable  ^ts  or  oib  are  divisible 
mto  the  non-drying  and  the  drying  oils  ;  the  latter 
beinff  distinffuished  from  the  former  by  their  becom- 
ing dry  and  solid  when  exposed  in  thin  layers  to 
the  air,  in  consequence  of  oxygenation ;  while  the 
former  do  not  absorb  oxygen,  but  are  converted  by 
hyponitric  acid  or  sub-oxioeof  mercury  into  elaidine 
(as  described  in  the  article  Oleine),  a  reaction  which 
is  not  exhibited  by  the  drying  oils.  Some  of  the 
diying  oils,  especially  linseed  oil,  when  mixed  with 
oottoD,  wood,  or  tow,  absorb  oxygen  so  rapidly,  and 
consequently  become  so  heated  as  to  take  fire,  and 
many  cases  of  the  spontaneous  combustion  of  heaps 
of  oily  materials  that  have  been  employed  in  cleaning 
machinery  have  been  recorded.  The  oiyin^  property 
mav  be  much  increased  bv  treating  the  oils  with  a 
little  litharge  or  oxide  of  manganese,  and  linseed 
oil  thus  treated  is  then  known  as  boiled  oil  The 
chief  non-drving  oils  are  olive  oil,  almond  oil,  and 
colza  oil ;  while  the  most  Important  drying  oils  are 
those  of  linseed,  hemp,  poppy,  and  walnut ;  castor 
oil  seems  to  form  a  link  between  these  two  classes 
of  oils,  since  it  gradually  becomes  hard  by  long 
exposure  to  the  air. 

2L  Animal  FcU». — The  chief  solid  fats  are  suet, 
lard,  butter,  ^oose  grease,  &c. ;  while  among  the 
fluid  fats  or  oils,  sperm  oil,  ordinary  whale  oil,  cod- 
liver  oil,  and  neat's-foot  oil  may  be  especially 
mention^  In  many  of  their  characters,  sperma- 
ceti and  bees- wax  resemble  the  solid  fats,  but,  as 
will  be  shewn  in  the  articles  on  these  subjects,  they 
are  not  glycerides.  As  a  oeneral  rule,  stearine  and 
palmitincy  both  of  which  have  comparatively  high 
fosing  points  (between  IS?"*  and  114**),  preponderate 
in  the  solid  fats ;  while  oleine,  which  is  fluid  at  32**, 
ii  the  chief  constituent  of  the  oils. 

One  or  two  of  the  most  important  of  the  decom- 
positions of  the  fats  must  be  noticed  When  any  of 
these  bodies  are  heated  with  the  hydrated  alkalies, 
they  undergo  a  change  which  has  long  been  known 
as  Saponitication,  or  conversion  into  soap  (q.  v.),  in 
which  the  fatty  acid  combines  with  the  alkali  to 
fonn  a  soap^  while  the  sweet  viscid  Uquid  glycerine 
is  simultaneously  formed  The  combination  of  a 
fatty  acid  with  oxide  of  lead  forms  a  plaster.  For 
farther  details  on  these  points,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  the  articles  Soap  and  Plasters. 

The  process  of  saponification  affords  a  ready 
means  of  isolating  the  fatty  acids,  as  the  stearic  or 
oleic  acid  may  be  at  once  separated  from  an  alkaline 
stearate  or  oleate  bv  the  addition  of  hydrochloric 
or  tartaric  acid  When  the  fatty  acids  are,  how- 
ever, required  on  a  large  scale,  as  for  the  manufac- 
tan»  of  tne  so-<»lled  st^urine  candles,  which  in  realily 
oinsitft  mainly  of  stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  suliihuric 
add  and  the  oil  or  iBX  are  made  to  act  upon  each 
other  at  a  high  temperature.  See  Candle.  The 
fatty  acids  may  also  be  procured  in  a  very  pure 
form  by  the  injection  of  superheated  steam  at 
a  temperature  of  between  500**  and  600"  into 
heated  fat  a  process  which,  according  to  Pro- 
fessor Miller,  'from  its  simplicity  and  from  the 
parity  of  the  fnoducts  which  it  yields,  bids  fair  to 
316 


supersede  those  previously  employed  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  fatty  acids  for  illuminating  purposes.' 

The  only  fatt^  acids  which  have' been  specially 
mentioned  in  this  article  are  those  which  occur  in 
natural  ^ycerides,  such  as  stearic,  palmitic,  and  oleio 
acids.^  The  term  fatty  add  has,  however,  in  Chem- 
is^  a  wide  signification,  and  is  applied  to  many 
acins  homologous  to  stearic  acid,  but  not  occurring  in 
any  natural  Sits  or  oils.  Thus  stearic  acid  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  a  group  of  acids  (of  which 
seventeen  are  already  known)  represented  by  the 
general  formula,  0,„H,,|04,  commencing  with  formio 
acid  {Q^Jd^i  including  acetic,  propionic,  butyric, 
valeric  (or  valerianic),  caproic,  oenanthylic,  caprylic, 
pelai:^onic,  capric,  lauric,  myristic,  palmitic,  stearic, 
arachidic,  and  cerotic  acids,  and  terminating  with 
melissic  acid  {pf,^^0^.  These  are  divid^  into 
the  volatile  and  the  true  (or  solid)  fatty  acids ;  the 
volatile  acids  being  those  from  formic  to  capric  acid, 
while  the  remainder,  beginning  with  lauric  acid, 
are  the  true  fatty  acids.  The  volatile  fatty  acids 
are  fluid,  and  for  the  most  part  oily  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  may  be  distilled  without  change, 
possess  a  pungent  odour,  and  are  acrid  to  the  taste, 
and  their  s<jlutions  redden  Utmus  paper  stronsly. 
The  true  fatty  acidSf  on  the  other  hiukC^  are  soUd  at 
ordinary  temperatures,  are  devoid  of  taste  and  smeU, 
cannot  oe  distilled,  except  in  vacuo,  without  decom- 
position, and  only  exert  a  slight  action  on  litmua 
The  volatile  acids  occur  in  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  (formic  acid,  for  example,  in  red  ants,  and 
valeric  acid,  in  the  root  of  valerian),  and  they  are 
likewise  produced  by  the  oxidation  and  spontaneous 
decom|)osition  of  numerous  animal  and  vegetable 
products.  The  entire  series,  up  to  capric  acid,  may 
be  obtained  by  oxidising  oleic  acid  with  nitric  acid 
The  true  or  solid  acids  only  occur  as  constituents  of 
animal  and  vegetable  fats. 

Professor  Miller  makes  a  second  group  of  fatty 
acids,  of  which  oleic  acid  is  the  ^»e,  and  whicn 
have  the  general  formula  C,wH,u.904 ;  but  as  oleic 
acid  is  the  only  member  of  this  group  which  is  of 
any  practical  importance,  it  is  sufiicient  to  refer  the 
reader  to  the  special  article  on  that  acid 

A  complete  list  of  even  the  chief  fats  and  fixed 
oils  wduld  take  up  far  more  space  than  we  can 
command  In  the  article  *  Fixed  OHs,*  in  The  Eng- 
lish Cydopoidia,  the  reader  will  find  64  of  the  most 
important  of  these  substances  mentioned,  with  in 
most  cases  a  brief  notice  of  the  origin  and  pro- 
perties of  each.  The  British  pharmacoixsia  contains 
nog's  lard,  mutton  suet,  coa-liver  oil,  concrete  oil 
(or  butter)  of  nutme$r,  and  almond,  castor,  croton, 
linseed,  and  olive  oils,  besides  the  closely  allied 
substances  speriuaceti  and, wax. 

The  Volatile  or  JCstential  Oils  exist,  in  most 
instances,  ready  formed  in  plants,  and  are  believed 
to  constitute  their  odorous  principles.  They  form 
an  extremely  numerous  class,  of  which  most  of  the 
members  are  fluid ;  a  few  (oil  of  aniseed,  for  example) 
being  solid  at  ordinary  temperatures,  but  all  of  them 
are  capable  of  being  distuled  without  undergoing 
change.  They  resemble  the  fixed  oils  in  their  inflam- 
mability, in  their  solubility  in  the  same  fluids,  and 
in  their  communicating  a  greasy  stain  to  paper  or 
any  other  fabric ;  but  the  stain  in  this  case  soon  dis- 
appears, and  they  fiirther  differ  in  communicating  a 
rough  and  harsh  rather  than  an  unctuous  feeling  to 
the  skin.  Their  boiling  points  are  in  almost  all  cases- 
far  higher  than  that  of  water,  but  when  heated 
with  water,  they  pass  off  with  the  steam — a  pix>- 
perty  on  which  one  of  the  chief  modes  of  obtaining 
them  depends.  See  Perfumery.  The  oils  have 
characteristic  penetrating  odours,  which  are  seldom/ 
so  pleasant  as  those  of  the  plants  from  which  they 
are  obtained,  and  their  taste  is  hot  and  irritating. 

49 


OILS. 


They  vary  in  their  specific  gravity,  but  most  of  them 
are  lighter  than  water,  and  refrsict  light  stronely. 
Meet  of  them  are  nearly  colourless  when  fresh,  out 
darken  on  exposure  to  light  and  air;  but  a  few 
are  green,  and  two  or  three  of  a  blue  colour.  By 
prolonged  exposure  they  absorb  oxygen,  and  become 
oohverted  into  resins. 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  them  are  products 
of  the  vital  activity  of  plants,  in  which  most  of 
them  exist  ready  formed,  being  enclosed  in  minute 
cavities,  which  are  often  visible  to  the  naked  eye. 
Altiiough  diffused  through  almost  every  part  of  a 
plant,  the  oil  is  especially  abundant  in  particular 
OTf^^ms  of  certain  families  of  plants.  In  the  Uwbd' 
U/erce,  it  is  most  abundant  in  the  seeds;  in  the 
JtosacexB^  in  the  petals  of  the  flowers  ;  in  the 
Myrtacem  and  Lahtatce,  in  the  leaves ;  in  the  Avran- 
UacecB^  in  the  rind  of  the  fruit.  As  in  the  case  of 
the  animal  and  ve^table  fats  and  fixed  oils,  so 
most  of  the  essential  oils  occurring  in  plants  are 
mixtures  of  two  or  more  distinct  chemical  com- 
pounds,  one  of  which  usually  contains  no  oxygen, 
while  the  others  are  oxidised.  Of  these,  the  former, 
which  is  a  pure  hydrocarbon,  is  the  more  volatile, 
and  acts  as  a  solvent  for  the  others.  Most  of  these 
oils,  when  cooled,  separate  into  a  solid  and  a  fluid 
portion,  to  which  the  terms  Stearopten  and  Ekeopten 
have  been  applied. 

In  the  comparatively  few  cases  in  which  the  oils 
are  not  formed  naturaUy,  they  are  produced  by  a 
species  of  fermentation,  as  in  the  case  of  Oil  of 
Bitter  Almonds  and  OU  of  Mustard  (q.  v.),  while 
others  are  the  product  of  the  dry  distillation  or  of 
the  putrefaction  of  many  vegetable  bodies.  Some 
of  tne  natural  oils,  as  those  of  cinnamon,  spirsea, 
and  winter-green,  have  also  been  artificially  pro- 
duced. 

The  essential  oils  are  much  employed  in  the 
fabrication  of  Perfumery  (q.  v.),  for  the  purpose  of 
flavouring  liqueurs,  confectionary,  &o.,  for  various 
purposes  in  the  arts  (as  in  silvering  mirrors),  and  in 
medicine.  The  special  uses  of  the  most  important  of 
these  oils  in  medicine  will  be  noticed  subsequently. 

The  members  of  this  group,  which  is  an  extremely 
•numerous  one  (more  than  140  essential  oils  being 
noticed  in  the  article  on  that  subject  in  The  Bnglim 
CyclopcBdia)t  admit  of  arrangement  under  four 
■heads.  1.  Pure  Hydrocarbons  ;  2.  Oxygenous 
Essential  Oils ;  3.  Salphurous  Essential  (jUs ;  4. 
Essential  Oils  obtained  by  Fermentation,  Dry 
Distillation,  ftc 

1.  The  Pure  Hydrocarbons  are  for  the  most  part 
•fluid,  and  have  a  lower  specific  gravity,  a  lower 
•boiling  point,  and  a  higher  refractive  power  than 
the  oxygenous  oils.  Tney  absorb  oxygen,  and  are 
oonveitMl  into  oxygenous  oils  and  resins.  They 
may  be  separated  from  oxygenous  oils,  with  which 
they  are  usually  associated,  by  fractional  distillation. 
They  include  oil  of  turi)entine  (C^oHie),  and  the 
-oils  of  bergamot,  birch,  chamomile,  caraway, 
•doves,  elemi,  hop,  juniper,  lemons,  orange,  parsley, 

savine,  and  ^enan,  most  or  all  of  which  contain  the 
same  hydrocarbon  as  Oil  of  Turpentine  (q.  v.),  and  in 
•addition  to  it  an  oxidised  compound ;  oil  of  oopaiva 
(C,oH,4),  attar  of  roses  (Ci«Hie),  &c. 

2.  The  Chsygenous  Essential  Oils  may  be  either 
'fluid  or  solid,  the  latter  being  also  termed  Camphors, 
A  stearopten  separatee  from  most  of  the  fluid  oils 
on  cooling.  They  are  more  soluble  in  water  and 
■spirit  of  wine  than  the  pure  hydrocarbons.  They 
may  be  divided  into  (1.)  those  which  are  fluid  at 
•ordinary  temperatures,   such  as  those  of  aniseed, 

chamomile,*  cajeput,  caraway,*  cinnamon,  doves,* 
-fennel,  lavender,  peppermint,  rue,  spiraea,  thyme,* 
winter-green,  &c.  Those  marked  with  a  (*)  are 
assodated  with   the   pure   hydrocarbons   already 


described.      (2.)   The  camphors,  such  as  ordinary 
camphor  (CaoHxeOa),  Borneo  camphor  (Ca^H^gO,), 

&C. 

3.  The  Sulphurous  Essential  OUs  are  chiefly 
obtained  from  the  Cruetfercs.  They  probably  aU 
contain  the  radical  aUyl  (CeHs).  The  oils  of 
garlic  and  of  mustard  (both  of  which  have  been 
described  in  special  articles),  and  those  of  horse- 
radish, scurvy-grass,  and  asafoetida,  are  tiie  best 
illustrative  of  this  division. 

4.  Amongst  the  essential  oils  obtained  by  fermen- 
tation, dry  distillation,  &c,  may  be  mentioned  the 
oils  of  bitter  almonds  and  of  black  mustard,  the  oib 
of  milfoil,  plantain,  centaury,  Ac.  (whose  leaves  have 
no  smell  until  they  have  been  moistened  for  some 
time  with  water,  when  a  kind  of  fermentation  is  set 
up,'  and  oil  is  yidded  in  abundance),  Furfuramids 
(q.  v.),  &C. 

The  British  pharmacopoeia  contains  the  essential 
oils  of  anise,  cajeput,  caraway,  chamomile,  dnnamon, 
cloves,  copaiva,  coriander,  cubebe,  dill,  juniper, 
lavender,  lemon,  nutmeg,  peppermint,  pimento^ 
rosemary,  rue,  savine,  spearmint,  and  turpentine. 
Of  these,  the  oils  of  anise,  cajeput,  caraway,  cham- 
omile, coriander,  dill,  peppermint,  pimento,  and 
spearmint  are  used  as  stimulants  and  antispasmodics 
in  cases  of  flatulence,  griping,  &c ;  and  to  disguise 
the  nauseous  taste  of  various  medicines.  The  ous  of 
cajeput,  cinnamon,  and  rue  act  similarly  but  more 
powerfully.  The  oils  of  copaiva  and  cubebs  act  in 
the  same  manner  as  the  substances  from  which  they 
are  derived ;  oil  of  juniper  is  a  powerful  diuretic, 
and  oil  of  savine  (and  to  a  less  extent  oil  of  rue)  an 
emmenagogue.  The  oils  of  lavender  and  lemon  are 
used  to  conceal  the  smell  of  sulphur  ointment,  and 
to  give  an  agreeable  odour  to  lotions,  &c.  The  oil 
of  rosemary  is  chiefly  employed  as  a  stimulating 
liniment,  especially  in  cases  of  baldness ;  and  the 
oil  of  nutmeg  is  seldom  given  medicinally  except  in 
the  form  of  aromatic  spirit  of  ammonia,  into  the 
composition  of  which  it  enters. 

The  length  to  which  this  article  has  been 
unavoidably  extended,  has  precluded  us  from 
making  any  use  of  the  admirable  paper  on  the 
essential  oils,  which  was  recently  (Decemb^  1863) 
read  by  Dr  Gladstone  to  the  Chemical  Sociat^. 

Bland  oils — such,  for  example,  as  olive  oil — were 
much  used  by  the  ancients  as  external  applications 
in  various  forms  of '  disease.  Celsus  repeatedly 
speaks  of  the  use  of  oil  applied  extemaUy  with 
friction  in  fevers,  and  in  various  other  diseases. 
Pliny  says  that  olive  oil  warms  the  body  and  at  the 
same  time  cools  the  head,  and  that  it  was  used  with 
these  objects  previously  to  taking  cold  baths. 
Aretseus  recommends  a  sitz-bath  m  oil  in  cases 
of  renal  calculi,  and  Josephus  relates  that  a  similar 
mode  of  treatment  was  employed  in  the  case  of 
Herod.  Galen  prescribed  *oil  and  wine'  for  wounds 
in  the  head ;  and  the  ^tarable  of  the  good  Samaritan 
affords  additional  evidence  that  this  was  a  commoii 
mode  of  treating  wounds.  The  use  of  oil  prepara- 
tory to  athletic  exercises  is  referred  to  by  numerous 
Greek  and  Latin  writers. 

As  a  cosmetic — that  is  to  say,  as  a  means  of  giving 
to  the  skin  and  hair  a  smooth  and  graceful  appear- 
ance— its  use  has  been  prevalent  m  hot  climates 
from  the  earliest  times.  There  is  abundant  historical 
evidence  of  this  usage  of  oil  amongst  the  Egyptians, 
the  Jews,  the  Greelu,  and  the  Romans ;  and  Pliny*s 
statement  that  butter  is  used  by  the  negroes,  and 
the  lower  class  of  Arabs,  for  the  purpose  of  anoint 
ing,  is  conflrmed  by  the  observation  of  all  recent 
Anican  travellers.  In  hot  dimates,  there  is  doubt- 
less a  practical  as  well  as  an  ssthetic  object  in 
anointing.    The  oil,  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat^ 


OILS. 


affords  a  certain  amount  of  protection  against  the 
direct  action  of  the  solar  heat;  it  is  likewise 
seryiceable  as  a  protection  against  the  attacks  of 
insects,  and  as  a  means  of  checking  excessive 
perspiration.  The  fact  of  oily  and  fatty  matters 
oeing  bad  conductors  of  heat,  serves  also  to  explain 
wh^  the  Esquimaux  and  other  dwellers  in  Arctic 
regions  have  recourse  to  the  inunction  of  the 
blubber,  fta  In  their  case  the  oily  investment 
■erves  to  prevent  the  escape  of  the  bodily  heat. 

The  Greeks  and  Romans  not  only  employed  oil 
for  the  purposes  already  mentioned^  but  in  their 
funereal  rites ;  the  bodies  of  their  dead  being 
anointed  with  oil,  with  the  view  probably  of  pos^ 
poning  incipient  decomposition.  A  similar  practice 
existed  amongst  the  Jews,  and  in  the  Gospels  we 
find  various  passages  in  which  our  Lord  referred  to 
his  own  body  being  anointed  by  anticipation.  It 
appears  from  the  evidence  of  S.  Chrysostom,  and 
other  writers,  that  this  ancient  usajge  of  anointing  the 
bodies  of  the  dead  was  long  retamed  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church.     See  Unction  ;  Extreme  Unction. 

In  conclusion,  we  may  remark  that  the  ancient 
system  of  anointing,  as  a  means  of  medical  treat- 
ment, has  to  a  certain  exteut  been  revived  in 
modem  times.  Man^  physicians  of  the  present  day 
combine  the  inunction  of  cod-liver  oil  with  its 
internal  administration,  a  combination  first  recom- 
mended by  Professor  Simpson  of  Edinburgh;  and 
Sir  Henry  Holland  advocates  the  practice  of  anoint- 
ing the  harsh,  dry  skin  of  dyspeptic  patients  with 
warm  oils.  There  can,  we  think,  be  little  doubt  that 
there  are  mauy  forms  of  disease  in  which  the  local 
application  of  medicinal  oils  would  prove  advan- 
tageous ;  but  the  great  drawback  to  their  use  is, 
that  the  time  required  for  properly  rubbing  them 
into  the  skin  is  more  than  most  patients  are  willing 
to  concedcL  For  much  curious  information  on  the 
subject  of  this  article,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a 
very  interesting  paper  by  Mr  Hunter,  *  On  the  Exter- 
nal Application  of  Oils,'  in  the  second  volume  of  The 
Ediuburffh  Medical  and  Surgical  JoumoL 

Oils  in  their  Commercial  Eelations. — ^The 
solid  animal  oils  foimd  in  commerce  are  butter 
and  lard,  tallow,  mares*  grease,  goose  OTease,  neats- 
foot  oil,  and  unrefined  yolk  of  egg  ous.  The  two 
first  are  fully  described  under  their  names.  See 
Butter,  Lard.  Tallow  is  the  fat  of  oxen  and  sheep, 
but  more  especially  the  fat  which  envelops  the 
kidneys  and  other  parts  of  the  viscera,  rendered 
down  or  melted.  The  qualities  of  this  solid  oil 
render  it  particularly  well  adapted  for  making 
candles,  and  until  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  m 
the  present  century,  candles  for  ordinary  use  were 
almost  wholly  made  of  it,  the  high  price  of  wax  and 
spermaceti  preventing  their  employment  except  by 
tne  most  wealthy  and  for  ecclesiastical  purposes. 
Besides  its  use  in  making  candles,  tallow  is  most 
extensively  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soap,  and 
for  the  purpose  of  preserving  machinery  from 
rust.  The  trade  in  taUow  with  Eussia,  which  pro- 
duces the  largest  quantity  and  the  best,  and  with 
l^orih  and  South  America,  and  even  with  India  and 
other  countries,  is  very  considerable ;  but  it  is 
declining,  owing  of  course  to  the  extension  of  gas 
and  the  enormous  development  of  the  parafiine  and 
petroleom  oils,  and  other  light-giviug  materials. 
The  quantities  imported  of  late  years  into  Britain 
were  as  follows : 

Tom. 
f  1830-1880,  .  .  M,6t5 

1»JD— 1861,      •  .  .      117.989 

18S1— 1842,  •  •  KOMSi 

18Si~1863,      .  .       '    .        7^.579 

188.r-18ti4  (to  IStb  February),     79.987 

The  ch]«f  use  of  tallow  in  this  country  is  now  in  the 
mannfartme  of  Soap  (q.  v.),  and  even  in  this  it 


M  of  June  to 
flat  May 


has  yielded  in  importance  to  palm  and  cocoa-naH; 
oils. 

Mares'  Grease  is  not  nearly  so  solid  as  tallow,  it 
is  a  yellowish-brown  urease,  im|x>rted  extensively 
from  Monte  Video  and  Buenos  Ayres,  where  vast 
numbers  of  horses  are  slaughtered  for  their  hides, 
bones,  and  grease ;  it  is  particularly  valuable  as  a 
lubricant  for  machinery,  and  is  chiefly  employed  for 
that  purpose  after  much  of  its  stearins  has  been 
removed  for  candle-making.  The  reason  this 
material  is  called  mares'  grease,  is  said  to  be  from 
the  circumstance,  that  in  South  America  horses  are 
chiefly  used,  and  mares  are  slaughtered  as  compar- 
atively useless.  Goose  Grease  is  another  soft  fat, 
much  valued  by  housewives  for  many  purposes,  but 
excepting  that  it  is  sold  in  some  districts  as  » 
remedial  agent,  it  has  no  commercial  importance. 
Neats-foot  Oil  is  a  soft  fat  procured  in  the  prepar- 
ation of  the  feet  and  intestmes  of  oxen  for  food  as 
sold  in  the  tripe-shops.  The  quantity  obtained  ia 
not  very  great,  but  it  is  in  much  request  by  curriers 
for  dressing  leather.  Yolk  of  Egg  Oil  is  a  hard  oil, 
which,  though  little  known  in  Britain,  is  extensively 
used  in  other  countries  where  eggs  are  cheaper.  In 
Russia,  for  instance,  it  is  mauiuactured  on  so  large 
a  scale  as  to  supply  some  of  the  largest  makers  of 
fancy  soaps,  and  it  forms  the  principal  material  in 
the  celebrated  Kazan  Soap ;  and  certain  pomades 
are  made  of  it  which  have  a  great  reputation,  and 
realise  very  high  prices.  This  oil  is  not  unlike  palm 
oil  in  colour  and  consistency ;  but  when  refined  is 
liquid,  and  has  a  reddish-yellow  colour.  Its  price  at 
Moscow  is  as  high  as  Sa.  per  lb. 

The  liquid  animal  oik  are  more  numerous,  and, 
excepting  tallow,  are  far  more  important,  the 
so-c2uled  fish-oils  being  the  principal.  These  are 
whale,  porpoise,  seal,  cod,  herring,  shark,  &c  The 
whales  which  are  pursued  for  their  oil  are  :  (1.)  The 
Sperm  Whale.  This  huge  creature  is  from  60 
to  70  feet  in  length,  and  yields  generally  from 
5000  to  6000  gallons  of  oa  The  finest  oil  is  taken 
from  the  great  reservoir  on  the  head.  The  oil 
of  this  species  is  all  of  a  quality  superior  to 
others,  and  is  known  as  sperm  oiL  For  the 
method  of  procuring  this  oil,  see  Cacholot. 
(2.)  The  Right  Whale,  which  yields  by  far  the 
largest  proportion  of  whale  oil.  This,  with  that 
3^eTded  by  other  less  important  species,  is  usu- 
ally caUed  train  oil.  The  term  train  is  supposed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  dixiin,  and  applies  to  the 
circumstance  of  the  oil  being  drained  out  of  the 
blubber ;  and  in  this  sense  it  is  also  applied  to 
sperm  oil  from  the  blubber  of  the  cacholot,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  the  finer  oil  from  the  heiEMl  matter. 
The  Right  Whale  forms  the  chief  object  of  the 
northern  fisheries,  but  other  species  of  Bahenea  are 
pursued  in  different  parts  of  tne  world  for  the  sake 
of  their  oil    See  Whale. 

Amongst  the  smaller  Cetaceans,  the  porpoises, 
called  also  dolphins  and  grampuses,  yield  an  excel- 
lent oil,  second  only  in  value  to  that  of  regular  oil 
whales ;  and  to  obtain  it,  large  numbers  are  occa- 
sionally killed  in  the  British  seas.  The  price  of 
sperm  oil  ranges  from  £75  to  £90  per  tun,  and  that 
of  ordinary  train  oil  from  £40  to  £45  per  tun  of  252 
gallons.  The  imports  and  consumption  of  the 
various  kinds  of  whale  oil  for  the  last  seven  years 

are  as  follows : 

Imported.      CoOBumption. 

Tan*.  TtaiML 

1856  to  Jan.  1, 1857,  .  •    629B  49M 

1858,    .  .  4851  MU 

1K;»,  .  .    6556  5806 

18H0,    .  .  4550  5703 

1801,  .    4761  4591 

18fj2,    .  .  4548  3188 

iSUa,  .    3648  3446 

A  large  quantity  of  very  valuable  oil  is  obtained 


OILS. 


from  Seals,  ard  the  seal-fisbery,  as  a  means  of 
obtaining  oil,  is  only  second  in  impoi*tance  to  that  of 
the  whafe.  It  is  carried  on  chiefly  on  the  shores  of 
Newfoundland,  Greenland,  and  Labrador.  Like  the 
whales,  the  seals  haye  a  thick  layer  of  blabber,  in 
which  the  oil  is  contained.  See  Seal.  The  first 
draining  from  the  blubber  is  of  a  fine  dear  pale- 
straw  colour ;  the  nezt^  yellow  or  tinged ;  and  the 
last  is  brown  or  darlL  The  price  ranges  in  our 
markets  at  about  £48  to  £50  per  tun  for  pale,  £42 
to  £45  for  yellow,  aad  £40  to  £42  for  brown.  The 
wb'ile  and  the  seal  oils  are  nearly  all  used  for  burning 
iu  lamps,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are  admirably 
adapted  by  their  spi-eat  illuminating  power.  They 
are  also  the  best  lubricants  for  machinery. 

Of  the  true  fish  oUs,  that  from  the  cod  is  first  in 
importance,  more  especially  since  its  medicinal  pro- 
perties were  discoyered.  It  is  made  only  from  the 
liver  of  the  fish;  and  the  attempt  which  was  made 
to  induce  a  popular  belief  that  the  so-called  cod- 
liver  oil  was  ainerent  from  the  ordinary  cod  oil  of 
commerce,  was  simply  a  cheat ;  no  difference  exists, 
and  the  oil  is  obtained  just  as  good  from  the  oil 
merchant,  at  a  moderate  price  per  gallon,  as  from 
the  empiric  at  an  exorbitant  price  per  pint.  Indeed, 
the  purer  the  oil  can  be  got,  the  better  it  is  in  a 
remedial  point  of  yiew,  notwithstanding  the  efforts 
made  to  convince  the  public  that  a  certain  colour  is 
better  than  any  other. 

Instead  of  the  old  and  somewhat  rude  methods 
of  preparing  the  oil  (see  Cod-liver  Oil),  much  more 
complete  and  efficient  arrangements  are  now 
adopted.  The  livers,  when  taken  from  the  fish,  are 
all  examined,  washed  in  clean  water,  and  placed  in 
sieves  to  dry.  Thence  they  are  transferred  to  pans 
heated  with  steam,  and  after  being  exposed  to  a 

gentle  heat  for  about  three-quarters  of  an  hour,  the 
e<it  :3  discontinued  ;  and  when  cold,  the  oil  which 
has  separated  is  skimmed  off,  and  strained  through 
flannel  bags  into  tubs.  Here  cei-tain  impurities 
subside,  and  the  clear  oil  is  ^loured  off  from  the 
dregs,  and  the  contents  of  numerous  tubs  are  trans- 
ferred to  galvanised  iron  cisterns,  in  which  a  further 
settlement  takes  pla^e.  The  oil  is  now  ready  for  the 
filters,  which  are  made  of  the  strong  doth  called 
moleskin,  through  which  it  is  forced  by  atmospheric 
pressure  into  tne  store-tanks,  which  are  also  of 
galvanised  iron.  Hence  it  is  pumped  into  the  casks 
for  export,  which  are  usually  hogsheads,  tierces,  and 
barrels.  The  value  of  cod-liver  oil  is  about  £50  to 
£5S  per  tun.  The  imports  vary  much  according  to 
the  success  of  the  fishery;  they  have  reacmed 
nearly  1000  tuns  per  annum.  Besides  its  con- 
sumption in  lamps,  and  for  medicinal  purposes, 
cod  oil  is  used  in  making  some  kinds  of  soap.  Oil 
is  occasionally  made  from  the  herring,  but  not  in 
▼ery  great  Quantities ;  it,  however,  mrms  a  com- 
mcrciS  article.  It  is  made  from  the  whole  of  the 
iish,  the  smell  of  which  it  retains  to  a  very  disagree- 
able extent. 

The  lightest  of  all  the  fixed  oils  is  made  from  the 
liver  of  the  common  shark  ;  it  ranges  from  specific 
cravity  0*865  to  0*867.  This,  and  the  oil  made 
from  the  livers  of  the  Coinmon  Skate  (Raia  6at»), 
the  Thomback  {R,  clavata)^  and  the  White  Skate 
{khinobatus  eerniculus),  are  often  substituted  for 
the  cod-liver  oil  used  medicinally,  but  have  not  its 
valuable  properties. 

Under  the  name  of  lard  oil,  large  quantities  of 
the  oleine  of  lard  have  been  imported  of  late  years 
from  America.  It  is  a  secondary  product,  arising 
from  the  ^reat  manufacture  of  lard  stesuine  for 
candle-makmg  which  has  arisen  in  that  country. 
Lard  oil  is  worth  about  £45  to  £50  per  tun,  and  la 
principally  used  as  a  lubricant  for  machinery. 

The  sobd  vegetable  fixed  oils  which  find  »  place 


in  commerce  are  palm  oil,  cocoa-nut  oil,  kokum  or 
vegetable  tallow,  and  carapa  or  carap  oil.  The  palm 
oil  is  an  oil  of  a  bright  oran^-yellow  colour  and 
an  agreeable  violet  oaour,  which  is  obtained  from 
the  not  very  thick  covering  of  the  hard  seeds 
of  the  Oil-jialm  (q.  v.).  The  miits,  when  gathered, 
are  shaken  out  of  the  clusters,  and  are  laid  iu 
heaps  in  the  sun  for  a  short  time,  after  which 
the  natives  boil  them  slowly  in  water,  when  the 
oil  separates  and  is  skimmed  off  the  surface,  and 
carried  in  small  quantities  to  the  depots  of  ^e 
traders,  who  transfer  it  to  casks  which  are  prepared 
to  receive  it  on  board  the  ships.  The  quantity  thus 
collected  is  enormous.  The  imports  into  Britain 
alone  for  the  last  five  years  have  been  as  follows, 
in  tons  wei<];ht:  1859,  28,300;  1860,  34,000;  1861, 
33,100;  1862,  38,828;  1863,  34,428.  Previous  to 
1840,  the  chief  use  of  palm  oil  was  in  making  soap, 
but  it  was  about  that  time  found  that  the  ]ialinitine 
or  fat  acid  of  this  oil  was  admirably  adapted  for 
the  manufacture  of  Candles  ((j.  v.) ;  and  since  then 
it  has  become  of  much  greater  importance. 

Copoa-nut  Oil  is  a  white  fat,  with  the  peculiar 
smell  of  the  kernel;  it  is  made  by  grinding  or 
pounding  the  kernel  of  the  cocoa  nut.  After  it 
nas  been  boiled  in  water  for  a  short  time,  the 

Easte  is  submitted  to  great  pressure,  and  a 
irge  quantity  of  milky  juice  is  obtained ;  this 
is  slowly  boiled,  and  the  oil  separates  and  rises 
to  the  surface  in  considerable  quantity,  and  is 
skimmed  off.  Twenty  ordinary-sized  nuts  will 
3rield  as  much  as  two  quarts  of  oU.  This  oil  is  now 
very  largely  imported,  and,  treated  in  the  same  way 
as  palm  oil,  forms  a  stearine,  which  greatly  improves 
that  of  palm  oil  when  mixed  with  it  in  proper 
proportions ;  neither  does  so  well  separately,  and  the 
consumption  of  cocoa-nut  oil  has  consequently  very 
greatly  increased.  Most  of  it  comes  from  Ceylon, 
whofe  the  tree  is  largely  cultivated  on  puqiose. 
The  imports  in  1859  were  9600 tons;  in  1861, 13,800 
tons ;  and  in  1863,  14,534  tons.  By  far  the  greater 
proportion  of  this  vast  quantity  is  used  By  the 
candle  manufacturers,  and  the  remainder  in  making 
common  soap,  its  disagreeable  smell  preventing  it 
being  employed  for  the  better  kinds. 

Vegetable  Tallow,  or  Kokum  Oil,  is  also  used 
by  the  candle-makers ;  only  small  quantities,  how- 
ever, are  imix>rted.  It  comes  from  Singapore,  and 
is  produced  from  the  seed  of  Garcinia  purpurea^ 
a  species  of  the  same  genus  with  the  mangosteen. 
Another  kind  of  ve&cctanle  tallow  is  made  in  Chinai 
from  the  seeds  of  SlUUngia  aebifera, 

Carapa,  Carap,  Crab,  or  Andiroba  Oil,  is  very 
extensively  maae  in  British  Guiana  and  the  West 
Indies,  but  it  is  nearly  all  used  there,  either  as  a 
pomade  for  preserving  the  hair,  or  as  an  unguent  for 
rheumatism  and  neuralgic  pains,  for  which  purposes 
it  is  said  to  be  very  usefuL    See  Carapa. 

The  Bassia  Oil  is  beginning  to  attract  attention, 
and  several  importations  have  taken  place  from 
India,  and  some  rather  large  quantities  have  reached 
Liverpool  from  Bombay,  under  the  name  of  Muohwa 
Oil.  This  oil  is  of  a  soft  butter-like  consistence, 
and  yellowish-green  colour,  and  is  well  adapted  for 
soap- making  and  for  machinery  grease.    See  Cassia. 

The  Uquid  vegetable  oils  are  very  numerous, 
and  several  are  of  great  commercial  import anca 
First  in  rank  is  Olive  Oil,  made  from  the  ripe  fruit 
of  the  Common  OHve  {Olea  Europea).  When  good 
and  fresh,  it  is  of  a  pale  greenish-yellow  colour,  with 
scarcely  any  smell  or  taste,  except  a  sweetisb  nutty 
flavour,  much  esteemed  by  those  who  use  it-  The 
finest  qualities  are  the  Provence  Oil  (rarely  seen  in 
Britain),  Florence  Oil,  and  Lucca  OiL  These  are 
all  used  for  salads  and  for  cooking.  The  Geneva 
is  used  on  the  continent  for  the  same  purposes. 


■nil  Qalipoli,  which  ia  inferior,  oonititiitoa  the  gre&t 
balk  of  wHat  is  received  in  this  country  for  cloth 
dranD^,  Turkey-red  dyeing,  and  other  purpoaes; 
Ui«  coQtinentft]  soap-m&ken  *!ao  employ  it  eitea- 
SFcly.  The  high  price  of  the  best  qualittea  letdi 
to  much  kdulter&tion  wilh  pappy  and  other  ails, 
bat  it  is  genermlly  pretty  sftfe  vbea  in  the  original 
fliaks  H  imported.  The  mode  of  obtaining  the 
Guest  kinds  is  by  gentle  pressure  of  the  fruit. 
Tlie  cake  is  afterwards  treated  with  hot  water, 
from  the  surface  of  which  an  inferior  quality  is 
■kimmed.  The  Qalipoli  oil  is  obtained  by  allowing 
the  olires  to  ferment  in  heapH,  and  then  to  press 
tLrm  in  powerful  oil-presses;  tbe  cake  or  mare  is 
then  treated  with  water  once  or  twice,  antil  all  the 
oQ  is  removed;  this  inferior  oil  is  darker  In  coloui 
being  a  yellowish  or  brownish  greao.  We  receiv 
tbe  hneat  from  Italy,  and  tbe  commoner  qualities 
from  the  Levant,  Mogador,  Spain,  Portugal,  and 
Sicily.  The  prcMut  values  range  from  £52  to  £58 
for  common  kinds,  and  tbe  finest  LuCCa  is  £1  the 
half  chest,  or  nearly  £M  per  tun  measure. 
tnUl  quantity  imported  during  the  last  four  years 
is  as  foUowB  :  1S60,  21,800  tana  ;  1861,  16,500  tuns 
1SG2.  19,(>62  tuna  ;  and  in  1S63,  19,299  tuos. 

Searly  all  the  other  liquid  Teeetable  oils  of  tbia 
diss  are  obtained  from  seeds,  and  as  they  are  most 
cd  them  treated  in  the  same  way,  one  description  will 
suffice.     First,  the  seeds  are  gronnd — and  this 
Britain    it   alwaya   done    by   vertical    stones  (a 
Mill,  tig.  4)— into  «  kind  of  coane  meal,  which 
first  warmed   in   jians,  and  then    put  in  certa 
portions  in  woollen  cloths  or  bags,  so  arranged 
to  be  of  uniform  thickness ;  these  are  again  wrapped 
in   horse-hur   cloths,  and   each    parcel  is  placed 


between  two  flat  boards  ali 


en  two  flat  boards  slightly  fluted  on 
■ides,  and  tiien  placed  in  the  wedge- 


(lig.  1).     In  this  a. 


cea  in  the  wedge-nreas 

two  flannel  bags  filled 

with  the  meal  and  enclosed 

in  horse-hair  bags,  each 
flattened  between  the  flat 
boards,  b,  b,  b,  b.  They  are 
aet  npriKht,  between  the 
preaiing-platea,  t,  i,  i,  i,  one  at 
each  end  of  the  press-frame, 
ere,  which  is  made  of  great 
atrengl^,  and   often   of  cast 

fig.  i.     Meit  is  placed  the 

I  /(-wedge  d;  the  other  wedge, 

«,  i»  then  suspended  by  a  cord 

in  the  position  represented ; 

Kg,  X  ft,  A  are  then  placed,  as  seen 

in  the  drawing ;    the  main 

\    ff,    la    iMtly   inserted,    and    the    press    is 

lor  actiuo.    The  operation  is  very  simple ; 


a  heavy  wooden  stamper,  from  600  to  600  pounds- 
weighty  ia  raised  by  machinery  about  two  feet, 
and  allowed  to  fall  upon  the  wedge  </.  Tbia 
tightens  all  the  other  wedges  and  pressing- plates, 
and  exerts  a  preunre  of  about  60  tons  on  each  bag 
when  fully  driven  home.  The  pressiag-plates, 
i,  V  ^i  *i  Bre  pierced  with  holes,  and  so  are  the 
plates  b,  b,  b,  b;  and  through  these  holes  the  oil 
trickle*  and  passes  away  by  the  pine,  k,  shewn  in 
%  St- 
one of  (he  chief  seed  oils  is  that  of  linseed  <q.  v.^ 
Teiy  little  linseed  oil  is  imported  into  Britain  ;  the 
improved  machinery,  and  the  great  demand  for  tho 
oil-cake  (see  Oii.-cakk),  cause  it  to  be  raanufao- 
tured  at  home,  and  at  present  it  is  exported  in 
considerable  quantities  ;  thus,  from  Hull  alons 
there  was  exported  in  1861,  1G,1S0  tons  weight; 
1S62,  14,200  tons;  186.%  9793  ton«.  The  total 
production  of  Qreat  Britain  for  the  lost  eix  yeanr 
has  buen  as  follows  :  1858,  42,000  tons ;  1830, 
55,000  tons  ;  1860,  65,000  tons ;  1861,  60,000  tons  ; 
1862,  46,000  tons ;  and  1863,  42,000  tons  weight ; 
the  remariiable  decrease  is  attributed  to  over-specu- 
lation. It  ia  worth  about  £36  per  ton.  Bai>e  or 
Colza  Oil  is  a  name  which  covers  the  prudiii:t 
of  several  cniciEerous  seeds,  as  rape,  tnrnip,  and 
other  species  of  Brasiaca,  radish,  Sinaph  tvria. 
Gold  of  Pleasure,  in.  The  oil  is  clear  brown 
and  usually  sweet,  but  with  a  mustard-like  flavour  ; 
its  illuminating  powers  are  excellent,  and  it  is  also 
well  adapted  for  wool-dressing.  Very  largo  Quanti- 
ties are  made  in  Great  Britain,  chielly  from  Sinii/-ii 
toria  and  other  Indian  mustard  seeds,  which  ore 
imported  under  the  name  of  Surzee  Seed-  The 
imports  of  these  seeds  are  occasiunaily  as  much  as 
60,000  qnortera  jier  annum.  Hemp  Seed  yieUU  a 
green  oil  which  is  much  used  in  making  soft  suiip, 
especially  in  Holland.  In  Russia  it  is  much  eatcu 
with  various  kinds  of  food,  and  is  greatly  liked  by 
all  dasaesi 

The  foUowing  are  the  names  of  a  number  of  nils 

which  are  more  or  less  used  in  this  country :  Cott<iii. 

OiL     Palm-nut  Oil,  a  clear  limpid  oil  from  tbe 


from  the  fruit.  Safflower-seed  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Oarlhamm  tiiKtoriiu ;  it  constitutes  tbe  real  Waossj.ir 
OiL     Sunflower-seed  Oil,  from  seed  imported  from 


seed  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  PapaveT  tcnaniferi. 
largely  imported  from  India  ;  it  is  as  sweet  as  olive 
oil,  and  is  extensively  substituted  for  it,  esjiecially 
in  Frauea,  where  it  is  also  very  largely  cultivated. 
Gingelli^seed  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  Sfsamnm  oritn- 
taie,  an  important  Indian  staple  of  which  we  are 
large  consumers  ;  tbe  oil  is  much  uned  for  ui,iil 
dressing,  ic  Ground-nut  Oil,  from  the  tueds  of 
AmrAi»  h/pogaa,  imported  from  Western  Afriia 
and  India;  tMs  oil  is  particularly  adapted  for  li  le 
machinery,  as  it  is  not  aflected  by  cold.  Niger,  Til, 
or  Teel-seed  Oil,  fnim  the  seeds  of  Guizotia  ole\)triii, 
much  imported  from  Bombay.  Croton  Oil,  from  (lie 
seeds  of  JairopKa  mrcat,  largely  used  in  wool  dress' 
'"  -.  The  Croton  Oil  used  in  medicine  is  from  Croton 
aim,  of  which  only  small  quantities  are  importeil ; 
whereas  of  the  other  1200  or  1400  tuna,  besides  a 
quantity  of  the  seed,  often  reach  us  in'one  year. 
Another  highly  valuable  medicinal  oil,  Castor  Oil 
(q.  v),  is  of  great  commercial  importance.  Almond 
Oil,  chiefly  used  for  perfumery  purposes,  is  made 
from  the  kemeU  of  the  sweet  and  bitter  almond  ; 
it  is  the  most  free  from  flavour  and  odour  of  any 
oil  in  use,  notwithstaodins  that  tbe  essential  oil  of 
bitter  almonds  is  so  stron^y  flavoured. 
Oils  made  from  the  se^  of  the  foUowing  nlonts 


OILS— O-KEE-CHO-BEE. 


ha^  e  soaie  commercial  value  in  other  countriea : 
Marlia  saUva;  Argemone  Mexicana;  various  species 
of  Tjrourds ;  Garden  Cress  {Lepidium  sativum) ;  tobacco, 
now  extensively  used  in  Southern  Bussia,  Turkey, 
and  Austria ;  maize,  rarely  made  in  Vienna ;  hazel- 
nuts ;  walnuts ;  nuts  of  stone  pine ;  pistachio  nut ; 
tea-seed,  this  in  China  is  a  common  painter's 
oil ;  the  grape,  from  the  seeds  or  stones,  as  they  are 
called,  saved  from  the  wine-presses,  used  in  Italy  ; 
Brazil-nuts  {BertholetiaexceUa) ;  Cahphyllum  inophyU 
lum^  called  Pinnacottay  Oil  in  India ;  Mdia  azadi- 
radiiay  called  in  India  dv  the  names  Neem  and  Mar- 
gosa  Oil ;  AUwites  triloba^  caUed  in  India,  Country 
Almond  Oil,  and  much  used  for  burning  in  lamps  and 
torches;  PaoraXea  cori/U/oliaf  called  Baw-chee-seed 
OiL  The  seed  is  sometimes  imported  to  this  country 
for  pressing.  Ben-seeds  {Moringa  Pterygosperma) ; 
Bonduc-nuts,  the  seeds  of  Ouilandina  bondue  and 
O,  bonducella. 

The  following  oils,  new  to  European  commerce, 
were  she^^n  in  uie  International  Exhibition  of  1862. 
InduL — Teorah  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Braasiea 
eruccLstrum;  CapalaOil,  from  the  seeds  of  Rottlera 
tinctoria  ;  Cardamom  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  EUUaria 
Cardamomum ;  Hidglee  Badham  Oil,  from  the  seeds 
of  Anacardium  occidentcUet  or  Cashew-nut,  now 
largely  cultivated  in  India ;  Cassia-seed  Oil ;  Chaul- 
moogra  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Jlydnocarptia  odorata  ; 
Checrongee  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Bucmnania  lati- 
folUi;  Chemmarum  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Amoora 
roh'ituka;  Circassian-bean  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Adenanthera  pavonina ;  Hoorhoorya  Oil,  from  the 
seeds  of  Potanisia  icomndra ;  Custard  Apple-seed 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Anona  squamosa  ;  Exile  Oil, 
from  the  seeds  of  Cerhera  Thevetla;  Monela-grain 
Oil^  from  the  seeds  of  Doliclios  unlflorus;  Kanari 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Canarium  commune  ;  Khaliziri 
Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Vernonia  Anthelmintica  ;  Mai- 
kungunnee  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Celasirus  pam- 
culatus;  Bakul  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Mimusops 
elengi;  Kana  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Mimusops  Kaki; 
Moodooga  or  Pulas  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Butea 
fr  >  vlom  :  Nahor  or  Nageshur  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of 
Mesua  ferox;  Hone-se^  Oil,  from  seeds  of  CaZo- 
phyllum  calaba ;  Poonga,  Caron,  or  Kurrmig  Oil, 
from  the  seeds  of  Pongamia  ghbt-a  ;  Vappanley  Oil, 
from  seeds  of  Wrightia  antidysenterica  ;  ^abool  Oil, 
from  seeds  of  Acacia  Arabica  ;  Gamboge  Oil,  from 
seeds  of  the  Gamboge- tree  {Oarclnia  pictor^) ; 
Coodiri  Oil,  from  the  seeds  of  Sterculia  /ostida; 
Kikuel  Oil,  from  the  seed  of  Salvadorea  parska  ; 
Marotty,  Surrate,  or  Neeradimootoo  Oil,  from  the 
seeds  of  Hydnocarpus  inebrians  ;  and  Pundi-kai  Oil, 
from  the  nutmegs  of  Myristica  vuilabainca. 

From  BraziL — Oils  from  the  seeds  of  FeuiUea 
cardi/olia^  F.  monosperma^  Anisosperma  passiflcra^ 
Cucurbita  citruUus,  Mahea  fistuUgera,  Anda  gomesit^ 
Mj/ristica  bicukibaf  Carpotroche  BrasilieTisis,  Dip' 
Urkc  odorata^  Theobroma  oacao^  Acrocomia  sclero- 
caipa^  HectaJidra  cumbarumy  and  from  the  fat  of 
the  Alligator  and  the  Tapir,  all  for  medicinal  and 
perfumery  purposes ;  and  oils  from  the  seeds  of  CEno- 
carpus  Bacdba,  (E.  pataud^  Caryoca  BrasilimMs, 
ana  Euterpe  edulis,  used  for  culinary  and  lighting 
punK)8es. 

Fro7n  British  Gniana. — Oil  drawn  from  the  stem 
of  Oreodaphtie  opi/era  ;  it  resembles  relined  turpen- 
tine, and  is  suggested  as  a  solvent  for  india-rubber. 
Wallaba  Oil,  from  the  wood  of  the  Wallaba-tree 
(Epertra  falcata)^  medicinal. 

The  preparation  of  the  essential  oils  is  treated  of 
in  Perfumeky. 

The  importance  of  the  manufacture  of  oils  is  very 
great;  in  1862  the  value  of  the  imports  of  the 
reading  staples  of  this  trade — viz.,  fish,  palm,  cocoa, 

and  oBve  oils — was  no  less  than  £4,396,218.    The 
M 


aggregate  of  the  other  kinds  was  a  little  over  half 
a  million.  In  addition,  oil  seeds  to  the  value  of 
£3,806,510  were  imported  for  crushing  in  Great 
Britain;  whilst  the  exports  of  oil  amounted  in 
value  to  £1,025,308.  Thus,  it  will  be  seen  that 
this  industry  represents  a  capital  of  nearly 
£10,000,000  sterling. 

OIRIR-GAEL,  a  name  which,  in  the  eariy  timet 
of  Scottish  histoiy,  was  applied  to  the  Gaels  of  the 
coasts,  in  contradistinction  from  the  Gall-Gael  or 
ialesmen.  There  was  long  a  struggle  for  superiority 
between  these  two  races,  represented  respectively 
by  Somerled  of  the  Isles  and  tne  later  kings  of  Man, 
in  which  the  latter  were  eventually  successful, 
uniting  under  one  head  the  dominion  of  Argyle  and 
the  Isks. 

OISE,  a  river  of  France,  one  of  the  chief  affluents 
of  the  Seine,  rises  in  the  vicinity  of  Kocroy,  in  the 
north  of  the  department  of  Ardennes,  and  flows 
south-west,  joining  the  Seine  at  Conflans-Sainte- 
Honorine,  after  a  course  of  150  miles,  for  the  last  75 
of  which  it  is  navigable.  The  fall  of  the  river  is 
very  gradual,  and  its  course  is  extramely  sinuous^ 
It  is  connected  by  canals  with  the  Somme,  the 
Sambre,  and  the  Scheldt,  and  forms  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  routes  between  Belgium  and  Paria  It 
becomes  navigable  at  Chauny. 

OISE,  a  department  in  the  north  of  France,  is 
bounded  on  tne  E  by  the  department  of  Aisne, 
and  on  the  W.  chiefly  by  that  of  Seine-Inf§rieare^ 
which  intervenes  between  it  and  the  English  ChanneL 
Area,  1,446,869  English  acres,  of  which  950,000  acres 
are  in  arable  land ;  pop.  (1862)  401,417.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Oise— from  ^iuch  the  depart- 
ment derives  its  name— and  its  tributaries  the  Aisne 
and  Therain.  The  department  ia  almost  wholly 
included  in  the  basin  of  the  Oise ;  and  as  the  course 
of  that  river  indicates,  the  surface — consisting  for 
the  most  part  of  extensive  plains— has  a  general 
slope  toward  the  south-west.  The  soil  is  in  general 
fertile,  and  agriculture  is  well  advanced.  The 
products  are  the  usual  grain-crops,  with  an  indi^enso 
quantity  of  vegetables,  which  are  sent  to  the  nfarkets 
of  the  metroix)lis.  The  department  is  divided  into 
the  four  arrondissements  of  Beauvais,  Clermont, 
Compi^gne,  Senlis ;  capital,  Beauvaia,  ^  <-^' 

OITI  (MoqviUa  tomentosa)^  a  tree  cf  the  natural 
order  Chrysobalanacem--^hy  many  botanists  regarded 
as  a  suborder  of  Bosacece  (q.  v.) — a  native  of  tba 
nortii  of  Brazil,  and  valuable  on  account  of  its 
timber,  which  is  very  good  for  ship-building. 

O'KA,  an  important  commercial  river  of  Central 
Russia,  the  principal  affluent  of  the  Volffs  from  the 
south,  rises  m  the  government  of  Orel,  and  flows  in  a 
generally  north-east  direction,  forming  a  common 
boundary  between  the  governments  of  Tula,  Kaluga, 
and  Moscow ;  and  afterwards  flowing  through 
the  governments  of  Riazan,  Vladimir,  and  Nijni- 
Novgorod.  It  joins  the  Volga  at  the  city  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod,  after  a  course  of  837  miles.  Its  basin, 
estimated  at  127,000  square  miles  in  extent,  com- 

? rises  the  richest  and  most  fertile  region  of  Russia, 
'he  principal  towns  on  its  banks  are  Orel,  BeleflF 
or  Bielev,  Kaluga,  Riazan,  and  Murcm;  the  most 
important  affluents  are  the  rivers  Moscow,  KUasma. 
and  Tzna.  During  spring,  the  Oka  is  navigable  from 
Orel  to  the  Volga ;  but  m  summer  the  navii^ation  is 
obstructed  by  sandbanks.  It  communicates  with 
the  ports  on  the  Baltic,  Caspian,  and  White  Seas ; 
and  the  cargoes  annuiJly  snipped  down  the  river 
amount  in  viJue  to  several  million  pounds  sterling. 

OKEE-OHO'-BEE,  a  lake  bordering  on  the 
Everglades  of  Southern  Florida  (see  Floridji)^  about 
120  miles  in  circuit,  receiring  several  smal    rivers^ 


OKEN-OLBEBS. 


tnd  haTing  for  its  outlet  the  river  Caloo-Ba-hatcheei 
vhich  flowB  westerly  into  the  Gulf  of  Mezica 

OKBK  (originally  OCKENFUSS),  Lorekz,  a 
odebfated  German  naturaliBt,  was  bom  at  Bohlsbach, 
in  WUrtemberff,  August  1,  1779.  He  studied  at 
Warzbm^  and  GOttmgen;  became  extra-ordinary 
professor  of  medicine  at  Jena  in  1807,  where  his 
ttctures  on  natural  philosophy,  natural  history, 
Boolo^,  comparative  anatomy,  vegetable  and  animal 
phys^logy,  attracted  much  notice.  In  1812,  he  was 
appointed  ordinary  professor  of  natural  science ;  and  in 
I8I61,  commenced  tne  publication  of  a  journal  partly 
scientific  and  partly  political,  called  /m,  which  con- 
tinued to  appear  tiU  1848.  The  opinions  promulgated 
in  the  Iris  led  to  government  mterfereoce,  and  0. 
resiened  his  chair,  and  became  a  private  tutor,  devot- 
ing his  leisure  to  the  composition  of  works  on  natural 
history.  In  1828,  he  obtained  a  professorship  ia  the 
newly-estabtiahed  university  of  Munich;  but  in 
1832,  exchanged  it  for  another  at  Ziirich,  where  he 
died,  11th  August  1851.  0.  aimed  at  constructing 
all  knowledge  d  priori,  and  thus  setting  forth  the 
system  of  nature  in  its  universal  relations.  The 
two  iprincipal  works  in  which  this  idea  is  developed 
are  his  Lehrlmch  der  Naturphilosophie  (Jena,  1808 — 
1811),  and  his  Lehrhuch  der  ifaturgeschicfUe  (3 
vols.  Leip.  1813 — 1827).  The  former  has  been  trans- 
lated into  £nc;li8h,  and  published  by  the  Ray  Society 
under  the  title  of  ElemenU  of  Phymo-philosophy. 
As  0.*8  philosophic  system  of  nature  was  very 
peculiar,  and  quite  unlike  anything  that  had  pre- 
ceded it,  O.  invented  a  nomenclature  of  his  own, 
which,  however,  in  many  cases  is  forced  and  preten- 
tious, composed  for  the  most  part  of  new-coined 
words,  and  difficult  to  remember.  It  therefore 
found  little  favour,  and  O.  was  long  regarded — par- 
ticularly by  French  and  £nglish  savans— as  ^  mere 
dreamer  and  transcendental  theorist ;  nor  can  it  be 
denied  that  he  is  largely  such,  infected  with  the 
worst  vices  of  the  school  of  Schelling,  to  which  he 
belonged  ;  but  some  of  his  *  intuitions' — if  we  may 
so  term  his  scientific  suggestions — were  remarkably 
felicitoua,  and  in  the  hands  of  rigorous  demonstra- 
torsyhave  led  to  great  results.  Inhis  work  Die  Zeu- 
fptn^-iPn  Generation,  Bamb.  1805),  he  first  sug- 
gested that  all  animals  are  built  of  vesicles  or  cells  ; 
m  his  BeStrtUjfi  zur  vergleicJienden  Zoologies  Anatome 
It  fid  Phy^iiolpgie  (1806),  he  pointed  out  the  origin  of 
the  intestines  in  the  umbihcal  vesicle ;  and  in  the 
Mune  year  lighted  accidentally  upon  the  idea,  since 
so  prolific  of  results,  that  the  bones  of  the  skull  are 
modified  vertebne.  On  account  of  this  discovery, 
he  has  been  termed  't&e  father  of  morphological 
science.'  That  O.,  and  not  Gothe,  was  the  original 
discoverer  of  the  vertebral  relations  of  the  skull,  has 
been  conclusively  shewn  by  Owen,  in  a  valuable 
notice  of  O.  in  the  Enqfdopcedia  Britannicou 

OKHO'TSK,  Ska.  of,  an  eltensive  inlet  of  the 
Korth  Pacific  Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Russian 
Siberia.  .  It  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  wastes  of 
8iberia»  on  the  E.  by  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka, 
and  ia  partially  enclosed  by  the  Kurile  Islands  on  the 
8.,  and  by  the  island  of  Saghalien  on  the  W.  It  is 
1000  miles  in  length,  and  500  miles  in  breadth.  The 
river  Ud,  which  enters  it  on  the  north,  is  400  miles 
in  length.  Owing  to  dimate  and  position,  the  Sea 
of  0.  IS  unlikely  ever  to  become  the  scene  of  much 
oonuneroe.  On  its  northern  shore,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Okhota— from  which  it  derives  it  name — is  the 
smaU  seaport  of  Okhotsk,  lat  57°  21'  N.,  long.  143' 
17'  £.  Tuia  town  has  onlv  236  inhabitants,  and  has 
been  entirely  saperseded  oy  the  ports  of  Ayan  and 
t^ikolayevsk. 

OLAF,  the  Saint,  one  of  the  most  revered  of  the 
ssriy  Norw^;ian  kings,  was  bom  in  d95 ;  and  after 


having  distinguished  himself  by  his  gallant  exploit^ 
and  made  his  name  a  terror  in  several  warlike  expe 
ditions  on  the  coasts  of  Normandy  and  England, 
succeeded,  in  1015,  in  wrestins  the  throne  of  Norwav 
from  Eric  and  Svend  JarL  The  cruel  severity  witn 
which  he  endeavoured  to  exterminate  paganism  by 
fire  and  sword,  alienated  the  affection  of  his  subjects, 
many  of  whom  sought  security  from  his  persecution 
in  the  territories  of  Knut  or  Canute  the  Great,  kinu 
of  Denmark ;  and  it  was  only  through  the  powerf lu 
aid  of  his  brother-in-law,  the  Swedish  Anund  Jacob, 
that  his  authority  could  be  upheld.  O.'s  hot- 
headed seal,  however,  after  a  time  exhausted  the 
patience  of  the  people,  who  hastened  to  tender  their 
allegiance  to  Knut,  on  his  landing  in  Norway  in 
1028,  when  0.  fled  to  the  court  of  his  brother-in- 
law,  Jaroslav  of  Russia,  who  gave  him  a  band  of 
4000  men,  at  the  head  of  whom  he  returned,  in  1030, 
and  gave  Knut  battle  at  Stiklestad,  where  O.  was 
defeated  by  the  aid  of  his  own  subjects,  and  slain. 
The  body  of  the  king,  which  had  been  left  on  the 
field  of  battle,  and  buried  on  the  spot  by  a  peasant, 
having  begun  to  work  miracles,  his  remains  were 
carefully  removed  to  the  cathedral  of  Trondhiem, 
where  the  fame  of  their  miraculous  power  spread  far 
and  wide,  attracting  pilgrims  from  all  i)arts  of  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula,  O.  was  solemnly  pro- 
claimed patron  saint  of  Norway,  in  the  succeeding 
century ;  and  from  that  period  tUl  the  Reformation, 
he  continued  to  gather  round  him  a  rich  heritage  of 
mythicud  l^nds  and  [)opular  sagas,  the  memory  of 
which  still  fingers  in  the  folk-lore  of  Norway.  In 
1847,  the  order  of  Olaf  was  created,  in  honour  of  the 
Saint,  by  King  Oscar  I.  of  Sweden  and  Norway. 

OL6ERS,  Heikrtoh  Wilhelm  Mathias,  a  cele- 
brated German  physician  and  astronomer,  was  bom 
at  Arbei^en,  a  small. village  of  Bremen,  October  11, 
1758.  He  studied  medicine  at  €r<5ttingen  from  1777 
till  1780,  and  subsequently  commenc^  to  practise 
at  Bremen,  where,  both  as  a  physician  and  as  a  man, 
he  was  highly  esteemed  by  nis  fellow-citizens.  In 
1811,  he  was  a  successful  competitor  for  the  prize 
proposed  by  Napoleon  for  the  best  *  Memoir  on  the 
Croup.*  0.  has  written  little  on  medical  subjects, 
for,  from  1779,  all  the  leisure  time  which  he  could 
abstract  from  professional  occupations  was  devoted 
to  the  enthusiastic  study  of  astronomy.  The  first 
thing  which  brought  him  into  notice,  was  his  calcu- 
lation of  the  orbit  of  the  comet  of  1779,  which  was 
performed  by  him  while  watching  by  the  bedside  of 
a  sick  patient,  and  was  found  to  be  very  accurate. 
Comets  were  the  chief  objects  of  his  investigation, 
and  he  seems  to  have  been  seized  with  an  irrenstible 
predilection  for  these  vagabonds  of  the  solar  system, 
which  his  two  important  discoveries  of  the  planets 
Pallas  (1802)  and  Vesta  (1807)  could  not  diminish. 
In  1781,  he  had  the  honour  of  first  re-discover- 
ing the  planet  Uranus,  which  had  previously  been 
supposed,  even  by  Herschel  himself,  to  be  a  comet, 
and  which  had  been  sought  for  in  vain.  He  also 
discovered  five  comets,  in  1798, 1802, 1804, 1819,  and 
1821,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  of  1815 
(hence  cidled  Olber^  eomei),  had  been  some  days  pre- 
viously obsenrved  at  Paris.  His  observations,  calcula- 
tions, and  notices  of  various  comets,  which  are  of 
inestimable  value  to  astronomers,  were  published  in 
the  AnnuaireofBode  (1782 — 1829),  in  the  AnHtiairs 
of  Encke  (1833),  and  in  three  collections  by  the 
Baron  de  Zaoh.  Most  of  these  calculations  were 
made  after  a  new  method,  discovered  by  himself,  for 
determining  the  orbit  of  a  comet  from  three  observa* 
tions ;  a  method  which,  for  facility  and  accuracy,  he 
considered  as  greatiy  preferable  to  those  then  in 
use.  A  detail  of  it  appeared  in  a  journal  mtblished 
at  Weimar  (1797),  and  a  new  edition  by  JSncke  in 
1847.   0.  was  one  of  that  small  band  of  aatronomen 


OLD  POINT  COMFOET— OLD  RED  SANDSTONR 


wh-ch  inchided  also  Schrdter,  GansB,  Piazzi,  Bode, 
Hai-ding,  &c.,  who  in  the  first  ten  years  of  the  19th 
c  devoted  their  energies  to  the  observation  of  those 
planets  which  were  coming  to  light  between  Mars 
and  Jupiter.  As  above  stated,  two  of  them,  the 
second  and  fourth  in  order  of  discovery,  were 
detected  by  O.  himself;  and  the  general  equality  of 
the  elements  of  the  four  planetoids,  led  him  to  pro- 
pound the  well-known  theory,  that  these,  and  the 
other  planetoids  (q.  ▼.)  since  discovered,  are  but 
fragments  of  some  hirge  planet  which  formerly 
revolved  round  the  sun  at  a  distance  equal  to  the 
mean  of  the  distances  of  the  planetoids  from  the 
same  luminary.  It  was  this  theory  which  led  him, 
after  the  discovery  of  Pallas,  to  seek  for  more  frag- 
ments of  the  supposed  planet,  a  search  resulting 
in  the  discovety  of  Vesta.  O.  also  made  some 
important  researches  on  the  probable  lunar  origin 
of  meteoric  stones,  and  invented  a  method  tor 
calculating  the  velocity  of  falling  stara  O. 
died  at  Bremen,  2d  March  1840 ;  and  in  1860,  his 
fellow-citisens  erected  a  marble  statue  in  honour  x>f 
him.  O.,  as  a  writer,  possessed  great  powers  of 
tiiought,  combined  with  equal  clearness  and  ele- 

fance  of  expression.  The  dissertations  with  which 
e  enriched  the  various  branches  of  astronomy  are 
scattered  through  yarious  collections,  journals,  and 
other  periodicals. 

OLD  POINT  COMFORT,  a  village  and  water- 
ing-place in  Vii^inia,  U.  S.,  at  the  entrance  of 
Hampton  Roads,  and  James  River,  12  miles  from 
Norfolk,  and  the  site  of  Fortress  Monroe,  the  largest 
military  work  in  the  United  States. 

OLD  RED  SANDSTONE,  the  name  given  to  a 
large  series  of  Palteozoic  rocks,  of  which  red  sand- 
stones are  the  most  conspicuoiui  portions,  but  which 
contains  also  white,  yellow,  or  green  sandstones,  as 
well  as  beds  of  clay  and  limestona  The  group  lies 
below  the  Carboniferous  strata,  and  was  caUed  *OId' 
to  distinguish  it  from  a  newer  series  of  similar  beds 
which  occur  above  the  Coal  Measures.  The  dis- 
covery that  the  highly  fossiliferous  calcareouis  rocks 
of  Devonshire  and  the  continent  occupied  the  same 
geologic^  horizon,  shewed  that  the  name  was  very 
fax  from  being  descriptive  of  all  the  deposits  of 
the  period,  ana  suggested  to  Murchisou  and  Sedge- 
wick  the  desirableness  of  giving  them  a  new 
designation.  They  conseauently  proposed  Devonian, 
which  has  been  extensively  adopted ;  but  it  is  liable 
to  the  same  objection  as  that  urged  against  the 
name  it  was  intended  to  supplant,  inasmuch  as  it 
incorrectly  limits  geographically  what  the  other 
limits  lithologically.  Many  names  used  by  geolo- 
gists are  similarly  at  fault;  there  is  therefore  no 
good  reason  why  the  old  name  should  be  given  up, 
especially  as  it  has  been  rendered  classical  by  the 
labours  and  writings  of  Hugh  Miller,  the  onginal 
monographer  of  these  rocks. 

The  position  of  the  0.  R  S.  series  is  easily  deter- 
mined, though  the  sequence  of  the  various  beds 
which  form  it  is  somewhat  obscure.  All  the 
rocks  are  situated  between  the  beds  of  the  Silurian 
and  Carboniferous  periods.  In  Wales,  Scotland, 
and  Ireland  it  has  been  observed  that  there  is  an 
old  series  of  red  sandstones  which  are  more  or  less 
conformable  with  the  underlying  Silurians,  and  a 
newer  series  unconformable  with  the  older  strata, 
bnt  conformable  with  the  overlying  Carboniferous 
rocks.  The  great  interval  represent^  by  this  break 
has  been  believed  to  be  toat  daring  which  the 
Calcareous  Devonian  rocks  were  deposited.  The 
recent  researches,  however,  of  Mr  Salter  shew  that 
the  one  set  of  beds  do  not  alternate  with  the  other, 
but  that  they  are  really  contemporaneous— the 
coarse  shallow  water  deposits  of  conglomerate  and 


sandstone  having  been  fonned  on  the  shores  of  thai 
sea  in  whose  depths  the  deposits  of  thicker  mass, 
finer  grain,  and  lighter  colour,  full  of  marine  shells 
and  corals,  were  at  the  same  time  being  aggregated. 
The  strata  of  the  period  have  been  arranged  ia 
four  groups.  1.  Upper  Old  Red  Sandstone,  includ- 
ing the  Marwood  and  Petherwin  croups.  2.  Middle 
Old  Red  Sandstone,  including  the  Dartmouth  and 
Plymouth  groups.  3.  Lower  Old  Red  Sandstone, 
including  the  I^orth  Foreland  and  Torbay  groups. 
4.  Tilestones  or  Ledburv  Shales. 

1.  The  Upper  Old  Rea  Sandstones  are  conformabU 
with  the  inferior  strata  of  the  Coal  Measures,  and 
differ  so  little  petrologically,  or  even  palffiontologio- 
ally  from  them,  that  thevhave  been  considered  am 
the  basement  series  of  that  period.  They  consist 
of  yellowish  and  light-coloured  sandstones,  whidi 
are  at  Dura  Den,  in  Fifeshire,  remarkably  rich  in 
some  of  their  layers  in  the  remains  of  Holoptychius, 
Ptericthys,  Dendrodus,  &c  In  the  south  of 
Ireland,  and  at  Dunse,  similar  beds  contain  a 
fresh- water  shell  very  like  the  modem  Anodon,  and 
fragments  of  a  fern  called  Cydopteris  Hibernieus. 
Mr  Salter  has  shewn,  from  the  intercalation  of  the 
marine  beds  with  the  red  sandstone,  and  from  the 
identity  of  the  fossils,  that  the  Devonian  repre- 
sentatives of  these  beds  are  the  Marwood  and 
Petherwin  groups.  These  consist  of  dark-coloured 
calcareous  and  argillaceous  beds,  and  gray  and 
reddish  sandstones.  The  fossils  found  in  them  are 
shells  and  land-plants,  many  of  tf^em  belonging  to  the 
same  genera,  but  different  species  to  those  which 
are  found  in  the  Carboniferous  system.  The  little 
crustacean  Cypridina  and  Clymcnia  are  so  charao- 
teristic  of  this  division,  that  in  Germany  the  rorata 
are  known  as  the  Cypridinien  Schieffer  and  Clyme- 
nien  Kalk. 

2.  The  Middle  Old  Red  Sandstone  is  represented 
in  the  north  of  Scotland  by  the  Caithness  flacs,  a 
series  of  dark-gray  bituminous  schists,  sligntly 
micaceous  or  calcareous,  and  remarkably  tough  and 
durable.  Throughout  their  whole  thickness  they 
are  charged  with  fossil  fish  and  obscure  vegetable 
remains.  The  characteristic  fishes  belong  to  the 
genera  Coccosteus,  Asterolepis,  and  Dipterus.  The 
corresponding  beds  in  Devonshire  are  the  Dart* 
mouth  and  Pl^outh  groups,  which  consist  of 
extensive  deposits  of  limestones  and  schists,  all  of 
them  aboimding  in  the  remains  of  corals,  trilobites, 
and  shells.  In  the  German  equivalent,  the  Eifel 
Limestone,  but  especially  in  the  Russian,  the  charao* 
teristic  invertebrate  fossils  of  the  Devonshire  cal- 
careous beds  have  been  fo«nd  associated  with  ^e 
remains  of  Coccosteus,  shewing  beyond  doubt  the 
identity  of  these  various  beds.  The  Calceola  Schieffer 
of  German  geologists  belongs  to  the  Middle  Old 
Red ;  it  receives  its  name  from  the  abundance  in  it 
of  a  singular  brachiopod  {CcUceola  Mndalina). 

3.  The  Lower  Old  Bed  Sandstone  consists  of 
strata  of  red  shale  and  sandstone,  with  beds  of 
impure  arenaceous  limestone  (comstone),  and  fre- 
quently at  the  base  great  deposits  of  red  conglo- 
merate. The  fossils  peculiar  to  this  division  are 
the  remarkable  fish  Cephalaspis,  and  the  huge 
Crustacea  of  the  genus  Fterygotus,  besides  a  few 
shells.  To  the  south  of  the  (&ampians,  the  strata 
consist  of  a  gray  paving-stone  and  coarse  roofing- 
slate.  The  Devoman  representatives  of  this  section 
are  the  sandstones  and  slates  of  the  North  Foreland, 
Linton,  and  Torbay,  and  the  series  of  slaty  beds  and 
quartz  ore  sandstones  developed  on  the  banks  of  the 
Khine  near  Coblentz.'  The  Cephalaspis,  so  charac- 
teristic of  the  oomstones,  has  been  found  in  the 
Rhenish  beds. 

4.  The  Tilestones  or  Ledburv  Shales  consist 
of  finely  laminated  reddish  and  green  micaceous 


OLDBURy--OLDENBURa 


(andttones,  which  have  been  noticed  underMne  the 
Old  Red  only  on  its  western  borders  in  Hereford- 
shire. The  fossils  of  those  beds  shew  a  Silurian  fauna 
with  a  number  of  Old  Bed  forms ;  the  Tilestones  are 
oonsequently  referred  sometimes  to  the  one  period, 
and  sometimes  to  the  other. 

The  0.  R.  S.  occupies  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  surface  of  Great  Britain.    In  the  north,  it  forms 
the  boundary  lands  of  the  Moray  Firth ;  beginning 
even  as  far  north  as  the  Shetlands  and  Orkneys,  it 
covers  the  whole  of  Caithness,  and  in  more  or  less 
broken  tracts  the  east  of  Sutherland,  Ross,  and 
Cromarty,  and  the  north  of  Inverness,  Nairn,  and 
Elgin.     In  the  great  central  valley  of  Scotland  it  is 
the  setting  in  which  the  coal  measures  are  placed, 
stretching  across  the  country  on  the  one  margin 
from  Fonar  to  Dumbarton,  and  occurring  on  me 
other  in  separated  tracts  in  Lanark  and  Berwick. 
In  the  southern  division  of  the  island  it  is  limited 
to  a  large  triangular  district  in  the  south-west.  The 
apex  of  the  triangle  is  at  Wenlock,  in  Shropshire ;  a 
line  thence  to  St^  Point,  in  Devon,  would  limit  it 
on  the  east,  and  a  second  to  Milford  Haven  would 
do  so  on  the  west.    The  Bristol  Channel  bisects  it. 
A  depression  in  the  Welsh  portion  is  occupied  with 
South  Wales  coal-field;  and  in  a  similar  depres- 
sion in  Devon,    the  culm-beds  are   situated.    In 
Ireland,  strata  of  this  age  are  found  in  the  coimties 
of  Kilkenny,  Waterfoid,  Cork,  and  Kerry.    The 
Devonian .  rocks    have    been  carefully  studied  in 
Belgium  and  the  Rhine  district,  and  also  in  Russia, 
where  they  cover  a  lari^  district  in  the  north  of 
the  empire.    The  American  repi'esentatives  of  this 
neriod    are  extensively  developed  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  Canada.    The  invertebrate  ani- 
mals found  in  the  Old  Red  do  not  differ  much  from 
those  of  the  Upi)er  Silurian.    Corals  are  remarkably 
abundant  and  beautiful  in  the  Devonian  limestones. 
Goniatites  and  Clymenia  make  their  first  appearance 
in  this  period,  with  several  forms  of  lower  mollusca. 
Trilobities  are  still  numerous.  But  the  most  striking  ! 
feature  in.  the  period  is  the  abundance  of  fish  of  { 
carious  forms,  strongly  protected  outside  by  hard 
bony  cases,  or  by  a  dense  armour  of  ganoid  scales. 

O'LDBURY,  an  important  manufacturing  town 
sf  England,  in  the  county  of  Worcester,  29  miles 
north-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the 
river  Tame.  It  contains  numerous  churches, 
meeting-houses,  and  schools.  Owing  to  the  exten- 
sion of  the  iron-trade,  0.  has  greatly  increased  in 
size  Mid  prosperity  within  recent  years.  There  are 
ooal  and  iron  mines  in  the  neighbourhood ;  and  in 
the  town,  iron,  steeJ,  locomotive  engines,  mills, 
edge-toolfl,  draining-pipes,  &&,  are  made  and  con- 
structed. The  Stour  Valley  Railway  passes  close 
by  the  town,  and  there  is  a  station  here.  Pop. 
(census  of  1851,  5114) ;  of  1861, 15,615. 

OLBCASTLE,  SiB  John,  once  popularly  known 
as  the  '20od  Lord  Cobham,'  whose  claim  to  dis- 
tmction  is,  that  he  was  the  first  author  and  the 
first  martyr  among  the  English  nobility,  was  bom 
in  the  rei^  of  Edward  III. ;  the  exact  year  is  not 
known.  He  acquired  the  title  of  Lord  Cobham  by 
marriage,  and  signalised  himself  by  the  ardour  of 
his  attachment  to  the  doctrines  of  Wickliffe.  At 
that  time,  there  was  a  party  among  the  English 
iiobles  and  gentry  sincerely,  and  even  strongly 
iesiroos  of  ecclesiastical  reform^the  leader  of 
which  was  *old  John  of  Gaunt — time-honoured 
tancaster.'  0.  was  active  in  the  same  cause,  and 
took  part  in  the  presentation  of  a  remonstrance  to 
the  English  Commons  on  the  subject  of  the  corrup- 
tions of  the  church.  At  his  own  expense,  he  sot 
the  works  of  Wickliffe  transcribed,  and  widely  £s- 
mninated  among  the  people,  and  paid  a  large  body 


of  preachers  to  propagate  the  views  of  the  refor- 
mer throughout  the  country.  During  the  reign  ol 
Henry  IvT,  he  commanded  an  En^ish  army  in 
France,  and  forced  the  Duke  of  Orleans  to  raise  the 
siege  of  Paris ;  but  in  the  reign  of  Henry  V.  he  was 
accused  of  heresy,  and  having,  in  a  disputation  with 
his  sovereign,  declared  that '  as  sure  as  God's  word 
I  is  true,  the  pope  is  the  great  Antichrist  foretold  in 
'  Holy  Writ,*  ne  was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  whence, 
after  some  time,  he  escaped,  and  concealed  himself 
in  Wales.  A  bill  of  attainder  was  passed  against 
him,  and  1000  marks  set  upon  his  head.  After  four 
years*  hiding,  he  was  captured,  brought  to  London, 
and — being  reckoned  a  traitor  as  welfas  a  heretic — 
he  was  hung  up  in  chains  alive  upon  a  gallows,  and 
fire  being  put  under  him,  was  burned  to  death, 
December  1417.  0.  wrote  Twelve  Conclusions 
addressed  to  the  Parliament  of  England,  several 
monkish  rhymes  against  *fleshlye  livers*  among 
the  clergy,  religious  discourses,  &c. — See  Life  ^ 
Oldcasde,  by  GHpin. 

O'LDENBURG,  a  grand-duchy  of  Northern 
Germany,  consisting  of  three  distmct  and  widely 
separated  territories,  viz.,  Oldenburg  Proper,  the 
principality  of  Liibeck,  and  the  principality  of 
Birkenfeld.  The  collective  area  of  these  districts  ia 
nearly  2399  square  miles.  Pop.,  in  .1862,  295,242. 
Oldenburg  Proper  which  comprises  fths  of  this  area, 
and  |ths  of  the  entire  population,  is  bounded  on  thi 
N.  by  the  German  Ocean,  pn  the  E.,  S.,  and  W.  by 
the  kingdom  of  Hanover.  The  principal  rivers  of  0. 
are  the  Weser,  the  Jahde,  and  the  Haase,  Vehne, 
and  other  tributaries  of  the  Ems.  The  grand- 
duchy  of  Oldenburg  Proper  is  divided  into  eight 
circles.  The  country  is  flat,  belonging  to  the  great 
sandy  plain  of  Northern  Germany,  and  consists  for 
the  most  part  of  moors,  heaths,  marsh  or  fens,  and 
uncultivated  sandy  tracts ;  but  here  and  there,  on  the 
banks  of  the  rivers,  the  uniform  level  is  broken  by 
gentle  acclivities,  covered  with  wood,  or  by  pictu- 
resque lakes  smrounded  by  fruitful  pasture-lands. 
Agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  constitute 
the  chief  sources  of  wealth.  The  horses  and  cattle 
raised  in  the  marsh-lands  are  excellent  of  their 
kind,  and  in  great  request ;  the  horse-markets 
at  Oldenburg,  and  the  cattle-sales  at  Ovelgonne, 
being  frequented  by  purchasers  from  every  part  of 
Germany.  The  scarcity  of  wood  for  fuel,  and  the 
absence  of  coal,  are  compensated  for  by  the  exist- 
ence of  turf-beds  of  enormous  extent.  With  the 
exception  of  some  linen  and  stocking  looms,  and 
a  few  tobacco-works,  there  are  no  manufactories. 
There  are,  however,  numerous  distilleries,  breweries, 
and  tan-yards  in  all  parts  of  the  duchy. 

The  trade  is  principally  a  coasting-trade,  carried 
on  in  small  vessels,  from  20  to  40  tons,  which  can 
thread  their  way  along  the  shallow  channels  con- 
necting the  larger  rivers. 

The  exports  are  horses,  cattle,  linens,  thread, 
hides,  ana  rags,  which  find  their  way  chiefly  to 
Holland  and  the  Hanseatio  cities;  while  the  imports 
include  the  ordinary  colonial  goods,  and  manufao- 
tures  of  numerous  kinds. 

The  receipts  for  the  collective  grand-duchy  were, 
for  1863,  2,181,040  thalers,  and  the  expenditm-e, 
2,219,040.  The  publio  debt,  at  the  close  of  1862, 
was  4,179,300  thalers. 

The  principality  of  LUbeck,  consisting  of  the 
secularised  territories  of  the  former  bishopric  of  tiia 
same  name,  is  surrounded  by  the  duchy  of  Holstexn, 
and  is  situated  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers  Schwartau 
and  Trave.  It  contributes  140  square  miles  to 
the  general  area  of  the  grand-duchv,  and  21,693 
inhabitants  to  the  collective  popidation.  It  is 
divided  into  four  administrative  districts.  It  has 
several  large  lakes,  as  those  of  Plon— noted  for 


OLDENBURG. 


its  piotureh^^ue  beaaty — Keller,  Uldei,  and  Gross- 
Eutm  ;  wh)le  in  re^rd  to  climate,  soil,  and  natural 
products,  it  participates  in  the  general  physical 
characteristics  of  Uolstein.  The  chief  town  is 
Eutin  (pqp.  4000),  {pleasantly  8ituate4  on  the  lake 
of  the  same  name,  with  a  fine  castle  surrounded  by 
»  magnificent  park. 

The  principality  of  Birkenfeld,  lying  south-west 
of  the  Rhine,  among  the  Hundsruck  Mountains,  and 
between  Rhenish  Prussia  and  Lichtenberg,  is  an 
outlyine  territory,  situated  in  lat  49"  30'— 49'  62*  N., 
and  in  lon^.  V—T  SO'  E.  Its  area  is  192  square 
miles,  and  its  pop.  34,391.  The  soil  of  Birkenfeld 
is  not  generally  productive ;  but  in  the  lower  and 
more  sheltered  valleys,  it  yields  wheat,  flax,  and 
hemp.  Wood  is  abundant.  The  mineral  products, 
which  are  of  considerable  importance,  comprise  iron, 
copper,  load,  coal,  and  building-stone ;  while  in  addi- 
tion to  the  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine,  the 
polishing  of  stones,  more  e8i)eciaUy  ag&^es,  constitutes 
the  principal  source  of  industry.  The  principality 
is  divided  into  three  governmental  districts. 

0.  is  a  constitutional  ducal  monarchy,  hereditary 
in  the  male  line  of  the  reigning  family.  The  con- 
stitution, which  is  based  upon  that  of  1849,  revised 
in  18t52,  is  common  to  the  three  provinces,  which 
are  represeoted  in  one  joint  chamber,  composed  of 
47  members,  chosen  by  free  voters.  Each  princi- 
pality has,  however,  its  special  provincial  council, 
the  members  of  which  are  ukewise  elected  by  votes ; 
whUe  each  governmental  district  within  we  pro- 
vinces has  its  local  board  of  councillors,  and  its 
several  courts  of  law,  police,  finance,  ftc. ;  although 
the  highest  judicial  court  of  appeal,  and  the  ecclesi- 
astical and  ministerial  offices,  are  located  at  Olden- 
burg. 

Perfect  liberty  of  conscience  was  guaranteed  by 
the  constitution  of  1849.  The  Lutheran  is  the 
predominant  church,  upwards  of  200,000  of  the 
I)opidation  belonging  to  that  denomination;  while 
about  70,000  persons  profess  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion. 

Oliere  are  two  gymnasia,  one  higher  provincial 
oolleffe,  several  secondary,  and  547  elementary 
schools ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  scarcity  of 
villages  in  the  duchy,  and  the  isolated  x>osition  of 
many  of  the  houses  of  the  peasantry,  schools  are  not 
common  in  the  country  districts,  and  the  standard 
of  education  of  the  lower  classes  is,  from  these  causes, 
scarcely  equal  to  that  existing  in  other  parts  of 
Northern  Germany.  The  military  forces  of  0. 
number  4007  men ;  while  the  federal  contingent 
amounts  to  2986  men,  who  are  incorporated  in  one 
brigade  with  the  troops  of  the  three  Hanseatic 
cities.  0.  has  a  separate  vote  in  the  Plenum  of  the 
federal  diet,  and  a  joint  vote  with  Anhalt  and 
Schwarzburg  in  the  limited  council 

Histoi-y, — The  territory  now  included  in  the 
grand-duchy  of  0.,  was  m  ancient  times  occupied 
by  the  Teutonic  race  of  the  Chauci,  who  were 
subsequentljr  merged  with  the  more  generally 
known  Frisii,  or  Frisians  ;  and  the  land,  under  the 
names  of  Ammergau  and  Lerigau,  was  for  a  long 
period  included  among  the  dominions  of  the  Dukes 
of  Saxony.  In  1180,  the  Counts  of  0.  and  Delmen- 
horst  succeeded  in  establishing  independent  states 
from  the  territories  of  Henry  the  Lion,  which  fell 
into  a  condition  of  disorganisation  after  his  down- 
ialL 

This  family  has  continued  to  rule  O.  to  the 
present  day,  giving,  moreover,  new  dynasties  to  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark,  the  empire  of  Russia,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Sweden.  See  Oldenburg,  Housb 
OF.  On  the  death,  in  1667}  of  Count  Anthony 
Gunther,  the  wisest  and  best  of  the  0.  rulers,  his 
dominionSi  in  default  of  nearer  heirs,  fell  to  the 
u 


Danish  reisning  family,  and  continued  for  a 
century  to  oe  ruled  by  viceroys  nominated  by  the 
kings  of  Denmark.  This  union  was,  however, 
severed  in  1773,  when,  by  a  family  com[)act, 
Christian  VIL  made  over  his  0.  territories  to 
the  Grand  Duke  Paul  of  Russia,  who  represented 
the  Holstein-Gottorp  branch  of  the  family.  Paul 
having  renounced  the  joint  coimtships  of  Delmen- 
horst  and  0.  in  favour  of  his  cousin,  Frederick 
Augustus,  of  the  younger  or  Kiel  line,  of  the  House 
of  0.,  who  was  Pnnce-bishop  of  Lfibeck,  the 
emperor  raised  the  united  0.  territories  to  the  rank 
of  a  duchv.  The  present  reigning  familv  is 
descended  from  Duke  Peter  Friednch  Ludwig, 
cousin  to  the  Prince-bishop,  Frederick  Augustus. 
For  a  time,  the  duke  was  a  member  of  Napoleon's 
Rhenish  Confederation ;  but  French  troops  naving, 
in  spite  of  this  bond  of  alliance,  taken  forcible  po»- 
session  of  the  duchy  in  1811,  and  incorporated  it 
with  the  French  empire,  the  ejected  prince  joined 
the  ranks  of  the  allies.  In  recognition  of  this 
adhesion,  the  Congress  of  Vienna  tr<ansferred  certain 
portions  of  territory,  with  5000  Hanoverians  and 
20,000  inhabitants  of  the  quondam  French  district 
of  the  Saar,  to  the  O.  allegiance.  From  these  new 
acquisitions  were  ox^nised  the  district  Amme,  and 
the  principality  of  Birkenfeld ;  while  O.  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  a  grand-duchy.  The  revolution- 
ary movement  of  1848  was  quite  as  productive  of 
violent  and  compulsory  political  changes  in  this  as 
in  other  German  states ;  and  in  1849,  after  having 
existed  for  centuries  without  even  a  show  of  consti- 
tutional or  legislative  freedom,  it  entered  suddenly 
into  possession  of  the  most  extreme  of  liberal 
constitutions.  The  reaction  in  favour  of  absolutism, 
which  the  licence  and  want  of  puri)08e  of  the 
popular  party  naturall^r  induced  all  over  Germany, 
led  in  1852  to  a  revision  and  modification  of  the 
constitution,  which,  however,  in  its  present  form 
contains  the  essential  principles  of  popular  liberty 
and  security.  Still,  it  must  be  confessed  ihia  is 
more  verbsl  than  real;  and  hitherto,  under  the 
assumption  that  the  people  have  not  yet  acquired 
the  necessary  amount  of  iwlitical  intelligence  for  the 
judicious  use  of  national  independence,  the  grand- 
dukes,  with  the  co-operation  of  the  contented 
bureaucracy  who  fill  the  chambers,  have  relieved  tho 
people  of  the  labour  and  res]x)nsibiLity  of  shiuij^g 
largely  in  the  affairs  of  government. 

OLDENBURG,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  ol 
the  same  name,  is  pleasantly  situat^  on  the  bankb 
of  the  navigable  nver  Hunte,  25  miles  west-north- 
west of  Bremen.  Pop.  9000.  O.  is  the  seat  of  tho 
administrative  departments,  and  the  focus  of  the 
literary,  scientific,  and  commercial  activity  of  the 
duchy.  It  has  a  normal  school,  a  military  academy, 
a  public  library  of  80,000  vols.,  a  picture-gallery, 
museum,  &c.  The  grand-ducal  palace  is  worthy  of 
note  for  its  tine  gardens,  its  valuable  pictures,  and 
other  art  collections,  and  its  library.  The  nrinbipal 
church  is  St  Lambert's,  containing  the  burying- 
vaults  of  the  reigning  family.  O.  is  the  seat  of  an 
active  river-trade,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent 
studs,  and  the  great  cattle  and  horse  fairs  which  are 
annually  held  nere  in  the  months  of  June  and 
Augusts 

OLDENBURG,  The  House  of,  which  lays  just 
claim  to  being  one  of  the  oldest  reignins  families  of 
Europe,  has  been  rendered  still  more  illustrious  by 
various  matrimonial  alliances,  which,  in  the  course 
of  ages,  have  successiv^  been  the  means  of  creating 
new  royal  dynasties.  Thus,  for  instance,  in  14iS,  a 
scion  d  this  House  being  elected  king  of  Denmark, 
under  the  title  of  Christian  I.,  became  the  progenitor 
of  the  Danish  House  of  Oldenburg,  the  imperial 


OLDENBURG— OLDHAM. 


House  of  Russia,  the  late  poteJ  family  of  Sweden, 
and  the  collateral  and  janior  Danish  lines  of  Angus- 
tenbnrg,  Kiel,  and  Sonderburg-Gllicksbor^.  Chris- 
tian owed  his  election  to  the  recommendation  of  his 
maternal  nnde,  Duke  Adolph  of  Slesvig,  who,  when 
the  throne  was  offered  to  him  on  the  sudden  death 
of  Kinff  Christopher,  refused,  on  the  ground  of 
age,  ana  proposed  Christian  of  Oldenburg,  who,  as 
the  direct  descendant  of  Eric  Clipping's  daughter. 
Princess  Richissa,  was  allied  to  the  old  extinct 
House  of  Denmark.  The  death,  in  1459,  of  Adolph, 
Duke  of  Slesvig  and  Count  of  Holstein,  without 
male  heirs,  oi)ened  the  question  of  succession  to 
those  states,  which  has  smce  become  one  of  such 
Texatious  import.  The  ancient  law  of  Denmark 
recognised  hereditary  fiefs  only  in  exceptional  cases ; 
crowa  fieliB  being  generally  held  for  life  or  merely 
for  a  time  cul  grattam.  Such  being  the  case,  Slesvig 
might,  on  the  death  of  Adolph,  have  been  taken  by 
the  crown  as  a  lapsed  tenure ;  but  Holstein,  being 
held  under  the  empire,  would  have  been  separated 
from  it.  Adolph  and  his  subjects  were  alike  anxious 
that  Slesviff  and  Holstein  should  continue  united ; 
hut  although  the  Slesvig  estates,  at  the  wish  of  the 
Duke  Adomh,  had  recognised  Christian  as  successor 
to  the  duchy  before  his  accession  to  the  tiirone  of 
Denmark,  the  Holstein  Chambers  were  divided  on 
the  question  of  succession,  the  majority  shewing  a 
preference  for  the  claims  of  the  counts  of  Schauen- 
Dur^who  were  descended  from  male  agnates  of 
the  Holstein  House.  Christian,  in  his  eagerness  to 
secure  both  states,  was  willing  to  sacrifice  nis  rights 
in  Slesvig  to  his  schemes  in  regard  to  Holstein ;  and 
having  bought  over  the  Holstein  nobles  by  bribes 
and  fair  promises,  he  was  elected  Dnk^  of  Slesvig 
and  Count  of  Holstein  at  Ribe  in  1460,  where  he 
signed  a  deed,  alike  derogatory  to  the  interests 
and  unworthy  the  dignity  of  his  crown.  In  this 
compact,  by  which  he  bartered  away  the  just 
prerogatives  and  independence  of  himself  and  his 
successors,  for  the  sake  of  nominal  present  gain, 
he  pledged  his  word  for  himself  and  his  heirs,  that 
the  two  provinces  should  always  remain  undivided, 
*€wig  bliben  tooeamende  ungedeelt,*  and  not  be  dis- 
membered by  division  or  heritage.  This  document, 
which  remained  for  a^es  unknown  or  forgotten, 
was  discovered  by  the  historian  Dahlmann  amid  the 
Defected  papers  of  the  Holstein  state  archives  at 
Freetz,  and  proclaimed  in  1848  by  that  ardent 
admirer  of  Germany  as  the  unchangeable  funda- 
mental law  of  the  Slesvig- Holstein  provinces.  The 
confttsion,  dissension,  and  ill-will  to  which  this  fatal 
deed  has  given  rise,  are  the  fruits  which  Christian's 
unacmpulous  desire  to  secure  power  at  any  cost 
has  produced  for  his  descendants,  whose  compucated 
claims  on  the  duchies  are  at  the  present  moment 
devastating  the  Danish  kingdom  with  an  extermi- 
nating war.  From  Christian  L  descend  two  distinct 
brandies  of  the  Oldenbni^  line :  1.  The  royal  dynasty, 
ftxtinct  in  the  male  line  m  Frederick  VIL,  late  king 
ot  Denmark,  and  the  collateral  branches  of  Sonder- 
baig- Augustenburg,  and  Sonderburg-Gli&cksburg ; 
2.  The  ducal  Holstein-Gottorp  line,  descended  from 
Duke  Adolph,  who  died  in  1586,  and  was  the 
second  son  of  King  Frederick  I.  This  prince  had 
received,  during  his  father's  lifetime,  a  portion  of 
tiie  Slesvig  and  Holstein  lands,  which  he  was 
permitted,  on  the  accession  of  his  elder  brother. 
Christian  IIL,  to  retain  for  himself  and  his  heirs. 
This  line  became  illustrious  by  the  marriage  of 
Frince  Karl  Friedrich,  the  son  of  Hedwig-Sofia, 
eldest  sister  of  Charles  XIL  of  Sweden  (a  direct 
descendant  of  Duke  Adolph)  with  the  Grand- 
duchess  Anna,  daughter  of  Peter  the  Great,  and 
tiius  gave  to  Russia  the  dynasty  which  still  occu- 
pies &e  imperial  throne;  while  Adolph-Friedrich, 


a  cousin  of  Prince  Karl  Friedrich,  by  his  electioi^ 
to  the  throne  of  Sweden  in  1751,  added  another 
crown  to  those  already  held  bv  the  House  of 
Oldenburg.  The  conduct  of  his  descendants 
rendered  the  new  dignity  short-lived,  for  with  the 
abdication  of  Gustavus  IV.,  in  1809,  the  HolsteioH 
Gottorp  dynasty  became  extinct  in  Sweden. 

The  complicated  relations  of  the  House  of  O. 
in  regard  to  the  Danish  succession,  after  giving 
rise  to  much  angry  discussion  among  the  princes 
interested  in  the  question,  and  the  Danish  people 
themselves,  led  the  great  powers  to  enter  into  a 
treaty,  known  as  the  London  Treaty  of  1852,  for 
settling  the  question  of  succession,  on  the  ground 
that  the  integrity  of  the  Danish  monarchy  was 
intimately  connected  with  the  maintenance  of  the 
balance  of  power  and  the  cause  of  peace  in  Europe. 
Ei^land,  France,  Austria,  Prussia,  ilussia,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  were  parties  to  this  treaty,  in  the 
first  article  of  which  it  was  provided,  that  on  the 
extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  royal  House, 
Prince  Christian  of  Slesvig-Holstein-Sonderburg- 
GlUcksburg,  and  his  male  heirs,  according  to  the 
order  of  primogeniture,  should  succeed  to  all  the 
dominions,  then  united  under  the  sway  of  the  king 
of  Denmark.  The  rights  of  succession,  which  rested 
with  the  Augustenburg  family,  were  forfeited  by  a 
compact  which  the  Diike  of  Augustenburg  entered 
into  for  the  surrender  of  his  claims,  in  consideration 
of  a  sum  of  money  paid  to  him  by  Denmark.  The 
duke's  morganatic  marriage,  and  his  subsequent 
rebellion,  in  1848,  against  &e  Danish  king,  were  the 
causes  which  led  to  the  arrangement  of  this  family 
compact  on  the  existing  terms.  This  treaty,  knoi^'n 
as  tne  London  Protocd  of  May  1852,  was  followed 
in  Octoljer  of  the  same  year  by  the  publication 
of  a  supplementary  clause,  which  stipulated,  that  on 
the  extinction  of  the  heirs-male  of  Prince  Christian 
of  Slesvig  -  Holstein  -  Sonderburg  -  Glucksbuig,  the 
Holstein-Gottorp,  or  imperial  Russian  line  should 
succeed  to  the  Danish  dominions.  This  article,  even 
more  than  the  original  clauses  of  the  treaty,  met 
with  the  strongest  opposition  among  the  Danfes,  and 
after  being  twice  rejected  in  the  Landsthing,  tiie 
London  Treaty  was  only  ratified  after  a  new 
election  of  members,  and  on  the  assurance  of  the 
king  that  in  excluding  all  female  cognate  lines  from 
the  succession,  there  was  no  definite  intention  of 
advancing  the  claims  of  Russia.  King  Frederick's 
death,  in  1863,  has  brought  the  crisis  of  the  much- 
vexed  question  of  the  Danish  succession;  and 
although  the  London  Treaty  has  been  so  far  followed 
that  Prince  Christian  has  succeeded  as  king  of 
Denmark,  the  evils  that  were  anticipated  Sx^m 
the  measure  are  at  this  moment  (April  1864)  being 
made  manifest;  for  the  Duke  of  Augustenburg, 
notwithstanding  the  renunciation  by  his  family  of 
all  claims  to  tne  succession,  has  appealed  to  the 
federal  diet  for  the  recognition  of  his  rights  on 
Holstein ;  and  the  German  powers,  glad  of  a  pretext 
to  extend  their  infiuence  beyond  the  Eider,  are 
occupying  the  Slesvig-Holstein  (q.  v.)  territory,  and 
endeavouring,  by  force  of  superior  numbers,  to 
advance  the  boundary  of  Germany  to  the  borders 
of  Jutland,  or  perhaps  even  to  its  northernmost 
extremity ;  and  thus  make  a  new  division  of  the 
old  Danish  heritage  of  the  House  of  0.,  which,  if  it 
be  effected  in  accordance  with  the  plans  of  the  diet, 
will  bring  about  the  total  dionemberment  of 
Denmark. 

O'LDHAM,  a  parliamentary  borough  and  flour- 
ishing manufacturing  town  of  England,  in  the 
county  of  Lancashire,  stands  on  the  Medlock,  six 
mOes  north-east  of  Manchester.  It  owes  its  rapid 
increase  in  population  and  in  wealth  to  the  exten- 
sive ooal-mmee  in  the  vicinity,  and  to  its  cotton 


OLDHAMIA— OLEFIANT  GAS. 


msnnfactiirea,  vbich  have  increased  remirkably 
within  late  years.  It  is  not  only  the  great  centre 
of  the  hat-mannfacture,  but  is  also  celebrated  for 
its  manufactures  of  fustians,  velveteens,  cords, 
cotton,  voollen,  and  silk  goods.  Numerous  silk> 
mills,  brass  and  iron  foundries,  machine-shops, 
tanneries,  rope- works,  &c.,  are  in  operation.  Tne 
parish  church,  the  town-haJl,  the  Blue-coat  and  the 
Grammar-schools,  are  the  chief  edifices.  Pop.  in 
1851  of  municipal  borough,  52,820;  1861,  of  muni- 
cipal borough,  72,333,  of  parliamentary  borough, 
(which  returns  two  members  to  the  House  of 
Commons),  94,344, 

OLDHA'MIA,  a  genus  of  fossil  zoophytes, 
dedicated  by  Forbes  to  rrofessor  Oldham,  wno  was 
their  discoverer.  Only  two  species  are  known,  but 
they  are  of  peculiar  interest,  because,  with  their 
associated  worm-tracks  and  burrows,  thev  are  the 
first  distinct  evidence  of  life  on  the  globe.  They 
exist  as  mere  tracings  on  the  surface  of  the  laminse 
of  metamorphosed  shales,  all  remains  of  the  sub- 
stance of  the  organism  having  entirely  disappeared. 
The  form  of  the  hard  polypidom  is  preserved,  and 
shews  a  jointed  main  stem,  giving  off  at  each  joint,  in 
the  one  species,  a  circle  of  simple  rays,  and  in 
the  other  a  fan-shaped  group.  Forbes  pointed  out 
their  affinities  in  some  respects  to  the  Hydrozoa, 
and  in  others  to  the  Polvzoa.  Kinahan,  who 
described  the  genus  at  some  length,  considers  them 
to  have  been  Hydrozoa  allied  to  Sertiilaria ;  while 
Huxley  places  them  among  the  Polyzoa. 

OLDYS,  William,  a  most  erudite  and  industrious 
bibliographer,  was  a  natural  son  of  Dr  William 
Oldya,  Chancellor  of  Lincoln,  and  advocate  of  the 
Admiralty  Court,  and  was  bom  in  1687.  Regarding 
his  early  life,  little  is  known.  His  father  dying  in 
1708,  l^t  him  a  small  property,  which  O.  squan- 
dered as  soon  as  he  got  it  into  his  own  hands.  The 
most  of  his  life  was  spent  as  a  bookseller's  hack. 
He  drank  hard ;  and  was  so  scandalously  fond  of 
low  company,  that  he  preferred  to  live  within  the 
*  rules '  of  the  Fleet  Prison  to  any  more  respectable 
place.  As  may  easily  be  supposed  from  his  habits, 
the  dissolute  old  bookworm  was  often  in  extremely 
necessitous  circumstances,  and  when  he  died  (Apnl 
15,  1761),  he  left  hardly  enough  to  decently  bury 
hiuL  It  is  but  fair  to  add  that  0.  had  some  sterling 
merits.  Captain  Grose,  who  knew  him,  praises  his 
good-nature,  honour,  and  intesrity  as  a  historian, 
and  says  that  'nothing  would  ever  have  biassed 
him  to  insert  any  fact  in  his  writings  which  he  did 
not  believe,  or  to  suppress  any  he  did.'  For  about 
ten  years,  0.  acted  as  librarian  to  the  Earl  of 
Oxford,  whose  valuable  collection  of  books  and 
MSS.  he  arranged  and  catalogued.  His  chief  works 
are  The  Briliufi  Librarian,  emibiling  a  Compendious 
Review  of  all  UnpuhUthed  and  Valuable  Books  in  all 
Sciences  (London,  1737,  anonymously) ;  a  Life  of  Sir 
Walter  BaleJghf  pretixed  to  Kaleigh^s  History  o/thf 
World  (1738) ;  a  translation  of  Cnmden's  Britannia 
(2  vols.) ;  The  Harleian  Miscdlamj^  or  a  CoUeetion 
of  Scarce^  Cur' nut,  and  Entertaining  Tracts  (8  vols. 
Lend.  1753).  Besides  these,  O.  wrote  a  great  variety 
cf  miscellaneous  literary  and  bibliographical  *  articles' 
for  his  friends  the  booksellers,  'vdiich  it  would  be 
tedious  to  mention. 

OLEA'CEiB,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
oonsisting  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  opposite  leaves, 
and  flowers  in  racemes  or  panicles.  The  calyx  is 
in  one  piece,  divided,  persistent;  the  corolla  Ib 
hypogynous,  generally  4-cleft,  sometimes  of  four 
petals,  sometimes  wanting ;  there  are  generally  two, 
rarely  four  stamens ;  the  ovary  is  free,  2-oelled,  the 
cells  2-seeded;  the  fruit  is  a  drupe,  a  cai)sule,  or 
A  samara  (see  these  heads);  the  cotyledons  are 


foliaceous.  Nearly  150  species  are  known,  mostly 
natives  of  temperate  countries.  Among  them  are 
the  olive,  ash,  lilac,  privet,  phillyrea,  fringe  tree, 
&c  Between  some  of  these  there  is  a  great  dis- 
similarity, so  that  this  order  is  apt  to  be  regarded 
as  a  very  heterogeneous  group ;  but  tihe  real  affinity 
of  the  species  composing  it  is  manifested  by  the 
fact,  that  even  those  whidi  seem  most  unlike  can  be 
grafted  one  upon  another,  as  the  lilac  or  the  olive 
on  the  ash.  Bitter,  astringent^  and  tonic  propertiea 
are  prevalent  in  this  order. 

OLEA'NDER  {Nerium),  a  ^nus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Apocyna/^ece,  having  a  5-parted  calyx, 
set  round  on  the  inside  at  the  base  with  many 
tooth -like  points  or  glands,  a  salver-shaped  5-cleft 
corolla,  in  the  throat  of  which  is  a  5-parted  and 
toothed  or  lacerated  corona,  five  stamens,  the  anthers 
adhering  to  the  stigma,  the  friiit  composed  of  two 
follicles.  The  species  are  evergreen  shrubs  with 
leathery  leaves,  which  are  opposite  or  in  threes ; 
the  flowers  in  false  umbels,  terminal  or  axillary. 
The  Common  0.  (-AT.  oleatuier)^  a  native  of  the  south 
of  Europe,  the  north  of  Africa,  and  many  of  the 
warmer  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  is  frequently 
(planted  in  many  countries  as  an  ornamental  shrub, 
and  is  not  uncommon  in  Britain  as  a  window-plant. 
It  has  beautiful  red,  or  sometimes  white,  flowers. 
The  English  call  it  Rose  Bay,  and  the  French  Boss 
Laurel  (Laurier  Base),  It  attains  a  height  of  eight 
or  ten  feet.  Its  fiowei-s  give  a  splendid  appearance 
to  many  ruins  in  the  south  of  Italy.  It  delights  in 
moist  situations,  and  is  often  found  near  streams. 
All  parts  of  it  contain  a  bitter  and  narcotic-acrid 
juice,  poisonous  to  men  and  cattle,  which  flows  out 
as  a  white  milk  when  young  twigs  are  broken  oS. 
Oases  of  poisoning  have  occurred  by  children 
eating  its  flowers,  and  even  by  the  use  of  the  wood  for 
spits  or  skewers  in  roasting  meat.  Its  exhalationa 
are  injurious  to  those  who  remain  long  under  their 
influence,  particularly  to  those  who  sleep  under  it. 
A  decoction  of  the  leaves  or  bark  is  much  used  in 
the  south  of  France  as  a  wash  to  cure  cutaneous 
maladies. — .AT.  odoratum,  an  Indian  s})ecies,  haa 
larger  flowers,  which  are  very  fragrant. — JV. 
piscidium  (or  Eschaltum  pisddium)^  a  perennial 
climber,  a  native  of  the  Kasya  Hills,  has  a  very 
fibrous  bark,  the  fibre  of  which  is  used  in  India 
as  hemp.  The  steeping  of  the  stems  in  ponds  kills 
fish. 

OLEA'STER.    See  Eljeagnub. 

OXEFIAKT  GAS  (C4H4)  is  transparent  and 
colourless,  possesses  a  disagreeable  alliaceous  odour, 
and  acts  as  a  poison  when  breathed.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0*981.  It  takes  fire  when  brought  in 
contact  with  a  flame,  and  bums  with  a  bright  clear 
light.  When  this  gas  is  mixed  with  oxygen  or 
atmospheric  air  in  the  proportion  of  1  volume  with 
3  volumes  of  oxygen,  or  with  15  volumes  of  atmo- 
spheric air,  it  forms  a  powerfully  explosive  mixturet 
It  is  more  soluble  in  cold  than  in  hot  water — 100 
volumes  of  water  at  32**  absorbing  26*5  volumes  of 
the  gas,  while  at  68*  they  only  absorb  14  volumesw 
It  was  liquefied  by  Faraday,  under  great  pressurii, 
but  remained  unfroaen  at  — 166".  If  it  be  conducted 
through  strongly-heated  tubes,  or  if  a  continuous 
series  of  electric  sparks  be  passed  through  it^  it 
is  decomposed  into  a  very  dense  bladi  carbon,  and 
double  its  own  volume  of  hydrogen ;  and  if  it  is 
subjected  to  a  less  intense  heat,  the  products  of 
decomposition  are  carbon  and  light  carburetted 
hydrogen  or  marsh  gas  (C^^).  Chlorine  acts  upop 
this  gas  in  a  very  remarkable  manner.  When  tht* 
two  gases  are  mixed  in  e<^ttal  volumes,  they  combine 
to  form  a  heavy  oily  hquid,  to  which  the  term 
chloride  of  defiant  gas,  or  Dutch  Liquid  (q.  v.),  is 


OLEIC  ACID-OL*RON. 


giren.  It  is  from  this  rsaction  that  the  term  defiant 
was  originally  applied  to  this  gas. 
^  defiant  gas  is  a  constituent  of  the  gaseous  ezplo- 
lire  admixtures  that  accumulate  in  coal-pits,  and 
of  the  SBseous  products  yielded  by  the  distUlation 
of  woon,  resinous  matters,  and  coal ;  and  the 
brightness  of  the  flame  of  ordinary  gas  is  in  a  great 
measure  dependent  upon  the  quantity  of  olefiant 
gas  that  is  presents 

lliis  gas  is  most  readily  obtained  by  the  action 
<tf  oil  of  vitriol  on  alcohol ;  the  reactions  that  ensue 
are  too  complicated  to  be  described  in  these  pages. 

OXEIO  ACIB  (C8gHn08,HO),  at  temi)eratures 
above  57**,  exists  as  a  colourless  hmuid  fluid,  of  an 
oQv  consistence,  devoid  of  smell  ana  taste,  and  (if 
it  nas  not  been  exposed  to  air)  exerting  no  action 
on  vegetable  colours.  At  40°,  it  solimties  into  a 
firm,  white,  crsrstalline  mass,  and  in  this  state  it 
vjidergoes  no  change  in  the  air ;  but  when  fluid,  it 
readily  absorbs  oxygen,  becomes  yellow  and  rancid, 
and  exhibits  a  strong  acid  reaction  with  litmus 
}iaper.  It  is  not  a  volatile  acid,  and  on  the  applica- 
tion of  a  strong  heat^  it  breaks  up  into  several 
substances,  such  as  caproic,  caprylic,  and  sebacic 
acids — the  last-named  being  the  most  charactehstio 
product  of  the  distillation.  If  oleic  acid  be  exposed 
to  the  action  of  hyponitric  acid  (NO^),  it  is  converted 
into  an  isomeric,  solid,  fatty  acid,  termed  elaidic 
add.  A  very  small  quantity  of  hyponitric  acid 
(1  part  to  200  of  oleic  acid)  is  sufficient  to  effect 
tins  remarkable  change,  the  nature  of  which  is 
unknown.  When  distilled  with  moderately  strong 
nitric  acid,  it  is  oxidised  into  a  large  number  <3 
products,  including  all  the  volatile  fatty  acids  repre- 
sented by  the  formula  C^U^O^,  from  formic  acid 
(C|H^0J  to  capric  acid  (CjoH^^OJ,  with  six  fixed 
dibasic  acids  of  the  formula  C^Jn^^.^fi^  viz.,  succinic 
add,  lipic  acid,  adipic  acid,  piiueUc  acid,  suberic 
add,  and  anchoic  (or  lepargylic)  acid.  When  heated 
with  hydrated  potash,  it  oreaks  up  into  palmitic 
and  acetic  acids,  as  shewn  in  the  equation : 


OMaAdd. 


Bydntad  Potaub. 


C»H„04  -I-  2(K0,H0) 


^ » ^ 


AeatataofPotuh. 


Cj^H^O^KO  +  C^H,0„KO  +  2H 

Theme  decompositions  and  disintegrations  seem  to 
iliustiate  the  facility  with  which,  by  the  mere  pro- 
cess of  oxidation,  which  is  perpetually  at  worK  in 
Hving  structures,  one  organic  acid  can  be  converted 
into  others. 

Oleic  acid  is  a  constituent  of  OlHne  (q.  v.),  which 
exists  in  most  of  the  fats  and  fatty  oils  ot  the  animal 
and  ve^[etable  kingdoms,  and  most  abundantly  in 
the  liquid  &ts  or  ous,  and  hence  its  name  is  derived. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  obtain  the  acid  in  a  state 
of  purity,  in  consequence  of  the  readiness  with 
which  it  oxidises;  and  we  shall  not  enter  into 
diitaib  regarding  the  method  of  its  preparation.  It 
ii  obtained  in  a  crude  form,  as  a  secondary  product, 
in  the  manufacture  of  stearine  candles  ;  but  almond 
oQ  is  generally  employed  when  the  pure  acid  is 


)leic  add  forms  normal  (or  neutral)  and  acid 
■alts;  but  the  only  compounds  of  this  class  that 
require  notice  are  the  normal  salts  of  the  alkalies. 
These  are  all  soluble,  and  by  the  evaporation  of 
their  aqueous  solution,  form  ioaps.  Oleate  of  potash 
forms  a  soft  soap,  which  is  the  chief  ingredient  in 
Ka^es  soap ;  while  oleate  of  soda  is  a  hard  soap, 
whi^  enters  largely  into  the  composition  of 
lianeille  soap. 

The  oleates  of  the  alkalies  occur  in  the  animal 
body,  in  the  bloody  obyle,  lymph,  and  bile;  they 


have  also  been  found  in  pus,  in  pulmonary  tubercles, 
and  in  the  excrements,  after  the  administration  ol 
purgatives. 

O'LBINB  (Ci,4Hi04O<i,)  is  proved,  by  the  researches 
of  Berthelot,  to  be  a  triglyceride  of  oleic  acid.  See 
Oltckrin&  Pure  oleine  is  a  colourless  and  inodor- 
ous oil,  which  solidifies  into  acicular  crystals  at 
about  23%  is  insoluble  in  water,  and  only  slightly 
soluble  in  cold  alcohol,  but  dissolves  in  ether  in 
all  proportions.  By  exposure  to  the  air,  it  darkens  in 
colour,  becomes  acid  and  rancid  (from  the  gradual 
decomposition  of  the  oleic  acid),  and  finaJly  assumes 
a  resinoid  appearance.  Hyponitric  acid  converts 
it  into  an  isomeric,  white,  solid  fat,  named  daidine 
— ^the  glyceride  of  the  elaidic  acid  described  ip 
the  preceding  article. 

Pure  oleine  is  obtained  by  cooling  olive  oil  to  32^, 
trhich  occasions  the  separation  of  the  stearine  and 
palmitine  in  a  sohd  form.  The  fluid  portion  is  then 
dissolved  in  alcohol,  which,  on  being  cooled  to  32% 
deposits  in  a  solid  form  everything  but  oleine,  which 
is  obtained  in  a  pure  state  by  driving  off  by  heat 
the  alcohol  from  the  decanted  or  filtered  solution. 

The  drying  oils,  such  as  those  of  linseed,  hemp^ 
walnut,  poppy,  &c,  contain  a  variety  of  oleine,  which 
is  not  converted  into  elaidine  by  the  action  of  hypo- 
nitric add,  or  of  subnitrate  of  mercury,  which,  when 
prepared  without  the  aid  of  heat,  conteins  enough  of 
the  acid  to  produce  a  similar  effect.  Hence,  these 
substances  may  be  used  to  detect  fraudulent  adul- 
terations of  olive  or  almond  oil  with  poppy  and 
other  cheap  drying  oils. 

OLBO'METBR,  or  ELAlOMETER,  an  instm- 
meat  for  ascertaining  the  densities  of  fixed  oils.  It 
consists  of  a  very  delicate  thermometer-tube,  the  bulb 
bdng  large  in  proportion  to  the  stem.  It  is  divided 
into  fifty  degrees,  and  floats  at  zero  in  pure  oil  of 
poppy-seed,  at  38**  to  38^**  in  pure  oil  of  almonds, 
and  at  60°  in  pure  olive  oiL 

OXBOPHOSPHO'RIO  ACID  is  a  yellow  viscid 
substance,  which  is  insoluble  in  water  and  cold 
alcohol,  but  dissolves  readily  in  boiling  alcohol  and 
in  ether.  When  boiled  for  a  long  time  with  water 
or  with  alcohol,  or  when  treated  with  an  acid,  it 
resolves  itself  into  oleine  and  phosphoric  acid ;  while 
alkalies  decompose  it  into  phosphoric  acid,  oleates, 
and  glycerine.  It  exists,  according  to  Fr6my  and 
other  chemists,  in  the  brain,  spinid  cord,  kidneyi, 
and  liver. 

OL^RON,  Isle  of  (anc.  Ulianu),  an  island  of 
France,  forming  a  portion  of  the  department  of 
Charente-lnf^rieure,  lies  off  the  west  coast  of 
Prance,  opposite  the  mouth  of  thf"  river  Charente. 
It  is  19  miles  lone,  and  about  5  miles  broad,  and  is 
unusually  fertile,  ^.^oducing  abundantly  all  the  crops 
grown  in  the  department  to  which  it  belongs.  See 
CHABENTE-lNFigRiEiTBK.  At  its  northern  extremity, 
is  the  light-house  of  Chassiron.  In  the  seaport  of 
016ron,  distilleries,  rope- walks,  and  ship-building 
yards  are  in  operation.  The  town  of  Sainte-Pierre- 
a*01eron  (pop.  1556)  stands  near  the  centre  of  the 
island.    The  pop.  of  the  island  is  given  at  16,000. 

OL^RON,  Laws  of,  or  Juoements  d'Ol^on,  a 
celebrated  code  of  maritime  law  compiled  in  France 
in  the  reign  of  St  Louis,  and  so  named  from  a 
groundless  story,  that  it  was  enacted  by  Richard  L 
of  England  during  the  time  that  his  expedition  to 
Palestine  lay  at  anchor  at  that  island.  The  real 
origin  of  these  laws  was  a  written  code,  called 
Tl  Cansolato  del  Mare,  of  about  the  middle  of  the 
13th  c.,  compiled  dther  at  Barcelona  or  at  Pisa» 
forming  the  established  usages  of  Venice  and  the 
other  Mediterranean  states,  and  acceded  to  by  the 
kings  of  France  and  counts  of  Provence.  Besides 
containing  regulations  simply  mercantile,  this  system 


OLGA,  ST-OLIVAREZ. 


defiaed  the  mutual  rights  of  bellieerent  and  neutral 
▼easels,  aa  they  have  been  since  understood  in  modem 
international  law.  The  so-called  laws  of  Ol6ron  were 
a  code  of  regulations  borrowed  from  the  CoMolato, 
which  for  several  centuries  were  adopted  as  the 
basis  of  their  maritime  law  by  all  the  nations  of 
Europe.  Copies  of  the  JugemetUs  (TOUron  are 
appended  to  some  ancient  editions  of  the  Coutumier 
CM  Normandie,  See  Nobmakdy,  Customaby  Law 
or. 

OLGA,  St,  a  sunt  of  the  Russian  Church,  wife 
of  the  Duke  Igor  of  Kiev,  who,  having  undertaken 
an  expedition  against  Constantinople,  which  proved 
unsuccessful,  was  slain  on  his  return  to^  his  own 
dominions.  His  widow  0.  avenged  his  death, 
assumed  the  government  in  his  stead,  and  for  many 
years  governed  with  much  prudence  and  sue- 
oess.  Having  resigned  the  government  to  her 
son  Vratislaf  about  the  year  952,  she  repaired  to 
Constantinople,  where  she  was  baptized,  by  the 
patriarch  Theophilaktes,  and  received  into  the 
church,  assuming  at  baptism  the  name  of  Helena,  in 
honour  of  St  Helena,  mother  of  Constantinei  She 
returned  to  Russia,  and  laboured  with  much  zeal 
for  the  propagation  of  her  new  creed ;  but  she 
failed  in  ner  attempt  to  induce  her  son,  Sw&ntoslav, 
to  embrace  Christianity.  Her  grandson,  Vladimir, 
having  married  Chrysoberga,  the  sister  of  the 
emperors  of  Constantinople,  Basil  and  Constantine, 
was  baptized  in  the  year  988;  but  his  grandmother 
did  not  live  to  enjoy  this  gratification,  having  died 
in  978,  or,  according  to  other  authorities,  as  early  as 
070.  She  is  hdd  in  high  veneration  in  the  Russian 
Church.  Her  festival  is  held  on  July  21,  and  the 
practice  of  venerating  her  appears  to  date  from  the 
early  period  of  the  Russian  Church,  before  the 
schism  between  the  Eastern  and  Western  churches. 

OLI'BANUM,  a  gum-resin,  which  flows  from 
incisions  made  in  BosweUia  serrcUa,  a  tree  found  in 
some  parts  of  the  East  See  Boswellia.  It  is  the 
Lebonah  of  the  Hebrews,  Libanos  or  Libanotos  of 
the  Greeks,  Thus  of  the  Romans,  of  all  which  terms 
the  onlinary  En£[lish  translation  is  FranJcincense 
(q.  v.).  It  occurs  in  commerce  in  semi-transparent 
yellowish  tears  and  masses ;  has  a  bitter  nauseous 
taste;  is  hard,  brittle,  and  capable  of  being  pul- 
verised ;  and  diffuses  a  strong  aromatic  odour  wnen 
burned.  It  was  formerly  used  in  medicine,  chiefly 
to  restrain  excessive  mucous  discbarges ;  but  its  use 
for  such  purposes  is  now  rare.  It  sometimes  enters 
as  an  ingredient  into  stimulating  plasters.  It  is 
chiefly  employed  for  fumigation,  and  is  used  as 
incense  in  Koman  Catholic  churches.  It  is  some- 
times distinctively  called  Indian  0,  ;  a  similar  sub- 
stance, in  smaller  tears,  called  AJrican  0,,  being 
produced  by  Bogweliia  papyrifera,  a  tree  found 
growing  on  bare  limestone  rocks  in  the  east  of 
Abyssinia,  and  sending  its  roots  to  a  great  depth 
into  the  crevices  of  the  rock.  The  middle  layers  of 
the  bark  are  of  fine  texture,  and  are  used  instead  of 
paper  for  writing. 

OXIFANT'S  RIVER.  Two  considerable  streams 
of  this  name  are  found  in  the  Cape  Colony.  The 
01ifant*8  River  West  rises  in  the  Winterhoek  Moun- 
tains, and  enters  the  Atlantic  in  lat  31**  4(y,  after  a 
aourse  of  150  miles,  and  a  basin  of  drainage  of 
25,000  square  miles. — ^The  Olif ant's  River  East  drains 
a  great  part  of  the  district  of  Geoi^ge,  and  joins  the 
Gkkuritz  River  60  miles  above  the  entrance  of  that 
river  into  the  sea.  Its  course  is  upwards  of  150 
miles  in  length,  and  it  is  more  available  for  irriga- 
tion than  almost  any  other  Cape  river. 

O'LIOARCHY  {oliffas,  few,  and  archo,  to  govern), 
a  term  applied  by  Greek  political  writers  to  that 
perversion  of  an  aristocracy  in  which  the  rule  of  the 


dominant  part  of  the  community  ceases  to  be  the 
exponent  of  the  general  interests  of  the  state,  owing 
to  the  cessation  of  those  substantial  grounds  of  pre- 
eminence in  which  an  aristocracy  originated.  The 
governing  power  in  these  circumstances  becomes  a 
faction,  whose  efforts  are  chiefly  devoted  to  their 
own  aggrandisement  and  the  extension  of  their 
power  and  privileges. 

OLINDA,  a  suburb  of  the  Brazilian  city  ol 
Pemambuco  (q.  v.). 

OLIPHANT,   Mrs  Maboarst   {nfe  Wiubon), 
one  of  the  most  distinguished  of  our  living  female 
novedists,  was   bom  about   the  year  18^.     The 
prevalent  impression  that  she  is  a  Scotchwoman, 
naturally  enough  derived  from  the  obvious  fondness 
with  which  in  her  earlier  works  she  has  treated 
Scottish   character   and  incident,    is   not   strictly 
correct.      She    is    a    native    of    Liverpool ;    her 
mother  was,  however,  a  Scotchwoman  of  a  some- 
what remarkable  type,  strongly  attached  to  old 
traditions.     In  1849,  Mrs  0.  published  her  first 
work,  Pasmges  in  the  Life  of  Mrs  Margaret  Mait- 
land  of  SunnyMde,  which  instantly  won  attention 
and  approval     Its  most  distinctive  charm  is  the 
tender    humour   and    insight    which    regulate  its 
exquisite  delineation  of  Scottish  life  and  character 
at  once  in  their  higher  and  lower  levels.     This 
work  was   followed   by  Merkland  (1851);    Adam 
Oraeme  of  Mossgray  (1852) ;  Harry  Muir  (1853) ; 
Magdalen  Hepburn  (1854) ;  LiUiealeaf  (1855) ;  and 
subsequently  by  Zaidee^  KaHe  Stevoart,  and    The 
Quiet  Heart,  which  originally  appeared  in  succes- 
sion in  Blackwood's  Magazine,    Though  these  are 
of  somewhat   various  merit,  in  all   of  them  the 
peculiar  talent  of  the  writer  is  marked.  They  are  rich 
m  the  minute  detail  which  is  dear  to  the  womanly 
mind ;  have  nice  and  subtle  insights  into  character, 
a  flavour  of  quiet  humour,  and  frequent  traits  of 
delicacy  and  pathos  in  the  treatment  of  the  gentler 
emotions.      It  is,  however,  on   the  Chronicles   of 
Garlingford  that  her  reputation  as  a  novelist  most 
securely  rests.     In  the  first  of  the  two  sections 
separately  published,  apart  from  its  other  merits, 
which  are  great,  the  character  of  little  Netty,  the 
heroine,  vivifies  the  whole  work,  and  may  rank 
as  an  original  creation.    The  other,  Salem  Chapelt 
perhaps  indicates  a  wider  and  more  vigorous  grasp 
than  is  to  be  found  in  any  other  work  of  the 
authoress.     Certain  of  the  unlovelier  featares  of 
English  dissent,  as  exhibited  in  a  small  provincial 
community,    are    here    graphically    sketched,   and 
adapted  with  admirable  skill  to  the  purposes  of 
fiction.     The  intrusion,  however,  in  some  portion 
of  the  work  of  a  *  sensatfional '  element,  as  it  is 
termed,  though  it  subserves  intensity  of  interest, 
must  be  noted  as  a  little  defective  in  art,  the  tragic 
material  coalescing  throughout  ^  but    indifferently 
with  the  circle  of  homelier  fact,  in  which  the  stbry 
for  the  most  part  moves.      In   addition  to    her 
novels,  this  accomplished  lady  has,  in  her  Life  of 
Edward  Irving,  published  in   1862,  made  a  most 
valuable  contribution  to  biographical  literature. 

OLIVAREZ,  Don  Gasparo  de  Guzman,  Count 
OF,  Duke  of  San  Lucar,  and  prime-minister  of  Philip 
IV.  of  Spain,  was  bom  on  January  6, 1587,  at  Rome, 
where  his  father  was  ambassador.  He  belonged  to 
a  distinguished  but  impoverished  familv,  received  a 
learned  education,  became  the  friend  of  Philip  IV., 
his  confidant  in  his  amours,  and  afterwarda  his 
prime-minister,  in  which  capacity  he  excrciBed 
almost  unlimited  power  for  twenty-two  years.  O. 
shewed  ability  for  government,  but  his  coaatant 
endeavour  was  to  wring  money  from  the  country 
that  he  might  carry  on  wars.  His  oppresaitB 
measures   caused   insurrections   in  Catalonia    and 


OUTB-OLIVEa. 


Aidihuu,  ani  nrased  the  PortagneM  to  ahtice  off 
Vk  Spanish  yoke  in  1040,  and  m&ke  the  Duke  of 
Bnnoza  their  king,  An  event  irhich  O.  reported  to 
Philip  with  Batiifnction,  oa  it  enabled  htm  to  cod- 
focate  the  duke's  great  eatsice  in  Spaio.  But  the 
aims  of  Spain  being  uoeuccessfal,  the  king  was 
oUiged  to  diBouaa  tlie  minister  in  1643.     He  would 

E)bably  hsva  been  recaUed  to  the  head  of  affiiira, 
b  fOT  a  publicfttion  in  which  he  gave  offenoe  to 
many  penoua  of  iaflaence.  He  wai  ordered  to 
retire  to  Toro,  and  confine  himself  to  that  place, 
vhare  he  died,  12th  Jul;  1045.  (Ceapedes  Hitt.  De 
FtUpelV.) 

OLIVE  [Olfa),  a  genni  of  trees  and  shrab*  of 
ttie  natural  order  Oleacete ;  having  opposite,  ever- 
gteeu,  leathery  leaves,  which  are  generally  ei  '  * 
moDth,  and  minutely  scaly  ;  small  llowera  in 
ponnd  axillary  racemes,  or  in  tbyrai  at  the  end  of 
tbe  twigs  ;  a  small  4-toothed  calyx,  a  4-oleft  corolla, 
two  st^ens,  a  2-cleft  atifi^na ;  the  fruit  a  drupe. 
Hie  apeciea  ara  widely  distributed  in  the  wanner 
temperate  parts  of  the  globe.  The  Common  O. 
(0.  EuTupaa),  a  native  ol  Syria  uid  other  Astatic 
eoantries,  and  perhaps  also  of  the  sonth  of  Europe, 
although  probably  it  ia  there  rather  naturoliaed 
than  iodigenons,  ia  in  ita  wild  state  a  thorny  shrub 


Common  OU*s  [OUa  Suropoa) : 

a,  Ihilt  nduecd;   b,  llumr;  t,  flower  with  sorolla  uid 

uuKu  rimond  to  ihcw  th>  plaEIL 

or  uiall  tree,  but  through  cultivation  becomei  a 
tree  of  20 — 40  feet  high,  destitute  of  spinea.  It 
attains  &  prodi^nous  age.  The  cultivated  varieties 
are  very  numerous,  differing  in  the  breadth  of 
the  lesvea,  and  in  other  characters.  The  leaves 
reaemble  those  of  a  willow,  are  lanceolate,  entire,  of 
a  doll  daik-green  ooLiur  above,  acaly  and  whitiah- 
craj  beneath  ;  the  flowera  imall  and  white,  in  short 
dense  racemes ;  the  fmit  greenish,  whitish,  viole^  at 
eren  blaick,  never  larger  than  a  pigeon's  egg,  gene- 
rally oval,  sometimes  globular,  "~    ' '"     ~  "    " 


owner.  It  is  chiefly  from  the  pericarp  that  olive 
ol  is  obtaioed,  not  from  the  teed,  contrary  to  the 
geoeral  rale  of  the  vegetable  kingdom.  Olive  oil  is 
macb  Dsed  sa.an  article  of  food  ui  the  coimtriea  in 
which  it  ia  jirodnced,  and  to  a  ainalter  extent  in 
Mher  coastnea,  to  which  it  is  exported  also  for 
nediciDal  and  other  uaei  (see  Out).  Oltvea, 
pthend    befon  they  Me  quite  ripe,  an  piekled 


in  vationi  ways,  being  uinally  first  ste(-ped  In 
lime-water,  by  which  they  are  rendered  softer  and 
milder  in  taste.  They  are  well  known  aa  a 
restorative  of  the  palate,  and  are  alao  aoid  to 
promote  digeatioiL  Diaagreeable  as  they  seaerally 
are  at  first,  they  are  soon  greatly  relished,  and  in 
the  south  of  Europe  are  even  a  considerable  atticU 
of  food.    Dried  olivea  are  there  alao  used,  aa  well  aa 

Eickled  olivea The  wood  of  the  olive-tree  takes  a 
eauttful  polish,  and  haa  black  cloudy  spots  and 
veina  on  a  greeaiah-yellow  ground  ;  it  is  principally 
used  for  the  iineat  purposes  by  eabinet-makers  and 
tnrneiB.  The  wood  of  the  root  ia  marked  in  • 
peculiarly  beautiful  manner,  and  ia  uaed  for  making 
snufT-boxea  and  small  ornamental  articles.  Th« 
bark  of  the  tree  is  bitter  and  astringent ;  and  both 
it  and  the  leaves  have  febrifuge  properties.  A  gum 
reain  exudes  from  old  stems,  which  much  reaenibles 
storax.  baa  an  odoar  like  vanilla,  and  ia  used  in  all 
ports  of  Italy  for  perfumery.^ Among  the  Greeks, 
the  O.  was  sacred  to  Fallas  Athene  (Mioerva),  who 
was  honoured  aa  the  beatower  of  it ;  it  was  also 
the  emblem  of  chaatity.  A  crown  of  oUve-twigs  was 
the  highest  distinction  of  a  citizeu  who  bad  merited 
well  oi  hia  country,  and  the  highest  ]>rize  of  the 
victor  in  the  Olympic  gomes.  Ad  olive  branch  waa 
also  the  aymbol  <d  peace  (compare  Gen.  viii.  II) ; 
and  the  vanquished,  who  came  to  suppLcate  for 
peace,  bore  olive-branches  in  their  hands. — The  0, 
haa  been  cnltivated  in  Syria,  Palestine,  and  other 
porta  of  the  east,  from  the  earliest  times.  Its  culti- 
vatiou  extends  southwards  as  far  aa  Cairo,  and 
northwarda  to  tiie  middle  of  France.  It  is  veiy 
generally  propagated  by  suckers,  but  where  great 
care  is  bestowed  on  it,  inarching  ia  practised.  It 
growa  from  cuttinga.  The  climate  of  England  i* 
too  cold  for  the  O.,  yet  in  Devonshire  it  npeaa  ita 
fruit  on  a  south  wall. — Otra  aintUis  and  several 
other  apecies  are  useful  trees  of  South  Africa,  yield- 
ing o  very  hard  and  extremely  durable  wood-  Some 
of  them  bear  the  name  of  Ironwooh  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  The  Ahseican  O.  (a  Americana]  a 
also  remorkable  for  the  hardness  of  its  wood.  It 
is  found  OS  far  north  as  Virginis.  It  ig  a  tree  of  30 
— 35  feet  high,  with  much  brooder  leaves  than  the 
Common  Olive.  Ita  fruit  is  fit  for  use.  Its  flowera 
are  fragrant  The  Fbaobant  0.  (0.  /rAgraiu,  or 
OtnutaAiu  fragram)  of  China  and  Jai>an  haa 
extremely  fragrant  flowers,  which  are  used  by  the 
<3Unese  for  flavouring  tea. 

O'LIVENITE,  a  mineral,  condsting  chiefly  of 
arsenic  acid  and  protoxide  of  copper,  with  a  httle 
phosphoric  acid  and  a  little  water.  It  is  generally 
of  some  dark  shade  of  green,  sometimes  brown  or 
yellow.  It  is  foand  olono  with  different  ores  of 
copper  in  Cornwall  and  elsewhere.  It  is  often 
crystalliaed  in  oblique  four-sided  priama,  of  which 
the  eitremitiea  are  acutely  bevelled,  and  the  obtuse 
lateral  edges  sometimes  truncated,  or  in  acute  double 
four-aided  pyramids  ;  it  is  sometimes  also  spherical, 
kidney-abaped,  columnar,  or  flbrous. 

OXIVES,  Mount  or,  called  also  Mouht  OurR. 

1  inconsiderable  ridge  lying  on  the  east  side  Of 
Jeruaalem,  from  which  it  ia  only  aepanted  by  tb« 
w  Valley  of  Jeboaapbat.  It  is  called  by  tile 
m  Arabs  Jebel-el-Tur,  and  takes  its  familiar 
from  a  magniflcent  greve  of  obve-treea  which 
stood  on  its  western  flank,  but  haa  now 
in  great  part  disappeared.  The  read  to  Mount 
Olivet  is  through  St  Stephen's  Gate,  and  leads  bv 
o  stone  bridge  over  the  now  almost  waterlsM  brook 
CedroD.  Immediately  beyond,  at  the  foot  of  the 
bridge,  liea  the  Garden  of  Oethsemane ;  and  tb* 
road  here  parts  into  two  branohea,  northwarda 
towards  OaUlee,  and  eastwarda  to  Jericha     Tb* 


OLmrrANS— OLORON. 


ridge  rises  in  three  peaks,  the  central  one  of  which 
is  2556  feet  aboTe  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  41G  feet 
Above  the  Valley  of  Jehosaphat  The  southern 
vummit  is  now  called  *  the  Mount  of  Offence/  and  was 
the  scene  of  the  idolatrous  worship  established  by 
Solomon  for  his  foreign  wives  and  concubines.  The 
northern  peak  is  the  supposed  scene  of  the  appear- 
Auce  of  the  angels  to  the  cusciples  after  the  resurrec- 
tion, and  is  remarkable  in  Jewish  history  as  the 
place  in  which  Titus  formed  his  encampment  in  the 
expedition  against  the  fated  oitv  of  Jerusalem.  But 
it  IS  around  the  central  peak,  which  is  the  Mount  of 
O.  properly  so  called,  that  all  the  most  sacred  asso- 
ciations  of  Christian  history  convergei  On  the 
summit  stands  the  Church  of  the  Ascension,  built 
originallv  by  St  Helen,  the  modem  church  beins 
now  in  the  hands  of  the  Armenian  conmiimity ;  and 
near  it  are  shewn  the  various  places  where,  accord- 
inff  to  tradition,  our  Lord  wept  over  Jerusalem, 
where  the  apostles  composed  tne  apostles'  creed, 
where  our  Lord  taught  them  the  Loras  Prayer,  ko. 
Near  the  Church  of  the  Ascension  is  a  mosque  and 
the  tomb  of  a  Mohammedan  saint.  In  the  Garden 
of  G^ethsemane,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill,  is  shewn  the 
scene  of  our  Lord's  agony.  The  northern  peak 
spreads  out  into  a  plain  of  considerable  extent, 
which  is  painfully  notable  in  Jewish  history  as  the 
place  where,  after  the  Jews  on  occasion  of  the 
revolt  under  Bar-Kochebah,  were  debarred  by 
Adrian  from  entering  Jerusalem,  they  were  wont  to 
assemble  annually  on  the  anniversary  of  the  biurn- 
ing  of  the  Temple  to  celebrate  this  mournful  anni- 
Tersary,  and  to  take  a  distant  look  at  their  beloved 
Jerusalem.  ,The  scene  is  beautifully  described,  and 
with  much  dramatic  feeling,  by  St  Jerome. — Com, 
m  Sophomamy  t  iii.  p.  1665. 

OLIVBTAN'S,  a  religious  order  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church,  one  of  the  many  remarkable  pro- 
ducts of  that  well-known  spiritual  movement 
which  characterised  the  12th  and  13th  centuries. 
The  0.,  or  Brethren  of  Our  Lady  of  Mount  Olivet, 
are  an  offshoot  of  the  great  Benedictine  Order  (q.  v.), 
and  derive  their  origin  from  John  Tolomei.  a  native 
of  Siena,  bom  in  the  year  1272.  Tolomei  had 
been  a  distinguished  professor  of  philosophy  in  the 
university  of  his  native  city ;  but  his  career  was  sud- 
denly interrupted  by  the  loss  of  his  sight.  Although 
he  was  cured  of  his  blindness  (and,  as  he  himself 
believed,  miraculously),  this  visitation  convinced 
him  of  the  vanity  of  earthly  things ;  and  in  com- 
pany with  some  friends  he  withdrew  to  a  solitary 
place  near  Siena,  where  he  devoted  himself  to 
prayer  and  religious  exercises.  By  the  direction  of 
the  pope,  John  XXIL,  the  new  brethren  adopted  the 
Benedictine  rule ;  but  they  chose  as  their  especial 
province  the  cultivation  of  sacred  science,  and  the 
auty  of  teaching.  In  the  year  1319,  Tolomei  was 
chosen  as  the  firat  general ;  and  even  in  his  lifetime 
the  institute  made  rapid  progress,  especially  in  Italy. 
It  numbered  at  one  time  eighty  houses,  but  at 
present  the  number  is  reduced  to  four — namely,  tbe 

Sarent  house,  so  called,  of  Monte  Oliveto,  in  the 
iocese  of  Arezzo  in  Tuscany,  one  at  Bome,  one  at 
G^noa,  and  one  at  Palermo.  The  0.  order  has  pro- 
duced many  distinguished  ecclesiastics. 

OLIVINK    See  Chrysoutk 

O'LLA  PODRrDA  aiterally,  putrid  pot),  a 
Spanish  term,  originally  signifying  an  accumulation 
of  remains  of  flesn,  vegetables,  &c.,  thrown  together 
into  a  pot,  but  generally  employed  to  designate  a 
favourite  national  dish  of  the  Spaniards,  consisting 
of  a  mixture  of  different  kinds  of  meat  and  vege- 
tables stewed  together.  It  has  also  come  to  oe 
figuratively  appli^  to  literary  productions  of  very 
nuscellaneoQB  contents.    The  french  equivalent  is 


pot-pourriy  and  the  Scotch  hotcfi-potch,  both  of 
which,  but  especially  the  former,  are  also  employed 
in  a  figurative  sense. 

CLMUTZ,  the  chief  fortress  of  Moravia,  Austria, 
is  the  capital  of  a  district  of  the  same  name,  and 
is  situated  in  lat.  49°  36'  N.,  and  in  long,  17"  15'  £., 
on  an  island  of  the  river  Morava,  which,  by  means 
of  sluices,  can  be  opened  into  the  moats,  and  thus 
made  available  for  purposes  of  defence.  O.  is  the 
see  ci  an  archbiBhop,  nominated  by  the  chapter,  and 
is  the  chief  seat  of  the  administrative  departmentSi 
It  has  a  university,  founded  in  1581,  dissolved  in 
1778,  and  reorganised  in  1827 ;  a  library  of  50,000 
vols. ;  good  natural  history,  physical,  and  other 
museums ;  a  gymnasium,  an  arcniepiscopal  seminary, 
artillery  ana  infantry  academies,  polytechnic  and 
other  schools,  a  hospital,  an  asylum  for  widows 
and  orphans,  &c.  The  most  noteworthy  of  its  13 
churches  are  the  cathedral,  a  fine  old  building 
and  the  church  of  St  Mauritius,  completed  in  1412, 
with  its  celebrated  oi>gan,  having  48  stops,  and 
more  than  2000  pipes.  The  noble  town-hall, 
with  its  complicated  clock-work,  set  up  in 
1574,  and  the  lofty  column  on  the  'OberringL 
with  several  fine  fountains  in  the  squares,  ana 
the  splendid  archiepiscopal  palace  and  chapter- 
house, all  contribute  towards  tne  picturesque  as^iect 
for  which  O.  is  distinguished.  The  deficiency  in 
public  gardens  has  of  mte  years  been  in  part  sup- 
plied by  the  draining  and  planting  of  some  of  ths 
inner  moats,  and  the  conversion  of  some  portions 
of  the  fortifications  into  pleasure-grounds.  A  mile 
from  the  city  lies  the  recentiy-restored  monastery  of 
the  Premonstratensians  at  Hradisch,  founded  in  1074L 
0.  has  a  few  manufactories  of  kerseymere,  cloth,  linen, 
and  porcelain,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  trade 
in  cattie  from  Poland  and  Moldavia.  Pop.  12,000. 
Prior  to  1777,  when  0.  was  raised  into  an  art^ 
bishopric,  its  bishops  had  long  been  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  the  rank  of  princes  of  the  empire.  The  city 
suffered  severely  during  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
and  a||;ain  in  the  Seven  Years'  Wars  of  Silesia^ 
when  it  more  than  once  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
Prussians.  In  1848,  Perdinand  L  signed  his  abdi- 
cation here  in  favour  of  his  nephew,  the  present 
emperor ;  while  in  1850,  0.  was  chosen  as  the  place 
of  conference  between  the  Prussian,  Austrian,  and 
Russian  plenipotentiaries,  for  the  adjustment  of 
the  conflicting  differences  which  had  arisen  in  the 
German  states  generally,  as  the  result  of  the  revo* 
lutionary  movement  of  1848. 

OLONE'TZ,  a  ffoverament  in  the  north  of  Russia* 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  Finland,  and  on  the  R  and 
N.-E.  by  Archangel  Area,  exclusive  of  water, 
49,104  square  miks.  Pop.  290,118.  Large  lakes 
abound  in  this  government,  the  chief,  after  Lake 
Onega  (<^.  v.),  being  Lakes  Wygo  and  Sega  The 
surface  is  in  general  elevated,  and  about  four- 
fifths  of  it  are  covered  with  wood.  The  soil  is 
sterile,  and  the  climate  is  cold  and  damp.  The 
wealth  of  the  government  consists  principally 
in  its  minerals.  Its  iron-mines  supply  the  iron- 
works of  Petrasowodsk,  and  from  its  quarries 
marbles  are  sent  to  St  Petersburg,  llie  principal 
employments  of  the  inbabitants,  who  are  principally 
Russians  and  Finns,  and  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  are  carving  in  wood,  fishing  and  himting. 
Many  of  them  also  are  employed  in  the  ironworks 
and  quarries.  The  women  weave  and  spin.  The 
government  derives  ito  name  from  the  small  but 
ancient  town  of  Olonetz.  Petrasowodsk  is  the 
centre  of  administration. 

OLORON,  or  OLORON-SAINTE-MARIE,  • 
town  of  France,  in  the  department  of  Basses-Pyr^ 
n^es,  on  the  Gave  d'Oloron,  15  miles  south-west  of 


OLYMPIA— OLYMPIC  GAMES. 


Pan.  The  OharolL  of  St  Marie  is  in  the  transitioii 
ityle  from  Bomanesque  lo  Qothia  The  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  the  chequered  hand- 
kerchiefs which  form  the  favourite  hoad-dresses  of 
the  peasantry  of  Aragon  and  Gascony,  unA  also  the 
■barrets'  or  caps  of  the  B^amais.    Pop.  (180J)  7533. 

OLT'MPIA,  the  scene  of  the  celebrated  Olympic 
Games  (q.  v.),  is  a  beautiful  vaUey  in  Ells,  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  through  which  runs  the  river  Alpheus. 
At  a  national  sanctuary  of  the  Greeks,  O.  contained, 
within  a  smaU  roace,  many  of  the  choicest  treasures 
of  Grecian  art  belonging  to  all  periods  and  states, 
inch  as  temples,  monuments,  altars,  theatres,  and 
multitudes  of  images,  statues,  and  votive-offerings 
of  brass  and  marble.  In  the  time  of  the  elder  Pliny, 
there  still  stood  here  about  3000  statues.  The  Sacred 
Grove  (called  the^^»)  of  Olympia,  enclosed  a  level 
space  about  4000  feet  long  by  nearly  2000  broad,  con- 
taining both  the  spot  appropriated  to  the  games  and 
the  sanctuaries  connected  with  them.  It  was  finely 
wooded,  and  in  its  centre  stood  a  clump  of  sycamores. 
The  Altis  was  crossed  from  west  to  east  by  a  road 
called  the  *  Pompic  Way,*  along  which  all  the  proces- 
sions passed.  The  Alpheus  bounded  it  on  the  south, 
the  Cladeus,  a  tributary  of  the  former,  on  the 
west,  and  rocky  but  cently  swelling  hills  on  the 
north ;  westward  it  looked  towards  the  Ionian 
Seai  The  most  celebrated  building  was  the  Olyrn- 
piektm,  or  Ofympium,  dedicated  to  Olympian  Zeus. 
It  was  designed  by  the  architect  Libon  of  Elis  in 
the  6th  c  B.a,  but  was  not  completed  for  more 
than  a  century.  It  contained  a  colossal  statue  of 
the  god,  the  master-piece  of  the  sculptor  Phidias, 
and  many  other  splendid  figures ;  its  paintings  were 
the  work  of  Paneenns,  a  restive  of  Phidias.  Next 
to  the  Olympieiimi  ranked  the  HeroBUiny  dedicated 
to  Hc9B,  iJie  wife  of  Zeus,  and  the  Queen  of  Heaven, 
oodtsining  the  table  on  which  were  placed  the 

?kr]ands  prepared  for  the  victors  in  the  games ;  the 
dcpiium^  the  M^roum,  the  ten  Thesauri  or  Trea- 
enries,  bnilt  for  the  reception  of  the  dedicatory 
offerings  of  the  Greek  cities,  the  temples  of  Eilei- 
thyia  and  Aphrodite  also  deserve  mention ;  the 
Stadhtm  and  the  Hippodrome,  where  the  oontests 
took  place,  stood  at  the  eastern  end  of  the  Altis. 
The  ploughshare  now  passes  through  the  scene  of 
these  contests,  but  many  ruins  still  attest  the 
ancient  mainiifieence  of  the  buildings.  Explorations, 
attended  with  great  success,  have  been  made  by  the 
French  commission  of  the  Morea^ 

OLT'MPIAD  (Gr.  olympicu),  the  name  given  to 
the  period  of  four  years  that  elapsed  between  two 
successive  celebrations  of  the  Olympic  Games 
(q. v.);  a  mode  of  reckoning  which  forms  the 
moat  celebrated  chronologies  era  among  the 
Greeks.  The  first  recorded  olympiad  dates  from 
the  21st  or  22d  of  July  776  b.  a,  and  is  frequently 
referred  to  as  the  Olympiad  of  Corcebus;  for 
historians,  instead  of  referring  to  the  olym- 
piad by  its  number,  frequently  designate  it  by  the 
name  of  the  winner  of  the  foot-race  in  the  Olympic 
ffames  belonging  to  that  period,  though  at  times 
Doth  the  number  and  the  name  of  the  conqueror 
are  oven.  A  slight  indefiniteness  is  frequently 
intn^uced  into  Greek  chronology,  from  the  custom 
of  mentioning  only  the  olympiad,  neglecting  to 
specify  in  which  year  of  the  olympiad  a  certain 
event  happened.  As  this  era  commenced  in  776  bc, 
the  first  year  of  our  present  era  (1  A.  D.)  corresponded 
to  the  last  half  of  the  fourth  year  of  the  194th  with 
the  first  half  of  the  first  year  of  the  195th  olympiad, 
and  394  a.  d.  corresponds  to  the  second  year  of  the 
293d  olympiad,  at  which  time  reckouins  by  olym* 
piadi  termmated.  This  era  is  used  only  oy  writers, 
ud  is  never  found  on  coins,  and  very  seldom  on 
317 


inscriptions.  Another  Olympic  era,  known  as  the 
*  Kew  Olympic  Era,'  was  commenced  by  the  Romait 
emperors,  and  dates  from  131  A.  B. ;  it  is  found  both 
in  writings,  public  documents,  and  inscriptions. 

OLY'MPIAS,  the  wife  of  Philip  II.,  king  of 
Macedon,  and  mother  of  Alexander  the  Great.  She 
was  the  daughter  of  Neoptolemus  I.,  king  of  Epirus. 
She  possess^  a  vigorous  understanding,  but  was  of 
a  most  passionate,  jealous,  and  ambitious  character. 
Philip  having,  on  account  of  disagreements,  separated 
from  her  and  married  Cleopatra,  niece  of  Attains 
(337  B.  c),  she  went  to  reside  with  her  brother 
Alexander,  king  of  Epirus,  where  she  incessantly 
fomented  intrigues  against  her  former  husband,  and 
is  believed  to  have  teken  part  in  his  assassination 
by  Pausanias,  337  b.  a  On  the  accession  of  her 
son  Alexander  to  the  throne,  she  returned  to 
Macedonia,  where  she  contributed  to  bring  about 
the  murder  of  Cleopatra  and  her  daughter.  Alex- 
ander was  filled  with  indignation,  but  O.  was  his 
mother,  and  he  could  not  obey  the  dictates  of 
justice.  During  his  brief  but  magnificent  career  he 
always  treated  her  with  the  utmost  reverence  and 
esteem,  though  he  never  allowed  her  to  meddle 
with  his  political  schemes.  After  his  death  she 
endeavoured  to  get  possession  of  the  vacant  throne, 
and  obtained  the  support  of  Polysperchon  in  her 
designs.  In  317,  the  two  defeated  Arrhidseus,  the 
weak-minded  step-brother  and  successor  of  Alex- 
ander, and  his  wife  Eurydice,  whom  she  caused  to 
be  put  to  death  in  the  same  year.  She  now  be^n 
to  glut  her  revenge  on  such  of  the  Macedonian 
nobles  as  had  shewn  themselves  hostile  to  her  ;  but 
her  cruelties  soon  alienated  the  minds  of  the  people 
from  her,  even  though  she  was  the  mother  of  their 
heroic  king,  whereupon  Cassander  (q.  v.),  her  princi- 
pal adversary,  marched  north  from  the  Peloponnesus, 
besieged  her  in  Pydna,  and  forced  her  to  surrender 
in  the  spring  of  316  B.  a  She  was  immediately 
afterwards  put  to  death.  0.  was  a  woman  of  heroic 
spirit,  but  of  fierce  and  uncontrollable  passions,  and 
in  the  perpetration  of  crime,  when  she  reckoned  it 
necessary,  displayed  an  unscrupidousness  pecidiarly 
femininei 

OLY'MPIC  GAMES,  the  most  splendid  national 
festival  of   the  ancient   Greeks,  were    celebrated 
every  fifth  year  in  honour  of  Zeus,  the  father  of  the 
gods,  on  the  plain  of  Olympia  (q.  v.).    Their  origin 
goes  back  into  prehistoric  ages.     According  to  the- 
myth  elaborated  or  preserv^  by  the  Elean  priests,, 
they  were  instituted  oy  the  Idaean  Herakles  in  the 
time  of  Kronos,  father  of  Zeus ;  according  to  others,, 
by  the  later  Herakles,  son  of  Zeus  and  Alkmene ; 
while  Strabo,  rejecting  the  older  and  more  incredible 
legends,  attributes  their  origin  to  the  Herakleidie 
after  their  conquest  of  the  Peloponnesus.    But  the 
first  glimpse  of  anything  approaching  to  bistc^ric 
fact  in  connection  witii  the  ^mes  is  their  so-called 
revival  by  Iphitos,  king  of  Elis,  with  the  assistance- 
of  the  Spartan  lawgiver,  Lycurgus,  about  884  B.a ;, 
or,  according  to  others,  about  828  B.C.,  an  event 
commemorated  by  an  inscription  on  a  disc  ke])t  in. 
the  Herceum  at  Olympia,  which  Pausanias  (flor.  2d  c. 
A.  D.)   saw.     That  festive  games  were  celebrated, 
here,  in  other  words,  that  Olympia  was  a  sacred 
spot,  long  before  the  time  of  Iphitos,  can  indeedi 
hardly  be  doubted:  the  universal  tradition  that. 
the  iSlean   king  had   only  'revived'    the   ^ames. 
proves  this ;  but  nothing  whatever  can  be  histori- 
cally ascertained  concerning  their  origin,  character,. 
or  frequency,  in  this  remoter  time.     Iphitos  may,, 
therefore,  be  regarded  as  their  founder,  yet  tlie 
reckoning  of  time  by  Olympiads  (q.  v.)-the  real, 
dawn  of  the  historical  period  in  Greek  hittory — 
did  not  begin  till  more  than  a  century  later.     At 


OLYMPIODORUS— OM. 


first,  it  is  conjectared,  onlv  Peloponsesians  resorted 
to  ihe  Olympic  games,  bat  eradaally  the  other 
Greek  states  were  attracted  to  them,  and  the  festival 
beoBune  Pan- Hellenic  Originally,  and  for  a  long 
time,  none  were  allowed  to  contend  except  those  of 
pure  Hellenic  blood;  but  after  the  bonquest  of 
Greece  by  the  Romans,  the  latter  sought  and 
obtained  this  honour,  and  both  Tiberius  and  Nero 
figure  in  the  list  of  Roman  victors.  Women — with 
one  exception,  the  priestess  of  Demeter  Chamyne — 
were  forbidden  to  be  present,  on  pain  of  being 
thrown  headlong  from  the  Typsean  Rock.  The 
games  were  held  from  the  11th  to  the  15th  of  the 
Attic  month  Hekatomhaeon  (our  July — August), 
during  which,  first  throughout  Elis,  and  then 
throughout  the  rest  of  Greece,  heralds  proclaimed 
the  cessation  of  aU  intestine  hostilities ;  while  the 
territory  of  Elis  itself  was  declared  inviolable.  The 
combatants  were  required  to  undergo  a  preparatory 
training  for  ten  months  in  the  gymnasium  at  Elis, 
and  during  the  last  of  these  ntbnths  the  gymnasiiun 
was  almost  as  numerously  attended  as  the  games 
themselves.  Much  uncertainty  prevails  as  to  the 
manner  in  which  the  contests  were  distributed  over 
the  different  days.  Krause  (Oli/mpia,  p.  106) 
suggests  the  following  order :  On  the  first  day  the 
great  initiatory  sacrihces  were  offered,  after  which 
the  competitors  were  properly  classed  and  arranged 
by  the  judges,  and  the  contests  of  the  trumpeters 
took  place ;  the  second  day  was  set  apart  for  the 
boys  who  competed  with  each  other  in  foot-races, 
wrestling,  boxing,  the  pentathlon,  the  pankration, 
horse-races ;  the  third  and  principal  day  was  devoted 
to  the  contests  of  men  m  foot-races  of  different 
kinds  (as,  for  example,  the  simple  race,  once  over 
the  course ;  the  diauloa,  in  which  the  competitors 
had  to  run  the  distance  twice;  and  the  dolichos,  in 
which  they  had  to  run  it  seven  or  twelve  times) ; 
wrestling,  boxing,  the  pankration  (in  which  all  the 
powers  and  skill  of  the  combatants  were  exhibited), 
and  the  race  of  hoplUes,  or  men  in  heavy  armour ; 
on  the  fourth  day  came  off  the  pentathlon  (contest 
of  five  games— VIZ,  leaping,  running,  throwing  the 
discus,  throwing  the  spear,  and  wrestling),  the 
chariot  and  horse  races,  and  perhaps  the  contests  of 
the  heralds  ;  the  fifth  day  was  set  apart  for  proces- 
sions, sacrifices,  and  banquets  to  the  victors  (called 
Olympionikoi),  who  were  crowned  with  a  garland  of 
wild  olive  twigs  cut  from  a  sacred  tree  which 
grew  in  the  Altis  (see  Olympia),  and  presented  to  the 
assembled  people,  each  with  a  palm  branch  in  his 
hand,  while  the  heralds  proclaimed  his  name,  and 
that  of  his  father  and  country.  On  his  return 
home,  he  was  received  with  extraordinary  distinc- 
tion :  son^  were  sung  in  his  praise  (14  of  Pindar's 
extant  lyncs  are  devoted  to  Otympionikoi) ;  statues 
were  erected  to  him,  both  in  the  Altis  and  in  his 
native  city ;  a  place  of  honour  was  given  him  at  all 
public  spectacles ;  he  was  in  general  exempted  from 
public  taxes,  and  at  Athens  was  boarded  at  the 
^expense  of  the  state  in  the  Prytaneion. 

The  regulation  of  the  games  belonged  to  the 

Eleans,  from  whom  were  chosen  the  hdlanodikai,  or 

judges,  whose  number  varied.    At  first  there  were 

only  two,  but  as  the  games  became  more  and  more 

national,   and  consequently  more  numerous,  they 

were  gradually  increased  to  ten,  sometimes  even  to 

twelve.    They  were  instnicted  in  their  duties  for 

ten  months  beforehand  at  Elis,  and  held  their  office 

•  only  for  one  year.    The  officers  who  executed  their 

•commands  were  called  alytai,  and  were  under  the 

presidency  of  an  alvtarch«— See  Krause's  Olympia 

.Oder   DarHeUung   aer  grosaen    Olympiachen   spide 

(Wien,  1838). 

OLTMPIODOHUS,  one  of  the  latest  of  the 
Alexandrian  Neoplatoniats,  flourished  in  the  first 


half  of  the  6th  c  after  Christ,  during  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Justinian.  Regarding  his  life  nouiing 
is  known.  Of  his  writings,  we  possess  a  lAft  of 
Plato,  with  commentaries  or  scholia  on  sevend  of 
his  dialogues,  the  Gornas,  Philebus,  Phsdo,  and 
Alcibiades  I.  In  these  ne  appears  as  an  acute  and 
vigorous  thinker,  and  as  a  man  of  great  erudition. 
0/s  L^e  of  Plato  was  published  by  Wetstein 
(1692),  Etwall  (Lond.  1771),  and  Fischer  (Leipsi 
1783);  the  best  edition  of  the  scholia  is  that  of 
Mystoxides  and  Schinas  (Venice,  1816). 

OLTIIPUS,  the  ancient  name  of  several  monn* 
tains  or  chains  of  mountains— e.  g.,  of  the  north- 
western continuation  of  Taurus  in  Mysia^  of  ^  a 
mountain  in  the  island  of  Cyprus,  of  one  in  Lycia, 
of  another  in  Elis,  of  one  on  tne  borders  of  Laconia 
and  Arcadia,  and  of  another  on  the  frontiers  of 
Thessaly  and  Macedonia.  Of  these,  the  last- 
mentioned  (now  called  Elymbo)  is  the  most  famous. 
Its  eastern  side,  which  fronts  the  sea,  is  composed  of 
a  line  of  vast  precipices,  cleft  by  ravines,  filled  with 
forest-trees.  Oak,  chestnut,  beech,  plane  tree,  are 
scattered  abundantly  along  its  base,  and  higher  up 
apT)ear  great  forests  of  pine,  as  in  the  days  of  the 
Old  poeto  of  Greece  and  Rome.  With  Euripides,  it 
is  poludendros  Olympos ;  with  Virgil,  froruiosus 
Olympus;  and  with  Horace,  opaaie  Olympus,  Its 
highest  peak  is  9754  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
and  is  covered  with  snow  for  about  nine  months  of 
the  year.  It  was  regarded  by  the  ancient  Greeks  as 
the  chief  abode  of  the  gods,  and  the  palace  of  Zeus 
was  supposed  to  be  upon  its  broad  summit.  Accord- 
ing to  Greek  legend,  it  was  formerly  connected  with 
Ossa,  but  was  separated  from  it  b^  an  earthquake, 
allowing  a  passage  for  the  Peneius  through  the 
narrow  vale  of  Tempo  to  the  sea.  The  philosophers 
afterwards  transferred  the  abode  of  the  gods  to  the 
planetary  spheres,  to  which  they  likewise  transferred 
the  name  of  Olympus. 

OM  is  a  Sanscrit  word  which,  on  account  of  the 
inystical  notions  that  even  at  an  early  date  of  Hindu 
civilisation  were  connected  with  it,  acquired  much 
importance  in  the  development  of  Hindu  religion. 
Its  original  sense  is  that  of  emphatic  or  solemn, 
affirmation  or  assent.  Thus,  when  in  the  White- 
Yajur-Veda  (see  Veda)  the  sacriHcer  invites  the 
gods  to  rejoice  in  his  sacrifice,  the  god  Savitr'i 
assents  to  his  summons  by  saying :  *  Om  (L  e.,  be  it 
so) ;  proceed ! '  Or,  when  in  the  Br'ihad-ftranyaka- 
Upanishad,  Praj&pati,  the  father  of  gods,  men,  and 
demons,  asks  the  gods  whether  they  have  under- 
stood his  instruction;  he  expresses  his  satisfaction 
with  their  affirmative  reply,  in  these  words :  *  Om, 
you  have  fully  comprehended  it ; '  and,  in  the  same 
Upanishad,  jPravAhan'a  answers  the  question  of 
S'wetaketu,  as  to  whether  his  father  has  instructed 
him,  by  uttering  the  word  *  Om^^  ie.,  •  forsooth  (I 
am).'  A  portion  of  the  R'igyeda,  called  the  Aitaieya- 
Brfthmana,  where  describing  a  religious  ceremony 
at  which  verses  from  the  R'igveda,  as  well  as  songs 
called  G&thfts,  were  recited  by  the  priest  called 
Hotr'i,  and  responses  given  by  another  priest,  the 
Adhwaryu,  savs :  *  Om  is  the  response  of  the  Adh- 
waryu  to  the  R'igveda  verses  (recited  by  the  Hotr'i), 
and  likewise  tathd  (ie.,  thus)  his  response  to  the 
G&thfts,  for  Om  is  (the  term  of  assent)  used  by  the 
gods,  whereas  tathd  is  (the  term  of  assent)  used  by  men' 
(the  R'igveda  verses  being,  to  the  orthodox  Hindu, 
of  divine,  and  the  Gftthfts  of  human,  authorship).  In 
this,  the  original  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  little 
doubtful  that  om  is  but  an  older  and  oontracted 
form  of  the  common  Sanscrit  word  evarn^  'thos,' 
which,  coming  &om  the  pronominal  base  *a'-*>in 
some  derivations  changed  to  *«'— may  have  at  one 
time  occurred  in  the  form  ooam,  w  hen,  by  the  ilimoii 


03d. 


of  the  vowel  following  v — for  which  there  are  nume-    he  is  devoted  there  to  austerity,  the  duties  of  a 


rooa  analogies  in  Sanscrit — avam  would  become  auTn, 
and  henoe,  according  to  the  ordinary  phonetic  laws 
of  the  language,  onu  This  etymology  of  the  word, 
however,  seems  to  have  been  lost,  even  at  an  early 
period  of  Sanscrit  literature;  for  another  is  met 
with  in  the  ancient  ^ammarians,  enablinjg  us  to 


religious  student,  and  faith,  he  enjoys  greatness. 
But,  if  he  meditates  in  his  mind  on  its  two  letters 
(a  and  u),  he  is  elevated  by  the  verses  of  the  Yajur- 
Veda  to  the  intermediate  region ;  he  comes  to  the 
world  of  the  moon,  and  having  enjoyed  there  power, 
returns  again  (to  the  world  of  man).    If,  however. 


acoonnt  for  the  mysticism  which  many  religious  and  |  he  meditates  on  the  supreme  Spirit  by  means  of  its 
theological  works  of  ancient  and  medieval  India   three  letters  (a,  v,  and  m),  he  is  produced  in  light. 


luppose  to  inhere  in  it.  According  to  this  latter 
etymology,  am  would  come  from  a  radical  av  by 
means  of  an  affix  man,  when  om  woidd  be  a  curtailed 


in  the  sun  ;  as  the  snake  is  liberated  from  its  skin, 
so  he  is  liberated  from  sin.'  According  to  the 
M&n'd'dkya-Upanishad,  the  nature  of  the  soul  is 


form  of  <wman  or  oman ;  and  as  av  implies  the '  summarised  in  thd  three  letters  a,  u,  and  m,  in 
notion  of  *  protect,  preserve,  save,*  om  would  be  a ,  their  isolated  and  combined  form — a  being  Vai- 
term  implying  'protection  or  salvation ; '  its  mystical  |  s  w&nara,  or  that  form  of  Brahman  which  represents 
properties  and  its  sanctity  being  inferred  from  its  the  soul  in  its  waking  condition ;  u,  Taijasa,  or  that 
oocorrenoe  in  the  Vedic  writings,  and  in  connection  !iorm  of  Brahman  which  represents  it  in  its  dreaming 
with  aacriiicial  acts,  such  as  are  alluded  to  before.  state  ;  and  m,  Priljna,  or  that  form  of  Brahman 
Hence  Om  became  the  auspicious  word  with  ;  which  represents  it  in  its  state  of  profound  sleep  (or 
which  the  spiritual  teacher  had  to  begin,  and  the  that  state  in  which  it  is  temporarily  unit^  with  the 
pupil  had^  to  end  each  Jessou  of  his  readinjg  of  the   supreme  Spirit) ;  while  a,  u^  m  combined,  i.  e.,  Om, 

syllable,*  the  existing  Pi'&tis'd.khya,  I  represent  the  fourth  or  highest  condition  of  Brahman, 
le  R'igveda,  enjoins,  *  be  the  head    *  which  is  unaccountable,  in  which  all  manifestations 


have  ceased,  which  is  blissful  and  without  duality. 
Om,  therefore,  is  soul ;  and  by  this  soul,  he  who 
knows  it  enters  into  (the  supreme)  soul*  Passages 
like  these  may  be  considered  as  the  key  to  the  more 


Veda.    *Letthis 
or  gnunmar  of  the  R'igveda,, 
of  the  reading  of  the  V  eda,  for  alike  to  the  teacher 
and  the  pvpil,  it  is  the  supreme  Brahman,  the  gate 
of  heaveo.       And    Manu    (q.    v.)    ordains:    'A 
Brahman,  at  the  beginning  and  end  (of  a  lesson  on  ^ 

theVeda),  must  always  pronounce  the  svllable  Om;  j  enigmatic  expressions  used,  for  instance,  by  the 
for  unless  Om  precede,  his  learning  will  slip  away '  author  of  the  Yoffa  (q.  v.)  philosophy,  where,  in 
from  him;  and  unless  it  follow,  nothing  will  oe  long  three  short  sentences,  he  says  :  *  His  (the  supreme 
retained.*  At  the  time  when  anonier  class  of  j  Lord's  name)  is  Pran  a txi  (i.e.,  0)^) ;  its  muttering 
writings,  the  Pur&n'as  (q.  v.),  were  added  to  the  (should  be  made)  and  reflection  on  its  signification  ; 
inspir^  code  of  Hinduism,  for  a  similar  reason, ;  thence  comes  the  knowledge  of  the  transcendental 
Om  is  their  introductory  word.  spirit,  and  the  absence  of  the  obstacles '  (such  as 

That  the  mysterious  power  which,  as  the  fore-  sickness,  languor,  doubt,  kc,  which  obstruct  the 
going  quotation  from  thelaw-book  of  Manu  shews,  mind  of  an  ascetic).  But  thev  indicate,  at  the  same 
was  attributed  to  this  word,  must  have  been  the  :  time,  the  further  course  which  superstition  took  in 
sulject  of  early  speculation,  is  obvious  enough.    A    enlar^ng  upon  the  mysticism  of  the  doctrine  of  the 


reason  assigned  for  it  is  given  by  Manu  himself. 
'  Brahmft,*  Le  says,  *  extracted  from  the  three  Vedas 
the  letter  a,  the  letter  u,  and  the  letter  m  (which 
combined  result  in  Om),  together  with  the  (mysteri 


Upanishads.  For  as  soon  as  every  letter  of  which 
the  word  Om  consists  was  fancied  to  embody  a 
separate  idea,  it  is  intelligible  that  other  sectarian 
explanations  were  grafted  on  them,  to  serve  their 


oos)  words  BhM  (earth),  Shuvah'  (sky),  and  Swah'  special  purposes.  Thus,  while  S'ankara,  the  great 
(heaven) ; '  and  in  another  verse :  *  Thesd  three  '  theologian  and  commentator  on  the  Upanishads,  is 
great  immntable  words,  preceded  by  the  syllable  still  contented  with  an  etymological  punning,  by 
Om,  and  (the  sacred  R'igveda  verse,  called)  Gftyatrt, '  means  of  which  he  transforms  *  a  *  (or  rather 
consisting  of  three  lines,  must  be  considered  as  the  I  *  ^ ')  into  an  abbreviation  of  dpti  (pervading),  since 
mouth  (or  entrance)  of  Brahman  (the  Veda)  * — or,  speech  is  pervaded  by  Vais'wftnara  ;  *  u '  into  an 
as  the  commentators  observe — ^the  means  of  attaining  aobreviation  of  utkaraha  (superiority),  since  Taijasa 
final  emancipation ;  and  *  The  syllable  Om  is  the  1  is  superior  to  Vais'w&nara ;  and  *■  m '  into  axi  abbre- 
snpreme  Brahman,  (three)  regulated  breathings ,  viation  of  mitt  (destruction),  Vais'w&nara  and 
(accompanied  with  the  mental  recitation  of  Om,  the  |  Taijasa,  at  the  destruction  and  regeneration  of  the 
three  mysterious  words,  Bh(ih',  Bhuvah',  Swah',  and    world,  being,  as  it  were,  absorbed  into  Pr^na — the 

Purftn'as  (q.  v.)  make  of  *a'  a  name  of  Vishn'u ; 


the  G&yatrt),  are  the  highest  devotion.  ....  All 
rites  ordained  in  the  Veda,  such  as  burnt  and 
other  sacriticesB,  pass  away;  but  the  syllable  Om 
most  be  considered  as  imperishable,  fbr  it  is  (a 
svmbol  of)  Brahman  (the  supreme  Spirit)  himself, 
the  Lord  of  Creation.*  In  these  speculations,  Manu 
bears  out^  and  is  borne  out  by,  several  Upanishads. 
See  Veda.  In  tJie  Katha-  Upanishad,  for  instance, 
Tama,  the  god  of  death,  in  replying  to  a  question  of 
Kachiketas,  says :  '  The  wont  which  all  the  Vedas 
record,  which  all  the  modes  of  penance  proclaim,  of 
which  desirous  the  religious  students  perform  their 
duties,  this  word  I  will  brietfy  teU  thee,  it  is  Om^ 
This  syllable  means  the  (inferior)  Brahman  and  the 
■npimiie  (Brahman).  Whoever  knows  this  syllable, 
obtains  whatever  he  wishes.*  And  in  the  Pratfwjr 
Cpttniihad,  the  saint  PippaUda  s^s  to  Satyak&ma : 
*The  supreme  and  the  mferior  Brahman  are  both 
the  word  Om;  hence  the  wise  follows  by  this 
npport  the  one  or  the  other  of  the  two.  If  he 
meoitatea  upon  its  one  letter  (a)  onlv,  he  is 
quickly  horn  on  the  earth ;  him  carry  the  verses 
«  the  R'igveda  to  the  world  of   man;    and   if 


of  *«,*  a  name  of  his  consort  S'ri;  and  of  'm,*  a 
designation  of  their  joint- worshipper ;  or  they  see 
in  a^  u,  m  the  Triad,  Brahmft,  Vishn'u,  and  S'iva; 
the  first  being  represented  by  *  a*  the  second  by 
*M,'  and  the  third  by  *wi* — each  sect,  of  course, 
identifying  the  combination  of  these  letters,  or  Om, 
with  their  supreme  deity.  Thus,  also,  in  the  Bhagi^ 
vadgftft,  which  is  devoted  to  the  worship  of  Vishn'u 
in  his  incarnation  as  Kr'ishn'a,  though  it  is  essenti- 
ally a  poem  of  philosophical  tendencies,  based  on 
the  doctrine  of  the  Yoga,  Kr'ishn'a  in  one  passage 
says  of  himself  that  he  is  Om  ;  while,  in  another 
passage,  he  qualifies  the  latter  as  the  supreme 
Spirit. — A  common  designation  of  the  word  Om — 
for  instance,  in  the  last-named  passages  of  the 
Bhagavadgttdr— is  the  word  Pran'ava,  wiich  comes 
from  a  so-called  radical  nu,  *  praise,'  with  the  prefix 
pro,  amongst  other  meanings,  implying  emphasis,  and 
therefore  literally  means  *  eulodum,  emphatic  praise.* 
Although  Om,  in  its  originsi  sense,  as  a  word  of 
solemn  or  emphatic  assent,  is,  properly  speaking, 

restricted  to  the  Vedic  literature,  it  deserves  notice 

67 


OM  MANI  PADME  HtjM-OMAHA  CITY. 


that  it  is  now-a-days  often  used  by  the  natives 
of  India  in  the  sense  of  *  yes,'  without,  of  course, 
any  allusion  to  the  mystical  properties  which  are 
ascribed  to  it  in  the  religious  works.  See  also  the 
article  Om  Man'i  Padme  HOm', 

That  there  exists  no  connection  whatever,  as  has 
been  9upposed  by  some  writers  to  be  the  case, 
between  Om  and  Amen,  requires  scarcely  any 
remark,  after  the  etymological  explanations  given 
above;  but  it  may  not  be  without  interest  to 
observe  that,  though  the  derivation  of  Om,  as  a 
curtailment  of  av-man,  from  av,  *  protect,  save,* 
is  probably  merely  artificial,  and,  as  stated  before, 
invented  to  explain  the  later  mystical  use  of  the 
Vedic  word,  it  seems  more  satisfactory  to  compare 
the  Latin  ornen  with  a  Sanscrit  av/mzn,  *  protection,* 
as  derived  by  the  grammarians  from  dv  (iu  the 
Latin  dve-o),  than  to  explain  it  in  the  fashion  of 
the  Eoman  etymologists :  *  Omen,  quod  ex  ore 
}>rimum  elatum  est,  osmen  dictum ;  *  or,  *  Omen  velut 
oremen,  quod  fit  ore  augurium,  quod  non  avibus 
aliove  modo  fit*  And  since  pra-nava,  from  Sanscrit 
Nu,  '  praise,*  is,  like  Om,  used  in  the  sense  of  'the 
deity,  it  is  likewise  probable  that  numen  does  not 
come,  as  is  generally  believed,  from  Latin  nU'{ere), 
*nod,*  but  from  a  radical  corresponding  with  the 
Sanscrit  nu,  *  praise.* 

OM  MANI  PADME  HUM'  is  the  'formula 
of  six  syllables*  which  has  acquired  much  celebrity 
from  the  conspicuous  part  which  it  plays  in  the  reli- 
gion of  the  Buddhists,  and  eapeciatly  in  that  form 
of  it  called  Lamaism  (o.  v.).  It  is  the  first  subject 
which  the  Tibetans  and  Mongols  teach  their  children, 
and  it  is  the  last  prayer  which  is  muttered  bv  the 
dying  man ;  the  traveller  repeats  this  formula  on 
his  journey,  the  shepherd  when  attending  his  flock,  I 
the  housewife  when  performing  her  domestic  duties, 
the  monk  when  absorbed  in  religious  meditation, 
&c.  It  is  met  with  everywhere ;  on  flags,  rocks, 
trees,  walls,  columns,  stone-monuments,  domestic 
implements,  skulls,  skeletons,  &c.  It  is  looked  upon 
as  the  essence  of  all  religion  and  wisdom,  and 
the  means  of  attaining  eternal  bliss.  ^  These  six 
syllables,*  it  is  said,  *  concentrate  in  themselves  the 
favour  of  all  the  Buddhas,  and  they  are  the  root  of 
the  whole  doctrine  •  .  .  . ;  they  lead  the  believer  to 
re-birth  as  a  higher  being,  and  are  the  door  which 
bars  from  him  inferior  births ;  they  are  the  torch 
which  illuminates  darkness,  the  conqueror  of  the 
five  evils;*  ko.  They  are  likewise  the  symbol  of 
transmigration;  each  syllable  successively  corre- 
sponding with,  and  releasing  from,  one  of  the 
six  worlds  in  which  men  are  reborn;  or  they 
are  the  mjrstical  designation  of  the  six  transcenden- 
tal virtues,  each  successive  syllable  implying  self- 
offering  {ddna)f  endurance  [kshdnti),  chastity  {s'Ua), 
contemplation  (dkydna),  mental  energy  {virya),  and 
religions  wisdom  {prajnd).  The  reputed  author  of 
this  formula  is  the  Dhyiini-Bodhisattwa,  or  deified 
saint,  Avalokitea'wara,  or,  as  the  Tibetans  call  him, 
Padmapdn'i  (i.  e.,  the  lotus-handed).  It  would  not 
belong,  accordingly,  to  the  earliest  stage  of  Bud- 
dhism, nor  is  it  found  in  the  oldest  Buddhistic 
works  of  the  north  of  India  or  of  Ceylon.  Its 
original  sense  is  rather  obscure.  Some  suppose 
that  it  means  0!  (^),  the  jewel  {man'i)  in  the 
lotus  (padme),  amen  {Jv&m')\  *the  jewel'  being  an 
allusion  to  the  saint  AvalokitesVara  himself,  and 
the  word  *padnie,  or  in  the  lotus,'  to  the  belief  that 
he  was  bom  from  a  lotus.  It  is  probably,  however, 
more  correct  to  interpret  the  formula  thus :  *  Sal- 
vation (am)  [is]  in  the  jewel-lotus  {manfi-padme), 
amen  {Mm') ; '  when  the  compound  word  *  jewel- 
lotus*  would  mean  the  saint  and  the  flower  whence 
he  arose.  If  this  interpretation  be  correct,  the 
fonnula  would  be  originally  nothing   more  tlum 


a    salutation    addressed    to    Avalokites'wara    or 
Padmap&n'i ;   and  the  mystical  interpretation  put 
upon  each  syllable  of  it,  would  then  be  analogous  to 
that  which  imparted  a  transcendental  sense  to  each 
of  the  letters  of  the  syllable  Om  (q.  v.).    Dr  Emil 
Schlagintweit,  in  his  valuable  work  on  Buddfiism  m 
Tibet   (Leipzig,  1863),  relates  (p.   120)  that  'in  a 
prayer-cylinder  which  he  had  the  opportunity  of 
opening,  he  found  the  formula  printed  in  six  lines, 
and  repeated  innumerable  times  tipon  a  leaf  49  feet 
long  and  4  inches  broad.     When  Baron  Schilling  de 
Canstadt  paid  a  visit  to  the  temple  Subulin,  in 
Siberia,  the  Lamas  were  just  occupied  with  pre- 
paring 100,000,000  of  copies  of  this  prayer  to  be  put 
into  a  prayer-cylinder ;  nis  offer  to  have  the  neces- 
sary number  executed  at  St  Petersbmqg  was  most 
readily  accepted,  and  he  was  presented,  in  return  for 
the  150,000,000  of  copies  he  forwarded  to  them,  with 
an  edition  of  the  Kanjur,  the  sheets  of  which  amount 
to  about  40,000.  When  adorning  the  head  of  religious 
books,  or  when   engraved  upon  the  slabs  resting 
on  the  prayer-walls,  the  letters  of  the  formula  are 
often  so  combined  as  to  form  an  anagram.     The 
longitudinal  lines  occurring  in  the  letters  **  man'i 
padme  hUm'  **  are  traced  close  to  each  other,  and  to 
the  outer  longitudinal  line  at  the  left  are  appended 
the  curved  lines.    The  letter  *^om^*  is  replaced  by  a 
symbolical  sign  above  the  anagram,  shewing  a  half- 
moon  surmounted  by  a  disc  indicating  the  sun,  from 
which  issues  a  flame.     Such  a  combination  of  the 
letters  is  called  in  Tibetan  nam  chu  vangdan,  "the 
ten  entirely  powerful  (viz.,  characters,  six  of  which 
are  consonants,  and  four  vowels) ; "  and  the  power 
of  this  sacred  sentence  is  supjiosed  to  be  increased 
by  its  being  written  in  this  form.    These  kind  of 
anagrams  are  always  bordered  by  a  pointed  frame 
indicating    the   leal    of   a    fig-tree.' — See    also  E. 
Bumouf,  Introduction  d  VHistoire  du  Buddhisms 
Indien  (Paris,  1844);  C.  F.  Koeppen,  Die  Beligion 
des  BuddJia  (Berlin,  1857 — 1859).;  and  the  worka 
quoted  by  these  authors. 

OM A'GH  (Irish,  Oigh  magh,  •  seat  of  the  chiefs  \ 
an  ancient  town,  capital  of  the  county  of  Tyrone 
in  Ireland,  situated  on  the  river  Stride,  distant  CH 
miles  south  from  Londonderry,  and  110  miles  north- 
north-west  from  Dublin,  with  both  which  cities  it  is 
connected  by  railway.    0.  grew  up  around  an  abbey 
founded  in  the  year  792,  but  is  hrst  heard  of  as  a 
fortress  of  Art  O'Nial  in  the  end  of- the  15th  c., 
about  which  time  it  was  forced  to  surrender  to  the 
English,  although  its  possession  long  continued  to 
alternate  between  Irish  and  En^irlish  hands.      It 
formed  part  of  James  I.*s  *  Plantation '  grants,  and 
was    strongly  garrisoned   by  Moimtjoy.      On    its 
being  evacuated  by  the  troops  of  James  IL  in  1689, 
it  was  pKrtially  burned,  and  a  second  (accidental) 
fire  in  1743  comi)leted  its  destruction.    But  it  has 
been  well  rebuilt,  and  is  now  a  neat  and  prosperous 
town.      Pop.   in   1861,  3448,  of    whom    2150    are 
Catholics,  731  Protestants  of  the  Established  Church, 
and  the  rest  Protestants  of  other  denominations. 
0.  contains  a  very  handsome  court-house,  several 
neat   churches    (Roman  Catholic,  Protestant,   and 
Presbyterian),  a  convent,  several  partially  endowed 
and  national  schools,  a  district  lunatic  aaylxun,  and 
the  workhouse  of  the  Poor-Law  Union  of  which  it 
ia  the  centre.    Its  trade  is  chiefly  in  brown  lini>p«i^ 
com,  and  agricultural  produoe. 

OTtfAHA  CITY,  the  capital  of  Nebraska  Terri- 
tory, U.  S.,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Missonri 
Kiver,  opposite  Council  Bluffs,  and  20  miles  nortii 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Nebraska  River.  Besides 
the  government  offices,  it  has  a  large  trade 
by  the  rivers,  and  across  the  prairies,  and  will 
soon  be  connected  by  railways  with  the  principal 


OMAN— OMAB  PASHA. 


towm  on  the  Upper  MisaissippL     Pop.  in  1860, 
1912. 

OMA'lf,  the  most  eaBtern  portion  of  Arabia»  a 
atrip  of  maritime  territory,  extending  between  Bas- 
el-Jibool  and  Raa-el-Uad,  bounded  on  the  north- 
eaat  by  the  Gnlf  of  Oman,  and  on  the  south-west 
by  the  deserts  of  the  interior.  It  is  about  370  miles 
in  length;  its  greatest  breadth  is  120  miles.  At 
s  distance  of  from  20  to  40  miles  from  the  ooast, 
s  chain  of  mountains  runs  parallel  to  it,  which 
resches  in  its  highest  ridge,  called  O^bd  Achdar 
('Great  Mountain'),  an  elevation  of  6000  feet;  the 
srera^  heieht  is  4000  feet.  There  are  a  few  not 
iflconaiderable  streams,  and  some  richly  fertile  tracts 
in  this  region,  but  the  greater  part  is  a  waste  of 
sand,  with  here  and  there  a  small  oasis,  where, 
however,  the  vegetation  is  most  luxuriant.  Groves 
of  almond,  fig,  and  walnut-trees,  tower  to  an 
enormoos  height,  overshadowing  the  oranse  and 
citron  trees,  but  aro  themiselves.  overtopped  oy  the 
splendid  date-palms.  The  most  powerful  state  of 
0.  is  Muscat  (q.  v.). 

OMAR,  ABiy-HAF8A.-iBN-AL-KH]nTAB,  the  second 
ealif  of  the  Moslems,  was  bom  about  681.  His 
early  history  is  little  known,  but  previous  to  his 
coQ?er8ion  he  was  an  ardent  persecutor  of  Moham- 
med and  his  followers.  After  hia  conversion  he 
became  as  zealous  an  apostle  as  he  had  formerly 
been  a  persecutor,  and  rendered  valuable  aid  to  the 
prophet  in  all  his  warlike  expeditions.  '  After 
afohammed's  death,  he  caused  Abu-bekr  to  be 
proclaimed  calif,  and  was  himself  appointed  liaujeh^ 
or  pnme-minister.  Though  of  a  fiery  and  enthusi- 
astic temperament,  he  proved  a  sagacious  adviser, 
and  it  was  at  his  suggestion  that  the  calif  put 
down  with  an  iron  hand  the  manv  dissensions 
vhich  had  arisen  among  the  Arabs  after  the 
prophet's  decease,  and  resolved  to  strengthen  and 
consolidate  their  new-bom  national  spirit,  as  well  as 
propagate  the  doctrines  of  Islam,  by  engaging  them 
m  continual  aggressive  wars.  On  the  death  of 
Abu-bekr,  O.  succeeded  as  calif,  and  pushed  on 
tiie  wars  of  conquest  with  increased  vigour.  He 
was  summoned  to  Jerusalem  in  637,  to  receive  the 
keys  of  that  city,  and  before  leaving  gave  orders  to 
build  a  mofloue,  now  called  by  his  name,  on  the  site 
of  the  temple  of  Solomon.  O.  now  took  the  com- 
mand of  a  portion  of  the  army,  and  reduced  the 
other  chief  cities  of  Palestine.  He  then  planned 
an  invasion  of  Persia,  which  was  commenced  the 
same  year,  and  by  642  the  whole  of  what  is  now 
known  as  Persia  was  subdued.  In  the  meantime 
the  war  in  Syria  was  vigorously  prosecuted,  and  the 
Byzantine  armies,  repeatedly  defeated,  at  lenfth 
ga^e  up  the  contest  In  639,  Amrii,  one  of  nis 
generals,  had  invaded  Egypt  with  a  considerable 
zorce;  but  such  was  the  prestige  of  the  Arabs,  or 
the  incapacity  of  the  lieutenante  of  the  Emperor 
Heraclina,  that  this  valuable  country,  with  its  six 
millions  of  people,  was  reduced  under  the  califs 
anthori^  without  a  single  contest,  and  only  two 
towns,  Miar  and  Alexandria,  were  even  attempted 
to  be  defended.  (For  the  stery  which  was  till 
lately  believed  concerning  the  destruction  of  the 
Alexandrian  library,  see  Alexandrian  Librart.) 
Barca  and  Tripoli  were  next  subdued  by  Amr(i. 
On  the  north,  Armenia  was  overrun  in  641,  and 
the  califs  authority  now  reached  from  the  Desert 
of  Khiva  to  the  Syrtis,  an  enormous  extension  in 
ten  years.  In -644,  0.  was  assassinated  in  the 
*nosque  of  Medina  by  a  Persian  slave  from  motives 
•f  revenge.  He  languished  five  days  after  receivins 
the  wound,  but  refused  to  appoint  a  successor,  and 
earned  six  commissioners  wno  were  to  choose  one 
ftnm  themselves.    He  was  buried  in  the  mosque  of  , 


Medina,  near  the  prophet  and  Abu-bekr,  and  his 
tomb  is  still  visited  by  nilgrims. 

0.  may  be  called  tne  founder  of  the  Moham- 
medan power,  as  from  a  meie  sect  he  raised  it 
to  the  rank  of  a  conquering  nation,  and  left  to  his 
successor  an  empire  which  Alexander  the  Greai 
might  have  envied.  In  him  we  find  a  rare  com- 
bination of  qualities,  the  ardent  zeal  of  the  ajMstie 
side  by  side  with  the  cautious  foresight  and  calm 
resolution  of  the  monareh.  His  great  military 
talents,  and  severity  to  'obstinate  unbelievers,' 
rendered  him  formidable  to  his  enemies,  and  his 
inexorable  justice  rendered  him  no  less  obnoxious 
to  the  more  powerful  of  his  subjects,  and  gave 
rise  to  mrny  attempts  at  his  assassination.  0.  was 
the  founder  of  many  excellent  institutions;  he 
assi^ed  a  regular  pay  to  his  soldiers,  established 
a  ni^ht-police  in  towns,  and  made  some  excellent 
regulations  for  the  more  lenient  treatment  of  slaves. 
He  also  originated  the  practice  of  dating  from  the 
era  of  the  Sedjrah  (q.  v.).  He  assumed  tiie  title  of 
£mir-al-mumenin  (*  Commander  of  the  Faithful ')  in 
ppeference  to  that  of  Khalifak-msouli-Jlahi,  the 
ordinary  designation;  and  to  the  present  day  his 
name  is  held  in  the  greatest  veneration  by  the 
orthodox  or  Sunt  sect  of  Moslems. 

OMAR  PASHA,  a  celebrated  Turkish  general, 
was  bom  at  Plaski,  an  Austrian  village  in  the 
Croatian  Military  Frontier,  in  1806  (according  to 
some  authorities,  in  1811).  His  real  name  was 
Mikail  Lattas,  and  his  father  being  an  officer  in 
the  Austrian  army,  Mikail  was  educated  at  the 
military  school  of  Thurn,  near  Oarlstadt,  where 
he  greatiy  distinguished  himself.  He  afterwards 
joined  one  of  the  frontier  regiments  as  a  cadet, 
and  was  employed  as  secretory  bv  the  military 
inspector  of  roads  and  bridges  ;  but  having  by  some 
breach  of  discipline  rendered  himself  amenable  to 

Ciishment,  he  fled  to  Bosnia,  where  he  became 
k-keeper  to  a  Turkish  merchant,  and  embraced 
Mohammedanism.  He  was  next  employed  by 
Hussein  Pasha,  the  governor  of  Widin,  as  tutor  to 
his  sons ;  and  in  18^  was  sent  in  charge  of  them 
to  Constantinople,  where  his  beautiful  caligi*aphy 
gained  for  him  the  post  of  writing-master  in 
the  military  school  Omar  Effendi  (as  he  was 
now  called)  was  next  appointed  writing-master  to 
Abdiil-Medjid,  the  heir  to  the  throne,  and  re- 
ceived the  honorary  rank  of  captain  in  the  Turkish 
army,  and  the  hand  of  a  rich  heiress.  On  his  pupil's 
accession  in  1839,  0.  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
colonel,  and  sent  to  Syria  to  aid  in  the  suppression 
of  disturbances  which  had  broken  out  in  that  pro- 
vince, and  in  1842  he  was  appointed  military  gover- 
nor of  the  Lebanon  district.  The  severity  of  his 
nile  did  not  hinder  the  Maronites  from  desiring  to 
have  him  as  chief  of  the  Mountain ;  but  in  the 
following  year  he  was  recalled,  received  the  title  of 
pasha,  and  was  sent,  along  with  Bedschid  Pasha, 
against  the  revolted  Albanians.  The  skill  and 
energy  with  which  he  suppressed  this  insurrection, 
as  well  as  others  in  Bosnia  and  Kurlistan,  raised 
him  high  in  favour  with  the  sultan.  Towards  the 
end  of  1852  he  opened  the  campaign  against  the 
Montenegrins,  who  were  being  rapidly  subdued, 
when  Austria  interfered  and  compelled  a  treaty. 
On  tiie  invasion  of  the  Principalities  by  the  Rus- 
sians (July  1853),  0.  collected  at  Schumla  an  army 
of  60,000  men  to  cover  Constantinople ;  but  being 
no  less  a  politician  thasi.  a  soldier,  he  soon  divined 
that  the  Russians  would  not  immediately  cross  the 
Danube,  and  accordingly  pushed  on  to  Widin, 
where  he  cnMsed  the  river  in  presence  of  the  enemy 
and  intrenched  himself  at  Ralafat  Another  part 
of  the  Turkish  army  moved  down  the  Danube  to 
Turtukai,  near  Silistria,  crossed  the  river  at  that 


OMpAY— OMEN. 


place,  and  intrenched  themselves  at  Oltenitza.  On 
November  4,  the  latter  division  were  attacked  by 
9000  Kussians,  whom  they  totally  defeated  with 
a  loss  of  nearly  4000  men  and  almost  all  their 
officers.  The  Riusians  also  received  two  severe 
ch'^cks  at  Kalafat,  on  January  6  and  March  15, 
18.15.  0,  kept  up  the  spirit  of  his  troops  by 
occasional  successfiu  skirmishes  with  the  Russians, 
and  threw  a  garrison  of  8000  men  into  Silistria.  In 
the  following  sprint  the  Russians  passed  the  Danube 
at  two  points,  and  laid  siege  to  Silistria  (q.  v.),  but 
their  assaults  were  invariably  repulsed  with  severe 
loss.  The  Russians  then  withdrew  from  the  Prin- 
cipalities, and  O.  entered  Bucharest  in  triumph  in 
Aucrust  1854  On  9th  February  1855,  he  embarked 
for  Eupatoria,  where,  on  the  17tn  of  the  same  month, 
he  was  suddenly  attacked  by  40,000  Russians,  who 
were  repulsed  with  great  loss.  He  was  soon  after- 
wards (October  3,  1855)  sent  to  reheve  Kars,  but 
arrived  too  late,  and  the  armistice  which  followed 
(February  29,  1856)  put  a  stop  to  his  military 
career.  He  was  subsequently  made  governor  of 
Bagdad;  but  having  b^n  accused  of  maladmini- 
stration, was  biinished  to  Kaarport  in  1859.  He  was 
recalled  in  the  following  year,  and  in  September 
1801  was  Sent  to  j>acify  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina, 
which  were  again  in  insurrection.  This  being 
accomplished,  he  attacked  the  Montenegrins,  who 
had  been  the  instigators  of  these  rebellions,  captured 
their  chief  town  of  Cetiuji,  overran  the  country,  and 
reduced  it  to  the  condition  of  a  tributary  state  (9th 
September  1862).  O.  is  Grand-cross  of  the  Legion 
of  Honour  and  a  Knight  of  the  Russian  Order  of 
St  Anne. 

OMBAT,  or  MALOEWA  (Maluwa),  an  island 
between  Celebes  and  the  north-west  coast  of  Austra- 
ha,  lies  to  the  north  of  Timor,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Strait  of  Ombay,  lat.  8"  8* — 
8-  28*  a,  long.  124"  17—125*  7'.  Area,  961  square 
miles.  In  1853  the  population  amounted  to  193,751. 
The  hills  of  0.  are  volcanic,  and  the  coasts  steep 
and  difficult  to  approach.  The  inhabitants  are  dark 
brown,  have  thick  lips,  flat  nose,  and  woolly  hair ; 
ap]>earing  to  be  of  mixed  Negro  and  Malay  origin. 
They  are  armed  with  the  bow,  spear,  and  creese, 
and  live  on  the  produce  of  the  chase,  with  fish, 
cocoa-nuts,  rice,  and  honey.  A  portion  of  the 
island  formerly  belonged  to  the  Portuguese,  but 
since  August  6,  1851,  it  is  entirely  a  Netherlands 
possession.  The  Dutch  postholder  resides  at  the 
village  of  Alor,  to  which  iron  wares,  cotton  goods, 
&c,  are  brought  from  Timor,  and  exchang^  for 
wax,  edible  nests,  provisions,  and  other  native 
products.  0.  has  oxen,  swine,  goats,  &c.,  and  pro- 
duces maize,  cotton,  and  pepper.  Amber  is  also 
found,  and  the  Boeginese  of  Celebes  import  European 
and  Indian  fabrics,  exchanging  them  for  the  produce 
of  the  island,  which  they  carry  to  Singapore. 

CM  KARA,  Barry  Edward,  was  bom  in 
Ireland  in  the  year  1786.  Otherwise  without  claim 
to  be  remembered,  his  name  remains  notable  from  his 
connection  with  the  first  Napoleon,  whom  he  accom- 
panied to  St  Helena  as  household  physician.  At 
the  age  of  18  he  entered  the  British  army  as  assis- 
tant-surgeon. In  1808,  being  stationed  at  Messina, 
he  became  concerned  in  a  duel  as  second,  under  cir- 
cumstances which  must  more  or  less  have  been  held 
discreditable,  as  his  dismissal  from  the  service  by 
sentence  of  court-martial  was  the  result  After- 
wards he  succee<led  in  procuring  an  appointment  as 
siurgeon  in  the  navy,  and  as  such  for  some  years  is 
certified  to  have  discharged  his  duties  with  zeal  and 
efficiency.  As  it  chanced,  he  was  sernng  with 
Captain  Maitland  in  the  Belleronhon  when  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  (q.  v.)  surreuaered  himself  to 
70 


that  officer.  During  the  voyage  from  Rochefort  to 
Plymouth  he  was  introduced  to  Napoleon,  on  whom 
the  impression  he  produced  was  favourable,  leading 
to  a  proposal  that  he  should  accompany  the  emperor 
into  exile  as  private  physician,  an  arran;;ement 
to  which  he  acceded,  stipulating  that  he  should 
retain  his  rank  in  the  navy,  and  be  permitted  to 
return  to  it  at  pleasiire.  By  Napoleon,  with  whom 
he  remained  in  daily  intercourse  at  St  Helena  for 
about  three  years,  he  seems  to  have  been  admitted 
to  something  more  or  less  like  intimacy;  and 
occasionally  it  might  well  be,  as  he  says,  that  the 
great  captive  would  kill  the  creeping  hours  by 
loose  talk  with  his  attendant  over  the  events  of  his 
strange  life.  Of  these  conversations  O'M.  naturally 
enou^  took  notes,  which  he  afterwards  published. 
Meantime  he  became  involved  in  the  interest  of 
Napoleon,  in  the  series  of  miserable  and  petty 
squabbles  which  he  waged  with  the  governor.  Sir 
Hudson  Lowe  (q.  v.).  The  result  of  these,  as 
regards  O'M.,  was  that  in  1818,  after  a  violent 
altercation  with  Sir  Hudson,  he  was  committed  to 
close  arrest,  and  was  authorised  by  the  emx>eror  to 
resign  his  post.  On  his  return  to  England,  he 
addressed  a  letter  to  the  Admiralty,  in  which,  among 
other  things,  he  accused  Sir  Hudson  Lowe  of  inten- 
tions against  the  life  of  his  captive,  and  even  of  having, 
by  dark  hints  to  himself,  insinuated  a  desire  for  his 
services  as  secret  assassin.  For  this  he  was 
instantly  dismissed  the  service.  The  accusation 
was  platinly  monstrous  and  incre<Uhle.  In  1822, 
after  Napoleon's  death,  0*M.  publiBhed  Napoleon 
in  ExUe,  by  which  book  alone  he  is  now  remembered. 
As  conVeymg  to  the  world  the  first  authentic  details 
of  the  pnson-life  of  the  great  deceased,  it  made  on 
its  appearance  an  immense  sensation,  and — ^though 
for  oDvious  reasons  everywhere  to  be  accepted,  if 
at  all,  with  caution — it  is  still  not  utterly  without 
interest.  The  last  years  of  O'M.'s  life  were  passed 
in  obscurity  in  the  neighbourhood  of  London,  where, 
in  1836,  he  died. 

C  ME  LET,  or  OMELETTE,  French,  a  dish 
chiefly  composed  of  eggs.  These  are  broken,  and 
their  contents  put  into  a  proper  vessel,  in  which 
they  are  whipped  into  a  froth,  which  is  poured  into 
a  very  clean  and  dry  frying-pan,  with  the  addition 
of  lara  or  butter  to  prevent  sticking,  and  then  fried 
carefully,  so  that  the  outside  is  nicely  browned. 
Before  frying,  one  of  a  number  of  ingredients  may 
be  added  to  vary  the  omelette,  such  as  chopiied 
savoury  herbs,  minced  ham  or  bacon,  salt-fish,  snell- 
fish,  game,  &c.  Or  sweet  omelettes  maybe  made  by 
placing  preserved  fruits  upon  them  when  quite  or 
nearly  cooked.  The  omelette  is  an  exceUent  dish, 
and,  simple  though  it  be,  it  requires  much  skill  to 
prepare  it  successfully. 

O'MEN  (for  the  deriv.,  see  Om),  or  PRODIGY 
(generally  said  to  be  from  pro  and  dico^  but 
more  probably  from  pro  and  ago^  to  lead ;  henoe 
anything  conspicuous,  or  extraordinary),  the  name 
given  by  the  Romans  to  signs  by  which  approaching 
good  or  bad  fortune  was  supposed  to  be  indicated 
The  terms  Onxea  and  Prodigy  were  not,  however, 
exactly  synonymous  ;  the  former  being  applied 
rather  to  signs  received  by  the  ear,  and  particularly 
to  spoken  wordd ;  the  latter  to  phenomena  and 
occurrences,  such  as  monstrous  births,  the  appear- 
ance of  snakes,  locusts,  &a,  the  stHking  of  the 
foot  against  a  stone  or  the  like,  the  breaking  of 
a  shoe-tie,  and  even  sneezing,  &c.  If  an  omen  or 
prodigy  was  promised  on  the  \akXi  of  a  god,  it  was  to 
oe  interpreted  according  to  the  promise ;  but  other- 
wise, the  interpretation  was  extremely  arbitrary. 
It  was  supposed  that  evil  indicated  as  approaching 
might  be  averted  by  various  means,  as  by  sa^  ritice  \ 


OMENTUM— OMMIADES. 


or  by  the  utterance  of  certain  magic  formulas  ;  or 
by  an  extempore  felicity  of  interpretation ,  as  when 
Cnsar,  having  fallen  to  the  ground  on  landing  in 
Africa,  exclaimed:    *I    take    possession    of   thee, 
Africa.*    Occasionally,  it  is  true,  we  read  of  a  reck- 
less disregard  of  omens ;  as,  for  example,  when  P. 
Clandius,  m  the  First  Funic  War,  caused  the  sacred 
ehickens,  who  would  not  leave  their  cage,  to  be 
pitched  into  the  sea,  saying :  *If  they  wont  eat,  they 
most  drink/    Still  the  belief  in  them  was  universal, 
and  in  general  the  greatest  care  was  taken  to  avoid 
unfavourable  omens.     The  heads  of  the  sacrificial 
priests  were  covered,  so  that  nothinj^  distracting 
might  catch  their  eyes ;  silence  was  enjoined  at  the 
oommencement  of  every  sacred  undertaking,  and  at 
the  opening  of  the  Ludi,    Before  every  sacrificial 
procession  ran  the  heralds,  calling  on  the  people 
to  *pay  respect  to  it,*  and  admonishing  them  to 
cease  working  till  it  should  have  pas8ec^  that  the 
priests  might  not  hear  unfavoarable  sounds.    At 
the  beginning  of  a  sacrifice,  the  bystanders  were 
addres^  in  the  words  Favete  Linguia  (*  Speak  no 
word  of  evil  im^iort*),  and  the  aid  of  music  was 
sought  to    drown    whatever   noises   might   prove 
nnprupitious.     Compare  Auguries  and  Auspices, 
and  ]^IVI^^ATION.    See  also  Fallati,   Ueber  Begriff 
tmd  Weaen  des  Bom,  Omen  (TUb.  1**36). 

The  belief  in  omens  has  existed  in  all  ages  and 
countries,  and  traces  of  it  linger  even  yet  in 
the  most  civilised  communities ;  m  the  dread,  for 
instance,  that  many  entertain  at  sitting  down  to 
table  in  a  party  of  thirteen.  Not  a  little  of  the 
philosophy  of  omens  is  contained  in  the  Scottish 
proverb :  *  Them  who  follow  freits,  freits  follow  ; ' 
meaning,  that  a  fatalistic  belief  in  impending  evil 
paralyses  the  endeavoiu:  that  might  prevent  it^ 

OME'NTUM.    See  Peritonbubl 

OMMI'ADES  (Onoaiades,  or  Ommeyades),  » 
dynasty  (deriving  its  name  from  an  ancestor, 
Ommeyah)  which  succeeded  to  the  Arabian  califate 
on  the  death  of  Ali,  the  fourth  calif  after  Mohammed, 
and  possessed  it  till  superseded  by  the  Abbasides 
(q.  V.)  in  750.  Moawiyah,  the  founder  of  the 
dynasty,  was  the  son  of  Abu-Sofiau,  who  defeated 
Mohammetl  at  Beder,  and  his  mother  was  the 
notorious  Hinda.  After  the  death  of  Othman  the 
third  calif,  Moawiyah,  who  was  his  cousin,  claimed 
the  throne,  and  during  the  whole  of  Ali*s  reign 
ruled  over  the  western  provinces  of  Syria  and 
Egypt;  but  it  was  not  tUl  the  death  of  that  calif, 
and  the  abdication  of  his  son  Hassan  in  661,  that 
Hoawitah's  authority  was  fully  i-ecosnised.  In  that 
year  he  transferred  the  seat  of  the  califate  to 
bamascuB  ;  Kufa  having  been  the  residence  of  AJi, 
and  Medina  of  the  first  three  califs.  The  Arabs 
continued  to  extend  their  conquests  durins  his 
reign ;  tbe  Turks  in  Khorassan  were  subdued,  Turk- 
estan invaded,  and  several  important  acquisitions 
made  in  Asia  Minor.  But  besiaes  aggranoising  his 
empire,  ^e  calif  neglected  no  means  of  consoli- 
dating  it,  and  partly  for  this  reason  he  made  the 
succession  hereditaiy,  and  caused  his  son  Yezid 
(6S0— 683}  to  be  recognised  as  his  heir.  The  reigns 
of  Yezid  and  his  successors,  Moawiyah  IL  (683)  and 
McRWAN  L,  formerly  the  traitorous  secretary  of  the 
calif  Othman  (683—685),  are  devoid  of  importance, 
as  their  sway  extended  only  over  S vria  and  Palestine. 
Abdulususk  (685 — 705),  an  able  and  warlike 
prince,  after  a  long  and  varying  struffgle  of  eight 
years,  snoceeded  in  rendering  himseliundisputed 
rnia  of  the  Mohammedan  world  (692),  but  the 
latter  part  of  his  reign  was  much  disturbed  by 
rebellions  in  the  eastern  provinces.  He  was  the 
first  calif  who  interested  hmiself  in  the  promotion 
of  liberal  knowledge,  by  causing  the  most  oelebraved 


poetical  and  other  works  of    the  Persians  to  b^ 
translated  into  Arabic ;  and  imder  his  reign  coined 
money  was  first  introduced.     It  was  to  this  prince 
that  his  court-fool  related  the  celebrated  fabulous 
conversation  between  the  owl  of  Bassora  and  that 
of  MosiiL    Four  of  his  sons,  Walid  I.  (705 — 716^, 
SuLiMAN  (716  —  717).  Yezid  II.  (720  —  723),  and 
HesuAm    (723  —  742),    successively    occupied    the 
throne,    and    a    fifth    son,    Mosslemah,  was,  from 
his  great   military  abilities  and  zealous  devotion 
to  the  interests  of  his  brothers,  the  terror  of  all 
their  enemies,  both  domestic  and  foreign.     Under 
Walid,  the  Ommiade  califate  reached  the  summit 
of  its  power  and  grandeur;  Northern  Africa  (709) 
and  Spain  (712),  Turkestan  (707),  and  Galatia  (710) 
were  conquered;   while  towards  the  close   of  his 
reign,  his  empire  was  extended  even  to  the  Indus. 
The  slender  structure  of  the  minaret  was  now  for 
the  first  time  introduced  into  mosque  architecture. 
Omab   IL    (717 — 720),  who,  in   the    itistice   and 
mildness  of  his  government,  surpassed  tne  whole  of 
the  race  of  Ommeyah,  was  appointed  to  succeed 
Suliman ;  but  having  excited  discontent  among  his 
relatives,  by  suppressing  the  formula  of  malediction, 
which  had  hitherto  been  regularly  pronounced  at 
all  public  ceremonies  against  Ali  and  his  descendants, 
he  was  poisoned.    During  his  reign,  Mosslemah  had 
completed  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor,  and  even 
compelled   the    Em^ieror  Leo   to    submit   to    the 
humiliation  of  walking  beside  his  horse  through  the 
principal  streets  of  Constantinople  itself,  and  payiug 
a  large  ransom  (equivalent  to  about  jC  140,000)  for 
his  capital.     Hesh&m,  though  like  his  immediate 
predecessor,   fond   of   pleasure,  possessed    all  the 
qualities  necessary  for  a  sovereign.    The  Greeks, 
who  still  strove  for  the  possession  of  Asia  Minor, 
were   repeatedly   defeated :    the    fierce  Turks    of 
Northern  Persia  and  Turkestan,  were  kept  in  stem 
subjection;    and  the  civil   affairs  of   the    empire 
carefully  and  strictly  administered.     The  death  of 
Mosslemah,  the  champion  of  the  Ommiade  dynasty, 
seems  to  have  been  the  signal  for  insurrection ;  the 
descendants  of  Ali  raised  uie  standard  of  revolt,  and 
no  sooner  were  they  subdued  than  Ibrahim,  the  fourth 
in  direct  descent  from  Abbas  the  uncle  of  Moham- 
med, solemnly  invested  the  celebrated  Abu-Mosslem 
(stated  to  be  a  descendant  of  Koderz,  one  of  the 
most   distinguished   heroes    of   Firdusi's   admired 
work  the  Stiah-nameJi)  with  the  arduous  duty  of 
enforcing  his  long-agitated  claims  to  the  throne. 
During  uiis  reign  the  progress  of  Arab  conquest  in 
Western  Europe  was  checked  by  Charles  Martel,  who 
inflicted  upon  the  Arabs  a  severe  defeat  at  Tours 
(732),  and  almost  annihilated  their  army  at  Narbonne 
(736).  The  reigns  of  Walid  IL  (742—743),  Ykzid  IIL 
(743 — 744),  and  Ibbauui  (744),  thou^  of  ephemeral 
duration,  were  long  enough  to  produce  a  complete  dis- 
organisation  of  the  empire ;  and  though  MerwAn  IL 
(744 — 750),  the  next  and  last  calif  of  the  house  of 
Ommeyah,  was  botib  an  able  and  politic  ruler,  and  a 
skilful  warrior,  the  declining  fortune  of  his  family 
was  beyond  remedy.    Abu-Mosslem,  who  had  pub- 
lished the  claims  of  the  Abbasides  amidst  the  ruins 
of  Meru  in  747,  took  the  field  at  the  head  of  a 
small  but  zealous  band,  and  carried  the  black  flas 
of   the   Abbasides    from   victory   to   victory,  tiU 
before  the  dose  of  the  following  year  the  whole  of 
^orassan  acknowledged  his  authority.    Irak  was 
subdued  in  749 ;  and  though  Ibrahim  the  Alibaside 
claimant  was  seized  by  Meerwftn,  and  executed  in 
the  same  year,  his  brother  Abul- Abbas  succeeded  to 
his  claims,  and  the  unfortunate  calif,  defeated  in 
two  engagements,  fled  to  Egypt  (750),  whither  he 
was  pursued  and  slain.     Aboallah,  the  uncle  of 
the  successful  claimant,  treacherously  invited  the 
remaining  members  of  the  house  of  Ommeyah  to  a 


OMMIADEa^OMSE. 


conference,  and  ordered  a  general  massacre  of  them. 
Tviro  only  escaped:  the  one  to  the  south-east  of 
Arabia,  where  ne  was  recognised  as  calif,  and  his 
descendants  reined  till  the  i6th  oentnry ;  the  other, 
Abderrahman,  to  Spain,  where  he  founded  the 
califate  of  Cordova. 

Ommiadbb  or  Spain. — Abdierkakmas  I.  (755 — 
787),  on  accepting  the  Spanish  throne  which  was 
offered  him  by  the  Arab  chiefs,  assumed  the 
titles  of  Calif  and  ^mtr-o^mtimeretn,  and  in  spite 
of  numerous  revolts,  strengthened  and  extended 
his  power  in  Spain,  till,  with  the  exception  of 
Asturias  and  the  country  north  of  the  £bro,  his 
authority  was  everywhere  acknowledged.  His 
defeat  of  Charlemagne  at  Boncesvalles  (q.  ▼.)  is 
too  widely  known  to  require  further  notice.  He 
divided  his  kingdom  into  six  provinces,  whose 
rulers,  with  the  wali8  of  the  twelve  principal  towns, 
formed  a  sort  of  national  diet.  His  successors, 
Hbsham  L  (787—796)  and  Al-Hakem  L  (79&— 821), 
were  much  troubled  with  internal  revolts,  under 
cover  of  which  the  Christians  in  the  north-east 
established  the  state  known  as  the  *  Spanish  March.* 
Abderrahman  II.  (821—852)  re-established  inter- 
nal quiet,  and  occupied  his  subjects  with  incessant 
wars  against  the  Christians.  These  conflicts  devel- 
oped among  the  Arabs  that  chivalrous  heroism 
which  is  found  nowhere  else  in  the  Mohammedan 
world.  Abderrahman,  himself  a  man  of  learning, 
ffreatly  encouraged  the  arts  and  sciences,  and 
diffused  information  among  his  people ;  he  also 
attempted,  by  re^iUatin^  the  laws  of  succession  to 
property,  to  constitute  his  kingdom  on  a  basis  analo* 
gous  to  that  of  other  European  nations.  During  his 
mgn  Mohammedan  Spain  was  the  best  governed 
country  in  Europe.  His  successors,  Mohammed  I. 
(852—880),  MoNDHAR  (880—882),  and  Abdallah 
(882 — 912),  followed  in  Yub  footsteps.  Abderrahman 
IIL  (912 — 961),  after  suppressing  some  dangerous 
revolts  w)iich  had  gathered  nead  during  his 
minority,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Fez  from  the 
Edrisites,  and  brought  a  long  and  exhausting  war 
with  the  powers  of  Asturias  and  Leon  to  a  victorious 
conclusion.  This  period  is  justly  termed  the  golden 
age  of  the  Arab  domination  in  Spain,  for  at  no 
period  wob  their  power  so  consolidEtted,  and  their 
prosperity  so  flourishing.  Abderrahman,  like  his 
predecessors,  was  a  great  encourager  of  learning, 
and  a  poet  of  no  mean  ability.  He  founded  schooLi 
which  far  surpassed  those  in  other  parts  of  Europe. 
His  son,  Al-hakem  II.  (961 — 976),  was  in  every 
way  worthy  to  be  his  successor,  but  his  prema- 
ture death  was  the  cause  of  the  downfall  of  the 
Ommiades  in  Spain.  Hesham  II.  (976— about  1013), 
a  child  of  eight  years,  now  occupied  the  throne ; 
but  fortunately  his  mother,  Sobeiha,  possessed 
the  abilities  necessary  for  such  an  emergency, 
and  appointed  as  her  son's  vizier  Mohammed 
ben  Abdallah,  snmamed  Al-Mansor,  who  had 
originally  been  a  peasant.  This  remarkable  man 
gained  the  affections  of  all  ranks  b^  his  pleasing 
manners  and  great  abilities ;  hia  administration  was 
equidly  just  and  judicious,  and  his  encouragement 
of  literature,  science,  and  art  alike  liberu  and 
discriminating  But  it  is  as  a  warrior  that  he  is 
chiefly  remeim>ered;  he  had  vowed  eternal  enmity 
to  the  Christians,  and  in  all  his  numerous  expeditions 
fortune  seemed  chained  to  his  standard.  The  lost  j 
provinces  were  recovered :  Castile,  Leon,  and  Barce- 
lona were  conquered;  and  Navarre  was  on  the 
point  of  sharine  the  same  fate,  when  a  rebellion  in 
Fez  compelled  nim  to  detach  a  portion  of  his  force 
for  service  in  Africa,  and  the  combined  armies  of 
the  four  Christian  monarchies,  seizing  this  oppor- 
tunity, inflicted  upon  the  Arabs  a  sanguinary  defeat 
in  1001.  Mohammed's  spirit  was  completely  broken 
7S 


bv  this  blow,  and  he  died  a  few  days  afterwards. 
Witii  him  the  star  of  the  house  of  Ommeyah  set  for 
ever.  The  rest  of  Hesham's  reign  was  a  scene  of 
disorder  and  civil  war.  Flretenders  to  the  califate 
arose,  while  the  '  walis'  of  the  various  provinces  set 
up  as  independent  rulers,  and  the  invasions  of  the 
Cnristians  added  to  the  confusion.  Hesham  finally 
resigned  the  throne  about  1013;  and,  with  the 
exception  of  the  brief  reign  of  Hesham  IIL  (1027 — 
1031),  from  this  time  the  family  of  Ommeyah, 
which  had  for  more  than  two  centuries  so  happily 
and  brilliantly  governed  the  greater  part  of  Spain, 
disappears  from  history.  One  remarkable  feature 
of  their  rule  deserves  mention,  as  it  contrasts  them 
so  favourably  with  the  contemporary  and  subsequent 
rulers  of  Spain,  even  to  the  present  time,  and  that 
is  their  universal  toleration  in  religious  matten» 

O'MNIBUS  (Lat.  omnibus,  'for  all'),  famiHarfy- 
contracted  into  *  bus,'  is  the  largest  kind  of  public 
street  conveyance,  and  is  appointed  to  travel 
between  two  fixed  stations,  starting  at  certain  fixed 
hours,  and  taking  up  or  setting  down  passengers  at 
any  point  in  its  route.  Vehicles  of  this  sort  were 
first  started  in  Paris  in  1662,  when  it  was  decreed, 
by  a  royal  edict  of  Louis  XIV.,  that  a  line  of  carossea 
d  citvji  sous  (*  twopence-halfpenny  omnibuses '),  each 
containing  eight  places,  should  be  established  for 
the  benefit  oi  the  infirm,  or  those  who,  requiring 
speedy  conveyance  from  one  part  of  the  town  to 
another,  were  unable  to  afford  a  hired  carriage  for 
themselves ;  these  '  caresses '  were  bound  to  run  at 
fixed  hours  from  one  station  to  another,  whether 
full  or  empty.  The  public  inauguration  of  the  new 
conveyances  took  place  March  18,  1662,  and  was 
the  occasion  of  a  grand  f^te ;  and  the  novelty  took 
so  wdl  with  the  ^urisians,  that  the  onmibuses  were 
for  some  time  monopolised  by  the  wealthier  classes. 
However,  when  the  rage  for  them  died  away,  it 
was  found  that  those  for  whose  special  benefit  they 
were  instituted  made  no  use  of  them,  and  the^,  in 
consequence,  gradually  disa])peared.  The  omnibus 
was  not  revived  in  Paris  till  1827,  when  it  was 
started  in  its  present  form,  carrying  from  15  to  18 
passengers  inside,  with  only  the  driver  above  and 
the  conductor  behind;  and  on  July  4^  1829,  they 
were  introduced  into  London  by  a  Mr  Shillibeer. 
Shillibeer's  conveyances,  which  for  some  time  after* 
wards  were  known  as  ^lillibeers  (an  epithet  still  in 
common  use  in  New  York),  were  of  larger  size  than 
the  French  ones,  carrying  22  passengers  inside,  and 
were  drawn  by  three  horses  abreast  The  omnibus 
was  introduced  into  Amsterdam  in  1839,  and  since 
that  time  its  use  has  been  extended  to  all  large 
cities  and  towns  in  the  civilised  world.  The  seats 
of  the  omnibus  are  generally  placed  lengthwise, 
and  the  door  behind.  The  omnibus  is  under  the 
management  of  a  driver  and  a  conductor.  In  New 
York,  omnibuses  are  drawn  on  street-railways ; 
but  this  practice,  though  introduced  into  several 
towns  of  Great  Britain,  has  not  met  with  general 
approval 

CMNIUM,  a  term  used  at  the  Stock  Exchange 
to  express  the  aggregate  value  of  the  dififerent 
stocks  in  which  a  loan  is  funded.  See  M*Culloch*8 
Dictionary  of  Commerce. 

OMSK,  a  town  of  Western  Siberia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Tobolsk,  stands  on  both  banks,  and  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Cm — a  river  upwards  of  200  miles 
in  length — ^with  the  Irtish ;  2225  miles  from  St 
Petersburg.  Lat.  54°  59^  N.,  long.  73"  62^  £  It 
was  built  u  1716,  as  a  defence  against  the  Khirghiz; 
but  is  now  of  no  importance  as  a  fortress.  It  is  the 
centre  of  government  for  Western  Sibeoa,  is  the 
residence  of  the  governor-general,  the  centre  of  the 
admimstration  of  the  Siberian  Khirghis^  the  aeat  ol 


OMXTL-ONION. 


the  Gonits  of  justice,  and  of  the  Siberian  corps  of 
cadets.  It  contains  35  mano&ctories  and  mining 
woriu.  Hitherto  its  commerce  has  been  limited  to 
a  trade  with  the  Khirghiz,  who  drive  up  their  cattle 
to  this  place ;  but  its  advantageoos  position  on  the 
zieat  post-road  and  commercial  line  of  traffic  &om 
Karope  across  the  whole  of  Siberia  to  the  Chinese 
frontier,  maJces  it  probable  that  it  will  some  day 
become  an  intermraiate  station  for  extensive  com- 
mercial exchanges.    Pop.  17id63b 

OMUL  (Salmo  migraioritu),  a  fish  of  the  salmon 
and  trout  tribe,  abounding  in  Lake  Baikal  and  other 
waters  of  t^  east  of  Siberia,  from  which  great 
quantities  are  sent  salted^  all  the  western  parts  of 
uut  country.  In  siae  it  is  rarely  more  than  15  or 
16  inches  long.  Its  flesh  is  very  white  and  tender. 
It  ascends  rivers  in  shoals  for  the  purpose  of 
spawning. 

(yNAGEIL    SeeAaa. 

ONAGER.    See  Balista. 

ONA'GRA'CB^,    ONAGRARI^aS,    or   (ENO- 

THERA'CEiE,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous  plants, 
coDsisting  chiefly  of  herbaceous  plants,  out  including 
also  a  few  shrubs ;  with  simple  leaves ;  axillary  or 
terminsl  flowers ;  the  calyx  superior,  tubular,  some- 
times coloured,  its  limb  usually  4-lobed ;  the  petals 
inserted  into  the  throat  of  the  calyx,  generally 
eqnal  in  number  to  its  segments ;  the  stamens  gene- 
rallv  four  or  eight,  rarely  one  or  two,  inserted  along 
with  the  petals ;  the  ovary  generally  4-celled,  some- 
times S^ceUed;  the  style  threadlike,  the  fruit  a 
capsule  or  a  berry.  There  are  about  450  known 
species,  natives  chiefly  of  temperate  climates,  among 
which  are  some  much  cultivated  for  the  beauty 
of  their  flowers,  particularly  those  of  the  genera 
Fuchna,  (Enothera  (Evening  Primrose),  Clarkla,  and 
QodHia,  The  British  seuera  are  Emlobium  (Willow- 
herb)  and  Circcea  (&cbxuiter's  Nightshade).  A 
few  species  produce  edible  berries,  and  the  roots  of 
one  or  two  are  eatable ;  but  none  are  of  economical 
iuportanoe.  The  root  of  Imtarda  cUtemi/blia,  found 
in  the  marshes  of  Carolina,  and  called  Bournian's 
Soot^  is  emeti&  Some  species  of  Juasicn  are  used 
IB  dyeing  in  BraziL 

ONOOCA'RPUS,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  AnacardiacetB,  One  of  the  most  remarkable 
trees  of  the  Fiji  Islands  is  O.  atrct,  or  O.  vUiensiSf 
a  tree  about  sixty  feet  high,  with  Iftrse  oblong  leaves 
and  a  corky  fruit,  some^at  resembling  the  seed  of 
a  wdbut ;  the  sap  of  which,  if  it  comes  into  contact 
with  the  skin,  produces  a  pain  like  that  caused  bv 
red-hot  iron.  The  wood  is  often  called  Itch-wood, 
because  at  the  effect  produced  on  persons  who 
ignorantly  or  incautiously  bark  it  whilst  the  sap  is 
rah,  even  the  exhalations  causing  an  intolerable 
itchine  and  innumerable  pustules,  with  excessive 
irritation  for  several  days,  whilst  the  effects  con- 
tinue to  be  unpleasantly  xelt  even  for  months. 

ONE'GA,  a  small  town  and  seaport  in  the  north 
of  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Archangel,  and  90 
iifles  south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name.  It  stands 
at  the  month  of  a  river,  and  on  the  shore  of  a  ^If 
of  tihe  same  name ;  the  latter  a  branch  of  the  White 
8ea.  Lat.  63^  54'  N.,  long.  38''  T  E.  Pop.  1903, 
employed  in  connection  with  the  saw-mills  of  the 
'On^a  Trading  Wood  Company.'  In  these  mills, 
where  400  men  are  at  work,  an  English  steam-engine 
bas  recently  been  erected.  About  50  ships  leave 
tiie  port  annually  for  England,  with  cargoes  of  deals 
tod  timber  to  the  value  of  £37,000. 

ONEGA,  Lakb,  an  extensive  lake  in  the  north 
of  Russia,  government  of  Olonetz,  and,  after  Ladoga, 
Ihe  largest  lake  in  Europe,  is  59  miles  in  greatest 


breadth,  and  about  150  miles  in  length.  Area 
4830  square  miles.  It  is  fed  by  numerous  rivers^ 
and  receives  through  the  river  Wodlo  tiie  waters 
of  the  lake  of  that  name.  Its  only  outlet  is 
the  river  Swir,  which  flows  south-west  into 
Lake  Ladoga.  By  means  of  the  Mariinsky 
s^rstem  of  communication,  Lake  0.  communicates 
with  the  Volga,  and  thence  with  the  Caspian 
Sea  on  the  south,  and  with  the  Dwina,  and  thence 
with  the  White  Sea  on  the  north.  The  clear 
and  beautiful  waters  of  this  lake  are  rich  in  fish, 
and  embrace  many  islands.  The  depth  ranges  from 
550  to  700  feet  The  navigation  of  the  lake  m 
dangerous,  and  commerce  is  diiefly  contined  to  the 
Onega  Canal,  which  extends  from  the  town  of 
Vytegra  on  the  river  of  that  name  to  the  river 
Swir. 

CNEROUS  CAUSE,  in  Scotch  Law,  means  » 
pecuniary  or  valuable  consideration. 

O^IOK  (Fr.  oignoUy  from  Lat.  unto,  a  pearl,  but 
found  in  Columella,  signifying  a  kind  of  onion),  the 
name  given  to  a  few  sjiecies  of  the  genus  Allium 
{c^.  v.),  and  particularly  to  A,  cepa  (Lat.  cepa),  a 
biennial  bulbous-rooted  plant,  with  a  swelling  stem, 
leafy  at  the  base,  tapering  flstular  leaves,  a  reflexed 
spathe,  a  large  globose  umbel,  usually  not  bulbif* 
erous,  the  lol>es  of  the  perianth  obtuse  and  hooded, 
not  haU  as  long  as  the  stameus.  The  bulb  is  simple 
— ^not  composed  of  cloves,  like  that  of  ^rlic  ;  and  in 
the  common  variety  is  solitary,  shewing  little  ten- 
dency to  produce  lateral  bulbs.  The  native  country 
of  the  0.  IS  not  certainly  known,  some  supposing  it 
to  be  India  and  some  Egypt,  in  both  of  which  it  nas 
been  cultivated  from  the  moat  remote  antiquity. 
The  part  chiefly  used  is  the  bulb,  but  the  young 
leaves  are  also  used,  and  young  seedlings  orawn 
from  onion  beds  are  a  very  common  ingredient  in 
soups  and  sauces  in  the  beginning  of  summer. 
These  are  known  in  Scotland  as  s^oes  (evidently 
another  form  of  the  word  Ctbol),  In  warmer 
climates,  the  0.  produces  a  larger  bulb,  and  generally 
of  more  delicate  flavour,  than  in  Britain ;  and  is 
more  extensively  used  as  an  article  of  food,  being 
witii  us,  whether  fresh  or  pickled,  generally  rather 
a  condiment  In  Spain  and  Portugal,  a  raw  O.  is 
often  eaten  like  an  apple,  and  often  with  a  piece  of 
bread  forms  the  dinner  of  a  working-man.  The  O. 
Ib,  however,  very  nutritious.  It  contains  a  large 
quantity  of  nitrogenous  matter,  and  of  uncrystaHis- 
able  su^r;  with  an  acrid  volatile  sulphurous  oil, 
resembling  oil  of  garlia  The  oil  of  tne  O.  is  dis- 
sipated by  boiling,  so  that  boiled  onions  are  much 
milder  than  raw  onions.  In  Britain,  onions  are 
sown  either  in  spring  or  in  August  Great  fields  of 
them,  as  of  other  favourite  vegetables,  are  cultivated 
for  the  London  market;  and  large  quantities  of 
onions  are  also  imported  from  more  southern  regiona 
The  Bermudas  are  celebrated  for  their  onions.  The 
O.  loves  a  ridi  light  soil  and  a  dry  subsoil.  The 
transplanting  of  onions  is  often  practised,  esi)ecially 
of  omons  sown  in  autumn,  which  are  transplanted 
in  spring,  and  when  these  are  placed  so  that  the 
smau  bulbs  are  on  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and 
surrounded  wiUi  decayed  manure,  very  large  bulbs 
are  obtained.  The  frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  is  of 
mat  advantage.  The  bulbs  are  taken  up  when 
ti^e  leaves  decay,  and  after  being  dried  in  the  open 
air  or  in  a  loft,  may  be  kept  for  a  considerable  time. 
^The  Potato  O.,  also  called  the  Eoyptiak  or 
Ground  O.,  is  a  perennial  variety  which  produces 
ofl^t  bulbs  at  the  root,  like  the  shallot ;  but  the 
bulbs  are  much  larger  than  tiiose  of  the  shallot,  and 
have  less  of  the  flavour  of  garlic,  although  stronger 
than  those  of  the  common  onion.  It  is  sometimes 
said  to  have  been  introduced  into  Britain  from 


ONISCUS  -ONOMATOPCEIA. 


Egypi  by  the  British  army  in  1805,  but  erroneously, 
as  it  was  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Britain  long 
before.  It  is  in  very  general  cultivation  among  the 
peasantry-  in  some  parts  of  Scotland. — ^The  Peajil 
0.  is  a  smiilar  variety,  with  much  smaller  bulbs. — 
The  Tbse  0.  is  also  generally  regarded  as  a  variety 
i\f  the  common  onion.  It  produces  bulbs  at  the  top 
of  the  stem,  the  umbels  becoming  viviparous. — 
Onions  are  similar  to  Garlic  (q.  v.)  in  medicinal  pro- 
perties, but  milder.  As  a  condiment  or  article  of 
food,  they  agree  well  with  some  stomachs  and  stimu- 
late  digestion,  but  are  intolerable  to  others.  Roasted 
onions  with  oil-  make  a  useful  emollient  and  stimu- 
lating  i)oultice  for  suppurating  tumours.  The  use  of 
onions  stimulates  the  secreting  organs. — The  Gibol 
or  Welsh  O.  {A.  fiftiUosum)^  a  native  of  Siberia, 
cultivated  in  Britain,  but  more  generally  in  Ger- 
many, has  a  perennial  iibrous  root^  with  no  bulb, 
very  fistular  leaves,  and  a  S-comered  ovary.  It  is 
useful  as  suppljing  tender  ^reen  leaves  for  culinary 
use  in  the  beginning  of  fepring,  like  the  chive,  and 
somewhat  eanier  in  the  seasou.  It  is  much  larger 
than  the  chive,  but  its  use  is  similar. 

ONISCUS.    See  Woodlousb. 

O'NKELOS,  the  supposed  author  of  an  Aramaic 
version  (Targum)  of  the  JPentateuch.  The  name  seems 
a  corruption  from  that  of  Akilas,  one  of  the  Greek 
translators  of  the  Old  Testament  (see  VEBdiOKS). 
The  translation,  said  to  be  by  0.,  is,  in  its  present 
shape  at  least,  probably  the  work  of  the  Babvlonian 
schools  of  the  3(1  and  4th  centuries  A.D.  At  first 
orally  transmitted,  various  portions  of  it  began  to  be 
collected  and  written  down  in  the  2d  c.,  and  were 
finally  redacted  about  the  time  mentionedl  The 
histoiy  of  the  origin  and  growth  of  Aramaic 
versions  in  general  will  be  treated  under  Targiim 
(Versions).  The  idiom  of  0.  closely  resembles 
that  of  Ezra  and  DanieL  The  translation  itself  is 
executed  in  accordance  with  a  sober  and  clear, 
though  not  a  slavish  exegesis,  and  keeps  closely  to 
its  text  in  most  instance&  In  some  cases,  however,- 
where  the  meaning  is  not  clear,  it.  expands  into  a 
brief  explanation  or  paraphrase,  uniting  the  latter 
sometimes  with  Haggadistic  by-work,  chosen  with 
tact  and  taste,  so  as  to  please  uie  people  and  not  to 
offend  the  dignity  of  the  subject.  T^ot  unfrequently 
it  differs  entirely  from  the  original,  as  far,  e.  c.,  as 
anthropomorphisms  and  anthropopathies — anything, 
in  fact^  whicn  might  seem  derogatory  to  the  Deity 
-—are  concerned.  Further  may  be  noticed  a  repug- 
nance to  bring  the  Divine  Being  into  too  close 
contact,  as  it  were,  with  man,  by  the  interposition 
of  a  kind  of  spiritual  barrier  (the  'Word,'  *She- 
chinah,'  'Glory')  when  a  conversation,  or  the  like, 
iS  reported  between  God  and  man.  Its  use  lies 
partly  in  a  Ungnistic,  partly  in  a  theological  direc- 
tion ;  but  little  has  been  done  for  its  study  as  yet 
Notwithstanding  the  numeroiui  MSS.  of  it  extant 
in  almost  all  the  larger  libraries  of  Europe,  and  in 
spite  of  the  grossly  mcorrect  state  of  our  current 
printed  editions,  no  critical  edition  has  ever  been 
Attempted. 

ONOBRY'GHIS.    See  Sahttfoik. 

ONOMA'OBITUS,  a  celebrated  religious  poet  of 
ancient  Greece,  lived  at  Athens  in  the  time  of  the 
PeisistratidiB.  He  collected  and  expounded — accord- 
ing to  Herodotus — ^the  prophecies  or  oracles  of 
Musaeus  (q.  v.),  but  is  said  to  have  been  banished 
from  the  city  by  Hipparchus,  about  616  B.C.,  on 
account  of  interpolating  something  of  his  own  in 
these  oracles.  He  then,  we  are  told,  followed  the 
Peisistratidffi  into  Persia,  and  while  there  was 
employed  b^  them  in  a  very  dishonourable  way. 
They  got  him  to  repeat  to  Aerkes  all  the  ancient 
•ayinffs   that    seemed   to    favour    his   meditated 


invasion  of  Greece.  Some  critics,  among  whom  is 
Aristotle,  have  inferred  from  a  passage  in  Pausanias 
that  0.  is  the  author  of  most  of  the  so-called  Orphic 
hymns.  More  certain,  however,  is  the  view  which 
represents  him  as  the  inventor  of  the  great  Orphic 
myth  of  Dionysus  Zagreus,  and  the  founder  of  Orphic 
religious  societies  and  theology.  Pausanias  states 
that '  Onomacritus  established  orgies  in  honour  of 
Dionysus,  and  in  his  poems  represented  the  Titans 
as  the  authors  of  the  sufferings  of  Dionysus.'  See 
MuUeHs  GeschicJite  der  Ori^h.  Literatur  bia  auj 
das  Zextalter  Alexandei's  (Breslau,  1841);  Grote's 
History  of  Oreec^  Ac. 

ONOMATOP(ElA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek 
word  onomatopoieia,  means  literally  the  making  or 
invention  of  names,  and  is  used  in  philology  to 
denote  the  formation  of  words  in  imitation  of 
natural  sounds,  as  in  cuckoo,  Lat.  cucu^ua) ;  pee-wU, 
Scan,  pee-tveip,  Dutoh,  kiewU  ;  cock  ;  clash,  rap,  tap, 
qttack,  rumble,  whizz,  dang.  Such  words  are  some- 
times called  onomatopoBias  ;  more  properly,  they  are 
onomatoixBian,  or  formed  by  onomatopoeia. 

In  a  more  extended  sense,  the  term  is  applied  to 
the  rhetorical  artifice  by  which  writers  (chiefly 
poets)  seek,  through  the  choice  and  arrangement  of 
words,  to  make  the  *  sound,'  throughout  whole 
phrases  and  sentences, '  an  echo  to  the  sense,'  as  in 
Hom^s  well-known,  pohiphloiihoio  thalasses,  expres- 
sive of  the  breaking  of  waves  upon  the  seashore ; 
or  where  Tennyson  makes  the  sea 

Boar  rook-thwarted  under  bellowing  caves. 

The  occurrence  of  so  many  obviously  onomato- 
pceian  words  in  all  known  languages,  suggests  the 
question,  whether  the  same  principle  may  not  have 
been  concerned  in  producing  the  original  germs  or 
roots  of  the  great  onlk  of  words.  There  is  little 
hope  that  the  question  will  ever  be  conclusively 
settled  either  way;  for  the  changes  of  time  have 
made  it,  in  most  cases  at  least,  impossible  to  say 
what  the  first  form  and  signification  of  a  root 
were;  but  the  balance  of  arguments  seems  in 
favour  of  the  affirmative  answer.  *  The  action  of 
the  mind,'  as  it  has  been  expressed,  *  produced  lan- 
guage by  a  spontaneous  repercussion  of  the  impres- 
sions received.'  Now,  the  articulate  sound  first 
affixed  in  this  way  to  an  object  or  an  action  as 
ite  sign  cannot  be  conceived  as  arbitrary ;  nor  is 
there  any  mysterious  and  inherent  correspondence 
between  any  one  conception  of  the  mind,  and  a 
particular  articulate  sound.  The  sound  uttered 
must  have  been  suggested  by  something  connected 
with  the  object  or  action  itself ;  and  by  what  more 
naturally  than  b^  the  inarticulate  sound  which  the 
object  or  action  itself  emite  ? 

The  chief  objection  to  this  theory  is,  that  if  the 
first  words  were  merely  reproductions  of  natural 
sounds,  the  same  natural  objecto  would  have  had 
the  same  names  aU  the  world  over.  To  which  it  is 
answered,  that  the  mind  in  its  first  efforts  at  naming 
did  not  seek  an  exact  reproduction  of  the  sound, 
but  a  suggestive  imitation;  primitive  words  were  ' 
not  echoes,  but  *  artistic  representations.'  Now,  the 
sounds  of  nature  are  not  simple,  but  composite, 
lake  other  concrete  phenomena,  they  present  a 
variety  of  aspecte ;  and  according  as  one  or  anotlier 
aspect  seemed  the  most  prominent  to  the  observer, 
a  different  vocal  soimd  would  suggest  itself  as  the 
appropriate  symbol.  Thus,  when  Professor  Max 
Miiller  argues  {Science  cf  Language,  Loud.  1861) 
that  if  the  *  bow-wow'  theory,  as  he  nicknamen  it, 
were  true,  men  would  have  everywhere  spoken  nf  a 
moo,  as  is  done  in  the  nursery,  and  not  of  a  erw  ;  it 
seems  a  valid  answer  to  say,  that  the  Indian  gu, 
the  Teut  huh  (Eng.  cow),  and  the  Groco-Lat  hou-^ 
are  really  as  suggestive  imitations  of  the  animal's 


ONTARIO-OOUTR 


actual  voice  as  moo.  To  take  a  more  strikine 
uuUoce:  few  words  di£fer  more  in  sound  ana 
aapect  than  tlie  £o&  thunder  (Ger.  dormer^  Lat. 
tfmUrUf  Fr.  tomiin)  does  from  the  Mexican  name 
for  the  same  thiof  ,  Uailoitniizdt  and  yet  it  would  be 
difficult  to  say  wmch  is  the  more  suggestive  of  the 
nstoral  sound. 

It  is  no  doubt  true  that  the  great  bulk  of  names 

are  derived  from  roots  having  a  seneral  predicative 

power ;  but  thia  hy  no  means  exdudes  the  principle 

d  onomatopoeia.    Thus,  to  take  one  of  the  mstances 

addaced  by  Professor  MUller  himself,  that  of  rave^ 

or  croio  (Sana,  kdrava,  Lat.  eoruuSf  Gr.  korCne) ;  this 

k  derived  from  the  root  ru  or  Itu,  which  means  to 

ay  or  call,  and  the  bird  was  called  a  k&rava,  or 

crow,  not  in  imitation  of  his  yoice,  but  because  he 

vas  'a  shouter,  a  caller,  a  crier.      The  name  might 

have  been  applied  to  many  birds,  but  it  became  the 

traditional   and    recognised    name    of   the   crow.' 

But  how  came  the  articulation  ru  or  kru  to  be 

chosen  to  convey  the  general  meaning  of  crying  or 

calling ;  may  we  not  suppose  that  it  was  suggested 

by  the  voice  of  birds  of  tne  crow  kind,  whose  notes 

are  most  markedly  cries  or  calls  to  their  fellows,  as 

distingnished  from  singing  ?     Once  adopted  in  this 

particular  case,  it  would  naturally  be  extended  to 

any  kind  of  cry  or  call»  from  the  hardest  to  the 

aottest. 

OITTA'RIO,  tbe  easternmost  and  smallest  of  the 
five  great  lakes  of  North  America,  lies  in  43*  KX — 
44*  r  N.  lat.,  and  76"  30'— 80**  W.  long.  At  its 
watfa-west  comer  it  receiyes  the  waters  of  the 
upper  lakes  by  the  Niagara,  and  at  its  north-east 
comer  it  issnes  into  the  St  Lawrence;  which  for 
aome  distance  below  is  called  the  Lake  of  the  Thou- 
aand  Isles.  Its  surface,  which  varies  a  few  feet  with 
the  seasons,  is  about  330  feet  below  that  of  Lake 
Erie  and  234  feet  above  tide-water.  Its  bottom, 
therefore,  most  be  considerably  lower  than  the  level 
of  the  Atlantic,  as  it  is  in  some  places  600  feet  deep. 
It  ia  190  miles  long,  55  in  its  widest  part,  and  about 
480  in  eircuniferenoe.  Sufficiently  deep  throughout 
for  vessels  of  the  largest  tonnage,  it  has  man^  con- 
venient and  thriving  ports,  of  which  the  chief  are 
Kingston,  Port  Hope,  Coboure,  Toronto,  Hamilton, 
on  the  Canadian  shor^  and  Osweso,  Sackett's 
Harbour,  Port  Genessee  in  the  United  States.  Its 
navigation  has  been  facilitated  by  the  erection  of  15 
ligfat-hoosea  on  the  American  side,  and  13  on  the 
Canadian;  while  it  is  connected  with  Lake  Erie 
by  the  Welland  Canal,  with  the  Erie  Canal  and 
Kew  York  by  the  Oswego  Canal,  and  by  the  Rideau 
Canal  with  the  Ottawa.  Lake  0.  is  subject  to 
violent  storms,  and  it  is  probably  owing  cluefly  to 
the  constant  agitation  of  its  waters  that  it  freezes 
only  for  a  few  miles  from  the  shore.  The  shores 
of  Lake  O.  are  generally  yery  flat,  but  the  Bay  of 
Qointe,  a  long  crooked  arm  of  the  lake,  which 
stretches  about  50  mUes,  possesses  some  attractive 
scenery.  Burlington  Bay,  on  which  Hamilton  lies, 
is  a  large  baidn,  umost  entirely  enclosed  by  a  natu- 
ral, but  strangely  accumulated  bank  of  sand,  which 
forms  a  beautiful  drive  for  the  citizenst 

ONTOXOGY.    See  Mstaphtsics. 

CNXJS  PROBA'NDI,  i.  e.,  the  burden  of  proof,  is 
often  a  difficult  question  in  litigation ;  but  as  a 
general  rule,  the  plaintiff  who  institutes  the  suit  is 
Donnd  togiye  proof  of  the  allegations  on  which  he 
relies.  There  are  many  nice  and  technical  rules  on 
the  subject,  both  in  suits  and  actions,  which  are  too 
aunnte  to  be  here  stated. 

O'NYX,  an  acate  formed  of  alternating  white 
and  black,  or  white  and  dark-brown  stripes  of 
chalcedony.  More  rarely,  a  third  colour  of  stripes 
occurs.     The  finest  specimens  are  brought  from 


India.  0.  is  in  much  esteem  for  ornamental  pur- 
poses. The  ancients  valued  it  very  highly,  and 
used  it  much  for  cameos.  Many  of  the  finest 
cameos  in  existence  are  of  onyx.  The  name  0., 
howeyer,  appears  to  have  been  applied  by  the 
ancients  more  extensively  than  it  now  is,  an(? 
eyen  to  striped  calcareous  alabaster,  such  as  is  now 
Cidled  Onyx  Marble.  The  Sardonyx  of  the  ancients 
is  a  yariety  of  0.,  in  which  white  stripes  alternate 
with  stripes  of  a  dark-red  variety  of  caraeliau. 
called  aard  or  earda.  It  is  one  of  the  rarest  and 
most  beautiful  kinds  of  0.,  and  is  more  valued 
than  camelian. 

ONYX  MARBLE,  a  yery  beautifid  material, 
which  first  came  into  general  notice  in  this  country 
in  1862,  when  the  French  made  a  lar^e  display  of  it 
in  thetlntemational  Exhibition.  It  is  a  stalagmitio 
fonnation,  which  was  discoyered  by  the  French  in 
making  roads  in  tbe  province  of  Oran  in  Algiers. 
It  is  a  translucent  limestone,  containing  traces  of 
noagnesia  and  carbonate  of  iron ;  its  specific  gravity 
is  2*730.  The  quarries  are  worked  by  a  company, 
and  the  artistic  workmen  of  France  are  turmng  it 
to  cood  account,  in  the  manufacture  of  yery  b^UL« 
tifcQ  ornamental  works. 

OOJEI'N.    See  UjEiir. 

O'OLITE  (Gr.  egg-stone),  a  yariety  of  limestone^ 
often  very  pure  calcareous  spar,  distinguished  by  its 
peculiar  structi^re,  being  comjiosed  of  grains  con- 
nected  together  by  a  calcareous  cement ;  the  whole 
much  resembling  the  roe  of  a  fish.  The  grains  are 
not  unfrequently  hollow.  Many  oolites,  as  in  the 
south  of  England,  are  excellent  building-stones. 
There  is  no  im]X)rtant  mineralogical  difference 
between  0.  and  Finite,  or  Pea-stone.  0.,  as  a 
geological  term,  is  extended  far  beyond  its  miner- 
alogical  and  original  signification. 

OOLITE  or  JURASSIC  GROUP  (in  Geology), 
an  extensiye  and  important  series  of  strata  of 
Secondary  age,  underlying  the  Chalk  formation,  and 
resting  on  the  Trias.  In  Britain  they  received  the 
name  Oolite,  because  in  the  district  where  they 
were  first  examined  and  described  by  Dr  W.  Smith, 
the  limestones  contained  in  them  had  an  oolitio 
structure  (see  foregoing  article).  The  name  Jurassio 
has  been  given  to  them  on  the  continent,  because 
the  range  of  the  Jura  Mountains  in  the  north-west 
of  Switzerland  is  almost  entirely  composed  of  them. 
The  strata  of  the  group  haye  been  arranged  in  the 
following  order.  The  maximum  thickness  of  each 
division  is  given  in  feet : 


Uma  OouTB. 


1.  Porbeck  Beds, 
S.  Portland  Beds,      • 
S.  Kimmeridgc  Clay, 


Fmc 

SOO 
170 
600 


Middle  Ooliti. 

ug«           •          •          •  • 

S.  Oxford  Uaj 600 


4.  Coral  Rag,  •  •  •  .190 


070 


790 


LoWltB  OOUTB. 

6*  Combraith  and  Forest  Marble,    .          •  80 

7.  Great  Oolite  and  SUincefield  Slate,  •  150 

8.  Fuller'*  Earth 150 

9.  Inferior  OoUte,          •           .           •  260 


690 


10.  Upper  Lias, 

11.  Marlstone, 

12.  Lower  Lisa, 


Lias. 

•  •  •  •     SOO 

900 

•  •  •  •     600 


Total, 


-1100 
8490 


It  is  apparent  from  this  table  that  the  Oolitio 
rocks  consist  of  three  extensive  clay  depositSi 
each  of  which  forms  the  basis  of  a  smaller  and 
yariable  set  of  sands  and  limestones;  the  Upper 

76 


OOLITE-OORGA. 


Oolites  restiiig  on  the  Kimmoridge  Clay,  the  Coral 
Rag  on  the  Oxford  Clay,  and  the  Lower  Oolite  on 
the  Lias. 

1.  The  Purbeck  beds,  unlike  the  other  oolitic 
tocks,  are  chiefly  freshwater  deposits.  Though 
lithologically  they  are  ver^  simuar  throughout, 
the  peculiarities  of  the  contained  fossils  have  caused 
them  to  be  groui)ed  into  three  series^the  Upper, 
Middle,  and  Lower.  The  Upper  Purbecks  are 
purely  freshwater,  containing  beds  of  limestone 
and  shale,  which  abound  in  shells  of  lake  and 
river  molliisca  and  cypridea  The  stone  called 
Purbeck  Marble,  formerly  so  extensively  used  in 
the  ornamental  architecture  of  English  churches 
and  other  buildings,  belongs  to  this  division ;  it 
consists  of  the  shells  of  Paludinse,  held  together 
by  a  somewhat  argillaceous  paste.  The  H^iddle 
Pturbecks  are  partly  iresh  water,  and  partly  brackish 
or  marine.  The  'cinder-bed,*  composed  of  a  vast 
accumulation  of  shells  of  Ostrea  distorta,  occurs 
in  this  section,  and  near  it  is  the  narrow  layer  from 
which  Mr  Beckles  recently  obtained  the  remains 
of  several  mammalia.  The  Lower  Purbecks  are 
chiefly  freshwater,  with  some  intercalated  brackish 
or  marine  beds,  and  one  or  two  old  vegetable  soils 
called  by  the  quarrymen  '  dirt-beds,'  wmch  contain 
the  stems  of  Cycadaceous  and  Coniferous  plants.  2. 
The  Portland  beds  consist  of  oolitic  and  other 
limestones  interstratified  with  clays,  and  passing 
below  into  sands  and  sandstones,  from  which  the 
wdl-known  building-stone  is  obtained,  of  which 
St  Paul's  and  many  of  the  principal  buildings  in 
London  are  built.  3.  The  Kimmeriage  Clay  is  gene- 
rally a  dark-gray  bituminous  shale,  with  intercalated 
beds  of  sand,  calcareous  grit,  and  layers  of  septaria. 
The  dark  shale  in  some  places  nasses  into  an  impure 
brown  shaly  coal.  4.  The  Coral  Hag  contains,  as  its 
name  implies,  an  abundance  of  corals,  in  bluish 
limestone  beds  mixed  with  layers  of  calcareous  grit. 
The  Solenhofen  lithographic  stone,  with  its  beauti- 
fully preserved  and  varied  fossil  remains,  belongs  to 
this  division.  5.  The  Oxford  Clay  is  a  dark-blue  or 
blackish  clay  without  corals,  biit  having  a  large 
number  of  beautifully  preserved  Ammonites  and 
Belemnites.  Beds  of  calcareous  sandstone,  called 
Kelloway  Rock,  occur  in  its  lower  portion.  6.  The 
Combrash  consists  of  thin  beds  of  cream-coloured 
limestone,  with  sandstones  and  clays,  and  the  Forest 
Marble  (so  named  from  Wychwood  Forest)  is  com- 
posed of  an  argiUaceoiis  limestone,  with  numerous 
marine  fossils,  olue  marls  and  shales,  and  yellow 
silicious  sand.  At  Bradford,  Wiltshire,  the  Forest 
Marble  is  replaced  by  a  considerable  thickness  of 
blue  unctuous  clay.  7.  The  Great  Oolite  is  com- 
posed of  shelly  limestones,  sandstones,  and  shelly 
calcareouB  sandstones,  and  the  Stonestield  Slate  is 
a  slightly  oolitic  shelly  limestone,  which  splits  into 
very  thin  slabs,  erroneously  called  *  slates;'  it  is 
remarkable  for  the  remains  of  terrestrial  reptiles 
and  mammals  found  in  it.  The  Bath  Oolite,  a  cele- 
brated building-stone,  belongs  to  this  division.  8, 
The  Fuller's  Earth  group  is  a  local  deposit  found 
near  Bath ;  it  cansisto  of  a  series  of  blue  and  yellow 
shales  and  marls,  some  of  which  have  properties 
fitting  them  for  the  use  of  the  fuller.  9.  The  Infe- 
rior Oolite  is  composed  of  a  series  of  beds  of  piso- 
litic  and  shelly  limestones,  brown  marl,  aud  brown 
sandy  limestone,  all  abounding  in  fossils.  10.  The 
Lias  (q.  v.)  is  a  great  clay  deposit.  It  is  divided 
into  the  Upiier  and  Lower  Lias,  which  consist  of  thin 
beds  of  limestone  scattered  through  a  great  thick- 
ness of  blue  clay,  and,  separating  uiese  two  groups, 
the  Marlstone,  or  calcareous  or  ferruginous  sand- 
stone. The  lias  abounds  in  beautifully  preserved 
fossils. 

The  oolite  occupies,  in  England,  a  zone  nearly 
7< 


thirty  miles  in  breadth,  extending  across  the  ootm- 
try  from  Yorkshire  to  Dorsetshire.  In  Scotland, 
patches  of  lias  and  Oxford  clay  occur  in  the  islands 
of  Mull  and  Skye,  and  on  the  western  shores  of  the 
mainland,  and  beds  belonging  to  the  lower  oolite 
are  found  at  Brora,  on  the  east  coast  of  Sutherland, 
which  contain  an  impure  coaL  The  only  oolite 
rocks  in  Ireland  are  a  few  isolated  patches  in 
Antrim,  which  abound  with  the  fossils  of  the  lower 
lia&  Oil  the  continent,  rocks  of  this  aee  occur  in 
Germany  and  Fmnce,  but  they  have  oeen  most 
extensively  studied  in  the  Jura  Mountains,  which, 
though  having  a  height  of  6000  feet,  are  entirely 
composed  of  oolite  and  cretaceous  rocks.  The 
strata  are  greatljr  bent  and  contorted,  and  as  they 
approach  the  Swiss  Alps,  the  great  mass  of  which 
is  also  formed  of  oolite,  they  become  completely 
metamorphosed  into  clay  slat^  mica  schists,  gneiss, 
and  crystalline  limestones.  Beds  of  oolite  have 
been  noticed  in  Cutch,  in  India.  In  Australia 
similar  beds  occur  on  the  western  coast,  and  pro- 
bably some  of  the  coal-beds  of  New  South  Wales, 
Victoria,  and  Tasmania  belong  to  the  oolite.  In 
both  North  and  South  America,  fossils,  apparently 
of  oolitic  age,  have  been  found  ^  but  these  deposite 
reqiiire  to  be  more  exactly  examined. 

The  oolite  ia  remarkable  for  the  abundance  of  its 
fossils,  and  is  in  this  respect  in  striking  contrast  to 
the  immediately  preceding  Triassic  and  Permian 
I)eriods.  The  several  freshwater  deposits,  and  the 
ancient  vegetable  surfaces,  contain  the  remains  of  a 
considerable  number  of  plants.  Ferns  still  abound, 
and  with  them  are  associated  species  that  are 
evidently  related  to  the  living  genera  Cupres8us, 
Araueariat  and  Zamicu, 

Corals  abound  in  several  of  the  beds.  The  brachio- 
pods  are  the  only  division  of  the  moUusca  that  ia 
not  largely  representerL  The  conchifers  and  gaster- 
opods  shew  a  great  number  and  variety  of  new 
genera,  which  are  nearer  the  forms  of  the  present 
day  than  those  that  preceded  them.  But  the 
remarkable  feature  of  molluscan  life  is  the  enormous 
development  of  the  oephalopods.  Whole  beds  are 
almost  entirely  made  up  of  their  sheila  No  less 
than  600  species  of  ammonites  have  been  described, 
chiefly  from  the  rocks  of  this  period,  and  the  belem- 
nites were  also  veiy  numerous.  The  criooida  have 
become  scarce,  but  are  replaced  by  star-flshes  and 
sea-urchins.  The  freshwater  beds  contain  the 
remains  of  many  insect  forms.  The  heterooercal- 
tailed  fish  give  way  to  the  more  modem  homocer- 
cals,  and  &e  true  sharks  and  rays  make  their 
appearance,  though  the  old  cestracionts  are  stiU 
represented  by  some  survivors.  The  characteristic 
feature  of  the  oolitic  period  was  its  re))tilea.  The 
land,  the  sea,  and  the  air  had  each  their  fitting 
inliabitants  of  this  class.  The  various  species  c3 
pterodactyles,  some  not  larger  than  the  bat,  others 
surpassing,  in  the  stretch  of  their  membranous 
'  wing,'  the  size  of  the  largest  living  bird,  were  the 
terrors  of  the  air;  while  their  allies,  the  monster 
ichthyosaurs  and  plesiosaurs,  ^eld  the  mastery  of 
the  waters;  and  the  huge  megalosaurs,  some  not 
less  than  30  feet  in  length,  trod  the  earth.  The  few 
mammalian  remains  hitherto  found,  have  a  special 
interest  from  their  antiquity,  being  the  first 
evidence  of  this  high  order  of  animals  on  the 
globe.  They  belong,  apparently,  to  marsupial 
animals ;  one  species  is,  however,  supposed  by  Owen 
to  have  been  a  hoofed  and  herbivorous  placental 
mammal 

OONALA'SKA.    See  Unalasbjl 

OORATiSK.    See  Ubauk. 

OO'RFA.    See  Urfa. 

OORGA.    SeeUsoA. 


OORI  RIVER  ^  OPERA. 


OO'BI  or  LIMPOPO  BIVEB,  an  important  river 
lystem  of  South-Eastem  Africa,  rising  in  lat.  26**  S. 
in  the  high  plateau  called  the  Magaliesberg,  which 
bounds  the  basin  of  the  Orange  River  to  the 
north,  and  with  its  different  branches,  the  Mariqua, 
Kgotoane,  Lipalula,  &&,  diaininff  the  regions  now 
known  as  the  Transvaal  Repubuc.  Flowing  first 
to  the  north,  the  O.  graduaUv  turns  to  the  east, 
and  is  supposed  to  reach  the  Indian  Ocean  at 
Imhambane,  in  lat.  24%  after  a  course  of  950  miles, 
and  draining  a  basin  of  not  less  than  250,000  square 
miles,  yet,  like  other  South  African  rivers,  it  is 
not  navigable,  and  the  very  position  of  its 
embouchure  is  not  yet  very  satisfactorily  ascer- 
tained. The  basin  of  this  river  occupies  the  depres- 
sion which  exists  between  the  watershed  of  the 
Orange  River  on  the  south,  and  the  south  tribu' 
taries  of  the  Zambesi  on  the  north. 

OOROOME'TAH,   town    and    lake.      See 

XjRrifETAH. 

OCySTEBHOUT,  a  flourishing  town  in  the 
Ketherlands,  province  of  North  Brabant,  six  miles 
north-north-east  from  Breda,  Ib  situated  in  a  well- 
wooded,  fertile  district  of  country.  Fop.  (1863)  8844^ 
of  whom  8457  belonged  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church.  Much  business  is  done  in  the  grain  and 
cattle  markets.  There  are  14  tanyards,  several 
flourishing  beer-brewing  establishments,  5  potteries, 
and  4  bnck-works.  0.  has  a  grammar-school,  and 
a  nunnery,  the  inmates  of  which  em2)loy  themselves 
in  teaching  the  children  of  the  poor.  The  handsome 
town-house  and  ereat  Roman  Catholic  Church  stand 
on  the  market-fuace,  which  is  shaded  with  linden- 


Near  0.  is  an  extensive  wood,  where  are  the  ruins 
of  the  house  of  Stryen  or  Oosterhout,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Counts  of  Stryen,  under  whose 
jurisdiction  were  not  only  the  town  and  barony  of 
breda,  but  also  the  marquisate  of  Bergen-op-Zoom. 

OOTACAMtJ'ND,  the  chief  town  in  the 
Neilsherry  Hills,  and  the  great  sanitarium  of 
Southern  India.  These  hills  are  situated  between 
11»__12»  N.  lat,  and  76"— 7r  B.  long.  The 
elevation  of  O.  is  7400  foet  above  the  sea ;  the  mean 
temperature  being  about  49°,  the  maximum  77%  and 
the  minimum  38%  The  average  rainfall  is  45  inches. 
Its  distance  is  only  about  350  miles  from  Madras, 
and  it  is  easy  of  access,  as  the  railway  now  conveys 
the  tt»veller  to  the  foot  of  the  Hills.  The  other 
stations  on  the  Neilgherries  are  Coonoor,  Kotta- 
g^erry,  and  Jackatalla,  or  Wellington.  In  the  last 
place,  there  is  a  fine  range  of  barracks  for  European 
troops.  The  number  of  European  settlers  on  these 
HUs  is  increasing.  There  are  thriving  plantations 
«f  tea  and  coffee,  and  the  cinchona  or  quinine 
plant 

O'PAH,  or  KING-FISH  {Lampris  gutlatu8  or  L, 
Ivna),  a  fish  of  the  Dory  (q.y.)  family  {ZMae)^ 
occasionaDy  found  in  the  British  seas,  but  more 
eommon  in  more  northern  regions,  and  found  not 
only  in  the  Atlantic  and  Arctic  Oceans,  but  also  in 
the  Pacific,  as  on  the  coasts  of  China  and  Jai)an.  It 
is  of  an  oval  form,  creatly  compressed,  with  small 
thin  scales,  the  montn  small  and  destitute  of  teeth, 
a  single  dorsal  fin  much  elevated  in  front  and 
extending  almost  to  the  tail  This  fish  attains  a 
large  size,  being  sometimes  five  feet  long  and  150 
pounds  in  weight.  It  is  brilliantly  coloured ;  the 
upper  part  of  we  back  and  sides  rich  green,  reflect- 
ing purple  and  gold  in  different  lights,  the  lower 
parts  yellowish-green,  round  yellowish-white  spots 
above  and  below  the  lateral  line ;  all  the  fins  bnght 
Tennihon.  The  flesh  is  much  esteemed ;  it  is  red 
salmon,  and  is  said  to  resemble  it  in  flavour. 


OTAL,  a  mineral  which  differs  from  quartz  in 
containing  from  5  to  13  per  cent,  of  water,  its  only 
other  essential  constituent  bein^  silica,  although  a 
little  alumina,  oxide  of  iron,  &c.,  is  often  present  It 
is  never  found  crystallised,  and  does  net  exhibit. a 
crystalline  structure  like  quartz.  It  has  a  con- 
choidal  fracture,  and  is  very  easily  broken.  There 
are  many  varieties,  which  pass  into  one  another,  so 
that  their  precise  limits  cannot  be  defined,  from 
which  has  arisen  no  little  confusion  of  names.  The 
finest  kind  is  called  Precious  0.  or  Noble  0.,  and 
sometimes  Oriental  Opal,  It  is  semitransparent  or 
translucent,  usually  of  a  bluish  or  yellowish  white 
colour,  yellow  by  transmitted  light,  and  exhibits  a 
beautiful  play  of  brilliant  colours,  owing  to  minute 
fissures  which  refract  the  light  It  is  much  valued 
for  setting  in  rings,  brooches,  &c,  and  is  polished 
with  a  convex  surface,  never  cut  into  facets,  both 
because  of  its  brittleness,  and  because  its  play  of 
colours  is  thus  best  exhibited.  The  ancients  valued 
opals  very  highly.  The  Roman  senator  Nonius  pre- 
ferred exile  to  giving  up  an  0.  to  Mark  Antony. 
This  0.  was  stifi  to  oe  seen  in  the  days  of  Pliny, 
who  ascribes  to  it  a  value  eq^al  to  more  than 
£100,000  sterling.  The  imperial  cabinet  of  Vienna 
contains  the  most  celebrated  O.  now  known  to  exist 
It  is  five  inches  by  two  inches  and  a  halL  The 
finest  opals  are  almost  all  brought  from  Kaschan  in 
Hungary,  where  they  are  found  disseminated  in  a 
trachytic  conglomerate.  They  are  mostly  very 
small,  but  even  a  very  small  O.,  if  really  beautiful, 
is  worth  four  or  five  pounds;  and  the  price  increases 
very  rapidly  with  increase  of  size,  rrecious  0.  is 
found  aLso  in  Saxony,  in  South  America,  kc  When 
the  colours  are  not  equally  diffused,  but  in  detached 
spots,  jewellers  call  it  Harlequin  Opal,  There  is  a 
dark  or  blackish  variety,  apparently  tinged  by  oxide 
of  iron,  which  occasionally  exhibits  very  beautiful 
reflections,  and  is  then  much  prized.  Oiraaol  (Or  v.) 
and  Cojcholong  (q.  v.)  are  varieties  of  opal.  What 
lapidaries  call  Prime  cPOpal  is  day-parphyry,  or 
other  stone  containing  many  small  grains  of  opaL 
It  is  cut  into  slabs,  and  made  into  boxes  and  other 
ornamental  articles ;  the  stone  which  contains  the 
opals  being  often  artificially  blackened  by  boiling 
in  oil,  and  afterwards  exxx)8ing  to  a  moderate  heat — 
Common  O,  is  semitransparent,  white,  yellow,  green, 
red,  or  brown,  and  does  not  exhibit  an^r  play  of 
colouis.  It  is  not  a  rare  mineral,  and  is  chiefly 
found  in  clay-porphyry.  Semi-opal  is  more  opaque. 
Wood  O.  is  a  petrifaction,  and  exhibits  the  form  and 
structure  of  wood,  the  place  of  which  has  been  taken 
by  the  siliceous  minexaL  Hyalite  and  Meniliie  are 
varieties  of  opaL 

OPEN-BILL  [Anastomus),  a  genus  of  birds  of 
the  Heron  family  (Ardeidce)^  natives  of  the  East 
Indies  and  of  Africa,  remarkable  for  the  structure 
of  the  bill,  the  mandibles  being  in  contact  ,only  at 
the  base  and  tip,  with  a  wide  interval  between 
their  edges  in  tiie  middle.  They  frequent  the  sea- 
coast  and  rivers,  and  prey  on  fish  and  reptiles.  One 
species  is  well  known  in  India  as  the  Coromandel 
Heron. 

OPEN  DOORS,  Lettkrs  of,  in  Scotch  Law. 
mean  a  writ  autiiorisin^  a  messenger  to  poind  oi 
seize  goods  deposited  in  lockfast-places,  and  to 
break  open  the  locked  doors  in  oraer  to  effect  the 
seizure.    See  HousK 

OTERA,  a  musical  drama,  in  which  music  fonns 
an  essential  part,  and  not  a  mere  accessory  accom* 
paniment  As  in  the  higher  drama,  poetry  super* 
sedes  the  prose  of  ordinary  life,  so  in  the  opera,  with 
perhaps  as  great  artistic  right,  the  languap;e  of 
music  is  introduced  at  a  considerable  sacrifice  of 
probabihty.     The  bbretto   or  worda   are,  in   the 


OPERA.. 


modem  opera,  a  peg  on  which  to  hang  the  mnsic, 
rather  than  the  music  an  acccBsory  to  the  written 
drama.  The  component  parts  of  an  opera  are  recita- 
tives, duets,  trios,  quartetts,  choruses,  and  finales, 
accompanied  througnout  by  an  orchestra,  and  the 
whole  is  preceded  by  an  instrumental  Overture 
(q.  v.).  Recitative  is  declamation,  which,  in  its 
succession  of  musical  sounds  and  rhythm,  strives  to 
assimilate  itself  as  much  as  i>ossible  to  the  accents 
of  speech,  and  therefore  does  not  entirely  conform  to 
musical  rhythm.  The  accessories  of  scenic  repre- 
sentation  are  also  present,  and  a  Ballet  (q.  v.)  is  also 
frequently  introduced.  In  some  of  the  German 
operas,  and  in  the  French  opSra  coTMque,  spoken 
dialogue  without  music  takes  the  place  of  recita- 
tive. Among  the  different  varieties  of  the  opera 
enumerated  are  the  great  opera  or  opera  «ma,  of  a 
dignified  character ;  the  romantic  opera,  embracing 
an  admixture  of  the  grave  and  lively ;  the  comic 
opera,  or  opera  buffii;  as  well  as  many  intermediate 
varieties. 

The  idea  of  the  opera  may  in  x>art  have  arisen 
from  the  Greek  drama,  which  possessed,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  the  operatic  character :  the  choral 
parts  were  sung,  and  the  dialogue  was  delivered  in  a 
sustained  key,  probably  resembling  operatic  recita- 
tive more  than  ordinary  speech.  The  earliest  extant 
example  of  any  composition  resembling  the  lyric 
drama  of  the  moderns  is  Adam  de  la  Hale's  comic 
opera  of  Li  gieu8  {le  jeu)  de  Robin  et  de  Marian, 
composed  in  the  13th  c.,  the  music  of  which  is 
wonderful  for  its  date.  The  next  appearance  of 
anything  like  opera  is  in  the  16th  century,  when 
various  musical  dramas  were  composed  in  the 
madri^lesque  style.  An  opera  composed  by  Zarlino 
is  saia  to  have  been  performed  at  Venice  when 
Henry  III.  passed  through  that  city  on  his  way 
from  Poland  to  France.  About  the  same  time,  a 
pastoral  called  Dafne,  written  by  the  poet  Rinucci, 
was  set  to  music  by  Peri ;  and  the  same  poet  and 
musician  conjointly  produced  the  lyric  tragedy  of  La 
Morte  di  Euridice,  which  was  represented  at  the 
theatre  of  Florence  in  1600.  Claudio  Monteverde, 
one  of  a  society  of  amateurs,  known  as  the  '  Floren- 
tine Academy,  who  devoted  themselves  avowedly 
to  the  study  and  revival  of  Greek  music,  soon  after- 
wards produced  his  OrfeOy  a  *  favola  di  musica,'  in 
whose  performance  an  orchestra  of  no  fewer  than 
36  performers  was  called  into  requisition,  most  of 
the  instrumente  being,  however,  only  used  in  twos 
or  threes,  and  never  more  than  ten  at  a  time.  From 
these  beginnings,  the  opera  advanced  into  one  of  the 
permanent  institutions  of  Italy — a  development  of 
music  at  first  strongly  opposed  in  character  and 
style  to  the  music  of  the  church.  With  the  ^ro- 
f^ress  of  music,  and  the  perfecting  of  the  miisical 
mstruments  which  went  to  form  ue  orchestra,  the 
lyric  drama  began,  towards  the  middle  of  last 
century,  to  am)roach  ite  present  character.  Of  the 
innumerable  Italian  operas  of  last  century,  only 
Oimarosa*s  Matrimonio  Seffreto  retains  its  place  on 
the  stage.  Cherubini,  the  first  of  the  more  modem 
school,  after  producing  his  Quinto  Fabio  at  Milan, 
became  naturalised  in  France :  Rossini,  who  suc- 
ceeded him  in  Italy,  is  the  greatest  name  in  the 
Italian  ojiera.  Nothing  can  exceed  the  delicioiuly 
fresh  character  of  the  best  known  operas  of  this  now 
aged  musician,  II  Barbiere  di  Siviglicb,  OteUo,  La 
Oazza  Ladra,  Semiramide^  and  OuiUaume  TeU, 
Next  to  them  rank  the  equally  well-known  works 
of  Bellini,  Norma,  La  Sonnambula,  and  /  Puritani; 
Lucia  di  Lammermoor,  Luerezia  Borgia,  and 
L'Elimr  H Amort,  the  three  chefB-d^oeuvre  of  Doni- 
zetti, alone  rivalling  them  in  public  estimation.  A 
newer  school  of  opera  has  recently  sprui^  up  in 
Italy,  more  grand  if  less  fresh,  of  which  the  chief  j 
71  * 


master  is  Verdi,  whose  BmaM,  NaUnuhodowmr, 
I  Lombardi,  OteUo,  BigoleUo,  II  TrovaJUm,  La 
Traviaia,  and  others  Iavo  attained  immense 
popularity  in  Italy,  and  wherever  the  Italian  opera 
has  been  naturalised. 

From  Italy  the  opera  was  introduced  into 
Germany,  where,  more  scientific  and  less  senanous 
than  in  Italy,  it  flourished  in  opposition  to  national 
as  well  as  ecclesiastical  music.  Germany  divides 
with  Italy  the  honour  of  perfecting  orchestail  music 
and  the  opera.  Glttck,  educated  in  Italy,  produci^ 
his  Orfeo  in  Vienna,  and  then  went  to  rans,  where 
the  French  adopted  him  as  we  did  HandeL  Mozart 
was  the  first  composer  of  operas  for  the  modem 
orchestra ;  Idomeneo,  II  Seraglio,  Le  Nozze  di  Figaro, 
Don  Oiovanni,  and  Zauberjkfte  are  his  princifial 
operatic  works,  unsurpassed  by  anything  that  h:i8 
succeeded  them.  The  most  important  German 
operas  composed  since  their  date  are  Fiddio  by  Beet- 
hoven ;  Der  FreischUt^  Euryant/ie,  and  Oberon  by 
Weber;  ^au4^  by  Spohr ;  and  the  gorseous  operas  of 
Meyerbeer,  Robert  le  Diable,  Lea  nuguenote,  and 

Le  Prophite,  and  L\Stoile  du  Nord,  Lee  ffvguenote, 
notwithstanding  its  involving  enormous  difficulties 
in  representation,  keeps  its  place  in  every  operatic 
theatre  in  Europe.  Wagner,  tiie  chief  exponent 
of  a  more  recent  school  arrogating  to  iteelf  the 
title  of  the  '  music  of  the  future7  or  rather  *  work  of 
art  of  the  future,'  has  produced  the  oi)era  of  Tann- 
hdueer,  which  enjoys  at  present  a  large  share  of 
public  favour  in  Germany. 

In  France,  the  earliest  operatic  representation  of 
which  we  have  any  record  was  in  1582.  About 
1669,  the  Abbot  Perrin  obtained  from  Louis  XIV. 
the  privilege  of  establishing  an  opera  in  the  French 
language  at  Paris,  and  in  1672  the  privilege  was 
transferred  to  Lulli,  who  may  be  considered  the 
founder  of  the  French  lyrical  drama.  LuUi's 
popularity  continued  during  a  long  period,  and  was 
only  put  an  end  to  by  the  nse  of  the  German  GlUck, 
who,  naturalised  in  Paris,  produced  there  his 
IphigHie  in  Aulide  and  Aleeete.  It  is  matly 
throuffh  Gliick^s  influence  that  the  modem  French 
opera  nas  become  what  it  is,  a  composite  work  com- 
bming  French,  German,  and  Italian  elementSL  Its 
best-known  productions  include  M^huFs  Joeeph, 
Hal^vy's  Juive,  Aubei's  Masaniello,  Fra  DiavUo, 
and  Diamafis  de  la  Couronne,  and  Gounod's  recent 
opera  of  Fauet  The  Italian  opera,  introduced  in 
Paris  in  1646  by  Cardinal  Mazarin,  and  superseded 
in  1670,  was  revived  in  the  beginning  of  the  pre- 
sent century,  and  has  since  fiourishea  side  by  side 
with  the  national  opera  of  France. 

The  possibility  of  a  national  English  opera  seems 
first  to  have  been  shewn  by  Purcell,  who,  tiirough 
Humphreys,  had  learned  much  from  LullL  l£ia 
music  to  Dryden's  King  Arthur  is  very  beautiful, 
though  kept  throughout  subordinate  to  Uie  business 
of  the  drama.  Tfie  Beggar's  Opera,  as  set  to  mutdo 
by  Dr  Pepusch,  was  a  selection  of  the  airs  most  popu- 
lar at  the  time.  It  has  retained  ite  place  on  the 
stage,  as  also  has  Dr  Ame's  Artaxerxea,  a  translation 
from  Metastasio  adapted  to  music  rich  in  melody. 
The  importetion  of  the  Italian  opera  put  a  stop,  for 
a  time  at  least,  to  the  further  development  of  an 
opera  in  England.  In  1706,  Areinoi,  with  English 
words  adapted  to  Italian  airs,  was  performed  at 
Druiy  Lane.  In  1710,  AlmaMde,  wholly  in  Italian, 
was  performed  exclusively  by  Italian  singers  at  the 
Haymarket  Theatre ;  and  a  succession  ol  attempte 
of  the  kind  ended  in  the  permanent  establishment 
of  the  Italian  opera.  The  arrival  of  Handel  in 
England  decided  the  future  progress  of  the  ojv^ra. 
That  great  master  was  during  tne  greater  pai-t  of 
his  life  an  opera  composer  and  opera  manager.  He 
composed  for  the  London  stage  no  fewer  toau  44 


OPERA— OPERAGLASS. 


opens,  German,  Italiau,  and  English.  These  now 
forgotten  operas  were  of  oonrse  not  the  complex 
oomi)OBition8  of  a  later  period,  which  coold  not  have 
been  performed  in  the  then  imperfect  state  of 
orchestral  instruments.  A  recitative  was  set  to 
music  nearly  as  fast  as  the  composer  could  put 
notes  on  paper,  and  tiie  songs  were  accompanied  in 
genial  by  only  one  violin  and  bass,  the  composer 
sitting  at  the  hamichord,  and  supplying  what  was 
wantingi  From  Handel's  time  onwards,  the  opera 
floarished  as  an  exotic  in  Britain,  the  sinjgers  being 
foreign,  and  the  works  performed  bemg  either 
Italian  or  occasionally  German  or  French.  Attempts 
crowned  with  some  measure  of  success  have  latterly 
been  made  to  establish  an  opera  of  a  national  char- 
acter in  Engiland.  Balfe's  Bohemian  Girl  and  JRose 
qf  CatlUej  are  the  best  works  which  this  school 
has  produced,  and  have  attained  with  other  operas 
by  JBaife,  Wallace,  and  Macfarren,  a  considerable 
measnre  of  popularity.  See  Hogarth's  Memoir9  of 
iki  Opera  (London,  1851). 

OPERA-GIiASS  (Fr.  lorgneUe,  Ger.  theater- 
^mpecHv),  This  is  a  double  telescope,  which  is 
used  for  looking  at  objects  that  require  to  be  clearly 
seen  rather  than  greatly  magnified,  such  as  adjoin- 
ing scenery  and  buildings,  the  performers  of  a 
theatre  or  opera,  &c.  It  is  from  its  use  at  an  onera 
that  it  derives  its  nam&  The  opera-glass  is  snort 
and  light,  and  can  be  easily  managed  .with  one 
hand.  Its  amaU  magnifying  power  (from  2  to  3 
at  the  most),  and  the  large  amount  of  light  admitted 
by  the  ample  object-glass,  enable  it  to  present  a 
blight  and  pleasing  picture,  so  that  the  eye  is  not 
stnuned  to  make  out  details,  as  in  telescopes  of 
greater  power,  which  ^i^erallv  shew  a  highly  mag- 
nified but  faint  picture.  It  allows  the  use  of  both 
eyes,  which  gives  to  the  spectator  the  double  advan- 
tage, not  possessed  by  single  telescopes,  of  not 
requiring  to  keep  one  eye  shut,  a  somewhat  unna- 
toral  way  of  loolung,  and  of  seeing  things  stand  out 
stereoeoopically  as  m  ordinary  vision.  The  opera- 
^ass  is  in  consequence  the  most  popular  of  tele- 
scopes, and  requires  almost  no  art  in  its  use. 

Ijie  opera-glass  is  the  same  in  principle  as  the 
telescope  invented  by  Galileo.  It  consists  of  two 
lenses,  an  object  lens,  and  an  eye-lens.  The  object- 
lens  is  convex,  and  the  eye-lens  concave.  They 
are  placed  nearly  at  the  distance  of  the  difference 
of  tibeir  focal  lengths  from  one  another.  Fig.  1 
represents  the  action  of  the  telescope;  o  is  the 
object-lens,  and  e  the  eye-lens,  and  oe  is  the  axis 
d  the  iDstnimentb     The  object-lens  would  form 


Fig.  1. 

an  image,  eab,  of  the  object  looked  at  at  or  near 
'tbt  focus,  bnt  the  eye-lens  intervening,  converia 
the  light  converging  to  coft  to  light  diverging 
apparently  from  an  object  in  front,  CAR  To 
shew  more  clearly  the  changes  which  the  light 
ondergoea,  the  course  of  a  pencil  of  rays  proceeding 
from  tiie  top  of  an  object  is  traced.  The  ray  pro- 
eeeding  from  the  top  of  the  object  to  the  centre  of 
the  UfMf»  a,  makes  an  angle,  ft)  A,  with  the  axis.  This 


is  the  same  as  the  angle  aob ;  and  either  of  these 
angles  gives  half  the  angle  under  which  the  object 
is  seen  to  the  unaided  eye.   The  three  extreme  rays, 
r,  r,  r,  of  the  pencil  appear  in  the  figure  nearly 
parallel,  althou^  they  come  from  a  point.     The 
object  is  at  a  considerable  distance  froin  the  object- 
glass  <or  eye,  so  that  it  is  not  possible  in  so  limited 
a  figure  to  shew  their  divergenca    After  passing 
through  the  object-lens,  the  three  rays  proceed  to 
the  point  6,  in  the  image  which  the  object-lens 
would  form  at  cab,  if  no  eye-lens  were  there.    This 
image,  as  shewn  in  the  figure,  is  inverted,  and  would 
be  seen  as  such  if  the  eye  were  placed  about  ten 
inches  (the  distance  of  distinct  vision)  behind  ik 
The  three  rays  in  question  do  not  reach  the  point 
b  in  consequence  of  the  eye-lens  intervening,  and 
their  course  onwards  to  that  jwint,  after  passing  the 
eye-lens,  is  shewn  by  dotted  lines.     The  actaal 
course,  after  passing   the   second  lens,  is    shewn 
again  by  the  full  Imes,  r,  r,  r,  which  to  the  eye 
^aced   immediately  behind   the    eye-lens    appear 
to  proceed  from  the  point  B  in  front.    As  the  fight 
comes  from  B  in  the  same  direction  as  it  comes 
from  the  actual  point  in  the  object,  the  image  is 
erect.    What  holds  for  the  point  B,  holds  for  every 
point  in  the  image  and  object.    To  find  the  mag- 
nifying power,  it  is  necessary  to  join  Be  and  C^ 
and  produce  the  lines  thus  formed  to  h  and  c.    As 
the  eye  is  placed  immediately  behind  the  eye-lens, 
the   angle   under  which   the   magnified  object  is 
seen   is   the  angle    B<!0,  which  is  equal    to   ceb. 
Now,  the  angle  under  which  the  object  itself  is  seen 
at  o  or  at  e— for  the  slight  difference  has  no  effect 
at  the  distance  at  whicn  objects  require  to  be  seen 
by  a  tdescope-— is  twice  the  angle  roA,  or  which 
is  the  same  thing,  the  angle  cob.    The  ratio  of  the 
angle  ceb  to  the  angle  cw,  which  is  the  magnifying 
power,  is  easily  seen  to  be  the  same  as  that  of  the 
line  oa  to  the  line  ae.    But  oa  is  the  focal  length 
of  the  object-glass,  and  ae  is  the  focal  length   of 
the  eye-glass,  so  that  the  magnifying  power  of  the 
instrument  is  the  number  of  times  the  focal  length 
of  the  eye-glass  is  contained  in  that  of  the  object- 
glass.    The  longer,  therefore,  the  focal  length  of  the 
object-lens,  or  the  shorter  the  focal  length  of  the 
eye-lens,  the  greater  the  magnifying  power.    This 
may  be  practically  expressed  thus :  the  flatter  the 
object-lens,  and  the  hoUower  the  eye-lens,  the  more 
are  objects  magnified  by  the  glass.    The  magnifying 
power  may  be  found  with  sufficient  accuracy  by 
looking  at  an   object  with  one  eye  through  the 
tube  and  the  other  eye  unaided,  and  so  handling 
the  glass  that  the  magnified  image  seen  by  the 
one  eye  is  superposed  on  the  object  seen  by  the 
naked  eye,  wnen  a  comparison   of  their  relative 
sizes  can  be  easily  made.    For  great  magnification, 
the  instrument  requires  to  be  greatly  lengthened 
—a  condition  inconsistent  with  its  use  as  an  opera- 
glass.    In  addition,  a  high   magnifying  powCT  is 
attended  with  the  disadvantage  that  the  field  of 
view,  or  amount  of  object  or  objects  seen,  becomes 
too   limited.      On   screwing    out  the    instnunent, 
it  will  be  seen   that  objects  increase  in  size  as 
the  instrument  is  lengthened,  but  that  the  picture 
becomes  more  and  more  limited,  shewing  that  a 
large  power  and  a   large  field  are  incompatible. 
The  opera-glass  need  not  be  set  to  the  same  precise 
point   as    w    necessary  with    ordinary  terrestrial 
telescopes,  as  the  lengthening  or  shortening  of  the 
instrument  does  not  produce  so  decided  an  effect  on 
the  divergence  of  the  light ;   the  change  of  diver- 
gence,  caused  by  screwing  the  opera-glass  out  or 
m,  is  so  slight  as  not  much  to  overstep  the  power  of 
adjustment  of  the  eye,  so  that  an  object  does  not 
lose  all  its  distinctness  at  any  point  within  the 
nmge  of  the  instrument.     There  is,   however,  a 


OPEHCULUM-OPmOO  LOSSES 


tion.   Tha  tvroteleacopeB  too  identical  in  coiutntctioD, 


Fig.  3. 

and  u«  placed  parallel  to  each  other.  The  blend- 
ing of  tlie  two  images  ia  easily  effected  bj  the 
eyei,  aa  in  ordinary  vision.  Opera-glasaes  have 
now  come  into  such  demand,  that  tbev  form  an 
important  article  of  manufacture,  of  which  Paris 
is  the  gr^t  seat.  So  krffely  and  cheaply  are  they 
produced  in  Paris,  that  it  has  neariy  a  monopoly  of 
the  trade.  They  may  be  had  from  2j.  &i  to  £0  or 
£7.  The  cheapest  opera-glasses  consist  of  single 
lenses,  those  of  the  better  class  have  compound 
achromatio  lena  A  very  ordinary  construction 
for  a  medium  price  ia  to  have  an  achromatio  object- 
lens,  consisting  of  two  lenses  and  a  single  e^Iens. 
In  the  Snest  class  of  opera-glasses,  which  ore 
called  fidd-glcuta,  both  eye-tenses  and  object- 
lenset  are  achromatie.  PliSssl's  celebrated  ^eld- 
glasaes  (Oer.  FddMlecher)  have  twelve  lenses,  each 
object-lens  and  eye-lens  being  composed  of  three 
separate  lenses. 

OPERCULUM  (Lat  •  lid),  a  term  nsed  in 
botany  chiefly  to  designate  the  lid  or  covering  of 
the  month  of  the  nm  or  capsule  [OtKa)  which  con- 
tains the  spores  of  mosses.  Before  the  ripening  of 
the  spores,  tha  operculnm  is  generally  concealed  by 
the  ealyptra  ;  but  after  the  calyptra  has  been  thrown 
off,  the  oiiercnUim  itself  also  generally  falls  off, 
leaving  the  peristome  visible,  and  the  mouth  of  the 
tim  open.  In  some  cases  the  operculum  does  ~~^ 
fall  off,  and  the  nm  opens  by  valves. 

In  Zoology,  tha  term  operculum  is  chiefly  employed 
to  denote  the  covering  which  many  gasteropod 
iDoUascs  form  for  the  mouth  of  their  shell.  It  is 
attached  to  the  back  of  the  foot  of  the  mollusc  In 
■ome  it  is  calcareous,  forming  a  abelly  plate  \  in  i 
it  is  homy;  whilst  gasteropoda  very  nearly  allied 
to  those  which  possess  it,  are  destitute  of  it  alto- 
gether. The  operculum  increases  in  various  wa^ 
BO  u  to  present  in  different  genera  great  diver-'*" 
of  structure,  concentric,  spiral,  unguioolate,  ftc 

OPHICE'FHALUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  of  the 
family  Anabaadie  {q.  y.),   sometimes  regarded  as 


long 


Ophideidst 


half -dried  mud, 
descending  into  it  when  the  pools 
dr;  Dp-  The  Coba-mota  or 
Oachta  of  India  ((7.  gaAva)  is 
much  used  for  food  by  the  natives, 
although  geoerolty  rejected  by 
Europeans  on  account  of  its  very 
•Dake-like  appearance.  It  is  very 
tenacious  of  life,  and  ia  not  only 
brought  to  tha  Indian  markets 
alive,  but  is  cut  to  pieces  whilst 
still  living  for  the  convenience  of 

O'PHICLBIDB  (Or.  ophia, 
serpent,  and  kUi»,  k^),  a  musical 
wind-instrumeiit  of  brass  or 
copper,  invented  to  supereede  the 
Serpent  (q.  v.)  in  the  orchestra 
and  mihtary  bands.  It  consists 
of  a  conical  tube,  terminating  in 
a  hell  like  that  of  the  horn,  with 
a  mouthpiece  similar  to  that  of 
the  sen)«nt,  and  ten  ventages  or 
holes,  all  stopped  br  keys  like 
those  of  the  bassoon,  nut  of  larger 
size.  Ophicleides  are  of  two  kinds, 
the  bass  and  the  alto.  The  hsss 
ophicleide  offers  great  resources 
for  maintaining  the  low  part  tA 
masses  of  harmony.  Music  for 
it  is  written  in  Uie  bass  clef,  and  the  compass 
of  the  instrument  is  from  B.  the  (bird  space  below 
the  ban  staff,  to  C,  the  fifth  added  space  above 
it,  A      including  all  the  interveomg  chrom- 

t  atic  intervals.  The  alto  ophicleide  ia 
an  instrument  of  very  inferior  qiiaUty, 
and  less  used.     Its  oompsss  is  also 

.         —    three  octaves   and   one    note.      The 

3  mnsio  for  it  is  written  in  the  trebls 

cleff,  and  an  octave  higher  than 
it  is  played.  Double  bass  or  monster  ophicleides 
have  sometimes  been  nsed  in  lai^  orchestras,  bat 
the    amount     of    breath  i 

which  is  required  to  play  k 

them  has  prevented  their 
coming  into  general  use. 

OPHI'DIA.    See  Sbr- 

OPHIOGLO'SSBjB,  a 

suborder  of  F'llica  or  Perns 

(q.  V,),  consistiug  of  a  few 

rather  elegant  little  plants 

with  an  erect  or  pendul- 

ODs   stem,   which   has   a 

oavitf   instead    of    pith, 

leaves  with  netted  veins, 

and  the  spore-cases  (tA««a) 

collected    into    a    s^e 

formed    at   the  edges   of 

•D  altered  leaf,  2-valved, 

and    without    any   trace 

of  an  elastic  ring.    They 

are   found  in   warm  and 

temperate   conntriee,  but 

abound   most   of    all    in 

the    islajids    of    tropical 

Asia.    Several  species  are 

European,    and   two   are    : 

British,    the    BotryrMum 

(q.  V.)  Iwnnria,  or  Moon-      Adder's-Tongne  {Ophio- 

wort,   and   the    Common        glottam  su^otunt}. 

Adder's  -  tongue      (OpMo- 

gloitum  vutfotum),  which  wm  kt  one  time  aupposed 


BE 


OPHIR— OPHTHALMIA. 


to  poness  magical  yirtu'^.  and  was  alao  used  as  a   OflBhoote  of  this  sect  are  the  Gainites.    See  Caih 
Tuloerary,  altHoagh  it  seenu  tu  possess  only  a  muoil- ;  and  SETHrrss. 


i^DOQB  quality*;  on  account  of  \v]iich  some  of  the 
other  species  nave  been  employed  in  l>t*nths.    It  is 


OPHTHA'LMIA  (derived  from  the  Greek  word 
ophthalmos,  the  eye)    was    origioaliy  and  still  is 


a  very  common  ulant  in  England,  its  abuaJance  in  |  sometimes  used  to  denote  inflammation  of  the  eye 
some  places  much  mjuring  pastures.  \  generally,  but  it  is  at    the  present  time  usually 

OTHIR,  a  region  frequently  mentioned  in  the  |  restricted  to  designate  inflammatory  affections  of  the 
Old  Testament,  aid  from  which  the  shii)s  of  Solo-    °*^i?^  <^«^*  ^^  *^e  ^7^'  *ff™^  the  conjun^iva, 
mon,  fitted  out  in  the  harbours  of  Edom,  brought  I    .^H^f^  are  several  important  and  distmct  vaneties 
gold,  precious  stones,  sandal-wood,  &c    The  voyage    <>' ophthalmia  (m  the  r^tncted  sense  of  the  word) 
^        *    ••  '»  -rrr,         rT*, .  ..    ''.  s     which  reouiTe  soecial  uoticc. 

Catarrhal  Ophthalmia, — Its  leading  symptoms  are 


occupied  three  years.    Where  Ophir  was  situated, 
has  been  a  much,  in  fact,  a  superfluously  disputed 


question.    It  was  probably  either  on  the  east  coast  '^^^^^  P\  ^^f  8"^^®  of  the  eye  the  redness  being 

of  Africa  about  So&U,  or  in  Arabia,  or  in  India,  but  ST'^^"^  of  a  bnght  scarlet  colour,  and  usual^ 

in  which  of  the  three  countries  is  doubtful    Huet.  d^^^s^d  in  patches),  sensations  of  uneasiness,  stifiP- 

Bruce   (the  traveller),  the  historian  Robertson,  M.  5f«  ^^  dryness,  with  slicht  pam  especially  when 

Quatmndre,  &c.,  are  in  favour  of  Africa  ;  Michaelis,  *^«  ^y^  »   f  P?*?^  ^   ^^  }s}\l  «"    increased 

Nieblihr  (the  traveUer),  Gosellin,  Vinc4nt,  Winer,  ?"^^«^  not  of  tears,  except  at  the  heginnmg  of 

FUrst,  Knobel,  Forster,  Crawfurd,  and  KaHsch,  of  :  **»«  *«^^'  ^'^^  ^^  mucus,  which  at  first  is  tnm,  but 

Arabia ;  Vitringa,  Reland,  Lassen,  Hitter,  Bertheau,  "^^  yy^mes  opaque,  yeUow,  and  thicker;  pus  (or 

and  Ewald,  of  India.    Josephus,  however,  it  should  °^***«'»  *?  »*  «  popularly  termed)  being  seen  at  the 


be  said,  placed  0.  in  the  peninsula  of  Malacca,  and 
his  very  respectable  opinion  has  been  adopted  by  Sir 
J.  Emerson  Tennent  in  his  work  on  Coy  Ion.     For 


comer  of  the  eye,  or  between  the  eyelashes  along 
the  edges  of  the  lids,  which  it  glues  together  during 
the  night.    The  disease  results  in  most  cases  from 


a  complete  discussion  of  the  point,  see  Kirl  Bitter's  I  ^^P^!5t  ^  «^^^  ^"^^  ^'  «^1"  7^  *P*  *?  ,^ 
Erdt£nde  (vol.  xiv.  1848),  SO^tavo  pages  of  which  f  ^^*«1  ^^  exposure  to  a  draught  of  air,  especially 
are  demoted  to  Ophir.  According  tTllitter,  who  ?r°S.*H\P-  ^^  "  m^l'^^y  known  as  a  c6ld  or  a 
•coeots  the  view  of  Lassen,  O.  waS  situated  at  the    ^¥'^  m^  the  eye.   ^VV^ith  regard  to  treatment,  the 


patient  should  remain  in  rooms  of  a  uniform  tempera- 
ture, and  should  at  once  take  about  five  gj*ftins  of 
calomel,  followed  by  a  black  draught.     The  eye 


OPHISXJ'RTJS.    See  Snake-ebl. 

O'PHITBS  (Gr.  opAitot,  *  serpent-brethren,'  from 


pts  the  view  of  Lassen, 
mouth  of  the  Indus. 

OPHIR,  called  by  the  Malays,  Gnnong  Pasaman,    , ^    _ ^ _^_ 

a  volcanic  mountain  in  the  highlands  of  Padang,  island  !  should  be  frequently  bathed  with  poppy  decoction, 

of  Sumatra^  lies  in  0**  4!  68^  N.  lat,  and  99°  55'  £.  '  lukewarm  or  cold  as  the  patient  preters.     If  the 

long. ;  the  eastern  peak,  called  Telaman,  attains  the  affection  does  not  readily  yield  to  tnese  measures,  a 

height  of  9939  feet  above  the  sea.     The  western  drop  of  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  (four  grains  of 

neaS:  is  called  Pasaman.    The  numerous  inhabitants  the  nitrate  to  an  ounce  of  distilled  water)  should  be 

nave  cleared  off  forest  and  brought  under  cultivation  let  fall  into  the  eye  twice  or  thrice  a  day.     It 

large  tracts  of  land  on  the  slopes  of  0.,  and  its  base  usually  causes  a  smarting  sensation  for  about  ten 

is  studded  with  villages.    The  0.  districts  are  most  minutes,  after  which  the  eye  feels  much  easier  than 

beautiful,  and  the  lofty  waterfalls,  contrasting  with  it  did  before  the  drop  was  applied.     The  adhesion 

the  bright-green  foliage  of  the   mountain,  highly  of  the  eyelids  in  the  morning  may  be  avoitied  by 

picturesque.  sm^ring  their   edges    at   b^time    with    a   little 

spermaceti  ointment. 
PunUerU    ophthalmia    differs     from     catarrhal 

, ^ ,   _._^ ,   ophthalmia  in  the  severity  of  its  symptoms,  and 

cpkia,  a  serpent),  a  sect  of  Gnostics   (q.  v.),  who  in  its  exciting  causes,      it  is  a  violent  form  of 
while  they  snared  the  general  belief  of  dualism,  the  inflammation  of  the  conjunctiva ;  is  accompanied 
conflict  of  matter  and  spirit,  the  emanations,  the  with  a  thick  purulent  dischai^e  on  the  firBt  or 
Bemiurgos,  and  other  notions  common  to  the  many  second  day  of  its  commencement,  and  is  very  apt 
subdivisions  of  this  extraordinary  school,  were  dis-  to  occasion  loss  of  vision.    There  are  three  remark- 
tinguished  from  all  by  their  peculiar  doctrine  and  able  varieties  of  this  affection,  called  resiiectively 
worship  connected  with  their  ophis  or  serpent.    The  (1)  purulent  ophthalmia    of  adults,  or   Egyptian 
O^  like  most  other  Gnostics,  regarded  the  Demi-  ophtnalmia,    or   contagious   ophthalmia;    (2)  gon- 
urgos,  or  the  Jehovah  of  the  Old  Testament,  with  orrheal  ophthalmia;  and  (3)  purulent  ophthalmia  of 
great  abhorrence,  but  they  pursued  this  notion  into  newly-born   children.      (1)  Purulent  ophthalmia  of 
a  ver^  curious  development.    Riegarding  the  eman-  adults  be^s  with  the  same  symptoms  as  catarrhal 
ci)>ation  of  man  from  the  power  and  control  of  the  '  ophthalmia,  but  in  a  very  exaggerated  form.    The 
DemiuTgos  as  a  most  important  end,  they  consi-  -  conjunctiva  rapidly  becomes  intensely  red,  and  soon 
dered  the  serpent  who  tempted  Eve,  and  introduced  api>ears  raised  from  the  sclerotic  by  the  effusion  of 
into   the  world  'knowledge'  and    revolt    against  serum  between  them,  projecting  around  the  cornea,. 
Jehovah,  to  have   been  the  great  benefactor    of  ;  which  remains  buried,  as  it  were,  in  a  pit.    Similar 
the    human    race.      Hence  their  worship   of  the  effiision  takes  place  beneath  the  mucous  membrane 
serpent    Some  of  the  details  of  their  system  were  lining  the  eyelids,  causing  them  to  project  forwards- 
very  strange.      We   may  instance    their   singular  in  large  livid  convex  masses,  which  often  entirely 
attempt  to  engraft '  Ophism '  on  Christianity ;  their  conceal  the  fflobe  of  the  eye.    These  S3rmptoms  are- 
seeking,  as  it  were,  to  impart  to  the    Christian  accommniea  by  severe  burning  pain,  great  head- 
Encharist  an  Ophite  character,  by  causing  the  bread  ache,  fever,  and  prostration.    When  the  disease  is* 
designed  for  the  Eucharlstic  sacrifice  to  be  licked  unchecked,  it  is  liable  to  produce    ulceration  or- 
£sr  a  serpent,  which  was  kept  iu  a  cave  for  the  sloughing  of  the  cornea,  with  the  escape  of  the  aqueous. 
purpose,    and    which    the    communicants    kissed  humour  and  protrusion  of  the  iris  ;  and  even  when. 
after   receiving   the   Eucharist    {Epiph,   H<yr.   37,  these  results  do  not  follow,  vision  is  often  destroyed 
s.  5).    Our  information,  however,  regarding  them  is  by  permanent  opacity  of  the  cornea.    It  is  a  commoui 
very  meagre,  and  comes  chiefly  from  antagonistic  disease  in  India,  Persia,  and  Egypt ;  and  in  conse^ 
sources.   The  O.  originated  in  Egypt,  probably  from  quence  of  its  having  been  imported  from  the  last- 
•ome  relation    to    the  E^ptian    serpent-worship,  named  country  into  England  by  our  troops  in  the 
and  spread  thenoe  into   Syria   and   Asia  Minor,  beginning  of  the  present  century,  it  got  the  name  of 
318  ai 


OPHTHALMIA—OPIR 


Egvptian  ophthalmuL  Some  idea  of  its  prevalence 
and  of  its  danger  may  be  formed  from  the  facts  (1) 
that  two-thirda  of  the  French  army  in  Egypt  were 
labouring  under  it  at  the  same  time,  and  (2)  that  in 
the  military  hospitals  at  Chelsea  and  Elilmainham 
there  were,  in  December  1810,  no  fewer  than  2317 
soldiers  who  had  lost  the  sight  of  both  eyes  from  this 
disease.  Until  i^ter  the  war  in  £g}rpt^  the  disease 
was  unknown  in  Europe.  Since  that  time  it  has 
not  unfrequently  broken  out  in  this  country — not 
only  among  troo[)s,  but  in  schools,  asylums,  &o. 
The  disease  is  unquestionably  contagious,  but  there 
are  good  reasons  for  believing  that  it  often  arises, 
independently  of  contagion,  from  severe  catarrhal 
ophtnabnia  under  unfavourable  atmospheric  and 
other  conditions;  and  that  having  so  originated, 
it  possesses  contagious  properties.  OojiorrliecU 
ophmalmia  arises  from  the  application  of  gonorrheal 
discharge  or  matter  to  the  surface  of  the  eve ;  and 
hence  is  most  common  in  persons  suffering  from  the 
disease  from  which  this  varietv  obtains  its  specific 
name.  It  is,  moreover,  not  unfrequently  occasioned 
by  the  cominon  but  disgusting  practice,  adopted  by 
tne  poorer  classes,  of  bathing  the  eyes  in  human 
urine,  under  the  idea  that  by  this  procedure  they 
stren^hen  the  sight.  In  its  symx)toms,  it  is  almost 
identical  with  ordinary  purulent. ophthalmia.  The 
purulent  ophthalmia  of  children  usually  begins  to 
appear  about  the  third  day  after  birth.  It  is  a  very 
common  affection,  and  its  importance  is  apt  to  be 
overlooked  until  it  has  made  considerable  progress. 
If  the  edges  of  the  lids  appear  red  and  glued 
together,  and  if  the  eye,  when  the  lids  are  separated, 
shews  redness  and  swelling  of  the  conjunctiva,  there 
is  no  doubt  of  the  nature  of  the  disease,  which,  if 
not  checked,  progresses  in  much  the  same  way  as 
in  adults.  It  is,  however,  much  more  amenable  to 
treatment,  and  with  pro})er  care  the  sense  of  sight 
is  seldom  impaired,  provided  the  disease  has  not 
extended  to  the  cornea  before  medical  aid  is  sought. 
Of  the  treatment  of  purulent  ophthalmia  in  these 
various  forms,  we  shall  sav  nothing  more  than  that 
it  must  be  left  exclusively  to  the  medical  practi- 
tioner, whose  advice  should  be  sought  as  soon  as 
tiiere  is  the  slightest  suspicion  of  the  nature  of  the 
'Case. 

There  is  one  more  form  of  this  disease  which  is 
■of  very  common  occurrence,  and  has  received  the 
various  names  of  strumous  (or  scro^iihus)^  pustular,  and 
phlyctenular  opht/uilmia.     It  is  intimately  connected 
with  the  scrofulous  constitution,  and  is  most  pre- 
valent in  children  from  four  to  ten  or  twelve  years 
-of  a^     The  most  prominent  symptom  is  exb'eme 
into^rance  of  light,  the  lids  being  kept  spasmodic- 
ally closed,      when  they  are  forcibly  separated,  a 
.-slight  vascularity,  usually  stopping  at  the  edge  of 
the  cornea,  is  observed,  and  at  or  about  the  Une  of 
separation  between  the  cornea  and  sclerotic  small 
opaque  pimples  or  pustules  appear.     The  treatment 

•  consists  (1)  in  improving  the  genera]  health  by  due 
attention  to  the  secretions,  and  the  subsequent  admi- 
nistration of  tonics  (such  as  (|uinia  and  cod-liver 

•  oil),  and  change  of  air ;  and  (2)  m  local  applications, 
such  as  solution  of  nitrate  of   silver,  or  wine  of 

•oj^um,  dropped  into  the  eye,  or  stimulating  oint- 
ments (such  as  dilute  citrine  ointment)  smear^  over 
the  edges  of  the  lids  at  bedtime.      This  form  of 

•  disease,  being  dependent  on  constitutional  causes,  is 

•  often  very  obstinate,  and  is  always  liable  to  recur. 
It  is  not  unfrequent}^  attended  with  the  annoying 

•oomplication  of  a  skin  disease,  known  as  erusta 
.lacteUy  on  the  cheeks,  in  consequence  of  the  irrita- 
:tion  caused  by  the  flow  of  scalding  tears.  The 
.crusts  or  scabs  are  easily  removed  by  a  poultice  or 
warm -water  dressing,  after  which  the  part  must 
be  bathed  by  a  lotion,  consisting  of  a  drachm  of 


oxide  of  sine  in  four  ounces  of  either  pnmp  or  rose 
water. 

OPHTHA'LMOSCOPE,  The,  is  an  instrument 
recently  invented  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the 
deep-seated  structures  of  the  eye,  and  for  detecting 
disease  in  them.    In  its  simplest  form,  it  is  mendy 
a  concave  circular  mirror,  of  about  ten  inches  focus, 
made  of  silvered  glass  or  polished  steel,  and  having 
a  hole  in  the  centre ;  and  with  it  there  is  supplied^ 
as  a  separate  piece  of  apparatus,  a  convex  lens  an 
inch  and  a  half  in  diameter,  with  a  focal  length  of 
about  two  and  a  half  inches,  set  in  a  common  eye- 
glass  frame,  with  a  handle  three  inches  long.    The 
patient  (his  pupil  having  been  previously  dilated  by 
the  application  of  a  drop  of  solution  of  atropine)  is 
made  to  sit  by  a  table  in  a  dark  room,  with  a  sliding 
argand  lamp  placed  by  the  side  of  his  head,  with 
the  flame  on  a  level  with  the  eve,  from  which  it  is 
screened  by  a  little  fiat  plate  of  metal  attached  to 
the  burner.    The  following  description  of  the  mode 
of  using  the  instrument,  and  of  the  parts  brought 
into  view  by  it,  is  borrowed  from  the  article  on  tlus 
subject  contributed  by  Mr  Haynes  Walton  to  the 
last  edition  of  Druit's  SurgeovCs  Vade  Mecum : '  The 
operator  sits  directly  in    front,  and    holding  the 
instrument  close  to  his  eye,  and  a  little  obhquely 
to  catch  the  light  from  the  lamp,  he  commences,  at 
the  distance  of  about  18  inches  from  the  patient,  to 
direct  the  reflection  on  the  eye.    AVhen  this  is  got, 
the  convex  lens  must  be  held  at  a  distance  of  two 
and  a  half  inches  from  the  eye,  and  the  focusing 
commenced  by  moving  it  slowly  backwards  and 
forwards.    When  the  Tight  fairly  enters  the  eye,  a 
reddish  glare  appears;    and  as  it  is  focused  an 
orange-r^  or  oran^e-ye^ow  is  seen ;  then  the  blood- 
vessels of  the  retma  come  into  view.     The  retina 
itself  presents  a  whitish  aspect,  through  which  the 
choroid  is  more  or  less  discernible.    The  entrance  of 
the  optic  nerve  should  now  be  sought.    The  way  to 
discern  it  is  to  make  the  patient  look  inward*     It 
appears  as  a  white  circular  spot,  in  the  centre  of 
which  are  the  central  vein  and  artery  of  the  retina, 
giving  off  six  or  eight  branches.'    This  optic  disc  is 
the  most  important  part  to  be  observed ;    but  a 
thorough  ophthalmoscopic  examination  will  reveal 
structural  aifferences,  not  only  in  it,  but  in  the 
retina,  choroid,  and  vitreous  humour,  and  will  reveal 
cataract  in  its  early  stage.    In  short,  the  ophthalmo- 
scope is  now  as  essential  in  the  diagnosis  of  diseases 
of  tne  deep-seated  parts  of  the  eye  as  the  stethoscope 
is  in  the  diagnosis  of  thoracic  diseases. 

OPIE,  John,  RA.,  was  born  at  the  viUa^  of  St 
Agnes,  seven  miles  from  Truro,  Cornwall,  m  May 
1761.  His  father,  a  master-carpenter,  wished  him 
to  follow  the  same  trade,  but  his  bias  for  art  was 
strong ;  and  his  attempts  at  portrait-painting  having 
attracted  the  notice  of  Dr  Wolcott,  afterwards 
celebrated  as  Peter  Pindar,  he  had  the  advantage  of 
his  advice  in  the  practice  of  the  art,  and  his  exer- 
tions in  procuring  him  employment.  And  at 
length,  in  1780,  he  was  taken  to  London  by  Dr 
Wolcott ;  and  immediately  came  to  be  acknowledged 
by  the  fashionable  world  as  the  *  Cornish  Wonder.' 
This  tide  of  good-fortune  soon  ebbed,  but  not  before 
0.  had  realised  a  moderate  competency.  The  loss 
of  popular  favour,  however,  only  served  to  bring  out 
more  strongly  those  points  in  0.*s  character  on 
which  his  reputation  mainly  rests,  viz.,  manly 
independence  and  strong  love  of  art  He  stooped 
to  no  device  to  retain  fashionable  patronace,  out 
calmly  and  unremittingly  entered  on  that  depart- 
ment of  painting  which,  according  to  the  notions  of 
his  time,  was  the  only  style  of  high  art,  viz.,  historical 
or  scriptural  subjects,  executed  on  a  large  acale.  His 
pencil  was  employed  by  BoydeU  in  his  wc&l-meant 


OPINICUS-OPKTM. 


Mid  magnificent  scheme  to  elevate  Britisli  art; 
he  also  iMiinted  a  number  of  works  in  the  illustra- 
tion of  Bowyifir'a  English  History,  Macklin's  Poets 
and  Biblical  Gallery,  and  other  similar  imdertakings. 
His  pictures  of  the  *  Murder  of  James  I.  of  Scotland/ 
•  The  Slaughter  of  Rizzio,'  •  Jephtha^s  Vow/  *  Pre- 
sentation m  the  Temple,*  'Arthur  and  Hubert,' 
'  Belisarius  and  Juliet  in  the  Garden,'  are  his  most 
noted  works.  0.  was  elected  an  Associate  of  the 
Koyal  Academy  in  1786,  and  Academician  in  the 
following  year.  He  devoted  part  of  his  time  to 
various  Uterary  efforts  tending  to  the  illustration  of 
art :  these  were  chiefly  the  '  Life  of  Reynolds '  in 
Dr  Wolcott's  edition  of  Pilkington's  Dictionary  of 
Painters;  a  letter  in  the  2^arU^  Briton,  recommend- 
ing the  formation  of  a  National  Gallery,  reprinted  as 
An  Inquiry  into  the  Reiiuuite  Cultivation  of  the.  Fine 
Arts  in  Britain;  lectures  on  art,  delivered  at  the 
Boyal  Institution,  which,  though  listened  to  with 
great  attention  by  a  select  and  fashionable  audience, 
do  not  seem  to  have  been  satisfactory  to  himself,  as 
he  declined  to  continue  them.  When  Fuselli,  on 
being  appointed  keeper,  resigned  the  professorship 
of  painting,  O.  was  appoint^  to  that  office ;  and 
the  four  lectures  which  he  delivered — he  died  before 
completing  the  course — l>ear  the  stamp  of  practical 
experience  and  shrewd  observation.  0.  was  twice 
married.  He  obtained  a  divorce  from  his  first  wife ; 
but  his  second,  well  known  as  one  of  the  most 
popular  novelists  of  the  day,  appreciated  his  high 
character,  which  she  set  forth,  after  his  death,  in  a 
memoir  published  along  w^ith  his  lectm^es.  He  died 
somewhat  suddenly  in  his  house,  St  Bernard  Street, 
Oxford  Street,  April  9,  1S07,  and  was  buried  in  the 
crypt  of  St  Paul's,  near  the  grave  of  Reynolds. 

OPI'NICUS,  one  of  the  fabulous  creatures  known 
in  Heraldry,  with  the  head  and  neck  of  an  eagle, 
the  body  of  a  lion,  wings,  and  a  short  tail  like  that 
of  a  cameh  Such  a  monster,  ^vitli  wings  endorsed 
or,  was  the  crest  of  the  company  of  barber-surgeons 
of  London. 

OPINION  OP  COUNSEL  is  the  technical 
name  for  the  advice  given  by  a  barrister  or  advo- 
cate. The  attorney  or  solicitor  writes  a  statement 
of  facts,  called  *a case'  in  England, and  *a memorial' 
in  Scotland,  which  ends  by  asking  certain  queries, 
and  the  answer  written  b^  the  counsel  is  his 
opinion.  A  counsel  is  not  liable  for  any  damages 
caused  by  his  giving  a  wrong  opinion  though  the 
result  of  gross  ignorance,  this  being  one  of  the 
privileges  of  counsel. 

OPITZ,  Martik,  a  famous  German  poet,  was 
bom  December  23,  1597,  at  Bunzlau,  in  Silesia.  He 
received  an  education  of  the  highest  kind;  and 
after  some  time  spent  at  the  court  of  the  Duke 
of  Liegnitz,  he  accepted,  in*  1622,  an  invitation 
by  Bethlen  Gabor,  Pnnce  of  Transylvania,  to  teach 
Philosophy  and  the  Humaniora  at  Weissenburg ;  but 
disliking  the  rudeness  of  the  country,  he  soon 
retiimed  to  the  court  of  the  Duke  of  Liegnitz.  In 
1624,  his  first  poems  were  published,  and  in  the 
same  year  his  work  Von  der  deutec/ien  Poeterei,  in 
which  he  laid  the  foundation  of  a  system  of  German 
poetics.  In  1625,  he  went  to  Vienna,  where,  on 
account  of  an  elegy  on  the  death  of  an  archduke,  he 
received  a  laurd  crown  from  the  hands  of  the 
emperor,  Ferdinand  IL  In  1626,  he  became  secre- 
tary, although  a  Protestant,  to  the  Burggraf 
Karl  Hannibal  of  Dohna,  a  distinguished  Roman 
Catholic  and  imperialist,  and  was  employed  in 
various  transactions  with  foreign  courts.  In  1629, 
the  emperor  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  nobility. 
After  the  death  of  the  Burggraf  of  Dohna,  in  1633, 
he  returned  to  the  courts  of  Liegnitz  iind  Brie^. 
AUkut  this  time  he  published    Vemv,  a  didactic 


poem,  and  his  Trontgedicht  in  Widerwdrtigkeit  det 
Kriegs,  the  best  of  his  poems,  which  were  followed 
by  an  opera  called  Judith,  a  translation  of  the 
Antigone  of  Sophocles,  and  a  translation  of  the 
Psalms.  In  1638,  he  was  appointed  Secretary  and 
Historiographer  to  Ladislaus  iV.  of  Poland.  But  in 
the  midst  of  his  days,  and  when  he  had  attained  to 
fame  and  prosperity,  he  was  cut  oflf  by  the  plague 
at  Dantzic,  August  20,  1639.  0.  was  more  honoured 
by  his  contemporaries  than  almost  any  other  poet 
ever  was.  German  poetry,  which  had  been 
neglected  and  despised,  began  again  to  be  esteemed 
aiid  cultivated.  The  popumrity  of  C,  and  his  rela- 
tions with  the  chiefs  of  the  Roman  Catholic  party, 
led  to  the  adoption,  throughout  the  whole  of  Ger- 
many, of  the  form  given  to  the  German  language  by 
Luther,  which  had  previously  obtained  general 
acceptance  only  in  the  Protestant  states.  His 
poetry  is  characterised  by  careful  attention  to 
lanciuage  and  metre,  and  by  reflection  rather  than 
by  brilliant  fancy  or  deep  feeling.  There  are  several 
complete  editions  of  his  works  (3  vols.  Breslau, 
1690;  3  vols.  Amst  1646;  and  3  vols.  Frankfurt 
and  Leipzic,  1724). 

O'PIUM,  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  medicines, 
is  the  dried  juice  of  the  unripe  capsules  of  a  species 
of  Poppy  (q.  v.),  Papaver  aomn{jferum,  sometimes 
called  the  Common  Poppy,  and  sometimes  the  White 
Poppy,  although  the  latter  name  is  really  appro- 
priate only  to  one  of  its  varieties.  The  plant  is 
probably  a  native  of  some  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
Asia,  although  it  is  now  common  in  cultivated  and 
waste  grounds  throughout  all  the  south  and  middle 
of  Europe,  and  is  occasionallv  found  in  Britain,  ^t 
is  an  annual,  varying  in  heignt  from  one  to  six  feet, 
erect,  branched,  of  a  glaucous  green  coloui',  with 
ovate-oblong  sessile   leaves,  the  stem  and  leaves 

generally  smooth,  the  branches  terminated  by  large 
owers  on  long  stalks,  the  capsules  globose  or 
roundish-ovate  and  smooth.  There  are  two  prin- 
cipal varieties  cultivated  for  the  opium  which  they 
yield,  which  have  been  regarded  by  some  botanisto 
as  distinct  species ;  the  one  {Papaver  somniferuin) 
having  generally  red  or  violet-coloured  flowers, 
numerous  flower-stalks  rising  together,  globose 
capsules  opening  by  a  circle  of  pores  under  the 
persistent  stigma,  and  black  seeds ;  the  other  (P. 
officinale)  having  white  flowers,  solitary  flower- 
stalks,  the  capsules  somewhat  ovaiie,  the  circle  of 
pores  almost  wanting,  the  seeds  white.  The  former 
variety  is  generally  cultivated  in  the  mountainous 
parts  of  the  north  of  India,  the  latter  in  the  plain 
of  Bengal,  where  the  poppy-tields  are  described  by 
Dr  Hooker  as  resemblmg  green  lakes  studded  with 
white  water-lilies.  The  cultivation  of  the  poppy 
for  the  sake  of  opium  is  carried  on  in  man^  parts  of 
India,  although  the  chief  opium  district  is  a  large 
tract  on  the  Ganges,  about  600  miles  in  length  and 
200  miles  in  breadth,  which  has  been  divided  by  the 
East  India  Company  into  two  agencies,  that  of 
Behar  and  that  of  Benares,  the  central  factory  of 
the  former  being  at  Patna,  and  that  of  the  latter  at 
Ghazeepore.  The  poppy  is  also  extensively  culti- 
vated for  opium  in  the  Asiatic  provinces  of  Turkf'y, 
in  Egypt,  and  in  Persia.  Opium  of  very  good  quality 
is  also  produced,  although  not  to  any  considerable 
amount,  in  some  parts  of  £uroi)e,  and  even  in 
Britain.  It  is  sometimes  alleged  that  a  much 
warmer  climate  than  that  of  Britain  is  requisite  for 
the  profitable  production  of  opium,  but  the  chief 
fault  of  the  climate  seems  rather  to  be  the  fre- 
quency of  wet  weather.  Very  fine  specimens  of 
opium  have  been  produced,  and  the  produce  per 
acre  has  been  found  amply  remunerative;  but  a 
great  difficulty  is  experienced  in  obtaining  labour 

at  a  moderate  rate  for  a  few  days  only  at  a  time 

83 


tni  wbea  tiie  exp«rimeiit  i>  condiicteil  on  a  Bcnall 
■rale,  ooly  for  a  few  hoiira  daily.  TbU  difficulty 
wu  iDucb  felt  in  an  experiment,  otharwiBe  mnst 
■iicceaaful,  which  wu  made  &t  Edinburgh,  by  Mr 


hanj^ng  St  the  ude  of  the  collector.  When  thii 
ii  full,  it  ii  carried  home  uid  IraDitferTed  to  ■ 
ihallow  open  bran   diah,  called   ft   IbuUte,  and  left 


Young,  a  surgeon,  irhn  about 


_  IT  1830  obtained 
{Hi  Iba.  of  opium  from  one  acre  of  jwppiei,  and  Bold  it 
M  36*.  a  lb.  It  was  of  excellent  quality.  His  mode 
(i  caltivatiou  was  similar  to  that  usual  in  India. 
The  wed  being  aovn  in  spring  on  a  rich  soil,  the 
l>lants  were  kept  clear  of  weeds,  and  when  tbay  had 
dowered  and  produced  oapaules,  incisiooa  were 
made  in  the  capsules,  and  the  eiuded  juice  collected 
as  described  below.  The  caiwules  vary  from  the 
size  of  a  ben's  egg  to  that  of  the  Hit.  In  India,  the 
li->ppy  flowers  in  the  end  of  January  and  beginning 
of  February. 

The  poppy  requinw  for  its  profitable  caltivatioQ  a 
rich  soil,  and  m  India  is  generally  sown  in  the 
neiubbourhood  of  villages  where  manure  can  be 
eiL'fliy  obtained.  The  soil  ought  to  be  fine  and 
lo'ise  when  the  seed  is  sown.  The  subsequent 
cultivation  oonsists  chiefiy  in  thinning  and  weeilil 
irrigation  is  practised.  Mild  moist  weather,  w 
night-dewB.  is  deemed  most  favourable  duriug  the 
time  of  the  collection  of  the  opium.  Very  dry 
veather  diminishe*  the  fiow  of  the  juice,  uid  much 
r.iin  is  tDJurious." 

The  opium  poppy  is  cultivnted  for  other  porposes 
Iitstdes  the  production  of  opium,  concerning  which 

Opium,^  a  commercial  article,  is  of  great  import- 
ance, exceeding  indeed  that  of  any  otlier  drug 
in  use,  and  the  ciUtivation  of  the  opium  poppy 
(Paparrr  tomn\fmm]  in  British  India  forms 
most  extensive  branch  of  agriculture,  and  the  colli 
tion  and  preparation  of  the  drug  itself  employs  a 
large  number  of  persona  in  the  Fatna,  Malwa,  and 
Benares  districts  of  Bi;ngaL  Indeed  during  the 
whole  existence  of  the  Eaat  India  Company,  the 
production  of  this  drug  was  of  the  lirat  im^ortiuice ; 
Its  employment  a*  a  habitual  narcotic,  as  well  as  a 
medicine  amongst  all  the  eastern  nations,  demands 
I  supply.    The  seed  is  sown  in  India 


Fi«.3. 

...  w  time  tilted  on  its  side,  so  that  an^  watery 
fluid  mav  drniu  out ;  this  watery  fluid  is  called 
puanefwah,  and  is  very  detrimental  to  the  opuim 
unless  removed.  It  now  requires  daily  attendance, 
has  to  be  turned  frequently,  so  that  the  air 
may  dry  it  equally,  until  it  acquires  a  tolerable 
'stenoy,  which  requires  three  or  four  weeks ;  it 
m  packe<l  in  small  earthen  jars,  and  taken  to 
ndoum*  or  factories  ;  here  the  contents  of  each 
.re  turned  out  and  carefully  wtighed,  tested, 
valued,  and  credited  to  the  cultivator.  The  opium 
then  thrown  into  vast  vats,  which  hold  the  aocu- 
mutations  of  whole  districts,  and  the  mass  being 
knesded,  is  again  taken  out  and  made  into  boUl 
or  cakes  fur  the  market. 

This  is  a  very  Important  onenMon,  and  ia  con- 
ducted in  Inti}'  iixims.  the  workmen  sitting  in  ro-n, 
carefully  watted  by  tile  uvei'seers  to  insure  the  work 
being  carefully  pei'furuiod.  Before  each  workman 
(flg.  4)  is  *  tray,  and  within  easy  reach  is  placed  the 


Kg.L 

the  beginning  of  November;  it  flowera  in  the  end  of 
January,  or  ft  bttle  later ;  and  in  three  or  four  weeks 
after,  the  capsulea  or  poppy-beads  are  about  the  size 
of  hens'  eggs,  and  ore  ready 
for  operating  upon.  When 
tbia  is  tiie  case,  the  collectors 
each  take  a  little  iron  in- 
strument, called  a  nitehtar 
(fig.  1);  it  is  made  of  three 
or  four  small  plates  of  iron, 
narrow  at  one  end  and  wider 
at  the  other,  which  is  also 
notched  like  a  saw;  with 
these  instruments  they 
wound  each  full-grown 
poppy-head  (fig.  2)  as  they 
make  their  way  through  tl 

C"  bs  in  the  field  (flc.  S 
is  always  done  early  m 
the  morning,  before  the  heat 
ol  the  sun  is  felt ;  during 
the  day  the  milky  juice  of 
the  plant  oosea  out,  and 
Hg  2.  •Mly  on  ^^  following  mom- 

ing  it  is  collected  by  scraping 
it  off  with  ft  kind  of  scoop,  called  a  nltocha,  and 
tranifened  to  fta  earthen  veasel,  cftlled  a  hariux. 


ri«.  4. 

tagar,  a  tiu  vessel  for  holding  as  much  opium  tA  -will 
make  thn.-e  or  live  bolls.  On  the  tray  ia  another 
basin  containing  water,  and  a  smaller  tray ;  on  thij 
tray  stends  a  brass  cup,  into  which  the  bidl  or  cake 
is  moulded,  also  a  supply  of  thin  kyers  of  poppy- 
petals,  formed  by  laving  them  out  overlapping  each 
other,  and  pressing  tueni  uj>on  one  another ;  these  are 
prepared  by  women  in  the  poupy-fields,  and  with 
these  is  a  cup  tilled  with  a  sticky  fiuid  called  leieah, 
made  from  opium  of  inferior  quality.    The  operator 


bejom  bi>  wotk  br  UkiQg  the  brass  cup  and  pUcini; 
on  iu  bottom  one  of  the  Oakeg  of  popiiy  petals,  which 
h»  lOKara  over  with  the  lewah ;  tiieu  adds  other 
GikM  of  pet&la  to  overlap  and  adhere  to  tha  first, 
notil  the  cup  i*  lined  and  a  coat  of  iKtals  ia  thua 
fiinBed  for  the  opium,  of  which  ha  takes  the  exact 
quantity  a*  avsr  as  he  can  guesa,  works  it  into  a  ball, 
and  places  it  m  the  bssin,  an  thnt  the  limng  of  petals 
■icloaea  it  and  sticks  to  it,  in  consequence  of  the 
IcHoA  smeared  on  the  in  ner  side  of  the  thin  cakes 
of  petals.  Other  petals  are  jntt  on  the  npper  part  of 
the  ball,  and  the  whole  gathered  round  it,  funning 
a  case  about  ■*  thick  as  a  brnik-note.  }Cach  man's 
work  for  the  da;  is  kept  lif  itself,  aod  after  baviag 
been  dnl^  registered,  is  taken  to  a  vast  drying-room 
(lig.  G),  where  tha  balls  kre  placed  in  tiers  on  Uttice- 


The  maoafacture  of  opium  is  carried  on  to  the 
gnateat  extent  in  India,  but  large  tjoantities  are  also 
made  in  Turkey,  and  this  latter  is  considered  the 
beat  in  qiudity.  It  is  alao  made  at  Trebizond  in 
Penia,  and  in  Egypt :  occasionally  it  has  been  pro- 
doced  in  Germany,  Frauce.  and  En^tland.  Of  the 
Indian  opium  there  are  seveial  qoaliuea,  as  Bengal, 
Palna  or  Benares  opinm.  Garden  Patoa,  Malwa, 
fine  MalwK,  Cuteh,  and  Kandeish  opiam. 

Tbe  oDsntity  exported  from  India  in  1860  waa 
fiS.681  chests,  or  3(K29  tons,  the  value  of  which  was 
jC9.054,39.S.  Of  this,  China  alone  took  54,863  chests, 
of  the  value  of  £8,366.335.  In  1861,  the  quantity 
exported  was  increased  to  63,490  chesU,  or  4l>51  tons, 
of  the  value  of  X10,184,713  ;  and  China's  share  waa 
e9,4U5  cheats,  of  tbe  value  of  £9,4-28,887.  Next  to 
China,  the  largest  consumption  of  Indian  ojiium  is 
by  the  Bormeae  and  the  ikativea  of  the  slslaccs 
Stfsita.  who  took  in  1861  to  the  value  of  throe- 
qnarten  of  •  million  aterling. 


In  Europe,  with  very  ali^  ezceptiona,  opium  ia 

Dsed  for  medicinal  purposes  only,  and  large  quan- 
tities of  it  nndergo  a  still  further  stage  of  mann- 
factnre,  in  order  to  aeparate  from  it  the  active 
]ninci|)les  morphine,  narcotlne,  hfi.  In  Qreat  Britain, 
the  coief  manufacture  of  these  salts  of  opium  ia 
carried  ou  in  Edinburgh,  where  two  Gnns,  Messra 
T.  and  H.  Smith,  and  J.  F.  Macfartane  k  Co.,  have 
attained  great  reputation,  and  manufncture  these 
products  upon  an  immense  scale,  supplying  probably 
a  fifth  of  the  whole  quantity  rnvnufactured. 


the  British  pharmacoixeia  is 
iirkev  opium.  The  chemical  composition  of 
opium  has  been  studied  by  various  chemists,  amongst 
whom  must  be  especially  mentioned  Profugsor 
Mulder  of  Utrecht,  and  Professor  Anderson  of 
Glasgow.  The  following  oonstituents  occur  in  mo«t 
kinds  of  opium  i 

Heconic  Add,  31  4  to  8  per  cent 

Morphia,        .  om  4  to  12    . 

Codcia,       .  .  sathanl       ■ 

Thebaia, 

NaTcotine,    .  Mm  6  to  10  . 

^Naroeia,     ,        ,  om  6  to  13   v 

Ueconine,     .  n  than  1      • 

Besinous  Matter,  tnnu  2  to  4     • 

Caoatchonc,   .  from41o6      • 

Mucilage,  Qum,  and  Extraotiva  )  > .^  •    tn 

Matters,      ....  }m™«>t"W  . 

Id  addition  to  the  six  alkaloids  named  in  this  table, 
a  seveath,  named  opianine,  ho*  been  found  in 
E^|itian  opium,  but  in  no  other  varieties. 

Some  of  the  moat  important  and  characteristic  of 
these  constituents,  as  meconie  acid,  morphia,  aud 
narcotine,  are  noticed  in  special  artiUes.  The  only 
isolated  constituents  of  opium  which  are  now  used 
in  medicine  are  Codeia  (so  called  from  the  Qreek 
word  kedria,  a  poppy-head),  which  has  been  aaaerttj 
by  Magendie  and  others  to  act  in  tha  same  mannt-r 
as,  although  lesa  powerfully  than,  morphia,  but 
which  ia  now  aeldom  prescribed,  as  it  ia  not  a 
pharmacoiHEiat  prepantion  i  and  JUorpAia,  which 
has  already  been  described. 

Tbe  only  test  given  in  the  British  pharmacopceia 
for  the  purity  of  opium  is  the  determination  of  ita 
percentage  of  morphia,  which  ia  a  process  requiring 
a  considerable  amount  of  chemical  akilL 

Following  the  arrangenient  adopted  by  Pereira 
(Elements  o/Mairria  Meiiica,  4th  ed.',  we  have  just 
quoted,  we  shall  consider  (1)  the  elTects  of  one  or  a 
few  doses  of  opium  employed  medicinally  or  as  a 
poison ;  (2)  the  effects  of  the  habitual  en]iloymerit 
uf  opium,  either  by  chewing  or  smoking  it ;  and  (3) 
its  good  and  bad  effects  on  the  different  syatema  of 

1.  In  tmaU  dona,  as  from  a  qnarter  of  a  grun  to 
a  grain,  it  acts  as  an  agreeable  stimulant,  thia  ellei-'t 
being  followed  by  a  desire  to  sleep,  aceompanieil  by 
dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  thirst,  and  sliirht 
conatipation.  When  it  is  given  in  a  /uU  meelidimt 
doge  (as  from  two  to  four  grains),  the  stue  of  excite- 
ment is  soon  followed  by  well-marked  depression  or 
torpor,  both  of  the  bodily  and  mental  organs,  and 
an  almost  irresistible  aleepineaa  ,  these  effects  beinj 
usnnlly  succeeded  by  constipation,  nausea,  furrtd 
tongue,  headache,  and  listlessness.  When  it  is 
administered  in  a  dangerous  or  poisonous  dose,  the 
symptoms,  as  summed  up  by  Dr  Christiion  in  hia 
work  On  FoUoha,  begin  with  giddiness  and  Btu|>or, 
generally  without  any  jirevioua  atimulns.  The  Btu|>ur 
rapidly  moreasing,  the  person  becomes  motionltss, 
and  inaensilile  t/>  external  impressions  ;  be  breath'iB 
very  slowly,  generally  lies  quite  still,  with  bis  eyia 
shut  and  the  pupils  contracted ;  and   the   whula 


OPIUM. 


expres&ion  ol  tiie  countenance  is  that  of  deep  and 
perfect  repose.  As  the  poisoning  advances,  the 
featnres  become  ghastly,  the  pulse  feeble  and 
imperceptible,  the  muscles  exceedingly  relaxed,  and, 
unless  assistance  is  speedily  prociu^d,  death  ensues. 
If  the  person  recovers,  the  insensibility  is  suc- 
ceeded by  prolonged  sleep,  which  commonly  ends 
in  twenty-four  or  thirty-six  hours,  and  is  followed 
by  nausea^  vomiting,  giddiness,  and  loathing  of 
food. 

2.  The  habitual  tue  of  opiwitj  whether  the  drug 
be  eaten  or  smoked,  is  undoubtedly  in  most  cases 
injurious  to  the  constitution,  although  ])robably  not 
to  the  extent  that  some  eastern  travellers  assert. 
Dr  Christison,  and  other  physicians  of  eminence,  have 
shewn  that  in  numerous  cases  very  laree  quantities 
of  this  drug  may  be  regularly  taken  with  impunity ; 
and  Dr  Chapman  (Elements  of  Tlierapeuties^  voL  ii 
p.  199)  relates  two  remarkable  cases  of  this  kind — 
one  in  which  a  wineglassful  of  laudanum  was  taken 
several  times  in  the  twenty-four  hours,  and  another 
(a  cose  of  cancer  of  the  uterus)  in  which  the 
quantity  of  laudanum  was  gradually  increased  to 
three  pints  daily,  a  considerable  quantity  of  solid 
opium  being  also  taken  in  the  same  period. 

Ofnum-smoking  is  a  habit  that  is  chiefly  confined 
to  China  and  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
An  extract,  caUed  ckandoo,  is  made  into  pills  about 
the  size  of  a  i)ea.  The  following  is  the  account 
given  by  Marsden,  in  his  History  ^SumatrOj  of  the 
process  employed:  *One  of  these  pills  being  put 
into  the  small  tube  that  projects  from  the  side  of 
the  opium  pipe,  that  tube  is  ai)])lied  to  a  lamp,  and 
the  pill  being  lighted  is  consumed  at  one  whiff  or 
inilation  of  the  lungs,  attended  with  a  whistling 
noise.  The  smoke  is  never  emitted  by  the  mouth, 
but  usually  receives  vent  through  the  nostrils.' 
Although  the  immoderate  practice  of  opium-smoking 
is  most  destructive  to  those  who  live  in  poverty  and 
distress,  yet  from  the  evidence  of  Mr  Smith,  a 
surgeon  resident  at  Pulo  Penang,  and  of  Dr  Eatwell, 
who  passed  three  years  in  Chi^,  it  does  not  appear 
thnt  the  Chinese  in  easy  circumstances,  and  who 
have  the  comforts  of  life  about  them,  are  materially 
affected  in  respect  to  longevity  by  addiction  to  this 
habit. 

3.  As  the  discussion  of  the  physiolo^cal  action 
of  opium  on  the  different  organs  would,  m  its  most 
condensed  form,  occupy  too  much  space,  we  shall 
confine  our  remarks  to  the  practical  conclusions  at 
which  physiologists  and  physicians  have  arrived 
respecting  the  utility  and  the  danger  of  prescribing 
this  drug  in  various  conditions  of  the  principal  vitid 


organs. 


a.  Cerebrospinal  System. — Under  proper  regulations 
it  is  a  remedy  which  may  be  iised  to  stimulate  the 
circulation  within  the  cranium,  to  promote  sleep,  to 
diminish  abnormal  or  increased  sensibility,  and  to 
allay  pain  generally ;  while  it  is  contra-indicated  in 
apoplexy,  cerebral  inflammation,  paralysis,  and 
hysteria.  Dr  Pereira  relates  a  case  in  which  one 
grain  of  opium,  administered  to  an  hysterical  young 
woman,  proved  fatal. 

b.  Diffestive  System, — ^^  Under  proper  regulations,' 
says  Pereira,  'opium  is  an  admissible  remedy  for 
the  following  pur|)ose8 :  to  diminish  excessive 
hunger;  to  allay  pain,  when  unaccompanied  by 
inflammation ;  to  diminish  the  sensibility  of  the 
digestive  organs  in  cases  of  acrid  poisoning,  and  in 
the  passage  of  biliary  calculi ;  to  produce  relaxation 
of  the  muscular  fibres  of  the  alimentary  cancil  in 
colic,  and  of  the  gall-ducts  in  the  ])assage  of  calculi, 
and  to  diminish  excessive  seci^tion  from  the 
intestinal  canal  in  diarrhoea;'  while  it  is  contra- 
indicated  '  in  diminished  secretion  from  the  gastro- 
intestinal membrane,  in  extreme  thirst,  in  loss  of 


appetite  and  weak  digestion,  in  obstinate  ooetiveness, 
and  in  diminished  excretion  of  bile.' 

c  Vascular  Stjatem. — In  vascular  excitement  with 
great  diminution  of  power,  as  after  hemorrhage, 
opium  is  often  serviceable ;  but  when  the  pulse  is 
strong  as  well  as  quick,  or  when  there  is  simid- 
taneously  a  tendency  to  abnormal  sleepiness,  it  ii 
contra-indicated. 

d.  Respiratory  System, — *  Opium,  under  proper 
re^ilations,  may  be  useful  to  cuminish  the  contrac- 
tility of  the  muscles  of  respiration,  or  of  the 
muscular  fibres  of  the  air-tubes,  as  in  spasmodic 
asthma ;  to  diminish  the  seusibilitv  of  the  oronchia 
in  the  second  stage  of  catarrh,  and  thereby  to  allay 
cough  by  lessening  the  influence  of  the  cold  aii ; 
and,  lastly,  to  counteract  excessive  bronchial  secre- 
tion;'  while  it  is  contra-indicated  in  difficulty  of 
breathing,  arising  from  a  deficient  supply  of  nervous 
energy,  as  in  apoplectic  cases ;  in  cases  in  which  the 
venous  is  imperfectly  converted  into  arterial  blood ; 
and  in  the  first  stage  of  catarrh  and  pneumonia, 
both  from  its  checking  secretion,  and  from  its 
tendency  to  impede  the  due  artenalisation  of  the 
blood. 

e.  Urinary  System, — Opium  is  a  valuable  remedy 
to  allay  the  pain  in  the  kidney  and  adjacent  iiarts 
in  cases  of  renal  calculi,  and  also  to  produce 
relaxation  of  the  ureters  when  the  calculi  are  passing 
along  these  tubes;  it  is  also  of  great  service  in 
certajn  forms  of  irritable  bladder. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  essential  and 
primary  operation  of  opium  is  on  the  nervous 
system,  the  other  effects  beii^g  for  the  most  park 
secondary. 

Opium  is  undoubtedly  the  most  valuable  remedy 
of  the  whole  materia  medica.  *  For  other  medicines,' 
says  Dr  Pereira,  *  we  have  one  or  more  substitutes  ; 
but  for  opium,  none — at  least  in  the  large  majority 
of  cases  in  which  its  peculiar  and  beneficial  influence 
is  required.'  We  not  only  exhibit  it  to  miti^te 
pain,  to  allay  spasm,  to  promote  sleep,  to  relieve 
nervous  restlessness,  to  produce  nerspiration,  and  to 
check  profuse  discharges  from  tne  bronchial  tubes 
and  intestinal  canal ;  but  we  also  find  it  capable  of 
relieving  some  diseases  in  which  none  of  the  above 
indications  can  be  always  distinctly  perceived.  In 
combination  with  tartar  emetic,  it  has  been  strongly 
recommended  in  fever  with  much  cerebral  ms* 
turbance ;  in  association  with  calomel,  it  is  the 
most  trustworthy  remedy  in  cases  of  inflammation 
of  membranous  parts ;  in  insanity,  its  value  cannot 
be  overestimated ;  it  is  the  remedy  chiefly  trusted 
to  in  delirium  tremens ;  it  is  more  serviceable  than 
any  other  medicine  in  diabetes;  and  to  conclude 
with  a  more  common  and  less  serious  affection,  its 
efficiency,  when  administered  in  small  doses  (as  ten 
or  fifteen  drops  of  laudanum  three  times  a  day),  in 
promoting  the  healing  of  ulcers  in  which  granulation 
proceeds  too  slowly  is  very  marked. 

In  addition  to  the  solution  of  Muriate  of  Moqihia 
(q.  v.),  which,  on  the  whole,  is  the  best  preparation  of 
opium  for  internal  use  in  the  majority  of  cases,  the 
British  pharmacopceia  contains  an  opium  pill* (contain- 
ing one  part  of  opium  in  five  of  the  pill) ;  a  pill  of  lead 
and  opium  (chiefly  used  in  pulmonai^  hemorrhage)  ; 
an  aromatic  powder  of  chauL  and  opium  (containing 
one  part  of  opium  in  forty  of  the  powder) ;  ])owder 
of  ipecacuan  and  opium  (or  Dover's  Powder  [q.  v.], 
containing  one  part  of  opium  in  ten  of  the  powder) ; 
powder  of  kino  and  opium  (containing  one  part  of 
opium  in  twenty  of  the  powder,  and,  like  the 
aromatic  powder,  chieflv  usea  in  diiurrhoea) ;  tincture 
(see  Laudanum),  and  camphorated  tincture  of 
opium  (commonly  known  as  Paregoric  EHixir,  and 
much  used  in  chronic  cough — containing  two  grains 
of  opium  in  the  fluid  ounce) ;  in  addition  to  an  enema  ; 


OPOBALSAMUM--OFOSSUM. 


a  wine  (used  chiefly  as  a  local  application  to  the 
ere  in  cases  of  ophthalmia) ;  an  ointment  of  galls  and 
opimn  (nsed  as  an  external  application  to  piles) ;  and 
a  liniment  and  a  plaster,  which  are  applied  to  remove 
local  superficial  pains. 

In  a  case  of  jioisoning  by  opinm,  the  first  and 
most  essential  pomt  is  the  evacuation  of  the  contents 
of  the  stomach.  The  stomach-pump,  if  it  can  be 
procured,  should  be  employed,  and  strong  coffee 
should  then  be  pumped  mto  the  stomach  after  the 
removal  of  its  contents.  The  next  best  remedy  is 
an  emetic  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (about  a  scruple),  and 
if  this  is  not  at  hand,  a  dessert-spoonful  of  fiour  of 
ina«tard,  stirred  up  in  a  tumbler  of  warm  water, 
wiil  usually  produce  the  desired  effects  The  patient 
must,  if  possible,  be  prevented  from  falling  asleep, 
and  for  tnis  purpose  ne  should  be  kept  constantly 
walking  between  two  strong  men,  while  a  third 
person  in  the  rear  should,  at  short  intervals,  flick 
nim  sharply  with  a  rough  wet  towel,  or  (if  pro- 
curable) a  good  birch  ro£  Cold  water  should  also 
be  occasionally  dashed  over  the  head  and  chest.  In 
a  few  apparently  hopeless  cases,  death  has  been 
averted  by  artificial  respiration,  and  by  the  applica- 
tion of  electro-magnetism. 

OPOBAXSAMUM.    See  Balsam  and  Gw. 

OPODI2XDOG  is  a  popular  synonyme  for  Soap 
Liniment  (q.  v.).  The  origin  of  the  term,  which 
was  ap}»arently  applied  by  Paracelsus  to  various 
forms  of  liniments  or  local  applications,  is  not 
known.  The  o/^o  is  the  same  as  the  opo  of 
opoponax,  opobaiiamum,  &&,  and  is  doiibtless  derived 
from  the  Greek  dpos,  juice.  It  has  been  suggested 
by  an  eminent  Anglo-Saxon  scholar  that  the 
original  word  was  opodlllOy  and  that  doc  or  dock 
was  added  merely  as  a  gloss  to  dHla—&  view  that 
is  confirmed  by  the  fac^  that  in  i£lfric's  Olosiory, 
diU  (dilla)  is  Englished  by  dock, 

OPCyPONAX,  a  gum  resin  obtained  by  punc- 
turing the  roots  of  a  species  of  parsnip  {Pastinaoa 
Opoponax),  The  chief  interest  m  this  material  is 
the  great  importance  which  the  ancient  physicians 
attached  to  it  as  an  antispasmodic  medicine.  It 
was  employed  by  Hippocrates,  Theophrastus,  and 
Diosoorides,  who  have  each  left  descriptions  of  it. 
The  plant  grows  generally  throughout  Southern 
Europe,  and  the  gum  is  still  collected,  but  is  not 
much  used. 

OP<yRT0  (Portug.  0  Porto,  the  port),  a  city  of 
Portugal,  and,  after  Lisbon,  the  most  important  sea- 
port of  the  country,  in  the  province  of  Minho,  on 
the  right  bank,  and  two  miles  from  the  mouth 
of  the  DouTD,  in  hA,  4V  9*  N.,  long.  8'  37'  W. ; 
and  is  195  miles  north-north-east  of  Lisbon. 
Though  possessing  few  imposing  edifices,  the  town, 
seen  from  a  distance  with  its  irregular  outline 
marked  with  many  towers,  its  whitewashed  houses 
gleaming  among  trees  and  terraced  gardens,  has  a 
fine  picturesque  effect.  Its  picturesqueness,  how- 
ever, has  been  secured  at  the  cost  to  a  great  extent 
of  f»mfort,  as  many  of  its  streets  are  narrow,  dirty, 
and  so  steep  as  to  be  impassable  for  carriages. 
Of  the  old  walls  that  surrounded  the  ancient 
town,  remains  are  still  to  be  seen.  The  principal 
street  is  the  Bua  Nova  do$  luf^ezes,  a  spacious, 
handsome,  modem  thoroughfare,  from  which  a 
good  view  of  the  Bishop^  Palace,  which  seems 
to  be  hung  high  in  the  air,  is  obtained.  Here 
is  atoated  one  of  the  finest  edifices  in  0.,  the 
Fjiglish  Factory  House,  a  building  of  white  granite 
wiui  a  beiuitiful  facade,  and  comprising  on  a  magni- 
ficent scale  all  the  appurtenances  of  a  club-house, 
aa  fasU-room,  library,  refreshment-room,  &a  The 
in  the  Jhta  jfova  de  S,  Joio,  the  most  regular 
in  the  city,  are  lofty,  and  are  faced  with 


gaily  painted  and  gilt  balconies.  Of  the  11  squares, 
the  greatest  is  the  Prara  de  S.  Ovidio  on  a  lieieiit, 
the  appearance  of  which  is  enhanced  by  beautiful 
buildings  and  a  terrace,  with  a  fine  seaward  view, 
planted  with  trees.  On  the  high  rocks,  on  tho 
southern  bank  of  the  river,  stands  the  convent  of  da 
SerrcL,  which  at  one  time  was  extraordinarily  rich. 
The  most  beautiful  of  the  convents  was  that  of  S, 
Bento,  now  converted  into  barracks.  The  cathedral, 
which  must  originally  have  been  a  noble  edifice,  out 
has  been  infamously  modernised,  stands  near  the 
Bishop's  Palace.  The  Torre  doa  Clerujos  (Tower  of 
the  Clergy),  said  to  be  the  highest  in  Portugal,  was 
built  ^n  1748.  Formerly,  there  were  in  ah  80 
convents  and  chapels  in  the  city.  Of  existing 
institutions,  there  are  four  hospitals,  and  numerous 
educational  and  benevolent  establishments.  O.  is 
the  principal  industrial  seat  in  the  country.  It  carries 
on  manufactures  of  linen,  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen 
fabrics,  cloth  of  gold,  silk  and  cotton  hosiery,  lace, 
buttons,  gold  and  silver  wire,  cutlery  and  hardware, 
excellent  furniture,  pottery,  glass,  leather,  paper, 
hats,  sails,  and  the  articles  required  on  ship-board. 
Royal  tobacco  and  soap-works,  two  iron-foundries, 
and  several  sugar-refineries  are  also  in  operation. 
The  entrance  to  the  Douro  is  rendered  highly 
dangerous  by  a  shifting  bar  of  sand ;  but  yet  the 
commercial  traffic  on  the  river  is  considerable.  Its 
im^xtrts  for  1861,  consisting  principally  of  cotton, 
woollen,  iron,  and  hardware  manufactures  from 
England,  salt-fish,  wheat,  rice,  hemp,  and  flax, 
amounted  to  £2,029,295;  its  exports,  consisting  of 
port  (so  called  from  the  name  of  the  town  whence 
shipped)  and  other  wines,  oils,  sumach,  oranges, 
lemons,  &c.,  amounted  to  £1,^^92,050.  Pop.,  includ- 
ing suburbs,  about  90,000. 

In  ancient  times,  the  site  of  0.  was  occupied  by 
the  harbour-town  Portus  Cale^  afterwards  Porto 
Cole,  from  which  has  been  derived  the  name  of  the 
kin^om,  Portugal  It  was  an  im()ortant  city 
during  the  supremacy  of  the  Moors,  was  destroyed 
in  820  by  Abuansor  of  Cordova,  but  was  restored 
and  peopled  by  a  colony  of  Gascons  and  Freuch 
in  999.  It  was  famous  for  the  strength  of  its  forti- 
fications during  the  middle'  ages,  its  walls  being 
2K)00  paces  in  circumference,  30  feet  in  height, 
and  flanked  with  towers.  From  the  17th  to  th'* 
present  century,  O.  has  been  the  scene  of  an  unusna. 
number  of  popular  insurrections.  In  1808,  it  waa 
taken  by  the  French ;  but  in  the  following  year  it 
was  retaken  by  an  Anglo-Portuguese  force  under 
Wellington.  In  1832,  Dom  Pedro,  the  ex-emperor 
of  Bra^  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  /or  a  year  in 
this  city  by  the  forces  of  Dom  MigueL 

OPO'SSUM  {Diddphis),  a  genus  of  Marmtpiata, 
having  ten  cutting  teeth  in  the  upper  jaw,  aud  eight 
in  the  lower,  one  canine  tooth  on  each  side  in  each 
jaw,  three  compressed  preemolars,  and  four  sharply- 
tuberculated  molars  on  each  side — fifty  teeth  in  aU ; 
the  tongue  bristly;  the  tail  long,  prehensile,  and 
in  part  scaly ;  uie  feet  plantigraide ;  five  toes  on 
each  foot,  their  claws  long  and  £arp  ;  but  the  inner 
toe  of  the  right  foot  converted  into  a  thumb,  desti- 
tute of  a  claw,  and  opposable  to  the  other  digits ; 
the  muzzle  long  and  pointed,  the  month  very  wide, 
the  ears  large  and  destitute  of  hair.  The  unwebbed 
feet  and  non-aquatic  habits  distinguish  this  genus 
from  Cheironectes  (Q.V.),  also  bdon^ng  to  tho 
family  DiddphidcB,  but  the  genus  Ihdelphis  itself 
is  divided  by  some  naturalists  into  several  genera  ; 
and  there  are  differences  not  unimportant,  particn* 
larly  in  the  well-developed  pouch  of  some  species, 
and  the  merely  rudimentary  pouch  or  abdominal 
folds  of  others.  All  the  existing  species  are  Ameri- 
can, but  fossil  species  are  found  in  other  ])art8  of 

the  world.     The  opossums  were  the  first  marsupial 

s} 


OPOSSUM— OPTICAL  ILLDSION. 


BnimolB  knoiTD,  uid  tie  noticed  as  very  wonderfnl 
creaturf  8  by  BOtne  of  the  earliest  writers  on  America. 
Sume  of  tbe  smaller  sliecics  much  resemble  rate  and 
mice,  except  in  their  long  and  poiutad  muzzle; 
others  greatly  resemble  shrews  ;  the  largest  known 
•pecies  are  scarcely  equal  in  size  to  a  large  cat.  Ic 
i«  in  gome  of  the  smaller  species  that  the  pouch  is 
radimentary  ;  aU  the  larger  species  have  a  well- 
developed  pouch,  in  which  the  young  are  carried, 
and  to  which,  ^veo  after  heeinning  to  venture  forth 
from  it,  Uiey  retreat  on  Uie  approach  of  danger. 
The  young  of  the  speciea  which  have  a  merely 
ruiUmeotoiy  poiich,  also  remain  attached  to  the 
nipple  of  Uie  mother  for  a  time;  and  afterworda 
for  a  time  are  carried  on  her  hock,  intwining 
their  prehensile  taila  with  hers^  and  clinging  to 
the  fur  of  her  back— The  Virginian  O.  {D. 
Virainlanai  is  one  of  the  largest  species.  It 
le  wanner  ptuta  of  North  America,  and 


Virginian  Opossum  {Didelphii  Virginiana). 

Ux  range  extends  considerably  to  the  north  of 
Virgin!;!.  Its  form  is  robust,  its  head  very  larije, 
its  colour  dull  white  ;  its  fur  lung,  fine,  and  woolly, 
thickly  intersliereoil  with  longer  coarse  white  hairs, 
except  on  tbe  head  and  some  of  tbe  ujiper  parts, 
where  the  hair  is  short  and  close.  The  tail  is  not 
quite  so  long  as  the  body.  The  Virginian  0.  lives 
much  in  forests  and  among  the  branches  of  trees,  to 
which  it  usually  retreats  to  devour  ite  prey,  twining 
iU  tail  around  a  branch  for  security.  Ita  food  con- 
sists of  small  quailrupeds  and  reptiles,  birds'  eggs, 
and  insects ;  oJso  in  part  of  fnuts  and  the  julcv 
stalks  of  plants.  It  often  visits  poultry. yanls,  and 
diaiilays  much  cunning  in  its  stealthy  quest  of  prey  ; 
although  otherwise  it  seema,  bke  the  Other  Jfar- 
tupiala,  to  be  very  low  in  the  Scale  of  intelligence. 
It  seeks  to  escape  from  enemies  by  running  to  the 


very  trying  circiunstances,  howi 
may  be  kicked  and  beaten  ;  but  the  true  state  of 
the  case  may  be  ascertained  by  throwing  it 
into  water.  The  American  word  'powumifig  makes 
a  figurative  application  of  this  part  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  opossum.  The  female  some- 
tiroes  produces  aiiteen  young  at  a  birth ;  the  young 
when  born  are  blind,  nakeil,  and  shapeless,  and 
weigh  scarcely  more  than  a  grain  each  ;  they  do  not 
begin  to  leave  the  pouch  until  they  have  attained 
about  the  size  of  a  mouse.  The  female  O.  shews  a ' 
very  strong  attachment  to  her  young.  The  0.  is 
Teiy  easily  tamed,  but  its  strong  odour  makes  it  an  , 
nnpleasant  pel  The  flesh  of  tiie  O.  is  said  to  be  I 
good.  The  hair  is  woven  into  gartera  and  girdles  | 
by  the  Indian  women.^Other  species  of  O.  are 
fonnd  in  the  more  southern  parts  of  America.  Of 
these,  one  of  the  largest  is  the  CBAB-KATiNa  O. 
ID.  cancrivora]  of  Qiuaua  and  BrazU  ;  which  is 
Dearly  as  large  as  tbe  Virginian  C,  lives  chiefly  in  . 


marshy  places,  and  feeds  much  on  craha.  Tbe 
smaller  species  are  numerous  in  the  tropical  parts  of 

America The  name  O.  is  often  given  in  Auata'slu 

to  the  Fhalongera  (q.  v.). 

O'FFBLN,  a  town  of  Prassian  SQeaia,  capital  of 
the  government  district  of  the  same  name,  on  the 
Oder,  61  miles  south-east  of  Breslaii.  Since  1816, 
when  it  was  erected  into  an  especial  seat  of  govern- 
ment for  Upper  Silesia,  the  town  has  been  much 
beautified  both  with  new  editices  and  with  porks 
and  gardens.  It  contains  four  churches — one  of 
which,  Adelbert's  Church,  was  founded  in  995-  an 
old  castle  on  the  island  Poscheke  in  the  channel  of 
the  Oder,  a  towa-house,  and  theatre.  Pop.  9608, 
who  carry  on  a  considprable  transit.trade  in  timber, 
zinc,  lead,  hardware,  cattle,  and  wines  ;  and  manu- 
factore  ribbons,  linen  goods,  leather,  and  pottery. 

OPPOSITION,  the  party  ia  either  House  of  Um 
British  jiarliument  who  are  opposed  to  the  existing 
government,  and  who  would  probably  oome  into 
power  on  its  displacement.  The  existence  of  a  fair 
and  temperato  op|>osition,  beeping  a  watch  over  the 
acts  of  the  ministry,  is  undeuiably  conducive  to 
good  government;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
conduct  of  public  affairs  may  be  seriously  embar- 
rassed by  an  opposition  whose  proceiilings  are 
conducted  in  a  fadtious  or  obstructive  >]>irit~  The 
name  Opposition  is  not  generally  applied  to  a  party, 
merely  beca\ise  opposed  to  the  existing  administra- 
tion, if  there  is  no  likelihood  of  their  succeeding  to 
power  on  a  change  of  govemraont. 

OPTIO  NERVE.    See  Eva 

O'PTICAL  ILLUSION.  Of  all  the  senses  none 
is  more  deceptive  than  the  sense  of  sight ;  it  often 
deceives  us  as  to  the  distance,  size,  shape,  and 
colour  of  objects:  it  frequently  mokes  them  appear 
as  if  in  situations  where  their  existence  is  iranosaible ; 
and  often  mokes  us  think  them  movable  when  they 
are  not  so,  and  vice  vertA.  An  objeot  appcais  to  us 
as  large  or  small,  near  or  distant,  according  as  the 
rays  from  its  opposite  Jiordera  meeting  at  the  eye 
form  a  larce  or  a  small  angle  ;  when  the  an^e  is 
large,  the  object  is  either  lafec  or  near ;  when  small, 
the  object  must  be  small  or  distant.  Practice  alone 
enables  us  to  decide  whether  an  object  of  larga 
apparent  size  is  so  on  account  of  its  real  aize,  or  of 
its  proiimity  ;  and  our  decision  is  arrived  at  by  a 
comparison  of  the  object  in  pomtioa,  with  other  com- 
mon objects,  such  as  trees,  houses,  &c,  which  may 
chance  to  be  near  it.  and  of  which  we  have  by 
experience  come  to  form  a  correct  idea.  The  same 
is,  of  course,  true  of  apparently  small  objects.  But 
when  all  means  for  comparison  are  removed,  as 
when  we  see  a  distant  object  floating  on  on  extcn- 
aive  sheet  of  water,  or  erect  in  an  apparently  bound- 
less sandy  plain,  where  no  other  object  meets  the 
eye,  then  onr  judgment  is  completely  at  fault. 
Imperfection  in  uie  acquired  perceptions  of  sight,  as 
it  is  called,  produces  many  other  iilnsions  ;  it  leads 
us  to  consider  spherical  solids  at  a  distance  aa 
Sat  discs,  and  deceives  ns  regarding  the  siie  of 
objects,  by  their  colour ;  the  sun  apiiears  larger 
than  he  would  if  illumined  by  a  fainter  light,  and  a 
man  in  a  white  habit  seems  larger  than  he  would 
if  he  wore  a  dark  dress.  Illasions  are  also 
produced  b^  externa]  causes  ;  and  instances  of  this 
sort  are  given  under   Mibaqe,   REfi.BCTioii,   toA 

REHlAITnUN. 

The  pro|>erty  which  the  eye  possesses  of  retaining 
an  impression  for  a  very  brief,  though  sensible 
period  uf  time  (about  one-quarter  of  a  second),  after 
the  object  whidi  produced  the  impression  haa  been 
removetl,  produces  a  third  class  of  illiisioas.  Com- 
mon examples  of  this  are  the  iUuminalod  circla 
formed  by  the  rapid  revolution  of  an  ignited  cartxa 


OPTICS-OPTIMISM. 


point,  piece  of  red-hot  inon,  or  other  laminous  body, 
■od  the  fiery  curve  produced  by  a  red-hot  shot 
projected  from  a  cannon. 

Another  fonn  of  iiliuion  is  produced  to  a  j>erBon 
who  is  seated  in  a  vehicle  in  motion,  and  it  is  very 
deceptive  when  the  motion  is  so  equable  as  not  to 
be  felt  by  the  person  himsell  The  illusion  is  most 
complete  when  the  attention  is  riveted  on  an 
object  several  yards  off;  this  object  then  appears 
as  a  centre  round  which  all  the  other  objects  seem 
to  revolve,  those  between  the  observer  and  the 
object  moving  backwards,  and  those  beyond  the 
object  moving  forwards.  This  illusion  occurs  on  a 
large  scale  in  the  apparent  motion  of  the  heavenly 
homes. 

Other  illusions  arise  from  a  disordered  state  of 
the  organs  of  vision  ;  such  are  the  seeing  of  things 
doable  or  movable  (if  they  are  not  so),  or  of  a 
colour  different  from  the  true  one ;  the  appear- 
ance as  of  insects  crawling  over  A  body  at  which  the 
eye  is  directed,  &c. 

OTTIOS  is  the  science  whose  object  is  the 
investigation  of  the  laws  that  regulate  the  pheno- 
mena of  light  and  vision.  The  nature  of  lignt  will 
be  found  treated  of  under  Light,  and  its  various 
properties   under   Chromatics,  Diffraction,  In- 

TERFKRENCB,     LeNS,     POLARISATION,      REFLECTION, 

Refraction,  Spectrum,  ftc. ;  and  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  in  this  article  to  a  historical  sketch  of  the 
rise  and  progress  of  the  science. 

Optics,  as  a  science,  is  entirely  of  modem  growth, 
for  though  the  Greeks  and  their  disciples  the  Arabs 
had  made  some  progress  in  mathematical  optics, 
their  knowledge  was  conHned  to  the  law  of  reflection 
and  its  more  immeiliate  consequences.  Euclid, 
Aristotle,  Archimedes,  Hero,  and  Ptolemy  were 
acquainted  with  the  fact  that  light  is  transmitted* 
in  straight  lines,  but  with  the  important  exception 
of  Aristotle,  and  some  of  his  followers,  the  ancient 
phUosophers  believed  that  rays  proceeded /rom  the 
eye  to  the  object,  instead  of  m  the  contrary  direc- 
tion. Ptolemjir  was  well  acquainted  with  atmo- 
apherio  refraction.  Alhacen  (1070)  and  Vitellio  the 
Pole  (1260)  were  almost  the  only  cultivators  of  this 
science  during  the  middle  ages,  and  their  additions 
to  it  w^  unimportant.  The  lens,  though  known 
f<^>m  early  antiquity,  was  not  applied  as  an  aid  to 
defective  eyesight  till  after  the  time  of  Roger 
Bacon.  Jansen,  Metius,  and  Galileo  separately 
invented  the  telescope  about  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  c. ;  and  the  last-mentioned  philosopher,  by 
its  meana,  made  various  important  astronomical 
discoveries.  Kepler,  a  short  time  after,  gave  the 
true  theory  of  the  telescope,  explained  the  method 
of  finding  the  focal  length  of  lenses,  and  appUed  it 
to  find  the  magnifying  power  of  the  telescope, 
besides  pointing  out  toe  mode  of  constructing  an 
instrument  beUer  adapted  for  astronomical  pur- 
poses than  that  of  Gralileo;  he  also  made  some 
useful  experiments  on  the  nature  of  colours,  and 
shewed  that  images  formed  on  the  retina  of  the 
eye  are  inverted,  a  fact  previously  discovered  by 
MaurdlycuB  of  Messina.  From  this  period  the 
•cience  of  optics  steadily  advanced,  and  its  treasury 
of  facts  received  numerous  additions  through  the 
labours  of  De  Dominis,  Snell  (the  discoverer  of  the 
law  of  refraction  in  1621),  Descartes,  Fermat, 
Barrow,  Mariotte,  and  Boyle.  Up  to  the  time  of 
Newton  it  was  generally  believed  that  colour  was 
orodueed  hj  reflection,  but  that  philosopher  shewed 
by  a  beautiful  series  of  experiments  that  refraction 
inly  separates  the  colours  already  existing  in  white 
light.  In  his  hands  the  theory  and  construction 
^f  the  telescope  underwent  many  valuable  improve- 
ments, and  in  1672  the  description  of  his  reflecting 
telescope  was   submitted  to   the  Royal   Society. 


Gregory  had  constructed  an  instrument  on  similar 
principles   some   years   before.     About  the    samt 
time,  Grimsldi  mtide  his  interesting  series  of  experi- 
ments on  the  effects  of  diffraction,  and  noticeit  the 
remarkable  fact  of  the  interference  of  one  pencil  of 
light  with  the  action  of  another.     The  complete 
theory  of  the  rainbow,  with  an  elegant  analysis  oi 
the  colours  of  thin  plates,  and  the  hypothesis  con- 
cerning the  nature  and  propagation  of  light,  now 
known    as    the    'corpuscular'    theory,    completed 
Newton's  contributions  to  the  science.    The  import- 
ant services  of  the  ingenious  but  eccentric  Hooke 
cannot  be  easily  stated  in  such  a  brief  abstract,  as 
he    discovered  a  little  of    everything,    completed 
nothing,  and  occupied  himself  to  a  large  extent  in 
combatinjg^  faulty  points  in  the  theories  of  his  con- 
temporaries.    It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten 
that  he  has  as  much  right  as  Huyghens  to  the  credit 
of  ori^nating  the  undiUatory  theory,  which  is  the 
favourite  one  at  present.     The  double  refraction 
of  Iceland  spar  was  discovered  (1669)  by  Bartholin, 
and   fully  explained   in    1690  by  Huyghens,  the 
propounder   of   the   ondulatory  theory,  who   also 
aided  the  progress  of  mathematical   optics  to  a 
considerable   extent.      The  velocity  of  li^rht  was 
discovered    by  R9mer   (1675),    and    in    17*20    the 
aberration  of  the  fixed  stars  and  its  cause  were 
made  known  by  Bradley,  who  likewise  determined 
with  accuracy  the  amount  of  atmospheric  refrac- 
tion.     Bouguer,  Porterfield,  £uler,  and  Lambert 
rendered  essential  service  to  physical  optics;   the 
same  was  done   for  the  mathematical  theory  by 
DoUond  (the  inventor  of  the  achromatic  telescope), 
Clairaut,  Dalembert,  Boscovich,  &.c. ;  while  in  lat^ 
times  the  experimeots  of  Delaval  on  the  colours 
produced  by  reflection  and  refraction ;  the  discus- 
sion of  the  phenomena  arising  from  unusual  reflec- 
tion or  refraction,  carried  on  by  Vince,  Wollaston, 
Biot,  Monge,  and  others  ;  the  discovery  of  ])olarisa- 
tion  of  light  by  Malus  (1808),  and  its  investigation 
by  Brewster,  Biot,  and  Seel>eck;  of  depolarisation 
by  Arago  (1811),  and  of  the  optical  properties  as 
connected  with  the    axes  of   crystals    (1818)    by 
Brewster;  and  the  explanation  of  these  and  other 
optical  phenomena,  in  accordance  with  the  undula- 
tory  hypothesis  by  Young — the  discoverer  of  the 
Interference  (q.  v.)  of  rays — and  Fresnel,  went  far 
to   give   optics   a  width  of  scope  and  symmetry 
which  is  possessed  by  few  other  sciences.      The 
development  of  the  undulatory  theory  and  of  optical 
science  generally  has  been  carried  on  in  the  present 
century  by  Uoyd,  Airy,  Cauchy,  and  others ;  and 
more  recently  important  discoveries  in  connection 
with    the    physical    modifications    and    chemical 
properties  of   light    have   been    made  (the  latter 
chiefly,  as  far  as  the  spectrum  is  concerned,  by 
Kirclmoff),  for  a  notice  of  which,  and  other  dis- 
coveries, see  Photographt,  Spectrum,  and  other 
articles. 

OTTIMISM    (Lat    optimus,    best),   the    name 

given  to  the  doctrine  of  those  philosophera  and 

divines  who  hold  that  the  existing  order  of  things, 

whatever   may  be  its    seeming  imperfections    of 

detail,  is  nevertheless,  as  a  whole,  the  most  perfect 

or  the  best  which    could  have  been  created,  or 

which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.      Some  of   the 

advocates   of    optimism  content    themselves  with 

maintaining  the  absolute  position,  that  although 

God  was  not  by  any  means  bound  to  create  the 

most  perfect  order  of  things,  yet  the  existing  order 

is  de  facto  the  best;    others  contend,  in  addition, 

that  the  perfection  and  wisdom  of  Almighty  Qcd 

necessarily  require  that  His  creation  should  be  the 

most  perfect  which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.    The 

philosophical  discussions  of  which  this  controversy 

is  the  aevelopment  are  as  old  as  philosophy  itself 

69 


OPUNTIA— OBACHB. 


the  Ornek  philosophy  ;  of  Duslism,  Paraism,  and  of 
th«  Christian  Oaoiticiani  aud  MAmcheiam  in  the 
east ;  and  in  tbe  weit,  of  the  Ionian,  the  Eleatic, 
the  Atomistio ;  do  less  than  of  the  later  ikod  more 
familiar,  Stoic,  Peripatetic,  and  PlatouLBtic  Schuoli. 
In  tbe  philosophical  writings  of  the  fathen,  of 
Origen,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  above  all  of 
Auguetine,  the  problem  of  the  seeming  miitore 
of  jiood  and  evil  in  the  world  ia  the  frreiA  sabject 
of  inquiry,  and  through  oU  the  mbUeties  of  the 
medieval  schools  it  continued  to  hold  an  important 
and  prominent  place.  But  the  full  derelopiDcnt 
of  the  optimistic  theory  as  a  philosophical  system 
was  reserved  for  the  celebrated  Leibnitz  (q.  v.). 
It  forms  the  subject  of  his  most  elaborate  work, 
entitled  Theodicea,  the  main  thesis  of  which  may  be 
briefly  stated  to  be— that  among  all  the  systema 
which  presented  themselves  to  the  infinite  intelli- 
Bence  of  Ood,  as  poesible,  Ood  selected  and  created, 
lu  the  existing  universe,  the  best  and  most  perfect, 
physically  as  well  as  morally.  The  Thtodirta, 
pttbtisbed  in  1700,  was  designed  to  meet  the 
sceptical  theories  of  Bayle,  by  shewing  not  only 
that  the  existence  of  evil,  moral  and  physical,  is 
not  incompatible  with  the  general  perfection  of  the 
created  universe,  but  that  God,  as  all-wise,  all- 
powerful,  and  ^-perfect,  has  chosen  out  of  all 
possible  creations  the  best  and  moat  perfect ;  that 
bad  another  more  perfect  creation  been  present  to 
the  divine  intelligence.  God's  wisdom  would  have 
required  of  Him  to  select  it ;  and  that  if  another, 
even  equally  perfect,  had  been  possible,  there  would 
not  have  been  any  sufficient  determining  motive  for 
the  creation  of  the  present  world.  The  dutoils  of 
the  controversial  part  of  the  systeoi  would  be  out 
of  place  in  this  work.  It  will  be  enough  to  say 
that  the  existence  of  evil,  both  mural  and  physical, 
is  explained  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
ftniteness  of  created  beings  ;  and  it  is  contended 
that  in  the  balance  of  good  and  evil  in  tbe  existing 
constitution  of  things,  the  preponderance  of  the 
former  is  ereat(^r  than  in  any  other  conceivable 
creation.  The  great  argument  of  the  optimists  is 
the  following:  if  the  prpsent  universe  te  not  the 
best  that  is  possible,  it  must  be  either  because  Qod 
did  not  know  of  the  (supposed)  better  universe,  or 
because  God  was  not  able  to  create  that  better  one, 
or  was  not  willing  tji  create  it.  Now  every  one  of 
thess  hypotheses  is  irreconcilable  with  the  attri- 
buted of  God :  the  6rst,  with  EU  omniscience ;  the 
second,  with  His  omnipotence ;  and  the  third,  with 
His  goodness.  See  Leibnitz,  T/ieodieea ;  Bau- 
meister's  ffittoriadeHundo  Osf inio  (Corletei,  1T41); 
Wolfurt,  Coairotiereia!  de  Ma.ndo  OpUmo  (Jeme, 
1743) ;  Creiizer,  LrUmilii  Doclriua  de  Maiido 
OpUmo  tub  Examine  denvo  Ramcata  (Leipslie,  17S5). 

OPU'NTIA.    See  Pricelt  Pus. 

O'PUS  OPBBA'NTIS  (Lat.  literally  'the  work 
of  the  worker'),  a  well-known  theological  phrase, 
intended  to  convey  that  the  effect  of  a  particular 
ministratioa  or  rite  is  primarily  and  directly  due, 
not  to  the  rite  itaelf  (optu),  but  to  the  dispositions 
of  the  recipient  (operaiu).  Thus,  in  the  act  of 
kissing  or  praying  before  a  crucifix,  o[  sprinkling 
one's  self  with  holy  water,  of  tellinz  tbe  prayers  ol 
the  rosary  upon  blessed  beads,  the  fervour  and 
personal  piety  of  the  supplicant,  and  not  the 
material  object  of  the  religious  use,  is  held  to  be 
the  efficient  cause  of  the  grace  which  is  thereby 
imparted.  The  term  is  used  chiefly  by  writers  of 
the  Roman  Catholic  schools,  in  whose  system,  how- 
ever, the  sacramental  rites  are  held  to  differ  from 
■11  others  in  this  respecL    See  Optra  Ofzbatiiu. 


wrought')  is  the  phrase  employed  in  the  Catho 
theological  schiiols  to   describe  the  manner  o£  t 
supposed  operation  of  the  sacramental  rites  in  tne 
production  of  Grace  (q.  v.).     It  is  intended  to  imply 
that  the  ministration  of  the  rite  [oput)  is  in  itself, 
through  the  institution  of  Christ,  an  efficient  cause 
of  grace,  and  that,  although  its  operation  is  not 
inf^ible,   but    requires    and   pTesup;)oses    certaia 
dispositions  on  the  [)*rt  of  the  recipient,  yet  these 
dispositions  are  but  amdilionta  sint  'jua  noa,  and  do 
not  of  theibselves  produce  the  grace ;   and  henc^ 
when  the   sacraments   are  ailministered  to   dying 
persons  in  a  state  of  apparent  insensibility,  this  is 
done  in  the  hope  and  on  the  presumjition  that  tho 
dying  person  may,  though  seemingly  unconscious, 
be  nevertheless  really  disposed  to  receive  tbe  sacra- 
ment ;    but  it  is  by  no  means  held  that  if  these 
disjiositiona  be  wonting,  the  sacrament  will  itself 
justify  him,     It  is  *  mistake,  therefore,  to  suppose, 
as    is   often  done   io    popuior   controversy,    that 
Catholics    ascribe    to   the  sacramental   ritos  such 
magical  or  taliamanic  power  that  they  con  sanctify 
even    an    unrepentant   sinner.      Their    eflicadoiu 
prtiuppotai  OS  eo/iditiotit 
ipentooce    and   other   moral 
aispoaitions      of      the      recipient, 
although  the    grace   which    they 
give  u   due,  not  to  Iheae  diepon- 
tiona,    but    la    t!ie    tacranienlt    at 
reaiaed  unih  iJie  diipoaitiont. 

OR,  in  Heraldry,  the  metal 
gold,  represented  in  heraldic  en- 
gravings by  OU  unlimited  number  ^■ 

O'RACHE  (Atriplex),  a  genus  o!  planto  of  tha 

natural  order  Chaiopodiacet,  having  male,  fcmolsi 
and  hermaphrodite  flowers  ;  the  m^e  and  herma- 
phrodite  flowers  with  a  3— S-partita  calyx,  and 
3— 5  stamens;  the  female  flowers  with  a  compresaed 
and  2-lobed  or  S'partite  calyx.  The  species  ore 
numerous.  Some  of  them  are  of  frequent  ocnurrenc* 
in  waste  places,  and  as  weeds  in  gardens  io  Britain 
and  throughout  Enrofie.  Gardk.v  0.  (A.  hortentU), 
also  colled  Mouktaih  Spihauh,  was  formerly  much 


jcJ; 


ciUtivated  in  England,  and  is  still  cultivated  in 
some  ports  of  Europe  as  a  substitute  for  s]uiifu:li. 
"   '  'of  Tartary,  an  annual,  with  a  stem 


RAGLE— ORAN. 


■Hghiiy  acid  flavoar.  The  lesyes  are  sometimes 
peeawht  sometimes  reddish,  which  is  the  case  also 
in  other  species,  and  the  flowers  resemble  the  leaves 
in  oolonr. — The  leaves  of  the  Sea  O.  {A.  litioralis), 
a  native  of  the  British  coasts,  are  used  in  the  same 
maimer,  and  those  of  the  common  garden-weeds, 
A.  paJtida  and  A,  (mguatifolia,  are  excellent  sub- 
stitntes  for  smnach. — It  is  mentioned  in  Remy  and 
Brenddejr's  Journey  to  the  SaU  Lake  City,  that  an 
orache,  with  pale  pink  leaves  and  a  salt  taste,  is 
cultivated  by  the  Indians  on  the  Humboldt  River 
for  its  seed,  which  resembles  that  of  Quiuoa 
(q.  v.),  and  is  nsed  like  it  for  making  porridge  and 
brsad. 

(VRACLE,  the  response  delivered  by  a  deity  or 
supernatural  being  to  a  worshipper  or  iui^uirer; 
also  the  place  where  the  response  was  delivered. 
These  responses  were  sui>po8ed  to  be  given  by  a 
certain   divine  afflatus,  either  through  means   of 
mankind,  as  in  the  orgasms  of  the  Pythia,  and  the 
dreams  of  the  worshipper  in  the  temples ;  or  by 
its  effect  on  certain  objects,  as  the  tinkling  of  the 
caldrons  at   Dodona,  the  rustling  of  the  sacred 
laurel,  the  murmuring  of  the  streams;  or  by  the 
actions  of  sacred  animals,  as  exemplified  in  the  Apis 
or  sacred  bull  of  Memphis,  and  the  feeding  of  holy 
chickens  of  the  Romans.    This  arose,  in  fact,  from 
the  idea  that  the  deity  signified  his  intentions  to 
men  by  signs  or  inspirations,  which,  however,  had 
always   to  be  interpreted  to  the  inquirer  bv  the 
priesthood.    Such  responses  were,  however,  closely 
allied  to  augury,  which  differed  in  this  respect  that 
auguries    could    be    taken    anywhere,    wnile    the 
oracular  spots  were  defined  and  limited.     Oracle 
dates  from  the  highest  antiquity,  and  flourished  in 
the  most  remote  ages,  and  gradually  declined  with 
the  increaains  knowledge  of  mankind.    Among  the 
£g3rptians  aU  the  temples  were  ]>robably  oracuhur, 
although  only  a  few  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus, 
as  the  oracle  of  Latona,  in  the  city  of  Buto ;  those 
of  Hercules,  Mars,  Thebes,  and   Meroe.    In   the 
hieroglyphic  texts  the  gods  speak  constantly  in  an 
oraciuar  manner,  and  their  consultation  by  the  Pha- 
raohs is  occasionally  mentioned.    In  later  days  the 
most  renowned  of  these  oracles  was  that  of  Ammon, 
in  the  Oasis  (q.  v.),  where  oracular  responses  were 
rendered  either  by  the  shaking  of  the  statue  of  the 
ffod,  or  by  his  appearance  in    a    certain  manner. 
Oracles  were  also  used  by  the  Hebrews,  as  in  the 
consultation  of  the  Urim  and  Thummim  by  the  high 
priest,   and  the  unlawful  use  of  Teraphims,  and 
consultations  of  the  gods  of  Phoenicia  and  Samaria, 
^e  Hebrew  oracles  were  by  word  of  mouth,  as  the 
speech  of  God  to  Moses,  dreams,  visions,  and  pro- 
phetical denunciations ;  besides  which,  tJiere  were 
oracles  in  Phoenicia,  as  that  of  Belzebub  and  others 
of  the  Baalim.    They  were  also  in  use  throughout 
Babylonia  and  Chaldma,  where  the  responses  were 
delivered  by  dreams  given  to  the  priestesses,  who 
slept  alone  in  the  temples  as  concubines  of  the 
coos.     So  numerous  were  they  in  the  ancient  world, 
that  900  are  said  to  have  been  in  existence 

The  most  celebrated  oracles  of  Asia  Minor  were 
those  of  Telmissus  in  Caria  or  Lvcia,  which  gave 
resxwnses  by  dreams,  and  that  of  Ax)o]lo  at  Patara ; 
but  the  Grecian  oracles  enjoyed  the  highest  reputa- 
tion for  truthfulness,  and  the  most  celebrated  of  these 
were  the  Dodonean,  the  Delphic,  and  that  of  Tropho- 
nius  and  Amphiaraus.  The  Dodonean  (see  Dodona) 
was  the  only  oracle  in  Greece  which  was  given  by 
Jupiter ;  the  others  were  either  those  of  Apollo,  or 
of  oertain  soothsayers,  to  whom  that  god  had 
imparted  thS  gift  of  prophecy,  or  of  other  gods. 
The  most  renowned  of  all  was  the  Delphic  oracle 
(see  Dklphi),  and  was  Panhellenio  or  open  to  aU 
Greeee,  consulted  for  public  purposes,  and  occupying 


a  position  resembling  in  some  respects  that  of  th» 
papacy  in  the  middle  ages  in  Europe.     The  name  ot 
the  first  priestess  who  gave  oracles  was  Phemonoa. 
The  consultations  were  generally  in  the  Delphio 
month,  Bysios  or  April,  and  once  a  day  on   Dther 
months ;  and  the  precedence  of  consulting  the  oracle 
was  determined  by  lot,  but  rich  presents  obtained  fur 
Croesus  and  the  Lydians  the  privilege  of  first  con- 
sultation.    Sacrifices  were  offered  b}'  the  inqnii'ers, 
who  walked  with  laurel  crowns  on  their  heads,  and 
delivered  in  sealed  questions ;    the  response  was 
deemed    infallible,  and  was    usually  dictated    by 
justice,  sound  sense,  and  reason,  till  the  growing 
political  importance  of  the  shrine  rendered  the  guar- 
dians of  it  fearful  to  offend,  when  they  framed  the 
answers  in  ambiguous  terms,  or  allowed  the  influ- 
ence   of   gold    and  presents   to    corrupt    the    in- 
spirations.     The    otner    oracles    of    Apollo   were 
at  Aba  in  Phocis ;   at  Ptoon,  where  a  man  pro- 
phesied, which  was  destroyed  in  ihe  days  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great ;  and  at  Ismenus,  south  of  Thebes, 
Hysia,  Tegyra,  and  Eutressis.     In  Asia  Minor  the 
most  celebrated  was  that  of  Branchidse,  close  to 
Miletus,  celebrated  in  Egypt,  Grvneum,  and  Delos. 
Besides  that  of  Dodona,  Zeus  had  another  at  Olym- 
pia ;  and  those  of  various  other  deities  existed  else- 
where.   A  secondary  class  of  oracles  of  heroic  or 
prophetic  persons  existed  in  Greece,  the  two  most 
celeorated  of  which  were  those  of  Amphiaraus  and 
Trophonius.    The  first  mentioned  was  one  of  the 
five  great  oracles  in  the  days  of  Croesus,  and  waa 
situate  at  Oropus,  in  Attica,  being  the  shrine  of  a 
deified  magician,  or  interpreter  of  dreams,  bavins 
a  fountain  close  to  it.  Those  who  consulted  it,  fasted 
a  whole  day,  abstained  from  wine,  sacrificed  a  ram 
to  Amphiaraus,  and  slept  on  the  skin  in  the  temple, 
where  their  destiny  was  revealed  by  dreams.    Tnat 
of  Trophonius  was    at   Lebadea,  in  Boeotia,  and 
owed  its  origin  to  a  deified  seer.    It  was  given 
in    a    cave,    into    which    the    votary    descended, 
bathed,  and  anointed,  holding  a  honeyed  cake.    He 
obtained    a    knowledge   of   futurity  by  what  he 
saw  or  heard,  and   returned   dejected    from   the 
cavern.    Then,  seated  upon  the  seat  of  Mnemosyne, 
he  save  an  account  of  what  he  had  heard,  and 
conducted  to  the  chapel  of  Grood  Fortune  or  Good 
G^enius,  recovered  his  usual  composure.    There  were 
some  other  oracles  of  minor  importance;     Besides 
these  oracles,  written  ones  existed  of  the  prophecies 
of  celebrated  seers,  as  Bacis  and  Mussbus,  which 
were  collected  by  the  Pisistratidae,  and  kept  in  the 
Acropolis  of  Athens.    Those  of  the  Euclus,  Panol- 
mus,  and  Lycus  were  also  celebrated.    Others  of 
the  Sibyls  or  prophetic  women,  daughters  of  Zeus 
and  Lamia,  were  popular,  and  at  a  later  period 
(see  SiBYi^),  Athenais  and  others,  prophesied   in 
the  days  of  the  Seleucidse.    Amongst  the  oriental 
nations,  as  the  Arabs  and  others,  divination  waa 
and    is    extensively  practised,   but   there  are   no 
set  oracles.      The  Celtic  Druids  are  said  to  have 
delivered  responses,  and  the  oracle  of  the  Celtic  god 
Belenus  or  A belio,  in  the  Isle  de  Sein,  was  celebrated. 
Herodot.  IlisL  v.  89,  viii.  82  ;  Curtius,  iv.  7 ;  Hare, 
Ancient  Greeks,  (12mo,  Lond.   1836,  p.  141);  Bos, 
Antiquities  of  Greece  (1823,  p.  31). 

ORA'K  (Arab.  Waran),  a  thriving  municipal 
town  and  seaport  of  Aleeria,  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name,  stands  at  the  inner  extremity  of 
the  Gulf  of  Oran,  220  miles  west-south-west  of 
Algiers.  The  province  of  Oran,  sometimes  called 
the  province  of  the  West,  from  the  fact  of  its  forming 
the  western  frontier  of  the  country,  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  E.  by  the  pro- 
vince of  Algiers,  on  the  W.  by  the  empire  of  Morocco, 
and  on  the  S.  by  the  desert.  Area,  39,384  square 
miles,  of  which  13,514  belong  to  the  Tell  (q.  v.), 


ORAS-ORANO. 


wd  23,8TU  to  the  Sabus.  Pop.  670,697.  Of  the 
iDhabitanta,  66,223  were  immigrniits,  32.055  being 
French :  and  604,474  were  nativea,  592,923  being 
Mmlenia,  aod  11,551  Jews.  The  town  of  0.  ia  Che 
■eat  of  the  govemnieDt  offices — the  prefecture, 
the  oiril,  criminal,  cominercial  tribuoaU,  &c  It 
also  contiuDB  a  college,  primary  and  native  schoola, 
Proteitaat  aod  other  churohea  ;  Byiia;;;ogiie8 ; 
moequea ;  •  branch  of  the  bank  of  Algeria ; 
eicbequer,  post,  aud  telegvaph  offices ;  three  great 
barracks.  Saint- Philippe,  le  Chateau -Neuf,  and  le 
Chlteau-Vieui ;  a  military  hospital,  with  accom- 
modation  for  1400  beds  (an  immenae  new  building, 
which  overtoils  all  aurroiinding  ediKces),  and 
various  spleadiiUy  appointed  magazines  aad  govem- 
meat  stores.  The  town,  wbich  is  girt  by  walls,  and 
driended  hy  strongly  armed  forta.  ia  seated  at  the 
foot  of  a  h^h  mountain,  crowned  by  the  forts  Santa- 
CruE  aod  Saint-Gregoire.  The  port  doea  not  offer 
•afe  anchorage  ;  althuugh  it  has  been  much 
improved  within  recent  years,  and  made  aocesaible 
for  lai^  vessels.  In  1864,  vessels  had  no  othM 
■helter  than  the  roa^Utead  of  Mara-el-Kebir.  The 
atreeCa  and  promeuadi'S  of  0.  are  generally  spacious, 
ttie  houses  elegant  and  airy.  The  principal  edilices 
•re  the  Chateau- Neiif.  the  residence  of  the  general 
of  division ;  the  H6tel  do  la  Prefecture ;  the  groat 
mosque  de  la  Rue  PhiUppe;  the  Catholic  church  i  and 
the  barracks.  Pop.  of  cominiine,  comprising  the 
three  suburba,  Mers-el-Kcbir,  La  Senia,  and  Aio-el- 
Turk,  34,106.  The  country  in  the  vicinity  is  bare 
and  arid,  although  the  land  ia  not  aterile^  To  the 
south  of  the  town,  the  country  is  uncultivated  ;  but 
towards  the  south-east,  highly  cultivated  lands  are 
seen.  In  the  viciuity  there  are  a  great  mnny  farms, 
cultivated  with  the  greatest  care,  ami  mnst  of  them 
furnished  with  building  neceasary  to  their  efiiciency. 
Cattle  are  reared,  aud  grain,  tobacco,  and  cotton 
are  grown.  The  vine  already  covers  large  traeta 
of  land,  aud  its  cultivation  is  annually  extending. 
It  is  cultivated  with  the  moat  complete  success,  and 
the  wines  are  of  good  quality. 

Besides  the  commune  of  0.,  there  are  in  the  pro- 
vince the  communes  of  Sidi-bel-Abbte  (q.  v.),  of 
Mostasanem  (pop.  11,950),  of  Mascan  (pop.  8629), 
and  ofTlemcen  (q.  v.). 

The  town  of  O.  was  built  by  the  Moors.  It  was 
takea  by  the  Spaniards  in  1609,  by  the  Turks  in 
1708,  and  again  by  the  Spaniards  in  1732.  In  1791, 
it  was  destroyed  by  on  earthquake,  and  shortly 
after  it  was  altogether  abandoned  by  the  Spaniards- 
0.  was  taken  b^  the  French  in  1831,  has  since 
remained  in  their  hands,  and  has  by  them  been 
developed  into  a  large  and  prosperoua  town.  In 
1S5S,  1531  vessels,  of  64,723  tona,  entered  and 
cleared  the  port.  In  the  aame  year  the  imports 
amounted  to  £1,307,616,  and  the  exports  to 
£260,964— Jnnuain:  Giairal  de  VAlgtrie,  1664. 

ORA'NG,  or  ORA'NQ-OUTA'NG  [Simia  aatyrua, 
or  Piiieaii  aafi/rut,  or  P.  AMU),  a  speciea  of  ape 
(onnd  in  the  forests  of  Malacca,  Cocbin-Chlna,  and 
Bome  of  the  iaUnds  of  that  part  ui  the  wi>rld.  The 
name  ia  somotmus  extended  in  signilication,  so  as 
to  include  all  the  speciea  of  the  restricted  genua 
Simia  or  Pil/iecai,  a  genua  which  exists  only  in  the 
south-east  of  Asia  and  the  E.-^stem  Archipelago ; 
•ad  was  also  till  of  lata  extended  ev,.'u  to  the 
African  apes  now  forming  the  genua  Troglodj/Ui, 
the  species  which  ia  the  anbject  of  this  article  being 
distinctively  called  the  Rbd  0.,  when  it  and  the 
Chimpanzee  were  the  only  anthropoid  a|ieB  known. 
The  name  oraiig  is  Malayan,  aod  signltics  man  or 
TO&oiuU  bein-j  ;  outan;  si^^ities  uiUd,  oi  of  the  inoodt. 
The  genus  .i'iinio  or  PWieciu  differa  from  Troglodytn 
(the  Chimjianzee  and  Gorilla)  in  the  more  lengthened 
muzzle — the   lower    part   of    the   face  projecting 


suddenly  and  remarkably ;  in  the  very  large  osoiiu 
teeth  {  in  the  great  breadUi  of  the  central  inoisnra  ; 
and  in  the  great  length  of  the  arms,  which  are  bd 
long  that  the  fingers  can  touch  the  ground  when 
the  animal  stands  erect.  The  ears  are  also  amall, 
and  he  close  to  the  head.  The  eyes  are  clnoe 
together;  the  noae  ia  little  elevated;  the  Ups  ore 
scarcely  visible  when  the  mouth  ia  abut.  The  apes 
of  this  genus  ore  arboreal  in  their  habits,  aud  mit 


Orong-Outang  (5ii>t(a  nUyriu). 

gregarious.  They  ore  111  adapted  for  walking  on  the 
ground,  and  in  a  wild  state  probably  almost  never 
aaaume  an  erect  )>OBture,  and  although  the^  can  be 
taught  to  do  it  in  coniiuement,  they  maintain  it 
wit£  diihcnlty,  and  only  when  staniliug  atill ;  even 
then  often  seeking  to  adjust  the  balance  of  the  body 
by  raising  the  arms  above  and  behind  the  head.  Ia 
climbing  and  swinging  among  the  branches  of  treeo, 
the  hands  of  the  hinder  eitremitiea  are  used  aa 
readily  as  those  of  the  anterior,  and  the  great  length 
of  the  arms  is  useful  in  enabling  them  to  take  hold 
of  distant  branches.  The  fingers  of  all  the  eitremi- 
tiea are  very  long- 
Some  of  the  moat  important  distinctions  between 
the  anatomy  of  the  anthropoid  apea  and  that  of 
man,  are  noticed  in  the  article  Chimpanzbb, 
The  0.  and  ita  congeners  ore  regarded  as  differ- 
ing more  widely  from  man  in  their  anatomical 
characters  than  the  chimpanzee  and  gorilla; 
although  the  number  of  ribs  is  the  aame  aa  m  num. 
and  there  are  a  few  other  particulars  In  which 
tho  0.  more  nearly  resembles  a  humau  being  than 
any  of  the  African  apes  do.  The  projecting 
muzde  ia  much  less  notable  in  the  young  tJian  in 
the  adult  0.,  and  the  aspect  of  the  adult  moles  is 
further  rendered  hideoiia  by  great  calloaitiea  on  tha 
chceka.  In  the  adult  atate,  the  ridges  of  the  skull 
also  greatly  increase  in  thickness  and  prominence. 

The  species  of  this  genus  exhibit  in  a  much 
greater  degree  than  those  oE  Troglodi/lti  an  ana- 
tomical character  common  also  to  many  other  apel 
and  monkeys,  a  pouch  in  the  throat,  oj>euing  m>m 
the  windpipe,  and  capable  of  being  dilated  with  air 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  animal  In  the  0.,  it  branchea 
into  several  subordinate  pouches,  which  are  situated 
among  the  muscles  of  the  throat.  The  use  of  this 
organ  is  not  known.    It  docs  not  au[>ear  to  have 


with    the   voice;    and    has    been 

•ery  probably,  to  be  of  some  -<ervioe 

leaping,  by  diminishing  the  specific  gravity  of  th* 


animfl^ 


ORANGE 


There  are  at  least  two  other  species  of  the  genus 
besides  that  best  known  as  the  O.,  one  of  these 
being  the  great  Pongo  (q^  v.)  of  Borneo  {S,  or  P. 
Wormbii),  and  the  other  {S.  or  P.  morio),  also  a 
native  of  Borneo,  of  comparatively  small  size.  The 
natural  history  of  these  apes  has  not  been  thoroughly 
investigated ;  and,  until  recently,  it  was  supposed 
tliat  the  species  first  known  might  be  identical  with 
the  great  ape  believed  to  exist  in  the  woods,  and 
that  the  differences  of  size  and  other  characters 
might  depend  merely  on  age.  The  0.  is  about  throe 
feet  in  length  from  tho  heel  to  the  crown  of  the 
bead.  It  is  covered  with  brownish-red  hair,  which, 
on  the  back  and  arms,  is  five  or  six  inches  long,  but 
very  short  on  the  backs  of  the  hands  and  feet. 
There  is  little  hair  on  the  face,  and  none  on  the 
palms  of  the  hands.  When  taken  young,  it  is  easily 
tamed,  and  becomes  sufficiently  familiar.  It  displays 
considerable  sagacity,  and  some  playfulness  and 
love  of  mischief,  but  is  not  so  frolicsome  as  many  of 
the  monkey  tribe.  Young  specimens  have  some- 
times been  brought  to  Europe,  but  none  have  lived 
lone.  The  temper  is  believed  to  change  very  much 
to  Sie  worse,  when  the  animal  reaches  maturity. 

ORANGE,  the  name  of  one  or  more  species  of 
CUrus  (q.  v.),  of  which  the  fruit  is  much  prized. 
Botanists  generally  re^rd  all  the  oranges  as  of  one 
species.  Citrus  aurantmm,  but  some  foUow  Risso  in 
making  the  Sweet  0.,  the  Bitter  0.,  the  Bergamot 
0.,  Ac,  distinct  species.  The  wild  state  of  the  0.  is 
not  certiunly  known,  although  its  characters  may  be 
pretty  confidently  inferred  from  the  degeneration  of 
cultivated  varieties;  and  no  cultivated  plant  shews 
a  greater  liability  to  degenerate,  so  that  seedling 
oranges  are  almost  always  worthless.  Nor  is  its 
native  country  more  certain,  although  there  is  much 
reason  to  believe  that  all  the  kinds  have  spread  over 
the  world  from  the  warmer  central  and  eastern  parts 
of  Asia.  It  has  been  alleged  that  the  O.  is  a  native 
of  North  America,  near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  but  the 
probability  rather  seems  to  be  that  it  has  been 
mtroducea,  and  has  become  naturalised. 

The  Common  0.,  or  Swekt  0.  {CUrtu  aurantium 
of  Risso),  is  an  evergreen  tree  of  moderate  size,  with 
greenish-brown  bai^ ;    the  leaves    oblong,  acute, 
sometimes  minutely  serrated,  the  leaf-stalks  more  or 
less  winged,  the  flowers  white,  the  fruit  roundish, 
the  oil- cysts  of  the  rind  convex,  the  juice  sweet 
and  acid.     It  is  cultivated  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  world  of  which  the  climate  is  warm  enough,  but 
succeeds  best  in  the  wanner  temperate   or  sub- 
tropiosl  climates,  as  in  the  south  of  Europe,  where  it 
is  very  extensively  cultivated,  as  far  north  as  the 
south  of  France.    The  0.  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
known  to  the  Greeks  or  Romans,  but  was  probably 
broQg^t  to  Europe  by  the  Moors,  and  is  supposed  to 
have  been  introduced  into  Italy  so  recently  as  the 
14th  c,  fullv  1000  years  after  the  citron.    In  the 
north  of  Italy,  oranges  are  sometimes  grown  in  con- 
servatories, but  often  in  the  open  air,  except  during 
winter,  when   they  are   covered  with   temporary 
koQses  of  boards.    In  the  south  of  England,  they  are 
sometimes  in  like  manner  grown  in  the  o])en  air, 
with  a  shelter  of  boards  or  mattinj|^  in  winter,  but 
trained  against  a  south  wall ;  attainmg  a  lai^e  size, 
and  yielding  good  fruit.     The  abundant  importatiali 
of  the  fruit,  however,  renders  the  cultivation  of  the 
O.  in  Britain  unnecessary ;   and,  in   general,  only 
small  plants  are  to  be  seen  in  ^reen-houses  or  oon- 
senratories,  as  mere  objects  of  mterest.    In  former 
times,  when  the  evergreen  shrubs  in   cultivation 
were  much  fewer  than  now,  0.  trees  were  very 
commonly  cultivated  in  pots,  both  in  ^en-houses 
aad  in  windows  of  apartments  in  Britain,  as  is  still 
the  case  in  the  northern  parts  of  Germany.    The  O. 
loTW  a  rich  soil*  aad  saoceeds  well  in  a  strong  day. 


There  are  many  varieties  in  cultivation,  which  ars 
perpetuated  by  grafting  upon  seedling  0.  stocki^ 
and  by  layers. 

Of  the  varieties  of  the  Sweet  0.,  perhaps  the 
most  deserving  of  notice  are  the  Portugal  or 
Lisbon  0.,  the  most  common  of  all,  having  the  fruit 
generally  round  or  nearly  so,  and  a  thick  rind ;  the 
Chika  0.,  said  to  have  been  brought  by  the  Portu- 
guese from  China,  and  now  much  cultivated  in  the 
south  of  Europe,  having  a  smooth  thin  rind  and  very 
abundant  juice ;  the  AIaltesb  or  Blood  0.,  renmrk- 
able  for  the  blood-red  colour  of  its  pulp ;  the  Ego 
0.,  having  fruit  of  an  oval  shape;  and  the  Tan- 
gerine O.,  having  a  small  flat  fruit,  with  a  pleasant 
odour  and  finely  flavoured  pulp.  The  St  Michael'p 
0.  appears  to  be  a  subvariety  of  the  China  Orange. 
The  Majorca  0.  is  seedless,  resembling  in  this 
certain  cultivated  varieties  of  other  fruits. 

The  BiTTBR  0.,  Seville  0.,  or  Bigarade  {CitrM 
vulgaris,  or  C.  bigaradia),  is  distinguished  from  the 
Sweet  0.  by  the  more  truly  elliptical  leaves,  the 
acid  and  bitter  juioe  of  the  fruit,  and  the  concaw 
oil-cysts  of  its  rind.  Its  branches  are  also  spiny, 
which  is  rarely  the  case  with  the  Sweet  Orange;  TIm 
varieties  in  cultivation  are  numerous.  The  Bitter 
O.  was  extensively^  cultivated  by  the  Moors  in  Si)ain» 
probablv  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  rind  is  more 
bitter  tnan  that  of  the  Sweet  0.,  and  is  used  as  a 
stomachic  and  tonic.  Its  chief  use,  however,  is  for 
flavouring  puddings,  cakes,  &o.,  and  for  making 
marmalaaeL 

The  Bergamot  0.  ((7.  Bergamia)  is  noticed  in  a 
separate  article. 

The  Mandarin  O.,  or  Clove  O.  {C.  nobtlis)^ 
recently  introduced  from  China,  has  fruit  much 
broader  than  long,  with  a  tliick  rind,  very  loosely 
attached  to  the  flesh,  so  that  there  is  often  a  8i>ace 
between  them.  The  leaves  are  smaller  than  tnose 
of  any  other  kind  of  orange. 

0.  leaves  are  feebly  bitter,  and  contain  a  fragrant 
volatile  oU,  which  is  obtained  by  distilling  them 
with  water,  and  is  known  in  the  shops  as  Essence  ds 
Petit  Grain.  O.  flowers  yield,  when  distilled  with 
water,  a  fragrant  volatile  oil,  called  Oil  of  Neroli, 
which  is  used  in  making  Jiau  de  ColognCy  and  for 
other  purposes  of  perfumery.  The  flowers  both  of 
the  Sweet  0.  and  of  the  Bitter  0.  yield  it,  but  those 
of  the  Bitter  O.  are  preferred.  Dried  0.  flowers,  to 
be  distilled  for  this  oil,  are  an  article  of  export  from 
the  south  of  Euroi^e.  They  are  packed  in  barrelsi 
and  mixed  with  salt.  The  dried  flowers  have  a 
yellowish  colour;  the  fresh  flowers  are  white  and 
very  fragrant.  The  use  of  them  as  an  ornament 
in  the  head-dress  of  brides  is  c  mmon  through- 
out great  part  of  the  world.— The  small  green 
oranges,  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  the  size  of  a 
cherry,  which  fall  from  the  trees,  both  of  the  Sweet 
O.  and  the  Bitter  0.,  when  the  crop  is  too  great  to 
be  brought  to  maturity,  are  carefully  gathered  and 
dried,  and  are  the  O.  berries  of  the  uiops.  They 
are  used  in  making  Cura^oa.  They  also  yield  a 
^grant  oil  on  distillation,  the  original  essence  de 
petit  grain;  and  they  are  smoothed  in  a  turning- 
lathe,  and  employed  as  issue  pease;  not  readily 
acquiring  a  fetid  odour,  as  pease  do  when  employed 
for  this  purpose. — The  dried  and  candied  rind  of  the 
ripe  Bitter  0.,  well  known  as  Orange-peel,  is  used  as  a 
stomachic,  and  very  largely  for  flavouring  puddings 
and  articles  of  confectionary.  The  rind  oitne  Sweet 
0.  ia  sometimes  employed  in  the  same  way,  but  is 
inferior.  A  fragrant  essential  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
rind  of  the  0.  by  distillation  with  water,  and  is  sold 
by  ])erfumers  as  Oil  of  Sweet  O.,  or  Oil  of  Bitter  0., 
according  as  it  is  obtained  from  the  one  or  the  other, 
although  the  two  kinds  of  oil  are  very  similar.  The 
rind  oi  the  0.  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  a  fine 

91 


ORANGE-ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE 


liqnenr  called  O.  BosoglifK  which  is  an  article .  of 
export  from  some  parts  of  Italy.  Besides  the  use 
of  the  Sweet  0.  as  a  dessert  fruit,  and  as  a  refrige- 
rant in  cases  of  sickness,  its  juice  is  extensively  used 
as  a  refrigerant  beverage,  and  is  particularly  valuable 
in  febrile  and  inflammatory  complaints. 

O.  trees  are  often  extremely  fruitful,  so  that  a 
tree  twenty  feet  hi^h,  and  occupying  a  space  of 
little  more  than  twelve  feet  in  diameter,  sometimes 
yields  from  3000  to  4000  oranges  in  a  year.  The  O. 
tree  attains  an  age  of  at  least  100  to  150  years. 
Young  trees  are  less  productive  than  old  ones,  and 
the  fruit  is  also  less  juicy,  has  a  thicker  lind,  and 
more  numerous  seeds. 

The  wood  of  the  O.  tree  is  yellowish  white 
and  close-grained.  It  is  used  for  mlaying  and  for 
turnery. 

The  fruit  of  the  O.  tree  is  of  great  com- 
mercial importance,  for  not  only  is  it  one  of  the 
most  delicious  and  wholesome  of  fruits,  but  for- 
tunatelv  it  is  also  the  most  easily  kept  and  carried 
from  place  to  place.  No  fresh  fruit  possesses  in 
the  same  degree  as  tilie  0.,  and  its  congeners, 
the  lemon,  citron,  lime,  ftc.,  the  property  of  being 
easily  packed  in  boxes,  whetf  neany  ripe,  and  being 
in  that  state  able  to  stand  the  close  confine- 
ment of  a  ship's  hold  during  a  voyage  of  two  or 
three  weeks.  The  O.  is  much  cultivated  in  the 
Azores,  Malta,  Sicily,  Spain,  and  Portugal,  and  it  is 
from  these  localities  that  Britain  receives  its  supply. 
Those  from  St  Michael's,  one  of  the  Azores,  and 
from  Malta,  are  the  best  varieties  in  our  markets ; 
but  the  Mandarin  O.  of  China  and  the  Navel 
O.  of  South  America  are  much  superior.  The 
latter  occasionally  reach  this  country  in  small 
q^nantities  from  Brazil ;  thev  are  nearly  double  the 
size  of  the  ordinary  0.,  and  have  a  peculiar  navel- . 
like  formation  on  the  top  of  the  fruit,  which 
is  somewhat  oval  in  shape.  The  very  small  O., 
now  often  seen  in  our  shops,  with  an  extremely 
aromatic  rind,  is  the  Tangerine  0.,  of  which  there 
are  two  varieties — ^the  greater  and  lesser.  The 
latter  is  hardly  an  inch  in  diameter,  but  the  flesh  is 
sweet,  and  the  rind  deliciously  fragrant.  The  larger 
variety  is  about  half  the  size  of  a  common  0.,  and 
is  the  one  generally  seen. 

The  Bitter  0.  is  called  the  Seville  O.  in  conse- 
quence of  large  plantations,  which  the  Moors 
planted  round  the  city  of  Seville,  having  for  a  long 
time  furnished  the  chief  part  of  those  used  in  this 
country ;  but  it  also  has  several  varieties,  which  are 
all  remarkable  for  the  bitterness  of  the  rind,  and 
the  not  very  pleasant  sharpness  of  the  juice.  Their 
chief  use  is  for  making  tne  well-known  confection 
called  Orange  Marmahide,  and  for  this  the  true 
Large-fruUm  variety  is  tiie  best,  but  it  is  now 
somewhat  scarce. 

Oranges,  when  gathered  for  export,  must  not  be 
quite  npe ;  those  fully  formed,  and  with  the  colour 
lust  turning  from  green  to  yellow,  are  chosen.  Each 
IS  wrapped  in  a  piece  of  paper,  or  in  the  husk  of 
Indian  com,  and  they  are  {Kicked  in  boxes  and  half  • 
boxes,  chests  and  half-chests — the  former  are  the 
Sicilian  packages,  the  latter  are  St  Michael's,  Spanish, 
and  Portuguese.  A  box  contains  about  250,  a 
chest  about  1000  oranges ;  and  the  price  ranges  from 
15tf.  to  30«.  per  box,  and  from  30«.  to  50s.  a  chest 
The  crop  begins  to  arrive  early  in  November,  and 
the  ships  continue  to  bring  them  until  the  spring. 
The  quantity  consumed  in  Great  Britain  alone  is 
enormous ;  and  since  the  duty  was  removed,  has 
reached  nearly  one  million  of  bushels  annually. 

Orange-peel,  or  the  rind  of  the  0.,  is  used  both 
in  medicine  and  in  confectionary — ^for  the  former 
purpose,  it  is  merely  cut  into  long  strips,  and  dried ; 
for  the  latter,  it  is  carefully  separated,  either  in 


halves  or  quarters,  from  the  fruit,  and  after  lying 
in  salt-water  for  a  time,  is  washed  in  clear  water, 
and  then  boiled  in  syrup  of  sugar,  or  candied,  and 
is  sold  extensively  as  candied  peeL  The  rinds  of  the 
citron  and  lemon  are  treated  in  the  same  manner. 

ORANGE  (the  ancient  Arausio),  an  ill-builti 
decaying,  and  dirty,  but  also  an  interesting  town 
of  fVance,  in  the  department  of  Vaucluse,  stands 
in  a  beautiful  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Aigue, 
16  miles  by  nulway  north  of  Avignon.  Its  chief 
manufactures  are  silks,  muslins,  serges,  &c. ;  and 
there  are  numerous  oilworks,  dyeworks,  and  tan- 
neries. It  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  wine, 
spirits,  oils,  truffles,  saffron,  honey,  madder,  and 
essences.      Pop.  (1S62)  6391. 

0.  was  the  capital  of  a  small  independent  prin- 
ci])ality  of  the  same  name  (now  comprised  in  the 
department  of  Vaucluse),  which  was  ruled  by  its 
own  sovereigns  from  the  11th  to  the  16th  century. 
The  last  of  these  sovereigns,  Philibert  de  Chalons, 
died  in  1531,  without  issue.  His  sister,  however, 
had  married  a  Count  of  Nassau,  and  to  that 
House  the  estates  and  titles  passed.  The  Count  of 
Nassau  who  obtained  the  principality  of  0.  was 
William,  the  father  of  WUliam  I.,  the  Stadtholder 
of  the  United  Provinces.  William  IIL,  Prince 
of  Orange  and  king  of  England,  having  died  in 
1702  without  issue,  Frederick  L  of  Prussia,  in  virtue 
of  the  wiU  of  his  maternal  grandfather.  Prince 
Henry  Frederick  of  Orange,  claimed  succession. 
The  princes  of  Nassau-Siegen  also  advanced  their 
claims ;  but  the  discussion  was  closed  at  the  peaoe 
of  Utrecht  (1713),  when  the  king  of  Prussia  finally 
made  over  the  principality  of  Orange,  for  cei*tain 
equivalents,  to  the  king  of  France.  The  House 
of  Nassau-Dietz  retains,  among  other  titles,  that 
of  the  Prince  of  Orange. 

In  the  vicinity  of  O.  are  several  notable  Roman 
remains.  The  triumphal  arch,  60  feet  high,  witn 
one  central  arcade  ana  two  lateral  ones,  is  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  architecture,  and  for  its  richly 
sculptured  basn-rilievi.  Of  the  theatre,  the  remainsp 
though  stripped  of  all  ornamentation,  are  sufficiently 
entire  to  give  a  good  idea  of  the  arrangements  of 
this  institution  as  it  existed  among  the  Romans. 
The  colossal  wall  which  formed  the  scena,  the  chord 
of  the  semicircle,  is  121  feet  high,  334  feet  long,  and 
13  feet  thick. 

O'RANGE,  a  township  in  New  Jers^,  XT.  S., 
four  miles  north-west  of  Newark,  containing  three 
villages.  Orange,  North  Orange,  and  South  Orange. 
Orange  Mountain  commands  a  noble  view  of  New 
York  City  and  Bay,  and  its  slope  is  laid  out  in 
beautiful  parks,  and  ornamented  with  villas.  It 
is  the  site  of  a  Roman  Catholic  College  and  m 
Water-cure  establishment.    Pop.  in  1860,  8877. 

ORANGE  COLOURS,  for  painters'  use,  are 
various  shades  of  alteration  produced  on  chrome 
yellow  (see  Yellow),  by  acting  on  it  either  with 
diacetate  of  lead  or  a  weak  alkaline  lye,  both  of 
which  redden  the  otherwise  pure  yellow,  and  give 
it  an  orange  tint. — For  dyers,  a  beautiful  orange  nxl 
is  obtained  from  safflower ;  and  orange  yellows  ar«i 
made  by  mixing,  in  proper  proportions,  any  of  the 
red  with  the  y^ow  dyies. 

ORANGE  RIVER    See  Gabiep. 

ORANGE  RIVER  FREE  STATE  Thi. 
Orange  River  Free  State  is  the  name  assumed  by 
the  republic  of  Dutch  boers,  who,  after  retiring 
from  Natal  when  declared  a  British  colony,  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  country  lying  between  the 
two  great  branches  of  the  Orange  River,  tlie  Ky 
and  we  Gariep,  known  to  the  colonists  as  the  Vaal 
and  Orange  Rivera,  and  separated  from  the  coast 


OBAKGE  MVER  FREE  STATE--ORANGEMAN. 


region  by  the    great  chain   of  the   Quathlamha, 
Maluti,  and  Drachenbeiv  mountains. 

The  Orange  Biver  free  State  forma  a  aort  of 
oonnecting-Iink  between  the  Cape  Colony,  the 
Transvaal  Republio,  and  NataL  It  consists  chiefly 
of  vast  imdnlating  plains,  which  slope  down  from 
the  Maluti  Mountams  to  the  Vaal  River,  dotted 
over  here  and  there  with  rocky  hills,  locally  called 
*Kopjies,*  although  in  the  northern  T)art  hundreds 
of  square  miles  are  found  with  hardly  a  break  on 
the  horizon.  It  comprises  an  area  of  about  60,000 
•qaare  miles. 

When  the  emigrant  Butch  boers  took  possession 
of  this  country,  it  was  inhabited  by  different  tribes 
of  Betjouanas  and  Corannas,  all  whom  have  been 
dispersed  except  the  powerful  Abasutu  tribe,  under 
the  chief  Mosheshi,  who  still  maintain  themselves 
in  the  fastnesses  of  the  Maluti  Mountains,  and  a 
few  Batclapi  and  other  Betjouanas,  who  dwell 
round  the  W esleyan  mission  station  of  Thab*  Unchu 
and  Merametsu. 

All  the  rivers  of  this  region  are  affluents  of  either 
of  the  branches  of  the  Gariep ;  amongst  them  may 
be  named  the  Modder,  Valsch,  Great  and  Little  Vet, 
which  run  into  the  Ky  Gariep  or  Vaal  Biver,  and 
the  Caledon,  a  considerable  stream,  which  joins  the 
Oran^  Biver  after  draining  the  Basutu  country. 

This  region  is  a  vast  plateau,  rising  from  3000  to 
5000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  with  very  little  wood, 
except  along  the  lines  of  the  water- courses  that 
traverse  it.  Travellers  crossing  this  state  from  the 
Cape  Colony  to  Natal  arrive  at  the  top  of  the  passes 
leaoin^  to  the  latter  colony  without  a  mountain 
being  m  sight,  and  then  find  themselves  suddenly 
on  the  edge  of  an  immense  mountain-chain,  with 
the  coast  region  several  thousand  feet  below  them, 
extending  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Immense  herds  of 
the  larger  antelopes  formerly  tenanted  these  vast 
plains,  and  are  vividly  described  bv  Captain  Harris, 
Gordon  Gumming,  and  others ;  they  are  now  fast 
disappearing,  and  their  places  are  supplied  bv  more 
valoaole  herds  of  homed  cattle  and  nocks  of  wool- 
bearing  sheep. 

The  Free  State  is  divided  into  the  following 
districts:  Bloem  Fontein  (chief  towns,  Bloem 
Fontein  the  capital,  Boshof) ;  Winbnrg  (chief  towns, 
Winbunr,  Cronstadt) ;  Smithiield  (chiei  town.  Smith- 
field)  ;  S&rrismith  (chief  town,  Harrismith) ;  Faure- 
smith  (chief  town,  Fauresmith).  The  chief  town 
Bloem  Fontein  is  situated  about  150  miles  north- 
west of  Colesberg,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Modder 
Biver,  in  lat.  29**  8'  S.  It  contains  about  250  houses ; 
a  Dutch,  Episcopal,  and  Boraan  Catholic  Church ; 
has  two  local  banks,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  Episcopal 
see  of  the  Church  of  England.  It  is  distant  about 
800  miles  overland  from  Cape  Town,  and  has  a  post 
twice  a  week  with  it.  The  other  villages  or  small 
towns  are  all  increaaine  and  flourishing,  but  do  not 
present  anything  remarkable. 

By  the  latest  returns,  the  population  of  the  Free 
State  was  about  15,000  white  and  12,000  coloured 
inhabitants ;  and  the  revenue,  principally  derived 
from  local  taxation  and  quit  rents  of  farms,  was 
£19,000. 

The  history  of  the  country  forming  the  Free 
State  may  be  summed  up  in  a  few  wor£.  Captain 
Harris  describes  it,  before  1836,  as  a  howling  wQder- 
ness,  inhabited  by  wandering  hordes  of  fiushmen 
and  broken  tribes  of  Betjouana  and  Zulu  refugees 
from  the  annies  of  the  great  Zulu  tjvranta,  Chaka, 
Dingaan,  and  Maselikntsa  After  the  Kaffir  war 
of  1835 — 1830,  a  spirit  of  dissatisfaction  arising  in 
the  minds  of  many  of  the  frontier  boers,  an  extensive 
emigration  took  place  along  the  north-east  frontier 
ef  us  Cape  Colony ;  the  majority  of  the  emigrants, 
kowevoTy    having  Natal   as   their  ultimate   goal 


However,  after  the  British  government  had  declared 
it  an  English  colony  in  1843,  tiie  boers  again  fell 
back  on  this  region,  and  by  degrees  declanng  their 
independence  of  the  British  crown,  and  forming  a 
sort  of  Alsatia  on  our  very  borders,  after  some 
opposition,  and  one  or  two  conflicts  with  our  troops, 
tne  coimtry  was  annexed  by  Sir  H.  Smith  to  toe 
British  empire,  under  the  name  of  the  Orange  Biver 
Sovereignty;  and  continued  so  until  18^  when 
Sir  G.  Clerk  formally  gave  it  up,  and  allowed  ths 
inhabitants  to  form  a  government  according  to  their 
own  wishes.  The  government  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  a  president,  freely  elected  by  the  landrost  and 
heemrtden  in  the  several  districts;  while  the 
volksraad,  or  peoples*  council,  exercise  legislative 
functions.  But  within  the  last  year  or  two  this 
little  community  seems  almost  tired  of  self-govern- 
ment ;  and  it  is  very  probable  that  before  long  it 
will  endeavour  to  annex  itself,  either  federally  or 
otherwise,  with  the  Cape  Colony,  as  it  labours 
under  the  very  serious  disadvantage  of  being,  like 
the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  entirely  inland,  and  has 
no  port  on  the  ocean  at  which  customs  dues  can 
be  collected ;  thus  throwing  the  whole  of  the 
expense  of  government  on  local  taxation. 

A  year  or  two  ago,  a  large  number  of  Griquas — a 
tribe  of  Bastard  Hottentots,  who  inhabited  the  south 

})art  of  the  state,  and  were  independent— sold  their 
arms  to  the  Free  State  government,  and  migrated 
in  a  body  to  the  coast  side  of  the  mountains  in 
Independent  Kaffiraria,  occupying  a  large  tract  of 
country,  there  known  by  the  name  of  No  Man's 
Land,  on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Umsimvooboo 
Biver. 

The  Butch  boers  profess  the  Dutch  Beformed 
faith,  and  speak  a  dialect  of  Dutch,  oorrupted  with 
Hottentot  and  English  words.  They  marry  young, 
and  keep  up,  to  some  extent,  nomadic  habits. 
The  roads  and  internal  communication  are  eood. 
Lime  and  timber  are  rather  scarce,  but  buUding 
stone  and  thatch  abundant.  Woolled  sheep  have 
increased  amazingly  within  the  last  few  years ;  and 
farms  that  ten  years  ago  would  hardly  fetch  £50, 
are  now  selling  freely  at  from  £2000  to  £3000.— 
Harris;  Cumming;  Blue-books;  personal  knowledge. 

O'RANGEMAN,  one  of  the  unhappy  party 
designations  which  contributed  for  nearly  a  century 
to  create  and  keep  alive  religious  and  political  divi- 
sions of  the  worst  character  throughout  the  British 
empire,  but  especially  in  Ireland.  The  Orange 
or^nisation  had  its  origin  in  the  animosities  which 
hs^  subsisted  between  Protestants  and  Catholics  in 
Ireland  from  the  Reformation  downwards,  but 
which  reached  their  full  development  after  the 
Revolution  of  16S8,  and  the  wholesale  confiscations 
of  Catholic  property  by  which  that  event  was 
followed.  From  that  time,  the  Catholics  of  Ireland 
may  be  said  legally  to  have  lost  all  social,  pohtical, 
and  religious  status  in  Ireland.  Some  attempts 
which  were  made  in  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  c.  to 
ameliorate  their  condition,  excited,  especially  in  the 
north,  the  alarm  of  the  Protestant  party,  who 
regarded  the  traditionary  'Protestant  ascendency' 
as  endangered.  Acts  of  violence  became  of  frequent 
occurrence;  and,  as  commonly  happens,  combina- 
tions for  aggressive  and  defensive  purposes  were 
formed,  not  alone  by  the  Protestants,  but  also  by 
their  Catholic  antagonists.  The  members  of  the 
Protestant  associations  appear  at  first  to  have  been 
known  by  the  name  of  *  Peep-of-day  Boys,'  from  the 
time  at  which  their  violences  were  commonly  perpe- 
trated ;  the  Catholics  who  associated  toj^ther  for  self- 
defence  being  called  *  Defenders.'  Collisions  between 
armed  bodies  of  these  parties  became  of  frequent 
occurrence.  In  1785,  a  pitched  battle,  attended 
with  much  bloodshed,  was  fought  in  the  county  of 


ORANGEMAN-  OR  ATOBIO. 


Annagh.  The  steps  taken  to  repress  these  dis- 
orders were  at  onoe  insoiiicieDt  ia  themselves  to 
prevent  open  violence,  and  had  the  effect  of 
diverting  tne  current  into  the  still  more  dangerous 
channel  of  secret  associatioD&  The  rude  and  illiterate 
mob  of  Peep-of-day  Boys  made  way  for  the  rich  and 
influential  organisation  of  the  Orange  Society,  which, 
lia\nng  its  first  origin  in  the  same  obscure  district 
which  had  so  long  been  the  scene  of  agrarian 
▼iolence,  b^  degrees  extended  its  ramifications  into 
every  portion  of  the  British  empire,  and  into  every 
firade  of  society  from  the  hovel  to  the  very  steps  of 
the  throne.  The  name  of  the  Oranze  association  is 
taken  from  that  of  the  Prince  of  Orange,  MTilliam 
IIL,  and  was  assumed  in  honour  of  that  prince,  who, 
in  Ireland,  has  been  popularly  identified  with  the 
eatabliBhment  of  that  Protestant  ascendency  which 
it  was  the  object  of  the  Orange  association  to  sustain. 
The  first  *  Orange  Lodge '  was  founded  in  the  village 
of  Loughgall,  county  Armagh,  September  21,  1795. 
The  immediate  occasion  of  the  cnsis  was  a  series  of 
outrages  by  which  Catholics  were  forcibly  ejected 
from  their  houses  and  farms,  12  or  14  houses  being 
■ometimes,  according  to  a  disinterested  witness, 
wrecked  in  a  single  night ;  terminating,  September 
1795,  in  an  engagement,  called  from  the  place  where 
it  occurred,  the  Battle  of  the  Diamond.  The 
association  which  began  among  the  ignorant  peas- 
ttitiy  soon  worked  its  way  upwards.  The  general 
disaffection  towards  English  rule,  which  at  that 
time  pervaded  Ireland,  and  in  which  the  Catholics, 
as  a  natural  consequence  of  their  oppressed  condition, 
largely  t)articii»atea,  tended  much  to  identify  in  the 
mind  ot  Protestants  the  cause  of  disloyalty  with 
that  of  popery ;  and  the  rebellion  of  1798  inseparably 
combined  the  religious  with  the  ])olitical  antipathies. 
In  November  of  that  year,  the  Orange  Society  had 
already  reached  the  dignity  of  a  grand  lodge  of  Ire- 
land, with  a  ffrand  master,  a  grand  secretary,  and 
a  formal  estaulishmcnt  in  the  metropolis ;  and  in 
the  following  years,  the  organisation  extended 
over  the  entire  province  of  Ulster,  and  hod  its  rami- 
fications in  all  the  centres  of  Protestantism  in  the 
other  provinces  of  Ireland.  In  1808,  it  extended  to 
England.  A  grand  lodge  was  founded  at  Manchester, 
from  which  warrants  were  issued  for  the  entire 
kingdom.  The  seat  of  the  ffrand  lodge  was  trans* 
ferrod  to  London  in  1821.  The  subject  more  than 
onoe  was  brought  under  the  notice  of  parliament, 
especially  in  1813;  and,  in  consequence,  the  grand 
lod^  of  Ireland  was  dissolved ;  but  its  functions  in 
issuing  warrants,  &a,  were  discharged  vicariously 
through  the  £n|(lish  lodges  The  most  memorable 
crisis,  nowever,  in  the  history  of  the  Orange  Society 
was  the  election  of  a  royal  duke  (Cumberland)  in 
1827  as  grand  master  for  England ;  and  on  the 
re-eetablisnment  of  the  Irish  grand  lodge  in  1828, 
as  imperial  grand  master.  The  Catholic  Relief 
Act  of  the  foUowing  year  stirred  up  all  the  slumber- 
ing antipathies  of  creed  and  race,  and  the  Orange 
association  was  propagated  more  vigorously  than 
ever.  Emissaries  were  sent  out  for  the  purpose  of 
organising  lodges,  not  alone  in  Wales  ana  Scotland, 
but  also  in  Canada»  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  in 
the  other  colonies.  But  the  most  formidable  part 
of  this  seslous  propagandism  was  its  introduction 
into  the  army.  As  earl^  as  1824  traces  of  this  are 
discoverable,  and  again  in  1820.  No  fewer  than  32 
regiments  were  proved  to  have  received  warrants  for 
h()lding  lodges  in  Ireland,  and  the  English  grand 
lodge  hod  issued  37  warrants  for  the  same  purpose. 

The  organisation  of  this  strange  association  was 
most  complete  and  most  extensive.  Subject  to  the 
central  grand  lodge,  were  three  classes— county, 
district,  and  private  lodges — each  of  which  corres- 
ponded, and  made  returns  and  contributions  to 


its  own  immediate  superior,  by  whom  they  were 

transmitted  to  the  grand  lodge.     Each  lodge  had 

a    master,    deputy-master,    secretary,    committee, 

and  chaplain.     The  only  condition  of  membership 

was,  that  the  party  should  be  Protestant,  and  18 

vears  of  ag&     The  election  of  members  was  by 

I  ballot,  and  each  lodge  also  annually  elected  its  own 

I  officers  and  committee.     The  ^neral  government 

,  of  the  association  was  vested  m  the  grand  lodse, 

I  which  consisted  of  all  the  great  dignitaries,  uie 

I  grand  masters  of  counties,  and  the  mem1>en  of 

another  body  called  the  grand  committee.     This 

lodge    met   twioe    each    year,    in    May   and    on 

November  5 — the  day  pregnant  with  associations 

calculated  to  keep  alive  the  Protestant  autijiathiea 

of  the  body.     All  the  dignitaries  of  the  society,  as 

well  as  its  various  committees  and  executive  bodiea, 

were  subject  to  «nnual  re-election.     In  1835,  the 

association  numbered  20  grand  lodges,  80  district 

lodges,  1500  private  lodges,  and  from  200,000  to 

220,000  meml)ers.    The  worst  result  of  the  Orange 

association  was   the    constant  incentive  which  it 

supplied  to  party  animosities  and  deeds  of  violence. 

In  the  north  of  Ireland,  the  party  displays  and 

S recessions  were  a  peri)etually  recurring  source  of 
isorder,  and  even  of  bloodshed ;  and  the  spirit  of 
fraternity  which  pervaded  its  members  was  a  stand- 
ing obstacle  to  the  administration  of  the  law.  It 
was  known  or*  believed  that  an  Orange  culprit  was 
perfectly  safe  in  the  hands  of  an  Orange  jury ;  and 
all  confidence  in  the  local  administration  of  justice 
by  magistrates  was  destroyed.  These  facts,  as  well 
as  an  allegation  which  was  publicly  made,  of  the 
existence  of  a  conspiracy  to  alter  the  succession  to 
the  crown  in  favour  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland, 
led  to  a  protracted  parliamentary  inquiry  in  1835 ; 
and  the  results  of  this  inquiry,  as  well  as  a  very 
shocking  outrage  peri)etrated  soon  afterwards  by  an 
armed  lx>dy  of  Orangemen  on  occasion  of  a  procee- 
sion  in  Ireland,  tended  so  much  to  disci-cdit  the 
association,  and  to  awaken  the  public  mind  to  a 
sense  of  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  such  associations, 
that  its  respectability  has  since  that  time  ^^radually 
diminished.  So  great  was  the  popular  distrust  <^ 
the  administration  of  justice  in  party  questions, 
that  for  several  years  the  Lord  Chancellor  Ijud 
down  a  rule,  by  which  no  member  of  the  Orange 
association  was  admitted  to  the  commission  of  toe 
peace  ;  and  although  the  association  still  subsists,  it 
is  comparatively  without  iufluence,  except  among  the 
very  lowest  classes  in  the  north  of  Ireland.  Of  the 
colonial  offshoots  of  the  Orange  Association,  thoee 
of  Canada  have  at  all  times  been  the  most  active 
and  the  most  flourishing.  The  Canadian  Orange* 
men  being,  for  the  most  part,  Irish  emigrants,  car- 
ried with  them  all  the  bitterness  of  tlie  domeetio 
feud  with  the  Roman  Catholics.  Outrages  directed 
against  Catholic  churches,  convents,  and  othev 
institutions  were  of  not  unfrequeut  occnrrenoe 
until  recently ;  and  on  occasion  of  the  late  viuit  of 
the  Prince  Of  Wales  to  Canada^  an  attempt  wae 
made  to  force  from  his  Royal  Highness  a  recog- 
nition of  the  Association,  which  was  onl^  defeated 
by  his  own  firmness,  and  by  the  judicious  and 
moderate  counsels  of  his  advisers.^  See  JfejwrU  oe 
the  Orange  AeaocUUion,  presented  to  {larlianient  in 
1835,  from  which  the  history  of  the  society,  down 
to  that  year,  is  for  the  most  part  taken. 

ORATO'RIO  (Ital  oratorio,  chapel  or  oratory, 
the  place  where  these  comiiositions  were  first  per- 
formed), a  kind  of  sacred  musical  composition,  either 
purely  dramatic  or  partaking  both  of  the  drama  and 
the  epic,  in  which  the  text  is  illustrative  of  sonw 
reli^ous  subject,  sometimes  taken  directly  from 
Scnpture;  and  the  music  consists  of  recitatives,  airs, 
duets,  trios,  quartetts,  ohoroses,  aooompanied  by 


ORATORIO-ORATORY. 


orchestral  sometiiiieB  nl<*o  by  an  organ,  and  intro- 
duoed  by  an  instrumental  overture.  The  oratorio 
is  not  intended  for  aoenic  represeiitition. 

St  Fiiippo  Neri,  bom  in  1515,  has  hcf^n  considered 
the  fouoder  of  the  oratoria    He  engaged  ^^oets  and 
oomposers  to  produce  dialogues,  on  subjecUi  from 
Bcriptond  and  legendary  history,  in  verse,  and  set 
to  masic,  which  were  performed  in  his  chapel  or 
oratory  on    Sundays  and  church   festivals.      The 
snbjects  wete  Job  and  his  Friends,  The  Prodigal 
San,  Ths  Angd  Gabriel  with  the  Virgin,  and  The 
M^tery  of  the   Ineamation,     StradeUa  composed 
Tsrions  oratorios,  of  which  San  Giovanni  BaUista^ 
prodnoed  in  1670^  is  praised  by  Dr  Bumey.    A 
number  of  oratorios,  or  asiom  mere,  by  Apostolo 
Zeno  and  Metastasio,  were  set  to  music  by  Caldara 
in  the  beginning  of  last  century.    Sebastian  Bach's 
Pamons-Musik  was  a  species  of  oratorio,  originally 
performed  during  the  service  of  the  church,  the 
coogregation  joimng  in  the  chorales.    Its  form  arose 
oat  of  the  practice  prevalent  in  the  Lutheran  Church, 
of  having  the  gospels  for  the  dav  repeated  on  Good 
FridAy,  and  some  other  festivals,  by  ai£ferent  iiersons 
in  a  recitative  and  dialogue  style.      By  far   the 
srestest  master  of  oratorio  was  Handel,  who  per- 
fected tiiat  species  of  composition,  and  was  the  nrst 
to  introduce  it  into  Eneland.    At  the  age  of  20, 
when  on  a  visit  to  Italy,  ne  produced  his  oratorio  of 
La  Resurrezione  at  Rome.    Esther,  the  first  oratorio 
vritten  by  him  in  England,  was  composed  for  the 
chapel  of  his  patron,  the  Duke  of  Chandos,  in  1720, 
the  words  alter^  f i-om  Racine.     It  was  performed 
privately  at  Cannons  in  the  same  year,  but  laid 
aside,  and  not  produced  in  public  till  1732.     An 
oratorio  was  then  so  complete  a  novelty  in  Elngland, 
that  it  was  deemed  necessary  to  give  the  following 
explanation  in  advertising  it:    'By  His  Majesty's 
oommand,  at  the  King's  Theatre  in  the  Haymarket, 
on  Tuesday  the  2d  May,   will  be  performed  the 
sacred  Story  of  Esther,  an  oratorio  in  English,  com- 
posed by  Mr  Handel,  and  to  be  performed  by  a 
great  number   of  voices  and    instruments. — N.B. 
There  will  be  no  acting  on  the  stage,  but  the  house 
will  be  fitted  iq>  in  a  decent  manner  for  the  audi- 
ence.'   For   many  years    after  the  appearance  of 
K^iAer,  no  more  oratorios  were  produced  by  Handel, 
who  devoted  himself  to  operas  and  other  secular 
mosic ;  and  it  was  only  after  the  temporary  failure 
of  his  health,  that  at  we  ripe  aee  of  53  he  resumed 
the  composition  of  oratorios.     The  great  oratorios 
which    have   made   his   name  immortal  were  all 
produced  in  the  decline  of  life,  some  of  them  after 
he  was  afilicted  with   blindness,  and   they  were 

f^rformed  for  the  most  part  in  the  Old  Haymarket 
heatre.  Deborah  was  first  prformed  in  1733; 
Athalloh,  in  1734;  Israel,  in  Egypt,  in  1738;  The 
MtsdcUi,  in  1741 ;  Samson,  in  1742 ;  Jvdas  Macca- 
Ubus,  in  1746 ;  Joshua,  in  1747  ;  Solomon,  in  1749 ; 
and  Jephtfia,  in  1751.  The  two  crowning  works 
were  Israel  in  Egypt  and  The  Messiah — the  former 
ranks  highest  of  all  compositions  of  the  oratorio 
daaa.  Tne  Messiah — which,  in  consequence  of  its 
text  being  taken  entirely  from  Scripture,  was 
called  byHandel  The  Sacred  Oratorio — ranks  very 
near  it  in  point  of  musical  merit,  and  has  attained 
an  even  more  universal  popularity ;  from  the  time 
when  it  was  first  brought  out,  down  to  the  present 
day,  it  has  been  performed  for  the  benefit  of  nearly 
every  important  charitable  institution  in  Britain. 
Jvdas  Maccabceus  is  perhaps  best  known  from  the 
flowing  and  martial  grace  of  that  unrivalled  military 
march,  *  See  the  Conquering  Hero  Comes  ;  *  and 
Said  is  associated  in  every  one's  mind  with  the 
most  solemn  of  all  funeral  marches.  The  orchestra 
was  but  imperfectly  developed  in  Handel's  time, 
and  his    oratorios    had   therefore    originally    but 


meagre  instrumental  accompaniments ;   they  have 
since   been   generally   performed   with   additional 
accompaniments  written  by  Mozart.    From  Handel'b 
time  downwards,  it  was  the  practice  in  London  to 
have  oratorios  performed  twice  a  week  during  Lent 
in  the  various  theatres,  which  were  only  given  up 
on  the  institution  of  the  oratorio  peiformances  at 
Exeter  HalL     Haydn  composed  three  oratorioe~ 
The  Betum  qf  Tobias,  The  Seven  Last  Words,  and 
The  CreatiofiL     The  Seven  Last  Words,  a  work  full  of 
sweetness  and  of  energy,  hardly  answers  to  the  con>> 
mon  conditions  of  an  oratorio ;  it  is  rather  a  series 
of  symphonies,  intended  to  follow  as  many  short 
sermons  on  the  sentences  uttered  by  our  Lord  on 
the   cross,  the  text  being  a  subsequent   addition 
by  the  composer's  brother,  Michael  Haydn.      The 
Creation  originated  in  a  visit  of  Haydn  to  London 
in  1791,  when  he  heard  for  the  first  time  some 
of  the  works  of  Handel,  none  of  which  were  then 
known  in  Germany.    Though  less  grand  than  the 
oratorios  of  Handel,  it  is  full  of  fresh  lovely  songs, 
bright  choruses,  picturesque  recitatives,  and  exqui- 
site instrumentation.  Beethoven's  sole  oratorio,  Tfie 
MoiuU  of  Olives,  is  a  pure  drama,  rather  than  the 
mixed    composition   generally   knuwn   under    the 
name.     Spohr's  Last  Judgment,  produced  in  1825, 
contains  some  grand  music,  particularly  in  the  cho- 
ruses.    Costa's  Eli  deserves  mention  among  modem 
oratorios.    But  since  the  time  of  Handel  no  other 
writer  of  oratorios  has  approached  Mendelssoluk 
The  greatest  works  of  that  composer  are  his  oratorios 
of  St  Paul  and  Elijah;  the  former  was  first  pn>> 
duced  at  Diisseldorf  in  1836,  the  latter  at  Birmmg- 
ham  in  1846 ;  and  at  the  time  of  his  death  he  was 
engaged  in  a  third  oratorio,  called  Christus,  which 
he  expected  would  be  his  greatest,  and  of  which  but 
a  few  fragments  have  been  published.  The  oratorios 
of  Mendelssohn  have  tended  greatly  to  revive  the 
popularity  of  this  kind  of  composition  in  Britain. 
At  Exeter  Hall  in  London,  and  at  the  musical 
festivals   throughout    England,   oratorios  are  per- 
formed on  a  large  scale,  and  with  a  power,  a  pre- 
cision, and  a  perfection  unknown  elsewhere.    The 
choruses  at  tne   provincial  festivals   are,  for  the 
most  part,  supplied  by  Birmingham,  Manchester, 
Leeds,  and   the  other  large  towns.     The  greatest 
oratorio  performances  are  now  those  of  the  Iriennial 
Festivals  at  the  Sydenham  Crystal  Palace.    At  the 
festival  of  1862,  the  chorus  amounted  to  3120  voiceSi 
and  there  was  an  orchestra  of  505  performers. 

ORATO'RIUM  (Lat  •  oratory,'  called  in  Greek, 
euklerion  or  proseukterion),  as  contradistinguished 
from  eeclesia,  *a  church,'  is  the  name  given  to  an 
apartment  or  building  designed  for  worship  of  a 
private  or  domestic  cnaracter.  From  the  earhesi 
times,  the  use  of  oratoria  is  traceable  in  the  history 
of  the  church ;  and  before  the  regular  organisation 
of  parishes,  they  had  probably  a  considerable  plaoe 
in  the  common,  although  not  in  the  pubUo  wonhip^ 
At  a  later  period,  oratoria  became  a  common 
appendage  of  the  castles  and  residences  of  the 
nobility,  and  were  of  two  kinds ;  the  first,  simply 
for  private  or  family  prayer  and  other  devotion ; 
the  second,  for  the  celeoration  of  mass.  The  latter 
fell  properly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop  or 
the  parochial  clergy,  and  many  jealousies  and  di»> 
put^  grew  out  of  their  establishment  or  directioik. 
The  Council  of  Trent  (Sess.  xxil,  De  Bfformatione)t 
placed  them  under  very  stringent  regulations, 
whic^  have  been  enforced  and  developed  by  later 
popes,  especially  by  Benedict  XIV. 

CRATORY,  Congregation  of  the.  The  origin, 
of  this  learned  Congregation,  and  its  early  history, 
have  been  detailed  under  the  head  of  St  Puilif 
Keri  (q.  v.).    It  is  remarkable,  however,  that  this 


ORBIS  PICTUa-ORBIT. 


extraordinary  man,  unlike  most  other  founders  of 
leligioos  bodies  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  had 
never  committed  to  writing  any  definite  body  of 
rales  for  the  government  and  direction  of  the 
brethren.  Even  his  scattered  papers,  from  which 
his  pHins  and  intentions  mieht  nave  been  collected, 
had  been  burned  bv  his  orders  a  short  time  before 
his  death.  Soon  aner  that  event,  the  Fathers,  at 
the  instance  of  Baronins,  compiled  from  the  existing 
practices  and  from  memory  a  rule  for  the  Consre- 

fition,  framed  so  as  to  embody  the  spirit  of  St 
hilip.  This  rule  was  approved  of  by  Paul  V.  on 
February  21, 1612.  The  Fathers  of  the  Congregation 
are  a  body  of  priests  living  in  community,  but 
without  vows,  and  under  a  constitution  of  a  highly 
democratical  character.  They  are  at  liberty  to 
withdraw  at  any  time,  and  to  resume  possession  of 
the  property  which  they  had  brought  with  them  at 
entrance;  and  even  during  their  association,  each 
member  manages  his  own  financial  concerns,  only 
contributing  a  fixed  sum  to  the  common  expenses  oif 
the  community.  There  is  no  superior-general,  as  in 
other  orders.  Each  house  is  distinct  and  inde- 
pendent. In  each,  the  superior  is  elected  only  for 
three  years,  and  his  position  does  not  give  him  any 
personal  pre-eminence  whatever.  The  members  take 
their  places  according  to  seniority,  not  according  to 
official  rank,  and  the  superior  is  compelled  to  toke 
his  turn  in  all  the  duties,  even  down  to  the  semi- 
menial  office  of  serving  in  the  refectory.  The  main 
occupations  of  the  Fathers,  beyond  those  of  attending 
to  the  public  service  of  the  church,  and  the  duties 
of  the  pulpit  and  the  confessional,  lie  in  the  culti- 
vation of  theological  and  other  sacred  studies,  of 
which  *  conferences '  for  the  discussion,  in  common, 
of  theological  questions,  form  a  principal  feature. 
The  Congregation  has  produced  many  men  of  great 
eminence  in  sacred  science,  amone  whom  have  been 
already  named  the  great  church  historian.  Cardinal 
Baronius,  and  his  continnators.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  celebrated  explorers  of  the  Roman  cata- 
combs, Bosio,  Severani,  and  Aringhi ;  and  the  no 
less  eminent  patristical  scholar,  Gallandi  The 
houses  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  before  the  Revolu- 
tion were  numerous,  and  in  hi^h  repute.  Few 
towns  of  any  importance  were  without  a  house  of 
the  Oratory.  The  Congregation  was  early  estab- 
lished in  France  by  the  celebrated  Pierre  (after- 
wards Cardinal)  de  Berulle,  in  common  with  two 
Italian  Fathers,  and  from  France  it  extended  to  the 
Low  Countries.  One  important  di6ference,  however, 
is  noticeable  between  the  French  Oratory  and  the 
Roman  original  In  the  former,  all  the  houses  of 
the  country  are  subject  to  a  single  superior-general. 
In  France,  also,  the  Oratorians  took  cha^  of 
:  seminaries  and  of  theological  teaching.  The  ^-ench 
Oratory,  as  well  as  the  Italian,  reckons  many  illus- 
trious members;  but  the  fame  and  utility  of  the 
French  Congregation  were  much  marred  by  the 
unhappy  oontrovei'sy  about  Jansenism.  In  the 
year  1^7,  this  Congregation  was  introduced  into 
England  by  Dr  John  Henry  Newman  (q.  v.).  Soon 
after  his  secession  from  Anglicanism,  he  established 
.a  house,  the  members  of  which  were  for  the  most 
part  ex-Anglicans  like  himself,  near,  and  finally 
at  Birmingham ;  and  soon  afterwards,  a  second  at 
London,  which  has  since  been  transferred  to 
Brompton. 

CRBIS  PrCTUS  (the  Pictured  Worldj,  the  title 
of  the  first  picture-book  or  illustrated  manual  of 
instruction  for  the  young,  by  the  celebrated  educa- 
tionist, Comenius,  published  at  NUmbei;g  in  1657. 
It  was  long  a  great  favourite  with  the  youth  of 
'Germany,  and  continued  to  be  reprinted,  in 
various  modified  forms,  down  to  recent  tunes. 
Ciomenias.  with  the  instinct  of  a  great  teacher,  felt 


that  to  ^ve  words  without  things  to  the  pupil 
was  not  simplv  to  retard  his  progress,  but  to  lay  the 
foundation  oi  vague  and  inaccurate  conceptions. 
Hence  his  introduction  of  the  pictures  of  things  into 
the  work  above  named,  which,  among  other  things, 
was  intended  for  those  beginning  the  study  of 
Latin,  the  connecting  of  the  word  with  the  picture 
tending  to  give  the  pupil  a  firmer  hold  or  a  quicker 
perception  of  both  word  and  tbin^.  The  great 
and  distingULBhing  merit  of  Comenius  s  book  is,  that 
it  brought  distinctly  into  notice  the  necessity  of 
giving  children  in  the  earliest  stages  of  their  educa- 
tion, not  simply  a  word,  but  the  form  of  the  thin^ 
of  which  the  word  was  the  symbol.  A  further 
advance  on  this  idea  was  made  by  Pestalozzi,  who 
aimed  at  presenting  to  the  eye  of  the  child  the  thing 
itself,  whenever  it  was  practicable  to  do  so ;  and  he 
regarded  this  as  essential  to  the  right  education  of 
the  human  faculties  in  their  infancv.  From  this, 
again,  flowed  the  excellent  custom  of  giving  Object 
Lessons  in  Infant  Schools. 

O'RBIT,  in  Astronomy,  is  the  path  described  in 
space  by  a  heavenly  bocrir  in  its  revolution  round 
its  primary.*  The  path  so  described  is  of  an  elliptic 
fonn,  and  would  be  accurately  an  ellipse,  were  it 
not  for  the  disturbing  influence  of  the  other 
heavenly  bodies.  See  Pebturbations.  The  con^ 
plete  determination  of  a  planet's  orbit  is  of  the  last 
importance  to  astronomers,  as  it  enables  them  to 
predict  the  planet's  place  in  the  heavens  at  any 
period,  and  thus  determine  the  exact  date  of 
eclipses  of  the  sim  and  moon,  of  transits  and  occul- 
tations  of  the  planets,  and  of  the  appearances  and 
disappearances  of  comets.  For  the  determination 
of  a  planet's  orbit,  it  is  necessary  to  know  three 
things  :  1.  The  situation  of  the  plane  of  the  orbit  in 
space ;  2.  The  position  of  the  orbit  in  this  plane ; 
and  3.  The  situation  at  a  given  epoch,  and  rate  of 
motion,  of  the  planet  in  its  orbit.  Since  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  is  for  convenience  taken  as  the  refer- 
ence plane,  the  position  of  the  plane  of  a  planet's 
orbit  is  known  when  its  inclination  to  the  plane 
of  the  ecliptic  (1),  and  the  line  of  intersection  of 
the  two  planes  (2),  are  known.  Since  the  sun, 
which  is  the  focus  of  the  planetary  orbits,  lies  in 
this  Une  of  intersection,  the  orbit  cannot  lie  wholly 
above  or  below  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  but  murt 
cut  it  in  two  points,  called  Nodes  ((|.  v.),  and  the 
position  of  the  line  of  intersection,  or  line  of  nodes,  is 
generally  given  in  terms  of  the  longitude  (or  angular 
distance)  of  the  ascending  node,  reckoning  from  tbe 
equinox.  The  situation  of  a  planet's  oroit  in  its 
plane  is  determined  when  we  know  its  form  (3), 
size  (4),  and  the  position  of  its  major  axis  or  line  of 
apsides  (6).  The  size  and  form  of  the  orbit  depend 
upon  the  length  of  its  major  and  minor  axes,  but 
astronomers  prefer  to  emi)loy  the  major  axis  and 
eccentricity  (see  Ellipse)  ;  and  the  position  of  the 
major  axis  is  known  by  determining  the  heliocentric 
longitude  of  its  perihelion  (L  e.,  the  extremity  of 
it  which  is  nearest  the  sun).  To  complete  our 
knowledge  of  a  p>lanet's  motion,  all  we  now  require 
are  the  epoch  of  its  appearance  at  some  determinate 
point  of  its  orbit,  say,  at  the  perihelion  (6),  and  tha 
velocity  of  its  motion  in  its  orbit  (7),  for  when  this 
last  is  known,  the  law  of  areas,  as  given  in  Kepler's 
second  law,  enables  us  to  determine  the  position  of 
the  planet  in  its  orbit  at  any  future  period.  These 
seven  facts,  the  possession  of  which  gives  us  a  com- 
plete clue  to  a  planet's  motion,  are  called  the  sevea 
*  elements  of  a  pluiel^s  orbit*  What  has  b^en  here 
stated  concermng  the  planetaiy  orbits,  is  equally 

*  The  sun  is  the  primary  of  the  planets  and  comets* 
and  each  planet  is  toe  primary  of  itp  satellites  (secwid- 
aiy  planets). 


ORCHARD-ORCHESTRA. 


tnie  of  the  orbits  of  the  comets  and  satellites, 
though,  in  the  case  of  the  latter,  the  effect  of  dis- 
turbing forces  IS  so  ffreat  as  to  produce  a  consider- 
able  change  of  the  elements  in  one  revolution. 

OTtCHARD  (Goth,  aurtigards.  Middle  High 
Ger.  vjungarte,  Ang.-Sax.  vyrUjeardy  artgeard,  a 
jrard  or  garden  for  worts  or  vegetables),  a  piece  of 
ground  specially  devoted  to  the  growth  of  fruit- 
trees,  and  in  which  these  are  planted  as  near  to 
each  other  as  their  profitable  cultivation  will  admit 
of,  no  space  being  left  for  culinary  vegetables,  as  in 
the  fruit-earden.  The  introduction  ofsuch  crops  to 
any  considerable  extent  is  injurious  to  the  trees  of 
an  orchard,  by  exhausting  the  soil,  and  the  vege- 
tables produced  are  not  good.  In  some  orchards, 
the  soil  is  regularly  digged,  and  manure  pretty 
freely  supplied  the  trees  being  dwarf  standards, 
trained  to  a  low  and  bushy  form,  in  rows  about 
twelve  feet  apart,  with  rovrs  of  gooseberries, 
currants,  or  raspberries  between  them.  Such 
orchards  are  often  very  productive,  and  are  not 
liable  to  suffer  much  from  winds,  whilst  the  trees 
also  protect  each  other  from  frosts  in  soring.  Other 
orchards  are  formed  in  old  pastures,  tne  turf  being 
replaced  when  the  trees  are  planted,  or,  if  they  are 
formed  on  land  that  has  been  under  the  plough,  it 
is  sown  down  with  grass.  In  these,  also,  manure  is 
occasionally  given.  In  many  cases,  the  grass  of 
orchards  is  employed  for  pasturing  cattle  or  sheep, 
the  trees  being  standards  or  half-standards,  with 
stems  BO  tall  &at  their  branches  are  beyond  the 
reach  of  the  animals,  and  in  this  way  the  grass 
produced  bv  the  soil  is  returned  to  it  in  the  form  of 
manure.  In  forming  orchards  of  this  kind,  it  is  not 
unusual  to  plant  the  stocks,  iix)on  which  the  proper 
grafts  or  buds  are  afterwards  inserted.  Great 
orchards  of  this  kind  exist  in  Devonshire,  Hereford- 
shire, and  some  other  southern  counties  of  England, 
devoted  to  the  growth  of  apples  for  the  production 
ol  cider,  and  to  a  smaller  extent,  of  pears  for  the 
production  of  perry.  Orchards  are  not  so  common 
in  Scotland  as  in  England,  where  they  are  not  only 
frequent  appendages  of  the  manor-house,  but  even 
of  the  farm-house.  Apples,  pears,  plums,  and 
cherries,  not  of  the  finest  kinds,  are  the  fruits 
chiefly  produced  in  British  orchards,  although  some 
in  England  also  yield  walnuts,  chestnuts,  medlars, 
mulberries,  quinces,  &c,  and  there  are  even  a  few 
small  tig-orchards  in  the  most  southern  parts.  Fig 
and  peach  orchards  are  very  common  in  the  more 
southern  parts  of  Europe ;  and  oranges,  lemons,  ftc, 
on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean. 

An  orchard  requires  a  dry  soil,  which  ought  also 
to  be  free  and  open,  not  a  stubborn  clay.  A  gentle 
slope,  exposing  it  to  the  sun,  is  preferable  to  per- 
fectlv  level  ground.  Protection  from  prevalent 
irinoB,  especially  in  Britain  from  the  south-west 
winds  which  often  blow  strongly  in  autumn,  is  very 
necessary;  but  it  is  not  less  important  that  there 
ihoold  be  a  free  circulation  of  air,  in  default  of 
which  the  trees  become  covered  with  lichens  and 
mosses,  and  cease  to  be  productive.  An  orchard  is 
often  surrounded  bv  a  hawthorn-hedge,  but  a  small 
orchard  must  not  have  a  very  high  hedge.  Forest 
trees  are  often  planted  as  a  screen,  but  must  not  be 
too  near.  Where  walnut  and  chestnut  trees  will 
ripen  their  fruit,  they  are  often  planted,  on  the  side 
niost  exposed  to  winds,  for  shelter. 

In  laving  out  the  ground  for  an  orchard,  it  is  not 
imnsual  to  form  it  into  ridges,  on  the  crown  of 
which  the  trees  are  planted.  But,  however  this 
may  be,  the  trees  are  planted  in  rows  running 
Boith  and  south,  so  that  the  rays  of  the  sun  may 
penetrate  among  them  somewhat  equally.  In 
plaoting  the  trMS,  their  roots  are  spread  out  as 
mnch  as  possible,  as  it  is  found  desirable  to  enoourage 


them  to  extend  near  the  surface,  rather  than  to 
penetrate  deep  into  the  ground,  particularly  whers 
no  digging  or  cropping  is  intended.  The  remarks 
on  sou  and  manures  in  the  article  Fanrr-OAUDBK 
are  applicable  also  to  orchards. 

The  districts  of  Scotland  most  celebrated  for  their 
orchards  are  a  portion  of  Clydesdale  (Lanarkshire) 
and  the  Carse  of  Gowne  (Perthshire),  in  both  of 
which  the  apple-orchards  are  of  very  considerable 
eoonomical  importance. 

ORCHARD-HOU^tE,  a  structure  adapted  tO 
the  cultivation  of  fruits,  of  finer  kinds  than  can  be 
produced  in  the  open  air,  or  in  greater  perfectiun, 
without  the  aid  of  artificial  heat.  It  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr  Rivers  of  London,  and  is  a  '  glass-roofed 
shed,'  the  front  of  which  is  lower  than  the  back,  so 
that  the  roof  slopes  towards  the  sun.  The  merit  of 
the  invention,  however,  consists  not  so  much  in  the 
structure  itself,  or  in  the  protectii^g  of  fruit-trees 
and  admitting  of  the  sun's  rays  by  glass,  as  in  the 
mode  of  their  treatment,  by  which  a  limited  space 
can  be  made  to  produce  a  prodij^ious  quantity  <^ 
fine  fruit.  The  trees  are  planted  m  pots,  are  never 
allowed  to  attain  a  considerable  size,  and  are  so 
trained  and  pruned  as  to  have  the  greatest  i)ossible 
amount  of  fruitful  wood  within  the  smallest  possible 
compass.  The  pots  have  a  Large  hole  in  the  bottom, 
through  which  the  roots  may  pass ;  and  are  placed 
upon  a  border  carefully  prepared  for  them,  of  loose 
and  open  materials,  sucn  as  cinders,  lime-rubbiah, 
and  broken  bricks,  enriched  by  manure.  After  tl^ 
fruit  is  gathered,  the  roots  are  cut  through  at  the 
bottom  of  the  pot,  and  the  trees  are  set  aside  to 
rest  for  the  winter ;  and  this  treatment  is  repeated 
from  year  to  year.  The  orchard-house  is  genemlly 
a  very  low  stnicture,  so  that  the  foliage  and  fruit 
are  very  near  the  glass ;  its  back  being  onlv  7  feet 
high,  and  its  front  only  24  feet,  for  a  width  of  12 
feet.  A  path  is  excavated  as  a  trench  of  2  feet 
deep,  and  24  feet  wide,  through  the  middle  of  it. 
For  details  as  to  glazing,  ventilation,  &c.,  we  refer 
to  Mr  Rivera's  i)amphlet.  The  Orchard-house,  and  to 
Chambers's  I /{formation  far  the  People,  l  pp.  575,  576. 
Plants  for  orchard-houses  may  now  be  purchased  in 
nurseries.  In  the  pampldet  of  Mr  Rivers,  instruo- 
tions  will  be  found  as  to  the  training  and  treatment 
of  different  kinds  of  trees. 

O'RCHESTRA  (Gr.  arehistra,  from  orcheomai,  I 
dance),  in  the  Greek  theatres,  the  place  allotted 
to  the  chorus  of  dancers ;  in  modem  theatres,  the 
part  of  the  building  assigned  to  the  instmmentalists ; 
and  in  the  modem  concert-room,  the  place  occupied 
by  the  instrumental  and  vocal  performers.  The 
word  orchestra  is  also  used  to  denote  the  musicians 
collectively. 

A  complete  orchestra  consists  of  stringed  and 
wind  instruments,  and  instruments  of  percussion. 
The  employment  of  strineed  and  wind  instruments 
together  was  long  deemea  a  barbarism.  Gliick  was 
among  the  first  composers  who  shewed  that  they 
could  be  effectively  combined,  and  his  ideas  were 
more  fully  developed  by  succeeding  composers. 
The  perfecting  of  the  old  instruments,  and  the 
introauction  of  new  ones,  formerly  confined  to 
military  bands,  have  added  immenselv  to  the  power 
and  resources  of  the  modern  orchestra,  whose 
capacities,  however,  have  sometimes  been  misused. 

The  proper  strength  of  an  orchestra  must  depend 
on  considerations  connected  with  the  locality.  The 
stringed  instruments  should  in  all  cases  greatly 
outnumber  the  wind  instruments ;  and  those  latter, 
the  instruments  of  percussion.  The  stringed  instru- 
ments in  general  use  are  the  violin,  viola,  violoncello, 
and  double-bass,  and  their  force  often  amounts  to 
as  many  as  fifty,  while  even  in  a  large  orchestra 


ORCHEaTRA—ORCHIDKIt 


ikfK  Me  wldom  mot*  flntea,  luntboys,  or  buiooo* 
tbAn  two  of  ucL  The  hoin,  trumpet,  and  ophi' 
deiilc  or  aerpent,  the  other  wina  inBtrumeati 
admitted  into  the  oroheifra,  are  used  aa  apariaglv  ; 
•nd  of  initrumeiits  of  percusBioii,  a  pjur  of  kettle- 
druiuB  is  often  coniidered  mfficieni,  thougli  cymbolB 
and  triangles  are  oocuioiiBUy  added.  In  a  nnall 
orchestra,  trumpets,  trombones,  the  serpent,  and 
the  kettle-driua  should  be  avoided  as  being  too 
noisy.  By  far  the  greatest  part  of  tiie  woHc  falls 
to  the  ahare  of  the  stringed  iuetruments,  tlte  parts 
for  which  form  a  complete  quartctt  for  fiist  tioIId, 
seoond  violin,  viola,  and  violoacello,  which  abould 
be  perfect  within  itself,  independently  of  the  parts 
for  the  wind  instruments.  The  object  of  the  double- 
bass  is  to  enforce  the  violoacello  part.  This  full 
quirtett  is  ocoaeionally  interrupted  by  hanaony 
in  two  or  three  parts,  or  passages  in  unisons  or 
octaves.  The  success  of  the  oombination  of  wind 
aud  stringed  inatnimeuts  depends  on  the  skill  and 
judgment  of  the  composer.  The  baasoon,  honi,  <v 
flute  may  double  any  given  part  of  the  stringed 
iDstroment  quartett,  so  as  to  produce  an  effect  of 
reinforcement,  or  it  may  have  its  own  distinctive 
melody.  An  occanonal  variety  is  pri>duced  by  the 
entire  cessation  of  stringed  instnmientB  for  »  short 
period,  letting   the  wind    inatnuoeota   be    heanl 

The  orcheatn  of  a  ooncert-room  should  be  so 
arranged  that  the  front  is  about  dve  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  floor,  and  it  should  rise  gradually  in 
atepa  towards  the  end  wall,  whose  angles  ought  to 
be  rounded  off  so  as  to  enable  the  whole  body  of 
sound  to  be  reflected.  Reverberation  ia  essential 
to  the  proper  effect  of  tnnsio.  From  the  exigencies 
of  dramatic  repreaentation,  a  theatrical  orchestra 
moat  neceasarily  be  mnch  inferior  to  a  concert 
(vchestra ;  the  instrumentalists,  brought  together 
in  the  lowest  part  of  a  theatre  on  a  honzontsl  plane 
between  the  Bpectstore  and  the  stage,  are  dejirived 
of  moat  of  the  odv^tages  ariaing  from  a  proper 
■rrangement. 

OBCHI'DE^  or  ORCHIDA'CE^  often  popu- 
larly callM  OiiCHlDS,  a  natural  order  of  endTogen- 
ous  planta,  remarkable  for  the  struiiture  of  their 
flowers,  which  are  also  of  great  beauty  and  exquiaite 
fragrance.  The  perianth  sametimea  eibibita  much 
variety  of.  forma,  even  in  tlie  aame  species  ;  but  is 
always  irregular,  its  segments  diflenug  much  from 
ench  other.  There  are  i^sually  six  segments, 
■rranged  in  two  rows  {oaljfx  and  comlia) ;  although 
some  of  the  most  eitnordinary  farms  of  orchideoua 
flowers  are  prodneed  by  the  combination  of  cer- 
tain segments  into  one  piece.  Spurs  and  other 
appeodafes  of  some  of  the  aegments  are  also  com- 
mon. The  inner  aegmenta  are  often  beautifully 
ooloured.  The  lEiferior  segrcent  of  the  corolla  is 
called  the  lip  {Ujlellum),  and  is  often  lobed,  apurred, 
or  furnished  with  curious  ^pendagea  of  differeat 
kinds.  The  stamens  are  united  with  the  style  into 
*  single  central  column ;  the  distinctive  character 
<d  the  Linniean  class  Qynandria,  of  which  the  O. 
form  the  chief  part.  There  is  usually  only  one 
anther,  with  a  tubercle  on  each  side  of  it,  the 
tubercle*  being  abortive  anthers ;  but  sometimes 
the  two  lateral  anthers  ore  perfect,  and  the  central 
cme  LB  abortive  ;  and  very  rardy  all  the  three 
anthen  are  perfect.  The  anthers  are  usually  two- 
oelled;  the  grain*  of  pollen  c>ihering  in  two  or 
more  masses.  The  ovary  is  inferior,  one-celled ;  the 
■tigms  usually  a  mere  hollow  in  front  of  the 
oolumn.  The  fruit  is  usually  a  capsule,  opening 
with  ail  valves,  three  of  which  have  placenta  ;  the 
■eeda  numerous  and  vei^  smalL  In  a  few  cases, 
tbe  fruit  is  fleshy.  The  O,  are  generaUy  herbaceous 
'~'~      ''"it    Mme   of   thoae  found  in  wtma 


dimatee  are  shrubs,  and  some  of  these,  as  Vanill^ 
are  climben.  The  toot  is  usually  composed  rf 
simple,  c^hndrica]  fibres,  which  ace  uftcu  accem- 

Sanied  with  one  or  two  fleshy  tubercles,  a  tuberob 
ying  and  a   new  one  being   produoed   annujly. 


ei^tnt  . 


The  leaves  are  always  simple,  alternate,  often 
sheathing  at  the  base,  often  leathery,  sometimes 
„_:=;„„  m  tropical  species,  not  directly  from  the 
it  from  fleaby  bulb-like  excreeocncee  of  it. 
peciea  of  O.  are  very  numerous,  about  3000 
having  been  described.  They  are  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  world,  except  the  coldeat  and  the  moat  arid 
regions;  but  are  moat  numerona  in  the  humid 
forests  of  the  torrid  zone,  and  particularly  in 
Many  of  them  are  epiphytes,  adorning 
of  trees  with  splendid  flowers.  This  is 
chiefly  the  case  with  tropical  species,  those  of  colder 
climates  mostly  growing  on  the  ground.  Only 
about  thirty-eight  species  are  reckoned  in  the 
British  flora.— Sale:-  (q-  v.).  a  delicate  and  nntrk- 
tiona  article  of  food,  is  obtained  from  the  roofc. 
tubercles  of  a  number  of  si>ecies.  The  only  other 
product  of  the  order,  which  ia  of  any  conuDGrcial 
importanoe,  ia  Vanilla  |q,  v.).  The  fragrant  Paam 
[q.  T.)  leaves  are  the  leaves  of  an  orchid.  Several 
species  are  known  to  iwaaeaa  tonic,  stimulant,  and 
autiapaamodic  projMsrties,  but  none  are  of  mnch 
- — ortance  in  medicine. 

irchida  have  of  late  been  much  cultivated  on 
account  of  their  flowers,  and  many  tropical  specie* 
are  amongst  our  most  esteemed  hothouse  plants  j 
houaes  being  Bometim«a  sliecially  devoted  to  them. 


others   are  placed  in  baskets,  or  are  fastened  tn 

blacks  of  wood,  with  a  little  moss  or  some  aacti 

thing  around  them,  to  keep  them  from  becoming 

too  dry.  and  are  tlius  plai^  on  the  ah^ves,  or 

SDspended  from  the  roof   of  the  housei.      Oar«ful 

"  mtion  to  temperature  is  necessary,  and   also  to 

tilation  ;  and  although  much  heat  and  moisture 

requiaite,the  atmoBpLere  must  not  be  conatantly 

viity  hot  and  humiil,  but  aeasons  of  rest    must    be 

ven  to  the  plants,  which  in  their  native  climate* 

ive  generally  a  wet  aud  a  dry  season,   the   latter 

_  jing  to  them  in  many  respects  what  the  ^vinter  ■• 

to  p&Dta  of  temperate  rtffouL, 


OBCBIL  AND  OBCBELLA  WEED— ORDEAL. 


Liodley  h»  ptui^cnUrly  aigDalised  himBeU  in  the 
■tody  of  thil  interesting  order  of  plajits. 
O'RCHIL    uio    OBCUE'LLA    WBXD.     &w 

(XRCHIS  ia  •  geoo)  of  Ordudax,  to  which,  u 
now  restricted,  eleven  of  the  Britiah  species  are 
refsrred.  Some  of  them  are  anosg  the  most  oom- 
mnn  of  British  OrrAidax,  adomiag  meadowg  and 
putam  with  their  flowen  in  Bammer.      The  root* 


•I  loiiM  of  the  specie*  ;idd  ulep.     Tba  Up  of  the 

flower  in  this  genua  has  a  Bunr.  llie  flowen  of  the 
Early  Purple  O.  (0.  maKMla],  one  of  the  most  com- 
mon speciea,  are  Bometimea  frai;raiit ;  but  those  of 
the  Lizard  0.  {0.  hirdna),  foond  in  cballcy  dLStricta 
mth  of  England,  are  remarkable  for  their 
'  le  goat'like  at  liiard-like  amelL 


kingdom  of  the  Minys.  and  hence  called  Minyean 
O.,  to  diatingoish  it  from  another  O.  in  Arcadia. 
It  was  situated  northward  from  the  Lake  Copala, 
on  die  ieft  bank  of  the  CephissuB,  and  extended 
from  the  marshy  edges  of  the  lake  up  the  face  of  a 
•t«ep  rocky  hill,  on  which  stood  the  Acropolis.  In 
the  earliest  times,  its  dominions  extended  to  the  sea. 
Homer  compares  its  treasures  to  those  of  E^ptian 
Thebes,  and  tells  as  that  it  sent  30  ships  to  the 
Trujan  war.  Some  time  after  this  event,  it  became 
a  member  of  the  B<6otian  confederacy.  During  the 
Fettiu  war,  Lke  the  other  towns  of  B<»)tia,  it 
absodoned  the  national  cause.  Its  goveniment  was 
thoroughly  aristocratic,  and  after  the  Peloponnesian 
war,  whoi  Thebes  became  a  democracy,  0.  took 
pwt  with  Bparta,  and  shared  in  its  first  triumph 
over  Thebes  ;  but  the  victory  of  Epaminondaa 
at  Lenctrs(371  B.C)  placed  O.  at  the  mercy  of  the 
Tliehsns,  who  soon  after  destroyed  it  by  fire,  and 
•old  its  inhabitants  as  slaves,  tt  was  again  rebuUt 
during  the  Fhocian  war,  but  a  second  time  destroyed 
io  the  reign  of  Philip  of  Mauedoo,  who,  however, 
•■MB  more  rebuilt  it;  bat  it  never  again  became 
prominent  in  history.  O.  was  famous  for  its  great 
muieal  festival  in  honour  of  the  Graces,  when  poets 
and  musicians  assembled  from  all  quarters  to  com- 
ocle  for  prizes.  The  niins  of  O.  are  still  to  be  seen 
■Mr  tbe  DMdeni  Tillage  of   Skripfi. — See  K.   0. 


O'RCIN  AST)   OBCEIN  are  colouring  e 
obtained  from  lichena     Orcin  (C„HeO,  +2Ai 


extracting  with  boiling  alcohol,  from  which  the 
orciD  separates  in  red  ciystals.  With  chloride  of 
lime,  it  gives  a  purple  red  coloor,  which  quickly 
changes  to  a  deep  yellow.  Orcin  is  the  true  colour- 
producing  substance  or  chromogen  of  these  lichena 
In  the  presence  of  ammonia,  it  absorbs  oiygen,  and 

: ._j  ._. (Ci^H^NO,),  a  nitrogenou 

stonal  power.  When  is<i 
I  doecnient  powder,  whid 
is  freely  soluble  in  alcohol,  forming  a  scarlet  fluid. 
Fotaah  and  ammonia  dissolve  it  readily,  forming  a 
splendid  purple  oolour,  wbiob  is  tlie  basis  of  the 
ordinary  archil  of  commerce.  With  metallic  salts, 
its  alkaline  solutions  yield  beautifnl  purple  lakes. 

O'RDEAL  (Anglo-Saion,  ordaal;  from  or,  primi- 
tive, and  f /oo^,  judgment ;  Ger.  UrAal,  judgment),  a 
practice  which  hu  prevuled  largely  among  various 
widely-separated  oations,  of  referring  disputed  uuea- 
ttons,  particularly  such  as  relate  to  the  guilt  or 
innocence  of  an  individual,  to  the  judgment  of  GmL, 
determined  either  by  lot,  or  by  the  success  of  certain 
eiperimeatB.  Of  its  existence  among  the  aucicnt 
Jews,  we  have  sn  instance  in  Numbers  v.,  where  a 
Hebrew  woman,  accused  of  adultery,  ia  required  to 
drink  the  waters  of  jealousy  as  a  t(st  of  innocence  ; 
a  similar  ordeal  for  incontinence  is  in  use  among 
the  natives  of  the  Gold  Coast  of  Africa.  Compur- 
gation of  accused  persons  by  fire,  as  existing  amimg 
the  Greeks,  is  referred  to  m  Sophoclea's  Antigone. 
Among  the  Hindus,  the  ordeal  has  been  in  use  to  te 

eractised  in  nine  different  ways — by  the  bal/iHix, 
y  fire,  by  ivaler,  by  poitoa,  by  the  oogha  or 
tbinlcing  water,  in  which  images  of  the  sun  and 
other  deities  had  been  washed,  by  chewing-ric^,  by 
hot  oil,  by  red-hot  iron,  and  by  drawing  two  images 
int  of  a  jar  into  which  they  have  been  thrown. 


Africa.  '  When  a  man,'  says  Dr  Livingstone, 
'  suspects  that  any  of  his  wives  have  bewitched  him, 
he  sends  for  the  witch-doctor,  and  all  the  wives  go 
forth  into  the  field,  and  remain  fasting  till  that 
perann  has  made  an  infusion  of  the  plant  (called 
"  j^dlio  ").  They  all  drink  it,  each  one  holding  up 
her  hand  to  heaven  in  attestation  of  her  innocency. 
Those  who  vomit  it  are  considered  innocent,  while 
those  whom  it  purges  are  pronoimced  guilty,  and 
put  to  death  by  burning.  The  innocent  return  to 
their  homea,  and  alangh^  a  cock  as  a  thank -olTer- 
ing  to  their  guardian  spirits.  The  practice  of  onical 
ia  common  among  ail  the  negro  nations  north  of  the 
ZatnbeaL'  The  women  themselves  eagerly  desire 
the  teat  on  the  atightest  provocation  ;  each  ia  ci>n- 
scious  of  her  own  innocence,  and  has  the  fullcE^t 
faith  in  the  muaa  (the  ordeal)  clearing  all  but  the 
guilty.  There  ore  varieties  of  procedure  among 
the  different  tribes.  The  Barotse  pour  the  me<li- 
cine  down  the  throat  of  a  cock  or  dog.  and  judijo 
of  the  innocence  or  guilt  of  the  person  accused  by 
the  vomiting  orpurgmg  of  the  animaL 

Throughout  Europe  m  the  dark  ages  the  ordeal 
existed  under  the  sanction  of  law,  and  of  the 
clergy.  The  most  prevalent  hiuds  of  ordeal  were 
those  of  Jirf,  watiT,  ond  the  viagfT  qf  bnlllc 
Fire  ordeal  was  only  allowed  to  persons  of  hich 
rank.  Tlie  accused  had  to  cany  a  niece  of  red- 
hot  iron  for  some  distance  in  his  nand,  or  to 
walk    nine   feet    barefoot   and    blindfolded    uver 


ORDEAL— ORDER. 


red-hot  ploughaKares.  The  hand  or  foot  waa  bound 
up  and  inspected  three  days  afterwards :  if  the 
accused  had  escaped  unhurt,  he  was  pronounced 
i^^nocent ;  if  otherwise,  guilty.  Under  such  a 
judicial  system,  there  were  probably  few  acquit- 
tals ;  but  it  is  beheved  that  in  the  severer  kinds  of 
ordeal,  precautions  were  sometimes  taken  by  the 
clergy  to  protect  those  whom  they  wished  to  dear 
from  suspicion.  Queen  Emma,  mother  of  Edward 
the  Confessor,  when  suspected  of  a  criminal  intrigue 
with  Alwyn,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  is  said  to  have 
triumphantly  vindicated  her  character  by  walkine 
unhurt  over  red-hot  ploughshares.  WaXer  ordeai 
was  the  usual  mode  of  trial  allowed  to  bondsmen 
and  rustics,  and  was  of  two  kinds— the  ordeal  of 
boiling  water,  and  of  cold  water.  The  ordeal  of 
boiling  water,  according  to  the  laws  of  Athelstane, 
consisted  in  taking  a  stone  out  of  boUing  water, 
where  the  hand  hsA  to  be  inserted  as  deep  as  the 
wrist ;  what  was  called  the  triple  ordeal,  deepened 
the  water  to  the  elbow.  The  person  allowed  the 
anleal  of  cold  toater  (the  usual  mode  of  trial  for 
witchcraft),  was  flung  into  a  river  or  pond ;  if  he 
floated  without  any  api)earance  of  swimming,  he 
was  judged  guilty — while  if  he  sank,  he  was 
acquitted. 

The  wager  of  battle  was  a  natural  accompani- 
ment of  a  state  of  society  which  allowed  men  to 
take  the  law  into  their  own  hands.  The  challenger 
faced  the  west,  the  cballenced  person  the  east ;  tne 
defeated  party,  if  he  craved  his  life,  was  allowed  to 
live  as  a  *  recreant ;  *  that  is,  on  retracting  the  perjury 
which  he  had  sworn  ta    See  Battel,  trial  by. 

Other  kinds  of  ordeal  were  practised  in  particular 
drcumstances  in  different  parts  of  Europe.  In  the 
onleal  of  the  bier,  a  supposed  murderer  was 
reqiiired  to  touch  the  body  of  the  murdered  person, 
ana  pronounced  guilty  if  the  blood  flowed  from  his 
wounds.  The  ordeal  of  the  Eucharid  was  in  use 
among  the  clergy  :  the  accused  |>arty  took  the 
sacrament  in  attestation  of  innocence,  it  being 
believed  that,  if  guilty,  he  would  be  immediately 
visited  with  divine  punishment  for  the  sacrilege. 
A  somewhat  similar  ordeal  was  that  of  the  corsned, 
or  consecrated  bread  and  cheese :  if  the  accused 
swallowed  it  freely,  he  was  pronounced  innocent ;  if 
it  stuck  in  his  throat,  he  was  presumed  to  be  guilty. 
Godwin,  Earl  of  Kent,  in  the  reign  of  Edward  the 
Confessor,  when  accused  of  the  murder  of  the  king's 
brother,  is  said  to  have  ap|>ealed  to  the  ordeal  of 
the  corsned,  and  been  choked  by  it  An  earl^  form 
of  ordeal,  abolished  by  Louis  le  Debonnaire  m  815, 
was  that  of  the  cross:  the  accuser  and  accused 
stood  upright  before  a  cross,  and  he  who  first  fell, 
or  shifted  his  position,  was  pronounced  guilty.  It 
was  done  away  with,  as  bem^  irreverent  towards 
the  mystery  of  the  cross.  Besides  these,  there  was 
the  ordeal  by  lot,  dependent  on  the  throw  of  a 
pair  of  dice,  one  marked  with  a  cross,  the  other 
plain. 

Trial  bv  ordeal  at  first  carried  with  it  the 
sanction  of  the  priests,  as  well  as  of  the  civil  power, 
though  the  cler^  in  the  course  of  time  came  to 
discountenance  it.  In  Enj^land  it  seems  to  have 
been  continued  till  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth 
century.  On  the  continent  it  was,  generally  speak- 
ing, abolished  rather  earlier,  although  as  late  as 
1498  we  And  the  truth   of   Savonarola's   doctrine 

Sut  to  the  test,  by  a  challenge  between  one  of  his 
isciples  and  a  Franciscan  fnar,  to  walk  through  a 
burning  pile.  In  Scotland,  in  1180,  we  find  David  L 
enactinjj^  in  one  of  the  assemblies  of  the  frank 
tenantry  of  the  kingdom,  which  were  the  germ  of 
parliaments,  that  no  one  was  to  hold  an  ordinary 
court  of  justice,  or  a  court  of  ordeal,  whether  of 
battle,  iron,  or  water,  except  in  presence  of  the 
102 


sheriff  or  one  of  his  sergeants ;  though  if  thaA 
official  failed  to  attend  after  being  duly  summoned, 
the  court  might  be  held  in  his  absence.  The  first 
step  towards  the  abolition  of  this  form  of  trial  in 
Saxon  and  Celtic  countries,  seems  to  have  been  the 
substitution  of  compurgation  by  witnesses  for  com^ 
purgation  by  ordeal.  The  near  relatives  of  an 
accused  party  wero  expected  to  come  forward  to 
swear  to  his  innocence.  The  number  of  compui^ 
gators  varied,  according  to  the  importance  of  the 
case ;  and  judgment  went  against  {be  party  whose 
kin  refused  to  come  forwud,  or  who  failed  to 
obtain  the  necessary  number  of  compurgators.  To 
repel  an  accusation,  it  was  often  heid  necessary  to 
have  double  the  number  of  compurgators  who  sup- 
ported it,  till  at  length  the  most  numerous  body  of 
compurgators  carried  the  day. 

ORDER.  In  Classic  Architecture,  the  Order  or 
ordonnance  comprises  the  column  with  its  base  and 
capital  and  the  entablature.  There  ai'e  five  orders  ; 
(1)  Tuscan,  (2)  Doric,  (3)  Ionic,  (4)  Corinthian^ 
(5)  Composite.  The  first  and  fifth  are  Roman 
orders,  and  aro  simply  modifications. of  the  others. 
The  remaining  three  are  the  Greek  orders.  See 
CoLiTMN,  Greek  Abchitectubb,  Roman  Archtteo- 

TITBE. 

ORDER,  in  Natural  History,  a  group  constituted 
for  the  purpose  of  classification,  inferior  to  class  and 
sub-class,  but  sui)erior  to  family,  tribe,  genuSj  &c 
The  term  Natural  Order  is  used  in  botany  to 
designate  an  order  belonging  to  the  natural  system 
of  classification,  in  contradistinction  to  one  of  an 
artificiM  system  devised  for  mere  convenience  of 
the  student,  and  signifies  that  the  limits  of  the 
order  agree  with  the  truth  of  nature,  and  that  it 
thus  exhibits  affinities  really  existing.  In  all 
branches  of  natural  history,  classification  now 
proceeds  on  this  principla 

ORDER.  This  word  Is  applied  to  an  aggregate 
of  conventual  communities  comprehended  under  one 
rule,  or  to  the  societies,  half  military  half  religious^ 
out  of  which  the  institution  of  knighthood  spran|^ 
Religious  orders  are  generally  classilied  as  nionastio» 
miUtaiy,  and  mendicant 

The  earliest  comprehension  of  monastic  tocietiee 
under  one  rule  was  effected  by  St  Basil,  Archbishop 
of  Ceesarea,  who  unit^  the  hermits  and  coeuobitea 
in  his  diocese,  and  prescribed  for  them  a  uniform 
constitution,  recommending  at  the  same  time  a  vow 
of  celibacy.  The  Basilian  rule  subsists  to  the 
present  day  in  the  Eastern  Church.  Next  in  order 
of  time  was  the  Benedictine  order,  founded  by  St 
Benedict  of  Nursia,  who  considered  a  mild  disci[>liDe 
preferable  to  excessive  austerity.  The  offshoots 
from  the  Benedictine  order  include' some  of  the 
most  important  orders  in  ecclesiastical  history, 
among  others  the  Carthusians,  Cisteroianis  and 
Pnemonstrants.  The  order  of  Angnstiniaoa  pro- 
fessed to  draw  their  rule  from  the  writiug«  of  St 
Augustine;  they  were  the  first  order  who  were 
not  entirely  composed  of  laymen,  but  of  oirlaiaej 
priests,  or  persons  destined  to  the  clerical  profession. 

The  military  orders,  of  which  the  members  nnited 
the  military  with  the  religious  profession,  aroso 
from  the  necessity  under  which  the  monks  lay  of 
defending  the  possessions  which  they  had  accumit- 
lated,  and  the  supposed  duty  of  recovering  Pales- 
tine from  the  Saracens,  and  retaining  iK»83ession  oC 
it.  The  most  famous  orders  of  this  Kind  were  the 
Hospitallers  or  Knights  of  St  Jchn  of  Jerusalem, 
the  Eniffhts  Templars,  and  the  Teutonic  oitler. 
Many  other  military  orders  existed,  and  not  a  few 
continue  to  exist,  particularly  in  S[)ain  and  PortugaL 
The  phraseology  of  the  old  xnilitarv  ordert  im 
preserved  in  the  orders  of  knightl«ooa  of  mocUftra 


ORDERICUS-ORDERS  IN  COUNCIL. 


timeB»  into  which  individuala  are  admitted  in  reward 
£v  merit  of  different  kinds,  military  and  civil. 

The  three  mendicant  orders  of  Franciscans, 
Dominicans,  and  Carmelites  were  instituted  in 
the  13th  oentuiy.  Their  principal  purpose  was 
to  pat  down  the  op]^oeition  to  the  church,  which 
had  begun  to  shew  itself,  and  also  to  reform  the 
ohiutih  oy  example  and  precept  At  a  later  period 
the  order  of  the  Jesuits  was  founded,  with  the 
c^ject  of  increasing  the  power  of  the  church,  and 
pnttiog  down  heresy. — Notices  of  the  more  import- 
sat  orders,  monastic,  military,  and  mendicant,  will 
be  found  under  separate  artides.    See  also  Kmiohtb 

•od  MOKACHISM. 

ORDFRICUS,  ViTALiB,  a  medieval  historian, 
bors  at  Atcham,  near  Shrewsbury,  in  1075,  was 
taken  to  France  at  the  age  of  live,  and  educated  for 
the  monastic  life  in  the  aubey  of  Ouche,  at  Lisienx. 
He  became  a  priest  in  1107,  and  died,  it  is  thought, 
about  1143.  O.  is  the  author  of  a  so-called  Church 
History  {ffUtoria  JScelesioJitiece),  in  13  vols.  It  is 
a  chronicle  of  events  from  the  birth  of  Christ  down 
to  bis  own  tima  Boohs  3 — 6  give  an  account  of  the 
Nonnan  wars  in  England,  France,  and  Apulia  down 
to  the  death  of  William  the  Conaueror.  The  last 
bslf  of  the  book  is  the  most  valuable,  being  a  record 
of  the  history  of  the  author's  own  times.  The  first 
edition  of  the  HUiorict  EcdedastiecB  was  published 
by  Duchesne,  in  his  HisL  Norm.  Scrip,  (1619).  It 
baa  also  been  printed  by  the  French  Historical 
Society  (2  vols.  1840),  and  was  translated  into 
French  by  Dubois  (4  vols.  1825-1827). 

O'RDERLiIES  are  soldiers  or  sergeants  ap)X>inted 
to  wait  upon  general  and  other  comnianding  ofi^cers, 
to  conununicate  their  orders,  and  to  carry  messages. 
I^e  Orderly  OJuxr^  or  officer  of  the  day,  is  the 
officer  of  a  corps  or  regiment,  whose  turn  it  is  to 
■apehntend  its  interior  economy,  as  cleanliness,  the 
goodness  of  the  food,  Ac.  Orderly  Non-commisnioned 
Oficerf  are  the  sergeants  in  each  company  who  are 
'  orderiy,'  or  on  duty  for  the  we^  On  the  drum 
beating  for  orders,  they  proceed  to  the  Orderly 
Boom,  take  down  the  general  or  regimental  orders 
affecting  their  respective  companies,  shew  them  to 
the  company  officers,  and  warn  the  necessary  men 
for  any  auties  specified  in  those  orders.  An  Orderly 
Book  is  provided  by  the  captain  of  each  troop  or 
company  in  a  r^ment  for  tke  insertion  of  general 
or  r^imental  orders  from  time  to  time  issued. 

ORDERS,  \bmt,  are  general,  divisional,  brigade, 
or  regimental  General  orders  are  issued  by  the 
commander-in-chief  of  an  army,  and  affect  the 
whole  of  lus  force.  The  others  emanate  from 
generals  of  division  or  brigade,  or  from  officers 
oommanding  regiments,  and  severally  affect  their 
lespective  commands. 

ORDERS  IK  COUNCIL,  orders  by  the  sove- 
m^  with  the  advice  of  the  privy  council.  The 
ivivy  council  of  Great  Britain  has  no  power  to 
legislate,  except  so  far  as  authorised  to  do  so 
by  parliament;  but  in  periods  of  emergency,  it 
has  nevertheless  occasionally  issued  and  enforced 
orders  of  »  legislative  kind ;  those  who  were 
concerned  in  passing,  promulgating,  or  enforcing 
the  orders,  trusting  to  parliamentary  protection, 
vid  taking  on  themselves  the  personal  respon- 
sibility of  the  proceeding.  In  such  oases,  an  act 
if  indemnity  iJterwards  passed  has  relieved  from 
hafaility  those  who  advised  the  order  or  acted  under 
it,  and  given  compensation  to  all  who  suffered  by  its 
enforcement.  Tnis  course  was  adopted  in  1766 
with  regard  to  an  embargo  on  the  exportation  of 
com,  issued  in  consequence  of  a  deficient  harvest 
sad  prospect  of  famine.  An  important  constitu- 
tiooaf  question  was  raised  by  the  famous  Orders 


in  Council  issued  by  Great  Britain  in  1807  and 
1809,  in  reprisal  for  Napoleon's  Berlin  and  Milan 
decrees.  The  Berlin  decree,  issued  on  the  21  st  of 
November  1806,  declared  the  whole  of  the  British 
islands  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all  vessels 
trading  to  them  to  be  liable  to  captiure  by  French 
ships.  It  also  shut  out  all  British  vessels  and 
produce  both  from  France  and  from  all  the  other 
countries  which  gave  obedience  to  the  French.  A 
subsequent  decree,  issued  soon  afterwards,  obliged 
all  neutral  vessels  to  carry  letters  or  certificates  of 
origin — that  is,  attestations  by  the  French  consuls 
of  the  ports  from  which  thev  had  sailed^  that  no 
part  of  the  cargo  was  Britisn.  In  retaliation  for 
the  Berlin  decree,  the  British  government  issued, 
on  the  7th  January  1807,  an  Order  in  Council, 
subjecting  to  seizure  all  neutral  vessels  trading 
from  one  hostile  port  in  Europe  to  another  with 
property  belonging  to  an  enemy.  This  order  was 
at  first  extensively  evaded,  while  the  French  mads 
vigorous  efforts  to  enforce  the  Berlin  decree;  the 
result  was,  that  new  Orders  were  issued  by  the 
British  government  on  the  Uth  and  21st  of  Novenk- 
ber  1807,  declaring  France  and  all  states  subject 
to  the  fVench  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all 
vessels  liable  to  seizure  which  were  found  to  have 
certificates  of  origin  on  board,  or  which  should 
attempt  to  trade  with  any  of  the  ports  of  the  world 
thus  Dlockaded.  Neutral  vessels  intended  for 
France,  or  any  other  hostile  country,  were  ordered, 
in  all  cases,  to  touch  first  at  some  British  port,  and 
to  pay  custom-house  dues  there,  after  which  they 
were  in  certain  cases  to  be  allowed  to  depart  for 
their  destination ;  and  vessels  clearing  from  a  hostile 
country  were  similarly  to  touch  at  a  British 
]X)rt  before  proceeding  on  their  voyage.  On  the 
27th  of  December  1807,  Napoleon's  Milan  decree 
was  issued,  which  declarea  the  whole  British 
dominions  to  be  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  all 
countries  were  prohibited  from  trading  with  each 
other  in  any  articles  of  British  produce  or  manu* 
facture.  The  Americans,  and  those  of  the  public  of 
Great  Britain  who  were  interested  in  the  export 
trade,  exclaimed  loudly  against  the  edicts  of  both 
powers,  and  the  legality  as  well  as  the  expediency 
of  the  Orders  in  Council  were  called  in  question  in 
parliament  The  result  was,  that  an  inquiry  was 
mstituted  into  the  effect  of  the  orders,  from  which 
no  direct  result  followed.  But,  in  the  meantime, 
on  the  26th  April  1808,  a  new  Order  in  Council 
was  issued,  limiting  the  blockade  to  France,  Hol- 
land, a  part  of  Germany,  and  the  north  of  Italy, 
and  the  order  which  condemned  vessels  which  hsA 
certificates  of  origin  on  board  was  rescinded. 
Subsequent  orders  mtroduced  a  svstem  of  furnish- 
ing licences  to  vessels  to  proceea  to  hostile  ports 
after  having  first  touched  and  paid  custom-house 
dues  at  a  British  port;  no  fewer  than  16,000  of 
these  licences  are  said  to  have  been  granted.  The 
legality  of  these  Orders  has  been  called  in  question, 
on  the  ground  that  they  were  more  of  a  legis- 
lative than  an  executive  character,  in  so  far  as  a 
fictitious  blockade,  where  there  is  no  blockading 
force  present,  is  contrary  to  the  law  of  nations; 
it  has  been  defended  on  the  ground  that  they 
were  issued  in  execution  of  the  royal  preroga- 
tive of  declaring  and  conducting  war.  They  are 
generally  believed  to  have  added  to  the  general 
distress,  and  the  check  on  the  progress  of  manu- 
factures produced  by  Napoleon's  decrees ;  but,  on 
the  other  hand,  it  has  been  maintained  that  they 
were  essential  to  the  effective  prosecution  of  the 

war. 

There  are  various  matters  connected  with  trade 
and  the  revenue  as  to  which  Orders  in  Council 
have  been  authorised  by  statute;  parliament,  in 


ORDERS-ORDINAli. 


fact)  delegatlDg  its  legislative  authority  to  the 
Queen  in  Council  For  example,  the  International 
Oo,iyright  Act,  7  ftnd  8  Vict  o.  12,  contains  a 
provision  for  empowering  the  crown,  b^  Order  in 
Council,  to  extend  the  privileges  of  British  copy- 
light  to  works  first  published  in  any  state  which 
gives  a  like  privilege  to  the  productions  of  this 
country. 

ORDERS,  Holy,  an  institution  regarded  in  the 
Greek  and  Roman  churches  as  a  sacrament,  by 
which  ministers  are  specially  set  apart  for  the 
service  of  religion,  and  are  regarded  as  receiving 
a  certain  reU^ous  consecration,  or,  at  least,  desig- 
nation for  their  office.  While  some  of  the  reformed 
oimrches  idtogether  deny  the  distinction  of  ranks 
in  the  miniatrv,  none  of  them  admits  more  than 
three  ranks,  of  bishop,  priest,  and  deacon.  But  in 
the  Roman  and  Greek  churches,  a  further  classi- 
fication exists.  In  the  Roman  Church,  a  distinction 
is  made  between  the  major  (or  holy)  orders  and 
the  minor  orders.  Of  the  major  orders,  three  have 
been  described  in  general  terms,  under  the  head 
Hierarchy  (q.  v.),  viz.,  the  classes  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons.  A  fourth  rank  of  sub-deacons 
u  generally  regarded  as  one  of  the  major  orders,  but 
its  functions  closely  resemble  in  their  nature  and 
their  degree  those  of  the  deacon.  The  minor  orders 
in  the  Roman  Church  are  four  in  number— those  of 
door-keeper,  reader,  exorcist,  and  acolyte.  To  none 
of  these  orders  is  any  vow  of  celibacy  annexed. 
Some  of  their  functions  had  their  origin  in  the 

Seculiar  religious  condition  of  the  early  church.  The 
uties  of  door-keeper  arose  chiefly  out  of  the  disci- 
pline in  regard  to  the  penitents  and  catechumens ; 
out  although  these  functions  find  no  room  in  the 
modem  discipline  of  the  Roman  Church,  the  door- 
keeper of  the  modem  church  is  held  to  succeed  to 
other  functions  of  his  ancient  prototype  in  relation 
to  the  catechetical  instruction  of  children  and  of  the 
poor  and  ignorant.  Preparatory  to  the  receiving  of 
these  orders,  candidates  are  initiated  in  what  is 
called  the  Tonsure,  which  consists  in  the  cutting  off 
of  the  hair,  as  a  symbol  of  separation  from  the  world 
and  its  vanities — a  rite  whicn  appears  also  as  one  of 
the  ceremonies  of  the  religious  profession.  Tonsure, 
however,  is  not  reckoned  as  an  order ;  it  is  but  a 
distinguishing  characteristic  of  a  class.  In  the 
Roman  Church,  the  sacrament  of  orders  is  held  to 
produce  an  indelible  character,  and  therefore  to  be 
incapable  of  being  forfeited  and  of  being  validly 
repeated.  This,  however,  applies  only  to  the  holy 
orders.  The  Greek  Church  nas  the  distinction  of 
major  and  minor  orders,  in  common  with  the  Roman. 
But  the  Greeks  commonly  exclude  sub-deaconship 
from  the  major  orders,  and  all  the  functions  of  the 
four  minor  orders  of  the  Roman  Church  are  united 
by  the  Greeks  in  one  single  order,  that  of  reader 
{(imiffndiitea). 

In  the  Anglican  and  other  Reformed  Episcopal 
Churches,  the  three  higher  orders  of  bishop,  priest, 
and  deacon  are  alone  retained.  An  Anglican 
clergyman  may  be  deprived  of  his  benefice,  or 
aus|)ended  by  his  bishop  for  various  ecclesiastical 
offences ;  and  the  right  of  the  Court  of  Arches  to 
pronounce  sentence  of  deprivation  has  also  been 
recognised.  But  in  the  usual  case  of  deprivation, 
the  clergyman  does  not  forfeit  his  status  of  priest 
or  deacon,  which  can  only  be  lost  by  deposition  or 
degradation.  Statute  23,  Hen.  VIlL,  c  1.  s.  6, 
reserves  to  the  ordinary  the  power  of  degrading 
clerks  convicted  of  treason,  petit  treason,  murder, 
and  certain  other  felonies  before  judgment.  A 
bishop  ma^  be  deprived  of  his  see  by  his  metro- 
politan, with  or  without  the  co-operation  of  a 
synod  of  the  bishops  of  the  province,  but  it  has 
been    questioned    whether    he   can    be    lawfully 

t04 


deprived  of  his  orders  as  bishop.  A  dergynuui  of 
the  Churdi  of  England  and  Ireland  cannot  beoone 
a  member  of  the  House  of  Oommona.  In  the 
Presbyterian  and  other  non-episcopal  chmches,  the 
ceremony  of  ordination  is  not  held  to  impart  sny 
indelible  character.  A  minister  found  guilty  of 
heresy  or  immorality,  is  deprived  of  his  office  bv 
depomtum,  by  which  his  dencal  status  is  forieitedL 
His  removal  from  his  chaiWB,  however,  in  any  other 
way,  does  not  affect  his  office  as  a  minister ;  and  a 
minister  removed  from  one  charge  to  another,  or, 
after  a  time,  inducted  into  a  new  charge,  is  not 
re-ordained.  A  minister  having  no  charee  or  flodc, 
may  yet  dispense  the  sacraments,  if  duly  called 
upon.  A  minister  deposed  ceases  altogether  to  be  a 
minister,  and  is  no  more  capable  of  any  of  the 
functions  of  the  office,  than  if  he  had  never  been 
ordained. 

The  ceremony  of  imposUhn  of  hands  is  used  m 
almost  all  Prot^tant  churches  in  the  ordination  of 
ministers,  the  ordaining  bishop  or  presbyters  placing 
the  ri^ht  hand  on  the  nead  of  the  person  ordained; 
and  IS  always  acoompanied  with  prayer.  It  is 
deemed  a  proper  and  Scriptural  form  (1  Tim.  iv.  14), 
but  not  essential 

In  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  other  Presbyterian 
churches,  when  an  already  ordained  minister  is 
inducted  into  a  new  charge,  no  imposition  of  hands 
takes  place.  In  the  Scottish  and  American  Presby- 
terian churches,  candidates  for  the  ministry  are 
licensed  to  preach  the  gospel  before  being  caJUed  to 
any  particular  charge,  and  are  then  styled  ^icen^'o^ 
ox  probationers.  They  are  licensed,  according  to  an 
old  'phrase,  *  for  trial  of  their  gifts,'  but  are  not 
entitled  to  dispense  the  sacraments. 

There  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  minister  of  the 
Church  of  Scotland,  or  any  Presbyterian  or  Lide- 
pendent  church,  from  being  a  member  of  the  British 
House  of  Commons. 

O'RDIN  AL,  the  service  used  in  EpiMiopal  churches 
for  the  ordination  of  ministers.  The  English  ordinal 
was  drawn  up  by  a  commission  appointed  in  the 
third  year  of  Edward  VL  (1550),  and  added  to  the 
Booh  qf  Common  Prayer.  It  was  slightly  modified 
in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  was  amn  revised  by 
thcNConvocation  of  1661.  The  English  ordinal,  in 
its  general  stmcture,  resembles  the  ancient  services 
usea  for  that  purpose,  but  possesses  much  greater 
simplicity,  and  has  some  features— e.  g.,  the  num^- 
ous  questions  addressed  to  the  candi(Uktes — ^peculiar 
to  itseU.  There  are  separate  services  for  the  '  mak- 
ing of  deacons'  and  the  'ordering  of  priests,*  but 
these  are  practically  joined  in  one,  and  used  on  the 
same  day.  The  service  for  the  consecration  of 
bishops  is  altogether  distinct. 

The  ordination  takes  place  at  one  of  the  Ember 
seasons,  and  during  the  public  service,  after  morning 
praver  and  a  sermon  on  the  subject,  and  begins 
witn  the  mesentation  of  the  candidates  bv  the  arch- 
deacon. The  bishop  inquires  as  to  their  fitness,  and 
commends  them  to  the  prayers  of  the  congregation. 
The  litany  is  then  said  with  special  petitions  £>r  the 
candidate  for  each  order,  and  the  commuuion 
service  commences  with  a  special  collect,  epistle, 
and  gospel  Between  the  epistle  and  gospel,  the 
oath  of  supremacy  is  administered,  and  the  candi- 
dates for  deacons'  orders  are  questioned  by  tiie 
bishop  and  ordained.  The  gospel  is  read  by  one  of 
the  newly-ordained  deacons.  The  candidates  for 
priests'  orders  are  then  solemnly  exhorted  and 
mterrosated,  and  the  prayers  of  all  present  are 
asked  for  the  divine  blessing  upon  them.  For  this 
puipose  a  pause  is  made  in  the  servioe  for  silent 
prayer.  After  this  the  hynm,  Veni  Creator  Spiritus 
(Come,  Holy  Ghost,  our  Souls  Inspire) — a  oomposi- 
tion  of  great  antiquity,  supposed  to  be  as  old  ab  tbs 


OKDmARIES-OKDIKATION. 


4tii  c— v  nmg,  and  tiie  candidates  kneeling  before 
ike  biihop,  he  and  the  aasirtant  presbyters  lay 
&eir  huDOA  upon  the  head  of  each,  with  the  words, 
'Beceive  the  Holy  Ghost  for  the  office  and  work  of 
a  miest  in  the  Church  of  Qod,*  ftc. 

The  only  other  ceremony  is  the  presentation  of 
each  candidate  with  the  Bible  in  token  of  authority 
to  preach;  as  the  deacons  had  been  before  presented 
wiw  the  New  Testament  with  authorily  to  read 
^e  goepeL  The  service  concludes  with  the  admin- 
iitration  of  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord^s  Supper. 

The  consecration  of  bishops  is  performed  bj 
an  archbishop,  or  some  bishop  appointed  in  his 
place,  and  two  or  more  of  his  suffirafinns,  and 
may  take  place  on  any  Sunday  or  holy  day.  The 
service  is  veiy  similar  to  that  for  the  ordination  of 
priesta 

OimiNARIES,  or  HONOURABLE  ORDI- 
KAKIES,  in  Heraldry,  certain  charges  composed  of 
straight  hnea,  and  in  very  common  use^  to  which 
writen  on  heraldry  had  assigned  abstruse  symboli- 
cal meanings,  bat  whose  real  chief  peculiarity  seems 
to  be  that  they  originally  represented  the  wooden 
or  metal  fastening  of  the  shields  in  use  in  actual 
warfares  The  ordmaries  are  usually  accounted  nine 
-the  Chief,  Pale,  fees,  Bar,  Bend,  Bend  Sinister, 
Chereion,  Saltire,  and  Gross.  Heralds  vary  a  little 
in  their  enumeration,  some  taking  in  the  Pile  in 
place  of  the  Bar.  Each  is  noticed  under  a  separate 
article. 

ORDINARY,  a  term  used  in  the  British  navy 
in  two  senses.  First)  as  regards  ships,  vessels  in 
ordinary  are  those  out  of  actual  use,  commonly 
dismasted,  and  occasionallv  roofed  over,  to  protect 
them  from  the  weather.  They  are  congregated  near 
the  several  dockyards,  where  their  masts  and  gear 
lie  ready  for  their  immediate  fitting  for  sea  wnen 
required  A  few  men  have  charge  of  each  vessel ; 
a  certain  number  of  vessels  constitute  a  division, 
with  a  lieutenant  in  command ;  and  a  line-of-battle- 
ship,  called  a  ^gUArd-sAiip  of  ordinary,*  is  responsible 
for  the  different  divisions  at  each  port  The  ships 
ars  moored  in  safe  places,  as  up  the  Medway,  in  the 
reeenes  of  Portsmouth  and  Plymouth  harbours,  ko. 

As  regards  men,  an  ordinary  teaman  is  one  capable 
of  the  commoner  duties,  but  who  has  not  served 
long  enough  at  sea  to  be  rated  as  an  able  seaman 
(q.T.).  His  pay  is  £1,  lis.  per  month  on  entering, 
sad  £1, 18s.  9(2.  a  month  on  promotion  to  the  lint- 
dasB. 

ORDINARY  (Lat.  ordmariwt)  is  the  name  com- 
monly civen  to  a  person,  who,  in  virtue  of  his  office, 
and  in  his  own  consequent  right,  is  competent  to  do 
certain  acts  or  to  decide  certam  causes.  In  this  sense, 
there  are  man^  functionaries  who  ma;^  be  called  by 
the  name  ordinary.  But  the  word  m  canon  law, 
when  used  without  other  additions,  is  understood  to 
mean  the  bishop,  who  is  the  ordinary  of  his  own 
diocese,  and  is  competent  of  himself  to  do  every  act 
necessary  for  its  government,  and  for  the  ordering 
of  the  spiritual  concerns  of  his  flock.  The  jurisdic- 
tion of  the  ordinary  is  called  by  that  name,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  '  extra-ordinaiy  jurisdiction,'  which 
arises  from  some  abnormal  circumstances,  and  from 
'delisted'  jurisdiction,  which  is  imparted  by  the 
ordinary  to  another  person  to  be  exerdsed  vica- 
riooaly. 

In  English  Law,  tSie  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction 
which  was  formerly  vested  in  bishops  and  their 
officers  relatinff  to  wills  and  marriages,  was  recently 
abolished,  and  transferred  to  a  new  judge,  called 
the  Judge  Ordinary,  who  is  entirelv  disconnected 
with  the  church.  The  bishops  still  retain  their 
jnriadiction  in  matters  of  discipline  as  regards  the 
clergy. — ^In  Scotland,  the  Judge  Ordinary  generally 


means  the  sheriff  depute  or  substitute,  who  haf 
ortiinary  jurisdiction  in  the  conntv.  Lord  Ordinary 
is  the  name  aven  to  certain  judges  of  the  Outer 
House  in  the  Court  of  Session. 

ORDINARY  OF  ARMS,  in  Heraldry,  an  index 
or  dictionary  of  armorial  coats,  arranged,  not  accord- 
ing  to  names,  like  an  armory,  but  according  to  the 
leading  charges  in  the  respective  diields,  so  as  to 
enable  any  one  conversant  with  heraldic  language^ 
on  seeing  a  shield  of  arms,  to  tell  to  whom  it 
belongecL  A  v^  imperfect  crdinary  for  £ngland 
is  appended  to  £!dmonson's  Heraldry:  a  far  moni 
complete  and  elaborate  work  of  the  same  kind, 
called  Papworth's  Ordinary  of  British  ArmarkUs^ 
is  now  in  course  of  publication. 

ORDINA'TION,  the  rite  or  ceremony  by  which 
mimsteia  of  the  Christian  Church  are  dedicated  to 
their  sacred  office.  The  use  of  a  ceremonial  for  such 
purposes  is  traceable  among  the  Jews  (Exod.  zxix. 
24v  Levit  zxi  10,  Num.  iu.  3) ;  and  the  New 
Testament  contains  frequent  reference  to  the  specific 
ceremonial  of  *  imposition  of  hands  *  (Acts  vi  1 — 7» 
xiii  1—4,  xiv.  23;  1  Tim.  iv.  14,  v.  22;  2  Tim.  i  6). 
In  the  Roman,  the  Greek,  and  the  other  Eastern 
Churches,  this  rite  of  ordination  is  held  to  be  sacra- 
mental, and  it  is  reserved,  at  least  as  regards  the 
major  orders  (see  Orders,  Holt),  exduaively  to 
bishops.  In  extraordinary  cases,  it  was  permitted  to 
cardinals  and  to  certain  abbots  to  confer  the  minor 
orders.  Considerable  controversy  exists  among 
Catholic  writers  as  to  what  are  the  essential  portions 
{Materia  Sacramenti)  of  the  rite  of  ordination.  Some 
place  it  in  the  '  imposition  of  hands,'  some  in  the 
'presentation  of  the  instruments*  symbolical  of  each 
order.  The  controversy  derives  some  importanoe 
from  the  diversity  which  exists  between  the  Greek 
and  Roman  ceremonial;  but  on  this  bead  Roman 
Catholics  maintain  that  the  essential  rites  are  con- 
tained alike  in  both  ceremonials.  As  regards  the 
vcUidiiy  of  the  rite  of  ordination,  the  mere  fact  of 
its  being  conferred  by  a  bishop  suffices ;  but  there  is 
not  any  part  of  the  Roman  discipline  which  is  more 
jealously  guarded  by  laws  than  the  administration  of 
orders.  The  candidate  can  only  be  lawfully  ordained 
by  'his  own  bishop'  (proprius  epiacopu8)t  or  with 
the  authority  of  his  own  bishoi),  which  must  be 
communicated  to  the  ordaining  bishop  by  what  are 
called  dimissorial  letters.  The  canoidate  may  be 
claimed  by  a  bishop  as  by  'his  own  bishop* 
under  any  of  four  titles— of  birth,  of  domicile,  of 
benefice,  or  of  connection  by  personal  service ;  and 
if  an  ordination  be  attempted  without  some  one 
of  these  tities,  heavy  ecclesiastical  penalties  are 
incurred  as  well  by  the  ordainer  as  by  the  ordained. 
On  the  part  of  the  candidate  himself,  certain  quali- 
fications are  required ;  and  certain  disqualifications 
created  or  propounded  by  the  canon  law,  called 
irregulariHes,  are  held  to  render  an  ordination  in 
some  cases  invalid,  and  in  all  unlawful 

In  the  Church  of  Bhigland  and  other  Reformed 
Episcopal  churches,  the  rules  of  the  ancient  canon- 
law  are  retained,  by  which  no  one  could  be  ordained 
without  previous  examination  of  his  fitness,  or  who 
was  disqualified  by  bodily  infirmity,  illc^timapy, 
immorality,  or  simony,  or  who  was  unprovided  wiw 
a  title  (le.,  an  appointment  to  serve  in  some  church) 
which  should  provide  him  with  a  maintenance  ;  or 
who,  being  a  candidate  for  deacon's  orders,  was 
under  20,  and  for  priest's,  under  24  years  of  age ; 
but  the  age  for  admission  to  deacon's  orders  it 
changed  to  23.  A  college  Fellowship  is  admitted 
as  a  titie.  (For  the  ceremony  of  Ordination  sea 
Ordinal.)  A  person  can  only  be  ordained  by  tha 
bishop  in  whose  diocese  he  is  to  serve,  except  oa 
leUere  dindseory  from  that  bishop  to  another. 


ORDNANCE— ORDNANCE  SURVEY. 


In  ofchsr  Refonned  chnrcheB  ordination  u  per- 
formed by  the  presbytery,  or  by  one  or  more 
ordinary  miniatenu  Some  small  Protestant  deno- 
minations have  no  ceremony  of  ordination  whatever. 

O'RDNANCE  {ordtmuice,  primarily,  any  dis- 
position, arrangement,  or  equipment ;  and  then 
apphed  incidentally  to  a  particular  part  of  the 
equipment  or  apparatus  of  war),  a  name  apnlied  to 
the  guns  and  mimitions  of  an  army  generally,  and 
in  particular  to  the  great  guns.  Descriptions  of  the 
various  sorts  of  ordnance  will  be  found  under 
Cannon,  Firearms,  Gun,  Howitzer,  Mortar, 
Rifled  Ordnanob. 

ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT,  one  of  the 

oAdest  departments  under  the  crown,  was  abolished 
by  an  Order  in  Council  of  the  25th  May  1855,  after 
flu  existence  of  at  least  400  years.  Its  constitution, 
its  important  functions,  and  the  causes  which  led  to 
its  dissolution,  will  be  found  under  Board  of  Ord- 
nance. The  early  history  of  the  department  is 
lost  in  the  middle  ages ;  but  it  appears  to  have  ris%n 
gradually  under  the  Lancastrian  kines,  the  first 
chiefs  having  been  the  commandants  of  the  king's 
artillery.  A  Master  of  the  Ordnance  is  mentioned 
in  the  time  of  Richard  lU. ;  but  we  read  of  John 
Louth  being  Clerk  of  the  Ordnance  as  early  as  1418. 
Henry  VIII.  constituted  the  Board,  adding  a  Lieu- 
tenant, a  Surveyor,  and  a  Storekeei)er,  to  whom  a 
Clerk  of  the  Cheque  was  subsequently  joined.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last,  whose  office  was  abolished 
in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  this  organi- 
sation was  mamtained  until  the  abolition  of  the 
whole.  Li  1604,  James  L  di^pified  the  Master  and 
Lieutenant  with  the   respective  titles  of  Master- 

gmeral  and  Lieutenant-generaL  The  history  of  the 
rdnance  Office  is  of  importance  in  British  history, 
as  in  all  wars  it  has  been  responsible  not  only  for  the 
management  of  the  maUriet  of  the  armies,  but  also 
for  the  direction  of  the  pergonnd  of  the  artillery  and 
engineers. 

ORDNANCE    SELECT  COMMITTEE  is    a 

committee  composed  of  scientific  officers,  and 
advises  the  Secretary  of  State  for  War  on  all  inven- 
tions in  war  materiel  It  has  its  offices  at  Wool- 
wich, in  the  midst  of  the  manufactories  of  the 
Royal  Arsenal,  and  near  the  head-quarters  of  the 
royal  artillery,  by  whom  most  of  the  designs  have 
to  be  practically  tested.  The  president  of  the 
committee  is  usually  a  general  officer  of  artillery ; 
and  a  captain  in  the  royal  nAvy  serves  as  vice- 
president.  The  members  comprise  two  artillery 
officers,  one  officer  of  engineers,  and  one  of  the 
line.  The  secretary  and  assistant-secretary  are 
likewise  artillerists.  With  an  establishment  of 
clerks,  printers,  &c.,  the  cost  of  the  committee 
amounted  for  1864  to  £6607,  exclusive  of  the  larger 
sum  involved  for  their  expensive  experiments. 

O'RDNANCE  SURVEY.  By  this  term  is 
understood  the  various  operations  undertaken  by 
tiie  Ordnance  department  of  the  British  govern- 
ment for  preparing  mape  and  plans  of  the  whole 
kingdom  ana  its  parts.  The  idea  of  a  general 
map  of  the  country  to  be  executed  by  the  govern- 
ment was  first  proposed  after  the  rebellion  in 
1746,  when  the  want  of  any  reliable  map  of  the 
northern  parts  of  Scotland  was  much  felt  by  the 
officers  in  command  of  the  royal  troops.  Its  execu- 
tion was  intrusted  to  Lieutenant-general  Watson, 
the  deputy  quarter-master  of  North  Britain ; 
bat  it  was  mostly  carried  out  by  Major-general 
Rov,  an  officer  of  engineers.  The  drawing,  on  a 
•cale  of  ouv"^  inch  and  three-fourths  to  the  mile, 
was  completed  in  1755 ;  but  in  consequence  of  the 
war  which  broke  out  in  that  year,  was  never 
published.    In  1763  it  was  proposed  to  extend  the 


survey  to  the  whole  kingdom ;  bat  the  first  steps  to 
efi'ect  this  were  taken  only  in  1784,  when  Majov- 

feneral  Roy  commenced  measuring  a  base-line  on 
[ounslow  Heath,  near  London.  This  principal 
triangulation  was  designed  partly  for  astronomical 
purposes,  and  Pfuily  as  a  oasis  for  a  map  on  a 
small  sc^e.  The  base-line  was  remeasur^  with 
great  care  in  1791 ;  and  detail  plans  were  con^- 
menced  by  officers  of  the  Royal  En^eers,  partly 
for  practising  them  in  military  drawing,  and  partly 
for  the  purpose  of  forming  plans  of  some  portions  oS. 
Kent  for  tne  use  of  the  Ordnance.  The  principal 
object  was,  however,  the  instruction  of  a  corps  <rf 
military  surveyors  and  draughtsmen,  the  plans 
themselves  being  regarded  as  of  secondary  impor<>> 
ance.  In  1794,  tne  survey  for  the  one-inch  map  was 
begun,  and  some  sheets  were  published  in  1796.  As 
the  series  of  principal  triangles  were  extended 
westwards  towards  the  Land's  End,  it  was  though! 
right  to  measure  another  base,  for  verification,  on 
Suisbury  Plain  in  1794 ;  and  two  other  base-lines 
were  subsequently  measured — one  in  1801  at 
Misterton  Can-,  and  the  other  in  1806  on  Ruddlsn 
Marsh.  Though  first  intended  chiefly  as  a  military 
map,  the  publication  of  the  survey  soon  created  a 
desire  on  the  part  of  the  public  for  better  maps^ 
and  surveyors  were  then  hired  to  hasten  its  pn>> 
gress.  This,  however,  was  very  slow,  the  map  being 
at  one  time  entirely  suspended  during  the  war  in 
the  beginning  of  this  century,  and  even  the  parts 
which  were  executed,  having  been  done  by  contract^ 
were  found  veiy  inaccurate.  In  this  condition  the 
survev  of  England  continued  during  the  first  quay* 
ter  of  the  present  century,  sometimes  delayed  by 
the  government  from  motives  of  economy,  at  other 
times  urged  on  b^  the  county  ^pentlemen,  who 
wished  the  map  either  as  a  hunting-map  or  for 
local  improvements. 

In  Scotland,  the  principal  trian^rulation  was 
began  in  1809,  but  was  discontinued  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  to  enable  the  persons  who  had  been 
employed  there  to  carry  forward  the  subordinate 
triangulation  required  for  constructing  the  detail 
maps  in  England.  In  1813  it  was  resumed,  and 
continued  st^idily  up  to  1819 ;  a  new  base-line  having 
been  measured  on  Belhelvie  Links,  near  Aberdeen, 
in  1817,  and  the  great  sector  used  at  various 
stations,  both  on  the  mainland  and  in  the  islands. 
In  1820  it  was  again  suspended,  was  resumed  in 
1821  and  1822,  and  anew  broken  off  in  1823,  the 
large  theodolite  bein^  wanted  in  order  to  proceed 
with  the  principal  triangulation  in  South  Britaiik 
In  1824  me  survey  of  Ireland  was  begun,  and 
nothing  more  was  done  in  Scotland  till  1838,  except 
that  some  detail  surveying  for  a  one-inch  map  was 
continued  for  a  few  vears  m  the  southern  counties 
The  chief  strength  of  the  surveying  corps  was  now 
transferred  to  Ireland.  A  map  of  tliat  country  was 
required  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  valuation 
which  should  form  the  basis  of  certain  fiscal  arrange- 
ments and  other  improvements  which  the  social 
evils  and  anomalies  of  Ireland  urgently  demandecL 
For  this  map  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  the  mile  was 
adopted,  as  oest  suited  for  the  purposes  in  view. 
On  this  scale  the  whole  map  was  completed,  and 
published  in  1845,  though  the  first  portions  were  in 
an  imperfect  form,  and  needing  revision,  which  is 
now  going  on. 

In  1838  the  triangnlation  of  Scotland  was 
resumed;  and  the  survey  of  Ireland  having  been 
finished  in  1840,  surveys  for  a  six-inch  map  were 
begun  for  the  northern  portions  of  England  which 
had  not  been  mapped  on  the  one-inch  scale.  In 
connection  with  this  map,  the  base-line  on  Salisbuiy 
Plain  was  remeasnred  with  great  accuracy  in  1849, 
and  its  length  found  36577*8581  feet   Ip  l<i41,  b«  «d6 


ORDNANCE  SUKVEY. 


•eoondaiy  operations  for  a  map  of  Scotland,  abio  on 
asix-uich  scale,  were  begun ;  but  proceeded  so  slowly, 
that  in  1850  only  the  map  of  Wigtownshire  and  some 
parts  of  Lewis  were  completed.     Much  dissatisfac- 
tion haying  been  expressed  in  Scotland  by  the  press 
and  pablic  bodies,  as  to  the  slow  progress  of  the 
map  and  the  six-inch  scale  on  which  only  it  was 
published,  a  committee  of  the  House  of  Commons 
(Lord  Elcho's)  reconmiended  the  six-inch  maps  to 
be  stopped,  and  the  one-inch  map  completed  as 
speedily  as  possible.    This  change  produced  much 
djacossion  as  to  the  relative  value  of  the  one-inch 
and  six-inch  scales  then  in  use,  and  the  expediency 
of  adopting  a  still  larger  scale  as  more  valuable  to 
the  public  Circulars  were  issued,  asking  the  opinion 
of  Taiious  public  bodies,  and  of  scientific  and  practical 
men,  as  to  the  proper  scale  for  a  great  national  survey. 
The  great  preponderance  of  opinion  was  in  favour 
of  a  scale  of  1-2500  of  nature,  or  nearly  one  inch  to 
the  acre.    This  scale  was  therefore  ordered  by  a 
treasury  minute  of  18th  May  1855  (Lord  Palmer- 
stoo's),  and  though  subsequently  stopp>ed,  in  conse- 
quence of  a  motion  by  Sir  Denham  Norreys  in  tiie 
House  of  Commons  in  June  1857»  was  again  recom- 
mended by  a  royal  commission  (December  1857), 
and  ordered  to  be  resumed  by  another  treasury 
minute  (Uth  September  1858).     In  1861  a  select 
oommittee  was  again  appointed,  and  reported  that  it 
is  desirable  that  the  cadastral  survey  on  the  scales 
directed  by  the  treasury  minute  of  the  18th  May 
1855  be  extended  to  those  portions  of  the  United 
Kingdom  that  have  been  surveyed  on  the  scale  of 
one-inch  to  the  mile  only.    This  recommendation 
ha»  now  been  adopted  by  the  government,  and  the 
sorvey  is  at  present  proceeding  on  the  following 
acales :  Towns  having  4000  or  more  inhabitants  are 
surveyed  on  a  scale  of  1-500  of  the  linear  measure- 
ment, which  is  equivalent  to  126*72  inches  to  a  mile, 
u'41|  feet  to  an  inch ;  Parishes  (in  cultivated  dis- 
tricts) 1-2500  of  the  linear  measurement,  equal  to 
25*344  inches  to  a  mile,  or  one  square  inch  to  an 
aoe ;  Counties  on  a  scale  of  six  inches  to  a  mile ; 
Kiogdono,  a  general  map  one  inch  to  a  mile. 

The  sheets  of  the  one-inch  map  join  together,  so 
as  to  form  a  complete  map  of  the  whole  Idngdom. 
This  is  true  also  ox  the  sheets  of  each  county  on  the 
six-inch  scale,  and  of  each  parish  on  the  1-2500 
acale,  but  the  sheets  of  different  counties  and 
parishes  are  not  connected.  The  1-2500  scale  also 
applies  only  to  cultivated,  populous  and  mineral 
districts;  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  and  ol^er 
extensive  moorlana  and  uncultivated  tracts,  being 
only  surveyed  on  the  six-inch  scale,  and  publishea 
on  the  one-inch  scale. 

The  state  of  the  survey,  at  the  commencement 
of  1864^  in  the  three  kmgdoms,  was  as  follows 
(Reports  1862—1863) : 

In  Ensland — Durham,  Westmoreland,  North- 
umberland, and  Cumberland  had  been  surveyed 
on  the  1-2500  scale,  and  maps  on  this  and  the 
six-indi  scale  were  being  published.  The  revision 
and  publication  of  the  map  on  the  same  scale  had 
begun  in  the  southern  counties.  Lancashire  and 
Torkahire  were  published  on  the  six-inch  scale  only. 
The  whole  kingdom  on  the  one-inch  scale  was 
publiahed  except  eight  sheets  in  the  north. 

Li  Scotland,  the  whole  country  south  of  Aberdeen, 
except  Argyll  on  the  west,  has  been  surveyed  and 
irawn  on  the  25  and  6  inch  scales.  On  the  six-inch 
scale,  7652  square  miles  (including  the  isle  of  Lewis) 
has  been  published,  and  about  3540  miles  also  on  the 
25-iach  plana.  Of  the  one-inch  map,  5047  square 
miles,  including  Fife,  the  Lothians,  Ayr,  Wigtown, 
■ad  parts  of  Dumfries,  Roxburgh,  and  Berwick 
have  been  completed  and  publish^  with  bills. 
Itt  Xreland,  as  stated,  the  six-inch  maps  have  been 


long  published,  and  are  now  in  process  of  revisioik 
A  one-inch  map  of  the  whole  m  outline  is  also 
published,  and  3557  square  nules  completed  with 
hills.  The  engraving  of  hills  in  the  remainder  m 
also  being  proceeded  with. 

The  sketch  now  ^ven  of  the  history  of  this  crreat 
national  undertakmg  will  shew  that  it  has  been 
conducted  at  different  times  on  different  scales  and 
plans,  and  that  the  system  now  pursued  was  only 
adopted  after  much  discussion  both  in  parliament 
and  out  of  doors.  In  some  respects  it  has  been  the 
mere  result  of  accident,  and  much  delay  and  great 
waste  of  public  money  has  resulted  from  no  fixed 
and  well-matured  plan  having  been  adopted  in  the 
first  instance,  and  pursued  consistently  to  the  end. 
The  map  was  ongmally  begun  as  a  military  map^ 
and  the  scale  of  one  inch  to  the  mile  chosen,  without 
considering  whether  some  other  scale  would  not 
offer  greater  advantagea  Many  now  think  that  a 
scale  a  little  larger,  and  an  aliquot  part  of  nature, 
such  as  l-50,0()0,  or  about  1|  inch  to  the  mile^ 
would  have  been  preferable  for  the  small  map ;  in 
which  case  a  scale  of  1-10,000  of  nature,  or  about  6| 
inches,  might  have  been  chosen  for  the  intermediate^ 
instead  of  the  six-inch  scale  selected  at  first  for 
mere  local  purposes  in  Ireland.  Be  this  as  it  may, 
the  arguments  in  favour  of  the  one-inch  map  are, 
that  it  is  the  most  convenient  both  as  a  general  and  * 
travelling  map.  For  general  views  of  the  structure 
of  a  country,  the  distribution  and  relations  of  its 
mountains,  plains,  valleys,  and  rivers,  the  one-indi 
is  admitted  to  be  superior  to  the  six-inch,  and  thus 
better  adapted  in  the  first  instance  for  laying  out 
roads,  railways,  or  other  extensive  public  works,  or 
for  the  publication  of  a  general  geological  survey. 
Such  a  map,  on  the  other  hand,  is  on  too  small  a 
scale  to  admit  of  correct  measurements  of  small  di»> 
tances  ;  it  is  in  some  respects  a  generalised  picture^ 
and  not  a  correct  plan.  The  six-inch  maps  were 
at  first  selected  in  Ireland  as  the  smallest  size  on 
which  correct  measurements  of  distances  and  areas 
could  be  made.  On  them  every  house  and  fieldi 
and  almost  every  tree,  or  bush,  might  be  laid  dowik 
Hence  they  are  superior  for  working  out  details, 
as  in  minute  surveys  of  railways  or  roads,  or 
the  complex  geological  structure  of  rich  mineral 
districts.  On  such  sheets,  too,  a  proprietor  or  farmer 
may  find  every  field  laid  down,  and  the  relative 
heights  indicat!ed  by  contour  lines,  and  may  there- 
fore use  them  for  drainage  and  other  improvements. 
It  has  also  been  proposed  to  use  these  six-inch  maps 
as  a  record  of  sales  or  encumbrances  of  land,  thus 
lessening  the  cost  and  simplifyiuj^  the  transfer  of 
property.  On  the  other  hand,  their  size  unfits  them 
for  most  of  the  purposes  for  which  the  one-inch  map 
is  useful,  and  the  contour  lines  give  a  far  less  vivid 
and  correct  impression  of  the  physical  features  of  a 
country  than  the  hill  sketching  of  the  one-inch  map. 
Most  of  the  purposes  of  the  six-inch  plans  are 
attained  in  a  still  mora  perfect  manner  from  the 
25-inch  plans  or  cadastral  sun'ey.  This  last  name 
is  taken  from  the  French  cadastre  (a  redster  of 
lands),  and  is  defined  (in  the  Becual  des  Lois,  &c.) 
as  a  plan  from  which  the  area  of  land  may  be 
computed,  and  from  which  its  revenue  may  be 
valued.  The  purposes  to  which  these  large  plans 
may  be  applied  are,  as  estate  plans,  for  managing 
draining,  and  otherwise  improving  land,  for  facih- 
tating  its  transfer  by  registering  sales  or  6nctm>- 
brances;  and  as  public  maps,  according  to  which 
local  or  general  taxes  may  be  raised,  and  roads, 
railways,  canals,  and  other  public  works,  laid  oui 
and  executed. 

Nearly  all  the  states  of  Europe  have  produced 
trigonometrical  surveys,  many  of  them  of  great 
excellence  as  scientific  works.     All  of  these  have 

107 


OKDNANCE  8URVEY-0REIDE. 


been  published,  or  are  in  course  of  publication,  on 
oonv^iuient  scales ;  jzeneraUy  smaller  than  one  inch 
to  a  statute  mile.    The  most  important  of  these  are ; 

Austria  and  Northeni  Italy,  teale  nr.ivT  w  ¥^  ^  ^"^  ^<>1^  ^ 

amila 
Bavana,  Baden,    Wart<>mberg,  and   the   Hasson  territories 

T?r.^¥T  o'  T^^'  ^'  '"^  ^"ch  to  a  mile. 
BelKinin,  -^^^tt  or  t*^'  °^  ^^  ^^^^  ^°  *  "*'* 
Denmark,  survey  map  in  preparation. 
,  Iceland,  rarveyed  and  published  on  different  soalea. 

Franee,  Tir.^TTr  or  T^hs  of  an  Inch  to  a  mile ;  and  arednotion  to 

TsV.innr  ^'  ^  miles  to  an  inch. 
Great  Britain,  1  inch,  6  inches,  and,  in  the  lowland  districts, 
25  inohes  to  a  mile ;   and  the  coast  survey,  general  charts, 
8|  miles  to  an  inch ;  harbours  and  bays,  from  2  inches  to  U 
Inches  to  a  mile. 

Hanover  and  East  Prussia,  TTJ;T<nr  or  A^hs  of  sn  inch  to  a 

mile. 
Italy  (see  Sardinia,  Tuscany,  dn.),  ounrej  maps  of  Vaplai^ 

Borne,  Ac,  in  progress. 

Greece  (French  surrey)  i-j^.^nnr  or  4ix  miles  to  an  inch. 

T«'etherlands,  TV.innr  or  lyV  inohes  to  a  mile. 

Prussia,  TW.inrr  or  -fr^^'  of  an  inch  to  a  mile,  and  many 

smaller. 
Russia,  survey  map  in  progress. 

Sardinia,  ggo^.ooy  or  ^th  of  an  inch  to  a  mile. 
Saxony,  Tv.ihny  or  1^  Inches  to  a  mile.  • 
Switserland,  -nnt^innr  or  ^T^hs  of  an  inch  to  a  mUe. 
Spain  and  Portugal,  snrreyit  oommenoed. 
Sweden  and  Norway,  surveys  in  progress. 

Tusoany  inrSw  or  about  S  miles  to  an  inch. 

The  greatest  extra  European  work  of  the  Idnd  is 
the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India,  which  has 
been  conducted  with  great  ability,  and  is  now  draw- 
ing to  a  close.  The  mai^s  are  published  on  a  scale 
of  rnr.Wv  ^^  i^^  ^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^  '^  mile,  and  it  is  expected 
that  the  whole  will  be  completed  in  1868  or  1870. 
In  America,  the  coast  Survey  of  the  United  States, 
a  map  of  great  accuracy  and  minute  detail,  has 
been  going  on  for  many  years.  The  general  charts 
are  publisned  on  a  scale  of  ^T^.i^nr  o'  t^^  ^^ 
an  inch  to  a  mile ;  the  harbours  and  -poTta  t^.^tht 
or  .^tii  of  an  inch  to  a  mile.  No  systematic  survey 
has  yet  been  undertaken  for  the  interior  of  the 
country. 

No  portion  of  South  America  has  been  trigono- 
metricaUy  surveyed,  except  the  republics  of  Fern 
and  Chili,  which  are  in  progress. 

The  Geological  Survey,  though  under  a  different 
department  of  government  (Science  and  Art),  may 
be  shortly  noticed  here.  The  English  survey  was 
begun  in  June  1835,  by  Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche,  and 
the  first  Report  on  ike  Gkology  of  Cornwall,  Devon, 
and  West  Somerset  was  published  in  1839.  The 
Irish  survey  was  becun  m  1840,  but  was  subse- 
quently suspended  tul  1845.  In  1854,  the  survey 
was  extended  to  Scotland.  The  surveys  are  made  on 
the  six-inch  maps  in  the  parts  of  the  coimtiy  where 
these  exist,  but  the  results  are  published  on  the 
one-inch  BcaXe  only,  except  some  of  the  coal-fields, 
which  are  issued  also  on  the  six-inch  scale.  Besides 
the  maps,  sheets  of  sections,  horizontal  and  vertical, 
with  valuable  memoirs,  are  also  published.  The 
geological  survey  of  Endand  be^au  in  the  west,  and 
now  extends  uui  th  to  Lancashire,  and  east  to  the 
vicinity  of  London  and  Kent.  The  Irish  survey 
commenced  in  the  south,  and  is  now  published  to 
beyond  Dublin  on  the  east  coast,  and  the  vicinity 
of  Galway  on  the  west.  In  Scotland,  it  has  as  yet 
been  principally  confined  to  the  Lothians,  Fife,  and 
some  portions  of  the  neighbouring  counties,  of  which 
several  sheets  are  published. 

O'REGON,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America^ 
in  lat.  42'--i6'  N.,  long.  116'  40'— 124'*  25'  W., 
bounded  N.  by  Washington,  from  which  it  is  chiefly 
separated  by  Columbia  River ;  £.  by  Idaho,  the  Lewis 
or  Snake  River  intervening ;  S.  by  Nevada  and  Cali- 
fornia ;  and  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean ;  being  320  miles 
108 


from  east  to  west,  by  280  from  north  to  south,  with 
an  area  of  95,274  square  miles.  The  principal 
rivers  are  the  Columbia,  and  its  branches — tne  WilW 
mette.  Fall  River,  Snake  River,  and  the  Owyheek. 
The  Columbia  is  a  larjre  river,  navigable  96  miles  to 
the  Cascade  Mountains,  through  which  it  passes, 
but  the  entrance  is  difficult.  The  Willamette  drains 
a  lam  and  fertile  valley  between  the  mountains 
and  uie  ocean.  The  Cascade  Mountains,  which 
have  extinct  volcanic  peaks  of  4000  to  10,000  feet 
high,  run  north  and  south,  dividing  the  state  into 
two  unequal  regions.  The  western  thiQ^  of  the 
state,  bordering  the  Pacific,  has  a  mild,  equable^ 
and  moist  climate,  with  valleys  of  sreat  fertility, 
where  pines  grow  from  250  to  300  feet  high,  and 
firs  from  4  to  10  feet  in  diameter.  The  rainfall  at 
Astoria,  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River,  is  86  inches. 
East  of  the  mountains,  the  climate  is  dry  and  variable 
and  the  soil  less  fertile.  Gold  and  silver  are  found 
in  the  Cascade  Mountains,  with  copi>er,  platinum, 
iridium,  and  osmium.  Coal  has  been  discovered  on 
Coose  Bay.  The  chief  agricultural  productions  are 
wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  and  apples.  Tne  great  forests 
abound  with  the  grisly  and  black  bear,  panther, 
wild-cat,  elk,  deer,  antol(>i)e ;  amonff  the  birds  ara 
the  California  vulture,  goMen  eagle,  American  swan, 
Canadian  goose,  &c ;  while  the  rivers  swarm  with 
salmon.  There  were,  in  1860,  19  organised  countiesi 
Most  of  the  settlements  are  on  the  Columbia  River 
and  in  the  Willamette  Valloy.  The  chief  towns  are 
— Salem,  the  cajrital,  on  the  Willamette  River,  popi 
1500;  Portland,  2700;  and  Oregon  City,  about  2000. 
Within  the  state  are  about  10,000  Indians  and  2000 
Chinese.  T^o  colleges  have  been  founded,  7 
academies,  and  300  common  schools,  2  daily  and 
12  weekly  papers,  and  numerous  churches.  O.  was 
the  name  formerly  given  to  the  whole  territory 
west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  claimed  by  the 
United  States,  as  far  north  as  lat  54**  40^  N.  Thia 
claim  was  resisted  by  the  British  government^ 
which  asserted  a  right  to  the  entire  territory,  and 
in  1818  a  treaty  was  made,  and  renewed  in  1827, 

fivine  joint  occupation,  which  was  terminated  in 
846  oy  notice  from  the  United  States  goverumen^ 
and  the  question  seemed  likely  to  involve  the  tviro 
countries  in  war,  when  a  compromise  was  offered  by 
Lord  Aberdeen,  on  the  part  of  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  accepted  by  that  of  the  United  States,  by 
which  the  boundary  was  settled  on  the  49th  parallel 
The  northern  portion  is  now  Washington,  and  the 
eastern,  Idaho  Territory.  The  coast  was  discov- 
ered, and  Columbia  River  entered  in  1792  by  Cap- 
tain Gray,  of  Boston.  It  was  explored  in  1804  and 
1805  by  Captains  Lewis  and  Clarke,  U.S.  army. 
In  1811,  John  Jacob  Astor  founded  Astoria  as  a 
trading-ddpdt  of  the  American  Fur  Company,  but 
sold  out  afterwards  to  the  North-west  Fur  Company. 
In  1845,  the  gift  of  820  acres  of  land  to  each  mar- 
ried (Wuple  of  settlers  caused  a  large  emigration. 
The  territorial  government  was  organised  in  1848, 
and  in  1850  it  was  admitted  as  a  state.  Pop.  in 
18G0,  52.404. 

OBEIDE,  m  new  aRoy  lately  introduced  by  the 
French  as  a  substitute  for  ormolu,  which  it  excels 
in  its  gold-like  character.  There  are  two  formulas  for 
composing  it.  In  the  first  the  ingredients  are : 
copper,  100*0;  tin,  17*0;  magnesia,  6*0;  sal  ammo* 
niac,  3*6 ;  quicklime,  1*80 ;  argols,  or  unrefined 
tartar,  90.  In  the  second,  zino  is  substituted  for 
the  tin.  The  latter  does  not  possess  the  same  bril* 
liancy  as  the  former.  The  metals  are  first  melted, 
and  the  other  ingredients,  after  being  thoroughly 
incorporated  together  by  powdering  and  mixing, 
are  slowly  added,  and  the  whole  is  kept  in  a  state 
of  fusion  for  about  an  hour,  and  the  scum  removed 
from  time  to  time. 


OREL-ORENBURG. 


OREIi,agpyemment  in  the  south-west  of  Central 
Cassia,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Little  Russia  and 
the  goTemment  of  Smolensk.    Area»  17,395  square 
miles;  popi  1,547,975.     The  surface  is  flat,  with 
rising  grounds    in   the  vicinity  of  the   towns   of 
Kromy  and   Malo-Archangelsk,  from   which    the 
Oka  and  Sosna  respective^  take  their  rise.    The 
govemment  is  drained  by  the  Desna  on  the  west,  an 
ifflaent  of  the  Dniei)er ;  the  Oka  on  the  north,  an 
sfllaent  of  the  Volga ;  and  the  Sosna  on  the  east, 
an  affluent  of  the  Don.    The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the 
dimate  mild.    The  western  part  of  the  government 
abounds  in  woods.    In  the  district  of  Briansk,  in 
the  north-west,  thdre  are  a  number  of  iron  mines. 
Agriculture  and  the  cultivation  and  preparation  of 
hemp  are  the   chief   employments  ol   the  people. 
Com  is  very  extensively  grown,  and  great  quan- 
tities are  sent  to  St  Petersburg,   Riga,  and   tJie 
Black  Sea  ports  for  export    The  principsd  article 
of  export  is  wheat,  in  grain  and  in  flour.     Sail- 
doth,  rope  and  hemp-yarn  manufactures  are  carried 
an ;  glass  and  iron  works  are  nimierous.    The  hemp 
of  0.  is  reckoned  the  best  in  Russia ;  and  the  ou 
obtained  from  hemp-seed,  and  used  in  Russia  as  an 
article  of  food,  is  extracted  at  2000  mills.    The  ; 
rearing  of   cattle   and   horses  is   much   attended 
to;  almost  all  the  considerable  landowners  keep 
studs. 

ORBX,  a  living  town  of  Great  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  Oka, 
at  its  confluence  with  the  Orlik,  226  miles  south- 
south-west  of  Moscow,  and  678  miles  south-south- 
east  of  St  Petersburg.  It  was  founded  in  1566,  as  a 
stronghold  in  defence  of  what  was  then  the  Russian 
frontier,  against  the  inroads  of  the  Tartar  tribes  of 
the  Crimea.  Its  importance  as  a  fortress  oeAsed 
sfter  the  annexation  of  Little  Russia,  and  it  then 
became  a  commercial  town.  The  town  owes  much 
to  its  advantaoeotts  position  on  a  navigable  river  in 
the  midst  of  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  Russia. 
The  projected  railway  from  Moscow  to  Sebastopol 
will  iiass  through  O.,  and  the  Witebsk  line  will 
afford  it  direct  railway  communication  with  the 
port  of  Riga,  and  thus  greatly  facilitate  its  export 
trade.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop^  and  ccmtains 
munerous  churches;  its  houses  are  for  the  most 
part  constracted  of  wood.  There  is  an  important 
leiry  here  orer  the  Oka.  The  chief  manufacturing 
establishments  in  the  town  are  yam  and  rope 
factories.  The  princinal  articles  of  export  are 
cereals  and  hemp.  On  the  7th  June  1848,  O. 
suffered  severely  from  a  great  fire;  which  destroyed 
1237  houses,  four  bridges,  and  a  number  of  granaries. 
Pop.  35^856. 

OBBLIjI,  Johank  Kaspab,  an  eminent  philo- 
logist and  critic,  was  bom  at  Zurich,  13th  February 
1^7.  Hia  father  was  lon^  the  Landvogt  of 
WadenschweiL  He  studied  m  the  CaroUnum  at 
Zurich,  and  betook  himself  enthusiastically  to  the 
study  both  of  the  ancient  and  of  modem  lan- 
guages and  Hteratuie.  In  1806,  he  was  ordained 
IS  a  clergyman.  He  spent  some  years  as  a  tutor  at 
Bergamo ;  and  while  there,  publuhed,  in  1810,  two 
parts  of  a  work  entitled  Beitrdge  zur  Oewluchte  der 
ItaL  PoeHe.  In  1813,  he  became  a  teacher  in  the 
cantonal  school  at  Chur;  in  1819,  Professor  of 
Eloquence  and  Hermeneutics  in  Zurich ;  and  after 
the  foundation  of  the  Zurich  High  School,  in  which 
be  took  an  active  part,  he  was  one  of  its  chief  oma* 
ments.  There  never  was  a  man  more  zealous  in  the 
cause  of  edacation.  It  was  during  this  latter  and  mostH 
distinguished  period  of  his  career  that  he  produced  i 
most  of  his  learned  works,  and  trained  to  a  correct . 
knowledge  of  antiqnitv  a  numerous  band  of  scholars.  I 
His  political  sympatLies  and  opinions  were  not, ; 


however,  confined  to  the  ancient  world;  he  took 
the  liveliest  interest  in  the  smuggles  of  Greece  for 
freedom,  and  in  the  political  reformation  of  hia 
native  country.  He  med  6th  January  1849.  O. 
edited  many  classical  authors  with  great  learning 
taste,  and  acute  discrimination ;  in  particular,  his 
editions  of  Horace  (2  vols,  Zur.  1837—1838),  Tacitus 
(2  vols.  ZUr.  1846—1847),  and  Cicero  (4  vols.  ZUr. 
1826 — 1831)  deserve  mention ;  also  an  Onomaaticon 
Tullianianum  (3  vols.  Zttr.  1836—1838),  executed 
in  association  with  Baiter,  and  an  InscripUonum 
Latinairum  Sdectoarum  CoUecUo  (2  vols.  ZUi. 
1828). 

O'RENBURO,  one  of  the  eastern  frontier  eovero" 
ments  of  European  Russia,  ia  bounded  on  the  S.& 
by  the  river  Ural,  and  extends  between  the  govern- 
ments of  Tobolsk  on  the  N.E.  and  Samara  on  the 
S.W.  Area,  of  the  govemn^ent  proper,  153,928 
square  miles;  pop.  1,810,275;  but  tne  so-called 
Orenburg  Country,  including  the  recently-organised 

8>vemment  of  Samara  (q.  v.),  the  lands  of  the 
renbur^  and  Ural  Cossacks,  and  of  Khirghiz  tribes, 
under  different  names,  extends  over  an  area  of 
539,830  square  miles,  from  the  Volsa  to  the  Sir- 
Daria  and  the  Amu-Daria,  and  nas  2,370,275 
inhabitants.  The  populations,  the  surface,  soils, 
flora,  and  fauna  of  this  extensive  country  are  of 
the  most  various  kinds.  The  ffovemmerU  is  one  of 
the  most  elevated  in  the  empire;  but  it  also  con- 
tains extensive  low-lying  tracts  and  steppes.  It  is 
traversed  by  numerous  navigable  rivers,  by  means 
of  which  and  by  canals  it  is  m  communication  with 
the  Caspian  and  Baltic  Seas,  and  with  the  Arctio 
Ocean.  The  main  streams  are  the  Kama,  a  branch 
of  the  Volga,  with  its  affluents  the  Bielaia  and 
Tchussovaia ;  the  Tobol,  a  branch  of  the  Obi  and 
the  UraL  Forests  abound,  except  in  the  south ;  the 
soil  is  fertile,  but  is  not  yet  much  cultivated ;  and 
other  natural  resources  are  rich,  but  in  great  part 
undeveloped  The  climate  is  in  general  healthy. 
The  government  is  divided  into  nine  districts ;  the 
centre  of  the  governor-generalship  is  at  Orenburg 
(q.  v.),  though  we  chief  town  is  Ufa.  The  inhabit- 
ants are  made  up  of  Russians,  Bashkir,  Tartar  and 
Khirghiz  tribes,  Kalmucks  and  certain  Finnish 
tribes.  The  trade  is  chiefly  with  Bokhara,  Khiva, 
Tashkent,  and  the  Khirshiz ;  the  exports  are  gold, 
silver,  and  other  meta^  com,  skins,  and  manu- 
factured goods;  the  imports,  cattle,  cotton— the 
demand  for  and  supply  of  which  have  greatly 
increased  since  the  commencement  of  the  American 
war — and  the  other  articles  of  Asiatic  trade.  The 
imports  are  either  disposed  of  to  Russian  merchants 
in  the  custom-house  on  the  frontier,  or  are  carried 
by  Asiatic  traders  into  Russia,  and  sold  at  the  great 
national  market  ox  Nijni-Novgorod.  In  1862,  the 
value  of  the  imports,  as  checked  by  custom-house 
inspection,  was  £900,000,  and  the  value  of  the 
exports  >£485,000.  The  actual  amount,  however,  of 
the  exports  and  imports  of  this  government  is  much 
greater  than  that  represented  by  the  figures  given, 
as,  owing  to  the  border-line  beinc  so  extensive  and 
sparsely  peopled,  smuggling  is  mrgely  carried  on. 
There  are  in  the  province  numerous  iron  and  copper 
works,  as  well  as  valuable  gold  dig^n^,  both 
belonging  to  the  crown  and  to  private  individuala 
In  1861,  the  crown  gold-mines  yielded  33  puds 
(a  pud  =s  36  lbs.  Avor.,  nearlv;  of  gold,  and  the 
private  gold-mines  64^  puds.  There  are  also 
many  small  arms  and  other  factories,  and  valuable 
salt-mines.  The  Bashkir  tribes  are  the  chief 
traders ;  cattle-breeding  and  fishing  are  carried 
on  by  the  Und  KossacKS.  The  nrmcipal  fair  in 
the  government  is  that  of  the  mstrict  town  ol 
Menselinsk,  where  about  £170,000  worth  of  gooda 
LB  sold  annually. 


ORENBURG— ORPILA. 


ORT^NBURG,  a  town  on  the  eastern  frontier  of 
European  Russia,  in  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  on  the  river  Ural,  1^3  miles  south-east  of  8t 
Petersburg,  lat  61'  46'  N.,  long.  88'  6'  R  The 
foundation  of  the  fortress  and  town  were  laid  here 
in  1742.  Pop.  24,078.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
governor-generalship  of  the  government  of  the  same 
name,  has  an  excellent  custom-house,  and  carries  on 
an  extensive  trade  with  Khiighiz  and  other  Asiatic 
tribes.  It  imports  cotton,  silk-stuffs,  and  shawls 
from  Bokhara,  Khiva,  and  Tashkent;  tea  (brought 
mostly  on  camels)  from  China ;  and  sheep  and  cattle 
from  the  Kossacks  and  Khirghiz.  The  sheep  are 
killed  in  autumn  for  the  fat  and  skins,  which  are 
purchased  by  Russian  merchants.  Com,  skins,  and 
metals  are  the  principal  exports.  The  imports 
amoimted,  in  186^  to  £463,000,  and  the  exports  to 
je256,000. 

OREOD  ATHNE,  a  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Lauraceas^  sometimes  called  Mountaik 
Laukel.  The  fruit  is  succulent,  partly  immersed 
in  a  deep  thick  cup  formed  of  the  tube  of  the  calyx. 
O.  opifera  is  a  native  of  the  countries  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  Amazon.  A  volatile  oil  obtained  from 
the  bark  is  used  as  a  liniment,  and  when  kept  for  a 
lAiort  time  deposits  a  great  quantity  of  camphor. — 
O.  cuptdaris  is  a  very  large  tree  with  strong-scented 
wood,  i^xe  bark  of  which  yields  the  cinnamon  of 
Mauritius.  It  grows  also  m  Bourbon  and  Mada- 
gascar.— 0.  foetenSf  a  native  of  the  Canaries,  has 
wood  {Til-wood)  of  a  most  disagreeable  odoiur.  O. 
huUatcL,  found  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  is  also 
remarkable  for  the  disagreeable  odour  of  its  wood, 
the  Stink-wood  of  the  colonists ;  but  it  is  hard, 
durable,  beautiful,  takes  an  excellent  polish,  and  is 
used  in  ship-building. 

ORES.  Any  mineral  or  combination  of  minerals 
containing  as  much  metal  as  to  be  profitably 
extracted,  is  reckoned  by  miners  an  ore.  The 
proportion  necessary  for  this  purpose  is,  of  course, 
very  various,  according  to  the  value  of  the  par- 
ticular metal  and  the  facility  or  difficulty  of  reducing 
the  ore.  A  rock  containing  only  1  per  cent,  of 
iron  is  never  called  an  ore ;  one  containing  the  same 
proportion  of  ^old  is  a  very  rich  ore.  Metals  rarely 
exist  in  ores  in  a  pure  or  native  state;  they  are 
almost  always  chemically  combined  with  oxygen, 
sulphur,  or  other  elements. 

Ores  present  themselves  in  a  multiplicity  of  forms 
and  positions  in  the  solid  crust  of  the  earth.  Some- 
times they  are  sprinkled  through  the  whole  mass 
of  the  rocks  in  which  they  occur,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  gold,  tin  ore,  and  magnetic  iron  ore. 
Sometimes  they  are  de]>osited  in  regular  parallel 
beds  between  the  strata  of  other  rocks,  as  in  the 
case  of  many  iron-stones  and  of  cupreous  schist. 
At  other  times,  they  occur  in  irregular  lumps  or 
concretions;  or  they  fill  up  the  fissures  of  other 
rocks,  forming  veins,  particularly  silver,  copper,  and 
lead  ores;  or  lastly,  they  are  found  in  detritus, 
gravel,  sand,  and  other  alluvial  deposits.  '  This 
List  form  is  evidenUy  the  result  of  disturbance  and 
^  transport  from  some  of  the  other  positions  above 
epecihed.  And  as  the  metallic  parts  of  the  mineral 
masses  or  rocks  so  disturbed  and  transported  are 
the  heaviest,  and  are  insoluble  in  water,  they  are 
more  concentrated  in  these  deposits  than  in  their 
original  position,  and  can  therefore  be  extracted 
with  greater  advantage.  Such  deposits  are  called 
foashinga,  from  the  metal  being  separated  from  the 
other  oigbris  by  the  process  of  wasning.  Gold  and 
platinum  are  mostly  got  in  this  way  in  the  Ural 
and  Altai  Mountains,  and  gold  in  Guiana,  Cali- 
fomia,  and  Australia.  Tin  ore  is  also  found  in 
^uvial  deposits    in  Cornwall   and    Indi&      The 

110 


'  reduction  of  ores  is  treated  of  under  Metallubot 
and  the  names  of  the  several  metals. 

ORFILA,  Mateo  Josi  BoNAVSNTtTRA,  a  cele- 
brated physician  and  chemist,  and  the  recognLsed 
founder  of  the  science  of  toxicology,  was  born  at 
Mahon  in  Minorca,  24th  April  1787.  His  father, 
who  was  a  merchant,  intended  that  his  son  d^ould 
follow  the  same  pursuit ;  but  young  O.  shewed  so 
strong  a  predilection  for  the  study  of  medicine^  that 
aU  thoughts  of  a  mercantile  career  for  him  were 
dismiflseo,  and  he  was  sent  to  the  medical  schools 
of  Valencia  and  Barcelona.  In  the  latter  of  these 
seminaries,  he  so  distinguished,  himself,  that  the 
junta  of  the  province  resolved  to  defray  the  expense 
of  his  further  education  in  Paris,  on  condition  of 
his  returning  to  Barcelona  to  fill  one  of  the  chairs 
in  their  medical  school ;  and  accordingly  0.  departed 
for  Paris  in  1807.  The  junta  were  prevented  from 
fulfilling  the  luzreement  by  the  outbreak  of  war  with 
Prance ;  but  O.,  who  had  now  made  many  frieuJs 
in  Paris,  was  enabled  to  continue  his  studies.  In 
October  1811,  he  received  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Medicine,  and  immediately  commenced  a  private 
course  of  lectures  on  chemistry,  botany,  and 
anatomy,  which  was  largely  attended,  and,  along 
with  his  successful  practice,  soon  rendered  him 
famous.  In  1813  appeared  the  first  edition  of 
his  celebrated  work  on  poisons,  entitled  Traili 
des  PoiwM  Hris  des  Regnes  Mineral^  VSgital,  et 
Animal,  or  Toxicologie  GinSrdU  (Paris).  The  work 
was  commended  by  the  Institute,  and  rapidly  passed 
through  a  number  of  editions.  In  1816,  on  the 
occasion  of  a  short  visit  to  Minorca,  he  met  with  an 
enthusiastic  reception ;  and  on  his  return  to  Paris, 
became  court  physician.  In  1819,  he  was  created  a 
citizen  of  France,  and  became  professor  of  juris- 
prudence ;  and  in  1823,  was  transferred  to  the  chair 
of  chemistry,  to  which,  in  1831,  was  added  tiie  dean- 
ship  of  the  faculty.  His  prosperity  was  now  at  the 
full;  his  lectures  were  more  popular  than  ever; 
his  works  were  reckoned  as  miuter-pieces ;  and  he 
himself,  by  the  geniality  of  his  disposition  and  his 
many  accomplishments,  was  a  universal  favourite 
in  society.  In  all  cases  of  suspected  poisoning,  ha 
was  a  most  important  witness.  From  1834^  he 
was  a  member  of  the  council  of  public  instruction, 
and  procured  the  passing  of  many  useful  measures, 
such  as  the  creation  of  secondary  medical  schools, 
and  the  multiplication  of  means  of  instruction  and 
observation.  He  also  organised  the  clinical  hospital, 
founded  a  new  botanic  garden,  and  a  museum  of  com- 

Sirative  anatomyi  whi^  is  now  knoMm  by  his  name, 
n  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  of  1848,  he  was 
deprived  of  his  place  in  the  medical  faculty  on 
account  of  his  conservative  opinions,  but  retained 
his  professorship.  He  died  at  Paris,  March  12, 
1853.  ^  His  great  work  on  toxicology  has  gained 
for  him  unaying  fame ;  it  is  a  vast  mine  of 
information,  the  result  of  the  author^s  solitary 
indefatigable  researches ;  and  includes  symptoms  of 
pofsonfng  of  aU  kinds,  the  appearances  m  tiie  body 
to  which  poisons  give  rise,  their  action,  and  the 
means  for  their  detection.  It  is  weU  written,  and 
exhibits  the  accuracy  of  language  e<^ually  with  the 
sound  judgment  of  its  author.  His  other  works 
are  not  nearly  so  famous,  partaking  more  of  the 
character  of  compilations ;  tne  chief  of  them  ai«— 
ElSmens  de  Ckxmie  appliqut$  d  la  Mfdedne  (Paris. 
1817 ;  8th  edition,  1851) ;  TroM  de  Medecine  L€gaU 
(1823—1825;  4th  edition,  1847);  MSmoires  sur 
Plusieura  Questions  Medico-Ugales  (Paris,  1839) ; 
and  Beeherches  sur  Vempoisonnetnent  par  VAcide 
Arsenieux,  &a  (Paris,  1841).  He  also  contributed 
largely  to  various  journals,  dictionaries,  encyclo- 
paedias, and  other  periodicals.  He  has  left  a  number 
of  Memoirs,  which  have  not  yet  been  published. 


ORGAN. 


ORGAN   (Gr.  organon,  a  oontriyance  reqniiine 
■kill  on  the  part  of  the  user  of  it),  a  musiciQ 
ingtrument  played  by  tinger-keys,  and  in  general 
partly  also  by  foot-keys,  and  consisting  of  a  large 
nomber  of  pipes  of  metal  and  wood  nuule  to  sound 
by  a  magazine  of  wind  accumulated  by  bellows,  and 
admittea  at  will  by  the  player.     The  following 
description  is  necessarily  resmcted   to  the  most 
fundamental  arrangements  of  this  very  complicated 
instrmnent.    As  met  with  in  cathedrals  and  large 
charches,  the  organ  comprises  four  departments, 
each  in  most  respects  a  separate  instrument  with  its 
own  mechanism,  called  respectively  the  great-organ^ 
the  ehoir-organ,  the  mom-organ^  and  the  pedal- 
organ.    Each  has  its  own  davier  or  keyboanl,  but 
the  different  claviers  are  brought  into  juxtaposition, 
io  as  to  be  under  the  control  of  one  performer, 
daviers  played  by  the  hands  are  called  maniuda ; 
by  the  feet,  pedaU.    Three  manuals,  belondng  to 
the  choir,  great,  and  swell  organs  respectively,  rise 
above  each  other  like  steps,  m  front  of  where  the 
performer  sits ;  while  the  pedal-board  by  which  the 
nedal-^^gan  is  played  is  placed  on  a  level  with  his 
ieet    The  condensed  air  supplied  by  the  bellows  is 
conveyed  through  wooden  tubes  or  trunks  to  boxes, 
called  wind-diestSj  one  of  which  belongs  to  each 
department  of  the  organ.    Attached  to  the  upper 
part    of    each   wind-chest   is   a   sound-board,   an 
ingenious   contrivance  for  conveying  the  wind  at 
pleasure  to  any  individual  pipe,  or  pipes,  exclusively 
of  the  rest.    It  consists  of  two  parts,  an  vpper 
hoard  and  an  under  board.    On  the  upper  board 
test  the  pipes,    of  which  a  number  of  different 
qaality,  ranged  behind  each  other,  belonc  to  each 
note.     In  the  under  board  is  a  row  of  parallel 
grooves,   running   horizontally  backwards,   corres- 
ponding each  to  one  of  the  keys  of  the  clavier.    On 
any  of  the  keys  being  pressed  down,  a  valve  i\ 
opened  which  supplies  wind  to  the  groove  belonging 
to  it    The  various  pipes  of  each  key  stand  in  a  line 
directly  above  its  groove,  and  the  upper  surface  of 
the  sroove  is  perforated  with  holes  Dored  upwards 
to  them.    Were  this  the  whole  mechanism  of  the 
■ound'board,  the  wind,   on  entering  any  groove, 
would  permeate  all  the  pipes  of  that  groove ;  there 
is,  however,  in  the  upper  board,  another  series  of 
horizontal  erooves  at  n^t  angles  to  those  of  the 
lower  board,  supplied  with  tii&rs,  which  can,  to  a 
small  extent,  be  drawn  out  or  pashed  in  at  pleasure 
by  a  mechanism  worked  by  tne  draw-stops  placed 
within  the  player's  reach.    jBach  slider  is  perorated 
with  holes,  which,  when  it  is  drawn  out,  complete 
the  communication  between  the  wind-chest  ana  tiie 

S'pes:  the  communication  with  the  pipes  imme- 
ately  above  any  slider  being,  on  the  other  hand, 
dosed  up  when  the  slider  is  pushed  in.  The  pipes 
above  each  slider  form  a  continuous  set  of  one 
particular  quality,  and  each  set  of  pipes  is  called  a 
stop,  £ach  department  of  the  organ  is  supplied 
with  a  number  of  stops,  producing  sounds  of  different 
quality.  The  great-organ,  some  of  whose  pipes 
appear  as  show-pipes  in  6ront  of  the  instrument, 
contains  the  mam  body  and  force  of  the  ox^an. 
Behind  it  stands  the  choir-organ,  whose  tones  are 
less  powerful,  and  more  fitted  to  accompany  the 
voice.  Above  the  choir-organ  is  the  stoell'organ, 
whose  pipes  are  enclosed  in  a  wooden  box  with  a 
front  ti  loovre-boords  like  Venetian  blinds,  which 
may  be  made  to  open  and  shut  by  a  pedal,  with  a 
view  of  producing  crescendo  and  diminuendo  effects. 
Th»  pedal-organ  is  sometimes  placed  in  an  entire 
state  behind  the  choir-organ,  ana  sometimes  divided, 
and  a  part  arranged  on  each  side.  The  most  usual 
compass  of  the  manuals  is  from  0  on  the  second 
hne  oelow  the  bass  staff,  to  D  on  the  third  space 
above  the  treble  staff;   and  the  compass  of  the 


6 


V 


pedals  is  from  the  same  0  to  the  D  between  thtt 
oass  and  treble  staves.  The  real  compass  of  notes 
is,  as  will  be  seen,  much  greater. 

Organ-pipes  vary  much  in  form  and  material,  but 
belong  to  two  great  classes,  known  as  mouth-pipf$ 
(or  flute-pipes)  and  reed-pipes,  A  section  of  one  of 
the  former  is  represented  in  the  figure.  Its 
essential  parts  are  the  foot  a,  the  body  b, 
and  a  fiat  plate  c,  called  the  language, 
extending  nearly  across  the  pipe  at  the 
point  of  junction  of  foot  and  body.  There 
IS  an  opening,  de,  in  the  pipe,  at  the  spot 
where  tne  lanc^gQ  is  discontinuous.  The 
wind  admitteainto  the  foot  rushes  throu^ 
the  narrow  slit  at  d,  and,  in  impinging 
against  e,  imparts  a  vibratory  motion  to 
the  column  of  air  in  the  pipe,  the  result 
of  which  is  a  musical  note,  dependent  for 
its  pitch  on  the  length  of  tnat  column 
of  air,  and  consequently  on  the  length  of 
the  body  of  the  pipe :  by  doubling  the 
length  of  the  pipe,  we  obtain  a  note  of  half  tlte 
pitch,  or  lower  by  an  octave.  Such  is  the  general 
principle  of  all  mouth-pipes,  whether  of  wood  or 
of  metal,  subject  to  considerable  diversities  of 
detail.  Metal  pipes  have  generally  a  cylindrical 
section ;  wooden  pipes,  a  square  or  oblong  sectioik 
A  mouth-pipe  may  be  stopped  at  the  upper  end  by 
a  plug  caU^  a  tampion,  toe  effect  uf  which  is  to 
lower  the  pitch  an  octave,  the  vibrating  column  (rf 
air  bein^  doubled  in  length,  as  it  has  to  traveree  tha 
pipe  twice  before  making  its  exit.  Pipes  are  some- 
times half-stopped,  having  a  kind  of  chimney  at  the 
top.  The  reed-pipe  consists  of  a  reed  placed  inside 
a  metallic,  or  occasionally  a  wooden  pipe.  This  reed 
is  a  tube  of  metal,  with  the  front  pai%  cut  away, 
and  a  tongue  or  spring  put  in  its  place.  The  lower 
end  of  the  spring  is  &ee,  the  upper  end  attached  to 
the  top  of  the  re^ ;  by  the  admission  of  air  into  the 
pipe,  tne  spring  is  made  to  vibrate,  and  in  striking 
either  the  edge  of  the  reed  or  the  air,  produces  a 
musical  note,  dependent  for  its  pitch  on  the  length 
of  tile  spring,  its  quality  being  determined  to  a  great 
extent  by  the  length  and  form  of  the  pipe  or  bell 
within  which  the  reed  is  placed.  When  the  vibra^ 
ing  spring  does  not  strike  the  edge  of  the  reed,  but 
the  air,  we  have  what  is  called  the  free  reed,  similar 
to  what  is  in  use  in  the  Harmonium  (q.  v.).  To 
describe  the  pitch  of  an  organ-pipe,  terms  are  used 
derived  from  the  standard  length  of  an  open  mouth- 
pipe  of  that  pitch.  The  largest  pijie  in  use  is  the 
32-feet  0,  which  is  an  octave  below  the  lowest  C  of 
the  modem  pianoforte,  or  two  octaves  below  the 
lowest  C  on  the  manuals  and  pedal  of  the  organ : 
any  pipe  producing  this  note  is  called  a  32-feet  G 
pil)e,  whatever  its  actual  length  may  be.  By  a  3^ 
feet  or  16-feet  stop,  we  mean  that  the  pipe  which 
speaks  on  the  lowest  C  on  which  that  stop  appears, 
has  a  32-feet  or  a  16-feet  tone. 

The  stops  of  an  or^an  do  not  always  produce  tbs 
note  properly  belongmg  to  the  key  struck;  some- 
times they  give  a  note  an  octave,  or,  in  the  pedal- 
organ,  even  two  octaves  lower,  and  sometimes  one 
of  the  harmonics  higher  in  pitch.  Compound  or 
mixture  stops,  have  several  pipes  to  each  key,  corre^ 
ponding  to  the  different  harmonics  of  the  ground 
tone.  There  is  an  endless  variety  in  the  number 
and  kinds  of  stops  in  different  organs ;  some  are, 
and  some  are  not  continued  through  the  whole 
range  of  manual  or  pedaL  Some  of  the  more 
important  stops  get  the  name  of  open  or  stopped 
diapason  (a  term  which  implies  that  they  extend 
throughout  the  whole  compass  of  the  clavier) ;  they 
are  for  the  most  part  16-feet,  sometimes  32-feel 
stops ;  the  open  diapason  chiefljr  of  metal,  the  doss 
chiefiv  of  wood.  Tne  duiciana  is  an  8-feet  manuid 
''  111 


ORGAN,  ORGANIC,  ORGANISM-ORGANIC  ANALYSIS. 


Stop,  of  small  diameter,  so  called  from  the  sweet- 
ness of  its  tona  Among  the  reed-stops  are  the 
darion,  oboe,  hasaoon,  and  vox  humana,  deriving 
their  names  from  real  or  fancied  resemblances  to 
these  instruments  and  to. the  human  voice.  Of  the 
compound-stops,  the  most  prevalent  in  Britain  is 
the  aesquialteray  consisting  of  four  or  five  rankB  of 
open  metal  pipes,  often  a  17th,  19th,  22d,  26th,  and 
29th  from  tne  ground- tone.  The  resources  of  the 
organ  are  further  increased  b^  appliances  called 
coux)2eTV,  by  which  a  second  clavier  and  its  stops  can 
be  Drought  into  play,  or  the  same  clavier  can  be 
united  to  itself  in  the  octave  below  or  above. 

Oigans  are  now  generally  tuned  on  the  equal 
temperament  See  Temperament.  The  notation 
for  the  organ  is  the  same  as  for  the  pianoforte,  in 
two  staves  in  the  treble  and  bass  clefs ;  but  in  old 
compositions,  the  soprano,  tenor,  and  alto  clefs  are 
used. 

Instruments  of  a  rude  description,  comprising 
more  or  less  of  the  principle  of  tne  organ,  seem  to 
have  existed  early,  v  itruvius  makes,  mention  of  a 
hydraulic  organ,  but  his  description  is  not  vexy 
intelligible.  The  organ  is  said  to  have  been  first 
introduced  into  church  music  by  Pope  Vitalian  L 
in  666.  In  757,  a  areat  organ  was  sent  as  a  present 
to  Pepin  by  the  Byzantine  emperor,  Constantino 
Copronymus,  and  placed  in  the  church  of  St  Corneille 
at  Uompi^gne.  Soon  after  Charlemagne's  time,  organs 
became  conmion.  In  the  11th  c.,  a  monk  named 
Theophilus  wrote  a  curious  treatise  on  organ-  building. 
But  it  was  not  till  the  15th  c.  that  the  organ  began 
to  be  anything  like  the  noble  instrument  which  it 
now  is.  The  family  of  the  Anti^;nati,  in  Brescia,  had 
a  great  name  as  organ-builders  in  the  15th  and  16th 
centuries.  The  oigans  of  England  were  also  in  high 
repute,  but  the  puritanism  of  the  civil  war  doomed 
most  of  them  to  destruction;  and  when  they  had 
to  be  replaced  after  the  Restoration,  it  was  foimd 
that  there  was  no  longer  a  sufficiency  of  builders  in 
the  countiy.  Foreign  organ-builders  were  therefore 
invited  to  settle  in  England,  the  most  remarkable 
of  whom  were  Bemhard  Schmidt  (generally  called 
Father  Smith)  and  his  nephews,  and  Kenatus  Harris. 
Christopher  Schreider,  Snetzler,  and  Byfield  suc- 
ceeded them;  and  at  a  later  period.  Green  and 
Avery,  some  of  whose  organs  have  never  been 
surpassed  in  tone,  though  in  mechanism  l^ose  of 
modem  builders  are  an  immense  advance  on  them. 
The  lar^gest  English  oigans  are  those  of  York 
Cathedr^  Birmmgham  Town  Hall,  and  Christ 
Church,  London.  The  two  largest  organs  in  the 
world  are  at  Haarlem  and  Rotterdam ;  the  former, 
103  feet  high  and  50  broad,  was  built  in  1738  by 
Christian  MUUer.  The  German  organs  are  remark- 
able for  preserving  the  balance  of  power  well  among 
the  various  masses,  but  in  mechanical  contrivances 
th^  are  surpassed  by  those  of  England. 

For  a  full  account  of  the  structure  of  the  organ, 
see  Hopkins  and  Rimbault,  The  Organ,  Us  History 
and  Construction  (Lond.  1855).  Rink^s  Praktische 
OrgdsehiUe,  Leipzig,  v.  y.,  is  the  best  work  on  organ 
playing. 

O'RGAN,  ORGA'NIC,  O'RGANISM.  The  word 
organ  is  derived  from  the  Greek  organon,  an  instru- 
ment, and  is  sometimes  employed  almost  in  its 
original  sense.  But  it  has  received  a  signification 
more  peculiarly  its  own,  and  with  which  alone  the 
word  organism  is  connected,  as  the  designation  of 
sny  of  the  parts  or  members  <^  a  living  body,  the 
craanism  being  the  living  whole,  animal  or  vege- 
table, which  these  organs  compose.  The  idea  of  an 
(sganism  or  of  oiganisation  is  almost  as  much 
involved  in  obscurity  and  difficulty  as  that  of  life, 
with  which  it  is  so  closely  connected.  But  it  is 
ohservable  that  a  living  body  is  entiroly  composed 


of  organs,  and  these  themselves  of  other  organs, 
until  we  come  to  elementary  cells ;  and  also,  that 
all  the  parts  are  mutually  de2>endent  on  each  other ; 
and  therefore  an  organism  has  been  defined  as 
a  natural  whole,  in  which  all  the  parts  avB 
mutually  to  each  other  means  and  end.  The  juice 
which  nourishes  a  plant  is  elaborated  by  the  plant 
itself,  although  the  supplies  are  drawn  from  witnouth 
The  leaves  of  a  plant  are  produced  by  the  stem,  but 
re-act  upon  the  stem  in  promoting  its  growth.  Thia 
mutual  dependence  of  parts  strongly  distinguishes 
an  organism  from  a  machine,  in  which  the  parti 
concur  for  a  common  end,  to  which  each  contributea 
in  its  own  way,  but  in  which  each  does  not  contri- 
bute to  the  support  of  all  or  any  of  the  rest.  In 
organisms,  moreover,  besides  this  support  and  main- 
tenance of  the  different  parts  or  organs,  there  is  a 
provision  for  the  production  of  new  organisms  of 
the  same  kind,  the  reproduction  or  propagation  of 
the  species,  to  which  there  is  nothing  analogous 
beyond  the  sphere  of  organic  life.  Amongst  organic 
beings,  as  we  ascend  in  the  scale  from  the  lowest 
kin£  of  plants  and  animals  to  the  highest,  woohservB 
an  increasing  number  of  organs  and  of  functions  of 
organa  In  we  animal  kingdom,  organic  life  appears 
as  possessed  of  sensation  and  spontaneous  motion  ; 
whilst  plants  are  limited  to  growth,  assimilation^ 
and  propagation.  The  question  as  to  the  nature  of 
organic  processes  connects  itself  with  a  most  difficult 
question  as  to  the  relation  of  chemical  processes 
with  psychical  functions,  chemical  processes  beings 
certainly  carried  on,  but  singularly  modified  or 
directed  by  the  living  powers  of  the  organic  being. — 
The  term  oiganio  is  frequently  apimed  to  those 
things  in  which  an  analogy  is  traced  to  livins 
creatures,  in  the  mutual  dependence  of  parts.  Such 
an  analogy  may  be  traced  in  social  life  and  in 
political  hie ;  and  tiie  more  perfectly  this  relation 
of  mutual  dependence  or  mutual  usefulness  is  estab- 
lished, the  better  is  the  state  of  things,  social  or 
political  It  is  also  the  highest  praise  of  a  work 
of  art,  that  it  suggests  tms  idea  of  an  oixanio 
relation  of  its  parts  to  each  other,  and  to  the  wnol& 
— Organic  Laws  are  those  which  are  fundamental  or 
most  essential  to  the  system  to  which  they  belong 

ORGA'NIC  ANALYSIS.  When  a  complex 
oiganic  substance  is  submitted  to  chemical  exami- 
nation, the  first  ^int  is  to  determine  its  proximate 
constituents,  or,  in  other  words,  the  several  definite 
compounds  of  which  it  is  made  up.  Opium,  for 
example,  is  thus  found  to  have  as  its  proximate  coi^ 
stituents  meconic  acid,  morphia,  oodeia,  and  soma 
ten  or  twelve  other  substances.  The  modes  by 
which  these  proximate  constituents  are  separated 
are  various;  the  chief  being  the  action  of  certain 
solvents,  such  as  ether,  alcohol,  and  water,  which 
extract  some  of  the  materials  and  leave  others  undi^ 
solved.  Thus  ether  is  the  special  solvent  of  fatty 
and  waxy  matters,  resins,  and  camphors ;  alcohol 
dissolves  the  same  substances  with  less  fa(^ty,  but 
on  the  other  hand  takes  up  many  substances  which 
are  insoluble  in  ether ;  while  water,  which  scarcely 
acts  upon  the  above-named  matters,  dissolves 
sacchanne,  gummy,  and  starchy  mattera,  and  salts  of 
organic  acids.  The  proximate  constituents  being 
thus  determined,  the  next  point  is  to  determine 
their  (qualitative  and  quantitative  (or  ultimate) 
composition ;  and  it  is  to  these  processes — especially 
the  last — ^that  the  term  organic  analysis  is  for  tb« 
most  part  restricted. 

Qtialitative  Analysis, — ^It  is  shewn  in  the  artdclb 
Oroanio  Compounds,  that  the  ordinary  ingredients 
for  which  we  must  seek  are  carbon,  hydrogeoi 
oxygen,  nitro^pi,  and  sulphur.  Carbon  and  ht/drogem 
may  be  simultaneously  detected  by  burning  the 
compound  (which  must  be  previously  well  dried}  in 


ORGANIC  ANALYSIS-ORGANIC  BASES. 


»  glaBS-tnbe  in  contact  with  oxide  of  copper,  which 
readily  yields  up  its  oxygen.  The  caroon  is  thus 
oonTerted  into  carbonic  acid,  which  if  passed  into 
barvta  water  forms  aVhite  precipitate  of  carbonate 
of  Ixuyta,  and  the  hydrogen  into  water,  which 
collects  in  drops  in  a  small  cooled  receiver  att'Vf'hed 
to  the  tab&  Carbon  may  also  be  usually  recognidcd 
by  the  black  residue  which  almost  always  remains 
on  barnin^  an  organic  matter,  especially  in  a  narrow 
test-tnbe  m  which  there  is  little  air.  The  presence 
of  nitrogen  may  in  most  cases  be  readily  ascertained 
by  heating  a  portion  of  the  substance  in  a  test-tube 
with  an  excess  of  hydrate  of  potash,  when  a  distinct 
odour  of  ammonia  is  perceived.  Sulphur  is  detected 
by  igniting  the  compound  with  hydrate  of  potash 
and  nitre,  whereby  sulphuric  acid  is  formed ;  and 
phosphorus  and  arsenic  may  be  detected  by  the 
same  means.  The  presence  of  oxygen  canno^  as  a 
general  rule,  be  directly  determined. 

QuantUahve  Analysis, — The  first  attempts  to 
determine  the  quantitative  composition  of  organic 
bodies  were  made,  scarcely  half  a  century  ago,  by 
Gay  Lossac  and  Thenard.  The  process  originally 
proposed  by  them  has  been  modified  and  improved 
Dy  various  chemists,  especially  by  Berzelius,  Prout, 
and  Liebij^,  and  it  is  mainly  owing  to  the  great 
simplifications  introduced  by  uie  last-named  chemist, 
and  to  the  consequently  increased  facility  of  conduct- 
ing an  ultimate  analysis,  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
composition  of  orgamc  bodies  has  so  vastly  enlarged 
daring  the  last  twenty  years. 

The  operation  is  always  effected  by  causing  com- 
plete combnstioii  of  a  known  weight  of  the  wdy  to 
be  analysed,  in  such  a  nuinner  that  the  carbonic 
acid  and  water  which  are  formed  in  the  process 
•hall  be  coUected,  and  their  quantities  determined, 
from  which,  of  course,  the  carbon  and  hydrogen 
they  respectively  contain  may  be  readily  calculated. 
The  apparatus  required  for  the  analysis  of  a  com- 
pound containing  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 


M,  h,  the  eflvnbottion  tnbe ;  e,  the  central  portion.  In  which  the 
mixture  to  he  analysed  is  placed;  d,  the  balb-tube,  cimtalning 
chloride  of  caleinm ;  «e,  Liehig't  potash  apparatus ;  /,  a  mov- 
able Iron  screen ;  gg,  hricka  aupporting  kh,  the  furnace. 

only,  consists  of  (1}  a  oombusUon  tube,  composed  of 
hard  white  Bohemian  glass,  having  a  diameter  of 
half  an  inch  or  less,  and  a  length  of  from  14  to  18 
inches.  One  end  is  drawn  out  in  a  point  and  closed, 
vhile  the  edges  of  the  other  (or  open)  end  are  made 
smooth  by  fusion  in  the  blow-pipe  flame.  (2.)  A  ti^in 
>heet-iton  furnace,  in  which  the  tube  is  placed  and 
aupported  during  combustion.  (3.)  A  small  light 
tabe  (which  maybe  either  a  bulb-tube,  as  in  the 
iigore,  or  a  U-tube),  which  is  filled  with  fragments 
of  spongy  chloride  of  calcium  to  absorb  the  watery 
vapour  uiat  is  driven  through  it ;  and  (4)  Liebig's 
bulb-apparatus,  containing  a  solution  of  potash  of 
■pecific  gravity  1*27,  for  the  purpose  of  absorbing 
the  carbonic  acid.  The  chloride-of-calciiun  tube  is 
eonnected  by  a  well-dried  perforated  cork  to  the 
epen  extremity  of  the  combustion  tnbe,  and  by  a 
httle  tube  of  flexible  caoutchouc,  secured  by  silk 
cord,  to  the  potash  apparatus. 

In  performing  an  analysis  a  little  freshly  pre- 
psred  oxide  of  copper  is  first  introduced  into  the 
combustion  tube,  then  a  mixture  of  about  5  grains 
of  the  snbfftaace  to  be  analysed,  with  an  excess  of 


the  oxide,  while  the  tiibe  is  lastly  filled  to  within 
an  inch  of  its  open  mouth  with  the  oxide  alone. 
The  tube  is  then  placed  in  the  furnace,  which  may 
be  heated  with  charcoal  or  gas.  (Hof mannas  gas 
furnace,  in  which  is  a  peculiar  form  of  burner  called 
the  atmopyre,  is  the  best  It  is  described  in  voL  xi. 
of  The  Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society.)  Rod-hot 
charcoal  is  now  placed  round  the  anterior  part  of 
the  tube,  containmg  the  pure  oxide  of  copper ;  and 
when  this  is  red-hot,  the  fire  is  slowly  extended 
towards  the  further  extremity  by  shifting  the  mov- 
able screen  shewn  in  the  figure.  When  the  tube  has 
been  completely  hccated  from  end  to  end,  and  no 
more  gas  is  disengaged,  the  charcoal  is  gradually 
removed  from  the  farther  extremity  of  the  tube, 
and  the  point  of  the  latter  broken  off ;  after  which 
a  little  air  is  drawn  through  the  whole  apparatus,  so 
as  to  secure  any  remaining  carbonic  acid  and  watery 
vapour.  The  parts  are  then  detached,  and  tlm 
increase  of  weight  of  the  chloride-of-calcium  tube 
and  potash  apparatus  is  determined  by  an  accurate 
balance.  The  following  account  of  an  actual  ana- 
lysis of  crystallised  cane-sugar  (borrowed  from 
Fownes's  Chemistry)  will  serve  to  illustrate  the 
preceding  remarks : 


OnlM. 
4*760 
781*18 
773-88 

7-31 

»6'0B 
323*30 


Qaantity  of  sngar  employpd,  . 

Potash  apparatus,  afrer  ez|)erlment,    •       • 
II  II       ,  hefore  experiment,     • 

Carhonlc  aold, 

Chloride-of-calcinnt  tahe,  after  experiment,  . 

M  n  «        ,  before  experiment,     

Water, 2  75 

7*31  grains  carbonic  acid  =1*994  ^ains  carbon; 
and  275  grains  water  =  0'3056  grains  hydrogen  : 
or  in  100  parts  of  sugar,  carbon,  41*98 ;  hydrogen, 
6"43 ;  oxygen  by  difference,  51*59. 

For  the  methods  of  determining  other  elements 
quantitatively,  such  as  nitrogen,  chlorine,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  ic.,  we  must  refer  to  the  various  works 
that  have  been  published  on  organic  analysis, 
amongst  which  those  of  liebig,  Fresenius,  and  Rose 
deserve  special  mention. 

OBGANIO  BASES.  The  present  remarks  must 
be  regarded  as  supplementary  to  the  article  Alka- 
loids. They  refer  (1)  to  the  dassification  of  organic 
bases  and  (2)  to  their  formation. 

(1)  From  the  fact  that  nearly  all  artificial  organic 
bases  are  (as  will  be  afterwards  shewn)  actually 
constructed  from  ammonia,  and  that,  whether  artih- 
daily  or  naturally  formed,  they  exhibit  the  property 
of  l>asicity,  which  is  the  leading  characteristic  of 
ammonia,  chemists  have  been  led  to  refer  organic 
bases  generally  to  the  typical  body  ammonia,  and 
have  succecdod  in  demonstrating  that  they  are 
constructed  u|>on  or  derived  from  the  simple  type 
NH,.  Berzebus  believed  that  all  the  alkaloids 
actually  contained  ammonia  as  an  ingredient  of 
their  composition,  a  view  which  is  now  untenable ; 
and  it  is  to  Liebig  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  idea 
that  they  are  derivatives  of  ammonia^  or,  in  other 
words,  amidogen  bases  or  ammonia  in  which  an 
equivalent  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  organic 
radical  The  subject  has  been  thoroughly  worked 
out  by  Dr  Hofmann,  who  orimially  projKysed  to- 
classify  these  bodies  under  the  heads  of  amidogen,. 
imidogen,  nitrile^  and  amTnonium  bases;  but  has< 
since  adopted  the  terms  primary  amines,  secondary' 
amines,  and  tertiary  amines,  in  preference  to  ami- 
dogen, imidogen,  and  nitrile  bases — the  word  amines^ 
being  applied  to  all  organic  bases  that  are  derived^ 
from  ammonia  (NH,).  The  amines  may  be  (1) 
monamines,  (2)  diamines,  (3)  triamines,  (4)  tetramines,. 
or  (5)  pentamines,  according  as  they  be  con- 
structed upon  a  single,  double,  treble,  quadruple,  or 
quintuple  atom  of  NH^     We  shidl  confine  our 


ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS-ORGANIC  RADICAIA 


iUiistrationft  of  the  meaning  of  these  terms  to  the 
monaminea,  both  because  they  foim  the  moat 
important  ^up  and  because  they  are  much  more 
readily  elucidated  than  the  other  groups,  which  are 
extremely  complicated  in  their  composition.  Mono- 
mines  are  constructed  upon  the  single  atom  of 
ammonia,  HoN.  In  primary  motiamines  one  of  the 
atoms  of  hydrogen  is  replaced  by  an  organic  radical, 
R ;  and  hence  their  general  formula  is  RH^N. 
Ethyl-amine  or  ethy&  (C^HJHsN,  or  C4H7N, 
is  an  example.  In  secondary  monamines  two  of  the 
atoms  of  hydrogen  are  replaced  by  two  atoms  of 
either  the  same  or  of  different  radicals.  Hence  their 
general  formula  is  RR'HN,  where  R  and  R'  may  be 
the  same  or  different  radicals.  Diethylia  (C4Hs)3HN, 
or  CgHjiN,  and  methyl-ethyl-amine,  or  methyl- 
cthylia  (OjH3)(C4H^)HN,  or  CflH^N,  are  examples. 
In  tertiary  monamines  the  three  atoms  of  hydro- 

§en  are  replaced  by  three  atoms  of  the  same  or 
ifferent  radicals ;  their  formi^  therefore  is  RR'R'N, 
when  R,  R',  R"  may  or  may  not  differ  from  one 
another.  Trimethylamine  or  trimethylia  (CjH3)3N, 
or  CgHjN,  and  methyl-ethyl-phenyl-amine  or  methyl- 
ethyl-phenylia  (OA)(C4H5)(Ci,H6)N.  or  CgHj^N, 
afford  examples  of  the  radicals  being  all  the  same 
and  of  their  being  all  different.  This  last  example 
affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  fact,  that  although 
the  modern  nomenclature  of  orp^anic  chemistry 
includes  long  and  apparently  complex  words,  these 
words  to  a  great  degree  represent  the  composition 
of  the  substance  they  are  used  to  indicate ;  methyl 
(CjjH,),  ethyl  (C4H5),  and  phenyl  (Cj,Ha),  mainly 
contributing  to  form  methyl-ethyl-phenylia. 

(2.)  Although  all  attempts  at  forming  in  the  labo- 
ratory those  alkaloids  that  naturally  exist  in  plants, 
such  as  morphia,  quinia,  and  strychnia,  have  hitherto 
failed,  a  large  number  of  organic  bases  have  been 

Srepared  by  artificial  means,  such  as:  a.  By  the 
estructive  distillation  of  organic  bodies  containing 
nitrogen.  Thus,  in  the  preparation  of  coal-gas,  four 
at  least  of  these  compounds  are  obtained — viz., 
aniline,  picoline,  leukol  (or  quinoline),  and  pyridine. 
h.  By  the  distillation  of  certain  nitrogenous  com- 
pounds with  caustic  potash.  In  this  way  aniline 
18  obtained  from  indigo,  c  By  the  combination  of 
ammonia  with  the  aldehyds  and  with  certain  vola- 
tile oils  which  possess  the  properties  of  aldehyds. 
Thus  acetic  aldehyd  yields  dimethylia,  and  oil  of 
mustard  yields  thyosinamine.  d.  By  the  substi- 
tution (by  the  action  of  strong  nitric  acid)  of  one 
atom  of  nitrous  acid  (NO4)  for  one  atom  of  hydrogen 
in  certain  hydrocarbons,  e.  By  the  processes  of 
fermentation  and  putrefaction.  Thus  wheaten  flour 
yields  by  putrefaction  trimethylia,  ethylia,  and 
amylia. 

ORGANIC  COMPOUNDS.  It  was  formerly 
believed  that  the  compounds  to  which  the  term 
organic  is  applied  could  only  be  produced  by  a  vital 
force  acting  in  a  more  or  less  complex  animal  or 
vegetable  organism.  It  is,  however,  now  known 
that  this  view  is  altogether  untenable,  and  that 
many  substances  which  are  products  of  animal  or 
vegetable  ox^nisms  may  also  be  formed  artificially 
in  the  laboratory.  Thus  urea,  the  chief  and  most 
characteristic  organic  constituent  of  urine,  may 
be  formed  by  the  direct  union  of  chlorine  and  car- 
bonic acid  (which  form  phosgene  gas)  with  ammonia ; 
and  glycose  or  grape-sugar  may  be  artificially  pro- 
duced from  starch,  woody  fibre,  paper,  linen,  &c. 
Although  such  cases  as  that  of  urea,  in  which  a 
complex  organic  product  (CgH40|N,)  is  produced  by 
the  direct  union  of  three  inorganic  substances  (and 
many  other  cases  of  the  same  nature  might  be 
adduced),  shew  that  there  is  no  definite  une  of 
demarcation  between  organic  and  inorganic  products, 
it  is  useful  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  to  classify 
Hi 


chemical  oompounds   according   to   their   natural 
origin. 

The  following  are  the  leading  characteristics  of 
organic  compounds :  Those  Which  occur  naturally 
rarely  consist  of  more  than  four  elements— viz., 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen — althoi^ 
a  few  contain  sulphur,  and  possibly  (but  this  is 
doubtful)  phosphorus.  By  artificial  means,  how- 
ever, organic  compounds  can  be  formed  containing 
chlorine,  bromine,  iodine,  selenium,  tellurium,  and 
many  of  the  metals.  Carbon  is  universally  present 
both  in  natural  and  artificial  organic  compounds. 
The  number  of  eq^uivalents  entering  into  the  com- 
position of  organic  compounds  is  usually  higher 
than  in  the  case  of  inorganic  compounds.  Tnere 
is  no  organic  oompoimd  mto  which  less  than  two 
equivalents  of  carbon  enter,  and,  according  to  some 
chemists,  both  oxygen  and  sulphur  only  enter  these 
compounds  in  double  eqtdvalents.  Melissic  acid,  for 
example  (one  of  the  constituents  of  wax),  is  repre- 
sented by  G^^O^ ;  that  is  to  say,  each  equivalent 
of  the  acid  is  composed  of  124  e^uivalento  of  the 
elemenis  entering  into  its  composition ;  and  each 
equivalent  of  the  solid  fat»  commonly  known  as 
stearine,  contains  114  equivalents  of  carbon,  110  of 
hydrogen,  and  12  of  oxygen.  No  instance  is  known 
in  which  an  organic  compound  has  been  formed  by 
the  direct  union  of  its  dements  in  a  &ee  state,  as 
many  sulphides,  chlorides,  and  oxides  (for  example) 
are  formed  in  inorganic  chemistry.  Their  extrenoe 
readiness  to  decompose  under  the  influence  of  heat, 
fermentation,  putrefaction,  &c.,  is  another  char- 
acteristic of  organic  compounds,  although  some 
artificially  prepared  xnoi^ganio  compounds — as,  for 
example,  chloride  of  nitrogen — are  also  very  unstable. 

The  following  scheme  may  serve  to  elucidate  the 
arrangement  of  the  elements  in  organic  compounds. 
Such  compounds  may  be  composed  of  carbon  and 
oxygen,  as  carbonic  oxide,  C3O, ;  or  of  carbon  and 
hy(£ogen,  as  oil  of  turpentine,  CmH^s  »  ^^  ^^  carbon 
and  nitrogen,  as  cyanogen,  C^N ;  or  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  grape-sugar,  Ci^jaO^j ; 
or  of  carbon,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  anhydrous 
cyanic  acid,  C3NO ;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
nitrogen,  as  nicotine,  C^Hj^N, ;  or  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  sulphur,  as  oil  01  garlic,  CgH^S ;  or  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and  oxygen,  as  caffeine, 
C^Hi^fi^ ;  or  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  and 
sulphur,  as  oil  of  mustard,  CgH^S^ ;  or  finally,  of 
carbon,  hydrogen,  nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  sulphur,  as 
taurine,  C^HjSO^f  Hence  organic  compounds  mav 
be  binary,  temaiy,  quaternary,  or  quinary  in  thea 
composition. 

ORGANIC  RADICALS.  Under  the  term 
Organic  or  (Ik)mpound  Radicals  (or  Radicles,  as  some 
chemists  write  the  word)  are  included  a  number  of 
groups  of  elements,  of  which  carbon  is  always  one, 
which  comport  themselves  chemically  like  simple 
elementary  bodies.  The  careful  study  of  oi^;anic 
compounds  led  chemists  to  perceive  that  many 
of  these  contained  as  a  proximate  constituent  a  more 
or  less  complex  atomic  group,  which  in  its  combin- 
ing relations  behaves  precisely  like  the  elementary 
substances,  and  which, like  them,  may  be  transferred 
from  one  compound  to  another;  and  henoe  the 
inference  was  drawn,  that  all  organic  compounds 
were  combinations  of  organic  radicals  with  oxygen, 
sulphur,  hydrogen,  or  other  elements,  or  of  one 
organic  radical  with  another.  In  accordance  with 
this  view,  Liebig  defined  organic  chemistty  as  The 
Chemistry  qf  O^anic  RadiSds,  In  order  to  sbew 
how  mudi  the  theory  of  oi^ganio  radicals  serves  to 
elucidate  the  composition  of  organic  compounds,  and 
to  reduce  the  laws  of  oi^ganic  to  those  of  inorj^-anie 
chemistry,  we  will  point  out  some  of  the  chemical 
analogies  between  the  radical  ethyi  (O4H0)  and  the 


ORG  ANISTA— ORGEAT. 


metal  potaasinm  (K),  and  between  the  radical 
eyimogen  (C^N)  and  the  halogen  chlorine  (01).  Ae 
is  the  symbol  for  ethyl,  Oy  for  cyanogen. 

KO       s  Oxide  of  pntaMiam,    AeO        s  Oxide  of  ethyl. 

or  potash. 
KO,HO  n  Hydnted  potash.       AeO,HO  b  Hydrated  oxide  of 

ethyl  or  ether. 
XO^Ql  s  Sulphate  of  potash.    AeO^SOs  =  Sulphate  of  oxide 

of  ethyl. 
KCl       B  Chloride  of  potas-    Aed       =  Chloride  of  ethyl. 
^lom. 
m  Sulphide  of  potaa«    AeS         =  Sulphide  of  ethyl, 
tium.  dec  dto. 

ftc         fte. 


BCl       m  Hydroehlorie  aeld.      HCy 
KQ       s  Chloride  of  potas-    KCy 

iiiam. 
VR^Cl  8  Chloride     of    am-    KH4Cy 

mnnlnm. 
HgCl     sQiloride    of    mer-    HgCy 

enry. 

ftc  ftc 


B  Hydrocyanic  aetd. 

SB  Cyanide  of  potas- 
Rioro. 

ss  Cyanide     of    am- 
monium. 

B  Cyanide    of   mer^ 
cury. 
dtc  Ac 


Acam,  if  under  certain  conditions  chloride  of 
ethyl  is  bronght  into  contact  with  hydrated  potash, 
the  reaction  expressed  in  the  following  equation 
occurs: 

OUoiMvafBihyl    Bjdneed  Polwli.  Etbtr.        Chloride  of  PotsMlain. 

Aed      +    KO,KO  =  AeO,HO   -i-     KCl 

which  shews  that  the  ethyl  and  the  potassium  may 
mntnally  replace  one  another  in  compounds;  and 
the  same  might  be  similarly  shewn  of  cyanogen  and 
dilorine. 

Comparatively  few  organic  radicals  have  been 
ohtaineid  in  an  isolated  state ;  and  in  most  cases  the 
existence  of  any  special  radical  is  only  inferred  from 
the  fact,  that  the  group  of  atoms  of  which  it  is 
supposed  to  be  composed  can  be  transferred  from 
one  elementary  substance  to  another,  and  can  be 
nuide  to  enter  into  combination  with  other  organic 
radicals.  The  existence  of  ethyl  was  thus  inferred 
long  before  the  substance  itself  was  isolated,  and 
the  radical  benzoyl,  Ci4HgOj  (symbol,  Bz),  which 
exists  in  the  oil  of  bitter  abnonds,  and  on  which 
Liebie  specially  bases  his  whole  ^eory  of  organic 
tadic^  has  never  been  isolated.  The  simpBcity 
obtained  by  adopting  the  radical  theory  in  place 
of  using  merely  empirical  formulas,  is  well  shewn 
b  the  two  contrasted  modes  of  symbolically 
representing  the  compounds  which  are  obtained 
from  this  ou : 


Empliioal  Ibrmula. 


Kational  Formula  (Bs  s 
CulIftO,). 


on  nf  bittfT  almand«,  CifH^   as  BzH,  Hydride  of  hensoyl. 
Benzoic  acid,  Ci4Hb03,UO  sBz(),HO,  Hydrated  oxide  of 

h'MzovL  ■ 
Chlflrine-eompound,  Ci4H8ngCl  as  BzCi,  Ct>lnrlde  of  hensoyl. 
Sulphur-compound,  €141150^    &a  BzS,  Sulphide  of  benzoyl, 
^anogen-compunnd,  t'lellsOsN  &=  UzCy,  Cranide  of  benzoyl. 

The  organic  radicals  are  either  binary  or  ternary 
in  tiieir  composition.  Many  of  them — as,  for 
example,  ethyl — consist  of  carbon  and  hydrogen ; 
others,  as  carbonyl  (or  carbonic  oxide),  of  carbon 
and  oxygen ;  others,  as  cyanogen,  of  carbon  and 
nitrogen ;  and  others  again,  like  benzoyl,  of  carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxysen.  Into  a  few  radicals  a  metallic 
element  enters;  wese  are  termed  organo-metallic 
radicals ;  and  cacodyl,  which  contains  arsenic,  and 
is  repreeented  by  the  formula  AsCC^Hg),  is  the  best 
txamnlA  of  this  class.  All  recent  wurks  on  organic 
cbenustry  arc  based  either  on  the  theory  of  organic 
tadicals  or  on  the  more  complicated  theory  of  types, 
which  will  be  noticed  in  a  special  article. 

OBGANI'STA,  the  common  name  of  a  number  of 
small  South  American  birds,  allied  to  wrens,  and 
remaricable  for  the  sweetness  of  their  song.  The 
Peruvian  O.  {7 roghdytea  leucophr^  of  Tschudi)  has 
a  modest,  cin]««mon-brown  plumage,  with  head  and 
neck  o#  dork  ohve,  '  The  tender  melancholy  strains, 


and  the  singular  clearness  of  the  innumerable  modu- 
lations, charm  the  ear  of  the  astonished  traveller, 
who,  as  if  arrested  by  an  invisible  power,  stops  to 
listen.*— Tschudi's  Travels. 

O'RGANO-MBTAXLIC  BODIES.  Under  thie 
term  are  included  a  large  number  of  chemical  com- 
pounds in  which  oi^anic  radicals,  such  as  methyl 
(CsHj),  ethyl  (C4Hg),  &c.,  are  united  to  metals  m 
the  same  way  as  chlorine  is  combined  with  zinc, 
forming  chloride  of  zinc  If,  for  instance,  in 
chloride  of  zinc  (ZnCl)  we  replace  the  chlorine  by 
ethyl,  we  produce  one  of  the  bodies  belon^ng  to 
this  class— viz.,  zinc-ethyl,  Zn(C.H5).  This  sub- 
stance (which  we  take  as  a  good  example  of  the 
class)  is  obtained  by  digesting  a  mixture  of  equal 
volumes  of  iodide  of  ethyl  and  ether  with  granulated 
zinc,  at  a  temperature  of  about  260",  mr  several 
hours.  Subsequent  distillation  gives  a  mixture  0^ 
zinc-ethvl  and  ether,  from  which  the  former  may  be 
obtained  pure  by  rectification,  in  the  form  of  a 
colourless,  transparent,  mobile  liquid,  which  refracts 
light  strongly,  has  a  powerful  but  not  disagreeable 
odour,  and  is  rather  heavier  than  water,  its  specific 
gravity  being  1*182  at  64*.  With  the  exception  of 
cacodyl,  AslC^j),,  these  bodies  are  the  creation 
of  the  last  ten  or  twelve  years,  during  which 
period  numerous  compounds  of  organic  radicals 
with  zinc,  cadmium,  roaniesium,  antimony,  arsenic, 
bismuth,  mercury,  lead,  sodium,  and  potassium 
have  been  discovered. 

For  further  information  on  this  subject,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  an  article  by  Dr  Frankland 
(who  has  most  successfully  devoted  his  attention  to 
this  class  of  compounds)  in  the  13th  volume  of  The 
Quarterly  Journal  of  Ute  Chemical  Society,  and  to  an 
elaborate  article  on  ' Organo-Metallic  Bodies*  (by 
the  same  chemist)  in  The  EngUsk  Cydopadieu 

ORGAN-POINT,  or  PEDAX-PGINT,  in  Music 
a  bass  note  sustained  through  a  series  of  chords* 
with  only  the  first  and  last  of  which  it  is  in  harmony. 
The  sustained  note  may  be  the  dominant  or  tonic, 
and  sometimes  occupies  an  upper  part  instead  of  the 
bass. 

ORGA'NZINE,  m  name  applied  to  sUk  which 
after  having  been  first  wound  oif  from  the  cocoons 
into  hanks,  is  then  placed  on  a  winding  machine, 
which  reels  off  the  hanks  on  to  wo<3en  reels. 
These  are  then  placed  on  spindles,  and  the  fibres 
of  each  are  made  to  pass  through  a  minute 
orifice  and  small  bnish,  which  together  clean  the 
thread  and  remove  any  knots  or  projections  from  it, 
throwing  it  at  the  same  time  into  hanks  again. 
Then  the  threads  of  two  hanks  are  taken,  and 
again  reeled  off,  this  time  on  to  one  hank,  being 
twisted  together  to  the  left;  then  two  of  these 
doubled  reels  are  taken,  and  the  ends  being  laid 
together,  are  twisted  to  the  right  These  OT)6rations, 
consisting  of  winding,  cleaning,  throwing,  and  twice 
twisting  and  doublmg,  constitute  organzine  silk. 
See  Silk. 

O'RGE  AT,  a  kind  of  culinary  preparation,  which 
is  both  used  as  an  agreeable  syrup  to  mix  in 
certain  drinks,  or  medicinally  as  a  mild  demul- 
cent. It  is  prepared  by  making  an  emulsion  of 
almonds,  which  are  blanched  for  the  purpose,  and 
beaten  into  a  paste  in  a  mortar,  and  then  rubbed 
up    with    barley-water.      The    proportions    are— 

1  lb.  of  sweet  and  1  oz.  of  bitter  almonds,  to  a 
quart  of  barley-water.    To  this  emulsion  are  added 

2  lbs.  of  powdered  loaf-sugar,  and  a  quarter  of  a 
pint  of  orange-fiower  water.  There  are  other  modes 
of  making  it,  but  this  is  the  simplest  and  best.  It 
is  much  used  in  France  under  the  name  of  Strop 
d^  Orgeat 


ORGIES  -0RIGENE3. 


O'BGrES  (probably  from  Gr.  crcfo,  in  the  perfect, 
eorga,  to  sacrilicf ),  or  MYSTERIES,  secret  rites  or 
cnstoms  coxmecti  d  with  the  worship  of  some  of  the 
pa^an  deities ;  as  the  secret  worship  of  Ceres  (q.  y.)« 
ana  the  festival  of  Baochns,  which  was  accompanied 
with  mystical  ciutoms  and  dmnken  revelry.  The 
name  is  now  applied  to  scenes  of  drunkenness  and 
debauchery. 

OBGUES  are  thick,  long,  wooden  beams,  pointed 
and  shod  with  iron,  hong  vertically  by  separate 
ro])es  in  the  gateway  of,  and  over  the  entrance  to  a 
fortified  place.  They  answer  the  purpose  of  a 
portcullis  or  door,  and  are  dropped  into  position  by 
cutting  the  ropes  from  which  they  hang.  Their 
descent  is  inevitable,  in  which  they  possess  an 
advantage  over  the  portcullis,  which  may  be  held 
up  by  tne  enemv  or  blown  in  by  petards,  whereas 
petards  have  little  effect  on  orgues,  for  if  one  beam 
De  destroyed,  another  can  be  dropped  to  fill  up  the 

gap- 

O'RIEL  COLLEGE.  In  1.324,  Adam  de  Biom, 
almoner  of  Edward  II.,  procured  from  the  sovereign 
a  charter  of  incorporation  for  a  college,  under  the 
name  of  St  Mary's  House,  in  Oxford.  The  origin  of 
the  name  *  Oriel  College '  is  uncertain.  It  consisted 
originally  of  a  provost  and  10  fellows.  The  number 
of  fellows  was  by  subsecjuent  benefactions  raised  to 
18,  and  several  exhibitions  and  scholarships  were 
also  founded  at  various  times.  By  the  commis- 
sioners under  17  and  18  Vict.  c.  81,  all  the  fellow- 
ships are  thrown  open,  but  three  are  in  the  mean- 
time suspended  for  the  piu*pose  of  increasing  the 
number  and  value  of  the  scholarships,  and  of  aug- 
menting the  salary  of  the  professor  of  modern 
history.  Bv  the  same  authority  the  scholars  are 
placed  on  the  foundation  of  the  college,  a  position 
they  did  not  before  enjoy;  the  scholarships  are 
made  ten  in  number,  tenable  for  five  years,  ot  value 
£60  per  annum,  with  rooms  free.  This  college  was 
one  of  the  first  to  throw  open  such  of  its  fellowships 
as  it  could  to  competition,  and  hence  the  fellows  of 
Oriel  have  long  been  among  the  most  distinguished 
men  in  the  university.  For  several  years  back, 
however,  its  undergraduates  have  done  little  in  the 
schools.  The  fellows  divide  upwards  of  £200  a  year, 
in  addition  to  allowances ;  and  the  income  of  the 
provostship,  to  which  is  annexed  a  living  in  Essex 
and  .a  canonry  in  Rochester  Cathedral,  is  estimated 
at  £2000  a  year.  There  are  thirteen  benefices  in 
the  gift  of  this  college. 

ORIEL  WINDOW,  a  projecting  window  having 
more  sides  than  one,  usually  three,  and  commonly 
divided  into  bays  by  muUions.  It  is  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  features  in  medieval  and  Eliza- 
bethan domestic  architecture,  and  adds  much  to  the 
convenience  of  the  interior.  The  word  oriel  (Mod. 
Lat.  orioluitiy  probably  dinu  from  o«,  orisy  as  if  a 
■mall  opening  or  recess)  formerly  meant  a  chamber 
or  apartment,  and  a  window  is  so  called  which 
makes  a  small  apartment,  as  it  were,  off  a  large 
room.  Oriels  are  also  called  Bay  or  Bow  Windows 
(q.  v.). 

ORIENT A'TIOK.  As  Christians  from  an  early 
period  turned  their  faces  eastward  when  pn^ying,  so 
Christian  churches  for  the  most  part  were  placed 
east  and  west,  in  order  that  the  worshippers,  as 
they  looked  towards  the  altar,  mi^ht  also  look 
towards  the  east.  Modem  observation,  however, 
has  found  that  few  churches  stand  exactly  east  and 
west,  the  great  majority  inohning  a  little  either  to 
the  north  or  to  the  south.  Thus,  of  three  ancient 
churches  in  Edinburgh,  it  was  ascertained  that  one 
(St  Margaret's  Chaplin  the  Castle)  pointed  E.S.E. ; 
another  (St  Giles's  Cathedral),  E.-by-S.iS. ;  a  third 
(Trinity   College   Church,  now   destroyed),  £^^ 


This  deviation  from  the  true  east  has  received, 
among  English  ecclesiologist?,  the  name  of  *  Orien- 
tation.' its  origin  or  cause  has  not  been  satis- 
factorily explainetl.  Some  have  supposed  that  the 
church  was  turned  not  to  the  true  east,  but  to  the 
i>oint  at  which  the  sun  rose  on  the  morning  of  the 
feast  of  the  patron  saint.  But,  unfortunately  for 
this  theory,  neighbouring  churches,  dedicated  in 
honour  of  the  same  saint,  have  different  orienta- 
tions. ThiLB,  All  Saints'  at  West  Beckham,  in 
Norfolk,  points  due  east ;  while  All  Saints'  at 
Thwaite,  also  in  Norfolk,  is  8°  to  the  north  of  east 
There  are  instances,  too,  in  which  different  parts  of 
the  same  church  have  different  orientations;  that 
is  to  say,  the  chancel  and  the  nave  have  not  been 
built  in  exactly  the  same  line.  This  is  tiie  case  in 
York  Minster  and  in  Lichfield  Cathedral.  Another 
theory  is,  that  orientation  'mystically  represents 
the  bowing  of  our  Saviour's  h^td  in  death,  which 
Catholic  tradition  asserts  to  have  been  to  the  right 
[or  north]  side.'  But  this  theory  is  gainsaid  by  the 
fact,  that  the  orientation  is  as  often  to  the  south 
as  to  the  north.  Until  some  better  explanation  is 
offered,  it  may,  perhaps,  be  allowed  to  hold,  that 
orientation  has  had  no  jE^raver  origin  than  careless- 
ness, ignorance,  or  indifference. 

OOaiFLAMME,  or  AURIFLAMME  (Lat  auH 
flammoL,  flame  of  gold),  a  banner  which  originally 
belonged  to  the  Abbey  of  St  Denis,  and  was  borne 
by  the  Counts  of  Vexin,  patrons  of  that  church, 
but  which,  after  the  county  of  Vexin  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  French  crown,  became  the  principal 
banner  of  the  kingdom.  It  was  charged  with  a 
saltire  wavy  or,  with  rays  issuing  from  the  centre 
crosswrkys.  In  later  times  the  oriflamme  became 
the  insignia  of  the  French  infantry.  The  name 
seems  also  to  have  been  given  to  other  flags ;  accord- 
ing to  Sir  N.  H.  Nicolas,  the  oriflamme  borne  at 
Agincourt  was  an  oblong  red  flag  split  into  five 
puts. 

ORI'GENES  (Origen),  called  AdamafUinoa  or 
Ohaichentezos — both  epithets  expressive  of  his  firm- 
ness of  purpose  and  iron  assiduity — one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  the  early  Christian  writers,  *  the  father 
of  biblical  criticism  and  exegesis  in  Christendom,' 
was  bom  185  a.  d.,  at  Alexandria,  where  his  father, 
Leonidas,  seems  to  have  held  some  superior  office 
in  the  church.     O.  received  a  most  hheral  educa- 
tion.   While,  on  the  one  hand,  he  was  initiated  at 
an  early  age  into  Hellenic   science   and  art,  the 
teachings  of  Christianity  were  instilled   into    his 
mind  by  men  like  Pantsenus  and  Clemens  of  Alex- 
andria.   During  the  persecutions  against  the  Chria- 
tians,  instituted  by  Sept  Severus,  his  father  died 
the  death  of  a  martyr,  and  0.,  then  17  years  of  age, 
woidd  have  shared  it  of  his  own  free  will,  had  not 
his  mother,  left    unsupported  with    six  ofaildreiL, 
prevented  hinL     After  a  short  time  his  zeal  and 
erudition  procured  for  him  the  office  of  catechist 
in  the  Alexandrian  church ;  but  no  salary  beii:g 
aflSxed  to  it,  he  was  fain  to  dispose  of  his  mncV 
loved  collection   of  classical   authors   for  a  daily 
stipend  of  four  oboli  (2d. )  for  several  years.  His  var»  ts 
were  extremely  limited,  and  his  asceticism  led  hink 
even   to  self-mutilation   (in    accordance  with  the 
view  he  took  of  Matt  xix.  12) :  an  act  for  which. 
he  afterwards  expressed  the  deepest  sorrow,  and 
which  became  a  dangerous  weapon  in  the  hands 
of   his    antagonists.      Not   a  few  of  his    hearen 
bein^  masters  of  Greek  (Neoplatonic)  philosophy^ 
0.,  in  order  to  ward  off  more  successfully  £beir 
attacks  upon  his  doctrines,  and  to  combat  them 
on  their  own  ground,  applied  himself  particularly 
to   this    science,    and    Ammonius    Saccaa    himself 
is  said  to  have  been  his   teacher.      JVom    this 


ORIGEN£S->ORIGmAL  SIN. 


period  also   may  be  dated   O.'s   transition  from 
uiiooiiscious  to    conficioas    belief.      He   examined 
henceforth,  with  aa  little  prejudice  aa  possible,  all 
the  different  systems  of  human  speculations  that 
eame  noder  his  notice  during  the  many  journeys 
he  undertook,  proceeding  on  the  principle  *  that  we 
are  not,  under  the  pretence  of  piet^,  to  pin  our  faith 
oa  that  which  is  held  by  the  multitude,  and  which 
therefore  alone  seems  to  stand  on  high  authority, 
bat  on  that  which  results  through  examination  and 
lo^'cal  conclusions  from  established  and  admitted 
truths.*    This  liberality  of  his  mind  and  doctrines 
oould  not  fail,  on  the  one  hand,  to  bring  about 
many  conversions  to  the  faith,  as  he  taught  it, 
both  among    '  pagans '  and   *  heretics,'  the  latter 
chiefly  of  the  6n<«tic  sects ;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
to  raise  an  outcry^  among  less  liberal  professors  and 
teachers  of  the  faith,  who  had  not  been  so  successful 
in  their  labours.    What  gave  the  greatest  offence  in 
hia  teachings  was  his  way  of  ez^aiuiujg,  after  the 
manner  of  the  Midrash,  known  to  him  through 
the  Jewish  masters  (from  whom,  at  an  advanced 
age,  he  had  also  learned  Hebrew),  allegorically  and 
•Tmbolically  that  which  in  the  Scripture  warred 
with  the  common  human  understanding,  or  seemed 
reptignant  in  manner  or  matter.   Furthermore,  while 
upholding  all  the  ethical  portions  of  the  Bible,  he 
rejected  a  great  deal  of  its  supiK>sed  historical  and 
legal  contents   for  all  purposes,  save,  perhaps,  as 
starting-points  for  homiletics.     '  What  edification,' 
he  says,  '  could  we  find  in  literally  interpreting  the 
story  of  Abraham's  first  telling  Abimelech  a  lie, 
and  then,  with  Sarah's  consent,  handing  her  over 
to  him  and  prostituting  her?'     As  to  the  discre- 
pancies in  the  different  gosiiels  respecting  the  life 
of  Christ,  he  Ba3rs:  *One  of  two  only  is  possible. 
Either  these  things  are  true  in  a  epiritival  sense  only, 
or  as  long  as  the  discrepancies  are  not  satisfactorily 
explained  away,  we  cannot  believe  in  the  gospels 
being  dictated  by  the  Holy  Ghost,   and  redacted 
under  the  influence  of  his  inspiration.' 

In  211  he  went  to  Rome,  but  soon  afterwards, 
at  the  wish  of  Bishop  Demetrius,  he  retiunied  to 
Alexandria,  which,  however,  he  was  obliged  to  leave 
precipitately,  and  to  seek  refuge  from  certain 
popular  tumults  in  Palestine.  Here  the  bishops 
received  him  with  great  honours,  and  desired  him 
to  institute  public  lectures,  in  which  they  them- 
selves became  hearers.  Recalled  again  by  the 
Alexandrian  bishop,  he  was  sent  to  Achaia  lo 
combat  certain  heresies  that  had  broken  out  there. 
The  wrath  that  had  silently  been  gathering  against 
him  found  its  first  vent  when,  in  228,  the  bishops 
assembled  in  Csesarea  in  Palestine  consecrated  him 
presbyter.  The  Bishop  of  Alexandria  took  umbrage 
at  this  outrage,  as  he  called  it,  on  his  authority. 
Two  oooncils  were  convoked,  and  in  232,  0.  was 
deprived  of  his  priestly  office,  and  excommunicated, 
the  principal  heresy  charged  against  him  being  his 
denial  of  eternal  punishment.  Yet  the  churches  of 
the  East  remained  faithful  to  Imn.  Palestine,  Arabia, 
Phoenicia,  and  Achaia  remained  in  constant  com- 
mimication  with  him  ;  and  men  like  Gregory  Thau- 
maturgos  (q.  ▼.),  Athenodoros,  and  others  remained 
or  became  bis  faithful  disciples  ever  after,  while  the 
Bishop  of  Cffiearea  allowed  him  openly  to  expound 
the  Scripture  in  his  church.  The  persecutions  under 
Maximiuns  again  forced  him  to  seek  refuge  for  two 
yean  in  Oapnadocia.  Returning  under  Goraianus,  he 
tesumed  his  labours  and  journeys,  until,  when  Decius 
aioended  the  throne,  he  was  seized,  imprisoned, 
and  tortured  for  his  fa^th.  He  did  not  survive  his 
■nfferiogii  long,  but  died,  in  254,  at  Tyre,  where  his 
tomb,  near  the  high-altar  of  the  cathedral,  was 
•hewn  for  many  centuries,  imtil  it  was  destroyed 
daring  the  Cmsado. 


The  number  of  his  works  it  stated  by  Epiphaniw* 
and  Rufinus  to  have  exceeded  6000,  and  although 
this  is  probably  only  meant  as  an  exaggerated  round 
number,  yet  tihe  amount  of  writings  that  issued 
from  his  always  busy  brain  and  hands  cannot 
but  have  been  enormous.  Seven  secretaries  and 
seven  copyists,  aided  by  an  uncertain  number  of 
young  girls,  are  by  Eusebins  reported  to  have  been 
always  at  work  for  him.  The  great  bulk  of  his 
works  is  lost ;  but  among  those  that  have  survive^l, 
the  most  important  by  far  are  his  two  editions  of 
the  Old  Testament,  called  respectively  Tetrapla 
(/ottj-fold)  and  Hexapla  (nxfold).  See  Hexapla. 
The  labour  bestowed  upon  this  work  must  have 
been  immense,  and  no  less  than  twenty-eight  yeiirs 
is  0.  supix)sed  to  have  been  engaged  upon  it.  On 
its  importance  for  biblical  criticism  it  is  needless 
to  enlarge  her&  Fn^pients  only  have  come  down 
to  us,  the  original  havmg  been  lost  during  the  siege 
and  capture  of  Csesarea  by  the  Arabs  ;  and  the 
Greek  as  well  as  the  Roman  clergy  having  almost 
laid  an  interdict  upon  the  copying  of  any  of  0.*s 
much  sus|)ected  writings.  Montfaucon  has  collected 
and  edited  these  fragments  (Hexaplorum  Orujenis 
qucB  tupersunt^  2  vols.  foL  Paris,  1714),  which 
w;ere  re-edited  by  C.  P.  Bahrdt  (1769—1770).  Of 
his  other  partly  extant,  partly  lost  works,  the 
chief  are  his  books  *  On  the  Resurrection,'  *  On 
Martyrdom,'  'Eight  Books  against  Celsus,'  *0n 
Prayer,'  besides  Epistles,  &;a  He  further  revised 
and  enlarged  Philo's  Lexicon  of  Hebrew  Names 
(Hebraicorum  Nominum  8,  Scriptural  ei.  Mennur- 
arutm  Interpreiatio),  whence  it  has  often,  together 
with  many  other  spurious  works,  been  ascribed  to 
him  exclusively.  Little  also  has  survived  of  his 
many  exegetical  writings,  conmientaries,  brief  notes, 
and  homilies  on  both  Testaments.  The  best  editions 
of  his  collected  works  are  by  Be  la  Rue  (Rudens), 
(Paris,  1733- 1769,4  vols.  foL) ;  by  OberthUr  (Wura- 
bui^,  1785 — 1794,  15  vols.);  and  by  Lommatzsch, 
whidi  is  critical  and  more  complete  (Berlin,  1831), 
&c 

ORrGINAL  SIN.  According  to  this  theological 
tenet,  when  stated  in  its  extremest  form,  men 
come  into  the  world  with  the  reason  and  will 
utterly  corrupt.  This  corruption  originated  in  the 
fall  of  Adam,  and  has  been  mherited  equally  by  all 
his  posterity,  so  that  the  natural  man  is  not  only 
incapable  of  knowing  and  loving  God  and  goodness, 
but  IS  inclined  to  oontenm  God  and  pursue  evil ;  on 
which  account  the  anger  of  God  has  subjected  him 
to  temporal  death,  and  destined  him  to  everlasting 
punishment  in  hell  The  doctrine  is  founded  on  the 
account  of  the  fall  given  in  Genesis,  and  on  some 
passages  in  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Galatians,  and  in 
that  to  the  Romans ;  which  passages,  however,  are 
held  by  others  to  contain  no  such  doctrine;  and 
indeed  nearly  every  point  in  the  history  of  the 
doctrine  is  the  subject  of  as  much  controversy  as 
the  details  of  the  doctrine  itself.  The  early  church, 
it  is  maintained  by  one  school,  was  unacquainted 
with  it;  and  the  most  orthodox  admit  that  tho 
doctrine  had  not  at  that  time  been  fully  developed. 
The  Christian  fathers,  Justin  Martyr,  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  Ireneeus,  and  others,  ascribe  to  the 
natural  man  a  certain  ability  to  know  God  and 
choose  the  good,  they  are  said  to  reject  dis- 
tinctly all  pro])agatiou  of  sin  and  guilt,  and  even 
to  refer  human  mortality  not  to  Adam's  sin, 
but  solely  to  the  constitution  of  the  body.  Origen, 
on  the  other  hand,  in  opposition  to  the  Gnos- 
tics and  Manichees,  who  ^imded  the  sinful- 
ness of  men  on  the  connection  of  the  soul  with 
a  material  body,  asserted  that  the  sinfulness  was 
in  existence  at  birth,  but  ascribed  the  develoj)- 
ment  of  actual  sins  and  their  consequences  not 

iir 


ORIGINAL  SIN. 


to  prop^gation,  but  to  the  moral  operation  of 
precept  and  example.  He  accordiuffly  found  the 
cause  of  sin  to  be  in  the  freedom  of  the  wUl,  the 
abuse  of  which  he  explained  partly  by  the  operation 
tif  evil  powers,  partly  by  the  predominance  of  the 
sensuous  part  of  man^s  nature  over  the  rational 
mind.  The  orthodox  teachers  of  the  Greek  Church, 
i^gain,  held  that  Adam,  by  the  fall,  rendered  himself 
and  oil  his  posterity  mortal,  but,  according  to  the 
less  rigid  schools,  they  looked  for  the  origin  of  sin 
in  the  freedom  of  the  will  acted  upon  by  the  flesh, 
and  by  demoniacal  influences,  and  ascribed  to  man 
the  power  of  resisting  every  evil  if  he  chose.  These 
views,  it  is  alleged,  continued  to  be  held,  in  sub- 
stance, by  the  Christian  teachers  in  the  east,  and 
were  fully  developed  by  Chrysostom ;  but  Catholic 
writers  maintain  that  in  all  this  Chrysostom  and 
the  otiier  Greek  Fathers  are  speaking  not  of  the 
natural  powers  of  the  will,  but  oi  the  wUl  as  assisted 
by  divine  grace. 

The  doctrine  took  another  shape  in  the  Latin 
Church.  Tertullian,  foUowiug  up  his  dogma  of 
Traducianism,  according  to  which  the  child  derives 
not  only  its  body  but  its  soul  from  its  parents, 
maintained  that  sinfulness  had  been  propagated, 
alona;  with  mortality,  from  Adam  to  all  mankind ; 
he  thus  defended  an  originU  vUium,  without  con- 
ceiving it  as  actual  sin  and  denying  all  capacity  for 
good  in  man.  This  view  was  followed  bv  Cyprian, 
Ambrose,  and  even  by  Augustine  in  his  earlier 
writings.  It  was  only  during  his  controversy  with 
Pe^agius  and  Cttlestius  that  Augustine  came  to 
develop  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  into  the  full 
form  given  above.  His  great  influence  in  the 
western  churches  procured  the  condemnation  of  his 
op])onents,  the  Pelagians  (q.  v.),  as  heretics  at  the 
Councils  of  Carthage  (412,  416.  418),  although  the 
Councils  of  Jerusalem  and  Diospolis  (415)  decided 
in  their  favour.  Building  upon  the  foundation  of 
Traducianism,  Augustine  kuLd  down  that  every 
natural  man  is  in  the  power  of  the  devil,  and  upheld 
the  justice  of  this  as  a  punishment  for  the  share 
wliich  the  individual  had  in  Adam's  transgression  ; 
for  as  all  men  existed  in  the  loins  of  Adam,  all 
sinned  with  him.  Pelagius,  on  the  other  hand,  who 
rejected  the  Traducian  theory,  denied  that  sin  is 
propagated  physically,  or  that  the  fall  of  Adam  has 
exercised  any  prejudicial  influence  on  the  moral 
constitution  of  nis  posterity ;  and  maintained  that 
all  men  are  bom  in  a  state  of  innocence,  possess  the 
power  of  freewill,  and  may  therefore  live  without 
sin.  He  and  his  followers  objected  to  Augustine, 
that  his  doctrine  was  in  direct  contradiction  to 
clear  passages  of  Scripture,  and  that  it  made  Grod 
the  originator  of  evil  and  an  unrighteous  judge. 

Great  as  was  the  respect  for  Augustine,  the  harsh- 
ness of  his  doctrine  was  too  shocking  to  the  natural 
sentiments  to  meet  with  lasting  acceptance.  In  the 
eastern  church  it  never  gained  a  footing,  and  even 
in  the  west  it  met  with  opposition.  In  Gaul,  John 
Cassian,  Faustus,  Amobius,  and  others,  took  up  a 
view  midway  between  the  views  of  Augustine  and 
Pelagius,  from  which  they  were  cidled  Semi- 
pelagians.  They  attributed  to  man  a  capacity  for 
goo<l  which  makes  it  possible  for  him,  not  indeed  to 
merit  the  favour  of  God,  but  to  make  himself 
canable  of  receiving  it ;  and  maintained  that  it  is 
only  a  certain  inborn  weakness  that  men  inherit 
from  the  flrst  pair.  The  Semipelagian  doctrine 
found  acceptance  especially  among  the  monks  (in 
particular  among  the  Franciscans),  continued  to 
prevail  during  %e  middle  ages,  and  among  the 
scholastics  found  partisans  in  the  Scotists.  Augus- 
tine's views  also  found  advocates  among  the  scho- 
lastic phil<  wphers,  who,  however,  added  to  it  many 
limitation.'  and  explanationa.  Regarding  the  way 
118 


in  which  original  tin  is  ]^ropagated,  many  held  by 
the  Traducian  theoi^,  while  omers  conceived  it  to 
be  a  sort  of  infection  of  the  soul  by  the  defiled 
body,  or  an  imputation  of  guilt  to  all  partakers  of 
the  human  nature.  Petrus  Lombardus  adhered  to 
Augustine.  Anselm  of  Canterbury  conceived  original 
sin  to  be  a  want  of  requisite  righteousness,  and 
thought  that  this  want  was  imputed  to  all  the  pos- 
terity of  Adam,  although  not  in  the  same  degree  aa 
if  they  had  themselves  sinned.  Anselm's  view  vras 
adopted  by  Duns  Scotus,  while  Bonaventura  aud 
Thomas  Aquinas  sought  to  combine  the  opinions  of 
Anselm  and  Augustine.  Anselm  had  thought  that 
his  theory  afforded  a  better  explanation  of  the 
sinless  birth  of  Christ;  aud  about  the  I2th  c  it 
be^gan  to  be  maintained  that  Mary  also  was  con- 
ceived without  sin. 

The  reformers  of  the  16th  e.  everywhere  made 
original  sin  a  leading  doctrine,  and  thus  ivere 
enabled  to  combat  effectively  the  Roman  Oatholic 
doctrine  of  the  merit  of  works ;  while  the  Catholic 
Church,  in  the  fifth  session  of  the  Council  of  Trent, 
stamped  what  the  Calvinist  school  would  call 
Semipelagianism  as  the  orthodox  doctrine^  The 
reformed  churches  agreed  with  the  Lutheran  on 
the  point  of  original  sin.  In  this  they  followed 
Calvin  rather  than  Zwingli,  who  looked  upon  it  as 
an  evil  or  disease,  and  as  becoming  sin  only  when  a 
commandment  is  transgressed.  l£e  Arminians  and 
Socinians,  on  the  other  hand,  denied  the  doctrine 
of  hereditary  sin  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense.  The 
Mennonites  spoke  of  a  loss  of  the  divine  image  in 
consequence  of  the  fall  of  Adam,  but  still  asserted 
the  freewill  of  man.  The  Quakers  rejected  the 
name  of  original  sin  altogether ;  they  held  that  there 
is  a  germ  of  sin  in  man,  from  which  imputable  sin 
springs,  and  that,  however  corrupt,  he  has  still  the 
susceptibihty  of  being  awakened  to  the  inward 
light.  The  whole  Protestant  Church  held,  besides, 
that  Jesus  alone  was  free  from  sin,  both  ori^nal 
and  actual.  The  Roman  Catholic  Church  ascribed 
this  attribute  also  to  Mary,  though  no  public  and 
distinct  declaration  on  the  point  was  given  by  tba 
Council  of  Trent.    See  Immaculate  Concefttox. 

The  harshness  of  the  Augustinian  dogma  led,  at 
the  time  of  the  Reformation,  to  keen  controversies ; 
Erasmus  disputed  the  point  with  Luther,  and  would 
only  admit  a  weakness  of  the  freewill  arising  from 
original  sin,  and  by  no  means  a  complete  anni- 
hilation of  it.  From  that  time  the  doctrine  in 
Germany  continued  to  be  variously  attacked  and 
defended.  It  has  been  discussed  by  the  schools  of 
philosophy.  Kant  shewed  the  moral  signification 
of  the  dogma,  and  made  out  original  sin  to  be  a 
propensity  to  evil  inherent  in  man.  The  Schelling- 
Hegel  school,  again,  explained  it  as  the  finite  nature 
witn  which  the  individual  is  bom.  In  recent  times, 
the  theologians  of  the  old  Lutheran  and  strictly 
orthodox  tendencies,  such  as  Olshausen,  Tholuck, 
Hengstenberg,  and  others,  have  come  forward 
as  Mherents  and  defenders  of  the  Augustinian 
doctrine;  while  the  more  liberal  theologians 
modify  it  in  various  ways,  not  admitting  any  moral 
inborn  corruption  arising  from  the  fall,  bnt  only  a 
weakness  in  man*s  nature  for  the  knowhdge  ai<d 

Serformance  of  good.  How  far,  aud  wiih  what 
ifferences,  the  extreme  Augustiniau  view  i»  held 
by  the  churches  of  England  and  Scotland,  will  be 
seen  from  the  following  extracts  from  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  and  the  WestmiMter  Confession  qf 
Faith. 

From  Art.  ix.  of  the  Thirty-nine  ArtidtB :  *  Ori- 
ginal sin  standeth  not  in  the  following  of  Adam 
(as  the  Pelagians  do  vainly  talk) ;  but  it  is  tiie 
fault  and  corruption  of  the  nature  of  every  man, 
that  naturally  is  engendered  of  the  offspring  of 


ORIHUELA--OBION. 


Adam,  vikerdyy  man  U  vtry  far  gone  from  original 

righteoiunesa,  and  is  of  hia  own  nature  inclined  to 

evil,  80  th^t  the  flesh  lusteth  always  contrary  to 

the  spirit ;  knd  therefore  in  every  person  bom  into 

the  world,  it  deaerveth  Grod's  wrath  and  damnation.' 

From  chap,  vi  of  the    WestmifuUr  Confession': 

*B^  this  sin'   (i.a,  the  eating  of   the  forbidden 

frut),  *  they'  (i  e.,  our  first  parents) '  fell  from  their 

orimal  righteonsness  and  communion  with  God, 

aoS  80  beoame  dead  in  sin,  and  wholly  defiled  in 

all  the  faculties  and  parts  of  soul  and  body.    They 

being  the  root  of  all  mankind,  the  spiilt  of  this 

Bn  was  imputed,  and  the  same  death  in  sin  and 

comipted  nature  conveyed  to  all  their  posterity, 

descending   from    them    by    ordinary    generation. 

From  this    original   corruption,   whereby   we   are 

utterly  indisposed,  disabled,  and  made  opposite  io 

oil  good,  and  whoUy  inclined  to  aU  eml,  do  proceed 

all  actual  transgressions.' 

ORIHUETjA,  an  ancient  town  of  Spain  in  the 
modem  province  of  Alicante,  and  36  miles  south- 
vest  of  the  city  of  that  name,  stands  od  l^e  banks 
of  the  Segura,  in  a  plain  remarkable  alike  for  its 
beauty  and  its  fertility.  It  is  long  and  straggling, 
while  its  palm-trees,  square  towers,  and  domes  give 
it  an  oriental  appearance.  It  contains  a  cathe<S:al, 
Bomerons  churcnes  and  convents,  barracks,  &c.  The 
manufactures  are  linen  goods  and  hats,  and  many 
com  and  ^  oil  mills  and  tanneries  are  in  operation. 
Olive  oil  is  very  extensively  made.  The  vegetation 
here  is  gigantic ;  the  oleanders  are  actual  trees.  O. 
has  been  possessed  by  Carthaginians,  Romans,  Moors, 
and  Spaniards  in  turn.    Pop.  16,50U. 

ORIXLON,  in  Fortification,  and  especially  in 
the  earlier  systems,  is  a  semicircular  projection  at 
the  shoulder  of  a  bastion,  intended  *to  cover  from 

the  observation  of  the 
enemy  the  guns  and 
defenders  on  the  flank, 
which,  with  such  a 
construction,  is  some- 
what retired  or  thrown 
back.  The  flank  thus 
protected  is  held  by 
many  distinguished 
engineers  to  be  most 
valuable  in  the  defence 
of  the  ditch,  in  clear- 
ing it  from  an  attack* 
ing  party,  or  from 
hostile  miners.  The 
retired  flank  is  sometimes  straight,  at  others  curved, 
u  in  the  figure.  The  oriUon  is  as  old  as  the  bastion, 
ind  is  found  in  the  works  of  Pagan  and  Speckle. 

ORINO'GO,  a  great  river  of  South  America,  flows 
through  Guiana  and  Venezuela,  and  reaches  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  south  of  Trinidad,  in  lat  8°  4fy  N. 
The  country  in  which  it  takes  its  rise  is  inhabited 
by  an  aboriginal  race  oaJled  the  Guaicas,  who  have 
hitherto  prevented  all  access  b^  foreigners  to  its 
8varces;  but  it  is  known  to  rise  in  the  Sierra 
Parime,  one  of  the  chief  mountain  chains  of  Guiana, 
Mar  kt  3'  iCy  N„  long.  64*  3(y  W.  It  has  been 
explored  by  Humboldt  to  the  village  of  E^meraldas 
(Ut  y  8*  N.,  lonff.  66"  6'  W.),  and  by  Schomburgk 
to  within  30  milet  of  its  source.  After  flowing 
west-south-west  20  miles  past  Esmeraldas  the  river 
hifarcates,  aud  the  southern  branch,  the  Cassiquiari 
(q.  v.),  flowing  sonth-west,  joins  the  Rio  Negro,  an 
affluent  of  the  Amazon.  From  this  point  the  0. 
flows  north-west  to  its  junction  with  tne  Guaviare, 
ibea  north-north-east  to  its  junction  with  the 
Apore,  after  which  it  flows  in  an  eastward  direction 
to  its  mouth.  Length  of  course,  1960  miles.  The 
head  of  aninteimpt^  navigation  is  at  the  confluence 


OriUon: 
«,  0,  oriHons;  b,  b,  retired  flanks 
(the  dotted   lines    shews    the 
original  bastion). 


of  the  0.  with  the  Apure,  777  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river.  Above  this  point  the  course  of 
the  river  is  interrupted  by  *raudals'  or  cataracts, 
of  which  those  of  Maypures  and  Atures  are  tb^ 
most  celebrated.  Its  principal  affluents  from  the 
left  are  the  Guaviare,  the  Vichada,  the  Meta,  and 
the  Apure ;  from  the  right,  the  Ventuare,  Caura, 
and  Caroni  The  0.,  which  is  joined  by  436  rivers, 
and  upwards  of  2000  streams,  drains  an  area 
(usually  stated  at  250,000  square  miles)  which, 
according  to  WappUu's  Republlhen  von  Sud-Amerika, 
may  be  estimated  at  650,000  square  miles.  It  b^ns 
to  form  its  delta  130  miles  from  its  mouth,  by 
throwing  off  a  branch  which  flows  northward  into 
the  Atlantia  Several  of  the  mouths  are  navigable, 
and  the  main  stream,  the  Boca  de  Navios,  is  divided 
by  a  line  of  islands  into  two  channels,  each  two 
miles  in  width.  Bolivar,  a  town  upwards  of  250 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river,  marks  the  head 
of  tide- water,  and  here  the  river  is  4  miles  wide  and 
390  feet  deep.  Below  the  junction  of  the  Apure  the 
character  of  the  scenery  seems  to  be  unifomv— 
forests  on  the  right  bank,  and  llanos  on  the  left. 

OmOLE  {Oriolus),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
Thrush  family  (Merulidce  or  Turdidce),  having  an 
elongated  conical  beak,  broad  at  the  base ;  the 
upper  mandible  ridged  above,  and  notched  at  the 
pomt ;  wings  of  moderate  size,  the  first  feather 
very  short,  the  third  the  longest ;  the  tail  of 
moderate  lencth,  and  rounded  ;  the  tarsus  not 
longer  than  the  middle  toe ;  the  outer  toe  joined 
at  its  base  to  the  middle  toe ;  claws  strong  and 
curved.  The  species  are  numerous,  aU  natives  of 
the  Old  World,  and  chiefly  of  the  warmer  parts 
of  it;  the  adult  males  generally  of  much  brighter 
plumage  than  the  females  and  young  males,  the 
prevalent  colour  yellow.  Only  one  species  is  found 
m  Europe,  the  Goldeit  O.  (0.  gaibuia),  pretty  com- 
mon in  Italy  and  some  other  parts  of  Europe,  but 
a  rare  summer  visitant  of,  England,  and  never  seen 
in  Scotland,  although  it  occasionally  breeds  in  the 
south  of  Sweden. — Xhe  name  O.  is  still  very  com- 
monly given  to  the  Baltimore  Bird  (q.  v.)  and  other 
American  birds  of  the  Starling  family,  the  chief 
resemblance  of  which  to  the  true  orioles  is  in 
colour. 

ORrOK,  in  Greek  Mythology,  was  a  gigantio 
hunter,  and  reputed  the  handsomest  man  in  the 
world.  His  parentage  is  differently  given.  Ao* 
cording  to  the  commonly  received  myth,  he 
was  tne  son  of  Hyrieus  of  fiyria,  in  Bceotia^ 
and  was  called  in  his  own  country  Kandaon. 
Another  account  makes  him  a  son  of  Posei* 
don  and  Euryale,  while  some  state  that  he  was 
Autochtlumos,  or  '  earth -bom.'  So  immense 
was  his  size,  that  when  he  waded  through  the 
deepest  seas  he  was  still  a  head  and  shoulders 
above  the  water;  and  when  he  walked  on  dry 
land,  his  stature  reached  the  clouds.  Once  on  a 
time  he  came  to  Chios,  in  the  ^j^ean  Sea,  where 
he  fell  in  love  with  Mpo  or  Merope,  daughter  of 
(Enopion.  He  cleared  the  isle  of  wild  beasts,  and 
brousht  their  skins  as  presents  to  his  sweetheart; 
but  ner  father  always  put  off  their  marria^ ; 
whereupon  0.,  one  day  giving  way  to  passion 
(when  under  the  influence  of  wine),  sought  to 
take  the  maiden  by  force.  (Enopion  now  called 
upon  Dionysus  (Bacchus)  for  help^  who  put  out 
the  eyes  of  the  inebriate  lover.  O.,  however, 
recovered  his  sight  in  Lemnos,  by  following  the 
advice  of  an  oracle,  and  returned  to  Chios  to  take 
vengeance  on  (Enopion.  Not  finding  him,  he  went 
to  Crete,  .where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life  hunting 
in  company  with  Artemis  (Diana).  The  cause  ana 
manner  of  nis  death  are  differently  related.  A  rtemis 

119 


OBION— ORISSA. 


say  some,  slew  him  with  an  arrow,  because  Eos, 
iimamed  by  his  beaaty,  had  carried  him  off  to 
Ortygia,  and  thereby  offended  the  gods.  Others 
aver  that  Artemis,  virgin-goddess  though  she  was, 
cherished  an  affection  .for  him,  that  made  her 
brother  Apollo  fiercely  indignant.  One  day,  pointing 
out  to  her  at  sea  a  black  object  floating  in  the 
water,  he  told  her  that  he  did  not  believe  she 
oould  hit  it.  Artemis,  not  recognising  her  favourite, 
drew  her  bow,  and  pierced  him  through  the  head ; 
a  third  myth  makes  him  find  his  death  from  the 
Sting  of  a  scorpion.  Asklepios  (.^cidapius)  wished 
to  restore  him  to  life,  bat  was  slain  by  a  bolt  of 
Zeus.  After  his  death,  O.  was  placed  with  his 
hound  among  the  stars,  where,  to  this  day,  the  most 
splendid  constellation  in  the  heavens  bears  his 
name. 

OBI'SSA,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Hindustan^ 
the  authentic  history  of  which  goes  back  to  473  A.D., 
extended  from  Ben^— a  i>art  of  which  it  included 
— on  the  N.,  to  the  banks  of  the  Godavari  on  the  S., 
and  from  the  coast  on  the  E.  to  the  river  Gondwana 
on  the  W.  From  its  remains  of  sculptures,  inscrip- 
tions,  &c.,  we  may  infer  that  its  early  civilisation 
was  high.  The  temple  of  tiie  sun  at  Kan$.rek — 
erected  about  the  12th  a — exhibits  carvings  repre- 
senting the  planets,  sculptured  figures  of  animals, 
&C.,  ¥^ich  shew  that  at  that  date  the  plastic  and 
mechanical  arts  were  in  a  more  advanced  state  in 
O.  than  they  were  in  England.  It  maintained  its 
position  as  an  independent  monarchy  till  155S, 
when,  its  royal  line  having  become  extinct^  it 
became  an  outlying  province  of  the  emnire  of  the 
Great  Mogul.  On  the  breaking  up  of  tms  empire, 
the  more  valuable  portions  of  O.  were  seized  by  the 
Nizam  of  Hydrabad  The  French,  who  had  taken 
possession  of  a  part  of  the  country  long  known  as 
the  Northern  Circars,  attempted  to  drive  the  Eng- 
lish (who  had  also  formed  commercial  settlements 
on  the  coast),  out  of  India.  The  result  of  the  contest 
for  supremacy  in  India  between  the  French  and 
English  is  well  known.  The  Mahrattas,  who  had 
seized  a  portion  of  0.  in  1740,  were  forced  to  sur- 
render it  to  the  English  in  1803.  The  soldiers  of 
the  East  India  Company  were  marched  into  O.  at 
the  commencement  of  the  present  century,  and  an 
engagement  was  subsequently  entered  into  between 
the  Company  and  the  native  chiefs  and  princes,  by 
which  the  former  bound  themselves  to  ^rform 
certain  services  for  the  country  (as  maintaining  the 
river-banks  in  good  repair),  while  the  latter  engaged 
to  pay  a  yearly  tribute.  Of  the  many  principalities 
into  which  0.  was  divided,  a  large  number  got  into 
arrears  with  the  government,  and  the  result  was 
that  numbers  of  the  estates  were  sold,  and  the 
government,  as  a  rule,  became  the  purchaser.  Much 
of  the  territory  originally  forming  a  portion  of  this 
kingdom  thus  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  British. 
The  ancient  0.,  which  existed  as  an  independent 
monarchy  for  four  centuries,  and  flourished  as  a 
principality  of  the  Mosul  empire  after  1558,  is  now 
tiardly  to  be  recognised  in  the  British  dejiendenc^ 
of  Outtack  (q.  v.),  within  the  limits  of  which  it  is 
compriaedi  The  country  is  traversed  by  a  branch 
of  the  Eastern  Ghauts  running  parallel  with  the 
coast.  The  hill-districts,  which  nowhere  present  an 
elevation  of  more  than  3000  feet,  are  inhabited  by 
the  Gonds,  the  Koles,  the  Sourahs,  and  the  Khonds. 
The  Khonds  are  believed  to  be  the  descendants  of 
the  aboriginal  inhabitants  of  the  country.  This  tribe 
occupied  an  area  extending  from  north  of  the  Maha- 
nad£,  south  to  the  banks  of  the  GodavarL  Their 
mountain-haunts  are  admirably  suited  for  defence, 
as  the  districts  which  they  inhabit  are  almost 
inaccessible ;  and  although  they  do  not  yet  ax)pear 
to  have  adopted  firearms,  they  manage  their  batUe- 

190 


axes  and  bows  and  arrows  with  an  adroitness  and 
courage  that  make  them  formidable  enemies.  The 
Khonds  are  a  totally  distinct  race  from  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  plains,  and  there  is  but  little  resem- 
blance between  them  and  the  other  hill-tribes,  the 
Gonds  and  Sourahs.  The  chief  peculiarities  of  the 
Khonds  are,  that  their  language,  which  is  quite 
distinct  from  those  of  the  nei^bouring  trib^  is 
not  in  the  least  understood  by  the  inhabitants  ci 
the  plains;  and  that  human  sacrifice  formed,  tfll 
within  the  last  few  yean,  one  of  the  distinguishing 
features  of  their  religion.  They  do  not  barter 
or  traffic,  and  all  commercial  transactions  are 
managed  for  the  Khonds  by  the  Panus,  who  are 
regarded  by  their  employers  as  an  inferior  race. 
There  are,  however,  no  caste  prejudices  among 
the  Khonds  such  as  generally  prevail  throughout 
the  plains  of  India.  Agriculture  and  war  are  the 
only  employments.  The  revolting  custom  of  human 
sacrifice  prevailed  amon^  the  nlhonds  from  the 
earliest  times,  although  it  was  not  till  1836  that 
the  attention  of  the  government  was  specially  cidled 
to  the  subject,  at  the  conclusion  of  an  insurrection, 
in  the  course  of  which  British  officers  had  been 
brought  into  contact  with  the  Hill  tribes.  The 
Khond  victims,  called  Meriah,  were  always  bought 
with  a  price,  sometimes  from  families  of  their 
own  tribes  who  had  fallen  into  poverty,  but 
generally  kidnapped  from  the  plains  by  miscreants 
of  the  Panu  race.  The  Menah  victuns  were  of 
both  sexes,  and  of  every  age;  tiiiough  adults 
were  held  in  the  highest  esteem,  because,  being 
the  most  costly,  they  were  supposed  to  be  more 
acceptable  to  the  deity.  The  object  of  the  sacrilice 
was  to  propitiate  the  earth-god;  and  abundant 
crops,  security  from  calamity,  and  general  prosperity 
were  supposed  to  be  insured  to  any  one  who  had 
cut  off  a  portion  of  the  flesh  of  the  human  victim, 
and  buried  it  in  his  farm.  The  consummation  of 
the  Meriah  sacrifice  was  often  attended  with  circum- 
stances  of  the  most  revolting  and  disgusting  cmdty. 
In  some  cases  the  event  was  preceded  by  a 
month's  feasting,  intoxication,  and  dancing  round 
the  Meriah.  On  the  day  before  the  sacritice,  the 
priest  thus  addressed  the  victim :  '  We  have  bought 
you  with  a  price,  and  did  not  seize  you ;  now  we 
sacrifice  you  according  to  custom,  and  no  sin  rests 
with  us.*  On  the  fduowing  day  the  victim  was 
made  senseless  from  intoxication,  and  then  suffo- 
cated ;  after  which  the  officiating  priest  cut  a 
portion  of  the  flesh  from  the  body,  and  buried  it  as 
an  offering  to  the  earth-god.  The  people,  following 
his  example,  hewed  the  flesh  from  the  bones,  and 
carried  the  bloody  trophy  to  their  distant  villages, 
where  it  was  buried,  ni  many  cases  the  victim 
was  not  intoxicated  before  sacrihoe ;  but  the  joints 
of  his  arms  and  legs  were  broken  with  a  hatchet^  in 
order  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  resistance.  In 
1837,  General  (then  Captain)  Campbell  was    ap- 

Sointed  assistant-collector  in  Ganjam,  the  adjoining 
istrict  in  the  plains,  and  with  varied  sncoees 
devoted  much  of  his  time  to  endeavouring  to  sup- 
press the  rite.  He  was  succeeded  in  1841  by  Major 
(then  Lieutenant)  Macpherson,  C.B.  Encouraged  by 
the  success  of  his  laboulv,  the  government  in  1845 
established,  under  Macpherson,  a  separate  agency  for 
the  suppression  of  Meriah  sacrifices  in  the  Hill 
tracts  of  0.,  in  which  he  was  succeeded,  in  1847,  bv 
Major-general  Campbell,  who  carried  on,  with 
undiminished  success,  the  good  work  commeooed 
b^  Macpherson,  pushing  his  inquiries  and  exerting 
his  authority  among  tnbes  unvisited  by  hia  pre- 
decessor; and  reports  have  been  sent  in  from  all 
narts  of  the  country,  stating  that  for  several  years 
nardly  any  Meriah  sacrifices  have  taken  place  in 
the  great  Hill  tract  of  Orisaai    In  the  year  1S52 


ORISTANO-ORKNBY  ISLANDa 


^1853,  sll  victims  retained  for  sacrifice  were 
demanded,  and  in  only  one  instance  had  the  demand 
to  be  followed  np  by  force.  The  practice  of  female 
infanticide,  in  tnis  district  at  one  time  dreadfully 
common,  to  which  attention  was  first  called  by 
Major  Macpherson,  has  now  also  become  almost 
vhoUy  suppressed. 

See  Report  by  Lieutenant  2PPher9on,  Calcutta, 
1941 ;  An  Account  of  the  Bdigion  of  the  Khonde  m 
Orig$a,  idem  in  the  Tyrone,  of  AtUU.  Societiee,  1851 ; 
Penonal  Narrative  of  Service  amongst  the  Wild 
Tribca  q^  Khondistan,  Major-Greneral  Campbell, 
1864;  UalcuUa  Review^  No&  IX.,  XL,  XV.,  and 
XX. ;  Kaye*s  Hietoiy  of  the  Administration  of  the 
E.  I,  Coy.,  1853  ;  Memoir:  Adminiatration  of  India 
during  Last  TTitrty  Tears,  1858  (London) ;  Indian 
Records — History  of  the  Rise  and  Progress  of  the 
Operations  for  the  Suppression  of  Human  Saerijice 
and  Female  Infanticide  in  the  HUl  Tra^cts  of  Orissa, 
Calcutta,  1854. 

CRIST A'NO,  a  town,  and  inferior  river  port  on 
the  west  coast  of  Sardinia^  66  miles  north-west  of 
Ca^liari.  It  stands  in  a  fruitful,  well-cultivated 
pUm,  ahoat  a  mile  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Tirso 
or  Oristano,  and  3  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf 
of  Oristano,  which  is  about  10  miles  in  length,  with 
a  breadth  of  5  miles.  It  is  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls  flanked  with  towers;  contains  a  cathedral 
viih  a  great  clock  tower,  the  most  conspicuous 
object  in  the  town ;  an  archbishop's  palace,  college, 
and  several  churches  and  convents.  It  carries  on 
manufactures  of  ironware,  cutlery,  and  a^cultural 
implements,  and  a  number  of  its  inhabitants  are 
eog^Lged,  in  the  tunny  fishery  on  the  coast.  Com, 
salt  fish,  and  the  wine  of  Vemaccia  are  exi)orted. 
In  winter  the  town  is  busy  and  lively ;  out  in 
nmuner  it  is  unhealthy,  and  during  that  season  all 
who  can  afford  to  do  so,  leave  it    fop.  5750. 

0RIZA3A,  a  town  of  Mexico,  in  the  state  of 
Vera  Cmz,  70  miles  west-south-west  of  the  town 
of  that  name,  and  25  miles  south  of  the  volcano  of 
Orizaba.  The  vicinity  is  unusually  fertile,  and  is 
ooTered  with  forests.  The  town  contains  numerous 
churches,  a  high  school,  and  an  extensive  cotton 
Bpinning-factory.  Coarse  cloths  and  tobacco  are 
lar^y .  manufactured,  and  there  is  much  general 
indos&y.     Pop.  15,000. 

ORKNEY  ISLANDS,  which,  with  Shetland, 
fonn  one  county,  separated  from  Caithness  by 
the  Pentland  Firth  (q.  v.),  lie  between  58"  41'  24" 
and  S©'  2^  2"  N.  lat,  and  between  2"  22*  2"  and 
y  25'  10"  W.  long. ;  and  are  73  in  number  at 
low-water,  of  which  28,  besides  Pomona,  or  the 
Mainland,  are  inhabited.  The  area  of  the  0.  I. 
ii  244*8  square  miles,  or  156,672  imperial  acres. 
The  surface  is  very  irregular,  and  the  land  is 
indented  by  numerous  arms  of  the  sea.  Previous 
to  the  middle  of  last  century,  the  agriculture  of 
Orkney  was,  in  more  than  an  ordinary  degree  for 
the  time,  in  a  primitive  state.  There  was  little  com- 
munication then  with  the  mainland,  and  improve- 
ments were  slowly  adopted.  The  spinning-wheel, 
for  instance,  was  not  introduced  there  for  half  a 
century  after  it  was  in  use  elsewhere.  Until  towards 
tbe  end  of  last  century,  little  advance  seems  to  have 
been  made  in  the  management  of  the  land,  the 
inhabitants  deeming  it  more  important  and  profit- 
able to  direct  their  attention  to  the  manufacture  of 
kelpu  They  used  to  suffer  periodically  from  bad 
seasons  and  violent  storms,  when  less  help  oonld 
be  afforded  to  tiiem  from  without.  In  1778,  a 
great  hurricane  of  four  hours'  duration  drove  the 
■te-spray  over  the  islands.  The  grain  crop  was 
in  consequence  sea-gusted,  and  rendered  almost 
woftibleasy  and  there  required  to  be  imported  18,000 


bolls  of  meal  and  here,  besides  other  articles,  costing 
£15,000,  or  nearly  twice  the  gross  rental  of  the 
country.  Orkney  was  formerly  divided  into  32 
parishes,  haying  8  parish  ministers.  It  now  con- 
tains 22  parishes,  forming  3  presbyteries  and  1 
synod.  There  are  also  about  30  congregations 
belonging  to  the  Free  and  United  Presbyterian 
Churches,  besides  3  Independent,  and  one  or  two 
others. 

The  temperature  of  Orkney  is  comparatively 
mild,  considering  its  northern  latitude.  This  arises 
partly  from  its  being  surrounded  by  the  sea,  but 
chiefly  from  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Gulf  Stream 
to  the  western  shores.  The  mean  temperature 
in  February,  the  coldest  month,  taking  a  series 
of  33  years  from  1826,  was  38",  and  in  July 
55°'14  Only  twice  duriiur  that  period  did  the  mean 
monthly  temperature  fall  below  the  freezing-point, 
in  February  1838  and  1855,  when  it  fell  to  31*  and 
31'''64;  and  during  the  same  period  it  was  never 
so  high  as  60°,  except  in  1852,  when  it  reached 
60° '64.  The  rain-fall  during  these  33  years  averaged 
36}  inchea  , 

The  carrying-trade  and  merchandise  of  Orkney 
have  greatly  increased  of  late  years.  The  exports 
rose  from  £49,308  in  1848  to  £181,483  in  1861.  The 
exports  are  chiefly  of  fish  and  agricultural  produce, 
of  which  cattle  are  the  principal 

The  number  of  acres  in  1857  under  srass  and  hay 
was  11,309,  and  under  tillage  38,293;  the  chief  crops 
being — wheat,  58  acres,  averaging  22  bushels  per 
acre;  bariey,  143  acres,  averaging  30  bushels  per 
acre;  here,  5533  acres,  averaging  29  bushels  34 
pecks  per  acre;  oats,  13,280  acres,  averaging  31 
bushels  per  acre ;  turnips,  4846  acres,  averaging  11 
tons  17  cwt.  per  acre ;  potatoes,  2329  acres,  averag- 
ing 4  tons  3  cwt.  per  acre.  The  number  of  horses 
was  3741 ;  cattle,  14,887 ;  sheep,  13,586 ;  swine, 
2749;  total  stock,  34,96a  The  number  of  occu- 
pants was  891. 

The  chief  towns  are,  Kirkwall  (q.  v.),  the  capital, 
and  Stromness,  in  which  there  are  3  distilleries, 
producing  upwards  of  20,000  gallons  of  whisky 
annually.  The  old  valued  rent  of  Orkney  and 
Shetland  was  £57,786  Scots,  of  which  about  two- 
thirds,  or  £38,500,  were  attributed  to  Orkney. 
The  valuation  of  Orkney,  exclusive  of  Kirkwall,  for 
the  year  1864,  was  £47,132,  3s,  Inhabited  houses, 
6064;  poi).  (1861)  32,395.  Constituency  returning 
a  member  of  parliament,  with  Shetland,  433. 

The  Orkneys,  under  the  name  Orcades  [whence 
the  modem  adjective,  Orcadian],  are  mentioned  by 
the  ancient  geographers,  Pliny,  Ptolemy,  Mela,  and 
by  other  classi^  writers,  but  of  their  inhabitants 
we  know  almost  nothing  till  the  dawn  of  the  Middle 
Ages.  The^  were  most  probably  of  the  same  stock 
as  the  British  Celts.  From  an  early  period,  how- 
ever, the  Norsemen  resorted  to  these  islands,  as 
a  convenient  spot  from  which  to  make  a  descent  on 
the  Scotch  and  English  coasts.  In  876,  Harald 
Haarfager  conquerea  both  them  and  the  Hebrides, 
During  the  greater  part  of  the  10th  c,  they  were 
ruled  DV  independent  Scandinavian  jarls  (earls), 
but  in  1098  they  became  formally  subject  to  the 
Norwegian  crown.  Thus  they  remained  till  1468, 
when  they  were  given  to  James  III.  of  Scotland  as 
a  security  for  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  Margaret 
of  Denmark.  The  islands  were  never  redeemed 
from  this  pledge ;  and  in  1590,  on  the  marriage  of 
James  L  with  the  Danish  Princess  Anne,  Denmark 
formally  resigned  all  pretensions  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Orkneys.  During  their  long  connecBon, 
however,  with  Norway  and  Denmark,  all  traces  of 
the  primitive  Celtic  population  disappeared,  and  the 
present  inhabitants  are  of  the  pure  Scandinavian 

stock. 

Ill 


0BLB-0RLEAN3. 


ORLB,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  oluii^ec  Inown 
noder  the  name  of  iub-ordJnaries,  said  to  be  the 
diminutive  o(  a  Bordoie  (q.  v.),  but  differing  from 
it  in  being  detached  from  the  sidea  of  the  shield. 
It  may  be  the  sole  charge  in  a  shield.  Or,  an  oris 
)[u(ek  waa  the  coat  home  by  John  BalioL    An  orle 


of  heraldic  ehorgea  of  any  kind  denote!  a  certain 

number  (generally  eight)  of  these  charges  placed  iu 
orle,  as  in  the  coat  of  the  old  Scottiah  family  of 
Oladstanes  of  that  Ilk  ;  argent,  a  savage'i  head 
oouped,  dietilting  drops  oC  blood  proper,  tJiereon  a 
bonnet  composea  of  bay  and  holly  leavea  all  proper, 
within  ao  orle  of  eight  martleta  aable. 

OBLHAN9,  on  important  commercial  town  of 
Franop,  capital  of  the  department  of  Loiret,  and 
tonnerly  capital  of  the  old  provioce  of  Orieannais, 
which  now  forma  the  greater  part  of  the  depart- 
menta  of  Loiret.  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Loir-et-Cher, 
is  aituated  on  the  right  bauk  of  the  Loire,  here 
oroased  by  a  bridge  of  9  arches,  and  is  7H4  miles 
•outh-soutb-west  of  Paria  by  railway.  Close  to  the 
city  is  the  Forest  of  0.,  one  of  the  largest  in  the 
country,  consiating  of  M,000  acres,  planted  with  oak 
and  other  valuable  trees.  0.  stands  on  the  verge  of 
k  magnificent  plain  alopiog  toward  the  Loire,  and 
watered  by  the  Loire  and  Loiret,  and  la  surrounded 
oo  the  land-aide  by  a  wall  and  dry  ditches,  on  either 
aide  of  which  there  are  pleasantly  shaded  boule- 
vards. Around  it  are  eight  prosperous  and  populaos 
•aburbs.  Among  ita  principal  buildiuga  are  the 
cathedral,  with  two  lofty  and  ele^^ant  towera,  one  of 
the  tiDeat  Gothic  edilices  in  the  country ;  the  tower ; 
biahop's  residence ;  the  houses  of  Joan  of  Arc,  of 
Agnes  Sorrel,  of  Diane  de  Poitiers,  of  Francois  I., 
of  Fothier ;  the  churchaa  and  hospitals,  which  are 
numerous;  the  mJiaff^  theatre,  &c.  The  towo  con- 
tains three  statues  of  Joan  of  Arc,  of  which  the 
eqneatrian  one  was  inaugurated  in  1SS5.  The  situa- 
tion of  the  town  has  many  commercial  advant^ca, 
arising  from  its  ponition  on  a  navieahle  river,  on 
Ibiea  of  railway  which  connect  it  with  Paris  and  the 
great  trading  towns  in  the  south  of  France,  and  on 
the  canal  which  connects  the  Loire  with  the  Seine. 
Manufactures  of  hosiery,  cotton  and  linen  goods, 
reAned  sugar,  vinegar,  bluacht^d  wax,  leather,  <kc.,  are 
carried  on.and  the  trade  is  chieflyin  atockinga,  sheep- 
■kins,  wine,  brandy,  corn,  and  sugar.     Pop.  80,798. 

0.,  originally  called  Oenabujn,  afterwards  Aure- 
liani  (probably  from  the  Emperor  Aurelian),  of 
which  the  modern  name  is  only  a  corruption, 
was  besieged  by  Attila  in  4S1,  bat  relieved  by  the 
Bomans,  who  here  defeated  Attila.  It  afterwards 
passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Franks,  was  taken  by 
the  Northmen  in  6ij5,  and  again  in  865.  In  1428, 
it  was  besieged  by  the  English  under  the  Duke  <rf 
Bedfotd,  but  was  delivered  from  the  besiegeia  by 
ihe  ins|iiritiDg  exertions  of  Joan  of  Arc  (q.  v.), 
who  on  this  account  ia  also  named  the  Maid  of 
Orleana.  During  the  religious  war*  of  the  16tb  o., 
0;  suffered  severely. 

ORLEANS,  HoDSR  or.    See  Bockbon. 

ORLEANS,  Jkan  Baptistb  Oigros,  Duo  n', 
tilird  son  of  Henry  IV.  of  France  and  Mary  de 
Medici ;  waa  bom  at  Fontoiuebleao,  2Sth  April  ItiOa 


He  possessed  tolerable  abilities,  but  Ms  education 

was  neglected.  On  his  marriage  with  Marie  of  Bour- 
bon, Duchess  of  Montpeniier,  m  1626,  he  received  the 
duchy  of  Orleans  as  appanage.  His  wife  soon  died, 
leaviog  one  daughter,  the  celebrated  Mademoiselle 
de  Mootpenaier.  His  brother,  Louis  XIII.,  regarded 
him  with  dialie  as  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
the  queen  having  no  children ;  and  the  treatment 
which  he  received  at  the  hands  of  the  king  and  of 
Richelieu,  led  him  to  join  with  his  mother  in 
attempting  the  overthrow  of  that  minister.  He 
left  the  court  with  a  number  of  other  great 
nobles  in  February  1631 ;  sought  the  support  of 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  whose  sister  he  married ; 
and  raised  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands  a  corps  of 
SOOO  men,  at  the  head  of  which  he  croseed  the 
French  frontier,  assnniiDg  the  title  of  Lieutenant- 
general  of  the  Kingdom;  butwas  completely  defeated 
by  Marshal  Schomberg  at  Caatelnaudary,  and  lied  tu 
the  Duke  of  Lorraine,  whom  he  thereby  involi-ed  in 
ruin.  In  1634,  however,  he  returned  to  the  French 
court,  fiicheliau  sougbt  to  have  his  marriage  with 
Marguerite  of  Lorraine  declared  invalid,  but  after  a 
long  stni^le,  and  much  4i^>iting  among  jurists 
and  theologians,  its  validity  was  sustained.  The 
duke  was,  however,  again  obliged  to  leave  Franca 
in  conseqnenca  of  freeh  intrigues  against  Bicbolieu. 
After  Richelieu's  death,  a  reconciliation  was  effected 
between  him  and  his  brother,  the  king,  by  the 
ministers  Mazarin  and  Chavigny;  and  Luuis  XIIL 
appointed  him  Lieutenant-general  of  the  kingdom 
during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.  Mazarin  and 
the  queen-mother,  Anne  of  Austria,  attempting  to 
BSBume  all  power  to  themaelves,  the  duke  pl»oed 
himself  at  the  head  of  the  Fronde  (q.  v. ) ;  bat  with 
his  usnal  vacillating  weakness  and  aclfiah  sacri- 
fice of  his  friends,  soon  made  terms  again  with  the 
court  Yet,  when  Mazarin  returned  from  bauisb- 
ment  in  1652,  the  duke  again  assembled  troops  for 
the  Prince  of  Cond6,  upon  which  account,  after  the 
disturhauces  were  ended,  he  waa  confined  to  hia 
castle  of  Blols,  where  he  died  on  2d  February  1660. 
He  left  three  daughters  by  his  second  marriage. 

ORLEANS,  NEW.    See  Nkw  Orleans. 

ORLEANS,  Phtlippb,  Ddc  d',  regent  of  France 
daring  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.,  w.ia  the  son  of 
Philippe.  Due  d'Orleaus,  and  the  grandaoo  of  Louis 
X[II.,audwasborn4thAueuBt  1674  He  possessed 
excellent  talents,  and  made  unusual  attoi  amenta 
both  in  science  and  belles  lettres ;  but  his  tutor. 
Cardinal  Dubois  (q.  v.),  did  not  scrapie  to  minister 
to  the  strong  passions  of  the  young  jiriDoe,  and  exer- 
cised a  moat  pernicious  inUuence  over  him.  He  gav« 
himselF  up  to  debauchery.  The  king  oompelled  nim 
to  marry  Mademoiselle  de  Blois,  his  daughter  by 
Madame  de  Monteapan.  He  astonished  and  alarmed 
the  court  by  pn^testing  aguost  his  exclusion  by  the 
teetament  of  Charles  II.  ham  all  right  of  succeasion 
to  the  throne  of  Spain,  and  by  the  attention  which 
he  immediately  began  to  give  to  military  and 
political  affairs.  Hu  military  talents,  however,  led  ^ 
to  his  employment  in  the  wars  in  Italy  and  tn 
Spain  ;  but  his  presence  in  Modiid  after  his  victories 
was  regarded  with  apprehenaion  both  by  Philip  V. 
and  by  Louis  XIV.  He  hod,  indeed,  formed  the 
design  of  taking  possession  nC  the  Spanish  throne 
for  himself.  In  consequence  of  this,  he  lived  for 
some  years  in  complete  exile  from  the  court,  and 
much  dreaded  by  it ;   a^iendb^  hia  time  both  ia 


ORLBANS—ORME'S  HEAD. 


The  king  refoaed  an  investigation  which  the  duke 
demand^    Louis,  having  legitimised  his  sons,  the 
Dake  of  Maine  and  the  Count  of  Toulouse,  appointed 
the  Duke  of  Orleans  only  president  of  the  regency 
and  not   regent,  giving  the   guardianship  of   his 
youthful  heur  and  the  command  of  the  household 
^oops  to  the  Duke  of  Maine ;  but  all  this  was  set 
ande  at  his  death,  and  the  Duke  of  Orleans  became 
sole  regentb    He  was  popular,  and  his  first  measures 
increaMd  his  popularity;  but  the  financial  affairs 
of  the  kingdom  were  perplexing,  and  the  regent's 
adoption   <3   the   schemes   of    Law  (q.  v.)   led  to 
dinfftrons  results.    Meanwhil^  on  the  26th  Au^^st 
1718,  he  held  the  celebrated  Lit  de  jtutice,  in  which 
he  prohibited  the  parliament  of  Paris  from  meddling 
intk  financial  or  political  affairs,  and  declared  the 
legitimised  sons  of  Louis  XIV.  incapable  of  succeed- 
ing to  the  throne.    Dubois,  who  still  possessed  an 
umappy   influence  over  his  former  pupili  became 
prime-minister,  and  eventually  ruler  of  France ;  the 
regent,  who  was  really  a  man  of  far  higher  abilities, 
neglecting  all  duties,  and  pursuing   a    course    of 
profligacy^  almost  unequalled  in  the  worst  instances 
of  antiqaity.    His  eldest  daughter,  the  Duchess  de 
Beny,  followed  his  example,  and  brought  herself  to 
m  early   grave.      Dubois,  wishing  to  be  made  a 
cardinal,   persuaded   the   regent    to    sacrifice   the 
Jansenic^  and  to  compel  the  parliament  in  1722  to 
recognise   the  bull    UnigenUus  (q.  v.).      After  the 
kings    coronation,   15th    February  172.3,  and  the 
death  of  Dubois  in  August,  the  Duke  of  Orleans, 
although    disliking    public    affairs,    consented    to 
heoome    prime-minister;     but    died    on    the    2d 
December  of  the  same  year,  physically  exhausted 
by  his  incessant  debauchery.    The  influence  of  his 
reh^ous  and  other  opinions,  and  the  example  of 
his  immoralities,  powerfully  tended  to  promote  that 
state   of    things    which   eventually  produced   the 
horrors  of  the  French  Revolution. 

ORLiEANS,  Loms  Philippe  Josxph,  Duo  d*, 
bom  April  13,  1747,  was  the  great-grandson  of  the 
preceding.  He  possessed  very  good  abilities ;  but 
early  fell  into  the  grossest  debaucheries,  in  which 
he  continued  to  the  end  of  his  career.  Louis  XVI. 
disliked  him  on  account  of  his  debased  character, 
and  the  queen  for  his  obtrusiveness.  He  became 
sradmJly  estranged  from  the  court,  sought  popu- 
urity  and  obtsiued  it,  and  embraced  the  cause  of 
American  independence.  In  the  Assembly  of 
Notables  in  1787  he  declared  against  the  ministe- 
rial proposals  ;  and  when  the  king  sought  to  over- 
oome  the  resifitance  of  the  parliament  by  a  Lit  de 
jvstieej  he  prot^tted  against  the  proceedinz.  Op  the 
assembly  m  the  States-General,  ne  took  the  po])ular 
side,  and  voted  with  the  extreme  left  in  the  National 
Assembly ;  seeking  at  the  same  time  to  please  the 
populace  by  profuse  expenditure,  with  the  hope  of 
oemg  made  lieutenant-general  of  the  Kingdom,  or 
perhaps  of  o{>ening  for  himself  a  way  to  the  throne. 
When  the  insurrectionary  movemente  began  in 
Paris  in  1789,  he  promoted  them  by  secret  agents 
and  money.  The  court  sent  him  on  an  ostensibly 
diplomatic  nussion  to  England,  from  which  he 
returned  after  more  than  six  months'  absence,  in 
July  1790,  and  unscrupulously  engaged  in  new 
intriffnes  hostile  to  the  king.  But  he  began  to  find 
tbat  he  himseU  was  made  the  mere  tool  of  a  party, 
who  availed  themselves  of  his  influence  and  wealth 
for  their  own  purposes,  and  this  discovery  cooled  his 
Tevoluttonary  fervour.  He  withdrew  from  the 
Jacobin  Club,  was  reconciled  to  the  kins,  and 
appeared  at  court ;  but  was  treated  with  such 
disrespect  by  the  courtiers,  that  he  turned  away, 
and  from  thi^  time  followed  in  blind  rage  the  stream 
of  the  revolution.  He  joined  Danton  s  party,  was 
cQDoeniedin  inrairectioDs,  disclaimed  all  pretensions 


to  the  throne,  renounced  his  titles,  assumed  th^ 
name  of  Philippe  Egalit^  was  addressed  as  CitizeN 
£g[alit6,  and  was  returned  by  the  dei)artment  of 
Seine  and  Mame  to  the  National  Convention,  in 
which  he  took  his  place  among  the  Mountain 
party.  He  voted  for  the  death  oTthe  king.  Deing, 
it  ia  said,  himself  threatened  with  death  by  the 
Jacobins  if  he  should  do  otherwise,  but  alleging  lua 
sense  of  duty  and  his  belief  that  every  one  who 
did  anything  contrary  to  the  sovereignty  of  the 
people  deserved  death.  The  vote  was  received  with 
a  ciy  of  disgust,  and  by  no  means  increased  the 
safety  of  his  own  position.  The  Mountain  party 
were  dissatisfled  with  him,  because  he  did  not  give 
up  the  whole  of  his  immense  wealth  for  party  pur- 
poses. After  the  desertion  of  his  son,  the  Duke  de 
Chartres  (see  Louis  Philippe),  the  decree  for  the 
imprisonment  of  all  the  Bourbons  was  applied  to 
him.  He  was  thrown  into  prison  with  his  family 
in  Marseille,  and  was  brought  before  the  tribunal  of 
the  department  of  Bouches  de  Rhdne  on  a  char^  of 
hi^  treason.  He  was  acquitted^but  the  Committee 
of  Public  Safety  immediately  brought  him  before  the 
Kevolutionary  Tribunal  in  Paris ;  and  on  the  6th  of 
November  1793  he  was  condemned,  and  on  the 
same  day  executed  amidst  the  execrations  of  the 
multitude  which  had  so  often  applauded  him. 

ORLEANS  CLOTH,  a  kind  of  stuff  made  for 
ladies*  dresses,  in  which  the  warp  is  of  cotton  and 
the  weft  of  worsted.  It  is  so  called  from  having 
been  first  made  at  Orleans  in  France,  but  it  is  now 
extensively  manufactured  at  Bradford  in  Yorkshire. 

ORLOFF,  or  ORLOV,  a  Russian  family  that 
first  rose  to  eminence  during  the  reign  of  Paul 
III.,  when  one  of  its  members,  Count  Qregori  0^ 
attracted  the  notice  of  the  Grand  Duchess  Cathe- 
rine, liter  wards  the  Emi)ress  Catherine  IL,  and 
succeeded  Poniatowski  as  her  favourite.  It  was 
Gregori  who  planned  the  murder  of  Peter  III.,  and 
his  brother  Alexis  who  committed  the  deed,  and 
both  received  high  honours  and  rich  rewards  for 
this  and  other  services.  The  flourishing  family  of 
the  Counte  Bobrinski  resulted  from  Gre^ori^s 
intercourse  with  the  empress.  The  legitimate  hue  of 
O.  soon  became  extinct ;  but  Feodor,  a  brother  of 
Gregori  and  Alexei,  left  four  illegitimate  sons,  one 
of  whom,  Mikail,  distinguished  himself  in  the  cam- 
paign of  1814 ;  and  another  is  Count  Alexei  0.,  the 
cdeorated  diplomatist.  Count  Alexei  was  born  in 
1787,  sicnalised  himself  by  courage  and  military 
taleuts  during  the  French  wars,  negotiated  the 
treaties  of  Adrianople  (1829)  and  Unkiar-Skelessi 
(1833),  and  represented  Russia  at  the  Lond9n 
conference  of  1832  on  the  affairs  of  Belgium  and 
Hollaud^  In  1844,  he  was  placed  at  the  head  of 
the  secret  police  ;  and  the  ability  and  energy  with 
which  he  directed  its  vast  machinery,  rendered  him 
the  most  dreaded  official  in  Russia.  He  was  high 
in  the  favour  of  the  Emperor  Nicholas,  who  employed 
him  in  the  negotiations  with  Austria  previous  to  the 
Crimean  war.  In  1856,  he  sat  in  the  congress  of 
Paris  as  the  representetive  of  Russia,  and  on  his 
return  was  made  president  of  the  grand  council  of  the 
empire.    He  died  at  St  Petersburg,  20th  May  1861. 

O'BLOP  (Duteh,  overloop^  that  which  runs  over, 
or  covers),  in  ships  of  war,  is  the  lowest  deck,  imme- 
diately above  the  hold.  It  contains  the  magazine, 
bread-room,  and  various  store-rooms ;  and  is  used 
in  time  of  action  for  the  reception  and  treatment 
of  the  wounded,  as,  from  being  below  the  water- 
line,  it  is  the  safest  part  of  the  snip. 

ORME'S  HEAD,  Great,  a  headland  in  the 
north-east  of  Caernarvonshire,  North  Wales,  five 
miles  north-north-west  of  Conway,  is  an  enor- 
mous mass  of  limestone  rock,  surmounted  by  a 


ORMOLU— ORMUZD. 


lightrhoiiBe,  aisd  forming  the  extreme  point  of  the 
western  shore  of  Orme's  Bay.  Lat.  53**  20'  N.,  long. 
8*  61'  W. — Little  Orme's  Head  forms  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  same  bay. 

CRMOLU  is  a  variety  of  brass,  consisting  of 
cine  25  parts,  and  copper  75  parts,  which  has  a 
nearer  resemblance  in  colour  to  gold  than  ordinary 
Brass  (q.  v.).  It  is  extensively  used  for  castings  of 
ornaments  for  furniture,  candelabras,  and  such 
articles.  When  the  caetins  is  made,  its  colour  is 
brought  out  by  a  pickle  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid, 
after  which  the  acid  is  removed  by  water,  and  a 
liquor  varnish  is  put  on  to  keep  it  from  tarnishing. 

ORMOND,  James  Butler,  Duke  of,  was  the 
first  of  the  ancient  Anglo-Irish  family  of  Butler 
on  whom  the  ducal  title  was  conferred.  The  family 
was  of  illustrious  antiquity.  Genealogical  legend 
carried  it  back  to  the  dukes  of  Normandy  before 
the  Conquest,  and  it  is  certain  that  at  the  dawn  of 
the  13th  c.,  it  held  the  hereditary  office  of  royal 
cnp-bearer  or  butler^  whence  the  family  name. — 
The  subject  of  the  present  article  was  bom  in 
London  m  1610.  His  father,  the  son  of  the  cele- 
brated Walter,  Earl  of  Ormond,  was  drowned  in 
crossing  the  Channel ;  and  the  old  earl  having 
incurred  the  displeasure  of  the  king,  James  I.,  and 
bein^  thrown  into  prison,  James,  who  on  his  father's 
death  became,  as  viscount  Thurles,  the  heir  of  the 
title,  was  seized  as  a  royal  ward,  and  placed  under 
the  guardianship  of  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury. 
On  the  restoration  of  his  ^andfather  to  liberty,  he 
also  was  released ;  and  in  his  twentieth  year  he 
married  his  cousin,  Lady  Elizabeth  Preston,  and  in 
1632  succeeded,  upon  his  grandfather's  death,  to  the 
earldom  and  estates  of  Ormond.  During  the  Straf- 
ford administration  in  Ireland,  0.  distinguished 
himself  so  much,  that  on  Strafford's  recall  he  recom- 
mended 0.  to  the  king ;  and  in  the  rebellion  of  1640, 
O.  was  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the 
army.  During  the  troubled  times  which  followed, 
he  conducted  himself  with  undoubted  ability, 
although,  as  a  necessary  consequence  of  the  number- 
less divisions  and  subdivisions  of  party  which  then 
prevailed  in  Ireland,  he  failed  to  satisfy  any  one  of 
the  conflicting  sections ;  and  when,  in  1643,  he  con- 
cluded an  armistice,  hia  policy  was  loudly  condemned 
as  well  by  the  friends  as  by  the  enemies  of  the 
royalist  party  in  England.  During  the  long  contest 
of  Charles  with  the  parliament,^  0.  contmued  to 
uphold  the  royal  interest  in  his  Irish  govern- 
ment ;  and  when  the  last  crisis  of  the  king's 
fortunes  came,  he  resigned  his  Irish  command,  and 
retired  to  France,  from  which  country  he  again 
returned  to  Ireland  with  the  all  but  desperate 
desiffB  of  restoring  the  royal  authority,  and  after 
a  g^lant  but  unequal  struggle,  was  comjjelled,  in 
1650,  to  return  once  more  to  France.  His  services 
to  the  royal  cause  continued  unremitting  during 
his  exile ;  and  at  the  restoration  he  accompanied 
Charles  II.  on  his  return,  and  was  rewarded  tor  his 
fidelity  by  the  ducal  title  of  Ormoud.  His  after-life 
was  less  eventful,  although  he  twice  again  returned 
to  the  government  of  IrSand.  It  was  in  1679  that 
the  well-known  attempt  was  made  bv  the  notorious 
Colonel  Blood  (q.  v.)  upon  the  life  of  Ormond.  As 
he  was  returning  from  a  civic  festival,  he  was 
attacked  by  Blood  and  a  party  of  ruffians,  and 
was  draped  from  his  coach  with  the  intention 
of  his  bem^  hanged  at  Tyburn.  The  attempt  drew 
additional  mterest  from  ite  being  commonly  sup- 
posed to  have  been  instigated  by  the  profligate 
Duke  of  Buckingham,  0/s  inveterate  loe.  He 
escaped  uninjured,  and  lived  until  the  year  1688. 
His  letters  and  other  pajters  are  full  of  deep 
historical  interest.    See  Carte's  Ltft  qf  Ormonde 


OHMSKIBK,  a  market  town  of  England,  in 
Lancashire,  in  the  centre  of  a  rich  and  populous 
agricultural  district,  12  miles  north  of  Liverpool  by 
the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  railway.  The  parish 
church  has  both  a  tower  and  spire.  Its  grammar- 
school  has  an  annual  income  from  endowment  of  £150. 
Silk-weaving,  rope-making,  basket-making,  and  brew- 
ing are  the  principal  branches  of  industry.  Hiera 
are  large  colheries  m  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1861)  6426L 

O'RMUZ,  or  HORMUZ,  a  small  island  in  the 
strait  of  the  same  name,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  within  ten  miles  of  the  Persian 
coast.  It  is  about  twelve  miles  in  circumference, 
and  belongs  to  the  Imaum  of  Muscat,  who  derives 
an  income  from  the  salt  exported  from  the  island. 
In  the  16th  c  it  was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  and 
being  made  by  them  an  entrepdt  for  goods  from  India, 
Persia,  and  Turkistan,  it  became  important,  and  the 
town  of  the  same  name  rose  in  population  until  it 
had  40,000  inhabitents.  The  town  was  demolished, 
in  1622,  by  Shah  Abb&s,  assisted  by  the  English, 
and  ite  trade  was  removed  to  Gombroon  (q.  v.). 

ORMUZD  (Ahurmazd,  Auramazda,  Hormazd, 
Ormazd),  corrupted  from  Ahur6-Mazdad,  i.  e.,  that 
Ahura  (Vedic  Asura)  or  *  Spiritual  Being,*  who  is 
called  Mazdad  (L  e.  Vedic  Medhfts)  =  *  Creator  of  all 
things ;  *  the  name  of  the  supreme  deity  of  the 
ancient  Persians,  and  of  their  descendante  the 
Guebres  and  Parseea.  It  was  at  first  emphatically 
employed  in  this  sense  by  Zoroaster,  or  Zarathustra 
Spitama.  0.  is,  according  to  Zoroaster's  original 
doctrine,  the  creator  of  the  earthly  and  spiritual 
life,  the  lord  of  the  whole  universe,  in  whose 
hands  are  all  creatures.  He  is  the  light  and  the 
source  of  light,  the  wisdom  and  tiie  intellect, 
and  is  in  the  possession  of  all  ffood  things,  such 
as  *  the  good  mind,'  *  immortality,  *  wholesomeness,' 
'  the  best  truth,'  '  abundance,'  &c. ;  which  gifts  he 
bestows  upon  the  pure  in  thoughte,  deeds,  and 
words,  while  the  wicked  are  punished  by  him 
according  to  their  wickedness.  ('For  thou  art 
through  purity,  the  holy  over  the  wicked,  the 
ruler  over  all,  the  heavenly,  the  friend  of  both 
worlds,  Mazda !  .  .  .  .  Father  of  the  pure  creatures 
at  the  beginning,  who  hath  created  the  way  of  the 
sun,  of  the  stars,  who  causeth  the  moon  to  wax 
and  to  wane.  .  .  «  .  He  holdeth  the  earth  and  the 
unsupported  pieavenly  bodies?],  the  waters  and 
the  trees,  and  giveth  swiftness  to  the  wind  and 

the  clouds The  creator  of  the  good  mind, 

the  working  good,  hath  made  light  as  well  as  dark- 
ness, sleep  and  waking,  the  morning  dawns,  the 
noons,  the  nighte,'  &c. —  Yaznc^  43.)  Sprung  from 
Zarvan-Akarana  (the  boundless  time),  i.  e.,  being 
from  eternity,  self -existing,  neither  born  nor  createc^ 
he  unites  within  himself — as  does  man  and  every- 
thing else  existing — ^the  two  primeval  principles  of 
good  and  evil,  the  ^pento-mainyus — L  e.,  the  white, 
holy  spirit ;  and  the  An^-mainyus  (corrupted  into 
Ahriman)  =  the  dark  spirit.  This  Zoroastrian  con- 
ception of  the  two  sides  of  the  divine  being — iteelf 
one  and  indivisible — has,  however,  in  the  course  of 
time,  partly  through  misunderstandings  and  wilfully 
false  interpretations,  undergone  important  changes. 
While  the  Zervan-Akarana  was  transformed  by  the 
Magi — in  opposition  to  the  Zendiks — into  the  Supreme 
Being  itself,  the  philosophical  notion  of  a  duality  in 
0.  became  tiie  theological  dogma  of  god  and  devil, 
jealous  of  each  other^  power,  bent  upon  the  des- 
truction of  each  other's  works,  and  consequently  in 
constent  war  with  each  other,  they  and  their  armiea. 
Both  are — aooording  to  this  corrupted  view  of  later 
times,  by  meatis  of  which  the  genuine  one  haa 
been  forgotten  up  to  our  day— supreme  rulers ;  boUr 
have  their  fixed  number  of  oouncillors  (sprung  froia 


OKNAMENTATION— ORNITHOLOGY. 


aa  egg,  PluL  Isis  and  OaVm),  who  are  the  actual 
governors  of  the  whole  universe,  each  in  his  special 
province;  which  councillors,  however,  are  neither 
more  nor  less  than  certain  abstract  ideas  of  Zoroaster. 
One  personal  archangel  alone  is  assumed  by  the  latter, 
viz.,  Sraoaha  (Sacosh,  ci  Sanscr.  Shruti),  i.  e.,  hearing, 
tradition.  He  is  vested  with  very  high  powers, 
and  stands  between  0.  and  man ;  he  is  the  teacher 
of  good  religion;  he  shews  the  way  to  heaven, 
and  pronounces  judgment  over  human  actions  after 
death.  He  is  the  personification  of  the  whole 
divine  worship  and  its  outward  manifestations,  the 
symbols,  pravers,  sacrifices,  rites,  &c.,  and  the  chief 
combatant  of  the  influence  of  the  Bevas ;  who  stand 
symbolically  for  the  Brahmanic  religion.  0.  is 
represented  as  sitting  upon  a  throne  of  light,  as  a 
venerable  man,  or  seated  upon  a  bull,  oc. — For 
further  particulars  about  tne  seasons  and  the 
manner  of  his  worship,  as  well  as  the  general 
relations  between  his  and  the  Brahmanic  religion 
(both  the  result  of  a  prehistoric  conflict  between 
the  Iranians  and  those  Arian  brother-tribes  who 
immigrated  into  Hindustan  Proper),  we  must  refer 
to  Pabs£ss,  Persia,  and  Zoboasteb. 

OBNAMBNTATION,  or  DECORATION,  in 
Architecture,  applies  to  something  which  ib  added 
to  the  simple  constructive  features,  or  to  the  form 
given  to  those  features,  for  the  purpose  of  making 
them  beautiful  or  elegants  Thus,  the  Doric  shaf^ 
while  answering  the  constructive  purposes  of  a 
simple  square  or  round  pier,  is  ornamented  with 
flutmg;  and  its  capital,  with  its  beautifully  pro- 
portioned echinus  and  abacus,  supports  as  a  plain 
slab  would  do  the  weight  of  the  entablature.  The 
oiher  classic  orders  illustrate  this  in  a  richer 
manner.  Thus,  the  Corinthian  column,  with  its 
fluted  and  elegant  shaft,  resting  on  an  ornamented 
base,  and  crowned  by  an  ornamented  capital,  takes 
the  place  of  what  might  have  been,  had  utility 
alone  been  consulted,  a  plain  pier  of  rubble* work, 
with  a  rough  stone  to  rest  upon,  and  another  on 
the  top  to  receive  the  load. 

In  Classic  architecture,  as  in  every  good  style,  the 
same  principle  pervades  all  the  ornamental  features — 
viz.,  that  they  are  constructive  features  ornamented 
m  a  manner  suitaMe  to  their  use ;  for  instance,  a 
oolumn  being  a  member  for  support^  should  be  of 
BQch  a  form  as  to  denote  this — the  constructive 
use  of  a  cornice  being  to  protect  the  top  of  the  wall, 
and  to  shield  the  front  of  it  from  the  rain  and  sun, 
it  should  be  made  of  such  a  form  as  to  do  this,  and 
also  to  look  as  if  it  did  it-rto  express  its  purpose.  In 
daasic  architecture,  the  cornice  consists  oi  several 
members,  in  which  the  constructive  decoration  is 
well  seen ;  the  mntules  and  modillions  beautifully 
indicating  in  an  ornamental  manner  their  original 
use,  whue  the  leaf  enrichments  of  the  small 
mouldings  give  life  and  animation  to  the  building. 
In  mediev^  art  the  same  principle  prevails  i;i  a 
much  greater  degree,  and  over  a  more  complex 
system  of  construction.  The  shafts,  with  their 
elegant  and  purpose-like  bases  and  caps,  are  arranged 
so  tiiat  eacn  supports  a  separate  member  of  the 
vaulting.  The  arch  mouldings  are  divided  so  as  to 
indicate  the  rings  of  their  constructive  formation. 
Hie  buttresses,  so  elegant  in  outline,  express  the 
part  they  serve  in  supporting  the  vaulting ;  the 

Sumacles,  with  their  ornamental  finials,  are  the 
ecorated  dead-weights  which  steady  the  but- 
tresses. The  foliage  and  smaller  ornament  is  also 
beautifully  and  suitably  applied«  as  the  growth  and 
vigour  of  the  supporting  capitals  and  corbels,  and 
the  running  foliage  of  the  string-courses^  arch- 
mouldings,  £0.,  fully  illustrate. 

Thete  are,  no  doubt,  many  styles  of  art  to  which 
these  remarks  can  hardly  lie  said  to  apply ;  as,  for 


example,  the  Assyrian,  Egyptian,  and  Hindu  styles, 
where  we  find  many  features  applied  in  a  manner 
meant  to  be  ornamental,  although  actually  contrary 
to  their  constructive  use.  In  these  styles  (and  also 
in  Greek  architecture),  human  figures,  bulls,  and 
other  animals  are  placed  as  columns  to  cany  the 
weight  of  a  superincumbent  mass.  This  is  evidently 
wrong  in  principle,  except  when  the  figure  is  placed 
in  an  attitude  to  indicate  that  he  is  supporting  a 
weight,  as  the  Greek  Atlantes  do ;  but  in  the  former 
cases  religious  notions  seem  to  have  overcome  true 
artistic  feeling.  There  are  also  many  forms  of  orna- 
ment used  in  all  styles,  the  origin  of  which  is  obscure, 
and  their  advantage  doubtful ;  such  are  the  ziszag, 
chevron,  billet,  &&,  so  common  in  early  medieval 
art,  and  the  scrolls  of  Ionic  and  Indian  art,  and  the 
complications  of  the  interlacing  work  of  the  Nortii 
in  the  middle  ages.  Such  things  may  be  admissible 
in  coloured  decoration,  such  as  the  confused  patterns 
of  Saracenic  art,  and  the  shell-pattems  of  Indian 
art ;  but  where  ornamental  form  is  wanted,  unless 
the  requirements  of  the  construction  are  carefully 
followed  as  the  guide  to  the  decoration,  all  pnn-* 
dple  is  lost,  and  the  ornament  runs  wild.  This 
has  frequently  occurred  in  the  history  of  art,  and 
in  no  case  more  markedly  than  in  the  art  of  the 
Renaissance. 

The  material  in  use  must  also  have  an  influence 
on  the  form  and  style  of  the  ornament.  Thus, 
stone-carving  and  metal-work  must  evidently 
require  different  treatment.  Fac-simile  leaves  might 
be  formed  in  iron,  but  could  not  be  so  carved  in 
stou&  This  constructive  element  ^ould  be  care- 
fully attended  to  in  designing.  All  imitative  art 
must  be  to  some  extent  conventionaL  Natural 
objects,  such  as  leaves,  flowers,  &c,  cannot  be 
copied  absolutely  literally  ;  and  in  suiting  the 
conventional  treatment  to  the  nature  of  the  mate- 
rial used,  lies  the  great  skill  of  the  artist. 

ORNE,  a  department  of  France  formed  out  of 
the  old  provinces  of  Normandy  and  Perche,  is 
separated  on  the  north  from  the  English  Channel 
(La  Manche)  by  the  department  of  Calvados. 
Area,  1,506,727  acres,  more  than  one-half  of  which 
is  cultivable  land;  pop.  (1862)  423,350.  A  range 
of  wooded  hills,  nowhere  rising  above  1370  fed*, 
extends  across  the  south  of  the  department  from 
east  to  west.  North  of  this  range  the  surface 
slopes  toward  the  En^ish  Channel ;  south  of  it, 
toward  the  Atlantic.  The  principal  rivers  are  the 
Ome  (which  gives  name  to  the  department),  the 
RiUe,  the  Sarthe,  and  Huisne.  Ihe  climate  is 
damp,  though  in  general  temperatp,  and  the  wintera 
are  severe.  The  soil  is  fertile,  \jul  agriculture  is 
not  in  an  ad  van  ud  state.  The  inhabitants  con- 
sume one-third  more  grain  produce  than  is  grown 
on  the  land.  There  are  several  millions  of  apple 
and  pear  trees  planted  along  the  roads,  &c,  and 
cider  is  extensively  made.  Cattle,  and  horses  of 
the  purest  Norman  breed,  are  reared.  Mining  is  an 
important  branch  of  industry ;  the  chief  products 
are  iron  and  copper;  marble,  granite,  and  other 
stones  for  building  are  quarried.  The  department  is 
divided  into  four  arrondissements,  Aleufon,  Argentau, 
Domfront,  and  Mortagne;  capital,  Alen^on. 

ORNITHO  LOOT  (Gr.  omw,  a  bird,  and  logos^ 
a  discourse),  that  brancJbi  of  zoology  of  which  the 
subject  is  birds.  By  Aristotle,  PRny,  and  others 
of  the  ancients,  this  study  was  prosecuted  to  some 
extent,  along  with  other  parts  of  natural  history ; 
but  it  is  only  in  modem  times  that  ornithology  mis 
assumed  the  rank  of  a  distinct  branch  of  science^ 
The  first  modern  auUior  to  attempt  a  scientitio 
classification  of  birds  seems  to  have  been  Pierre 
Belon,  noted  also  as  an  ichthyologiBt,  whose  Historia 

136 


ORNTTHOBHYNCHTIS— OEOBUa 


Avium  was  pabllKhed  aboat  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  Some  of  his  olaaaas  tie  very  heterogeneons 
Msemblagea  ;  but  the  first  throe,  viz.,  Birds  of  Prey, 
Web-fuoted  Birds,  and  Qralla,  are  so  natur&l  as  to 
have  been  acknowledged,  with  some  moditioatian  of 
their  limits,  in  all  subsequent  systems.  In  the 
ITth  c.  much  progress  was  mode  in  the  obeerviitioi) 
*nd  deacription  of  species,  not  only  of  the  birdi  of 
Europe,  but  of  other  porta  of  the  world.    Id  the 


latter  part  ot  the  oeotary, 
iriven  to  the  aoatomy  of  bi 


given  to  the  anatomy  of  birds.  An  omitJiological 
system,  more  perfect  than  that  of  Belon,  was  pro- 
posed by  Willughby  about  1676,  ftnd  afterwards 
matured  and  improved  by  Bay.  On  this  system 
that  of  Ljnn£  was  founded.  During  the  iSth  o., 
the  proeress  of  ornithology  wu  veiy  rapid.  The 
hinis  of  many  countries  were  described  in  works 
specially  devoted  to  them,  and  the  habits  of  birds 
began  to  be  carefully  observed ;  but  the  system  of 
LinnS,  as  framed  by  him  before  the  middle  of  tiie 
century,  continued  to  prei^il  almost  nnmodifled  till 
the  publication  of  Cuvier's  Signt  Animal  in  1817. 
Latham,  LacipMe,  Illiger,  Temminck,  and  others, 
had  indeed  previously  proposed  systema  more  or 
less  difTeriint  from  it ;  aud  systems  have  since  been 
proposed  by  others,  particularly  by  Mr  Vigora  ood 
Mr  Swaineon,  who  have  endeavoured  to  aocommo- 
date  the  class iti cation  to  certain  first  principles 
which  they  supposed  t«  pervade  nature,  but  which 
other  naturaliBtB  in  general  regard  as  fancifuL  The 
system  of  Cuvier  is  now  generally  received  by  omi- 
tnologiste,  as  that  of  Linnfi  formerly  was  ;  not,  how- 
ever, without  modifications,  by  which  it  has  been 
•ouoht  to  accommodate  it  to  the  progress  of  science, 
and  some  of  the  names  introduced  by  other  aut^ora 
have  obtained  very  general  acceptance.  The  system 
of  Linn6  divided  birds  into  six  orders — AccipUret, 
Piem,  An3frf»,  OraiUr,  Oaltina,  and  Paaeera. 
That  of  Cnvier  also  divided  Uiem  into  six  orders — 
Birds  of  Prry  {tiie  AcdpilTU  of  Linn6,  now  often 
called  RapUmt),  Passerine  Birds  [PassTiiUB,  now 
more  generally  called  InsfMorea,  or  Perching  Birds, 
includmg  must  of  the  Linnean  Passerei,  and  part  of 
Piem),  ClimbeTi  {Scaasora,  part  of  the  Linnean 
Picte,  and  often  designated  Zygodofiyli  or  Zygodae- 
tylout  Birds),  GaUinaceoiu  Birdt  (now  often  called 
Satorea,  the  Linnean  OaiUna,  but  including  also 
the  pigeons  or  C'olumbida,  which  LinnS  placed 
amooi;  Fasitres),  StUt-birds,  often  called  Wadsrs 
{Oraiktlorfu,  the  Linoean  OraU/t),  and  Wdi/ooUd 
Birds  [Paimipedes,  now  also  known  as  Naiattares  ox 
Sidmiaerg).  'tltesa  orden  are  noticed  in  sepamta 
articles.  Perhaps  the  most  important  modificatioo 
of  Cuvier's  system  which  has  been  proposed,  is  the 
separation  of  the  Bremptnau  or  Htmlluoiis  Birdi 
from  Griillce,  and  their  formation  into  a  diatinct 
order,  sometimes  called  Cursora  or  Bunnrri;  and 
next  to  this  may  be  mentioned  the  proposed  ■epa- 
ration  of  Cohimltidis  from  Gallinaceous  Birds. — 'Die 


litholoi 


e  the 


progress  ™ 

the  19th  c.  has  been  very  rapid;  every  department  of 
it  has  been  assiduously  cultivated,  aod  many  of  the 
works  published  have  been  not  only  of  great  merit, 
but  very  sumptuous  and  beautiful  The  works  of 
Audubon  and  Glould  perhaps  merit  particular  notio 

ORNITHORHY'NCHUS.    See  DnCK-Biu. 

OROBA'NCHB.«,  or  OROBANCHA'CE^ 


corolla  monopetaloos,  hypogynoos,  and  irregalar. 
The  stamens  are  four,  two  long  and  two  short ;  the 
ovary  1-celled,  seated  in  a  flesny  disc,  composed  ot 


two  carpels,  with  one  ctyle.     The  fruit  is  capsular, 

enclosed    within    the   withered    corolla,    l-cell«d, 
2-valved.   The  seeds  are  numerottt,  and  very  minut^ 


Broom-rape  [Orobands  ru&ra) : 


There  are  about  120  known  specncs.  natives  chiefty 
of  temperate  climates,  and  generally  characterised 
by  ostringenoy  and  bitterness,  npon  account  of 
which  some  of  them  have  been  used  in  medicine 
(see  Cancbr  Root).  Eleven  species  are  natives  of 
Britain,  chieSy  belonging  to  the  genns  Oroban<Af, 
or  Brooh-hapB;  to  some  of  which  importBint  medi- 
cinal virtues  were  once  erroneoualy  ascribed.  Tbs 
enlaroed  base  or  rootetuck  of  a  species  of  Orobandr 
is  cooked  or  dried,  and  eaten  by  the  Indians  of  tiie 
north-western  parts  of  America. 

lyBOBUS,  a  genua  of   planta   of  the  natord 


ORONTfe— ORPHEUa 


it^e  linear,  downy  beneath  the  stigma ;  the  calvz 
obtnse  at  the  base  and  oblique  at  the  mouth ; 
its  upper  segments  deeper  and  shorter;  the  pod 
1-celled,  2-valved ;  the  leaves  pinnate,  without 
tendrils.  The  species  are  perennial  herbaceous 
pUnts,  chiefly  natives  of  Europe.  They  afford  ffood 
food  for  cattle.  Two  are  natives  of  Britain,  of  which 
the  most  common  is  0.  tuberostiSt  whose  racemes 
of  purple  flowers  often  adorn  heaths  and  bushy 
places^  especially  in  hilly  districts.  The  stem  is 
nnbranched,  erect,  about  a  foot  high,  with  narrow 
membranous  winn ;  the  leaflets  in  2---4  pairs ;  tiie 
pods  long,  cylindrical,  black ;  the  root  creeping 
and  awelunff  out  into  tubers  at  irregular  intervals. 
The  tubers  nave  a  sweet  taste,  resembling  that  of 
liquorice,  and  are  sought  after  by  children;  they 
are  also  bruised  and  steeped  in  water  in  some  parts 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  to  make  a  fermented 
liquor,  and  a  kind  of  liquor  is  made  by  steeping 
them  in  whisky;  they  are  well -flavoured  and 
nutritious  when  boiled  or  roasted,  and  are  used  in 
this  way  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  other  couotriesi 

OBO'NTlSS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  river  in  Syria, 
now  called  Nahr-d-Asi     It  rises  in  the  highest 
part  of  Coele-Syria,  near  Baalbek,  flows  northwiund 
between  the  mountains  of  Libai)us  and  Anti-Libanus, 
as  &r  as  the  city  of  Antioch,  and  then  westward  to  i 
ti^e  Mediterranean  Sea,  after  a  course  of  240  miles,  i 
passing  by  a  cross  valley,  through  the  mountains ' 
of  the  Syrian  coastb    Its  lower  course  is  remark*  I 
ably  beaiitiful,  surpassing  everything  else  that  can  I 
be  seen  in  Syria.    Its  rocky  banlu  are  300  feet 
high,  and  the  windings  of  the  river  shew  them  off 
to  the  greatest  advantage.    Myrtle-bushes,  laurels, 
£g8,  w3d  vines,   arbutus,  dwarf-oaks,   and   syoa- 
mores  {Acer paeudo-plcUamis)  are  scattered  about  in 
picturesque  confusion*     Here  and  there  the  eye 
catches  a  glimpse  of  some  cavern  mouth  or  ivy- 
matted  precipice,  while  from  the  abyss  beneath 
ascends  for  ever  the  roar  of  the  impatient  stream. 
The  country  through  which  it  flows  is  of  great 
fertility,  and  in  many  parts  is  richly  cultivated. 

ORO'SIXJS,  Paulus,  »  Spanish  presbyter  and 
historian,  was  bom  at  Tarragona,  and  flourished  in 
the  early  part  of  the  5th  century.  He  went  to 
Africa  about  413  A.D.,  where  he  made  the  ac(|uaint- 
ance  of  St  Augustine,  and  thence  to  Palestine,  to 
studj^  under  St  Jerome,  then  living  at  Bethlehem. 
He  finally  settled  in  Africa,  but  the  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  His  chiefs  work,  the  HisUmamm 
advergus  Paganoa  Libri  7,  begins  with  the  creation 
and  goes  down  to  417  ▲.&.  It  is  apologetic  in 
design,  being  intended  to  refute  the  notion  then 
current  among  the  pagans,  that  the  misfortunes  of 
the  Roman  Empire  and  the  wretchedness  of  the 
great  masses  were  owing  to  the  anger  of  the  gods 
at  the  abandonment  Si  their  worship,  and  the 
profanation  of  their  altars.  The  work  is  a  trivial, 
maccurate,  uncritical  miscellany  of  facts,  culled 
from  such  second-rate  authorities  as  Justin  and 
Eatropius  ;  the  style  is  elegant,  but  also,  as  Bacon 
•ays,  '  watery.'  Yet  it  has  obtained  a  place  in 
hteratnre  from  being  a  favourite  text-book  of 
universal  history  during  the  middle  ages,  and  had 
the  honour  of  being  translated  into  Anglo-Saxon  by 
our  own  Alfred.  Some  manuscripts  bear  the 
nuzzling  title  of  fformeata  or  Ormkta,  conjectured 
by  some  to  be  a  corruption  of  Or.  M.  ist. ;  that  is, 
Orogii  Mundi  Historia  (Orosius's  History  of  the 
World).  The  editio  princeps  of  the  work  appeared 
at  Vienna  in  1471 ;  the  best  edition  is  that  of  Haver- 
camp  (Log.  Bat  4to,  1738).  Other  writings  of  0.s' 
are  Liher  Apologelicus  de  ArhUrii  Libertate,  an  anti- 
Pelagian  treatiw,  CommonUorium  ad  AugtuUnumf 


an  explanation  of  the  state  of  reli^ous  parties  io 
Spain  in  his  time.  See  Mdrner's  I)e  Orosii  Vita 
eyusgue  HisUmarum  LibriaSeptem  adversus  PaganoB 
(BerL  1844). 

OROTA^A,  a  town  on  the  north  coast  of 
Teneriffe,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands,  is  situated 
below  the  Peak,  in  one  of  the  most  fertile,  pleasant, 
and  healthy  Uistricts  in  the  world.  It  contains 
several  beautifiU  churches,  the  residence  of  the 
governor  and  the  citadel.  Fishing  is  carried  on 
to  some  extent,  and  there  is  »  trade  in  wina 
Pop.  862a 

O'RPHEUS  (supposed  to  be  the  Vedic  Ribhu  or 
Arbhu,  an  epithet  both  of  Indra  and  the  Sun),  a 
semi- mythic  name  of  frequent  occurrence  in  ancient 
Greek  lore.  The  early  legends  call  him  a  son  of 
Apollo  and  the  muse  Calliope,  or  of  Oleagrus  and 
CUo,  or  Polymnia.  His  native  countiy  is  Thracia, 
where  many  different  localities  were  pointed  out  as 
his  birthplace— such  as  the  Mounts  of  Olympus, 
and  PangaBus,  the  river  Enipeus,  the  promontory  of 
Serrhiuni,  and  several  cities.  Apollo  oestows  upon 
him  the  lyre,  which  Hermes  invented,  and  by  its 
aid  0.  moves  men  and  beasts,  the  birds  in  the  air, 
the  fishes  in  the  deep,  the  trees,  and  the  rocks. 
He  accompanies  the  Argonauts  in  their  expedition, 
and  the  power  of  his  music  wards  off  all  mishaps 
and  disasters,  rocking  monsters  to  sleep  and  stopping 
cliffs  in  their  downward  rush.  His  wife,  Eurydice 
(?  ss  Sanscr.  Urn,  Dawn),  is  bitten  by  a  serpent 
(?  s  Night),  and  dies.  0.  follows  her  into  the  infer- 
nal regions ;  and  so  powerful  are  his  *  golden  tones,' 
that  even  stem  Pluto  and  Proserpina  are  moved  to 
pity;  while  Tantalus  forgets  his  thirst,  lxion*s 
whed  ceases  to  revolve,  and  the  DanaSdes  stop  in 
their  wearisome  task.  He  is  allowed  to  take  her 
back  into  the  *  light  of  heaven,*  but  he  must  not 
look  around  while  they  ascend.  Love  or  doubt, 
however,  draw  his  eyes  towards  her,  and  she  is  lost 
to  him  for  ever  (?  s  flrst  rays  of  the  sun  gleaming 
at  the  dawn  make  it  disapi>ear  or  melt  into  day). 
His  death  is  sudden  and  violent.  According  to 
some  accounts,  it  is  the  thunderbolt  of  Zeus  that  cuts 
him  off,  because  he  reveals  the  divine  mysteries; 
according  to  others,  it  is  Dionysius,  who,  angry 
at  his  refusing  to  worship  him,  causes  the 
Menades  to  tear  him  to  pieces,  which  pieces  are 
collected  and  buried  by  the  Muses  iu  tearful  piety 
at  Leibethra,  at  the  foot  of  Olympus,  where  a 
nightingale  ^  sings  over  his  grave.  Others,  again, 
make  the  '  Thracian  women  divide  his  limbs 
between  them,  either  from  excessive  madness  of 
unrequited  love,  or  from  anger  at  his  drawing 
their  husbands  away  from  them.  Thus  far  legend 
and  art,  in  manifold  hues  and  varieties  and 
shapes,  treat  of  0.  the  fabulous.  The  faint  glimmer 
of  nistorical  truth  hidden  beneath  these  myths 
becomes  clearer  in  those  records  which  speak  of  0. 
as  a  divine  bard  or  priest  in  the  service  of  Zagreus, 
tiie  Thiacian  Dionysius,  and  founder  of  the  Mys- 
teries (q.  V.) ;  as  the  first  musician,  the  first  inan- 
gurator  of  the  rites  of  expiation  and  of  the  Mantio 
art,  the  inventor  of  letters  and  the  heroic  metre ;  of 
everything,  in  fact,  tiiat  was  suppK>sed  to  have  con- 
tributed to  tiie  civilisation  and  initiation  into  a  more 
humane  worship  of  the  deity  among  the  primitive 
inhabitants  of  Thracia  and  all  Greece :  a  task  to 
which  O.  was  supposed  to  have  devoted  his 
life  after  his  return  with  the  Argonauts.  A  kind  of 
monastic  order  sprang  up  in  later  times,  caUins 
itself  after  him,  whi^  combined  with  a  sort  of 
enthusiastic  creed  about  the  migration  of  souls  and 
other  mystic  doctrines  a  semi-ascetic  life.  Absti- 
nence from  meat  (not  from  wine),  frequent  purifica- 
tions and  other  expiatory  rites,  incantations,  the 

127 


OKPHEUS-ORSINL 


wearing  of  white  gannentB  and  nmilar  things— not 
nnlike  some  of  the  Essenic  manners  and  customs- 
were  among  their  fundamental  rules  and  ceremonies. 
But  after  a  brief  duration,  the  brotherhood,  having 
first,  during  the  List  days  of  the  Roman  empire, 
passed  through  the  stage  of  conscious  and  very 
profitable  jugglery,  sank  into  oblivion,  together  witn 
their  'orpheotelistic'  formulas  and  sacrifices,  and 
together  with  the  joys  of  the  upper,  and  the  never- 
ending^  punishments  of  the  infernal  regions  which 
they  held  out  to  their  rich  dupes :  according  to  the 
sums  they  grudged  or  bestowed  npon  them. 

O.  has  also  given  the  name  to  a  special  literature 
called  the  Orphic,  the  real  origin  of  which,  however, 
is  (according  to  Ottfried  MUller),like  Orpheus's  own 
history,  'unquestionably  the  darkest  point  in  the 
entire  history  of  early  Greek  poetry.'  Like  Olen, 
Linus,  Philammon,  Eumolpus,  Musaeus,  and  other 
legendary  singers  of  prehistoric  Greece,  0.  is  supx)osed 
to  have  oeen  '  the  pupil  of  Apollo  and  the  Muses,' 
and  to  have  first  composed  certain  hymns  and  songs 
used  in  the  worshij)  of  a  Dionysius,  dwelling  in  the 
infernal  regions,  and  in  the  initiations  into  the  BUeu- 
sinian  mysteries.  A  mere  *  abstraction,*  as  it  were,  he 
was  called  the  first  poet  of  the  heroic  age,  and  though 
not  mentioned  before  Ibycus,  Pindar,  Hellanicus, 
and  the  Athenian  trage(uun8,  he  was  yet  placed 
anterior  to  both  Homer  and  Hesiod.  The  fragments 
current  under  his  name  were  first  collected  at  the 
time  of  the  Pisistratidse,  chiefly  by  Onomacritus, 
and  these  fragments  grew  under  the  hands  of  the 
Orphic  brotherhood,  aided  by  the  Pythagoreans,  to 
»  vast  literature  of  sacred  mythological  songs  sung 
at  the  public  games,  chanted  by  the  priests  at  their 
service,  worked  out  for  dramatic  and  pantomimic 
purposes  by  the  dramatists,  commented  upon,  phil- 
osophised upon,  and  'improved*  by  grammarians, 
philosophers,  and  theologians.  Althougn  authorities 
tike  Herodotus  and  Aristotle  had  already  combated 
the  supposed  antiquity  of  the  so-caued  Orphic 
myths  and  songs  of  their  day,  yet  the  entire 
enormous  Orphic  literature  which  had  grown  out 
of  them  retained  its  '  ancient '  authority,  not 
only  with  both  the  Hellenists  and  the  church 
fathers  of  the  3d  and  4th  centuries  A.  D.  (who,  for 
their  individual,  albeit  opposite  purposes,  referred 
to  it  as  the  most  authentic  primitive  source  of 
Greek  religion,  from  which  Pythagoras,  Hera- 
deitus,  Plato  had  drawn  their  theological  phil- 
osophy), but  down  almost  to  the  last  generation, 
when  it  was  irrefutably  proved  to  be  in  its  main 
bulk,  as  far  as  it  has  survived,  the  production  of 
those  very  third  and  fourth  centuries  A.D.,  raised 
upon  a  few  scanty,  primitive  snatches.  The  most 
remarkable  part  of  the  Orphic  literature  is  its 
Theogony,  which  is  based  mainly  on  that  of  Hesiod, 
with  allegorising  and  symbolismg  tendencies,  and 
with  a  desire  to  simplify  the  huge  Olympic  popu- 
lation by  compressing  several  deities  into  a  single 
one.  See  Theogont.  Yet  there  is  one  figure  which 
stands  out  here  prominently — viz.^  Zagreus,  the 
homed  child  of  Zeus  by  his  own  diaughtcr  Perse- 
phone, who,  killed  by  the  Titans  at  the  bidding  of 
tiere,  is  reborn  by  Semele  as  Dionysius. 

Besides  the  fragments  of  the  Theogony  which 
have  survived,  imMlded  chiefly  in  the  writings  of 
the  Neoplatonists,  are  to  be  mentioned  the  Argon- 
auticat  a  poem  of  the  Byzantine  period,  consisting 
of  1.384  hexameters ;  further,  a  collection  of  87 
or  88  liturgical  hymns;  a  work  on  the  virtues  of 
stones,  called  LyUilca,  &c.  Other  poems  belonging 
to  the  Orphic  Cycle,  of  which,  however,  only 
names  have  survived  in  most  instances,  are  Sacred 
LegendSf  ascribed  to  Cercops;  a  Poem  on  Nature, 
called  Physica^  probably  by  Brontinus;  Bacchica, 
npposed  to  be  written  by  Avignota,  the  daughter 
US 


of  Pythagoras ;  Minyas^  or  Orpheus's  descent  into 
the  Hades ;  and  other  poetical  productions  by 
Zopjrnis,  Timocles,  Nicias,  Persinus,  Prodicus,  &c 
The  best  edition  of  the  Orphic  fragments  is  that 
of  G.  Herrmann  (Leipzig,  18U5).  The  hymns  have 
repeatedly  been  translated  into  English  by  T. 
Taylor  and  others.  The  chief  authority  on  the 
Orphic  literature  still  remains  Lobeck't  AgUuh 
pfuimuM, 

O'RPIMENT.    See  AfiSBNia 

O'RREBT,  a  machine  constmoted  for  the  purpose 
of  exhibiting  the  motions  of  the  planets  round  the 
sun,  and  of  the  satellites  round  their  primaries 
which  was  in  high  repute  during  the  18th  and 
beginning  of  the  19th  centuries,  though  now  regarded 
as  a  mere  toy.  It  was  a  oombination  of  the  old 
Planetarium  (q.  v.),  with  other  machines  which 
shewed  the  motions  of  the  earth,  moon,  and 
planetary  satellites.  Though  the  construction  of 
a  machine  which  would  exhibit  accurately  the 
motions,  distances,  and  magnitudes  of  the  planets 
is  impossible,  yet  an  orrery  is  in  some  d^^ree 
useful  as  giving  a  general  notion  of  the  way  in 
which  the  planetary  motions  are  performed.  As 
it  was  a  favourite  machine  at  one  time,  a  descrip- 
tion of  it  may  not  be  uninteresting.  A  number 
of  iron  tubes  eoual  in  number  to  the  planets, 
and  of  different  aimensions,  are  placed  one  within 
the  other;  their  lengths  being  arranged  so  that 
the  innermost  tube  projects  at  both  ends  beyond 
the  one  next  to  it,  that  one  similarly  projects 
beyond  the  third,  and  so  on.  At  one  end  of  each 
tube  a  rod  is  fixed  at  right  angles,  and  a  ball 
or  lamp  attached  to  its  end ;  the  lengths  of  the 
rods  being  proportional  (or  at  least  supposed  to  be 
so)  to  the  radii  of  the  planetary  orbits.  The  other 
ends  of  the  tubes  form  the  axes  of  toothed  wheels, 
which  are  connected  either  directly,  or  by  means  of 
combinations  of  toothed  wheels,  with  a  winch.  The 
seversJ  combinations  of  wheels  are  so  adjusted  that 
the  velocity  of  revolution  of  the  rods  is  proportional 
to  the  times  of  revolution  of  the  planets.  On  tumins 
the  winch  the  whole  apparatus  is  set  in  motion,  and 
the  balls  or  lamps  (representing  the  planets)  revolve 
round  the  centre,  which  is  a  fixed  lamp  (representing 
the  sun),  at  different  distances,  and  witn  varyins 
velocities.  There  are  many  nice  arrangements,  such 
as  for  producing  elliptio  motion,  but  wese  need  not 
be  described. 

O'RRIS  ROOT  (probably  a  oormption  of  Iri§ 
Root),  the  rootstock  {rhizome)  of  certain  species  of 
Iris  (q.v.),  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe,  belonging 
to  the  division  of  the  genus  having  bearded  flowers, 
sword-shaped  leaves,  and  scapes  taller  than  the 
leaves;  viz.  /.  Florentina,  a  species  with  white 
flowers;  /.  patUdOt  which  has  pale  flowers;  and 
/.  Oermanica,  which  has  deep  purple  flowers.  The 
flowers  of  all  these  species  are  migrant.  /.  Oermanica 
extends  further  north  than  the  other  species,  and 
its  root  is  sometimes  said  to  be  more  acrid.  O.  R. 
was  formerly  used  in  many  medicinal  preparations 
as  a  stimulant,  but  is  now  almost  entirely  disused. 
It  is  sometimes  chewed  to  sweeten  an  offensive 
breath.  Its  chief  use  is  in  perfumery.  It  has 
a  pleasant  smell  of  violets,  wnich  it  acquires  in 
dr3dng.  Hair  and  tooth  powders,  and  oils,  are  often 
scented  with  it.  A  tincture  of  it  is  also  used  as 
a  scent,  and  is  often  sold  as  Essence  of  Violets, 

ORSIKI,  Felice,  an  Italian  revolutionist,  who  is 
destined  to  be  remembered  for  his  atrocious  attempt 
on  the  life  of  the  French  emperor.  Napoleon  III., 
was  born  at  Meldola,  in  the  States  of  tbe  Church, 
in  1819.  The  son  of  a  conspirator,  O.  at  an 
early  ase  was  initiated  into  secret  societies,  and 
before  he  had  reached   his   twentieth   year,  hs 


ORSOVA— ORTHOGRAPHY. 


wu  thrown  into  prison,  and  condemned  to  the 

pUeys  for  life.     The  amuesty  of  Pius  IX.  (1846) 

restored  him  to  liberty,  but  he  was  soon  after  attain 

biprisoned    for    participation   in    pr>litical    plots. 

When  the  revolution  of   1848  broke  c.'.\  0.  was 

elected  as  a    deputy  to  the   Roman  Cou^titnent 

Assembly.    He  was  invested    with  extraordiuaiy 

powers,  and  sent  to  Aucona  and  Ascoli  to  suppress 

hriganda^     He  signalised  liimnelf  by  the  violence 

wiui  which  he  executed  his  commission.    He  also 

took  part  in  the  defence  of  Rome  and  Venice: 

agitated  in  Genoa  and  the  Duchv  of  Modena ;  and 

in  1853  was  shipped  for  England  by  the  Sardinian 

ffovemment,  where  he  formied  cloee  relations  with 

SfazzinL    Famished  with  money  by  the  leaders  of 

the  revolutionary  party,  he  appeared  at  Parma  in 

1S54,  and  afterwards  at  Milan,  Trieste,  Vienna, 

everrwhere  agitating  in  the  interest  of  insurrection ; 

until  at  last  he  was  arrested  and  oontined  in  the 

fortress  of  Mantua.    In  1856  he  succeeded  in  making 

his  escape,  and  found  refuge  in  England,  where  he 

Bupported  himself  by  puluic  lecturing,  and  wrote 

a  book  entitled   Tht  Austrian  Dungeons  in  Italy 

(Lend  18o6).    Towards  the  end  of  1857  he  repaired 

to  Pans,  with  the  intention  of  assassinating  Louis 

Napoleon,  whom  he  reckoned  the  great  obstacle  to 

the  progress  of  revolution  in  Italy.    His  associates 

in  this  diabolical  design  were  persons  named  Pieri, 

Rabio,  and  Gomez.      Providing   themselves  with 

bombs,  they  took  up  their  station  in  a  house  close  by 

the  opera,  and  on  tne  evening  of  the  14th  January 

1858,  just  as  the  carriage  containing  the  emperor 

and  empress  were  drawing  up,  they  threw  three 

of  the  deadly  missiles  under  the  carriase.     An 

explosion    took    place,    and    several    j^^ople    were 

woanded,  one  or  two  mortally,  but  their  majesties 

remained  unhurt.   The  assassins  were  arrested,  tried, 

and  sentenced ;  Orsini,  Pieri,  and  Rubio  to  capital 

punishment,  Gomez  to  hard  labour  for  life.    Rubio's 

life  was  spared  at  the  intercession  of  the  empress, 

hat  Pieri  and  Orsini  were  beheaded  on  the  18th  of 

March. 

ORSO'VA,  New.    See  Danube. 

ORTHEZ,  a  small  town  of  France  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Basses-Pyr6n6es,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Gave  de  Pau,  3/  miles  east  of  Bayonne.  Pop. 
4885.  The  Castle  of  Moncivda,  now  reduced  to  a 
few  ruined  walls,  overtopped  by  one  stately  tower, 
was  built  here  in  1240  by  Gaston  de  Foix.  In  the 
immediate  vicinity  of  the  town,  the  British,  under 
Wellington,  gained  a  grand  and  decisive  victory 
over  the  French  under  Soult,  February  27,  1814. 
In  this  engagement  the  French  lost  3900  men  and 
six  guns  on  the  field,  and  the  spirit  of  Soult^s  army 
was  thoroughly  broken. 

ORTHIS  (Gr.  ^raighl)^  a  lar^e  genus  of  fossil 
brachiopodous  moUusca,  found  m  the.  Palasozoic 
rocks,  most  abundantly  in  the  Silurian  rocks,  but 
ranging  upwards  to  the  Permian  series.  The  genus 
contains  upwards  of  100  species. 

ORTHO'CERAS  (Gr.  straight  horn),  an  exten- 
sive genua  of  cephalopodous  mollusoa,  found  in  the 
palaeozoic  rocks,  from  the  Lower  Silurian  to  the 
Trias.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  the  Nautilus,  and  is 
indeed,  in  its  simplest  forms,  nothing  more  than  an 
tmroUed  and  straightened  nautUus.  The  shell  is 
straight,  the  siphunde  central,  and  the  body  cham- 
ber smalL  The  members  of  the  genus  are  the 
most  widely  distributed,  and  the  most  abundant  of 
any  of  the  palseozoic  fossil&  Nearly  200  species 
have  been  described,  but  a  considerable  niunber  of 
these  have  been  separated  into  sub-genera,  charac- 
terised chiefly  by  the  form  and  size  of  the  siphuncle. 

O'RTHODOXT  (Gr.  orihoa,  right,  and  doxa,  an 
opinion),  a  name  given  by  theologians  to  religious 
321 


opinions  in  agreement  with  Scripture,  or  rather 
with  the  view  of  Scripture  entertained  either  by 
the  church  iu  general,  or  by  the  Established  Churcn 
of  any  particular  nation.  Its  antithesis  is  Hetbro- 
DOXT  (Gr.  heUrotf  another,  meaning  'wrong,'  and 
doxa^  opinion). 

OTEITHOEPY  (Gr.  correctness  or  propriety  of 
speech),  a  branch  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the  right 
pronunciation  of  the  words  of  a  language. 

ORTHO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  correct  writing),  a 
branch  of  grammar  that  treats  of  the  elementary 
sounds  of  a  language,  the  signs  or  letters  by  whica 
they  are  represented  in  writing,  and  the  combin- 
ations of  these  signs  to  represent  words ;  it  also 
includes  the  right  dividing  of  words  into  syllables 
(as  when  a  word  has  to  be  divided  at  the  end  of 
a  line),  and  punctuation.  In  a  more  restricted 
sense,  orthography  is  synonymous  with  the  art  of 
correct  spelling.  No  pa^  of  grammar  is  less 
satisfactory  than  this.  All  alphabets  were  from 
the  first  both  defective  and  redundant,  aud  there- 
fore inadequate  to  represent  exactly  the  elementary 
sounds  of  the  languages  to  which  they  were  applied 
(see  Alphabet,  Letters  and  Articulate  Sounds). 
The  first  attempts  then  at  writing  any  lan^age 
must  have  exhibited  great  diversity  of  spelling. 
Wherever  an  extensive  literature  has  sprung  up 
among  a  people,  and  language  been  made  a  study 
of  itself,  there  a  greater  or  less  uniformity  of  spelling 
has,  by  tacit  convention  or  otherwise,  become 
established  for  a  time.  Such  was  the  case  with 
Latin  in  the  time  of  the  Caesars,  with  High  German 
about  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  and  with  English 
(Anglo-S<axou)  in  and  for  some  time  after  the  days 
of  Alfred.  But  although  language,  as  depicted  to 
the  eye,  may  be  fixed  for  a  time,  the  spoken  tongue, 
being  a  Uving  organism,  cannot  be  thus  |)etrified. 
A  written  literature  may  modify,  and  m  some 
degree  retard,  but  cannot  altogether  arrest  that 
incessant  change  and  evolution  to  which  all  spoken 
tongues  are  subject.  The  breaking  up  of  the 
Anglo-Saxon  in  its  transition  into  modem  English, 
brought  necessarily  a  iieriod  of  orthographic  chaos. 
Never  was  the  lawlessness  greater  than  during  one 
of  the  brightest  periods  of  the  literature,  namely, 
the  Elizabethan  period.  Then,  and  for  a  long  time 
after,  all  perception  of  the  real  powers  of  the  letters 
seems  to  have  been  lost,  and  nothing  but  caprice 
ruled.  Not  only  were  words  spelled  differently  by 
different  jMsrsoos,  but  even  among  the  best  educated 
classes  the  same  person  would  spell  the  same  word 
(even  his  or  her  own  name)  half-a-dozen  ways  in 
the  same  page.  Among  the  classic  writers  of  the 
Queen-Anne  period,  some  degree  of  uniformity 
began  to  establish  itself,  and  this  was  afterwards 
further  confirmed  and  fixed  by  the  publication  of 
Johnson's  Dictionary,  since  which  time  the  alter- 
ations have  been  comparatively  trifling.  The 
modem  spelling  thus  established,  conformed  its'^lf 
only  partially  to  the  changes  the  spoken  langu'^ge 
had  undergone.  Of  the  letters  that  had  beccme 
silent  through  the  wearing  away  and  collapse  of 
the  spoken  words,  some  were  omitted  and  others 
retained,  with  little  attention  to  consistency,  or  to 
any  principle  now  discernible.  Hence,  in  the 
English  language  as  now  written  and  spoken,  there 
is  in  general  so  imperfect  a  corres}K)ndeuce  between 
the  sound  of  a  word,  and  the  sounds  of  the  several 
letters  that  are  written  to  represent  it,  that  the 
spelling  of  each  individual  word  has,  in  a  manner, 
to  be  learned  by  itself.  By  no  possible  rules  can 
a  learner  be  taught  when  he  sees  the  groups  of 
letters  n-o-vo,  p-l-o-u-g-h,  e-n-o-u-g-h,  to  make  out 
the  sounds  or    spoken    words  that   these  groups 

actually  represent ;  or,  conversely,  when  he  hears 

189 


ORTHOPTERA-ORYX. 


the  ivonb  spoken,  to  find  out  vhat  letters  they 
to  be  represeiited  by.    This  circunutance  preae   . 

Eat  dimculty  to  foreigaers  in  the  acquisition  of 
glish  i  which,  in  other  respects,  is  one  of  the 
ainipleat  ^nd  mnst  euil;  learned  lan^agea  id 
vorld.  The  ortbograpby  of  English  a  only  t 
acquired  by  obeerTation  and  practice.  There  a: 
rata  in  the  proper  lenie  of  tlie  nrord ;  the  only 
effective  aBBistaneo  that  can  be  given  in  this  matter 
is  to  brin^  together,  under  some  kind  of  classification, 
the  words  Uiat  are  most  frequently  misspelled. 
Bee  Phonbho  Wbitino. 

OKTHOTTERA  (Gr.  stnuKht- winged),  an  order 
of  maudibulate  insects,  in  many  reapeota  resembUng 
the  CoUoptera  (q.  v.),  but  having  the  wing-covers 
softer  and  generally  leathery  and  Seiible.  The 
wiog'OQveTB  also  often  overlap  on  the  back  when  at 
rest,  or  meet  at  an  angle  like  the  roof  of  a  house. 
The  wings  are  broader  tbaa  the  wing-cavern,  and 
fold  in  a  fan-like  manner.  A  few  apeciea  are 
wingless.  The  body  is  generally  elongated.  The 
antenniB  are  almost  always  fiiiform  and  many- 
jointed.  The  eyes  are  usually  very  large,  and  there 
are  also  in  most  species  two  or  three  stemmatic 
^es.  The  mouth  much  resembles  that  of  the 
Coleoptera,  but  the  maxillra  are  terminated  by  a 
homy  denticulated  piece,  and  covered  by  a  ijalea; 
and  the  interior  of  the  mouth  eibibits  a  distinct 
fleshy  piece,  which  some  regard  as  a  kind  of  tongue. 
The  0.  uudergo  only  a  aemi-complute  metamor- 
phosis, the  larva  and  pupa  much  resembling  the 
perfect  insect,  except  in  the  want  of  wiogs  ;  which, 
however,  begin  to  be  developed  in  the  pupa.  The 
Earwig  family  differs  so  muoli  from  the  other  O.  as 
to  have  been  constituted  by  some  entomotogista  into 
a  distinct  order.  See  Eahwio.  The  O.  are  divided 
into  two  sections,  Cureoi-ia  and  SaUatoria;  the  first 
with  legs  adapted  for  running,  as  the  Mantis  family, 
Spectre  Insects,  Walking  Sticks,  Leaf  Inac^,  Ac. ; 
the  second  having  the  hinder  legs  very  large  and 
stroug,  generally  adapted  for  kaping,  as  Grnss. 
hoppers.  Locusts,  Crickets,  kc 

ORTOLAN  {Eniheraa  kortuhna),  a  species  of 
Bunting  (q.  v.),  much  resembling  the  Yellow 
Hammer,  and  not  quite  equal  to  it  in  aize.    '^'  - 


Ortolan  {Emieriia  horitdana). 

adult  male  has  the  back  reddish  brown,  the  wings 
dusky  black  and  rufous  brown ;  the  tail  dnsky 
blac^  some  of  the  outer  tail-feathers  with  a  patui 
of  white  on  the  broad  inner  web ;  the  chin,  throat, 
and  upper  part  of  the  breast  yellowish -green ;  the 
other  under  parts  reddish  buff-colour.  Taeplomage 
of  the  female  is  of  less  vivid  hues.  The  O.  occurs 
in  great  flocks  in  the  south  of  Enrope  and  north  of 
Africa.  Even  in  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  a 
summer  bird  of  passage,  but  its  migrations  eitend 
as  far  north  as  Lapland,  although  in  Britain  it  is  a 
very  rare  bird,  and  only  of  accidental  occurrence.  It 
has  no  song,  but  merely  a  monotonous  chirping  note. 


It  frequenta  bushy  places,  but  often  makes  H«  owt 
on  the  ground  in  cornfields,  particularly  where  tbe 
soil  is  sandy.  No  bird  ia  so  highly  esteemed  bj 
epicures,  and  vast  nnmben  are  used  for  the  table. 
It  is  taken  chiefly  by  nets,  with  the  aid  of  docoy- 
birds,  and  after  beinp  taken  is  fattened  on  millet 
and  oats,  in  rooms  dimly  lighted  by  lamps.  Tlmg 
treated,  it  becomes  excessively  fat^  sometlmea  so  u 
to  die  of  obesity;  and  attains  a  weight  of  three 
ounces.  Great  numbers  of  ortolans,  potted  sad 
pickled,  are  exported  from  Cyprua. 

ORTO'NA,  a  town  of  Uapha  on  the  Adriatic,  in 
the  province  of  CSiieti  (Abnuzo  Citia),  and  U  mllu 
east  of  the  town  of  that  name.  It  gives  tille  to  s 
bishop,  and  contains  a  cathednl  and  other  religiani 
edifices.  Its  port  has  ceased  to  exist,  and  ve»i«li 
are  now  obliged  to  anchor  about  a  mile  from  the 
town  in  uusbeltered  roads,  where,  however,  ths 
water  is  deep  and  the  bottom  good.  Wine  is  eiten- 
sively  grown,  and  has  a  local  reputation  as  the  but 
in  this  part  of  Italy.    Pop.  about  TOM). 

CRTYX.    Sea  ViROiniiH  Qitail. 

ORVIETO,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  capital  ti 
tbe  del^ation  of  the  same  name,  which  was  lor- 
merty  included  in  tbe  Pa^  Stat^  but  now  farmi 
part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  stands  on  the  right 
hank  of  the  Faglia,  S  miles  north-east  of  Idke 
Bolsena,  and  60  miles  north-north-west  of  Kone. 
It  occupies  a  strong  position  on  a  steep  hill,  is  well 
built,  and  is  surrounded  with  wali^  It  has  been  the 
seat  of  a  bishop  since  S09  A.  S.  The  cathedral,  a 
beautiful  sjiecimen  of  tbe  Italian  Gothic,  and  one  ol 
the  most  nchly -decorated  edifices  in  Italy,  is  built 
of  black  and  white  marble,  was  begun  in  1290,  and 
completed  about  the  middle  of  the  14th  ceatiuy. 
The  facade  is  nnsurpsBsed  in  richness  of  material, 
and  in  the  beauty  of  its  mosaics,  sculjptures,  and 
elaborate  ornamentation.  The  interior  is  also 
maguihcently  decorated  wiUi  sculptures  and  paint- 
ings. The  other  chief  buildings  are  St  Patrick'! 
Well,  and  several  jwlaces.  Fop.  6336,  who  trade  ia 
com,  cattle,  and  silk,  and  a  delicate  white  wine, 
which  is  highly  esteemed  at  Rome. 

O.,  called  in  the  time  of  the  Longobards  Urbi 
Vetat~ot  which  its  present  name  is  a  corruption— 
haa  been  the  place  of  residence  and  retreat  in 
turbulent  times  of  upwards  of  30  poiiea.  The  city  is 
evidently  of  Etruscan  origin,  but  of  its  early  history 
nothing  is  known. 


It  is  often  represented  on  the  monuments  of  Egypt 
and  as  these  representations  are  almost  always  in 
profile,  it  ii  generally  made  to  appear  ••  having 


ORYZA-OSCL 


only  one  horn,  tiius  probably  oontributinff  to  the 
fahU  of  the  nnicom;  and,  indeed,  all  tne  older 
figniet  of  the  nnicom  exhibit  a  considerable  reeem- 
l&noe  to  this  kind  of  antelope.  The  name  AntUope 
oryx  was  given  b^  Pallas  to  the  Gems-boo  (q.  v.), 
an  antelope  certainly  much  resembling  the  O.,  bat 
found  only  in  Sonth  Africa ;  and  it  is  now  genially 
belieyed  that  the  true  O.  of  the  ancients  is  a  species 
also  known  as  the  Aloazel  {Antilope  OazeUa,  or 
Orjp;  bezoartiea),  common  in  the  north  of  Africa^ 
It  is  abont  three  feet  six  inches  high,  of  a  stout 
figure ;  with  sheep-like  muzzle ;  long  ears  ;  horns 
of  the  male  from  two  to  three  feet  long,  slender, 
grsuhially  attenuated,  directed  backwards  and 
gently  curved,  annnlated  for  about  half  their  length; 
tiie  female  also  having  horns. 

ORrZA.    See  Rice. 

OSA'OA,  an  imperial  city  of  Japan,  in  N.  lat. 
35'  5',  about  30  miles  from  its  seaport  of  Hiogo,  is 
situated  on  a  large  river  on  the  south-east  coast  of 
the  ialand  of  Nipon,  in  the  most  central  and  popu- 
lous part  of  the  empire,  and  surroimded  by  the 
great  tea  districts.  It  is  the  great  emporium  of 
trade  and  luxury ;  bearing  mucn  about  the  same 
relation  to  Japan  that  Soo-chow  once  did  to  China. 
By  the  treaty  of  1858,  British  subjects  were  to  be 
allowed  fo  reside  in  O.  for  the  puqiose  of  trade  from 
January  1,  1863.  The  population  of  O.  has  been 
estimated  at  about  80,000. 

OSA'GE,  a  river  of  Missouri,  U.S.,  rises  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Kansas,  and  flowing  easterly  in  a 
Teiy  circuitous  course  about  400  miles,  empties  into 
the  Missouri  River  near  Jefferson  City. 

OSAGE  ORANGE  {Madura  aurantiaca),  a  tree 
of  the  natural  order  MoracetB,  a  native  of  North 
America.  It  attains  a  height  varying,  according 
to  soU  and  situation,  from  twenty  to  sixty  feet.  It 
u  of  the  same  genus  with  Fustic  (q.  v.),  and  its 
vood,  which  is  bright  yellow,  might  probably  be 
used  for  dyeing.  The  wood  is  fine-grained  and  very 
ela^^ic,  and  is  much  used  by  the  North  American 
Indians  for  making  bows.  The  O.  O.  has  been 
saccessfuUy  introduced  into  Britain  as  a  hedge 
plaut  lis  fruit  is  about  the  size  of  a  large 
orange,  has  a  tuberculated  surface  of  a  golden 
colour,  and  is  filled  internally  with  radiating  some- 
what woody  fibres,  and  with  a  yellow  milky  juice, 
the  odour  of  which  is  generally  disliked,  so  that 
the  fniit,  although  not  unwholesome,  is  seldom 
eaten. 

O'SBORNB  or  ST  HELEN'S  BEDS  are  a 
series  of  strata  of  the  Middle  Eocene  period,  occur- 
ring in  the  Isle  of  Wight.  They  have  been  divided 
into  two  groups :  1.  Tne  St  Helen's  Sands,  consist- 
in.^  of  layers  of  white,  green,  and  yellow  sands, 
interstratified  with  blue,  white,  and  yellowish  clays 
and  marls,  with  a  maximum  Uiickness  of  50  feet ; 
and,  2,  the  Nettlestone  Gnts,  composed  of  vellow 
limestone  and  marl,  and  a  shelly  freestone,  which  is 
much  used  for  building,  having  a  maximum  thick- 
ness of  20  feet.  The  fossils  of  the  Osborne  Beds  are 
species  of  Paludina  and  Cypris,  and  the  spirally 
scuIiTtured  spore-cases  of  Ciuira.  The  group  is  of 
fresh  and  brackish  water  origin,  and  is  very  variable 
in  mineral  character  and  thickness. 

OSOAB  L,  Josbpf-Franoib,  king  of  Sweden  and 
Norway,  was  bom  at  Paris,  July  4,  1799,  and  was 
the  only  issue  of  the  marriage  of  Charles  XIV.  (q.  v.), 
formerly  Marshal  Bemadf^te,  with  Desir6e  Clary, 
the  daughter  of  a  MarseiUais  merchant,  and  sister  of 
Madame  Joseph  Bonaparte^  After  the  election  of 
his  father  as  crown-prince  of  Sweden,  0.  received 
the  title  of  Duke  of  Sudermania,  and  was  placed 


under  the  tutelage  of  the  poet  Atterbom,  for  the 
purpose  of  acquiring  the  Swedish  language.  Ir 
1818,  he  entered  the  university  of  Upsala,  where 
his  education  was  completed,  llie  effects  of  the 
thorough  training  he  received  were  seen  in  his 
remarkable  proficiency  in  science,  literature,  and 
especially  the  fine  arts.  For  some  time  he  gave 
himself  up  almost  entirely  to  the  study  of  music, 
and  comi)osed  various  pieces,  including  an  opera^ 
and  several  waltzes,  marches,  &c  ;  he  is  also  the 
author  of  several  songs  and  hymns,  some  of  which 
aie  still  popular  in  Sweden.  What  is  of  more  con- 
sequence, however,  he  became  thoroughly  imbued 
with  the  national  sentiments,  and  after  his  admission 
to  a  share  in  the  administration,  vigorously  opposed, 
though  with  becoming  filial  respect,  the  pro-Bussian 
pohcy  of  his  father.  This  course  of  conduct 
rendered  him  immensely  popular,  and  on  March  8, 
1844,  his  accession  to  the  throne  wf»  hailed  with 
rapture  by  the  great  majority  of  his  subjects.  His 
rule  was  distinguished  for  its  liberality  and  justice ; 
and  many  liberal  measures,  such  as  those  for  the 
removal  of  Jewish  disabilities,  freedom  of  manufac- 
tures and  commerce,  and  parliamentary  reform  (the 
last  mentioned  being  vigorously  opposed  by  the 
nobility),  were  laid  before  the  R'Jcadad  by  his 
orders.  He  introduced  these  changes  with  caution 
and  gentleness,  and  had  the  gratification  of  seeing, 
in  most  cases,  his  prudence  crowned  with  success. 
His  foreign  policy  was  of  an  independent  and 
anti-Russian  character,  and  during  the  Crimean 
war  he  joined  (November  21,  1855)  the  king  of 
Denmark  i^  a  declaration  of  armed  neutraJity, 
which  ^adually  assumed  a  more  hostile  attitude 
to  Kussia,  and  would  have  inevitably  led  to  war, 
had  not  the  Paris  treaty  so  rapidly  succeeded.  His 
attitude  at  this  time  gained  him  general  favour  and 
respect  throughout  Europe.  On  July  19,  1823,  he 
married  Josej^ine  Beauhamais,  the  granddaughter 
of  the  Empress  Josephine,  by  whom  he  had  five 
children,  the  eldest  of  whom,  on  account  of  his 
father's  failing  health,  was  appointed  regent,  Sep- 
tember 25,  1857,  and  succeeded  to  the  throne  as 
Charles  XV.  on  the  death  of  0.,  July  8,  1859. 
While  crown-prince,  O.  published  two  works,  a 
Memoir  on  the  Education  of  Vie  People^  and  an 
Eaaay  on  Punishments  and  PenaX  Establishments, 

OSOEO'LA  (Seminole,  As'Se'ho-lar)^  a  chief  of 
the  tribe  of  Seminole  Indians  in  Florida,  U.S.,  was 
bom  about  1803.  He  was  the  son  of  an  English 
trader,  named  Powell,  and  the  daughter  of  a 
Seminole  chief.  In  1835  the  wife  of  O.,  a  chiefs 
daughter,  was  claimed  and  seized  as  a  slave  by  the 
owner  of  her  mother.  The  outraged  husband 
threatened  revenge,  and  for  his  threats  was 
imprisoned  six  days  in  irons  by  Greneral  Thompson. 
Lymg  in  wait,  a  few  days  afterwards  he  killed  the 
general  and  four  others.  This  was  the  beginning  of 
the  second  Seminole  war.  Laying  an  ambush  soon 
after,  he  killed  Major  Dale  and  a  small  detachment 
of  soldiers,  and  taking  to  the  almost  impenetrable 
Everglades,  with  two  or  three  hundred  followers,  he 
fought  for  a  year  with  great  energy  and  skill  the 
superior  numbers  sent  against  him.  He  was  taken 
prisoner  at  last  by  General  Jessnp,  while  holding  a 
conference  under  a  flag  of  truce,  an  act  of  inexcus- 
able treachery,  though  represented  as  one  of  retalia- 
tion, and  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie  tmtU  his  death 
in  January  1838. 

O'SCI,  originally  OPSCI  (rendered  bv  Momms^n, 
'labourers,'  from  opus^  a  work),  in  Greek  always 
OPIKOI,  the  name  of  an  Italian  people,  who 
at  an  early  period  occupied  Campania,  and 
were  either  closely  allied  to,  or  the  same  race  as 
the    Ausones.       Subsequently    (about    423    b.  c.) 

m 


OSCULATION  AXD  OSCULATING  CIRCLE -OSIER. 


Samnites  from  the  hilly  districts  to  the  north 
overran  the  country,  and  amalgamated  with  the 
inhabitants  whom  they  had  subjugated.  It  is 
conjectured  that  the  oonquerora  were  few  in 
numbersi  as  (like  the  Normans  in  English  history) 
they  adopted  in  time  the  language  of  the  conquered, 
but  whether  they  naodifid  the  original  Osoan 
lau^^ua^,  and  if  so»  to  what  extent,  cannot  now  be 
ascertained.  As  it  was  these  Samnitic  Oscans  or 
Campanians  who  formed  that  Samnitic  people  with 
wliom  both  the  Greeks  of  Lower  Italy  and  the 
Romans  first  came  into  contact,  the  names  Osci  and 
Oacan  language  were  subsequently  a^vplied  to  all  the 
<}t)ier  races  and  dialects  whose  origin  was  nearly  or 
wholly  the  same.  The  Oscan  lan^iage  was  not 
substantially  different  from  the  Latm,  out  only  a 
nuler  and  more  primitive  form  of  the  same  central 
Italic  tongua  The  territory  where  it  was  spoken 
comprised  the  countries  of  the  Samnites,  Frentani, 
Northern  Apulians,  Hirpini,  Campani,  Lucani, 
Bnittii,  and  Mamertini,  whose  aialects  only 
sli.^htly  differed  from  each  other;  besides  the 
entire  Samnitic  races,  whence  the  language  is  some- 
times called  Samnitic  or  Saiinia  The  races  situated 
north  of  the  Silarus  were  purely  Samnitic;  those 
south  of  it,  and  even  of  the  re^on  round  the  Gulf 
of  Naples,  were  Gneco-Samnitic.  The  use  of  the 
national  Samnitic  alphabet  was  confined  to  the 
firmer.  By  the  victories  of  the  Romans  over  the 
Samnites,  and  the  oonferring  of  the  chitas  on  all  the 
Italians  (88  B.C.),  an  end  was  put  to  the  ofiicial  use 
of  the  Oscan  ton'^ie;  nevertheless,  in  the  time  of 
Varro  (1st  c.  B.O.)  it  was  still  used  by  the  people,  and 
as  late  as  the  destruction  of  Herculaneum  and 
Pompeii  was  s])oken  by  a  few  individuals.  During 
its  most  flourishing  period  it  was  something  more 
than  a  country  joa/ow;  it  is  even  possible  that  the 
Oscans  had  a  literature  and  art  of  their  own,  which 
may  not  have  been  without  influence  on  the  early 
Oalabrian  poets,  Ennius  and  Pacuvius,  and  the 
Campanian  Lucilius.  At  any  rate,  we  certainly 
know  of  a  poetic  creation  peculiar  to  the  Cam- 
panians,  a  kind  of  unwritten,  regular,  probably 
improvised  farce,  with  fixed  parts  and  changing 
situations,  which  was  transplanted  to  Rome  about 
3!)4  B.a,  but  was  imitated  there  not  in  Oscan  but  in 
Latin.  See  ATELLANiE.  Besides  a  considerable 
number  of  coins  with  Oscan  le^nds,  there  are  still 
extant  a  number  of  inscriptions  la  the  Oscan  tongue, 
among  which  the  most  important  for  linguistic 
purposes  are,  1^,  the  Tabiua  Bantina^  a  bronze 
tablet  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Bantia  (on  the 
borders  of  Lucania  and  Apulia),  referring  to  the 
municipal  afiairs  of  that  town;  2d,  the  CippU8 
AhAlanuSj  or  Stone  of  Abella  (in  Campania) ;  and 
3^,  a  bronze  tablet  found  near  Agnone,  m  Northern 
SainniunL  See  Mommsen's  Oskutche  Slvdien  (Berlin, 
1845),  andZH'e  U liter italUclien  DialekU  (Leip.  1850) ; 
also  FriedlUnder's  Die  Oskischen  Miinzen  (Leip. 
1850),  Kirchhors  Das  Stadtrecht  van  Ban' la  (BerL 
1853),  and  Donaldaon*s  Varronianus  (pp.  104-138). 

OSCULA'TION  AND  OSCULATING  CIRCLE 

(Lat.  oacularif  to  kiss).  One  curve  is  said  to  osculate 
another  when  several  points  are  common  to  it  with 
the  other,  and  the  degree  of  osculation  is  said  to 
be  high  or  low  according  as  the  number  of  points 
in  contact  are  many  or  few.  The  number  of  possible 
points  of  contact  is  determined  by  the  number  of 
constants  contained  in  the  equation  to  the  tangent 
cyrve  (supposing  the  number  of  constants  in  the 
equation  to  the  curve  which  is  touched  to  be 
greater).  The  same  is  true  of  a  straight  line  and 
a  curve.  The  equation  to  a  straight  line  being  of 
the  form  oar  +  6,  contains  two  constants,  a  and  b, 
hence  a  straight  line  can  coincide  with  a  curve  in 
two  contiguous  points,  and  the  contact  is  said  to 
isa 


be  of  the  Jirgt  onler.  This  straight  line  is  the 
tangent  at  the  point  of  coutaot  When  a  straight 
line,  not  a  tangent^  meets  a  curve,  there  is  no 
'  contact '  but  '  sectiout*  as  in  that  case  only  one 
point  is  common  to  the  straight  line  and  the  curve. 
The  equation  to  a  circle  contains  three  constants, 
and  therefore  a  circlf  can  have  three  oonsecuttve 
points  in  common  with  a  curve,  and  tiiie  contact 
IS  then  of  the  second  order.  This  circle  is  known  as 
the  *  circle  of  curvature,'  or  the  osculating  circle 
(see  Fig.  of  article  Curvature),  and  has  for  its 
radius  tne  radius  of  curvature  of  that  portion  of  the 
curve  with  which  the  cirde  is  in  oontacl  No 
other  circle  can  have  so  high  a  degree  of  contact 
with  a  curve  at  any  point  as  the  osculating  circle  at 
that  poinl 

O'SHKOSH,  a  town  in  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  on  both 
sides  of  the  Fox  River,  at  its  entrance  to  Lake 
Winnebago,  90  miles  north-north-east  of  Madison. 
It  has  a  large  lumber  trade,  saw-mills,  planing-mills, 
steam-boats,  &c    Pop.  (1860)  6086. 

OSIANDER,  Andrsas,  one  of  the^most  learned 
and  zealous  of  the  German  reformers,' was  bom  in 
1498,  at  Gunzenhausen,  near  NUmberg.  His  father 
was  a  blacksmith,  called  Hosemann,  out  of  which 
name  his  son,  after  the  fashion  of  his  time,  manu- 
factiured  the  classic-looking  Osiander.  O.  was 
educated  at  Ingolstadt  and  Wittenberg ;  and  after 
completing  his  course  of  study,  became  a  preacher 
at  Niimberg,  where  he  was  conspicuously  active  in 
introducing  the  Reformation  (1522).  He  ardently 
advocated  the  views  of  Luther  in  his  controversy 
with  the  Swiss  reformer  Zwiogli,  on  the  question 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  He  took  part  in  the  confer- 
ence  held  at  Marburg  (1529),  and  was  present  at  the 
diet  of  Augsburg  (1530).  In  1548  he  was  deprived 
of  his'  office  as  preacher  at  Nlimberg,  because  he 
would  not  agree  to  the  Augsburg  Interim ;  but  was 
immediately  afterwards  invited  by  Albrecht,  Duke 
of  Prussia,  to  become  the  head  of  the  theological 
faculty  in  the  newly-established  university  of  Konigs- 
berg.  He  was  hardly  settled  here  when  he  became 
entangled  in  a  theological  strife  that  imbittered  his 
naturally  imperious  and  arrogant  temper.  In  a 
treatise,  De  Lege  et  Evangelio  ('  On  the  liaw  and  the 
Gr08i)el '),  0.  asserted  that  the  righteousness  by 
which  sinners  are  justified,  is  not  to  1k3  conceived 
as  a  mere  justificatory  or  imputative  act  on  the 
part  of  God,  but  as  something  inward  and  subjec- 
tive, as  the  impartation  of  a  real  righteousness, 
springing  in  a  mystical  way  from  the  union  of 
Christ  with  man.  The  moat  notable  of  his  oppon- 
ents was  Martin  Chemnitz  (q.  v.).  A  seemingly 
amicable  arrangement  between  the  disputants  was 
brought  about  by  Iluke  Albrecht  in  1551 ;  but  the 
strife  was  soon  recommenced,  by  O.  publishing  some 
new  writings  in  which  he  attacked  Melanchthon ; 
nor  did  his  death  in  the  following  year  put  a  stop 
to  the  war  of  words.  It  was  continued  by  his 
followers,  called  Osiandrids,  who  were  finally 
extinjTuished  by  the  Corpus  Doctnnce  Prutemcum 
(in  1567),  which  caused  their  banishment  from  all 
parte  of  Prussia.  See  Wilken,  Andr.  Onianden^s 
Leben,  Lehre  und  Sdiriften  (Stra]s.  1844). 

O'SIER  (Ft.  probably  of  Celtic  origin),  the  popa- 
lar  name  of  those  st^ecies  of  Willow  (q.  v.),  which 
are  chiefiy  used  for  basket-making  and  other  wicker- 
work.  They  are  of  low  bushy  growth,  few  of  them 
ever  becoming  trees,  their  branches  long  and  slender; 
and  they  are  the  more  valuable  in  proportion  to  the 
len^h,  slendemess,  suppleness,  and  tou^ness  of 
their  branches.  Their  leaves  are  long  and  narrow, 
lanceolate,  or  nearly  so,  obscurely  notched  on  the 
margin,  almoet  always  smooth  on  the  upper  nide, 
but  generally  white   and   downy   beneatk      Tbi 


OSIEIU-OSIRIS. 


GoHMOir  O.  {SaMx  vimtnaU»), »  oommon  native  of 
wet  allnvul  grounds  in  Britain  and  many  parts 
of  Ekirope,  is  one  of  those  wbioh  sometimes 
become  trees,  although  when  cultivated  for  basket- 
BMkio^,  it  is  not  pennitted  to  do  sow  It  has 
two  distinct  stamens  in  the  flowers  of  the  male 
catkins;  and  the  stigmas  of  the  female  catkins  are 
long  and  slender.  It  is  often  planted  to  prevent 
the  banks  of  rivers  from  being  washed  away.  Its 
bmnchei  are  used  for  making  hoops  and  coarse 
bssketb  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivation, 
not  easily  ciiatinguished  except  by  a  very  practised 
eye,  but  much  more  useful  than  the  original  or  wild 
kind,  which  is  apt  to  break,  and  therefore  of  little 
▼slue.  More  suitable  for  the  finer  kinds  of  basket- 
makinff  are  Salie  Forbyana,  sometimes  called  the 
FiNB  Basket  O.,  and  8.  rubra,  known  near  London 
as  the  Grsen-leaved  O.  or  Orkard  ;  8.  triandra,  a 
triaadrouB  species,  known  to  English  osier-cnltiva- 
ton  and  basket-makers  as  the  Spaniard  Bod  ; 
whilst  8.  vUellinay  a  pentandrous  species,  sometimes 
becoming  a  tree,  is  the  Golden  0.  or  Golden 
Willow,  remarkable  for  the  bright-yellow  colour 
of  its  branches,  as  well  as  for  their  pliancy 
and  toughness.  There  are  other  species,  not 
natives  of  Britain,  which  are  also  valuable;  but 
the  osiers  chiefly  cultivated  belong  to  those  which 
have  been  named,  or  are  very  nearly  allied  to 
them. 

Osiers  are  very  extensively  cultivated  in  Holland, 
Belgium,  and  France,  on  alhivial  soils,  especially 
near  the  mouths  of  rivers  ;  and  from  these  countries 
ereat  quantities  of  '  rods*  are  im}>orted  into  Britain. 
They  are  cultivated  also  to  a  considerable  extent 
in  some  parts  of  England,  particularly  on  the  banks 
of  the  Thames  and  the  Severn,  and  in  the  level 
districts  of  Cambrid^shire,  Huntingdonshire,  &c. 
They  are  nowhere  extensively  cultivated  in  Scot- 
land. Islets  in  the  Thames  and  other  rivers, 
entirely  planted  with  osiers,  are  called  0.  holU, 
Osiers  gro-w  particularly  well  on  grounds  flooded 
bv  the  tide.  Much  depends  on*  tne  closeness  of 
planting  of  O.  grounds;  as  when  space  is  too 
abnndant,  the  shoots  of  many  of  the  kinds  do  not 
erow  up  so  long,  slendei^  and  unbranched  as  is 
denrable.  The  French  cultivators,  when  they  wish 
osiers  for  the  finest  kinds  of  basket-work,  cut 
branches  into  little  bits  with  a  bud  or  eye  in  each, 
and  plant  these  pretty  close  together,  so  as  to 
obtain  weak  but  tine  shoots;  but  generally  cut- 
tings of  fifteen  or  sixteen  inches  m  length  are 
used,  and  of  tolerably  thick  branches ;  and  these 
are  placed  in  rows,  from  18  inches  to  2  feet 
apart,  and  at  distances  of  15  to  18  inches  in  the 
nw.  O.  plantations  in  light  soils  continue  produc- 
tive for  15  or  20  years,  and  much  longer  in  rich 
aJlovial  soils.  Osiers  succeed  best  in  rich  soils,  but 
sot  in  clavs.  No  cultivation  is  required  after 
pUnting ;  but  the  shoots  are  cut  once  a  vear,  at  any 
time  between  the  fall  of  the  leaf  and  the  rising 
of  the  sap  in  spring.  After  cutting,  they  are  sorted ; 
and  those  intended  for  brown  baskets  are  carefully 
dried  and  stacked,  care  bein^  taken  that  they  do 
■ot  heat,  to  which  they  are  liable,  like  hay,  and  by 
which  they  would  be  rotted  and  rendered  worthless 
The  stacks  most  be  carefully  protected  from  rain. 
The  osiers  intended  for  white  baskets  cannot  at 
onoe  be  peeled;  bat  after  being  sorted,  they  are 
placed  npright  in  wide  shaUow  trenches;,  in  which 
there  is  water  to  the  depth  of  about  four  inches,  or 
in  rivulets,  being  kept  secure  in  their  upright  posi- 
tion by  posts  and  rails ;  and  thus  they  remain  till 
they  brain  to  bad  and  bloanm  in  spring,  which  they 
do  as  ifthey  remained  on  the  parent  plant,  sending 
forth  sBiall  roots  at  the  same  time  into  the  water. 
They  are  tbsn,  in  ordinary  seasons,  easily  peeled  by 


drawing  them  through  an  instrument  called  a  hrtak, 
but  in  cold  springs  it  is  sometimes  necessary  to  lay 
them  for  a  while  under  a  quantity  of  litter.  Aftor 
bein^  peeled,  they  are  stacked,  preparatory  to  sale. 

It  is  impossible  to  form  an  estimate  of  the  quantity 
produced  in  Great  Britain,  but  our  imports  amoimt 
annually  to  about  200,000  bundles ;  nearly  one- half 
are  from  Holland,  and  the  remainder  from  t^e 
Hanse  Towns,  Belgium,  and  France. 

OSI'BIS,  according  to  others,  Asiriay  or  JTy/tiris 
{*  Many-eyed '),  a  celebrated  Egyptian  deity,  whose 
worship  was  universal  throughout  Egypt  This 
name  appears  in  the  hieroglyphic  texts  as  early 
as  the  4th  dynasty,  and  is  expressed  by  a  throne 
and  eye;  at  a  later  period,  that  of  the  19th,  a 
palanquin  is  substituted  for  a  throne ;  and  under 
the  Komans,  the  pupil  of  the  eye  for  the  eye 
itsell  O.  does  not  mdeed  appear  to  have  been 
universally  honoured  till  the  time  of  the  11th 
and  12th  dynasties,  or  about  1800  B.C.,  when 
Abydos,  whi^  was  reputed  to  be  his  burial-place, 
rose  into  importance.  In  the  monuments  of  this 
age  he  is  called  great  god,  eternal  ruler,  dwelling 
in  the  west,  and  lord  of  Abut  or  Abydos.  Even  at 
the  most  remote  period,  individuals  after  death  were 
supposed  to  become  an  Osiris ;  and  all  the  prayers 
and  ceremonies  periormed  oraddressed  to  them  were 
in  this  character,  referring  to  their  future  life  and 
resurrection.  At  the  time  of  the  18th  dynasty,  this 
title  of  Osiris  was  prefixed  to  their  names,  and 
continued  to  be  so  till  the  time  of  the  Romans  and 
fall  of  pa^nism. 

In  the  Kitual,  and  other  inscriptions,  O.  is  said  to 
be  the  son  of  Seb  or  Saturn,  and  born  of  Nu  or 
Rhea ;  to  be  the  father  of  Horns  bv  Isis,  of  Annbia, 
and  of  the  four  genii  of  the  deaa.  Many  mystic 
notions  were  connected  with  O. ;  he  was  sometimes 
thought  to  be  the  son  of  Ra,  the  Sun,  or  of  Atum, 
the  setting  Sun,  and  the  Bennu  or  Phcenix ;  ^o 
to  be  uncreate,  or  self-en^ndered,  and  he  is  identi- 
fied  in  some  instances  w;th  the  Sun  or  the  Creator, 
and  the  Pluto  or  Judge  of  Hades.  0.  was  born 
on  the  first  of  the  Epagomenoe,  or  five  additional 
days  of  the  year.  Wneu  bom,  Ohronos  or  Saturn 
is  said  to  have  civen  him  in  charge  to  Pamyles ; 
having  become  King  of  Egypt,  he  is  stated  to 
have  civilised  the  E^ptians,  and  especiallv  to 
have  taught  them  agriculture,  the  culture  of  the 
vine,  and  the  art  of  making  beer;  he  afterwards 
travelled  over  the  earth,  and  conquered  the  people 
everywhere  by  his  persuasion.  During  his  absence, 
his  kingdom  was  confided  to  Isis,  who  guarded  it 
strictly,  and  Set  or  Typhon,  the  brother  of  O.  (who 
was  bom  on  the  3d  of  the  Epagomense),  was  unable 
to  revolt  against  Imn.  Typhon  had,  however, 
persuaded  72  other  persons,  and  Aso,  the  queen  of 
Ethiopia,  to  join  him  in  a  conspiracy ;  and  having 
taken  the  measure  of  O.,  he  had  a  chest  made  of  the 
same  dimensions,  richly  ornamented  and  carved, 
and  produced  it  at  a  banquet,  where  he  promised  to 
give  it  to  whomsoever  it  should  fit;  and  when  all 
had  lain  down  and  tried  it,  and  it  suited  none,  0. 
at  last  laid  himself  down  in  it,  and  was  immediately 
covered  over  by  the  conspirators,  who  placed  the 
lid  upon  it,  and  fastened  it  with  nails  and  molteil 
lead.  The  chest  was  then  hurled  into  the  Nile,  aud 
floated  down  the  Tanaitic  mouth  into  the  sea.  This 
happened  on  the  17th  of  the  month  Athyr,  in  the 
28th  year  of  the  reign  or  age  of  Osiris.  Khem  or 
Pan,  and  his  attendant  deities,  discovered  the 
loss  of  the  god;  Isis  immediately  out  off  a  lock 
of  hair  and  went  into  mourning,  and  proceeded 
in  search  of  Anubis,  the  child  of  her  sister 
Nephthys  by  0. ;  and  havine  found  him,  brought 
him  np.  The  chest  having  floated  to  Byblos,  had 
lodged  in  a  tamarisk,  and  became  enclosed  in  tiie 


OSIRIS -OSMOSE;  DIALYSIS. 


tree,  which  was  cut  down  by  the  king,  and  the 
trunk,  containing  the  chest  and  the  body  of  the 
god,  converted  into  a  pillar  to  support  the  roof  of 
the  palace.  The  goddess  proceeded  to  Byblos,  and 
ingratiated  herself  with  the  queen's  women  by 
plaiting  their  hair  and  imparting  to  it  an  ambrosial 
smell,  so  that  th$  moDar^  whose  name  waa  Mel- 
carthus,  and  his  wife,  Saosia  or  Nemanoun,  inyited 
her  to  court  to  take  care  of  the  royal  QkUd,  She 
endeavoured  to  confer  immortality  upon  him  by 
placing  him  on  a  fire,  and  changing  herself  into  a 
swallow,  flew  round  the  pillar  and  bemoaned  her 
fate.  ,The  queen  became  alarmed  at  the  danger 
of  her  child ;  Isis  revealed  herself,  and  asked  for  tne 
pillar  of  tamarisk  wood,  which  was  given  her.  She 
then  cut  it  open,  and  took  out  the  chest,  making 
great  lamentations,  and  subsequently  sailed  for 
^gypt,  with  the  eldest  of  the  king's  sons.  The 
godaess,  intending  to  visit  Horus  her  son  at  Buto, 
deposited  the  chest  in  an  unfrequented  spot;  but 
Typhon  discovered  it  by  the  light  of  the  moon,  tore 
it  into  14  pieces,  and  distributed  each  to  a  nome  or 
district.  Isis  recovered  all  by  passing  the  marshes 
in  a  boat  of  papyrus ;  all  except  the  phallus,  which 
had  been  eaten  by  the  Lepidotus,  the  Phagrus,  and 
Oxyrhvnchus  fish.     .Subsequently,  a   battle   took 

I>laoe  between  Horus  and  Typhon  or  Set,  which 
asted  three  days,  and  ended  by  Typhon  having 
fetters  placed  upon  him.  Isis,  however,  liberated 
Typhon,  which  so  enraged  Horus  that  he  tore  off 
her  diadem,  but  Teti  or  Thoth  placed  on  her  the 
head  of  a  cow  instead.  Typhon  finally  accused 
Horus  of  ill^timacy  ;  but  the  question  was  decided 
between  them  by  Teti  or  Thoth  and  the  gods. 
From  0.,  after  his  death,  and  Isis  sprung  Haipo- 
crates.  See  Harfocbatbs.  0.  seems  to  have  been 
finally  revived,  and  to  have  become  the  judge  of 
the  Kameter  or  Hades,  presiding  at  the  final 
judgment  of  souls  in  the  Hall  of  tne  two  Truths, 
with  the  42  demons  who  presided  over  the  capital 
sins,  and  awarding  to  the  soul  its  final  destiny. 
Thoth  or  Hermes  recorded  the  judgment,  and  justi- 
fied the  deceased  against  his  accusers,  as  he  had 
furuiei'l^  done  for  Osiris. 

Considerable  diversity  of  opinion  existed  amongst 
the  ancients  themselves  as  to  the  meaning  of  the 
myth  of  Osiris.  He  represented,  accoming  to 
Plutarch,  the  inundation  of  the  Nile ;  Isis,  the 
irrigated  land ;  Horus,  the  vapours  ;  Buto,  the 
marshes ;  Nephthys,  the  edge  of  the  desert ; 
Anubis,  the  barren  soil ;  Tyimon,  was  the  sea ; 
the  conspirators,  the  drought ;  the  chest,  the 
river's  banks.  The  Tanaitic  branch  was  the  one 
which  overflowed  unprofitably ;  the  28  years, 
the  number  of  cubits  which  the  Nile  rose  at 
Elephantine ;  Harpocrates,  the  first  shootings  of 
the  com.  Such  are  the  naturalistic  intoipretations 
of  Plutarch;  but  there  appears  in  it  the  dualistic 
principle  of  good  and  evu,  represented  by  0.  and 
2Set  or  Typhon,  or  again  paralleled  by  the  contest 
of  Ba  or  the  Sun,  and  Apophis  or  Darkness.  The 
difficulty  of  interpretation  increased  from  the.form 
of  0.  having  become  blended  or  identified  with 
that  of  other  deities,  especiallv  Ptah-Socharis,  the 
pigmy  of  Memphis,  and  the  bull  Hapia  or  Apis, 
the  avatar  of  Ptah.  Osiris  was  the  head  oi  a 
tetrad  of  deities,  whose  local  worship  was  at 
Abvdos,  but  who  were  the  last  repetition  of  the 
go<U  of  the  other  nomes  of  Egypt,  and  who  had 
assumed  an  heroic  or  mortal  type.  In  form,  O. 
is  always  represented  swathed  or  mummied  in 
allusion  to  his  embalmment ;  a  net- work,  suggestive 
of  the  net  by  which  his  remains  were  fished  out 
of  the  Nile,  covers  this  dress  ;  on  his  head  he  wears 
the  cap  at/,  having  at  each  side  the  feather  of  truth, 
of  which  he  was  the  lord.  This  is  placed  on  the 
IM 


horns  of  a  goat.  His  hands  hold  the  crook  and 
whip,  to  indicate  his  governing  and  directing  power ; 
and  his  feet  are  based  on  &b  cubit  of  truth;  a 
panther's  skin  on  a  pole  is  often  placed  before  him, 
and  festoons  of  grapes  hang  over  his  shrine,  connect- 
ing him  with  Dionysos.  As  '  the  good  being,'  or 
Onnophris  the  meek  hearted,  the  cdestial  or  kin?  of 
heaven,  he  wears  the  white  or  upper  crown.  Another 
and  rarer  t3rpe  of  him  represento  him  as  the  Tai, 
or  emblem  of  stability,  wearing  the  crown  of  the 
two  Truths  upon  his  nead.  His  worship,  at  a  later 
time,  was  extended  over  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and 
Rome,  and  at  an  early  age  had  penetrated  into 
Phoenicia,  traces  of  it  being  found  on  the  coins 
of  Malta  and  other  plaoes.  He  became  introduced 
along  with  the  Isiac  worship  into  Home,  and  had 
votaries  imder  the  Roman  empire.  But  the  attacks 
of  the  philosophers,  and  the  rise  of  Christianity, 
overthrew  these  exotic  deities,  who  were  never 
popular  with  the  more  cultivated  portion  of  the 
Roman  world. 

Herodotus,  ii.  40—42 ;  Plutarch,  l>e  Iside ; 
TibuUus,  i  7 ;  Diodonis,  i.  25 ;  Prichard,  Mythology^ 
p.  208 ;  Wilkinson,  Man,  and  OusL  iv.  314;  Bunsen, 
Egypt's  Plaeey  i.  414 

O'SMAZOME,  a  name  given  by  Thenard  to  the 
spirit-extract  of  fiesh,  on  which,  as  he  supposed,  its 
agreeable  taste,  when  cooked,  depended.  The  term 
is  now  abandoned  by  chemists. 

CSMIUM  (svmb.  Os ;  equiv.  100 ;  spec  grav.  10) 
is  one  of  the  noble  metals  which  occurs  in  associa- 
tion with  platinum  in  the  form  of  an  alloy  with 
iridium.  It  may  be  obtaine<l  in  the  metallic 
condition  by  several  processes  which  yield  it  either 
in  thin,  dark-gray  glistening  scales,  or  as  a  dense 
iron-black  mass.  It  is  the  least  fusible  of  all  the 
metals ;  the  oxyhydrogen  jet  volatilising,  but  not 
fusing  it. 

Five  oxides  of  0.  are  known— viz.,  the  proUxdde 
(OsO),  which  is  of  a  dark-green  coloar,  and  forms 
green  salte  when  dissolved  in  acids ;  the  aesgiiioxide 
(Os/),),  which  has  not  been  isolated ;  the  Innoxide 
(OsO  J,  which  is  black ;  the  teroxide  (OsO,),  which 
possesses  the  characters  of  a  weak  acid,  but  has 
not  been  isolated ;  and  osmic  acid  (OsO^),  which 
occurs  in  colourless,  glistening,  acicular  crystals, 
freely  soluble  in  water,  and  very  volatile.  At 
about  220%  this  compound  gives  off  an  extremely 
irritating  and  irrespirable  vapour;  and  hence  the 
name  of  the  metal  (from  the  Greek  word  asmj^ 
odour).  It  producer  a  permanent  black  stain 
upon  the  skin,  and  sives  a  blue  precipitate  with 
tincture  of  gaUs.  O.  also  forms  four  chlorides, 
which  correspond  m  composition  to  the  first  four 
oxides.  This  metaPwas  aiscovered  by  Tennant  ixk 
180a 

O'SMOSE ;  DIATjTSIS.  The  earlier  discoveries  of 
Dutrochet  and  Graham  have  been  briefly  described 
in  the  article  on  Diffusion  (q.  v.).  The  subject 
has,  however,  been  much  extenaed  recently,  princi- 
pally by  the  investigations  of  Graham ;  and  aa  the 
whole  phenomena  are  exceedingly  interesting  and 
important,  since  secretion,  absorption,  and  various 
other  organic  processes  are  to  a  great  extent  depen- 
dent on  them,  some  further  detail,  especially  of 
these  later  facts,  may  here  be  given. 

When  two  different  liquids  are  separated  by  a 
bladder  or  other  membrane,  or  a  piaoe  of  calico 
coated  with  coagulated  albumen,  there  is  always  m 
more  or  less  rapid  transference  of  the  two  liquids 
in  opposite  directions  through  the  diaphxagm.  In 
certain  oases,  the  explanation  given  in  the  article 
referred  to  is  complete,  but  in  others  it  appears  to 
be  insufficientb  Graham  has  made  an  extensivo 
series  of  experimente  upon  oamose,  whnre  distilled 


OSMUNDA-OSNABRUCK. 


mux  wu  on  one  nde  of  the  diapbrKgm,  and  vnrioni 
liquidi  uid  Bolutiont  on  the  other,  and  has  arrived 
at  nun;  genenl  results,  of  which  the  following  ore 
tbe  more  importaQt.  The  osmose  is  cnnsidered  as 
pontine  when  more  of  the  water  jiasscs  through  the 
iisphragm  than  of  the  other-  liquid.  Such  sub- 
■tances  as  gum,  gelatine,  &c,,  produce  scarcely  any 
effMt.  Solutions  of  neutral  salts,  such  as  commoa 
•itt,  Epsom  salts,  kc,  follow  the  ordinary  law  of 
diffunnu,  as  if  no  diaphragm  had  been  interpowd. 
Add  Halts  in  solntioa,  and  dilate  acids,  pass  rapidly 
mto  the  water — or  the  osmose  is  nenntivt ;  while 
alkaline  ■olutions  give,  in  general,  m  strong  pontim 
effect 

In  all  the  cases  in  lAich  an  osmotio  action 
occnr*  which  cannot  be  explained  by  capillary 
fortes,  there  is  chemical  action  on  the  diajihragm  ; 
sod  oonvenely,  such  osmose  cannot  be  produced  if 
the  material  of  the  diaphr^m  be  not  acted  an  by 
thf  liquids  in  contact  with  it. 

But  the  most  remarkable  results  of  Orshsm's 
later  inveetiRatiooi  are  those  relating  to  Dialysis 
— i.  c,  to  the  sepanitian  of  the  constituents  of 
mixtures,  and  even  the  decomposition  of  chemical 
compoands,  by  osmose^  The  reeidta  of  his  earlier 
investigations,  ak>ove  given,  shew  a  remarkable 
difference  between  two  classes  of  bodies ;  gum, 
gelatine,  ftc.,  which  form  viacous  solutions,  on  the 
one  hand;  and  salts,  acids,  and  alknlies,  on  tbe 
other.  The  first  class  bo  has  c^ed  CoUoidi ;  the 
second,  CrytUiUoUU.  Tbe  former  are  extremely 
sluo^h,  the  latter  comparatively  rapid  in  their 
action.  Thus,  of  oommon  salt  and  albumen,  under 
precisely  similar  circumstances,  there  pus  through 
the  diaphragm  in  a  given  time  quantities  which  are 
a>  25  to  1  by  weight.  Hence,  if  a  solution  contain- 
ing both  classes  of  sabstance*  be  opposed  to  pure 
water,  tbe  crystalloids  will  pass  rapidly  through 
the  diaphnigm,  and  the  colloids  slowly.  This  pro- 
cess promises  to  be  of  very  great  value  in  medical 
jurisprudence,  aa,  without  introducing  any  new 
substance  (except  the  diaphrofpn  and  ustilled 
water),  we  have  the  means  of  separating  from  the 
generally  coUoidal  contents  of  animal  viscera  such 
poiaonoua  eryatolloids  as  white  arsenic,  vegetable 
alkaloids,  &c.,  which  by  the  old  methods  was  iu 
general  attended  with  great  difficulty,  and  often 
uncertainty.  These  methods  are  still  in  their 
infancy,  but  enough  is  already  known  to  shew  how 
TsloaUe  they  must  soon  become  to  the  chemist 
and  th«  toxicologiat.  One  economical  application 
his  been  propos«l,  and  shewn  to  be  practicable. 
When  a  bladder  is  tilled  with  tba  brine  of  salt 
beef,  and  suspended  in  fresh  water,  tiie  salt  after 
a  time  nearly  all  diaappears,  and  there  remains  in 


the  bladder  a  rich  e 


t  fit  for  m 


For  a  brief  notioe  of  the  apeculation*  which 
Graham's  researches  have  led  him  to  form  as  to 
the  nature  of  Matltr,  we  refer  to  the  article  on  that 
sobject. 

OSMU'NDA,  «  genus  of  Fens,  distangoisbed 
hj  spore-cssee  in  branched,  stalked  masses.      The 

CUSDND-BOVai.,    ROYAl,    OT    Fu>WERlNO    FSIUI     (O. 

rtgatit),  is  the  noblest  and  most  striking  of  British 
ferns.  It  is  very  frequent  in  the  districts  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  most  remarkable  for  the  Inoisture 
ot  their  climate,  growing  in  bog^  places  and  the 


wet  niaipns  ot  woods.  It  haabipinnate  fronds, 
and  panided  spore-oasea  upon  altered  fronds,  which 
appear  aa  stalks   distinct   from    the   fronds,  and 


1  general  ^ipearance    to    that    i 

, o— ->a  planL    It  sometimes  rises  to  11  feet 

a  hei^L  It  is  f^und  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and 
to  Ni^th  America.  It  ponacusca  tonic  and  styptic 
pco|ertin^    and    ite    root-stoclu     wera    forinerly 


Boysl  FtoD  (Otmunita  rtgalu) : 

or  ■  urrtn  tcDTid ;   h,  btincblei  el  fcrtU*  Irani; 
ittti  d,  the  HDii,  iliavliiK  bow  li  opens  bj  Iws 


OSNABRirCK,    or    OSNAB0RO.   a  territory 

occupying  the  western  portion  of  the  kingdom  of 
Hanover,  and  embracing  the  princii>ality  of  O.,  the 
c»untahips  of  Lingen  and  ot  Beutheim,  and  the 
duchy  of  Arensberg-Meppen  and  the  lordship  ot 
Papenbiirg.  Area,  2388  square  miles;  pop.  262,316 
at  the  close  of  1661. 

03NABRUCK,  the  chief  town  of  the  territory, 
lies  in  the  midst  of  the  extended  and  fruitful  valley 
of  the  Hase,  BO  miles  west- sooth -west  ot  Hanover 
by  railway.  It  still  ranks  as  the  third  com- 
mercdal  city  of  Hanover,  although  it  cannot  boast 
ol  the  important  trade  which  it  enjoyed  before  the 
establishment  of  the  existing  system  oi  the  Frussiao 
ZoUverein.  Pop.  16,180.  O.  has  thriving  manu- 
factories of  cigars  and  tobacco,  paper-hangings,  and 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  and  ertenaive  worki 
for  the  preparation  of  mineral  dyes  and  cement, 
brides  iron,  machinery,  and  carriage  manufactories. 
According  to  the  opinion  of  antiquarians,  0.  stands 
en  the  site  of  tbe  ancient  Wittekindsbure.  which 
was  raised  to  a  bishoprio  in  783  by  Charlemame, 
some  relics  of  whom,  together  with  the  pretended 
bonea  of  the  martyrs  Crispinns  and  Urispinianna, 
are  preserved  in  the  cathedral — a  fine  specimen  of 
the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture  of  the  12th 
century.  The  Church  of  St  Mary,  a  noble  Gothic 
building,  was  erected  by  the  burners  of  0.  in  the 
14th  c  during  their  contentious  with  their  haughty 
eoclesiastical  rulers,  and  oontains  tbe  i^ve  of  Miiser, 
in  whose  honour  a  statue  was  placed  in  the  square 
of  the  Cathedral  in  1838.  The  signing  of  the  peace 
of  Westphalia  in  16*8,  in  an  apartment  of  the  town- 
hall,  is  uDUMDemorated  by  the  preservation  of  the 
portraits  <it  ail  the  ambassadors  who  took  part  in 
the  treaty.  It  was  decreed  in  this  treaty  that  the 
ancient  bishopric  of  0.  should  thenceforth  be 
occupied  alternately  by  «  Roman  Catholio  prelate 
and  a  Protestant  secular  prince  of  the  House  of 
Brunswick.Luneburu ;  and  afttT  having  been  last 
hehl  by  Frederick,  Duke  of  York,  the  district  of  0. 
was  ceded  to  Hanover  in  1803,  and  the  chapter 
boally  diasolved. 


OSPBET-OBSIAN. 


O'SPRBT  {PandUm),  a  geuui  of  Faiamida.  of 
which  only  one  ipeciea  ia  known  (P.  fialialtia),  »Uo 
oklled  the  FiaHnia  Hawk  or  Fishino  B^olb,  iinA 
I    Bald    Buzzabd.      It    is    nD£ulftr 


adapted.  Ita  whole  length  ii  about  twenty-two 
inch^:  it  i«  of  a  dark-brown  colour,  vuiegated 
with  blai,  gray,  and  white.  The  under  p»rta  are 
wl^te,  except  a  li^t-brown  band  acrcM  the  cheiL 


Osprej  {PanMm  AoHo^Iut). 

The  bill  is  abort,  rtrong,  ronnded,  and  broad.  The 
tail  ia  rather  long,  the  winga  nre  very  long,  extend- 
ing beyond  the  tail ;  the  under  surface  of  the  toea 
nmarkably  rough,  covered  with  smaU  pointed 
•calea.  «niti>d  for  the  securing  of  slippery  prey ;  the 
olawB  not  grooved  beneath,  as  iii  moat  of  the  Fal- 
tonidai.  T^e  feather*  are  de«titute  of  the  eupple- 
mentaiy  plume,  which  it  cousider^ibly  developed  in 
moat  of  the  Falamida.  The  intestine  diSera  from 
that  of  the  other  FcUamidm  in  being  very  slender 
and  of  ^-eat  length. 

The  O.  is  chiefly  to  be  teen  near  the  tea,  lakes, 
and  large  rivers.  No  bird  is  more  widely  difTuaed 
it  is  found  in  all  qa:irters  of  the  world;  ita  geo 
gisphicsl  range  including  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
North  and  SoaCh  America,  and  Aiutralia,  ftud  both 
very  warm  and  very  cold  cliniates.  It  ia  every- 
where a  bin!  of  passage,  retiring  from  high  northern 
latitudes  on  the  appoaranee  of  froat.  It  occnrs  on 
many  pa.-ts  of  the  British  coasts,  and  is  sometimcB 
fonnd  in  inland  districts,  but  is  nowhere  abundant 
in  Britun.  In  sotue  places  in  Scotland,  it  atill 
bl«eda  year  after  year,  on  tbe  highest  summit  of  a 
roinad  buitding,  or  the  top  of  an  old  tree.  It  it 
Teiy  plentiful  in  some  parts  of  North  America  ;  and 
its  return  iu  the  beginning  of  spring  is  hailed  with 
joy  by  fishermen,  as  indicative  of  the  appearance  of 
tiih.  The  nest  is  a  huge  structure  of  rotten  aticka, 
in  the  outer  interstices  of  which  smaller  birda  aome- 
times  make  their  nesta ;  for  the  0.  never  preys  en 
birds,  and  is  not  dreailed  by  them.  It  is,  indeed,  of 
■  pacilio  and  tiniomns  disposition,  and  readily 
abandons  its  prey  to  the  White-headed  Eagle  {r~ 
Erne,  q.  t,).  In  the  days  of  falcontr,  the  0.,  beii  „ 
very  docile,  waa  aomstimes  trained  and  need  for 
oatching  flih. 

CSSA,  the  ancient  name  of  ft  tnotlutMn  <a 
east  side  of  Theasaly,  near  Felion,  and  separated 
from  OWmpiu  by  the  vale  of  Tempe.  It  ia  now 
e^ed  Kiisavo.      The  conical  summit  it  covered 


with  snow  dnring  the  greater  part  of  tbe  year.  The 
ancients  placed  the  seat  of  the  Centaurs  and  Qianta 
--  tiie  neighbonrhood  of  Peli<Hi  and  Osaa. 

O'SSEIN.  This  term  ia  applied  by  chemista  to 
the  anbetance  in  the  tissue  of  the  bones  which  yields 
luten.  It  is  obtained  by  the  prolonged  actum  of 
ilute  hydrochlorio  acid  on  bone,  which  diisolvea 
i  the  earthy  matter.  The  material  thiis  procured 
itains  tbe  form  of  the  bone  without  its  hardneas, 


solte,  fat,  Ac  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  ia 
converted  into  gluten  (one  of  the  forms  of  geUtlDs) 
by  the  action  of  boilina  water — a  tranafonnatioa 
which  is  much  fooilitatea  if  a  little  acid  be  presenL 
*"  ossein  yielded  by  dillerent  kinds  of  aaioiali 
res  different  times  forits  con  vcraion  iutOBluten; 
and  that  of  jioung  animals  changes  more  rapidly  than 
that  of  adiitts  01  the  same  species.  It  apneui  to 
exist  in  the  bone*  in  a  state  of  freedom — that  is  to 
Bay,  not  in  oombination  with  any  of  the  salts  of 
lime.  Fremy's  analyses  shew  that  the  amoont  of 
gluten  is  preoisely  the  same  as  that  of  the  ossein 
which  yields  it,  and  that  the  two  substances  ua 


O'SSIAN,  POKHB  OF.  Ossian,  or  Oisin  (a  word 
which  is  interpreted  the  'little  fawn'),  a  Celtic 
warrior-poet,  is  said  to  have  lived  in  the  3d  c.,  sud 
to  have  been  the  son  of  Fiogal  or  Finn  MocCam' 
haill.  The  poems  which  are  ascribed  to  him  in 
manuacripta  of  any  antiquity,  are  few  and  ehort, 
and  of  no  remarkable  merit  But  in  1760—1763,  a 
Highland  schoolmaater,  James  Macpherson  (q.  v.), 
published  two  epics,  Fingal  and  Tcmora,  and  scveril 
smaller  meces  aud  fragments,  which  he  affirmed  to 
be  traaslations  into  C!ngliah  proae  of  Gaelic  po«mi 
written  by  0.,  and  preserved  by  oral  tiwlition  in 
tbe  Scottish  Highlands.  Their  success  was  wonder- 
ful They  were  received  with  admiration  in  almost 
every  country  of  Europe,  and  were  translated  not 
only  into  French  and  Italian,  but  into  Danish  and 
Pofiah.  But  their  authentiicity  was  chdiengpd 
almost  as  soon  as  the;  saw  the  light,  and  a  long  nnd 
angry  controveray  followed.  That  they  were  what 
they  claimed  to  be,  was  maintained  by  Dr  Blur, 
Lord  Karnes,  the  poet  Gray,  and  Sir  John  SincWr. 
That  they  were  more  or  less  the  fabricaCion  of  Mac- 

g'leraon  himself,  was  maintained  by  Dr  Johnson, 
avid  Hume,  Malcolm  Laing,  and  John  Pinkerton. 
While  this  controversy  Still  raged,  another  sprang 
up  scarcely  less  angry  or  protracted.  Mocphfrson 
made  O.  a  Scotch  Mighlander,  bat  the  Irish  claimed 
him  OS  an  Irishman.  Both  controversies  may  be 
said  to  have  now  worn  themselves  ont,  leaving  aa 
their  several  result  a  conviction  which  can  scircely 
be  better  stated  than  in  the  words  of  Lord  Neaves  : 
1.  'Tlie  poems  pubbsbed  by  Macpherson  aa  tbe  com' 
poaittons  of  Oaaian,  whether  in  their  Euglieh  or  their 
Gaelic  form,  are  not  Eennine  compoaitions  as  they 
stand,  and  are  not  entitled  to  any  weight  or  autho- 
rity in  themBclvee,  being  portly  fiotitiouB,  but  p.irtly 
at  the  same  time,  and  to  a  considerable  extent, 
copies  or  adaptations  of  Oasianic  poetry  current  in 
tiia  Highlands,  and  which  slao,  for  the  most  part,  i> 
well  known  in  Ireland,  and  is  preserved  there  in 
ancient  manuaeripta.  2.  Upon  foiriy  weighing  tb* 
evidence,  I  feel  bonnd  to  expresa  my  opinion  that 
the  Oasianio  poema,  so  far  as  original,  ooght  to  be 
considered  generally  as  Irish  compositions  relatinc 
to  Irish  personuea,  real  or  imaginary,  and  to  Iri^ 
events.  hiatoricJ  or  legendary;  but  they  indicate 
also  a  free  commanication  between  the  two  cnnntries, 
and  may  be  legitimately  r^arded  by  the  Scottish 
Celts  OS  a  literature  in  which  they  have  a  direct 
interest ;  written  in  their  ancient  tongue,  >-<cordi«l 


OSSIFICATION. 


traditions  common  to  the  Gktelic  tribes,  and 
Wing  been  long  preserved  and  diffused  in  the 
Scottish  Highland ;  while  if  the  date,  or  first  com- 
mencement of  any  of  these  compositions,  is  of  great 
aotiqaity,  they  belong  as  mnch  to  the  ancestors  of 
the  Scottish  as  of  the  Lrish  Celts.'  Poems  ascribed 
to  0.,  committed  to  writing  in  the  Scotch  Highlands 
in  the  first  half  of  the  I6th  a,  are  printed  in  the 
Dean  of  LUmore'a  Book  (Edin.  1862),  with  transla- 
tions as  well  into  English  as  into  modem  Gaelic. 
The  poems  ascribed  to  O.,  preserved  in  IreUnd,  have 
been  published  by  the  Ossianio  Society  in  six 
volumes  (Dublin,  1854—1861). 

OSSIFICATION,  or  the  formation  of  bone,  is 
s  process  to  which  physiologiBts  have  paid  much 
attention,  but  regarding  whidi  there  is  still  consi- 
derable difference  of  opinion.  On  one  point,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  general  agreement — viz.,  that  the 
bones  are  not  in  any  instance  a  primary  formation, 
bat  always  result  from  the  transformation  and 
earthy  impregnation  of  some  pre-existing  tissue, 
which  is  most  commonly  either  cartilage  or  a  mem- 
brane containinff  cell-nuclei.  At  a  very  early  period- 
of  embryonic  life,  as  soon,  indeed,  as  any  structural 
differences  can  be  detected,  the  material  from  which 
the  bones  are  to  be  formed  becomes  mapped  out  as 
a  soft  celatinous  substance,  which  may  oe  distin- 
goishea  from  the  other  tissues  by  being  rather  less 
transparent,  and  soon  becoming  decidedly  opaque. 
From  this  beginning  the  bones  are  formed  in  two 
ways :  either  the  tissue  just  described  becomes  con- 
verted into  cartilage,  which  is  afterwards  replaced 
by  bone,  or  a  germinal  membrane  is  formed,  in 
which  the  ossifymg  pn^^ess  takes  place.  The  latter 
is  the  most  simple  and  rapid  mode  of  forming  bone. 
When  ossification  commences,  the  membrane  be- 
come more  opaque,  and  exhibits  a  decided  fibrous 
character,  the  fibres  beinc  arranj^  more  or  less  in 
a  reticulated  manner.  These  fibres  become  more 
distinct  and  granular  from  imprecation  with  lime 
salts,  and  are  converted  into  mcipient  bone,  while 
the  cells  which  are  scattered  among  them  shoot  out 
into  the  bone  corpuscles,  from  which  the  canaliculi 
are  extended  probably  by  resorption.  The  facial 
and  cranial  bones,  with  the  exception  of  those  at 
the  base  of  the  skull,  are  thus  formed  without  the 
intervention  of  any  cartilage. 

The  pit>ce8S  "of  ossification  in  Cartilage  (q.  v.)  is 
too  complex  and  difficult  to  follow  in  these  pages. 
Some  physiologists  hold  that  when  ossification  is 
carried  on  in  cartilage,  a  complete  molecular  replace- 
ment of  one  substance  by  the  other  takes  place; 
while  others  believe  that  more  or  less  of  the  caTti- 
hgioous  matrix  remains,  and  becomes  impregnated 
with  earthy  matter,  at  the  same  time  that  gluten  is 
•abstatnted  for  chondrine  (chondrine  being  the  variety 
ttf  gelatine  that  is  gelded  by  ossein  or  bone-carti- 
lage before  ossification,  while  gluten  is  yielded  after 
that  process  is  established).  All  the  bones  of  the 
body,  excepting  tiiose  of  the  head  and  face  already 
mentioned,  are  at  first  formed,  in  part  at  all  events, 
from  cartilage. 

The. time  at  which  ossification  commences  does 
aot  at  all  follow  the  order  in  which  the  primordial 
eartila^s  is  laid  down.  Thus  the  cartilage  of  the 
Tertebras  appears  before  there  in  any  tn^e  of  that 
of  the  clavicle,  yet  at  birth  the  ossification  of  the 
latter  is  almost  complete,  while  that  of  the  former 
is  very  imperfect  for  man^  year^  We  will  briefly 
trace  the  process  of  ossification  as  it  occurs  in  the 
human  femur  or  thigh-bone.  Ossification  commences 
m  the  interior  of  the  cartilage  at  determinate  points, 
which  are  hence  termed /Tomfa  or  centres  qf  omfi- 
miiaiL  From  these  points  the  process  advances 
into  the  surrounding  substance.  In  the  second 
month  of  foetal  lif e^  one  of  these  centres  shews  itself 


about  the  middle  of  the  shaft,  and  from  this  point 
ossification  rapidly  extends  upwards  and  downwards 
along  the  whole  length  of  the  shaft  The  upper  and 
lower  ends  remain  cartila^nons,  and  it  is  not  till 
the  last  month  of  foetal  life  that  a  second  centre 
apijears  at  the  lower  end.  The  third  centre,  from 
which  the  upper  end  of  the  bone  is  ossified,  does 
not  appear  till  about  a  year  after  birth.  The  bone 
now  consists  of  two  extremities  or  epiphyses^  with 
an  intermediate  shaft  or  diapkysis  ;  and  the  superior 
epiphysis  is  not  ossified  to  tne  shaft  until  about  the 
eighteenth,  and  the  inferior  until  after  the  twentieth 
year.  At  about  the  fifth  year,  a  fourth  ossifio 
centre  is  developed  in  the  cartilage  of  the  ^eater 
trochanter,  and  a  fifth  centre  appears  in  the 
lesser  trochanter  at  about  the  fourteenth  year. 
These  osseous  processes,  thus  developed  from  special 
ossific  centres,  are  termed  apophyses.  Most  of  the 
long  bones  are  develoi)ed  in  a  corresponding  way. 
It  is  a  curious  fact  (wnich  is  of  such  general  occur- 
rence that  it  may  be  regarded  as  a  law)  that  in  the 
skeletons  both  of  man  and  of  the  lower  animals, 
the  union  of  the  various  apophyses  to  the  epi- 
physes, and  of  tiie  epiphyses  to  the  diaphysis  or 
shaft,  takes  place  in  the  inverse  order  to  that  in 
which  their  ossification  b^gan.  The  advantages 
derived  from  this  subdivision  of  the  long  bones  into 
segments,  with  interposed  cartila^nous  plates,  are 
obvious.  Besides  the  greater  facilities  for  growth 
thus  lUfforded,  the  flexibility  of  the  bony  framework 
is  thereby  greatly  increased,  and  its  escape  from 
injury  during  the  many  falls  incidental  to  this  period 
of  liie  is  in  no  small  degree  attributable  to  this 
caus&  See  Humphry  On  ike  Human  Skdeton,  pp. 
33-46. 

True  Ossification  sometimes  occurs  as  a  morbid 
process ;  but  in  many  cases,  the  term  is  incorrectly 
used  (especially  in  the  case  of  blood-vessels)  to 
designate  a  hard  calcareous  deposit,  in  which  the 
characteristic  microscopic  appearances  of  true  bone 
are  altogether  absent. 

In  one  sense,  the  osseouis  tissue  that  is  formed  in 
regeneration  of  destroyed  or  fractured  bones,'  may 
be  regarded  as  due  to  a  morbid,  although  a  restora- 
tive action.  Hypertrophy  of  bone  is  oy  no  means 
rare,  being  sometimes  focal,  forming  a  protuberance 
on  the  external  surface,  in  which  case  it  is  termed 
an  exostosis;  and  sometimes  extending  over  the  whole 
bone  or  over  several  bones,  giving  rise  to  the  condi- 
tion known  as  hyperostosis.  Again,  true  osseous 
tissue  occasionally  occurs  in  parts  in  which,  in  the 
normal  condition,  no  bone  existed,  as  in  the  dura 
mater,  in  the  so-caJled  permanent  cartilages  (as 
those  of  the  larynx,  ribs,  &c),  in  the  tendons  of 
certain  muscles,  and  in  certain  tumours.^  The 
peculiar  causes  of  the  osseous  formations  which  are 
unconnected  with  bone,  are  not  known. 

Calcareous  deposits  or  concretions  not  exhibiting 
the  microscopiciu  character  of  bone,  but  ^ften  falsely 
termed  ossifications,  are  of  no  unfrequent  occur- 
rence. Analyses  of  such  concretions  occurring  in 
pus,  in  the  valves  of  the  heart,  in  the  muscles,  and 
m  the  lungs,  are  given  by  Vogel  in  his  Patfujlogical 
Anatomy  o/tfie  Human  Body  ;  and  in  some  of  these 
concretions,  the  phosphate  and  carbonate  of  lime 
occur  in  nearly  uie  same  percentages  as  those  in 
which  tliey  are  found  in  bone.  The  diseased  con- 
dition usually  but  incorrectly  called  ossificatio>n  of 
the  arteries,  is  of  sufficient  importance  to  req^uire  a 
brief  notica  In  consequence  of  the  deposition  of 
earthy  or  calcareous  matter  in  the  middle  coat  of 
the  artery,  the  vessel  loses  all  its  elasticity,  and 
becomes  a  rigid,  unvielding  tube.  All  parts  of  the 
arterial  system  are  liable  to  this  change ;  but  it  is 
more  frequently  met  with  in  the  ascending  portion 
and  arch  of  ^e  aorta,  than  in  any  other  nart  oC 


OSTADB-^STIA. 


that  vesflel,  and  is  more  common  in  the  lower 
extremities  than  the  upper.  The  affection  is 
usually  partial,  hut  occasionally  it  appears  to  oe 
almost  uniyersaL  Thus,  Dr  Adams  has  recorded  a 
case,  in  tiie  Dublin  Hospital  Reports,  in  which  no 
pulsation  could  be  felt  in  any  part  of  the  body,  and 
even  the  heart  coffered  no  other  sign  of  action 
than  a  slight  undulating  sound.  Old  age  strongly 
predisposes  to  this  diseased  condition,  and  probably 
tew  very  aged  persons  are  altogether  exempt  from 
it  There  is  also  reason  to  bdieve  that  gout  and 
rheumatism  favour  tiiese  calcareous  deposits.  This 
condition  of  tiie  arteries  ma^  give  rise  to  aneurism, 
to  gangrene  of  the  extremities  in  i^ed  persons,  and 
to  atrophy,  and  consequent  feebleness  of  the  brain 
and  heart.  (The  coronary  arteries,  which  supply 
the  heart  with  the  arterial  blood  necessary  for  its 
own  nutrition,  are  very  often,  although  not  always, 
ossified  in  angina  pectoris.)  Moreover,  this  con- 
dition of  the  vessels  very  materially  increases  the 
risk  from  severe  accidents  and  surgical  operations. 

OSTAD^,  Adrian  van,  a  celebrated  painter  and 
engraver  of  the  Dutch  school,  was  bom  at  LUbeck, 
in  North  Germany,  in  1610.  His  teachers  were 
Franz  Hals  and  Rembrandt.  He  followed  his  art 
at  Haarlem,  till  the  French  army  of  Louis  XIY. 
threatened  Holland,  when  he  removed  to  Amster- 
dam, where  he  spent  the  remainder  of  his  life.  He 
died  in  1685.  Osuntrv  dancing-greens,  farm-yards, 
stables,  the  interiors  of  rustic  hovels  and  beer-shops, 
are  the  places  which  he  loves  to  paint;  and  his 
persons  are  for  the  most  "piurt  coarse  peasant  carls, 
drunken  tobacco-smokers,  or  peasant 
women  employed  in  country  work. 
In  everything  he  did  there  is  a  bright 
and  vivid  naturalness.  Not  equal  to 
Teniers  in  originality  and  quiet 
humour,  he  surpasses  him  in  the 
force  and  fineness  of  his  execution, 
though  he  is  not  free  from  triviality 
and  repetitions,  and  inaccuracies  in 
drawing.  He  was  a  prolific  painter, 
and  his  works  are  to  be  founa  in  all 
the  museums  and  collections  of  the 
Netherlands,  Germany,  France,  and  England.  Th^ 
have  been  well  engraved  by  Vischer,  Suyderoer, 
and  himself. — Isaac  van  Ostade,  brother  of  Adrian, 
also  a  painter,  was  born  at  LUbeck  in  1612,  and 
died  at  Amsterdam  in  1671.  He  did  not  equal  his 
brother  whose  style  he  laboured  to  imitate. 

OSTASHKO'FF,  a  manufacturing  district  town 
of  Great  Russia,  in  the  government  of  Twer,  stands 
on  the  south-east  shore  of  Lake  Seliguer ;  lat  57° 
lO'  N.,  lou^  33**  6'  E.  The  first  settlements  on  this 
site  are  said  to  have  taken  place  in  1230.  Pop. 
10,827.  Skin-dr^iuff,  boot-making,  and  fishing 
in  the  neighbouring  lakes  are  the  prmcipal  employ- 
ments of  die  inhabitants.  The  woods  in  the  vicinity 
furnish  bark  for  tanning  purposes,  and  charcoal  for 
the  blacksmiths'  shops.  There  are  in  0. 37  tanyards, 
in  which  skins  are  dressed,  and  Russian  leather 
prepared  to  the  amount  of  £90,000  annually.  The 
leatiier  prepared  at  Savine's  tanyard  is  known  in 
England,  Austria,  Italy,  and  North  America. 
280,000  pairs  of  boots  are  made  annually,  and  400 
men  and  1000  women  are  engaged  in  the  manufacture. 
Manufactures  of  hatchets  and  scythes  are  also  carried 
on.  The  commerce  of  0.  is  small,  however,  owing 
to  its  remote  distance  from  important  lines  of  com- 
monication. 

OSTE'NDE,  a  strongly  fortified  town  of  the 
Belgian  province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  German 
Ocean,  at  the  opening  of  the  Ostende  and  Bruges 
Canal,  in  51^  14^  N.  lat,  and  2"  55'  £.  long.  Pop. 
16,000.    Notwithstanding  its  proximity  to  the  sea^ 


the  shallowness  of  the  harbour  prevents  larm 
ships  from  entering  the  port  except  at  high  tide. 
It  ranks,  however,  as  the  second  seaport  of  the 
kingdom,  Antwerp  being  the  first,  and  is  fortified 
with  waUs  and  broad  ditches.  It  has  some  good 
manufactories  for  linens,  sailcloths,  and  tobacco, 
and  several  sugar,  salt,  and  candle  workai  From 
its  position  as  a  station  for  the  steamers  plying 
daily  between  London,  Dover,  and  the  continent, 
and  as  the  terminus  of  various  branches  of  rail- 
way in  connection  with  the  great  French  and 
German  lines,  it  is  a  lively  and  active  place  of 
transport  traffic,  and  is  resorted  to  in  the  sum- 
mer as  a  bathing-place  by  persons  from  all  parts 
of  the  continent.  It  is,  moreover,  an  important 
station  for  oyster,  cod,  and  herring  fishing ;  has  a 
good  naval  school,  some  ship-yanls,  an  efficient 
staff  of  pilots,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  commercial 
tribunal  and  a  chamber  of  customs.  The  harbour 
is  furnished  with  a  light-house,  and  is  provided  with 
an  admirably-constructed  stone  dyke  or  promenade 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  public.  O.  is  memor- 
able for  the  protracted  siege  which  it  underwent 
from  1601  to  1604,  and  which  terminated  in  the 
surrender  of  the  Dutch  and  Flemish  garrison  to  the 
Spanish  commander,  Spinola. 

OSTEOCO'LA,  a  kind  of  siase  or  glue  made  by 
romoving  the  mineral  matter  from  bones,  and 
dissolving  the  gelatine.  Its  moro  common  name  is 
bone-glue. 

OSTEOLE'PIS  (Gr.  bone-scale),  a  genus  of  fossil 
ganoid  ^atk  peculiar  to  the  Old  Red  Sandstone.   It  is 


Oeteolepis. 

separated  from  its  allies  by  having  the  two  anal 
and  two  dorsal  fins  alternating  with  each  other. 
Seven  species  have  been  described. 

OSTEOXOG  Y  (Gr.  oetea,  the  bones)  is  that  depart- 
ment of  anatomy  which  treats  of  the  chemical  and 
physical  properties  of  the  osseous  tissue,  and  of  the 
shape,  development  and  OTOwth,  articulations,  &c, 
of  the  various  bones  of  which  the  skeleton  is  com* ' 
posed.    See  Bone,  Ossification,  Sksleton,  &c. 

O'STERODMI,  a  small  town  of  Hanover,  in  the 
principality  of  Gmbenha^n,  situated  at  the  western 
Dsse  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  on  the  SOse,  an  affluent 
of  the  Leine,  20  miles  north-east  of  Gottingen.  It 
contains  large  grain  stores,  from  which  the  miners 
of  the  neighbouniood  and  tiieir  families  are  suppUed 
with  grain  at  a  low  and  fixed  rate.  Cotton,  woollen, 
and  Unen  fabrios  and  hosiery  are  extenaivedy  manu-  , 
factiired.    Pop.  6000. 

O'STIA,  a  city  of  Latium,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  about  16  miles  from  Rome.  It  is  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Ancus  Martins,  and  was 
regarded  as  the  oldest  Roman  colony.  It  first 
acquired  importance  from  its  salt-works,  the  establish- 
ment of  which  is  attributed  to  Ancus  Mariius,  and 
afterwards  as  the  port  where  the  Sicilian,  Sardinian, 
and  African  com  shipped  for  Rome  was  laxided ;  yet 
its  name  first  occurs  during  the  second  Punic  war. 
It  was  long,  too,  the  principal  station  of  the  Roman 
navy;  but  its  harbour  was  exceedingly  bul,  and 
ffradually  the  entrance  became  silted  up  with  alluvial 
depositSy  80  that  resaelfl  could  90  longer  approach 


OSTBACION— OSTEICa 


H,  but  were  compelled  to  ride  Kt  Anchor  in  the  open 

miditaMi,  ud  to  disembark  their  cazgoet  there.  At 
length  tba  Emperor  Cluidina  dus  a  neir  harbour  or 
Ikbii  tiro  mile*  north  of  0.,  and  coonacted  it  irith 
tlie  Tibra  by  ft  caani.  It  was  nuoed  the  Porta* 
AkjiuU,  ud  arouud  it  eood  spruag  up  a  new  town 
tailed  Partu*  OtUauU,  Portui  UrlAi,  Portut  Roma, 
and  often  aimply  Portia.  Yet  it  was  not  till  nearly 
tlie  don  of  the  Koman  empire  that  the  prosperity  of 
0.  u  a  oity  besui  to  decline.  Its  decay,  however,  woe 
npid,  and  in  Uie  8th  o.  it  wsa  a  mere  ruin.  During  j 
tba  middle  agea,  k  village — the  modem  0 — was  | 
built  about  hau  a  mile  above  the  ancient  one ;  but 
it  bM  not  mare  than  100  pennanent  inhabitants, 
vho  *till  can;  on  the  manufacture  of  salt,  estab- 
liihed  in  the  prehistoric  times  of  ancient  Rome. 
The  mills  of  0.  extend  for  a  mile  and  a  half  along 
the  htnlu  of  the  Tiber,  and  are  nearly  a  mile  in 
biffldth.    See  Nibby'a  Dintomi  di  Iloiaa  (vol  iL). 


the  tarmu,  naked ;  the  feet  have  only  two  toes,  of 
which  the  inner  is  the  largest,  and  has  a  short  claw, 
the  outer  haa  no  claw ;  the  wings  are  tuo  short  to  be 
used  for  flight,  but  are  useful  to  aid  in  runninu;  the 

Elmnage  is  lax  and  Qeiibte ;  the  wings  and  tad  havo 
>ng  soft  drooping  plomea.  Only  one  apedes  is 
khown  [S.  camdat),  a  native  of  the  sandy  deserts  of 
Africa  and  Arabia  j  the  South  American  oatnches, 
or  Nandu*  (q.  v.),  constituting  a  distinct  j-eniia. 
The  O.  is  the  Urgort  of  all  birds  now  eiistiuLr,  lieing 
to  eight  feet  in  height  to  the  top  of  its 

, an  adult  male  weighing  from  two  to  thre« 

hundred  pounda.  The  male  is  rather  larger  than 
the  female.  The  head  and  n]^»er  port  of  the  neck 
are  scantily  covered  with  a  thin  down,  through 
which  the  akin  is  visible.     The  young  have  tAo 


tbe  fins,  and  the  tail  protruding  througb  holes  in 
the  armour.  The  gdl-opening  appears  in  tbe 
snnonr  as  a  mere  alit,  bordered  with  a  skinny  edge, 
bnt  there  ia  a  true  gill-cover  within.  There  are  no 
VEntral  fins.  The  vcrtebne  are  generally  ooalescent. 
There  is  tittle  muscular  substance,  and  in  some 
species  it  is  reputed  poiaon^na;  but  the  liver  is 
large,  and  yields  much  oil.  Some  of  the  species  are 
kaown  by  the  names  of  TsuNK-nan  and  Copfer- 
mo.  They  an  mostly  found  In  the  Indian  and 
American  seas.    None  are  British. 

O'STBACISM,  a  right  exercised  by  the  people 
of  Athens  of  banishing  for  a  time  any  person  whose 
lervices,  rank,  or  wealth  appeared  to  be  dangerous 
to  the  liberty  of  his  fellow-citizens,  or  inoonsistent 
wiUi  their  political  equality.  It  was  not  a  pnnish- 
nentforany  particular  crime,  but  rather,  as  has  been 
observed,  a  precautionary  measure  to  remove  anch 
Utden  as  were  obviously  exercising  a  dangerous 
ascendency  in  the  state.  Ostracism  was  introduced 
bf  Cleistfaenea  about  the  beginning  of  the  6th  c 
S.C,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  Peieistratids.  Tbe 
peoTile  were  annually  asked  by  the  Prytanes  if  tbey 
wiahed  to  exercise  this  right,  and  if  they  did,  a 
pgblio  assembly  was  held,  and  each  citizen  had 
opportunity  of  depoaitiDg,  in  ft  place  appointed  for 
tbe  purjioBe,  a  potsherd  {otlraion)  or  small  earthen 
tabfet,  on  which  was  written  the  name  of  the 
penoo  for  whose  banishment  he  voted.  Six  thou- 
sand votes  were  necessary  for  the  banishment  of 
any  person ;  bnt  the  greatest  men  of  Athens — 
MilUades,  Themiatocles,  Cimon,  AHbiades,  ftc— 
were  subjected  to  this  treatment.  Tbe  banishment 
was  at  linit  for  ton  years,  but  the  period  was  after- 
wards reatjioted  to  five.  Property  and  civil  rights 
or  bonoim  remained  unaffected  by  it.  Alcibiades 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  Bnal  abohtion  of  ostra- 
aim.  of  wliich,  however,  Plutarch  and  Aristotle 
speak  aa  a  necessary  political  expedient,  and 


(ySTKIOH  (fflnXM>),  ft  genos  of  birdi  of  the 
gnler  OnUatortM,  and  bribe  Bn^pmiu*  (o-  v.), 
Caviar  ayrtem— the  ordet  Cunont  (or  Eunna 
of  sonM  oraitholodsta.    In  this  gesina  An  bill  ia 
Moderate  length,  broftd,  flattened,  rounded  at  the 
tip,  the  Duuidiblea  flsxibl*;  tba  head  amall 
Deck  long ;  tiw  len  long  (both  tibia  and  tarsus. 
Tsty  lobiH^  ttiB  bww  pirt  irf  the  tibia,  aa  well  as 


Ortrich  (SfruUto  canwliu). 

head  and  neck  clothed  with  feathers.  The  general 
plumage  ia  glossy  black  in  the  adult  male,  dark 
gray  in  the  female  snd  young,  with  a  alight  sprink- 
Rng  of  white  feathers  ;  the  long  plumes  of  the 
s  and  tail  are  whitie,  occasionally  marked  with 
_..  ..;.  On  each  wing  are  two  plumeleaB  shafts,  not 
unlike  porcupine'a  (juilla.  The  inner  toe  is  very 
large,  about  seven  inches  long,  and  its  claw  hooi- 
hka.  Whilst  the  sternum  is  destitute  of  a  keel,  and 
the  muscles  which  move  the  wings  are  compara- 
tively weak,  those  which  move  the  legs  are  of 
prodigious  atreugth,  so  that  the  0.  is  not  only 
capable  of  running  with  great  speed,  bat  of  striking 
inch  a  blow  with  its  foot  as  to  make  it  too  for- 
midable for  the  leoiiard  and  other  large  beasts  of 
prey  to  assail  it.  It  has  been  often  kuown  to  rip 
open  a  dog  by  a  single  stroke,  and  a  man  is  recorded 
to  have  suffered  the  some  fate.  The  eyes  of  tiie  0. 
are  large,  and  the  lids  are  furnished  with  lashes. 
Its  sight  is  keen,  so  that  it  descries  objects  at  ft 
great  distance  in  the  open  desert. 

The  O.  shuna  the  presence  of  man,  but  is  often 
to   be  aeen   in  near  proximity  to  herds   of  wbraa, 

Juaggaa,  giraffes,  antelopes,  and  other  quadrupeds. 
t  is  grt^arious,  although  the  flocks  of  ostriches  are 
not  generally  very  larjfe.  It  is  polygamous,  one 
male  usually  apiiropriating  to  himself,  when  he  can, 
from  two  to  seven  femaJea,  which  seem  to  make 
their  nest  in  common,  scooping  a  meie  hole  in  the 
sand  for  this  purpose.  Each  female  is  supposed  to 
lay  about  ten  eggs.  The  eggs  are  all  placed  on  end 
in  tbe  nest,  which  often  contains  a  large  number, 
whilst  around  it  eggs  are  generally  to  be  found 
Bcatt^«d  on  the  sand.  Concerning  these,  it  has 
been  supjiosed  that  they  are  intended  for  the  food 
of  the  young  birds  before  they  are  able  to  go  in 
quait  of  other  food  ;  an  improbable  notion,  not 
supported  by  evidence.  It  aeems  at  least  as  likely, 
that  Uiese  scattered  eggs  are  laid  by  females  wait- 
ing wbikt  the  neet  is  occupied  by  another,  and 
that  they  are  lost  to  the  ostriches,  and  no  mora. 


OSTRICH- OSWEGO  TEA. 


regarded.  Contrary  to  a  very  generally  received 
opinion,  the  O.  does  not  leave  her  eggs  to  be 
hatched  entirely  by  the  heat  of  the  snn ;  or,  if  this 
be  the  ease  in  the  warmest  regions,  it  is  otherwise 
in  the  more  northern  and  southern  countries  in 
which  this  bird  is  found,  and  by  a  remarkable 
instinct,  the  0.  sits  upon  the  eggs  by  night,  when 
the  cold  would  be  too  great  for  them,  and  leaves 
them  to  the  sun's  heat  during  the  day. 

The  0.  feeds  exclusively  on  vegetame  substances, 
its  food  consisting  in  great  part  m  grasses  and  their 
seeds ;  so  that  its  visits  are  much  dreaded  by  the 
cultivators  of  the  soil  in  the  vicini^  of  its  haunts, 
a  flock  of  ostriches  soon  making  temble  devastation 
of  a  field  of  corn.  The  O.  has  a  very  large  crop,  a 
strong  gizzard,  and  a  pretty  large  pivventriculus 
between  the  crop  and  the  gizzard:  the  intestines 
are  voluminous,  and  the  cceca  long,  with  a  remark- 
able spiral  valve.  There  is  a  receptacle  in  which 
the  urme  accumulates,  as  in  a  bladder,  a  thing  very 
uncommon  in  birds. 

The  O.  swallows  large  stones,  as  small  birds 
swallow  grains  of  sand,  to  aid  the  gizzanl  in  the 
trituration  of  the  food;  and  in  confinement,  has 
often  been  known  to  swallow  very  indiscriminately 
whatever  came  in  the  way,  pieces  of  iron,  bricks, 
fflass,  old  shoes,  copper  coins,  &c.  Its  instincts 
do  not  suffice  to  prevent  it  from  swallowing  very 
unsuitable  things ;  copper  coins  were  fatal  m  one 
instance,  and  a  piece  of  a  parasol  in  another. 

The  0.  is  very  patient  of  thirst,  or  is  capable  of 
subsisting  for  a  long  time  without  water.  It  often 
supplies  the  want  of  water  by  eating  the  gourds  or 
melons  of  the  desert,  to  which  even  the  lion  is  said 
to  resort  on  the  same  accountb 

The  speed  of  the  0.,  when  it  first  sets  out,  is 
supposed  to  be  nofc  less  than  60  miles  an  hour ;  but 
it  does  not  seem  to  be  capable  of  keeping  up  this 
speed  for  a  long  time.  It  is  successfully  hunted  by 
men  on  horseback,  who  take  advantage  of  its  habit 
of  running  in  a  curve,  instead  of  a  straight  line,  so 
that  the  nimter  knows  how  to  proceed  in  order  to 
meet  it  and  get  within  shot.  It  is  often  killed  in 
South  Africa  by  men  who  envelop  themselves  in 
ostrich  skins,  and  admirably  imitating  the  manners 
of  the  C,  approach  ifc  near  enough  for  their  purpose, 
without  exciting  its  alarm,  and  sometimes  Kill  one 
after  another  with  their  poisoned  arrows. 

The  strength  of  the  0.  is  such  that  it  can  easily 
carry  two  men  on  its  back. 

The  voice  of  the  O.  is  deep  and  hollow,  not  easily 
distinguished,  except  by  a  practised  ear,  from  the 
roar  of  the  lion.  It  also  more  frequently  makes  a 
kind  of  cackling;  and  when  enraged  and  striking 
violently  at  an  adversary,  hisses  very  loudlv. 

The  nesh  of  the  O.  is  not  unpalatable  when  it  is 
young,  but  rank  and  tough  when  oUL  It  is  gener- 
ally believed  to  have  been  prohibited  as  unclean  to 
the  Jews  (Lev.  xi.  16),  although  the  name  is  trans- 
lated owl  in  the  English  Bible.  There  are  frequent 
references  to  it  in  the  Old  Testament. 

The  eggs  of  the  O.  are  much  esteemed  as  an 
article  of  food  by  the  rude  natives  of  Africa,  and 
are  acceptable  even  to  Euro}>ean  travellers  and 
colonists.  Each  egg  weighs  about  three  pounds, 
and  IB  thus  equal  to  about  two  dozen  ordinary  hen^s 
eggs.  The  egg  is  usually  dressed  b^  being  set 
upright  on  a  tire,  and  stirred  about  with  a  forked 
stick,  inserted  through  a  hole  in  the  upper  end. 
The  thick  and  strong  shell  is  applied  to  many  uses, 
but  particularly  ie  much  employed  by  the  South 
African  tribes  for  water^vessels.  The  reader  will 
probably  recollect  the  interesting  plate  in  Living- 
stone's Travels  of  women  filling  ostrich  shells  witn 
water.  In  taking  ostrich  eggs  from  the  nest,  the 
South  A&ican  is  careful  not  to  touch  any  with  the 
140 


hand,  but  uses  a  long  stick  to  draw  them  out,  that 
the  birds  may  not  detect  the  smell  of  the  intrader, 
in  which  case  they  would  forsake  the  nest ;  whilst 
otherwise,  they  will  return,  and  lay  more  ^gs. 

The  long  plumes  of  the  O.  have  ^n  highly 
valued  for  ornamental  purposes  from  very  early 
times,  and  continue  to  be  a  considerable  article  of 
commerce,  for  the  sake  of  which  the  O.  is  pursued 
in  its  native  wilds. 

The  O.  is  often  to  be  seen  in  Britain  in  confine- 
ment, and  readily  becomes  quite  tame  and  familiar, 
:  although  still  apt  to  be  violent  towards  strangera 
Great  numbers  were  exhibited  in  the  pnblic  spec- 
tacles by  some  of  the  Roman  emperors ;  and  the 
brains  of  many  ostriches  were  sometimes  presented 
in  a  single  dish,  as  at  the  table  of  Heliogabalns. 

OSTRICH  FEATHERS  are  occasionally 
borne  as  a  heraldic  charge,  and  always  represented 
drooping.  Three  white  ostrich  feathers  are  the 
well-known  badge  of  the  Prince  of  Wales.  According 
to  common  tradition,  they  were  assumed  in  conse- 
quence of  Edward  the  Black  Prince  having  plucked 
a  plume  of  ostrich  feathers  from  the  casque  of  John 
of  Luxemburg,  king  of  Bohemia,  who  fell  by  his 
hand  at  Crecy.  There  is,  however,  no  doubt  tiiat 
ostrich  feathers  were  previous  to  that  time  a  cogni- 
zance of  the  Plantagenets.  Prince  Henry,  eldest 
son  of  James  I.,  first  established  the  preseut  arrange- 
ment of  the  three  ostiich  feathers  within  a  prince's 
coronet. 

OSTRO'G,  a  small  district  town  of  West  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Volhynia,  lOt)  miles  west  of 
Jitomir.  Here,  in  the  reign  of  Constnntine  of 
Ostrog,  a  school  and  tyiwgraphy  were  established, 
and  the  first  Slavonic  Bible  printed  in  1558.  Popu 
8926. 

O'STROGOTHS.    See  Goths. 

OSU'NA,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of 
Seville,  and  48  miles  east-south-east  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  and  on  a  trian- 
gular hill  crowned  by  a  castle  and  the  collegiate 
church.  It  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  highly  fertile 
plain,  productive  in  ^rain,  olives,  almonds,  &o.  An 
extensive  panoramic  view  is  obtained  from  the  castle. 
The  ooUegiate  church,  in  the  mixed  Gothic  and 
cinque-cento  style,  was  built  in  1534  It  was 
pillaged  by  Soult  of  5  cwt.  of  ancient  church  plate, 
and  was  converted  by  him  into  a  citadel  and  maga- 
zine. Pop.  15,500,  who  are  engaged  in  agriciUture 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  hnen  goods,  and  iron  and 
earthenware. 

OSWB'GO,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  in  New 
York,  U.S.,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego 
River,  on 'Lake  Ontario,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
Oswego  Canal,  a  branch  of  the  Erie,  and  also  the 
terminus  of  the  Syracuse  and  Oswego  Railway.  It 
is  a  handsome  city,  with  streets  100  feet  wide, 
crossing  at  right  angles,  with  costly  government 
buildings,  custom-house,  court-house,  post-office, 
city  hall,  hospital,  orphan  asylum,  library,  13 
churches,  2  daily  and  2  weekly  newspapers,  schools, 
&C.  It  has  a  large  trade  with  the  lake  country  and 
Canada,  and  exports  12,000,000  dollars  per  annum. 
On  the  falls  of  the  river  are  18  flour-mills,  making 
10,000  barrels  of  flour  a  day,  with  elevators  for 
unloading  vessels  for  37,000  bushels  an  hour.  Among 
the  manufactures  is  that  of  12,000,000  lbs.  of  starch 
from  Indian  com  per  annmn.  This  material,  vory 
commonly  called  Oswego  Flour,  or  Oswego,  is  now 
lar^ly  used  in  cookery  instead  of  arrow-root^  to 
which  it  bears  a  dose  resemblance.  There  is  a 
fort  and  navy-yard.    Pop.  in  I860,  16,817. 

OSWEGO  TEA,  a  name  given  to  several  species 
of  Monarda,  particularly  M.  pttrpurea,  M.  did^ma^ 


OSWESTRY— OTAGO. 


uid  M,  iotmiofta,  natives  of  North  America,  because 
of  the  occaaional  use  of  an  infusion  of  the  dried 
leaves  as  a  beyerage.  They  belong  to  the  natural 
order  LaJbiatfEj  somewhat  resemble  mints  in  appear- 
ance, and  have  an  agreeable  odour.  The  infusion  is 
■aid  to  be  useful  in  intermittents,  and  as  a  stomachic. 
Some  other  species  of  Monarda  are  used  in  the 
■ame  way. 

O'SWSSTRT,  a  small  market  town  and  muni- 
eipal  borough  of  ESngland,  in  the  county  of  Salop, 
aiuL  18  miles  nortii-west  of  Shrewsbury.  Portions 
of  the  old  wall  with  which  Edward  I.  ordered  it  to 
be  Burroonded  in  1277  are  still  standing.  Ther^  are 
also  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  said  to  have 
been  the  ancestral  seat  of  Walter  Fitaallan,  pro- 

genitor  of  the  royal  House  of  Stuart,  and  who^ 
uring  the  troubles  of  the  rei^n  of  King  Stephen, 
fled  hence  to  Scotland,  and  oecame  steward  to 
David  L  king  of  Scotland.  O.  is  the  centre 
of  an  extensive  agricultural  district ;  it  has  a 
handsome  new  ma&et-plaoe,  and  its  market  for 
agricultural  produce  is  very  largely  attended.  Com 
and  paper  mills  and  coal-mines  are  worked  in  the 
vicimt^.  It  is  favourably  situated  as  the  centre  of 
extensive  railway  communication.  Pop.  (1861)  of 
municipal  borough,  5414. 

0.  is  said  to  derive  its  name  from  Oswald,  king  of 
Northumbria,  slain  here  in  642.  Near  the"  town  is 
Oswald's  Well,  a  fine  spring  of  water. 

OSTMA'NDTAS,  the  name  of  a  great  king  of 
E^jrpt,  mentioned  by  Diodorus  and  Strabo,  who 
reigned,  according  to  these  authors,  as  the  27th 
successor  of  Sesostris.  He  distinguished  himself, 
according  to  these  authors,  by  his  victories,  and  in- 
vaded Asia  with  an  army  of  400,000  men  and  20,000 
cavalry,  and  conquered  the  Bactrians,  who  had  been 
rendered  tributary  to  Eg^pt  by  Sesostris.  In 
hononr  of  this  exploit,  he  is  said  by  Hecat®us  to 
have  erected  a  monument  which  was  at  oiice  a 
palace  and  a  tomb,  and  which,  under  the  name  of 
04ymandeion,  was  renowned  fur  its  size  and  splen- 
dour in  later  times.  It  was  said  to  be  situated  in  the 
necropolis  of  Thebes,  or  at  Goumah,  and  close  to 
the  sepulchres  of  the  concubines  of  the  god  Amen 
Ra.  The  Osymandeion  is  generally  believed  to  be 
represented  by  the  extant  ruins  of  the  palace  of 
Rameses  IIL  at  Medinet  Haboo,  though  great  diffi- 
culty has  been  felt  in  reconciling  the  descriptions 
of  its  magnificence  in  ancient  writers  witn  the 
dimensions  of  the  modern  relio ;  and  Letronne,  in 
his  Tombeau  d^OgymandyoB  (Par.  1831),  has  even 
ventured  to  suppose  that  it  was  an  imaginary  edifice 
invented  by  tne  Greeks  from  their  acquaintance 
with  the  great  palaces  of  Thebes,  but  this  scepticism 
is  considered  extreme.  The  name  of  0.  is  oifiicnlt 
to  recognise  amongst  the  Egyptian  kings,  the  nearest 
approach  to  it  being  one  of  the  Setis,  either  the  1st 
or  2d,  called  after  death,  Asiri-Meneptah.  Others 
consider  O.  the  Ismendes  of  Strabo,  or  the  MeuJes 
of  Herodotus.  The  name  of  Amenophis  may  also 
lie  concealed  in  his  name,  so  much  ambiguity 
porvades  the  subject 

Diodorus,  L  46  to  50 ;  Strabo,  xviL  p.  8, 11 — 16 ; 
Juvenal,  xv.  38;  Letronne,  Mem,  de  VInsL  ix.  p. 
321;  Champollion,  LeUrea  Ecrites,  p.  260,  303; 
Champollion-Eigeac,  VEgypU,  69,  291,  313-^15. 

OTA'GO,  the  most  populous  and  prosperous  of 
the  provinces  of  New  Zealand,  forms  the  most 
■oathem  portion  of  Middle  Island  (see  Kaw 
ZcALAiTD).  It  is  bounded  on  the  north  by  the 
province  of  Canterbury,  and  on  the  west,  east,  and 
ioukh  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  A  considerable  tract 
of  country,  naturally  forming  a  portion  of  the 
■ootii  of  tfads  province,  and  formerly  included  with 
'^  hqw  forms  the  province  of  Southland  (q.  v.). 


The  province  of  0.  is  150  miles  in  length,  and  180 
miles  in  breadth;  area,  26,000  square  miles,  or 
about  17  million  acres ;  pop.  in  1863  (including 
diggers),  50,000,  of  whom  37,000  were  males  and 
13^00  females ;  the  natives  number  in  this  province 
about  500.  The  coast-line  is  about  400  miles  in 
extent ;  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Waitaki,  the 
Clutha,  and  the  Mataura,  all  of  which  flow  south- 
south-east,  and  are  navigable  to  a  greater  or  less 
extent.  The  western  regions  of  0.  remain  unsur- 
veyed,  but  are  known  to  be  oovered  with  high,  and 
in  many  cases  snow-capped  mountains,  stretching 
along  the  whole  line  of  coast,  and  extending  inland 
for  upwards  of  60  miles.  East  and  north-east 
from  the  Mataura  River  to  the  shore  the  surface  is 
well  Jknown,  and  consists  of  mountain-ranges  alter- 
nating with  valleys,  and  extending  parallel  to  the 
sea  and  to  each  other  as  far  inland  as  the  valley  of 
the  Manuherikia,  one  of  the  first  affluents  of  the 
Clutha.  The  climate  of  0.  is  exceedingly  healthy 
and  invigorating ;  frost  and  snow  are  unknown 
except  in  the  nigher  ranges,  and  rain,  though 
sufficiently  abundant  to  answer  the  demands  of 
agriculture,  does  not  interfere  with  outdoor  occu- 
pations. All  the  English  fruits  and  flowers,  with 
some  trifling  exceptions,  are  grown  here  to  per- 
fection. The  northern  and  interior  districts  of  the 
province  are  eminently  adapted,  as  regards  both 
soil  and  climate,  for  agriculture  as  well  as  cattle- 
breeding.  The  western  districts  are  rugged,  and 
covered  with  forests ;  but  in  the  eastern  regions 
are  many  fertile  and  well- watered  tracts,  admirably 
suited  for  the  production  of  corn,  and  the  rearing  of 
cattle  and  sheep.  In  mineral  wealth  the  provmce 
of  0.  is  remarkably  rich.  Coal,  iron,  copper,  silver, 
lead,  &C.,  have  been  found,  and  useful  earths  and 
clays  are  abundant.  Gold  has  been  found  in 
small  quantities  in  other  provinces  of  New  Zealand, 
as  in  Auckland  and  Kelson  Province;  but  by 
far  the  most  important  gold-fields  of  the  colony 
are  in  the  province  of  O^^o.  Gold  was  first  dis- 
covered here  by  Mr  Gabnel  Read  in  June  1861, 
in  a  gully,  since  called  Gabriel's  Gully,  on  the 
Tuapeka,  an  affluent  of  the  Clutha,  in  a  direct 
line  37  miles  west  of  Dunedin.  Bead  placed  his 
discovery  in  the  hands  of  government,  and  was 
presented  by  the  Provincial  (Council  with  £500  as  a 
reward.  In  less  than  two  months  from  the  discovery 
of  gold,  3000  people  were  at  work  in  the  Tuapeka 
valley,  aud  were  obtaining  600(1  oz.  a  week.  Ii  rom 
this  time  gold-mining  becune  a  staple  employment. 
A  *  rush*  was  made  from  Australia ;  Dunedin,  for- 
merly the  village-capital  of  the  province,  now  rapidly 
increased  in  sue  and  trade,  new  fields  were  disco- 
vered, and  the  immigration-lists  were  immensely 
swelled  From  June  1861  to  June  1863,  700,000 
oz.,  worth  nearly  £3,000,000,  were  obtained.  The 
most  productive  gold-producing  district  of  which, 
up  to  the  present  time  (May  1864),  we  have  had  any 
notice,  is  the  Arrow  River  District,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Lake  Wakatip.  This  district  was  made  known 
in  November  1862,  and  from  that  time  to  the  end 
of  October  1863,  237,655  oz.— value,  £955,620— 
were  forwarded  to  Dunedin  by  escort  In  1863,  the 
imports  amounted  to  £1,463,834  in  value;  the 
exports  to  £1,307,756 ;  and  the  revenue,  for  tbe/r«< 
quarter  only  of  the  same  year,  amounted  to 
£11^665.  The  revenue  for  the  year  1862  was 
close  upon  £400,000.  In  the  same  year  there 
were  100,000  acres  in  farm-land,  and  the  province 
possessed  800,000  sheep,  40,000  cattle,  7000  horses, 
and  3000  pigs.  At  the  commencement  of  1862, 
there  were  8,307,200  acres  occupied  by  sheep  or 
cattle  runs,  and  968,320  acres  occupied  as  him- 
dreds.  Gold,  wool,  timber,  potatoes,  and  grain  are 
the   principal  articles  of   export.     The  first  band 


OTAHEITB-OTHMAN  IBN  ATFAN. 


ol  settlers  reached  the  iharm  of  0.  in  the  ipring 
of  1848.  Capitiil,  Dunedin  (q.  v.),  with  a  pop.  (in 
December  1861}  of  6000.  but  which  now  (Mftjr 
1864)  must  be  vaitl;  incre&sed.  O.  wu  originkllf 
a  class  colony  connected  with  the  Free  Church  of 
ScotUad ;  but  the  inflax  of  immignnt*  consequent 
on  the  discovery  of  gold  has  obliterated  its  distinc- 
tive character. 

OTAHEl'TB.    SeeTABm. 

OTALGIA  (Or.  ot-,  the  ear,  and  atgol,  p«in)  is 
neuralgia  of  the  eat.  It  occurs  in  (its  of  excruci- 
ating pain,  shooting  orer  the  bead  tad  face,  but  it 
is  not  accompanied  by  fever,  nor  usually  by  any 
sensation  of  throbbing.  Its  causes  and  treatment 
am  those  of  neiiraloia  generally,  bat  it  is  particu- 
larly caused  by  canes  of  the  t«eth,  which  should 
•Iways  be  carefully  examined  by  a  dentist  in  these 
cases.  When  patients  complain  of  earadu,  the  pain 
is  far  more  commonly  due  to  olitu,  or  inflammation 
of  tbe  tympaoio  portion  of  the  ear,  a  much  more 
•eriouB  Section. 


very  rcnuu-lialile  character,  a  double  cutting  edge 
in  the  four  middle  upper  incisure.  The  membrane 
which  unitt-8  the  toes  of  tbe  hind-feet  is  prolonged 
into  a  flap  beyond  each  toe.  Tbe  fure-legs,  as  if 
intended  exclusively  for  swimming,  are  placed 
further  back  in  the  body  than  in  the  true  seals, 
giving  the  otariee  the  appearance  oE  having  a  longer 
neck.  The  hind-l»^  are  more  like  the  fore-legg 
than  in  tbe  true  ae^— The  Sba  Lion  {O.juiata  or 
a  SleiUil)  of  the  nortbem  seas  U  about  15  feet  in 


X 


Sea  Lion  [Olaria  jiAata), 

length,  and  weighs  about  IS  owl  It  inhabits  the 
eastern  shorcB  of  Kamtehatka,  the  Kurile  lalanJa, 
ftc.,  and  ia  in  some  places  extremely  abundant.  It 
is  partially  migratory,  removing  from  its  most 
nurtheni  quarters  on  the  approach  of  winter.  It 
is  to  be  found  chiefly  on  rocky  coasts  and  islet 
rocks,  on  tbe  leilgea  of  which  it  climbs,  and  its 
roaring  ia  somittlmea  uaeful  in  warning  sailora  of 
danger.  It  is  much  addictod  to  roanng,  which, 
as  niucb  as  the  mane  of  the  old  males,  has  obtained 
for  it  tlie  name  of  sea  lion.  Tbe  head  of  this  animal 
is  large  ;  the  eyes  very  large  ;  the  eyebrows  busby ; 
the  hide  thick  ;  the  hair  coane,  and  reddish  ;  a 
heavy  mass  of  stiff,  curly,  crisp  hair  on  the  neck 
and  shoulders.  The  old  malca  have  a  Aerce  aspect, 
yet  tbey  flee  in  great  precipitation  from  man ;  but 
if  driven  to  extremities,  tbey  flcbt  furiously.  Sea 
lions  Are  capable  of  being  tamed,  and  become  very 
familiar  with  man.  They  are  polyoamoas,  but  a 
male  generally  appropriates  to  himself  only  two  or 


three  femalea.  They  feed  on  tfsh  and  the  smaller 
seals. — The  sea  lion  of  the  southern  seas,  ouce 
BUppoaed  to  be  tbe  same,  is  now  generally  believed 
to  be  a  distinct  speciee,  and,  indeed,  more  than  one 
species  are  supposed  to  inhabit  the  southern  sea*. 
—The  Ubsikb  SsAt,  UnsiHB  O.,  or  Sx*  BtiB  (O. 
HrMna),  is  an  inhabitant  of  tbe  Northern  Facitio. 
It  is  scarcely  8  feet  long.  The  hinder  limbs  being 
better  derelMied  than  in  most  of  the  seals,  it  can 
stand  and  walk  almost  like  a  land  quadruped.  Tbe 
miiEzle  ia  fsomiuent,  the  mouth  small,  the  li|in 
tumid,  the  whiskers  long ;  tbe  tip  of  the  tongue  ia 
bifurcated,  the  eye*  are  large,  tbe  skin  is  thick,  the 
hair  long,  erect,  and  thick,  with  a  soft  undercloihiog 
of  wooL  The  food  ooosisle  of  sea  otten,  small  seals, 
and  fish.  The  ursine  seal  is  polygamous,  a  strunE 
mole  appropriating  to  himself  from  eight 
females.  It  swim*  with  great  swiftness. 
fierce  and  oourageous.  Its  skin  is  much  prized 
for  clothing  in  Uie  r^ons  in  which  it  al>ounila. 


)  fif!^ 


.     .  __   .__      ..,    .       doubtful  if  the 

geographical  range  of  the  sea  bear  extends  to  the 
sontnem  seas,  or  if  it  is  represented  there  by  a  simi- 
lar species.  Several  other  species  of  0.  are  inhabit- 
ants of  the  Pacidc  and  Southern  Oceana.  The  FuB 
Seal  (0.  FaliUtndka]  is  one  of  these.  It  ia  fouud 
on  the  Falkland  Islands,  South  Shetland,  Ac  It 
is  of  a  long  and  slender  form,  with  broad  head, 
and  clothed  with  soft,  compact,  grayish.brown  hair, 
amon^t  which  is  a  very  soft,  brownish  fur.  tt  is 
gregarious  and  polygamous.  When  South  Shetland 
was  firat  visited,  its  seals  had  no  apprehension  of 
danger,  and  unsuspectingly  remained  whilst  their 
fellows  were  slain  and  skiimed  ;  but  they  have  since 
learned  to  be  upon  their  guard.  The  akin  of  the  fiir 
seal  is  in  great  demand,  chiefly  for  ladies'  mantles, 
and  was  much  used  for  making  a  kind  of  soft  fur 
cap,  which  was  very  common  thirty  or  forty  years 
ago. 

OTCHAKO'W,  a 
South  Bussia,  in  <  ^ 
surrounded  on  all  sides  1^  a  barren  steppe,  stonda 
st  the  western  extremity,  and  on  the  north  shore, 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Dnieper,  40  miles  east- 
north.east  of  Odessa.  It  traces  its  foundation 
to  the  very  earliest  times,  and  is  supposed  by 
some  to  be  the  spot  where  ataoA  the  Grecian 
colony  Oibia  ;  by  others,  to  be  Tomi,  tbe  scene 
of  Ovid's  banishment.  At  the  end  of  the  15th 
e.,  the  kban  of  the  Crimea  built  here  a  strong 
fortress.  Its  jtresent  name  occurs,  for  the  firat  time, 
15fi7.     During  the  Russian  wan  with  Torkey  in 


nitively  annexed  to  the  Russian  dominiona.  The 
vicinit^  of  Odessa  is  fatal  to  the  developawnt  of 
foreign  commerce  st  its  port.  Pop,  t>426,  the  greata- 
part  of  whom  are  Jews,  and  are  employed  in  salting 
Ush  for  transport  to  LJttte  Russia. 

OTHMAN  IBN  AFFAN,  thini  caUf  of  the 
Moslcuia,  waa  bom  about  574.  He  belonged  to 
the  family  of  the  prophet,  and  was  couatn-german 
of  Abu  Softan.  One  of  the  early  converts  to 
Islam,  he  was  one  of  its  most  zealous  supporters, 
and  linked  himaelf  still  more  strongly  to  Moham- 
med by  becoming  his  son-in.law  and  private  secre- 
tary. He  was  elected  to  succeed  Omar  in  tho 
califate  in  Becenibcr  644,  and  a  most  nnworthy 
successor  he  proved  to  be.  The  Moslem  empire, 
however,  continued  to  extend  itaelf  on  all  sides  till 
tbe  insane  nepotism  of  O.  gave  its  progress  a  sudden 
check.  Tbe  able  and  energetic  leaders  who  had 
been  appointed  by  Omar  were  superseded  by  mem- 
' '         "—  family,  and  of  that  of  Abn  Soflaa  ; 


bers  of  bis  c 


e  consequenoea  k 


e  what  might  have  been 


OTHMAN— OTHO  L 


expected.      Egypt    revolted,    and   the    calif   was 

compelled  to  reinstate  Amru  in  the  government  of 

that  country,  and  several  other  rebellions  were  only 

quelled  by  a  similar  restoration  of  the  previous 

ffOTemors.     Zealous  Moslems  deeply  deplored  the 

folly  of  their  chief,  and  were  indiniant  at  seeine  the 

chair  of  the  prophet  occupied  by  O.,  while  Abu-bekr, 

and  even  Omar,  were  accustomed  to  seat  themselves 

two  steps  below  it.    Emboldened  by  the  knowledge 

of  his  vacillating  and  cowardly  disposition,  they 

showered  upon  him  reproaches  and  menaces ;  but 

the  bearer   of   their   remonstrances   having  been 

bastinadoed  by  0/s  order,  a  general  revolt  ensued. 

0.  averted  the  crisis-  by  unconditional  submission  ; 

but  bavins  soon  after  attempted  to  put  to  death 

Mohammed,  the  son  .of  the  Calif  Aou-bekr,  the 

latter  made  his  appearance  at  Medina  at  the  head 

of  a  troop  of  malcontents,  and  forcing  his  way  to 

the  presence  of  O.,  stabbed  him  to  the  heart     O. 

was  of  a  mild  and  pacific  disposition,  but  he  was  at 

the  same  time  most  ambitious  of  power,  though 

after  his  accession  to  supreme  authority,  he  shewed 

himself  to  be,  either  from  age  or  natural  imbecility, 

deplorably    deficient   in    wose    energetic    virtues, 

without  which  the  control  of  a  warlike  people  and 

the  managemenyof  a  mighty  empire  such  as  that 

of  the  Moslems,  were  nUerly  impossible.     O.  was 

tile  first  to  cause  an  authentic  copy  of  the  Koran 

to  be  comi)osed. 

OTHMAN,  OTHOMAN,  or  OSMAN  I.,  sur- 
named  AUghazi  ('the  conqueror'),  the  founder  of 
the  Turkish  power,  was  bom  in  Bithynia  in  1259. 
His  father,  OrthoCTul,  the  chief  of  a  smaU  tribe 
of  Ojgdzian  Turks,  nad  entered  the  service  of  Alia- 
ed-din  Kaikobad,  the  Seljuk  sultan  of  Iconium,  and 
had  rendered  important  services  to  that  monarch 
and  his  successors  in  their  wars  with  the  Byzantines 
and  Mongols.  Orthogrul  dying  in  1289,  after  a 
rule  of  more  than  half  a  century,  his  tribe  chose  his 
son  Osman  (i.  e.,  the  'young  bustard,') as  his  successor. 
0.  trod  in  his  father's  footsteps ;  and  on  the  des- 
truction of  the  sultanate  of  Iconium  in  1299  by  the 
Mongols,  succeeded  in  obtaining  possession  of  a 
portion  of  Bithynia.  He  had  previously  subjugated 
many  of  the  neighbouring  Oguzian  chiefs,  aucf  this 
new  accession  of  territory  rendered  him  powerful 
enough  to  attack  the  Byzantines  with  success.  In 
July  1299,  he  forced  the  passes  of  Olympus,  and  took 
possession  of  the  whole  territory  of  Nicaea,  with 
the  sole  exception  of  the  town  of  that  name,  which 
resisted  his  efforts  for  five  years  longer.  In  1301,  he 
defeated  the  Emperor  Andronicus  n.  at  Baphaeon ; 
in  13U7,  he  incorporated  the  province  of  Marmara  in 
his  dominions ;  and  continuea  till  his  death,  in  1326, 
steadily  to  pursue  his  plans  of  conquest.  '  Othman, 
says  Knnlles,  *  was  wise,  politic,  valiant,  and  fortu- 
nate, but  full  of  dissimulation,  and  ambitious  above 
measure;  not  rash  in  his  attempts,  and  vet  very 
resolute ;  to  all  men  he  was  bountiful  and  liberal, 
especially  to  his  men  of  war  and  to  the  poor.  Of  a 
poor  lordship,  he  left  a  great  kingdom  (Phrygia, 
Bithynia,  and  the  neighbouring  districts),  havmg 
subdued  a  great  part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  is  worthily 
accounted  the  hrst  founder  of  the  Turks'  great 
kingdom  and  empire.'  O.  assumed  the  title  of 
sultan  (though  this  is  denied  by  many  historians) 
on  the  extinction  of  the  Iconium  sultanate  in 
1299,  held  his  court  at  Kara-Hissar,  and  struck 
money  in  his  own  name.  From  him  are  derived 
the  terms  Ottomans,  Othomans,  and  Osmanli  or 
Osmanlii,  which  are  eniployed  as  synonymous  with 
Turks.     See  OrroMAir  Empire. 

OTHO,  Marcus.  Salyius,  Roman  emperor,  was 
descended  of  an  ancient  Etruscan  family,  and  was 
bora  32  A.  D.     He  was  a  favourite  companion  of 


Nero,  who  appointed  him  governor  of  Lnsitania,  in 
which  ofiice  he  ;  j'juitted  himself  creditably.  Un 
the  revolt  of  Galba  aj^nst  Nero,  O.  joined  himself 
to  the  former ;  but  bemg  disappointed  in  his  hope 
of  beins  proclaimed  Galoa's  successor,  he  marched 
at  the  nead  of  a  small  band  of  soldiers  to  the 
fomm,  where  he  was  proclaimed  emperor,  and 
Galba  was  slain,  69  A.D.  0.  was  recognised  as 
emperor  over  all  the  Roman  possessions,  with  the 
exception  of  Germany,  where  a  large  army  was 
stationed  under  Vitellius.  The  first  lew  weeks  of 
his  reign  were  marked  by  an  indulgence  towards  his 
personal  enemies,  and  a  devotion  to  business,  which, 
though  at  total  variance  with  his  usual  habits, 
excited  in  the  minds  of  his  subjects  the  most 
favourable  hopes.  But  the  tide  of  rebellion  raised 
in  Germany  by  Valens  and  Ceecina  during  the  reign 
of  Gkilba  had  by  this  time  gathered  stren^h,  and 
these  commanders  having  prevailed  upon  vitellius, 
who  had  become  a  mere  good-humoiutid  glutton, 
to  join  his  forces  to  theirs,  the  combined  army 
poured  into  Italy.  O.  fortunately  ]x>s8es8ed  several 
able  generals,  who  repeatedly  defeated  the  rebels ; 
but  the  prudence  of  some  among  them  in  restraining 
the  enthusiasm  of  their  troops,  who  wished  fuHher 
to  follow  up  their  victories,  was  unfortunately 
considered  as  cowardice  or  treason,  and  produced  dis- 
sensions in  O.'s  camp.  This  state  of  matters  becom- 
ing known  to  the  generals  of  Vitellius,  encouraged 
them  to  unite  their  armies,  and  fall  upon  the  forces 
of  Otha  An  obstinate  engagement  took  place  near 
the  junction  of  the  Adda  and  the  Po,  in  which  the 
army  of  0.  was  completely  routed,  and  the  relics 
of  it  went  over  on  the  following  day  to  the  side  of 
the  victor.  0.,  though  by  no  means  reduced  to 
extremity,  resolved  to  make  no  further  resistance ; 
settled  his  affairs  with  the  utmost  deliberation ;  and 
then  stabbed  himself,  on  the  15th  of  April  69  A.D. 

OTHO  I.,  or  the  Great,  son  of  the  Emperor 
Henry  I.  of  Germany,  was  born  in  912,  and  after 
having  been  earlv  recognised  as  his  successor,  was, 
on  the  death  of  nis  fatner  in  936,  formally  croivned 
king  of  the  Germans.  His  reign  was  one  succession 
of  eventful  and  generally  triumphant  wars,  in  the 
course  of  which  ne  brought  many  turbulent  tribes 
under  subjection,  acquired  and  maintained  almost 
supreme  power  in  Italy,  where  he  imposed  laws 
with  equal  success  on  the  kings  of  Lombardy  and 
the  popes  at  Rome,  consoli£ited  the  disjointed 
power  of  the  German  emperors,  and  established 
Christianity  at  many  different  points  in  the  Scandi- 
navian and  Slavonic  lands,  which  lay  beyond  the 
circuit  of  his  own  jurisdiction.  His  earliest  achieve- 
ment was  a  successful  war  against  the  Bohemian 
Duke  Boleslas,  whom  he  reduced  to  subjection,  and 
forcibly  converted  to  Christianity ;  next,  the  Dukes 
of  Bavaria  and  Franconia  were  compelled  to  succumb 
to  his  power ;  the  former  paying  the  penalty  of  his 
opposition  to  0.  by  defeat  and  death  in  battle,  and 
the  latter  by  the  confiscation  of  his  territories, 
which,  together  with  the  other  lapsed  and  recovered 
fiefs  of  the  empire,  were  bestowed  on  near  and 
devoted  relatives  of  the  conqueror.  After  subduing 
the  Slavi  of  the  Oder  and  Spree,  for  whose  Christian 
regeneration  he  founded  the  bishoprics  of  Havelburg 
and  Brandenburg,  driving  the  Danes  beyond  the 
Eyder,  compeUing  their  defeated  king  to  return  to 
the  Christian  faith  and  do  homage  to  himself ;  and 
after  founding,  at  the  suggestion  of  his  mother's 
former  chaplain,  Adeldag,  tb^  bishoprics  of  Aarhiius, 
Ribe,  and  Sletvig,  which  he  decreed  were  for  ever  to 
be  free  from  alluurdens  and  imi)osts,  he  turned  his 
attention  to  the  affairs  of  Italy.  Here  he  presented 
himself  as  the  champion  of  the  beautiful  Adelheid,  the 
widow  of  the  murdered  K  n  ^  Lothaire;  and  having 
defeated  her  importunate  sa.tor,  Berengar  II.  (q.v.), 


OTHO  IL-^THO  in. 


mairied  ber,  and  assumed  supreme  power  over  the 
north  of  Italy  in  951.  The  wars  to  which  this  measure 
cave  rise,  obliged  O.  frequently  to  cross  the  Alps ; 
out  at  length,  after  a  great  victory  gained  over  the 
Huns  in  9Ss,  and  the  defeat  and  capture  of  Berengar, 
O.  was  acknowledged  king  of  Italy  by  a  diet  held 
at  Milan;  and  after  being  crowned  with  the  iron 
crown  of  Lombardy,  was,  in  962,  reOognised  by  Pope 
John  XII.  as  the  successor  of  Charlemagne,  and 
crowned  Emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome.  0.  lost  no 
time  in  asserting  his  imperial  prerogatives;  and 
having  called  a  council,  effected  the  deposition  of 
John,  whose  licentiousness  had  become  a  burden  to 
Italy  and  a  scandal  to  Christendom,  and  caused  Leo 
VIU.  to  be  elected  in  his  place.  Fresh  wars  were 
the  result  of  this  step.  Popes  and  anti-popes  dis- 
tracted  the  peace  of  Kome ;  but  through  all  these 
disorders,  O.  maintained  the  supremacy  which  he 
claimed  as  Emperor  of  the  West,  in  regard  to  the 
election  of  popes  and  the  temporal  concerns  of  the 
Boman  territories.  His  later  years  were  disturbed 
by  domestic  differei|ces ;  for  his  elder  son,  Ludolph, 
and  his  son-in-law,  Konrad  of  Lorraine,  havmg 
risen  in  rebellion  against  him,  through  jealousy  of 
his  younger  son  and  intended  successor,  Otho, 
the  empire  was  distracted  by  civil  war.  Although 
the  war  terminated  in  the  defeat  of  the  rebels,  and 
the  recognition  of  youn^  Otho  as  king  of  the 
Gennans,  and  his  coronation  at  Rome,  in  967,  as 
joint-emperor  with  his  father,  O.'s  favourite  scheme 
of  uniting  the  richly-downed  Greek  princess,  Theo- 
phania,  with  the  young  prince,  met  with  such 
contempt  from  the  Greek  emperor,  that  his  outraged 
pride  soon  again  plunged  him  into  war.  His  inroads 
into  Apulia  and  Calabria^  however,  proved  con- 
vincing arguments  in  favour  of  the  marriage,  and 
Theophania  became  the  wife  of  young  Otho,  with 
Calabria  and  Apulia  for  her  dowry.  0.  died  at 
MinsIebeUf  in  Thuringia,  in  973,  and  was  buried  at 
Magdeburg,  leaving  &e  character  of  a  great  and 
just  ruler,  who  had  extended  the  limits  of  the 
empire,  and  restored  the  prestige  of  the  imperial 
power  more  nearly  to  the  stand  which  it  occupied 
under  Charlemagne  than  any  other  emperor.  He 
created  the  dudiy  of  Carinthia,  and  the  mark- 
grafdoms  of  East  and  North  Saxony;  appointed 
counts-palatine ;  founded  cities  and  bishoprics ;  and 
did  good  service  to  the  empire,  in  reorganising  the 
shaken  foundations  of  its  power  in  Europe.  See 
Vehse*s  Leben  Kaiser  0,*s  des  Oroasen  (Dresd.  1827). 
OTHO  II.,  sumamed  Rufus^  *  the  Bed,'  son  of 
Otho  I.,  was  bom  in  955,  and  succeeded  his 
father  in  973.  For  a  time,  0.  was  content  to  rule 
under  the  regency  of  his  mother,  the  Empress 
Adelheid;  bat  dinerences  bavins  arisen  between 
them,  through  the  headstxong  ana  ambitious  inclin- 
ations of  the  young  monarch,  his  mother  with- 
drew from  all  share  in  the  administration,  and 
left  him  to  the  exercise  of  his  own  will,  which 
■oon  Urought  him  into  collision  with  the  great 
vassals  of  the  crown.  Civil  war  broke  out  under 
the  leadership  of  Henry  IL  of  Bavaria,  who  formed 
ft  secret  alliance  acainst  the  young  emperor 
with  Harald,  king  of  Denmark,  and  Micislav  of 
Poland,  and  for  a  time  fortune  inclined  to  the  side 
of  the  rebels ;  but  O.'s  astuteness  circumvented 
their  designs,  and  after  defeating  Henry,  and  depriv- 
ing him  of  his  duchy,  he  marched  against  the 
Danish  king,  who  had  been  making  successful 
incursions  into  Saxony.  O.'s  first  attack  on  the 
Dannevirke  having  proved  of  no  avail,  he  retired, 
▼owing  that  he  would  return  before  another  year, 
and  force  ever;^  Dane  to  forswear  paganism.  0. 
kept  his  promise,  returning  to  the  attack  the  fol- 
lowing year,  when,  according  to  the  old  chroniclers, 
acting  by  the  advice  of  his  ally,  Olaf  Tzygvesen  of 

144 


Norway,  he  caused  large  Quantities  of  trees,  brush- 
wood, and  stubble  to  be  piled  up  against  the  Danne- 
virke, and  set  on  lire,  and  this  drove  away  the 
defenders,  and  destroyed  their  fortifications.  The 
defeated  Harold  was  soon  overpowered  by  the 
superior  numbers  of  the  Germans,  and  compelled 
to  receive  baptism,  as  the  badge  of  his  defeat. 
The  next  scene  of  war  was  Lorraine,  which  the 
French  king,  Lothaire,  had  seized  aa  a  former 
appanage  of  his  crown;  but  here,  after  a  partial 
defeat,  0.  succeeded  in  reasserting  his  power; 
and  not  content  with  this  advantage,  devastated 
Champagne,  pursued  and  captured  Lothaire,  and 
advanced  upon  Paris,  one  of  tiie  suburbs  of  which  he 
burned.  Scarcely  was  this  war  ended,  when  the  dis- 
turbed condition  of  Italy  called  O.  across  the  Alps. 
His  presence  put  a  stop  to  the  insurrection  at 
Milan  and  Rome,  where  he  re-established  order ;  and 
having  advanced  into  Lower  Italy,  he  defeated  the 
Saracens,  drove  back  the  Greeks,  and  having  re- 
established his  supremacy  in  Apulia  and  Calal>ria, 
which  he  claimed  m  right  of  his  wife,  Theophania, 
made  himself  master  of  Kaples  and  Salerno^  and' 
finally  of  Tarentum,  in  982.  The  Greek  emperor, 
alarmed  at  the  successful  ambition  of  0.,  called  the 
Saracens  a^n  into  Italy,  who  gave  him  battle  with 
overwhelming  numbers.  The  result  was  the  total 
defeat  of  the  emperor,  who  only  escaped  from  the 
hands  of  the  victors  by  plunging  with  his  horse  into 
the  sea,  and  swimming,  at  uie  risk  of  his  life,  to  a 
ship.  Unluckily,  it  was  a  Greek  ship,  and  O.  was 
virtually  a  prisoner ;  but  as  the  vessel  neared 
Boesano,  a  friendly  port,  he  contrived  to  escape  by  a 
cunning  stratageuL  O.  now  hastened  to  Verona, 
where  a  diet  was  held,  which  was  numerously 
attended  b^  the  princes  of  Germany  and  Italy,  and 
at  which  his  infant  son,  Otho,  was  recognised  as  his 
successor.  This  diet  is  chiefly  memorable  for  the 
confirmation  by  O.  of  the  franchises  and  privileges 
of  the  republic  of  Venice,  and  the  enactment  of 
many  new  laws,  which  were  added  to  the  celebrated 
Longobard  code.  O.'s  death  at  Rome,  at  the  close 
of  the  same  year,  983,  arrested  the  execution  of  the 
vast  preparations  against  the  Greeks  ai|d  Saraoena, 
which  had  been  planned  at  the  diet  of  Verona,  and 
left  the  empire  embroiled  in  wars  and  internal 
disturbances.  See  Giesebrecht's  JahrbUcher  deg 
Deutschen  Rdcha  unter  der  fferrschcift,  Kaiser  OJs  II, 
(Berl.  1840). 

OTHO  III.,  who  was  only  three  years  old  at  his 
father*s  deatjb,  was  at  once  crowned  king  of  the 
Grermans  at  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  983, from  which  period 
till  996,  when  he  received  the  imperial  crown  at 
Rome,  the  government  was  administered  with  extra- 
ordinary skill  and  discretion  by  three  female  rela- 
tives of  the  boy-king— viz.,  his  mother,  Theophania; 
his  grandmother,  Adelheid ;  and  his  aunt,  Matilda, 
Abl^ss  of  Quedlin^burg,  who,  in  conjimction  with 
the  learned  Willegis,  Archbishop  of  Mainz,  directed 
his  education.  The  prinoes  of  the  im{>erial  family 
disputed  the  right  of  these  royal  ladies  to  the 
(histody  of  the  young  king ;  and  Henry  of  Bavaria, 
the  nearest  agnate,  having  seized  the  person  of  O., 
tried  to  usurp  the  supreme  power;  but  opposed  by 
the  majority  of  the  other  prmces  of  the  empire,  he 
was  compelled  to  release  him,  in  consideration  of 
receiving  back  his  forfeited  duchy.  O.  early  shewed 
that  he  nad  inherited  the  great  qualities  of  his  fore- 
fathers, and  when  scarcely  fifteen  years  of  age,  at 
the  head  of  his  army,  defeated  the  troojis  of  the 
patrician  Crescentius,  the  self-styled  consul  of  Rome^ 
and  thus  restored  order  in  the  Boman  territories. 
In  996,  he  was  crowned  emperor  by  his  relative, 
Gregory  V. ;  and  having  settled  the  aflairs  of  Italy, 
returned  to  Germany,  v^ere  he  defeated  the  Slaves, 
who  had  long  earned  on  war  against  the  empire; 


OTHO  L— OTLBT. 


md  haying  forced  MIcisT'\t,  Duke  of  Poland,  to  do   troops  enabled  him  to  restrain  the  enthusiasm  ol 
bim  homage,   he    subsequently  raised  the  Polish  i  his  subjects ;  but  after  their  withdrawal  in  1857,  ha 
territories  to  the  rank  of  a  kin^om,  in   favour '  was  obliged  to  adopt  severe  measures  against  the 
of  Micislav's    successor,  Boleslas.      The   renewed  ,  frontier  brigands.    His  council,  too,  was  composed 
rebellion  of  Crescentius,  who  drove  Uxvrory  from    of  men  unable  ot  unwilling  to  support  him,  and 
the  papal  throne,  compelled  O.  to  return  to  Italy, '  his  position  became  year  by  ^ear  more  and  more 
▼here  success,  as   usual,   attended    his   measuied. '  difficult.    The  strong  pro-Kussianism  of  the  queen 
Crescentius,  who  bad  thrown  himself  into  St  Angelo, '  rendered  her  for  some  time  a  favourite ;  but  the 
WIS  seised  and  beheaded,  together  with  twelve  of   belief  that  O.'s  absolute  measiu«s  were  due  to  her 
his  chief  adherents ;  the  anti-pope,  John  XVI.,  im-    instigation,  turned  the  tide  of  popular  hatred  so 
prisoned;  Gre^iy  restored ;  and  on  the  speedy  death    strondy  against  her,  that  attempts  were  made  on 
of  tiie  latter,  0.*s  old  tutor,  Gherbert,  Archbishop  of    her  life.    The  general  discontent  at  last  found  vent  in 
Rsvenna,  raised  to  the   papacy  under  the  title  of   insurrections  at  Nauplia  and  Syra  in  1862,  which  were 
Sylvester  n.    O.,  elated  with  his  success,  took  up 'his    soon  suppressed.    A  more  formidable  insurrection 
reddeoce  in  Rome,  where  he  organised  the  govern-    in  the  duftriots  of  Missolonghi,  Acarnania,  £lis,  and 
sent,  erected  new  buildings,  and  shewed  every  dis-    Messenia,  having  for  its  object  the  expulsion  of  the 
position,  notwithstanding  the  ill-concealed  dissatis- 1  reigning  dynasty,  broke  out  in  October  of  the  same 
nction  of  the  Romans,  to  convert  their  city  into  the   year,  and  in  a  few  days  extended  to  the  whole  of 
eapitsl  of  the  western  empire.     The  near  approach  ,  Greece.     0.  and  his  queen  fled  to  Salamis,  from 
of  the  year  1000,  to  which  so  many  alarmuig  pro-  i  which  place  he  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that 
phesies  were  then  believed  to  point  as  the  end  of  the   he  quitted  Greece  to  avoid  the  effusion  of  blood, 
world,  induced  O.  to  undertake  a  pilgrimage  to  the  ,'  and  a  provisional  government  was  then  established. 
Holy  Land,  where  he  founded  an  arclu>ishoprio.    On    This  ^vemment,  in  February  1863,  resigned  its 
his   return,  after  visiting  Charlemagne's  grave  at   executive  power  to  the  National  Assembly,  which 
Aix-Ia-Ohapelle,    and    removing    the    consecrated  .  confirmed  its  acts,  and  decreed  that  Prince  Alfred 
cross,  suspended  from  the  emperor's  neck,  he  again  !  of  England  had  been  duly  elected  king  of  Greece, 
repaired  to  Rome,  to  consolidate  his  schemes  of    On  the  refusal  of  this  prince  to  accept  the  throne, 
eatablishing  a  Roman  empire.     The  insurrection  of  ,  their  choice  fell  on    Prince   Wilham  of    Slesvig- 
the  Romans  frustrated  his  plans,  and  escaping  from    Holstein-Sonderburg-Glucksburg,  the  second  son  of 
Rome  at    the  risk   of    his   life,  he  witndrew  to    Christian  IX,  king  of  Denmark,  who,  under  the 
lUrenna,  to  await  the  arrival  of  powerful  reinforce-  ;  title  of  George  I.,  King  of  the  Hellenes,  in  Sep- 
meats  from  (Germany;  but  before  they  had  crossed    tember  1863,  assumed  the  ftmctions  of  royalty.    O. 
the  Alps,  O.  died  in  1002,  at  the  age  of  22,  appar-    is  at  present  living  at  Munich, 
ently  from  poison,  which  was  said  to  have  been '      ^m^fm-wa       -a  a-       « ^t    j.  -j. 

sdndniatered  to  hiin  by  the  widow  of  Crescentius,  '  .OTFTIS,  or  inflammation  of  the  tympanic  cavity 
who,  it  is  said,  had  d^berately  set  herself  to  win  ^^**^«  ear,  inay  be  either  acute  or  chrome  and  it  may 
his  affections  that  she  might  have  an  opporijunity  of  S"""*  ^'^  ^^"?«  the  coarse  of  certam  febnle  affec- 
avenging  the  death  of  her  husband ;  and^dth  him  the  toons,  especiaJly  scarlatma,  or  m  consequence  of  a 
male  biSnch  of  the  Saxon  imperial  House  became  "^rof^^ous,  rheumatic  or  gouty  constitution;  or  it 
extinci  See  Wihnan's  JahrbQcher  des  DeuUehm  °^*y  ^  «?«^*^  ^7  ^T^^  ^«*«»^  ^  exposure  to 
Rekhs  uiUcr  Kaiser  Otto  III.  (Berl.  1840).  i  ?^~S$?  ^^  «>lf  *^»  V^,!^'^*  ajjiupg  or  probing, 

^^__-^  _  -  *Tj-i_-ri»        .I&c.    The  symptoms  of  the  acute  form  are  sudden 

OTHO  I.,  second  son  of  Ludwig,  kmg  of  Havana,  ^n^  intense  pwn  in  the  ear,  increased  by  coughing, 
was  bom  at  Sabsburg,  1st  June  1815,  and  on  the  gneezing,  or  swallowing,  tinnUua  aunum,  or  singing 
^''^JJ't  ^I^  ^^^^  kmgdom  m  1832,  was  ^^  buzzing  noises  hea?d  by  the  patient,  and  morl 
appointed  by  the  protecting  powers  kmg  of  Greece.  -  ^^  j^  deafness.  If  the  disease  goes  on  unchecked. 
Tin  he  attained  his  majonty,  the  government  was  suppuration  takes  place,  and  the  membrane  of 
mtrusted  to  a  regency,  which  was  unable  to  sup-  the  tympanum  ulcerates,  and  aUows  of  the  discharge 
pp^  mtemal  disorder,  or  counteract  the  diplomatac  ^^  '"^j.  inflammation  of  the  dura  mater  and 
mtngues  of  forei^  i»^f  ®"-,  ^°  assummg  the  abscesses  in  the  brain  may  be  established.  In  less 
government  in  1835,  O.  transferred  the  court  from  g^^ere  cases  there  is  usuaUy  a  considerable  amount 
^aupha  to  Athens,  and  pwsed  into  law  several 'j  persistent  damage,  and  an  obstinate  discharge 
miportant  measures,  which  forded  the  most  hvely  |  ^f  ^^ter  {otorrha^  is  a  frequent  sequence  of  the 
satisfaction    to    his   subjects.      During  a  visit  to '  (jig^ase. 

^rmany  in  1836,  he  married  the  Princess  Amahe  :  rpj^^  treatment  of  so  serious  an  affection  must  be 
of  Oldenburg.  A  monetary  crisis,  provoked  partly  left 'solely  in  the  hands  of  the  medical  practitioner, 
hy  fal«  administrative  measures,  and  partly  by  too  ^he  symptoms  of  the  chronic  and  less  acute 
prompt  demands  for-repayment  on  the  part  of  the  varieties  of  otitis  are  unfortunately  so  slight,  that 
protecting  powers,  threw  the  affairs  of  Greece  into  •  they  are  often  neglected,  until  the  patient  linds 
confusiOT,  and  materially  weakened  the  l"ng»s  .^j^/ ^^^  ^f  bearing  in  one  or  both  ears  almost, 
popularity.  A  national  reaction  against  the  Ger-  |  completely  gone.  In  these  milder  forms  of  otitis,  the 
mamsmg  tendencies  of   the    court    followed,  and    general  indications  of  treatment  are  to  combat  the 


rwulted  in  1843  in  a  military  revolution,  which   gjathesis  on  which  they  frequently  depend,  and  to 


consurawon  oi  maren  ^,  i^  out  nis  enorw  were  ^  one  grain  of  gray  powder  night  and  morning), 
only  partially  successful.  Though  the  Bavarian  ,  ^^  ^^^  ^^i^^^%  <icasionally  applied  to  the  nape 
nunisteiB  were  dismissed,  the  king  and  his  Greek  ■  ^^  ^^^  ^^^j^  o^  to  the  mastoid  process,  are  often. 
sdvuierB  shewed  the  moat  reactionary  tendenciM,  I  ^^|  ^^^^  j^  ^ery  chronic  cases.  If  there  is  any 
and  attempted  in  various  ways  to  curtail  the  discharge,  the  ear  should  be  gently  syringed  once  oi 
pnTfleges  which  Ije  new  constitution  had  conferred  _  ^^^  /^  ^i^j^  ^arm  water,  after  which  a  tepid' 
•n  the  peOT>le.  The  equivocal  position  m  which  he  golution  of  sulphate  of  zinc  (one  gram  to  an  ounce 
«8  placed,  m  1853,  between  the  ^hed  powers  on  ^j  ^^^j  may  be  dropped  into  the  meatus,  and 
the  one  hand,  and  his  subjects,  whose  sympathies  aUowed  to  remain  there  two  or  three  minutes. 
were  strongly  m  favour  of  Russia,  on  the  other, , 

matly  increased  the  difficulties  of   his  situation.  I      OTLEY,  a  small  market  town  of  England,  in  the 

The  occupation   of  the  Pireus   by  Anglo-French    West  Hiding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  right  bank  ol 

322  **• 


OTORRHCEA— OTTER. 


the  W^arl«  ^  miles  west-south-west  of  York.  Its 
parish  4;huroh,  built  in  1507,  has  a  plain  Norman 
arch  over  ihe  north  door.  Extensive  cattle  and 
graiv  markets  are  held  here.  There  is  a  worsted, 
a  paper,  and  a  flour  mill  in  the  town.  Pop.  (1864) 
497a 

OTORBHCE'A  signifies  a  purulent  or  muco- 
purulent discharge  from  the  external  ear.  It  may 
be  due  to  various  causes,  of  which  the  most  frequent 
is  catarrhal  inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane  of 
the  meatus,  and  the  next  in  frequency  is  Otitis 
(q.  V.)  in  its  various  forms.  If  the  discharge  is  very 
fetid,  a  weak  solutiop  of  chloride  of  lime,  or  of 
Condy*s  Disinfectant  Fluid,  ma^  be  used,  in  place j>f 
the  solution  of  sulphate  of  zmc  recommended  in 
article  Orms ;  and  in  obstinate  cases  of  catarrhal 
inflammation  of  the  lining  membrane,  the  discharge 
may  often  be  checked  by  pencilling  the  whole 
interior  of  the  meatus  with  a  solution  of  ^vq  grains 
of  nitrate  of  silver  in  an  oimce  of  water. 

OTRA'NTO,  Terra  di,  the  extreme  south- 
eastern province  of  Italy,  forming  the  heel  of  the 
Italian  boot,  is  bounded  on  the  north-west  by  the 
provinces  of  Bari  and  Basilicata,  and  surrounded  on 
all  other  sides  by  the  sea.  Area,  3293  square  miles ; 
pop.  (1862)  447,982.  It  occupies  the  ancient  lapygian 
or  Messapian  peninsula,  and  is  102  miles  in  length, 
and  from  25  to  35  miles  in  breadth.  Tliree  parts  of 
its  surface  are  covered  with  hills,  offsets  fifbm  the 
Apennines  of  Basilicata.  All  the  rivers  are  short, 
many  of  them  being  lost  in  the  marshes  of  the 
interior;  but  abundant  springs  and  heavy  dews 
render  the  soil  surprisingly  fertile.  Grood  pasture- 
lands  and  dense  forests  occur.  The  climate  is 
pleasant  and  healthy,  except  along  the  shores,  both 
on  the  east  and  west  coasts,  and  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  marshes,  which  in  summer  generate  malaria. 
An  abundance  of  the  best  wine,  with  com  and  olive- 
oil,  are  produced;  tobacco  (the  best  grown  in  Italv), 
cotton,  and  figs,  almonds,  oranges,  &o.,  are  also 
produced.    The  capital  is  Leoce  (q.  v.). 

OTRAKTO  (the  ancient  HydrunturrCj,  a  small 

town  on  the  south-east  coast  of  the  province  of  the 

:aame  name,  24  miles  south-east  of  Lecce.    During 

the  latter  period  of  the  Roman  empire,  and  all 

through  the  middle  ages,  it  was  the  chief  port  of 

Italy  on  the  Adriatic,  whence  passengers  took  ship 

for  Greece — ^having  in  this  respect  supplanted  the 

famous  Bnmdusium  of  earlier  times,     in  1480,  it 

was  taken  by  the  Turks,  and  at  that  time  it  was 

.  a  flourishing  city  of  20,000  inhabitants ;  but  it  has 

long  been  m  a  decaying  condition,  principally  on 

.account  of  malaria.     O.  possesses  a  castle  and  a 

cathedral    Its  harbour  is  unsafe.    In  clear  weather, 

the  coast  of  Albania  is  visible  from  Otranto.    Pop. 

.about  2000. 

OTTAWA,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  British 
:North  America,  rises  in  lat.  48'*  30^  N.,  long.  76* 
W.,  in  the  watershed  on  the  opposite  side  of  which 
nse  the  St  Maurice  and  Saguenay.  After  a  course 
•  of  above  600  miles,  it  falls  into  the  St  Lawrence  by 
two  mouths,  which  form  the  island  of  Montreal ; 
.and  the  entire  region,  drained  by  it  and  its  tribu- 
taries, measures  about  80,000  square  miles  {GeoL 
JRep.  for  1845—1846,  p.  13).  During  its  course,  it 
widens  into  numerous  lakes  of  considerable  size, 
;and  is  fed  by  man^  imix)rtant  tributaries,  such  as 
the  Mattawa,  Mississippi,  Madawasca,  and  Rideau 
on  the  rifht,  the  Gatmeau  and  the  Rivieres  du 
Jdoine  and  du  Li^vre  on  the  left  side.  These, 
'With  the  0.  itself,  form  the  means  of  transit  for 
perhaps  the  largest  lumber-trade  in  the  world, 
while  the  clearances  of  the  lumberer  have  opened 
the  country  for  several  thriving  agricultural  settle- 
inenta.  The  navigation  has  b^n  greatly  improved, 
146 


especially  for  timber,  by  the  construction  of  dams 
and  slides,  to  facilitate  its  passage  over  falls  and 
rapids.  The  O.  is  already  connected  with  Lake 
Ontario  at  Kingston  by  the  Rideau  Canal;  and 
there  is  every  prospect  of  its  becoming,  before 
many  years,  me  great  highway  from  the  north- 
western states  to  the  ocean  by  being  connected 
with  the  Georgian  Bay  in  Lake  Huron  through 
the  French  River,  Lake  Nipissing,  and  the  Mat- 
tawa. Thia  great  engineering  achievement,  for 
which  capital  will  undoubtedly  be  soon  forthcoming, 
would  place  the  western  lake-ports  by  water  760 
miles  nearer  to  Liverpool  by  Montreal  than  by  New 
York  through  the  Erie  Canal,  and  would  save 
nearly  a  week  in  time,  while  it  would  leaaen 
considerably  insurance  and  freight  charges. — ^The  0. 
possesses  one  of  the  few  literary  associationa  of 
Canada.  At  St  Ann's,  a  few  miles  above  its  mouth, 
the  honse  is  pointed  out  where  Moore  wrote  the 
Canadian  Boat-song — 

'  Soon  as  the  woods  on  shore  look  dim. 
We  'U  sing  at  St  Ann's  our  parting  hymn. 

Ottawa's  tide,  this  trembling  moon 
Shall  see  us  afloat  on  thy  waters  soon.' 

OTTAWA,  the  capital  of  the  United  Canadaa, 
is  situated  87  miles  above  the  confluence  of  the 
river  Ottawa  with  the  St  Lawrence,  126  miles  from 
Montreal,  95  from  Kingston,  and  450  from  New 
York.  Originally  called  B3rtown,  after  Colonel  By, 
who  in  1827  was  commissioned  to  construct  the 
Rideau  Canal,  it  was  incorporated  as  a  city,  and 
received  the  name  which  it  now  bears  in  1854  At 
the  west  end  of  the  city,  the  Ottawa  rushes  over 
the  magnificent  cataract  known  as  the  Chandi^re 
Falls ;  and  at  the  north-east  end  there  are  other  two 
cataracts,  over  which  the  Rideau  tumbles  into  the 
Ottawa.  The  scenery  around  0.  also  is  scaroely 
surpassed  by  an^  in  Canada.  The  immense  water- 
power  at  the  city  is  made  use  of  in  several  saw- 
mills, which  give  0.  its  principal  trade,  and  iseQe 
almost  incalculable  quantities  of  sawn  timber.  A 
suspension-bridge  haugs  over  the  Chaudi^re  Falls, 
connecting  Upper  and  Lower  Canada.  The  city  is 
in  communication  by  steamer  on  the  Ottawa  with 
Montreal ;  on  the  Rideau  Canal  with  Lake  Ontario 
at  Kingston ;  and  with  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway  by 
a  bnanch  line  from  Prescott.  Ajb  yet,  there  is  nothing 
in  the  city  remarkable  for  architecture;  but  the 
provincial  Parliament  Houses,  which  are  approach- 
ing completion,  will  probably  be  the  finest  buildincs 
on  the  American  continent.  The  population,  which 
is  rapidly  increasing,  in  1861  reached  14,669.  O. 
returns  one  member  to  the  provincial  parliament. 

OTTER  (Lutra),  a  ^enus  of  quadrupeds  of  the 
Weasel  family  (MtJLstelulcB)^  diflering  widely  from 
the  rest  of  the  family  in  their  aquatic  habits,  and  in 
a  conformation  adapted  to  these  habits,  and  in  some 
respects  approaching  to  that  of  seals.  The  body, 
which  is  louj^  and  flexible,  as  in  the  other  Muste- 
lidxBn  is  considerably  flattened;  the  head  is  broad 
and  flat ;  the  eyes  are  small,  and  furnished  with  a 
nietitaling  membrane ;  the  ears  are  very  small ;  the 
legs  are  short  and  powerful ;  the  feet,  which  have 
each  five  toes,  are  completely  webbed ;  the  claws 
are  not  retractile ;  the  toil  is  stout  and  muscular  at 
its  base,  long,  tapering,  and  horizontally  flatteued ; 
the  dentition  is  very  similar  to  that  of  weasels ;  six 
incisors  and  two  canine  teeth  in  each  jaw,  with  five 
molars  on  each  side  in  the  upper,  and  five  or  six 
in  the  lower  jaw;  the  teeth  very  strong,  and  the 
tubercles  of  the  molars  very  pointed,  an  evident 
adaptation  for  seizing  and  holding  slippery  prey. 
The  tongue  is  rou^h,  but  not  so  much  <)o  as  in  the 
weasels.  The  fur  is  very  smooth,  and  consists  of 
two  kinds  of  hair — an  inner  fur  very  dense  and  soft^ 


OTTER— OTTOMAN  EMPIRE 


Intcnniied  witK  longer,  eoaner,  and  glouf  hair. 
The  ijieciea  are  Dumeroiw,  and  are  found  bnth  tn 
warm  and  cold  climates.— The  Cohmom  0.  {L, 
ailj/arii)  is  a  vell-ltaown  British  animal,  rarer  than 
it  ODce  vas  in  most  districts,  but  still  found  in 
almuC  every  part  of  the  British  Islands,  and  com- 
mon also  throughout  the  continent  of  Europe,  and 
in  some  parta  of  Asia.  It  often  attains  a  weight  of 
M  to  24  lbs.  Its  length  »  fully  2  feet,  e»clusi—  -' 
the  twl,  which  ii  about  16  inches  long.  The  c 
is  a  bright  rich  brown  on  the  upper  parts  ani 
ontside  of  the  legs,  being  the  colour  of  the  tips  of 
the  long  hairs,  wMch  are  gray  at  the  base  ;  the  tips 
of  the  bnire  in  the  toft  inner  fnr  are  also  brown,  the 
base  whitish-gray  ;  the  throat,  cheeks,  breast,  belly, 
and  inner  parts  of  the  less  are  brownish-gray,  some- 
.  btaet  whitish,  and  individiials  sometimes,  out  rarely, 
occur  with  whitish  spots  over  the  whole  boily ;  the 
whiskers  are  very  thick  and  strong ;  the  eyes  are 
black.  The  0.  frequents  rivers  and  lakes,  inha- 
biting some  hole  in  their  banks,  generally  choosing 
one  which  already  exists,  and  seldom,  if  ever, 
bnmwing  for  itself.  It  also  inhabits  the  sea-shore 
in  many  pUcea.  and  swima  to  a  considprable  distance 
from  the  shore  in  pursuit  of  prey.  Its  moTen 
in  the  water  are  eitremely  graceful ;  it  swims 
great  rapidity  in  a  nearly  horizontal  position,  and 
turns  and  dives  with  wonderful  asility.  Its  prey 
conaista  chieSy  of  lish,  and.  like  the  other  ifiialf- 
tiiiii,  it  leema  to  take  pleasure  in  pursuing  and 
killing  far  more  than  it  is  able  to  eat ;  and  in 
this  case  it  daintily  feeila  on  the  choicest  part, 
beginninff  behind  the  heail  of  the  tish,  and  leav- 
ing the  nead  and  ofteu  much  of  the  tail  part. 
The  C,  however,  when  Ush  cannot  readily  be 
obbuned,  satisBet  the  cravings  of  huneer  with 
Other  food,  even  inuU  and  worms,  ana  attacks 


Otter  [Lulra  vi^ffari4\ 

nnall  animals  of  any  kind,  tometjmei  making 
depredatioQB  in  places  far  from  any  considerable 
stream.  The  0.  i>roduccs  from  two  to  five  young 
onee  at  a  birth.  The  tieah  of  the  O.  has  a  rank 
fiahy  taste,  on  which  account,  iierhagn,  it  is  some- 
times osed  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  ajUh, 
by  those  whose  rules  forbid  tbem  the  use  of  flesh. 
— 0.  hunting  has  long  lieen  a  favourite  sport  in 
Britain,  although  now  chieBy  conlincd  to  Wales 
and  Scotland.  Hounds  of  a  particular  breed — O. 
Hounds— are  preferred  for  it.^ — The  0.  defends 
itself  with  great  vigonr  against  assailaola.  The  O. 
can  be  easily  domesticated,  and  trained  to  cateh 
iiah  for  its  master.  In  India,  tame  otters — pro- 
baMy,  however,  of  another  s])ectes  to  he  afterwards 
noticed— are  not  unErequeutly  used  both  for  catchinz 
fish,  which  they  bring  ashore  in  their  teeth,  and 
for  driving  sfaoals  of  hsh  into  nets.— The  fur  of  the 
O.  i*  m  some  request,  but  more  on  the  continent  of 
Eonpe  than  in  Britiun.-'The  American  0.  or 
CixiDt  0.  {L.  Catuuieiitii)  ia  very  like  the  Oommon 


0.,  but  considerably  larger.  The  tail  is  also  shorter, 
and  the  fur  of  the  belly  la  almost  of  the  same  shining 
brown  colour  with  that  of  the  hack.  This  species  is 
plentiful  in  the  northern  parts  of  North  America.  Its 
skin  is  a  considerable  article  of  commerce,  and  after 
being  imported  into  England,  is  often  exported  again 
to  the  ciintinent  of  Europe.  It  is  usually  taken  by 
.  a  steel-trap,  placed  at  thu  mouth  of  its  burrow.  Ita 
habits  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  0.  of  EnrcpA 
—The  IsDiAM  O.  [L.  jVnir),  bos  a  deep  chesttut- 
coloured  fur,  and  yellowish- white  spots  above  the 
eyes.— The  Brazilian  0.  {L.  BmzUientu)  is  said 
to  be  gregarious,— Somewhat  dilTcrent  from  the 
true  ottem  is  the  Sea  0,  or  Kalan  (£.  martno, 
or  E-nliydra  latris),  an  animal  twice  the  size  of  the 
Common  O.,  a  native  of  Behring'a  Straita  and  the 
neighbouring  regions,  frequenting  sea-washed  roL;ks. 
There  are,  at  least  in  the  adult,  only  four  inciaois 
in  the  lower  jaw.  and  the  ears  are  set  lower  in  the 
bead  than  in  the  true  otters,  below,  not  above, 
the  eyes.  The  tail  is  also  much  shorter.  'Ilis 
molar  teeth  are  broad,  and  well  adapted  for  breaking 
the  shells  of  molluscs  and  crustaceans.  The  hind- 
feet  have  a  membrane  skirting  the  outside  of  the 
exterior  toes.  The  sea  O.  is  muuh  valued  for  its 
fur,  the  general  hue  of  which  is  a  rich  bhtck,  tinged 
with  brown  above,  and  passing  into  lighter  colours 
below.  The  head  is  soroetimea  almost  white.  The 
skins  of  sea  otters  were  formerly  in  very  great 
reqnest  in  China,  so  that  a  price  of  from  ^^'i  to 
£50  could  be  obtained  for  each ;  but  the  attention 
of  European  traders  and  hunt«rs  having  been 
directed  to  tbem -_  in  conseuuence  chiefly  of  a 
a  Cook'*  Voijagtt—itUiy  were  carried  to 
such  numbers  as  greatly  to  reduce  the 
price. 
OTTERBURN.  Battik of.  See  Chbty  Cuask. 
OTTO  or  ATTAR  OF  ROSEa  See  Per- 
ruMKB  and  Rose. 

aTTOMAN    EMPIRE,   or    'Empire    of    the 

Oamanlis,'  comprehends  all  the  countries  which  are 

more  or  less  under  the  authority  of  the  Turkish 

sultan,  and  incluiles,  besides  Turkey  in  Asia,  and 

that  part  of  Tiurkey  in  Eurai>e  which  is  under  his 

immediate  sovereignty,  the  vassal  principalities  of 

Moldavia  and  Walachia,  Servia,  and  Montenegro, 

in  Europe ;  E^ypt  with  Nubia,  Tripoli,  and  Tunis, 

in  Africa  :  and  a  part  of  Arabia,  including  the  holy 

cities  of  Mecca  and  Medina,  in  Asia.     The  special 

descrijition,    topography,    hiatery,    fee,    of    these 

untriea  will  be  found  under  their  own  heads,  and 

is  article  will  consist  solely  oi  a  brief  aketeh  of 

e  origin,  growth,  and  present  state  of  the  Ottoman 

npire. 

The  Ottomans,  or  Osmanlia.  to  whom  the  geoerio 
epithet  of  Turkt  is  by  common  usage  now  confined, 
are  the  descendants  of  the  OgOziao  Turks,  a  tribe 
of  the  gnat  Turkish  nation,  which  in  the  13th  c 
inhabited  the  steppes  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
tide  of  Mongol  invasion  which  was  then  setting  in 
from  the  north-east,  swept  the  Ogflzes  before  it, 
and  they,  to  the  number  of  50.000,  under  their  chief, 
Sniimnn,  Bed  westward  to  the  mountainous  rei^on 
of  Armenia.  After  the  chiefs  death,  the  majnrity 
of  the  tribe  became  scattered  over  Mesopotamia; 
but  a  few  thousands  under  Orthoguet.  his  yonngeat 
son,  marched  westward  to  aid  the  Seljuk  sultan  of 
Kooieh  against  the  Khaurezmians  and  Mongols, 
and  received  from  the  grateful  monarch  a  grant  of 
Und  in  Fbrygia— His  son.  OthmaN  (q.  v.)  (1289— 
132SI.  laid  the  foundation  of  the  independent  power 
of  the  I'lirka;  and  Othman's  son  and  successor, 
Orkhak  (1326- IIMI)  continued  the  same  aggres- 
sive policy,  and  gained  a  footing  in  Europe  by  tlu 
taking    of    QidlipoU,    Eoiridicastron,    and    othei 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRE. 


fortressffs  on  the  coast.  The  Greeks,  with  the  usual 
contempt  of  civilisation  for  barbarism,  made  light 
of  these  losses,  saying  that  the  Turks  had  only 
taken  from  them  a  *  hog's  sty'  and  a  '  pottle  of  wine,' 
in  allusion  to  the  magazines  and  cellars  built  by 
Justinian  at  Gallipoli ;  out,  as  the  historian  Knolles 
quaintly  remarks,  *  by  taking  of  such  hogsties  and 
pottles  of  wine,  the  Turks  had  gone  so  far  into 
jLliracia,  that  Amurath,  a  few  years  later,  placed  his 
royal  seat  at  Adrianople.'  Sultan  Orkhan,  perceiving 
the  advantage  of  possessing  a  force  trained  exclu- 
sively for  war,  organised  the  body  of  troops  known 
as  Janizaries  (q.  v.),  and  to  these  his  successor  added 
the  Spahis  (q.  v.)  and  the  Zanis. — Amurath  I. 
(1359 — 1390),  the  successor  of  Orkhan,  rapidly 
reduced  the  Byzantine  empire  within  the  limits  of 
(Jnnstantinop^e  and  some  neighbouring  districts  in 
Thrace  and  Bulgaria.  A  formidable  confederacy  of 
the  Slavonian  tribes  of  the  Upper  Danube  was 
formed  against  him,  and,  supported  by  multitudes 
of  warriors  from  Hungary  and  Italy,  they  advanced 
into  Servia  to  give  him  battle;  but  their  army, 
amounting,  it  is  said,  to  500,000  men,  was  defeated 
with  dreadful  slaughter  at  Kossova  (1390);  and 
though  the  sultan  was  assassinated  on  the  eve  of 
the  battle,  his  son,  Bajazet  I.  (q.  v.)  (1390—1402). 
followed  up  this  victory  by  ravaging  Servia  and 
Waladiia.  Moldavia  was  also  overrun,  and  a 
second  crusading  army,  under  the  king  of  Hun- 
gary, totally  routed  at  Nicopolis  (1396) ;  but  the 
defeat  and  capture  of  the  sultan  by  Timur  (q.  v.), 
gave  Constantinople  a  respite  for  half  a  century, 
by  raising  up  numerous  claimants  for  the  Turkish 
throne;  and  it  was  not  till  1413  that  Bajazet's 
youngest  son,  Mohammed  I.  (1413 — 1422),  estab- 
lished his  claim  to  the  sceptre.  A  war  which  broke 
out  with  the  Venetian  republic  at  this  time  pro- 
duced the  most  disastrous  consequences  to  the 
mercantile  and  maritime  interests  of  the  Turks, 
and  internal  disorders  prevented  any  aggressions 
on  their  neighbours. — aWrath  IL  (1422—1450), 
a  prince  of  considerable  ability,  completed  the  con- 
quest of  the  Greek  empire  by  reducing  Macedonia 
and  Greece  Proper ;  and  finding  that  the  Hungarians 
had  concluded  a  secret  treaty  of  offence  and  de- 
fence with  the  Turkish  sultan  of  Caramania  against 
him,  he  attacked  the  former,  but  was  defeated  by 
Hunyady  (q.  v.),  and  compelled  to  retreat.  Dis- 
heartened at  his  ill  success,  he  resigned  the  throne ; 
but  on  receiving  news  of  a  formidable  invasion  by 
the  army  of  the  pajud  crusade,  resumed  the  direc- 
tion of  affairs,  and  totally  defeated  the  invaders, 
with  whom  were  Hunyady  (q.  v.)  and  Scanderbeg 
(q.  v.),  at  Varna  (1444). — Mohammed  II.  (q.  v.) 
(1450 — 1481),  the  sworn  foe  of  Christianity,  greatly 
enlarged  the  Turkish  territories.  It  was  he  who 
stormed  Constantinople  in  1453,  and  destroyed  the 
last  relic  of  the  empire  of  the  Caesars. — His  son, 
Bajazet  II.  (1481 — 1512),  extended  his  dominions 
to  the  present  limits  of  the  Turkish  empire  in 
Ajiia  and  Europe,  including  however,  also  the 
country  to  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea,  as  far  east 
as  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  portions  of  Dalmatia.  and 
Otranto  in  Italy.  Bajazet  was  the  first  to  feel 
the*  evil  effects  of  the  military  organisation  of 
Sultan  Orkhan,  but  all  his  attempts  to  get  rid  of 
his  formidable  soldiery  were  unsuccessfuL  He 
attempted  the  invasion  of  Egypt,  but  was  totally 
defeated  by  the  Mameluke  sultan  at  Arbela  (1493). 
— His  suocessors,  Selim  L  (q.  v.)  (1512 — 1520),  and 
Solyhan  L  (q.  v.),  (1520—1566),  raised  the  O.  E.  to 
the  height  of  its  power  and  splendour.  During 
their  reigns,  no  ship  belonging  to  a  nation  hostile 
to  the  Tuks  dared  then  navigate  the  Mediterranean, 
so  completely  did  their  fleets  command  that  sea. 
— Seum  II.  (1566—1574),  a  pacific  prince,  put  an 


end  to  a  war  with  Austria,  t^  hich  had  been  com- 
menced  in  the  previous  reign,  by  a  peace  in  which 
it  was  stipulated  that  the  Emperor  MaximUian  II. 
should  pay  a  tribute  of  30,000  ducats  annually  for 
the  possession  of  Hungary,  and  that  each  nation 
should  retain  its  conquests.  During  his  rei<^n, 
occurred  the  first  collision  of  the  Turks  with  &e 
Russians.  It  had  occurred  to  Selim,  that  the 
connection  of  the  Don  and  Vol^  by  a  canal  would, 
by  allowing  the  passage  of  ships  from  the  Black 
Sea  into  the  Caspian,  be  a  valuable  aid  to  both 
military  and  commercial  enterprise,  and  accordingly 
he  sent  5000  workmen  to  cut  the  canal,  and  an 
army  of  80,000  men  to  aid  and  protect  them.  But, 
unluckily,  the  possession  of  Astrakhan  formed  part 
of  the  programme,  and  the  attack  of  this  town 
brought  down  on  the  Turks  the  vengeance  of  the 
Russians,  a  people  till  then  unknown  in  Southern 
Europe,  and  the  projected  canal-scheme  was  nipped 
in  the  bud.  The  rest  of  this  sultan's  rei^  was 
occupied  in  petty  wars  with  Venice,  Spain,  and 
his  rebellious  feudatory  of  Moldavia. — His  sod, 
Amitrath  IIL  (1574—1595),  such  was  then  the 
prestige  of  the  Turks,  dictated  to  the  Poles  that 
they  snould  choose  as  their  king,  Stephen  Batory, 
Waivode  of  Transylvania;  and  received  the  first 
English  embassy  to  Turkey  in  1589,  the  object  of 
the  embassy  being  to  conclude  an  alliance  against 
Philip  II.  of  Spain.  To  this  the  sultan  agreed;  but 
the  aestruction  of  the  Spanish  Armada  soon  after 
rendered  his  interference  unnecessary.  After  an 
exhausting,  though  successful  war  with  Persioi, 
succeeded  a  long  contest  with  Austria,  in  which 
the  Turks  at  first  obtained  the  most  brilliant 
success,  penetrating  to  within  40  miles  of  Vienna, 
but  afterwards  su^red  such  terrible  reverses,  that 
they  were  compelled  to  evacuate  all  Hungary  and 
Transylvania  (hitherto  a  feudatory),  and  were  only 
saved  from  destruction  by  the  Poles,  who  entered 
Moldavia,  and  drove  out  the  Transylvanians  and 
Hungarians,  thus  affording  the  Turks  an  oppor- 
tunity of  rallying,  and  even  recovering  some  of 
their  losses.  The  latter  part  of  this  war  hap])ened 
during  the  reign  of  Mohammed  IIL  (1595 — 1604), 
and  afforded  unmistakable  symptoms  of  the  decline 
of  Turkish  prowess ;  and  a  rebellion  of  the  Pasha 
of  Caramania,  in  Asia,  which  was  quelled  not  as 
a  Mohammed  IL  or  a  Bajazet  I.  would  have 
quelled  it,  but  by  yielding  to  the  pasha's  demands, 
afforded  an  equally  convincing  proof  of  the  growing 
weakness  of  the  central  administration,  and  set  an 
example  to  all  ambitious  subjects  in  future.  During 
the  reigns  of  Achmet  I.  (1604—1617),  Muotapa 
(1617—1617, 1622—1623),  Othman  IL  (1617—1622), 
and  Amurath  IV.  (1623—1640),  Turkey  was 
convulsed  by  internal  dissensions,  nevertheless,  a 
successful  war  was  waged  with  Austria  for  the 
possession  of  Hmigary  ;  but  this  success  was  more 
than  counterbalanced  in  th^  East,  where  Shah 
Abbas  the  Great  con(^uered  Mesopotamia,  Kurdistan, 
and  Armenia;  and  in  the  north,  where  the  Poles 
took  possession  of  some  of  the  frontier  fortresses. 
While  Amurath  was  recovering  his  lost  provinces 
in  the  East,  the  Khan  of  the  Crimea,  countenanced 
by  the  Poles  and  Russians,  threw  off  his  allegiance. 
Mustafa,  the  grand  vizier,  a  man  of  great  ability  and 
integrity,  continued  to  direct  the  helm  of  govern- 
ment  under  Ibrahim  (1640 — 1648) ;  took  from  the 
Poles  their  conquests ;  and  in  a  war  with  tha  Vene- 
tians (1645),  obtained  Candia  and  almost  all  the 
Venetian  strongholds  in  the  JEgeeai  Sea,  though 
with  the  loss  of  soine  towns  in  Dahnatia. — 
MoHAMMBD  IV.  (1648—1687)  commenced  his  reign 
under  the  most  unfavourable  auspices ;  he  was 
only  seven  years  of  age,  and  the  whole  i)ower  was 
vested  in  the  Janizaries  and  their  partLsanSy  who 


OTTOMAN  EMPIRB. 


ined  it  to  accomplish  their  own  ends ;  bat  lackily 
for  Turkey^  *n  individtu&l  of  obscure  birth,  named 
Mohammed  Kopnli,  supposed   to    be    of   French 
descent,  was,  when  over    seventy  years    of    age, 
ippointed  vizier ;    and   the   extraordinary  talents 
of  this  man  proved  to  be  the  salvation  of  Turkey 
il  this  critical  jancture.    He  was  succeeded  (1661) 
in  office  by  his  son,  Achmet,  who,  to  equal  abiUty, 
added  the  fiery    and    thorough-going    energy   of 
nunhood  in  its  prime  ;  and  under  bis  guidance  the 
centra!  administration  recovered  its  control  over  even 
tiie  most  distant  provinces ;  a  formidable  war  with 
Germany,  though  unsuccessfully  carried  on  (1663), 
was  coQcliided  bv  a  peace  advantageous  to  the  Turks ; 
Orete  was  wholly  subdued,   and  Podolia  wrested 
from  the  Poles,  together  with  the  strong  fortress  of 
Kaminiec ;  though,  shortly  afterwards,  much  of  this 
last  acquisition  was  reconquered  by  John  Sobieski 
(q.  v.).     Achmet*s  successor  as  vizier  was  Kara 
Mutafa,  a  man  of  little  ability,  who,  however,  over- 
ran the  Austrian  territories  at  the  head  of  a  large 
army  and  Uid    siege  to  Vienna;    but   the  siege 
was  raised,  and  his  army  defeated,  by  a  combined 
(j«rmaQ  and  Polish  army  under  the  Duke  Charles 
of  Lorraine,  and  John  Sobieski,  king  of  Poland. 
The  Aostrians  followed  up  this  victory  by  repos- 
lessing  themselves  of  Hungaiy,  inflicting  upon  the 
Tnrb  a  bloody  defeat  at  Mohacz  (1687) ;  but  their 
extrava^t  demands    prevented  the  sultan  from 
Goncludmg  a  treaty,  and   the  fortunate   appoint- 
ment of    a   third    Kdprili    as    grand    vizier    by 
8oLTacix  II.  (1637 — 1691),  was  the  means  of  restor- 
ing glozy  and  fortune  to  the  Turkish  arms. — The 
reigns  of  Achmjst  IL  (1691—1695),  and  Mubtafa 
IL  (1695—1702),  were  occupied  with  wars  against 
Aiutria;  but  with  the  death  of  Oprili  (1691)  at 
Salankement  in  the  moment  of  victory,  fortune 
deserted  the  Turks,  and  the  war  was  closed  by  the 
peace  of  Oarlowitz  (q.  v.)  (1699),  which  for  ever  put 
an  end  to   Turkish   domination    in    Hungary. — 
Achmet  ILL  (1702—1730)  wisely  avoided  involving 
himself  in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession ;  but 
the  intrigues  of  Charles  XIL    (q.  v.)   of  Sweden, 
while  residing  at  Bender,  forced  him  into  a  war 
with  Rossia ;  a  step  which  was  immediately  followed 
hy  an  invasion  of  Moldavia  by  the  Czar  Peter,  at 
the  head  of  80,000  men.    The  Czar,  however,  relying 
on  the  aid  of  the  Woivode  of  Moldavia  to  supply 
him  with  provisions,  found  himself  in  a  dangerous 
Knit  with  the  Pmth  behind  him,  an  intrenched 
army  of  150,000  Turks  in  his  front,  and  40,000  irre- 
gular Tartar  cavalry  harassing  his  flanks ;  while  the 
promised  provisions  had  been  seized  by  the  Molda- 
nans,  who  preferred  to  supply  the  Turks  with  theoL 
From  this  cUlemma,  he  was  rescued  by  the  genius  of 
Jiia  queen,  afterwards  Catharine  I.,  and  the  folly  of 
the  grand  vizier,  who  allowed  him  to  retire  on 
extremelv  easy  terms — ^terms  which  the  Czar,  who 
vas  no  oDserver  of  treaties,  did  not  attempt  to  fulfil. 
The  recovery  of  the  Morea  from  the  Venetians,  and 
tile  loss  of  Belgrade  and  parts  of  Servia  and  Walachia, 
which  were,  however,  recovered  during  the  subse- 
quent reign  of  Mahmud  L  (1730 — 17M),  and  the 
commencement  of  a  long  war  with  Persia  (see  Nadir 
Shah),  were  the  other  prominent  occurrences  of 
Achmet^s  reign.    In   1736,  the  career  of  Russian 
Sj^ression  commenced  with  the  seizing  of  Azof, 
Oczakof,  and  other    important    fortresses;  but  a 
scheme  for  the  partition  of  Turkey  between  Austria 
and  Russia,  was  foiled  by  the  continued  series  of 
di^raceful    defeats    inflicted    Ujpon   the    Austrian 
innies  by  the  Turks ;  the  Russians,  on  the  other 
hand,  were  nniformly  successful ;  but  the  Czarina 
beoomiiu;  very  desirous  of  peace,  resigned  her  con- 
Qoesti  m   Moldavia,  and   concluded  a  treaty  at 
Dclgndeu    Among  -tiie  benefits  conferred  by  Sultan 


Mahmud  on  his  snbjects,  not  the  least  was  th» 
introduction  of  the  wrt  of  printing,  and  the  greav 
encouragement  otherwise  given  to  literature  and 
science.— His  snccessor,  Otbhan  IIL  (1764 — 1757), 
soon  gave  place  to  Mustata  IIL  (1767—1774), 
under  whom,  or  rather  under  whose  vizier,  Raghib 
K&prili,  the  ablest  statesman,  after  Achmet,  thai 
the    Turks    ever    possessed,   the    empire    enjoyed 

Srofound   tranquillity;    but  after  his  death,   the 
Russians,  in  violation  of  the  treaty  of  Belgrade, 
invaded  Moldavia,  and  took  Choczim  (1769),  their 
fleet,  in  the  following  year,  destroying  the  Turkish 
navy  oft'  Chios.    Bender  next  fell,  and  the  country 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  whilst  the  provinces 
in  Asia  Minor  were  also  attacked ;  and,  to  crown 
these  misfortunes,  Egypt  revolted. — The  war  with 
Russia  continued  during  the  succeeding  reign  of 
Abdul-Hahid  (1774—1789);  the  fortresses  on  the 
Danube  fell  into  the  hands  of  Romanzof,  Suwarof, 
and   Kaminski,   the   Russian   generals ;    and    the 
main   army   of  the    Turks    was  totally   defeated 
at  Shumla.     The  campaign  was  ended  10th  July 
1774,  by  the  celebrated  treaty  of  Kutshouk-Kain- 
ardji*     The  ink  with  which  this  document  was 
written  was  scarcely  dried  before  its  provisions  were 
infringed  by  the  Czarina,  who,  after  carrying  on 
intrieues  with  the  Crim-Tartars,  took  possession  of 
the  Crimea  and  the  whole  country  eastward  to  the 
Caspian,  and  compelled  the  sultan  to  agre^  in  1784, 
to  tnis  arrangementb    These  successes  were  accom- 
panied by  proceedings  extremely  insulting  to  the 
Turks  (such  as  the  placing  on  the  gates  of  l^herson 
the  inscription,  'This  is  the  wa^  to  Byzantium'),  and 
calculated  to  provoke,  in  the  highest  degree,  a  proud 
people,  already  deeply  injured  by  un2)rovoked  aggres- 
sions, and  the  perfidious  violation  of  solemn  engage- 
ments.   The  sultan  was  compelled,  by  his  indignant 
subjects,  to  take  up  arms  m  1787;  and  this  was 
followed,  in  1788,  by  another  foolish  attempt  on  the 
part  of  Austria  to  arrange  with  Russia  a  partition 
of  Turkey ;  but,  as  before,  the  Austrian  forces  were 
completely  routed,  and  she  was  compelled  to  agree  to 
a  treaty  at  Sistow.  The  Russians,  however,  with  their 
usual  success,  had  ovemm  the  northern  provinces, 
taking  all  the  principal   fortresses,  and  captured 
or  destroyed  the  Turkish  fleet. — The  accession  of 
Selim  III.  (q.v.)  (1789—1807)  was  inauguiated  by 
renewed  vigour  in  the  prosecution  of  the  war ;  but 
the  Austrians  had  again  joined  the  Russians,  and 
both  armies  poured  down  with  desolating  fury  upon 
the  devoted  Turks.     Belgrade  surrendered  to  the 
Austrians,  while  the  Russians  took  Bucharest,  Bender, 
Akerman,  and  Ismail  (see  Suwarof)  ;  but  the  critiail 
aspect  of  affairs  in  Western  Europe  niade  it  advisable 
for  Russia  to  terminate  the  war,  and  a  treaty  ot 
peace  was  accordingly  signed  at  Jassy,  9th  Januarv 
1792.    By  this  treaty  the  provisions  of  that  of  Kam- 
ardji  were  confirmed ;  the  Dniester  was  made  tne 
boundary-line,  the  cession  of  the  Crimea  and  the 
Kuban  was  confirmed,  and  Turkey  nuide  to  pay 
12,000,000  piastres  (£109,000)  for  the  expenses  of  the 
war.    Belgrade  was  restored  to  the  sultan.    Up  to 

*  In  this  treaty,  the  third  article  stipulates  for  the 
entire  independence  of  the  Tartars  of  the  Crimea, 
Kuban,  &c.,  and  neither  Russia  nor  Turkey  is  to 
interfere  in  their  domestic,  political,  dvil,  and'  mtemal 
affairs,  under  any  pretext  whatever.  The  16th  article 
restores  Bessarabia,  Moldavia,  and  Walachia,  with  the 
fortress  of  Binder,  on  certain  conditions,  some  of  which 
are,  that  the  Christians  are  not  to  be  obstructed  in  the 
free  exercise  of  their  reli^on ;  that,  when  occasion  may 
require,  the  Russian  minister  at  Constantinople  may 
remonstrate  in  their  favour ;  and  the  Porte  promises  to 
listen  to  such  remonstrances  with  all  the  attention 
which  is  due  to  friendly  and  respected  powers.  The  23d 
article  restores  Georgia  and  Mingrelia  to  Turkey. 

lis 


OTWAY-OUDEL 


this  period,  the  Turks  had  lagged  far  behind  in  the 
march  of  civilisation ;  but  now,  when  tranquillity  was 
established,  numberless  reforms  were  prmected  for 
the  better  administration  of  the  empire.  The  people 
were,  however,  hardly  prepared  for  so  manv  changes, 
an-i  the  sultan's  projects  cost  him  his  throne  and 
lit  3.  The  occupation  of  Egypt  by  the  French  brought 
on  a  war  between  them  and  the  Turks,  in  which 
the  latter,  by  the  aid  of  the  British,  were  successful 
in  regaining  their  lost  territories.  In  revenge  for 
the  defeat  of  his  Egyptian  expedition.  Napoleon 
contrived  to  entrap  the  sultan  into  a  war  with  Kussia 
aud  Britain,  which  was  confined  to  a  straggle  in 
Egypt,  in  which  the  British  were  worsted. — After 
the  ephemeral  reign  of  Mustafa  III.  (1807—1808), 
the  able  and  energetic  Mahmud  IL  (q.  v.)  (1808-^ 
1839)  ascended  the  throne;  and  though  his  domi- 
nions were  curtailed  by  the  loss  of  Greece,  which 
established  its  independence,  and  of  the  country 
between  the  Dniester  and  the  Pnith,  which,  by 
the  treaty  of  Bucharest  in  1812,  was  surrendered 
to  Bussia,  the  thorough  reformation  he  effected 
in  all  departments  of  the  administration  checked 
the  decline  of  the  O.  E.,  and  produced  a  healthy 
reaction,  which  has  been  attended  with  the  most 
favourable  results  Egypt,  during  his  reign,  threw 
off  the  authority  of  the  sultan  (see  Meukmet  Au, 
Ibrahim  Pasha),  and  is  now  merely  a  nominal 
dependeilby.— His  son,  Abdul-Medjid  (1839—1861), 
a  mild  and  generous  prince,  continued  the  reforms 
commenced  m  the  previous  reign ;  but  the  Czar, 
thinking,  from  the  losses  of  territory  which  the 
Turks  had  lately  sustained,  and  regardless  of  the 
changes  which  the  last  thirty  years  had  wrought^ 
that  the  dissolution  of  the  O.  K  was  at  hand,  con- 
stantly interfered  with  its  internal  administration ; 
and  by  a  strained  interi)retation  of  former  treaties 
(none  of  which,  it  may  be  remarked,  Russia  herself 
had  ever  faithfully  observed,  although  she  stringently 
enforced  their  observance  on  the  part  of  the  Porte), 
tried  to  wring  from  the  sultan  some  acknowledg- 
ment of  a  ri^t  of  interference  with  the  internal 
aff^.irs  of  the  country.  It  was  an  attempt  of  this 
sort  to  obtain  the  exclusive  protectorate  of  the 
members  of  the  Greek  Church  in  Turkey,  that 
brought  on  the  'Crimean  War'  of  1853—1855,  in 
which,  for  the  first  time  after  a  long  lapse  of  years, 
the  Turks  were  victorious  over  the  Russians.  (See 
Omab  Pasha  and  other  articles.)  By  the  peace 
of  Paris,  Turkey  regained  a  portion  of  territory 
north  of  the  Danube,  between  Moldavia  and  the 
Black  8ea,  and  extending  along  the  coast  to  within 
23  miles  of  the  mouth  of  the  Dniester;  and  was, 
to  some  extent,  emancipated  from  the  subservience 
to  Russia  into  which  she  had  been  forced  by  pre- 
vious treaties. — In  1861,  Abdul-Aziz  succeeded  to 
the  throne,  and  gives  promise  of  an  energetic  and 
liberal  administration.  In  1862,  Montenegro  was 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  dependent  principality. 

OTWAT,  Thomas,  an  English  dramatist  of  the 
17th  c,  was  the  son  of  a  clergyman  of  the  Church  of 
England,  and  was  born  March  3,  1651,  at  Trotton, 
near  Medhurst,  Su&sex.  He  was  educated  at 
Winchester  and  at  Christchurch  College,  Oxford, 
but  left  the  university  without  taking  a  degree, 
and  proceeded  to  London  in  search  ot  fortune  in 
1671.  He  appeared  on  the  stage  in  Sir  William 
Davenant's  company  as  the  king  in  Mrs  Behn's 
Forced  Marriage;  but  his  failure  was  signal,  and  he 
forsook  the  profession.  For  some  time  anerwards,  he 
led  a  gay  and  dissolute  life,  but  subsequently  applied 
himself  to  dramatic  composition.  In  1675,  A  l-dbiades, 
his  first  tragedy,  was  printed ;  and  in  the  following 
year  he  produced  Don  Carloa,  a  play  which  was 
extremely  popular,  and,  according  to  Downes 
(Koscius  Anglicanus),  'got  more  money  than  any 
150 


preceding  modem  tragedy.*  Its  popularity  was 
due,  however,  as  much  to  the  patronage  of  Lord 
Rochester  as  to  its  intrinsic  merits.  His  first 
comedy.  Friendship  in  Fashion,  appeu^ed  in  1678, 
and,  being  sufficiently  immoral  to  please  the  taste 
of  the  age,  met  with  general  appreciation.  In 
1677,  0.  naving  receiv^  a  comet's  commission 
from  the  Earl  of  Plymouth,  went  with  his  r^- 
ment  to  Flanders.  The  regiment,  however,  was 
disbanded  in  1678,  and  0.  resuming  his  former 
occupation,  produced  the  tragedy  of  Caius  Marias 
in  1680 ;  and  in  the  same  year  The  Orphan,  a  play 
which  met  with  an  extraordinary,  and,  in  some 
respects,  a  deserved  measure  of  success  In  1681, 
The  Soldier  of  Fortune,  and  in  the  following  year, 
the  finest  of  all  his  plays,  Venice  Preserved,  were 

E reduced.  From  tMs  time  till  his  death,  the  poet 
ad  much  to  endure  from  poverty  and  neglect. 
Debts  accumulating  upon  him,  he  retired  to  an 
obscure  public-house  on  Tower  Hill,  for  the  purpose 
of  avoiding  his  creditors,  and  here,  at  the  premature 
age  of  34,  he  died,  April  14, 1685.  The  immediate 
cause  of  his  death  was  a  fever  incurred  by  a  hurried 
and  fatiguing  journey  to  Dover  in  pursuit  of  the 
assassin  of  one  of  his  intimate  friends,  who  had  been 
murdered  in  the  street.  Another  account  of  his 
death  is  that,  after  a  long  fast,  he  was  choked  by 
eating  a  morsel  of  bread;  but  this  account  rests 
upon  no  sufficient  authority. 

Although  O.  achieved  a  brilliant  reputation  during 
his  lifetime,  although  he  ia  described  by  Dryden  as 
possessing  a  power  of  moving  the  passions  which 
he  himself  did  not  possess,  and  later  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  as  being  Shakspeare's  equal,  if  not  his  supe- 
rior, in  depicting  the  power  of  affection;  yet  his 
plots  are  artificial,  and  his  language  is  without 
fancy,  melody,  or  polish.  The  best  edition  of  O.'s 
works  was  published  in  1813. 

OUDE,  or  OUDH,  a  province  of  British  India* 
separated  on  the  north  from  Nepanl  by  the  lower 
ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  whence  it  gradually  slopes 
to  uie  Ganges,  which  forms  its  boundary  on  the 
south  and  south-west  Lat  25**  34'— 29''  6'  N.,  long. 
79"*  45'— 83**  ir  E.  Extreme  length  from  north- 
west  to  south-east,  270  miles ;  breadth,  160 ;  area, 
27,890  square  mOes,  or  rather  less  than  that  of 
ScotUnd.  Pop.  (1859—1860)  estimated  at  8,071,000, 
or  about  289  to  the  square  mile.  0.  ia  one  great 
plain,  the  slope  of  whicn  from  north-west  to  south- 
east indicates  also  the  direction  of  the  principal 
rivers.  These  are  the  Gumti,  the  Ghagra  (Ghogra), 
and  the  Rapti,  which  swarm  with  aUigatora  llie 
northern  part,  on  the  edge  of  the  Himalaya,  is  not 
very  well  Known.  It  forms  a  portion  of  the  Terai, 
a  vast  unhealthy  tract  stretching  along  the  borders 
of  Nepaul,  and  covered  with  impassable  forests.  Tlie 
climate  of  O.  is  cool  and  pleasant  from  November  to 
March ;  during  the  next  four  months  it  is  hot  and 
sultry,  after  which  follows  the  long  rainy  season, 
but  in  general  it  is  considered  the  healthiest  along 
the  whole  valley  of  the  Gangea  The  soil  is  lis^hty 
and  exce]Yt  small  nodules  of  chalk  and  oolite  called 
kankars,  there  is  hardly  a  loose  stone  to  be  seen.  O. 
was  formerly  more  copiously  watered  than  it  is  now, 
the  clearing  of  the  jungles  naving  greatly  decreased 
the  moisture  of  the  land.  The  chief  crops  are  wheat, 
barley,  gram,  masure,  mustard,  rice  (of  the  finest 
quality),  millet,  maize,  joar,  bajra,  various  kinds  of 

Eulse  and  oil-seeds,  sugar-cane,  toliacco,  indtgo, 
emp,  and  cotton.  The  manufacturing  industry 
of  O.  is  not  important ;  soda,  saltpetre,  and  salt  are 
the  only  articles  of  which  more  is  produced  than 
is  requisite  for  home-consumpt.  Gunpowdif,  and 
all  kinds  of  military  weapons,  guns,  swords,  anears, 
shields,  and  bows  of  bamboo,  or  Lucknow  sUel.  are, 
however,  also  made,  besides  some  woollen  gooda^ 


OUDE— OUDINOT. 


paper,  kc  Bridm  are  few,  if  any,  and  the  roads 
m  general  bad.  The  principal  is  the  famons  military 
two.  from  Cawnpore  to  Lucknow,  which  mns  in  a 
oortii-easterly  direction. 

The  people  are  of  a  decidedly  warlike  disposition. 
The  balk  of  the  inhabitants  are  Hindus,  though  the 
dominant  race  for  centuries  has  been  Mohammedan. 
The  Brahmans  are  the  most  numerous  class,  but 
there  are  29  different  Bajput  tribes.  It  is  these 
two  classes  that  mainly  supplied  the  famous 
(or  infamous)  sepoys  of  the  Bengal  army.  The 
language  spoken  is  Hindustani. 

The  most  characteristic  feature  in  the  social 
economy  of  0.  is  its  vUlage'Spstemt  for  a  description 
of  whicn  see  India.  The  ryots,  or  cultivators  of  the 
soil,  ding  to  the  land  which  their  fathers  have  tilled 
forages,  with  extraordinary  affection,  and  thoroughly 
believe  that  they  have  a  right  of  property  in  it ; 
and,  in  general,  we  believe  they  are  actually  the 
owners  of  their  farms,  but  in  many  cases  they 
have  been  dispossessed  by  a  class  of  tax-gatherers 
(resembling  the  Roman  puMicani)  called  talukdars, 
who  farm^  from  the  Mogul,  and  afterwards  from 
the  king  of  0.,  the  revenues  of  a  collection  of 
villages  called  a  talttkah,  and  by  their  extortions  so 
impoverished  the  ryots,  or  peasant-proprietors,  that 
the  latter  were  often  forced  to  execute  deeds  trans- 
ferring their  property  to  the  talukdars.  Many  of 
the  more  spirited  would  not  submit  to  become 
tenants,  and  taking  to  the  jungles,  waged  war  on 
the  new  occupants  of  their  ancestral  lauds,  until 
gradually  they  sank  into  dacoiUt,  or  professional 
rubbers.  The  extortions  of  the  talukdars  continued 
till  the  annexation  of  the  country  in  1856,  and  the 
country  suffered  severely  from  the  retaliatory  raids 
of  the  di8iH>ssessed  ryots.  The  East  India  Company 
reinstated  the  ryots  in  their  property,  where  the 
talukdars  could  not  shew  undisputed  possession  for 
12  years— a  proceeding  which  gave  great  offence  to 
the  latter,  who,  in  consequence,  assumed  a  coldly 
hostQe  attitude  to  the  British  during  the  great 
mutiny  of  the  following  year. 

The  prindxHd  towns  are  Lucknow  (q.  v.),  Fyzabad, 
Oude,  or  Ayodha,  Roy  Bareil^,  and  Shahabad. 

O.  is  believed,  by  Saiiscnt  scholars,  to  be  the 
ancient  KoscUa,  the  oldest  seat  of  dvilisation  in 
India.  The  country  was  conquered  by  a  Moham- 
medan army  in  1195,  and  made  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  empire.  In  1753,  the  vizier  of  0.,  Saffdar 
JanjE^  rebelled  against  his  imperial  master,  Ahmed 
Shah,  and  forced  the  latter  to  make  the  governor- 
ship  hereditary  in  his  family.  His  son,  Sujah-ud- 
Dowlah,  became  entirely  independent,  and  founded 
a  dynasty  which  ruled  the  country,  generally  in 
a  most  deplorable  manner,  imtil,  m  the  interests 
of  the  wretched  mhabitauts,  the  East  India  Com- 
pany was  forced  to  adopt  the  extreme  measure  of 
annexation,  February  7,  1856.  The  necessity  for 
this  high-handed  but  most  beneficent  act  will 
be  better  understood  if  we  read  the  statistics 
of  crime  in  O.  during  the  last  years  of  its  inde- 
pendence: one  item  will  suffice — ^from  1848  to 
1854,  there  were,  on  an  average,  no  fewer  than  78 
Tillages  burned  and  plundered  every  year,  whUe 
marders,  robberies,  abductions,  and  extortions  were 
everyday  occurrences.  A  feeble  king,  a  blackguard 
aoldieiy,  and  a  lawless  peasantry  had  brought  about 
a  most  helpless  and  ruinous  anarchy.  When  the 
mutiny  of  1857  broke  out,  0.  became  one  of  the  great 
centres  of  rebellion.  Upon  this,  the  confiscation  of 
•11  the  estates  of  the  talukdars  was  proclaimed  by 
liord  Canning  ;^  but  when  the  country  was  subdued 
by  force  of  British  arms,  the  estates  of  all  such  as 
laid  down  their  arms  and  swore  fealty  to  the  British 
government  were  restored,  llie  forts  of  the  petty 
tbada,  however,  were  dismantled,  and  the  inhabitants 


disarmed.  The  province  is  now  admimstr-red  by 
a  chief  commissioner.  The  chief  feature  of  the 
present  condition  of  affairs  in  0.  is  the  preservation 
in  their  integrity  of  the^  estates  of  nue  talukdara 
The  amount  of  government  revenue  paid  by  tiie 
talukdars  is  £656,495  a  year. 

OUDE,  or  A  WADH,  otae  of  the  principal  towns 
of  the  province  Oude  (q.  v.),  stands  amid  ruins  on  a 
hilly  site  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sarayd  or  Gog|?ra 
River,  80  miles  cast  of  Lucknow.  It  is  also  caUed 
ffanumangd'dhi,  on  account  of  a  tem])le  erected 
there  in  honour  of  Hanumat  (q.  v.)*  the  fabled 
monkey-ally  of  R4ma,  an  incarnation  of  the  god 
Vish'nu.  The  name  0.  is  a  corruption  of  the  Sanskrit 
AyodhyA  (from  a,  not,  and  yodhya,  conquerable, 
hence  *  the  invincible '  city) ;  but  the  ancient  city 
of  that  name  was  situated  opposite  the  modern 
0.,  where  its  ruins  may  still  \>e  seen.  Ayodhyft 
was  one  of  the  oldest  seats  of  civilisation  in  India ; 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  solar  dynasty,  or  one  of 
the  two  oldest  dynasties  of  India,  deriving  its  descent 
from  the  sun,  but  it  obtained  special  renown  through 
Rftma,  the  son  of  Das'aratha,  a  king  of  that  dynasty. 
Its  great  beauty  and  immense  size  are  dwelt  upon 
in  several  of  the  Pur&nas  and  modern  poems,  out 
more  especially  in  the  Bdmdyan'a  (q.  v.),  the  first 
and  last  books  of  which  contain  a  description  of  it. 
According  to  some  Purilnas  (q.  v.),  Ayodhy&  was 
one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities,  the  living  at  which 
was  supposed  to  free  a  man  from  all  sin,  and  the 
dyin^  at  which,  to  secure  eternal  bliss.  It  was  also 
called  S4keta,  Ko8'al&,  and  Uttara-kos'alft.  See 
GoldstUcker's  Sanskrit  Dictionary,  under  AyodhyA. 

OUBENA'RDB,  a  town  in  the  province  of  East 
Flanders,  Bel&ium,  is  situated  chiefly  on  the  east 
bank  of  the  Scheldt,  16  miles  south-by-east  from 
Ghent.  It  has  a  population  of  8000,  and  possesses 
a  fine  Gothic  council-nouse,  important  manufactures 
of  linen  and  cotton  fabrics,  and  many  extensive 
tannei-ies.  The  town  was  taken  by  the  French, 
aided  by  an  English  force,  in  1658 ;  it  was  again 
besieged  in  1674,  by  the  stadtholder,  William  (UL 
of  England)  of  Orange  ;  and  in  1706,  it  was  taken 
by  Marlborough.  An  attempt  made  by  the  French 
to  retake  it,  brousht  on  the  famous  battle  of 
Oudenarde,  one  of  Marlborough's  most  celebrated 
victories,  which  was  gained,  on  the  11th  July  1708, 
wiUi  the  aid  of  Prince  Eugene,  over  a  French  army 
under  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  and  Marshal  Villars. 
After  this  battle,  the  French  king  made  offers  of 
peace,  which  were  not  accepted. 

OUDINOT,  Charles  Nioolas,  Duke  of  Reggio, 
and  Marshal  of  France,  was  born  at  Bar-le-Duc,  in 
the  department  of  Meuse,  France,  25th  April  1767. 
At  the  age  of  17,  he  entered  the  army,  but  returned 
home  after  three  years'  service.  Having  distinguished 
himself  in  1790  by  suppressing  a  popular  insurrection 
in  his  native  district,  he  was,  after  some  volunteer 
service,  November  1793,  raised  to  the  rank  of  chief 
of  brigade,  in  the  fourth  regiment  of  the  line,  and 
distinguished  himaplf  in  various  actions  with  the 
Prussians  and  Austrians.  He  was  wounded  and 
taken  prisoner  before  Mannheim,  by  the  Austrians, 
but  was  soon  exchanged,  and  served  in  the  armies  of 
the  Rhine  under  Moreau,  and  in  that  of  Switzerland 
under  Massena.  He  w^  promoted  to  be  general  of 
division  (12th  April  1799),  and  for  a  daring  capture 
of  a  battery  at  Pozzola,  was  presented  by  the  First 
Consul  with  a  sabre  of  honour  and  the  cannon  which 
he  had  taken.  In  1805,  he  received  the  Grand 
Cross  of  the  Legion  of  Honour,  and  about  the  same 
time  received  the  command  of  ten  battalions  of  the 
reserve,  afterwards  known  as  the  'grenadiers 
Oudinot'  At  the  head  of  this  corps,  he  did  good 
service  in  the  Austrian  campaign.    He  was  present 

161 


OUISTITI— OUTLAWRY. 


at  Austerlitz  and  Jena,  and  gained  the  battle  of 
Ostrolinka  (16th  February  1807),  for  which  he  waa 
rewarded  with  the  title  of  Count,  and  a  large  sum  of 
monoy.  He  g^reatly  contributed  to  the  success  of  the 
French  at  Fnedland,  and  was  presented  by  Napo- 
leon to  the  Czar  Alexander  as  the  *  Bayard  of  the 
French  army,  the  knight  sana  peur  et  aans  reproche,* 
He  sustained  his  now  brilliant  reputation  in  the 
second  Austrian  campaign  of  1809,  and  on  the  12th 
of  July  was  created  Marshal  of  France,  and  on  15th^ 
of  August,  Duke  of  Keggio.  In  1810,  he  was  charged 
with  the  occupation  of  Holland,  and  by  his  unswerv- 
ing probity  and  attractive  personal  qualities,  drew 
the  esteem  of  all  classes.  He  was  engaged  in  the 
disastrous  Russian  campaign,  and  subsequently  took 
part  in  the  various  battles  of  1813  between  the 
French  and  the  Russians  and  Austrians.  He  was 
one  of  the  last  to  abandon  Napoleon,  but  he  did 
so  for  ever,  and  spent  the  period  known  as  the 
'  Hundred  Davs'  on  his  own  estates.  At  the  second 
restoration  he  became  a  minister  of  state,  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  royal  guard  and  of  the  national  guard, 
and  was  created  a  peer  of  France,  Grand  Cross 
of  St  Louis,  &C.  In  1823,  he  commanded  the  first 
division  of  the  army  of  Spain,  and  was  for  some 
time  governor  of  Madrid.  After  the  revolution  of 
July  1830,  0.  retired  to  his  estates,  and  only  at  rare 
intervals  presented  himself  in  the  Chamber  of  Peers. 
He  became  Grand  Chancellor  of  the  Legion  of 
Honour  in  May  1839,  succeeded  Marshal  Moncey  as 
governor  of  the  Invalides  in  October  1842,  and  died 
at  Paris  13th  September  1847.  A  statue  was  erected 
in  his  honour  at  Bar,  29th  September  1850. — His 
son,  Charliss  Nicolas- Victor  Oudinot,  Duke  of 
Reggio  (bom  3d  November  1791),  was  a  general  in 
the  French  army.  He  first  distinguished  himself 
in  Algeria,  and  in  the  Revolution  of  1848 — Shaving 
previously  distinguished  himself  as  a  deputy  (1842— 
1846)  by  his  admirable  talent  for  deahng  with 
questions  affecting  the  comfort  and  discipline  of  the 
soldiery — he  was  chosen  commander-in-chief  of  the 
anny  of  the  Alps.  In  April  1849,  he  was  appointed 
general  of  the  French  expedition  against  Rome,  and 
forced  the  city  to  surrender  uucon(Utionally  on  the 
1st  of  July,  in  spite  of  the  heroic  resistance  of  the 
republican  triumvirs — ^Garibaldi,  Mazzini,  and  Saffi. 
He  was,  however,  not  a  Napoleonist,  and  at  the 
coup  d^ftat,  2d  December  1851,  shared  the  fate 
<rf  every  eminent  general  who  would  not  violate 
his  oath  to  obey  the  constitution — i.  e.,  he  was 
arrested  and  imprisoned.  After  some  days  he  was 
set  at  liberty,  and  has  since  lived  in  retirement.  0. 
has  written  several  books  of  military  matters. 

OUISTITI.    See  Marmoset. 

OUNCE.  The  Latin  uncm  (derived  by  Vairo 
from  unus)  was  the  name  of  the  twelfth  pai*t  of  the 
03  or  Wfra  (pound),  and  also  was  applied  to  the 
twelfth  part  of  any  magnitude,  whether  of  length, 
surface,  or  capacity.  Hence  tncA,  the  twelfth  part 
of  a  foot.  The  modem  ounce  is  a  division  of  the 
pound-weight.    See  Poirin>. 

OUNCE  {Fdia  Unda,  or  Leopardus  Uncia),  a 
large  feline  animal,  nearly  resembling  the  leopard, 
but  having  much  rougher  and  longer  hair,  a  longer 
and  much  more  bushy  tail ;  the  general  colour  is 
also  paler,  the  rosette-like  spots  are  less  sharply 
defined,  and  there  is  a  black  spot  behind  the  ears. 
Little  is  known  of  the  0.  ;  it  is  described  by 
Buffon,  but  naturalists  were  for  some  time  generallv 
inclined  to  regard  it  as  identical  with  the  leopard, 
and  its  name  has  been  transferred  in  South  America 
to  the  Jaguar.  It  is  a  native  of  Asia,  and  probably 
of  mountainous  districts. 

OU'RARL    See  Citrari. 

OURATEPE.    See  Uratepi. 
1&S 


OU'BO  PRE'TO,  a  city  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Minas  Geraes,  stands  among  barren 
mountains,  at  an  elevation  of  4000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  200  miles  north-north- west  of  Rio  Janeiro, 
It  contains  the  governor's  residence  and  a  college, 
and  consists  maimy  of  narrow  and  irregular  stre^ 
In  the  vicinity  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  gold 
mines  in  the  province,  which  has  been  worked  by 
an  English  mining  company  for  upwards  of  20  yean. 
A  good  trade  in  coJSee,  &c.  is  carried  on  vrith  Rio 
Janeiro,  but  is  retarded  by  the  want  of  good  roads. 
The  journey  h^m  0.  P.  to  the  capital  of  the  empire 
is  performed  by  horses  and  mnles  only,  and  ordi- 
narily requires  15  days.    Pop.  about  12,000. 

OUSE,  called  also,  for  the  sake  of  distinctka, 
the  Northern  or  Yorkbhirb  Ousb,  a  river  of 
England,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Swale 
and  the  Ure  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  village 
of  Boroughbridge,  and  flows  south-east  past  York, 
Selby,  and  Goole.  About  eight  miles  below  the  last 
town,  it  joins  the  Trent,  and  forms  the  estuary  of  the 
Humber.  The  length  of  its  course  from  Borough- 
bridge  is  60  miles,  K>r  the  last  45  of  which  (from  the 
city  of  York)  it  in  navigable  for  large  vessels.  Its 
principal  afiBiuents  are  the  Wharf  and  the  Aire 
from  the  west,  and  the  Derwent  from  the  north- 
east. The  basin  of  the  0.,  or  the  Vale  of  York, 
commences  from  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
county  near  the  river  Tees,  from  whose  basin  it  is 
separated  by  a  low  ridge  of  hills,  and  extends  south- 
ward, including  almost  the  whole  of  the  county. 
See  Yorkshire. 

OUSE,  Great,  a  river  of  England,  rises  close  to 
the  town  of  Brackley,  in  the  south  of  Northampton- 
shire, and  flows  north-east  through  the  counties  of 
Buckingham,  Bedford,  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  and 
Norfolk,  and  falls  into  the  Wash  2^  miles  below 
King^s  Lynn.  It  is  160  miles  in  entire  length,  and 
is  navigable  for  about  50  miles.  It  receives  from 
the  east  and  south  the  Ivel,  Cam,  Lark,  and  Little 
Ouse. 

OU'TCBOP,  a  term  applied  in  Geology  to  the 
edge  of  an  inclined  bed  at  the  place  where  it  rises 
to  the  surface.  The  line  of  the  outcrop  is  called 
the  strike,  which  is  always  at  right  angles  to  the 
dip. 

OUTER  H0U8R    See  Court  of  Session. 

OUTFIT  ALLOWANCE,  in  the  British  Army, 
is  a  sum  of  £150  for  the  cavalry,  and  £100  for  the 
infantry,  granted  to  non-commissioned  officers  pro- 
moted to  commissions,  to  enable  them  to  meet  the 
heavy  charges  for  uniform  and  equipments.  The 
larger  sum  is  given  in  the  cavalry,  because  the 
newly-commissioned  officer  has  to  purchase  his 
charger. 

OUTLAWRY,  in  English  Law,  means  putting 
one  out  of  the  protection  of  the  law,  for  contempt  in 
wilfully  avoiding  execution  of  legal  process.  For- 
merly, in  the  common  law  courts,  if  the  defender 
would  not  enter  an  appearance,  certain  proceedings 
were  taken  to  outlaw  him,  so  as  to  allow  the  action 
to  go  on  without  his  appearance.  These  proceedings, 
however,  are  now  abolished,  and,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  it  is  immaterial  as  regards  the  action  whether 
the  defendant  appear  or  not,  provided  he  was  pro- 
perly served  with  the  original  writ  of  sunuoaons. 
After  judgment,  he  may  still  be  outlawed,  as  • 
preliminary  to  seizing  and  selling  his  propeity.  In 
criminal  proceedings,  outlawry  still  exists  as  part  of 
the  ordinary  practice  to  compel  a  person  against 
whom  a  bill  of  indictment  for  felony  or  misdemea- 
nour has  been  found,  but  who  will  not  come  forward 
to  take  his  trial,  and  who  has  not  been  arrested. 
In  such  a  case,  process  of  outlawry  against  him  it 


\ 


OUTPOSTS— OUTWORKS. 


awarded,  wbich  ib  a  kind  of  temporary  jadcment ; 
tod  while  this  process  exists,  he  is  out  of  the  pro- 
tection of  the  law,  and  forfeits  all  his  property. 
The  courts  will  not  listen  to  any  complaint  or 
attend  to  his  suit  till  he  reverse  the  outlawry,  which 
ii  seneraUy  done  as  a  matter  of  course. — In  Scot- 
Una,  ouUawry  or  fugitation  is  a  similar  process, 
and  the  defender  must  first  be  reponed  against 
the  sentence  of  outlawry  before  his  trial  can  take 
place. 

OUTPOSTS  are  bodies,  commonly  small,  of 
troop  stationed  at  a  greater  or  less  distance  beyond 
the  limits  of  a  camp  or  main  army,  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  an  enemy  approaching  without  notice, 
ana  also  to  offer  opposition  to  his  progress,  while 
the  main  force  prepares  for  resistance.  Outguards 
march  off  to  their  position  silently,  and  pay  no 
compliments  of  any  kind  to  officers  or  others.  As 
soon  as  the  officer  commanding  an  outpost  arrives 
on  his  ground,  he  proceeds  to  carefully  examine  the 
environs,  noting  all  heights  within  rine-range,  roads 
and  paths  by  which  an  enemy  may  approach,  &c 
He  also  takes  such  impromptu  means  of  strength- 
ening his  position  as  occur  to  him  —felling  a  tree 
here,  cutting  brushwood  there,  blocking  a  path  in 
another  plao!,  aud  resorting  to  any  expedient  which 
may  serve  to  delay  the  foe  at  point-blank  range — 
an  object  of  importance,  as  a  stoppage  at  such  a 
point  IS  known  to  act  as  a  great  discouragement  to 
advancing  troops. 

OUTRAM,  Sir  James,  LiiuTKNANT-OENERALt 
6.0.  B.,  Indian  soldier  and  statesman,  was  borni 
1803,  at  Butterley  Hall,  Derbyshire,  the  residence 
of  his  father,  Mr  Benjamin  Outram,  a  civil-engineer 
of  note.  His  mother,  the  daughter  of  James 
Anderson  of  Mounie,  Aberdeenshire,  was  descended 
from  Sir  W.  Seton,  Lord  Pitmedden.  O.  was 
educated  at  Udny,  Aberdeenshire,  under  the  Bev. 
Dr  Bisset,  and  afterwards  went  to  Marischal  College, 
Aberdeen.  He  was  sent  to  India  as  a  cadet  in 
1819.  and  was  made  lieutenant  and  adjutant  of  the 
23d  Bombay  Native  Infantry.  He  then  took  com- 
mand of  and  disciplined  the  wild  Bheels  of  Candeish, 
and  successf  idly  led  them  against  the  Daung  tribes. 
From  1835  to  1838,  he  was  engaged  in  re-establish- 
ing order  in  the  Mahi  Kftnta.  He  went  with  the 
invading  army  under  Lord  Keane  into  Afghanistan 
as  aide-de-camp ;  and  his  ride  from  EhelaC  through 
the  dangers  of  the  Bolan  Pass,  will  long  be  famous 
in  Indian  annals.  He  became  political  agent  at 
Guzerat,  and  commissioner  in  Sinde,  where  he  made 
a  bold  and  earnest  defence  of  the  Ameers  a«unst 
the  aggressive  policy  of  Qeneral  Sir  Charles  James 
Napier.  He  was  afterwards  resident  at  Sattara  and 
Baroda,  and  upon  the  annexation  of  Oude,  was  made 
resident  and  commissioner  by  Lord  Dalhousie.  His 
health  failing,  he  returned  to  England  in  1856 ;  but 
when  the  war  with  Persia  broke  out,  and  it  became 
neoeasary  to  send  an  expedition  to  the  Persian  Gulf, 
0.  accompanied  the  forces,  with  diplomatic  powers 
M  commissioner.  He  conducted  several  brilliant 
and  successful  operations ;  the  campaign  was  short 
and  decisive ;  and  the  objects  of  the  expedition 
having  been  triumphantly  attained,  he  returned  to 
India.  Landing  at  Bombay  in  July  1857,  he  went  to 
Calcatta  to  receive  Lord  Canning's  instructions,  and 
was  commissioned  to  take  charge  of  the  forces 
advancing  to  the  relief  of  Lucknow.  He  chivalrously 
waived  the  command  in  favour  of  his  old  lieutenant, 
Havelock  (q.  v.),  who  had  fought  eight  victorious 
battles  with  tiie  rebels,  and»  taking;  up  onlv  his 
civil  appointment,  as  ohief-conunissioner  of  Oude, 
tendered  his  miUtary  services  to  Havelock  as  a 
volunteer.  Lucknow  was  relieved,  and  0.  took 
the  command,  but  only  to  be  in  turn  besieged. 


He  held  the  Alumbagh  against  almost  overwhelming 
forces,  until  Lord  Clyde  advanced  to  his  relief.  He 
then  made  a  skilful  movement  up  the  left  bank  of 
the  Gumti,  which  led  to  a  final  and  complete  victory 
over  the  insurgents.  He  was  made  chief-commis- 
sioner of  Oude ;  and  though  he  had  strongly  opjKwed 
its  annexation,  he  was  tne  man  who  ma  most  to 
restore  British  rule,  and  attach  the  people  to  it. 
For  his  eminent  services,  he  was  promoted  to  the 
rank  of  Ueutenant-general  in  1858,  and  received  the 
thanks  of  parliament  in  1860.  He  took  his  seat 
as  a  member  of  the  Supreme  Council  of  India,  in 
Calcutta,  but  sank  under  the  climate,  and  retumal 
to  England  in  1860,  already  stricken  by  the  hand 
of  death.  The  communities  of  India  voted  him  a 
statue  at  Calcutta,  founded  an  institution  to  his 
honour,  and  presented  him  with  commemorative 
gifts.  A  banquet  was  given  to  him  and  his  chief 
and  companion-in-arms.  Lord  Clvde,  by  the  city  of 
London.  His  English  admirers  determined  to  erect 
a  statue  to  his  honour  in  London,  and  ^hyq  him 
a  valuable  dessert-service  in  silver.  He  spent 
the  winter  of  1861—1862  in  E^pt ;  and  after  a 
short  residence  iu  the  south  of  France,  expired  at 
Paris,  March  11,  1863.  0.  was  styled  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier  the  *  Bayard  of  India.'  Than  his, 
there  is  no  more  gallant  name  in  the  whole  list  of 
distinguished  Indian  soldiers.  His  services  in  the 
East  as  a  soldier  and  a  diplomatist  extended  over 
the  period  of  forty  years.  He  was  ever  the  generous 
protector  of  the  dark-skinned  races  among  whom 
his  lot  was  thrown,  and  set  a  bright  example  to 
all  future  administrators  of  moderation,  concibation, 
humanity,  and  practical  Christianity  in  all  his 
dealings  with  the  natives  of  India. 

OUTRIGGER,  in  its  proper  sense,  is  a  beam 
or  spar  fastened  horizontally  to  the  cross-trees  or 


Fig.  L 

otherwise,  for  the  purpose  of  extending  further 
from  the  mast  or  topmast  the  backstay  or  other 
rope  by  which  that  mast  or  topmast  is  supported. 
The  power  of  the  stay  is  thus  increased.  The 
term  is  also  used  improperly — 
because  no  *  rigging'  is  in 
question — to  denote  the  appa-  ^^    i 

ratus  for  increasing  the  levertu^  u^^^       0 

of  an  oar,  by  i^moving  the 
resistance,  as  represented  by 
the  side  of  tiie  bJiat  (see  Oar), 
further  from  the  power  repre- 
sented^ by  the  rower^s  hand. 
This  is  effected  by  fixing  an  j^  % 

iron  bracket  to  the  boat's  side,  a,  outrigger ;  i,  ildt  of 
the     row-lock    being    at    the  boat 

bracket's  extremity.  The  neces- 
sary leverage  is  thus  obtained  without  adding  to 
the  width  of  the  boat  itself. 

OUTWORKS,  in  Fortification,  are  minor 
defences  constructed  beyond  the  main  body  of  a 
work,  for  ti^e  purpose  of  keeping  the  enemy  at  a 
distance,  or  commanding  certain  salient  points 
which  it  Ib  undesirable  that  he  shoxdd  occupy.  Such 
works  are  ravelins,  lunettes,  horn  works,  crown- 
works,  demi-lunes,  tenailles,  kc  They  occur  in 
certain  necessary  order,  as  a  ravelin  before  the 
curtain  and  tenaille  a  homwork  before  a  ravelin, 

and  80  on. 

US 


OUZEIr-OVABIEa 


OtfZEL,  or  OUSEL  (Old  Fr.  awd,  biid),  an  old 
name  of  the  black-bird,  as  is  evident  from  the 
descriptive  lioes  of  Bottom's  song  in  Midwmmer 
Nights  Dream : 

'  The  ousel  oock,  so  black  of  hue, 
With  orange  tawny  bill' 

It  is  also  applied  to  other  birds,  chiefly  of  the 
thrush  family.  Thus,  one  British  thrush  is  called  the 
King  OuzeL  The  Dipper  (q.  v.)  is  very  generally 
known  as  the  Water  Ouzel ;  and  the  Rose-coloured 
Pastor  is  also  called  the  Rose-coloured  OuzeL 

OYAL,  the  name  given  to  the  figure  presented 
by  a  longitudinal  section  of  an  e^  through  its 
centre.  The  oval  has  a  general  resemblance  to  the 
ellipse ;  imlike  the  latter,  however,  it  is  not  symme- 
trical, but  is  thicker  at  one  end  than  the  other,  and 
at  the  thin  end,  narrows  almost  to  a  point  The 
term  *  oval '  is  also  used  indiscriminately  with 
'nodus,'  'loop,'  to  denote  the  fi^re  formed  by  a 
curve  which  either  returns  upon  itself,  as  the  lem- 
niscata,  &c.,  or  the  loops  of  the  cubical  and  serai- 
cubical  parabolas  and  other  curves.  In  scientific 
language,  it  is  specially  distinguished  from  the 
term  *  elliptical,'  with  which,  in  common  parlance, 
it  is  usually  cociounded. 

OVA'MPOS  AKD  OVAMPOLAND.  The  Ovam- 
pos  or  Otjiherero  are  a  tribe,  seemingly  a  connecting 
unk  between  the  EafBr  and  Negro  races,  who  inhabit 
the  region  north  of  Great  Namaqualand,  in  South 
Africa,  extending  north  to  the  Cuiftnene  River,  and 
south  to  the  parallel  of  23**  S.  lat  The  Ovampo 
tribes  are  described  by  Andersson  as  of  a  very  dark 
complexion,  tiJl  and  robust,  but  remarkably  ugly. 
He  foimd  them,,  however,  honest,  industrious,  and 
hospitable.  They  are  not  entirely  pastoral,  but 
cultivate  much  com.  Living  in  the  same  country 
are  the  Cattle  Damaras,  with  still  more  of  the 
Negro  type,  a  stout,  athletic  people,  very  dirty  in 
their  habits,  and  generally  armed  with  the  bow  and 
arrow.  They  live  in  a  state  of  constant  warfare 
with  the  Ghondannup,  or  HiU  Damaras,  a  nearly 

Sure  Negro  race,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the  Namaqua 
[ottentots,  who  live  south  of  them,  on  the  other. 
Ovampoland  is  a  more  fertile  region  than  Nama- 
qualand, from  which  it  is  se])aratea  by  a  wide  belt 
of  densely-bushed  country.  It  has  but  few  rivers, 
and  these  not  of  a  perennial  nature.  About  50 
miles  from  the  coast,  the  country  rises  to  a  table- 
land about  6000  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
^en  declines  to  the  south  and  east  into  the 
deserts  of  the  Kalihari,  and  the  region  of  Lake 
Ngami  Many  strong  indications  of  copper-ore 
are  found  in  various  places.  The  jprincipal  rivers, 
or  rather  water-courses,  are  the  Swakop,  Kusip, 
and  their  branches,  which  enter  the  Atlantic  a  few 
miles  nortii  of  Waltish  Bay.  The  other  rivers  in 
the  interior  seem  to  lose  tnemselves  in  the  sands. 
The  climate  is  healthy,  except  near  the  coast,  where 
fever  in  some  seasons  prevails.  It  seldom  rains  in 
the  coast  region,  whicn  is  a  very  desolate  one, 
and  almost  devoid  of  water.  Thunder-storms  are 
very  violent  in  the  summer  season.  All  the 
lai^  mammalia  are  found,  more  or  less  plentiful, 
aooording  as  water  may  be  found  at  the  different 
drinking-places.  Elephants,  rhinoceroses,  elands, 
and  other  large  animals  driven  from  the  south  by 
the  march  of  civilisation,  take  refuge  in  the  desert 
region  lying  east  of  Ovampoland,  where  sportsmen 
like  Green  and  Andersson  nave  been  known  to  kill 
as  many  as  twelve  elephants  in  a  day.  The  country 
was  first  described  by  Sir  J.  Alexander,  who 
▼isited  its  south  border.  Mr  Galton  afterwards 
penetrated  much  further  north  ;  and  Mr  0.  J. 
Andersson  has  since  fully  explored  it  nearly  as  far 
IM 


north  as  the  Ouanene.  Large  numbers  of  honied 
cattle  are  annually  collected  by  traders  from  the 
Cape  in  these  reg^ions,  and  whales  abound  on  the 
coast.  The  trade  in  ostrich-feathers  and  ivory  is  of 
increasing  importance,  and  several  trading-stations 
are  established  for  the  collection  of  native  products. 
Some  elementary  worka  have  been  printed  in  the 
Otjiherero  dialect  by  the  German  missionaries ; 
two  appear  in  Sir  G.  Grey's  catalogue. 

O'V ARIES  are  organs  peculiar  to  the  female^ 
and  are  analogous  to  me  testes  in  the  male.  They 
are  two  oblong  flattened  bodies  (about  an  inch 
and  a  half  in  length,  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in 
width,  and  nearly  half  an  inch  thick  in  the  human 
subject),  situated  on  either  side  of  the  uterus,  to 
which  they  are  connected  by  ligaments  and  by  the 
Fallopian  tube.  On  making  sections  of  an  ovary, 
numerous  vesicles  are  seen.  These  are  the  ovisacs  of 
the  future  ova  or  germs,  and  are  termed  the  Graajian 
vesidu.  Before  impregnation,  they  vary  in  number 
from  ten  to  twenty,  and  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  head 
to  that  of  a  pea ;  but  microscopic  examination  reveals 
the  presence  of  young  vesicles  in  large  numbers.  At 
each  monthly  period,  a  ripe  Graafian  vesicle  bursts, 
and  the  ovum  contained  in  it  noakes  its  way  by 
ciliary  motion  along  the  Fallopian  tube  to  the 
uterus,  where,  if  it  is  not  impregnated,  it  is  disin- 
tegrated and  absorbed. 

Solid  tumours  or  cysts,  containing  hair  and  teeth, 
are  developed  in  these  organs,  but  their  principal 
disease  is  that  to  which  the  name  of  Ovafian 
Tumour  is  applied.  This  tumour  may  be  described 
as  consisting  of  an  enormous  enlargement  of  one 
or  more  of  the  Graafian  vesicles  into  a  mass  which 
may  weigh  80  or  100  pounds,  or  even  more ;  and 
it  may  be  either  simple  (that  is  to  say,  composed 
of  natui'al  structures  much  hypertrophied)  or  can- 
cerous. The  walls  of  the  cysts  (or  enlarged  Graafian 
vesicles)  may  be  thin  and  flexible,  or  thick  and 
cartilaginous;  and  the  fluid  they  contain  may  be 
clear  and  limpid,  or  thick  and  ropy,  or  grumous  and 
opaque.  The  only  disease  -with  which  it  can  be 
confounded  is  ordinary  abdominal  dropsy,  or  Asciies^ 
and  when  its  nature  is  clearly  determined,  three 
modes  of  treatment  are  open  for  adoption :  these 
are  (1)  tapping,  (2)  various  surgical  and  medical 
means  of  producing  atrophy  of  the  tumour,  and  (3) 
extirpation  of  the  organ,  or  ovariotomy. 

1.  Tapping  is  the  simplest  mode  of  relieving  the 
patient ;  out  the  cyst  soon  refills,  and  the  operation 
must  be  often  repeated.  *  Cases  are  extant  in  one 
of  which  the  patient  lived  to  be  tapped  66  times 
at  intervals  of  about  a  month,  and  in  another, 
128  times  at  intervals  of  six  weeks;  but,  taken 
as  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  affirmed  that  few 
patiento  survive  more  than  four  years  after  the 
first  tapping,  a  period  passed  in  the  greatest  misery 
and  sunermg.' — Druet'a  Surgeon's  Vade-mecwm, 
p.  498. 

2.  Under  this  head  are  included  both  numeroua 
operations  for  causing  the  tumour  to  waste,  and  ita 
internal  walls  to  adl^re,  and  the  internal  admini- 
stration of  absorbent  medicines,  with  the  view  of 
producing  atrophy  and  absorption  of  the  tumour. 
The  injection  of  tincture  of  iodine  into  the  pre- 
viously emptied  cyst,  is  sometimes  followed  with. 
good  results,  as  in  the  case  of  Hydrocele  (q.  v.). 

3.  Ovariotomy,  or  total  extirpation  of  the  morbid 
mass,  is  an  operation  regarding  which  there  has  of 
late  years  been  much  discussion.  Its  opponents 
urge  (1)  the  difficulty  of  diagnosis ;  (2)  the  frequency 
of  adhesion  of  the  tumour  to  adjacent  i)arts — a  point 
which  can  often  not  be  ascertained  till  the  abdomen, 
has  been  opened ;  and  (3)  the  great  mortality  that 
follows  it:  while  in  favour  of  the  operation  it  is 
urged  (1)  that  the  mortaUty  is  not  greater  tban  from 


OVAEY— OVER  DARWEN. 


•ome  otlier  surgiol  operation!  which  are  r^&rded 
V  justifiable  -,  (2)  that  no  other  plan  of  treatmei  " 
ozi  effect  a  radical  cure  ;  (3)  that  if  the  Burgeon, 
order  to  complete  hia  diagnoeis,  first  makes  a  amall 
iuouion,  to  enable  him  to  aaoertain  Uie  exiBtenoe  of 
adheflioua,  and  cloees  it  again  with  satore,  if  be 
finds  this  to  be  the  eaaa,  no  great  harm  ia  likely  to 
result ;  and  (4)  that  conai^ermg  the  migeiable  lives 
these  patienta  lead  daring  a  course  of  tapping,  Ac, 
it  i>  the  most  mercifiil  courBa  to  adopt  m  patients 
who  are  young  and  otherwise  healthy.  For  a 
description  of  the  mode  of  peiformlng  the  operation, 
and  of  the  cautions  to  be  observed,  we  may  refer  to 
a  series  of  papers  on  Ovaiiotomy  by  Mr  Spencer 
Wells  in  The  Mtdieai  Tima  and  Oazelle  for  1S58 
and  ISSg. 

OTABY.  in  Botanf.    See  Qniutr. 

OVATION.    See  TBIina-H. 

OVEIf,  Field  or  Babbacb,  is  a  necessary  anpa- 
latus  in  nulitary  economy  to  preserve  the  health  of 
troopa,  bj  enabling  them,  at  a  comparatively  amall 
expenditure  of  fuel,  to  cook  many  ratjons  together. 
In  the  British  army,  little  attention  was  paid  to 
Boeh  snbjecta,  until,  in  1858,  the  inquiries  of  Mr 
Sidney  Herbert  (afterwards  Lord  Herbert)  brought 
to  light  Uia  excessive  mortality  among  soldiers, 
which  WM  partly—and,  as  the  event  has  shewn, 
justly — attributed  to  the  bad  cookery  of  their  food. 
Captain  Grant  has  bestowed  much  attention  to 
army  cookery,  and  has  invented  ovens  for  barrack 
nse  and  for  the  field.  While  great  improvements  on 
the  system — or  want  of  system — which  preceded 
them,  ibaaB  ovens  are  atill  admitted  to  be  far  from 
perfeot  in  their  arrangements. 

Fi^  1  shews  hia  barrack-stove  for  baking  and 


chimney.      One   or   more   empty  barrel!   i 


Kg.  2. — Field  oooMng-wagon. 
attaclied  for  steaming  potatoes,  and  tbe  roasting  of 


Kg.  L^BairacJi -stove. 


niptya 


Pif.  3.— Field-oven. 


coffee  is  performed,  thoogh  not  i 
fully,  in  anotber  cylinder  made 
to  revolve  over  the  chimney. 

OTER  DA-RWEN  is  >  very 
flonrisfaing  town  of  Lancashire, 
situated  amid  moorland  hilla, 
3(  miles  sonth  of  Btackhum, 
and  19^  miles  Qorth-weet  of 
Manchester,  vrith  which  towns 
it  is  connected  by  the  lAnoa- 
shire  and  Yorkshire  Railway. 
It  has  risen  into  wealth  prin. 
cipijly  by  A  trade  with  India 
in  caUcoea.  At  present  there 
are  about  200,000  spindles  and 
12,000  looms  at  work  in  it,  and 
n  tbe  completion  of  the  '  India 
im,'  100.000  additional  spin, 
dies  will  be  set  to  work.  This 
mill,  now  (June  1864)  three 
parts  erected,  will  be  in  many 
respects  the  Sneat  in  the 
country.  It  is  a  first-class 
atone  bnildiDg  in  the  Italian 
style,      with      engine  - 1 


Ixnlin^;  fig.  2,  his  boiler-wagon  for  tha  field,  it« 

Sinctions  being  the  manufacture  of  soup  and  boiling  <  .^    . 

tf  potatoes  in  nets  in  it.    For  boiling  meat,  &c,  <  chimney,    tc,     highly 

to  tBe  field,  he  employs  detached  cylinders,  which,  mented,  ia  100  feet  high,  and 

■when  empty,  he  proposes  to  join  and  Hoor  over  for  covers     an      area     of     31,000 

«se  as  pontoons  ;  when  in  use  they  are  united  cross-  square  feet     (See  illustration 

wise,  ai  in  fig.  3,  one  in  the  middle  serving  for  a  of  chimney.}      The  town   also   contains    C   papo' 


OVERBECK— OVERBURY. 


manofactories,  the  znoet  extensWe  paper-staining 
works  in  England,  2  calico  printing  estaDlishmentSy  as 
well  as  works  for  iron  founding,  oleaching,  macliine 
and  reed  making,  &c.  There  is  an  ahundanoe  of 
coal  and  stone  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the 
mines  and  quarries  find  employment  for  a  con> 
siderable  number  of  the  inhabitants.  The  places  of 
worship  are — 3  churches,  3  Independent  chapels,  a 
Baptist  and  a  Wesleyan  Methodist  chapel,  a  Koman 
Catholic  cha[)el,  and  3  other  dissenting  chapels. 
There  is  also  a  Mechanics'  Institution,  a  market 
house,  and  public  baths ;  and  a  large  public  hall  is 
contemplated,  to  accommodate  2000  people.  Pop. 
(1851),  7020 ;  (1864),  15,30a 

OVEBBECE,  Friedrich,  bom  at  Lttbeck,  July 
3,  1789,  a  distinguished  painter,  to  whom  is  justly 
awarded  a  large  share  of  the  merit  of  the  move- 
ment in  the  early  part  of  this  century,  from  which 
arose  the  modern  German  school  of  irt.  He  com- 
menced his  studies  as  an  artist  at  Vienna  in  1S06 ; 
but  having  adopted,  and  continued  to  persist  in 
carrying  out  certain  notions  on  art,  and  the  mode 
of  studying  it,  essentiallv  different  from  those  incul- 
cated in  the  academy,  he  was  expelled  along  with 
certain  other  students  who  entertained  the  same 
views,  and  in  1809  set  out  for  Rome.  Here  he  was 
soon  afterwards  joined  by  Cornelius  and  Schadow ; 
and  tiiese  three,  animated  with  similjikr  ideas,  and 
mutually  encouraging  one  another,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  a  school  that  now  holds  a  high  rank,  and  has 
in  no  small  degree  influenced  the  taste  for  art  in 
Europe  at  the  present  time.  A  picture  of  the 
Madonna,  which  0.  painted  at  Rome  in  1811,  brought 
him  into  marked  notice.  He  was  next  employed 
along  with  Cornelius  and  others,  by  the  Prussian 
consul.  General  Bartholdi,  to  execute  certain  frescoes 
illustrating  the  history  of  Joseph,  the  *  Selling  of 
Joseph'  and  the  *  Seven  lean  Years'  being  the  sub- 
jects assigned  to  him.  After  completing  these,  he 
painted  in  fresco,  in  the  villa  of  the  Marchese  Mas- 
simi,  five  lan;e  compositions  from  Tasso's  Jerusalem 
Delivered,  In  1814,  along  with  some  of  his  artistic 
brethren,  he  abjured  Lutheranism,  and  embraced 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  O.'s  chief  work  is  a 
fresco  at  Assisi,  *The  Miracle  of  Roses  of  St 
Francis.'  His  oil  pictures  are  inferior  to  his  frescoes, 
being  dry  and  weak  in  colour.  His  great  picture, 
'The  Influence  of  Religion  on  Art,*  preserved  in 
the  Stadel  Institute  at  Frankfurt,  and  well  known 
from  the  engraving,  is  an  admirable  composition, 
and  is  indeed  the  most  favourable  specimen  of  his 
powers  as  a  painter  in  oil  colours.  He  has  executed 
a  great  many  drawings  remarkable  for  high  feeling, 
most  of  which  have  been  engraved.  One  of  his  last 
undertakings,  a  series  of  designs  from  the  Evan- 
gedists,  delicately  engraved  in  uie  line  manner,  is  a 
work  of  high  excellence.  0.  has  adhered  closely 
to  those  ideas  of  art  which  he  started  with — namely, 
entire  devotion  to  the  style  of  the  Italian  artists 
prior  to  the  period  of  the  renaissance,  particularly 
Fra  Angelico  (b.  1387— d.  1455),  and  a  strong  im- 
pression that  form  or  drawing  in  the  style  of  Greek 
or  classic  art  is  inadmissible  in  works  embodying 
religious  subjects ;  although  many  of  his  compatriots 
—Cornelius,  for  instance — have  modified,  or  perhaps 
enlarged  these  ideas,  and  study  the  works  of 
Michael  Angelo  and  those  of  Raffael's  lucer  style 
executed  under  the  influence  of  classic  art.  0. 
resides  in  Rome,  and  has  made  it  the  place  of  his 
abode  since  the  time  he  went  there  as  a  students 

OVBRBURT,  Sir  Thomas,  an  English  author 
•nd  courtier,  whose  mysterious  death  nas  given  a 

giculiar  interest  to  his  history,  was  the  son  of 
icholas  Overbury,  a  Gloucestershire  squire,  and 
was  bom  at  Compton  Scorfen,  Warwickshire,  the 
IM 


residence  of  his  maternal  grandfather  in  1581.  At 
the  age  of  fourteen  be  entered  Queen's  College, 
Oxford,  where  he  highly  distinguished  himself  in 
logic  and  philosophy,  and  where  he  took  the  degree 
of  jB.A  in  1598.  He  then  joined  the  Middle  Temple, 
but  soon  after  set  out  for  the  continent,  from  which 
he  returned  with  the  reputation  of  being  a  finished 
gentleman.  While  on  a  visit  to  Scotland  in  1601, 
he  met  for  the  fisst  time  with  his  faturs  murderer, 
Robert  Carr  (properly  Eer),  then  a  page  in  the 
service  of  the  Earl  of  Dunbar.  An  intimacy  unfor* 
tunately  sprung  up  between  the  two,  and  Cair — 
a  handsome  ignoramus,  sensual  and  unprincipled 
— ^followed  his  scholarly  friend  to  London.  On  the 
accession  of  James  to  the  English  throne  (1603), 
Carr  rose  rapidly  into  royal  favour,  and  was  created 
Viscount  Rochester.  Through  his  influence,  0.  was 
knighted  in  1608,  and  his  father  appointed  a  judge 
for  W  ales.  In  return,  O.  gave  his  patron  the  benefit 
of  his  wit  and  judgment,  both  of  which  were  singu- 
larly excellent;  and,  according  to  Hume,  it  was 
owing  to  0.  that  Carr  enjoyed  for  a  time  the  highest 
favour  of  the  prince  witnout  being  hated  by  the 
people.  The  circumstances  that  led  to  a  rupture 
of  their  intimacy,  and  turned  the  earl  into  O/s 
secret  and  relentless  enemy,  form  one  of  the  most 
flagrant  scandals  in  the  history  of  the  E»<^lish  courL 
A  orief  outline  of  these  circumstances  is  all  that 
can  be  given  here. 

At  the  a^e  of  thirteen,  Frances  Howard,  daughter 
of  the  Earl  of  Suffolk,  was  married  (1606)  to  the 
Earl  of  Essex,  himself  only  a  year  older.  On 
account  of  their  youth,  it  was  reckoned  advisable 
by  their  friends  that  they  should  not  live  together 
for  some  time.  The  boy-husband  went  away  on 
his  travels,  and  the  wedded  girl  to  her  mother. 
After  the  lapse  of  nearly  five  years,  Essex  came 
home,  and  found  his  wife,  now  a  splendid  beauty  of 
eighteen,  the  idol  of  all  the  court  gallants.  a\x% 
there  was  not  a  touch  of  virtue  or  goodness  in  her 
whole  souL  She  had  the  disposition  of  a  Messalina 
(q.  V.)  or  a  BrinvilUers  (q.  v.).  For  her  husband 
she  shewed  the  greatest  aversion,  and  only  con- 
sented to  hve  in  his  house  at  the  command  of  the 
king.  It  was  well  known  that  she  had  had  intrigues 
with  more  than  one  lover,  but  in  particular  to 
Rochester,  for  whom  she  now  cherished  a  fierce 
passion.  0.  had  been  instrumental  in  bringing 
about  their  guilty  intercourse,  and  was  now  to 
reap  the  reward  due  to  a  pander.  Rochester  having 
tola  him  that  he  purposed  to  get  Lady  Essex 
divorced  from  her  husband,  and  then  to  marry 
her,  0.  strongly  deprecated  the  idea,  and  de- 
claimed that  it  would  be  disgraceful  to  form  a 
union  with  so  depraved  a  creature — she  might  do 
for  a  mistress,  but  not  for  a  wife  1  The  earl  told 
Lady  Essex  what  0.  had  said  of  her ;  slie  became 
furious  for  revenge,  and  offered  Sir  David  Wood 
(between  whom  and  0.  there  was  a  standing 
quarrel)  £1000  to  assassinate  him,  which  that  canny 
Scot  declined  to  dOb  Rochester  himself  was  now 
persuaded  by  his  mistress  to  join  privately  in  a  plot 
against  0.,  who  on  a  most  trivial  and  illegal  pretext 
was  thrown  into  the  Tower,  April  21,  1613^  It  was 
some  time  before  he  could  bring  himself  to  believe 
that  his  friend  and  patron  was  the  cause  of  his 
imprisonment ;  but  when  ^e  had  assured  himself 
of  Rochester's  treachery,  he  threatened  to  divulge 
certain  secrets  in  his  possession,  whereupon  it  was 
determined  by  the  earl  and  his  mistress  that  he 
riiould  be  poisoned.  This,  after  several  trials,  was 
successfully  accomplished,  and  0.  expired  on  the 
I6th  of  September.  Rochester  (now  created  Elarl 
of  Somerset),  and  his  paramour  were  married  on  the 
26th  of  December  with  great  pomp,  the  brazen-faced 
beauty  wearing  her  hair  '  as  a  virgin,'  and  the  whols 


OVERLAND  ROUTE— OVERSEERS. 


ifiiadr  was  soon  to  appearance  forgotten ;  but  after 
G«orge  Villiers  had  supplanted  the  earl  in  the  royal 
favour,  an  inquiry  was  instituted ;  Somerset  and  his 
wife  were  tried  and  found  guilty  of  poisoning,  but 
were,  by  an  amazing  and  infamous  stretch  of  the 
loyal  prerogative,  pardoned.  The  motive  for  James's 
extraordinary  clemency  has  never  been  ascertained ; 
but  the  prevailing  opinion  is,  that  it  was  to  prevent 
the  disclosure  of  some  discreditable,  if  not  criminal, 
incidents  in  the  private  life  of  that  monarch. 

0.  wrote  several  works,  all  of  which  were  posthu- 
mously published.  The  principal  are,  Tne  Wife 
(1614),  a  didactic  poem  ;  Characters  (1614),  the  wit, 
ingenuity,  precision,  and  force  of  which  have  long 
been  admitted ;  Crumnia  Fallen  from  King  Jameses 
TaBt  (1715).  The  ktest  edition  of  O.'s  works  is 
that  by  &  F.  Rimbault  with  Life  (1856). 

OVERLAND  ROUTE  to  India,  the  route  gene- 
rally chosen  by  those  to  whom  time  is  a  more 
important  consideration  than  expense.  The  manage- 
ment of  the  route  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Peninsular 
and  Oriental  Steam  Company,  who  present  the 
traveller  with  a  choice  of  lines  of  route  to  Alex- 
andria in  Egypt.  He  may  sail  from  Southampton 
via  Gibraltar  and  ^lalta,  reaching  Alexandria  in 
13  days,  a  very  convenient  route  for  those  who 
have  much  luggage,  as  no  shifting  is  required  till 
Alexandria  la  reached ;  or  he  may  travel  overland 
by  railway  and  steamer  to  either  of  the  ports  of 
Marseille  or  Trieste.  The  shortest  route  from 
London  to  the  former  is  via  Dover,  Calais,  and 
Paris,  Alexandria  being  reached  in  1 1  days  (includ- 
ing the  necessary  stoppages  at  different  points  on 
the  route) ;  and  to  the  latter,  via  Dover,  Calais, 
Paris,  Turin,  and  Venice.  The  total  length  of 
joumev  to  Alexandria  from  London  by  this  route 
is  14  days ;  but  as  there  are  only  5  days  of  sailing, 
it  is  for  that  reason  frequently  preferred. 

From  Alexandria,  passengers  are  conveyed  by 
rail  to  Suez,  where  they  a^iu  embark  on  board  the 
Peninsular  and  Oriental  Company's  steamers,  and 
are  conveyed  to  Bombay,  Madns,  Calcutta,  &c 
The  time  occupied  in  travelling  from  Alexandria 
to  Bombay  is  13  days,  to  Madras  24  days,  and 
to  Calcutta  29  days.  Thus  a  traveller  can  reach 
Calcutta  from  London  in  40  days ;  at  an  expense, 
however,  of  more  than  £100.  The  long  sea-route 
round  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  cannot  be  accom- 
plished by  steamer  in  less  than  94  days,  and  by 
saihng  vessels  it  takes  more  than  four  months,  but 
the  jOMt  is  much  less. 

O'VBRSEERS  are  officers  appointed  annually 
in  all  the  parishes  in  England  and  Wales,  whose 
primary  duty  it  is  to  rate  the  inhabitants  to  the 
poor-rate,  collect  the  same,  and  apply  it  towards 
^ving  relief  to  the  poor.  These  omoers  occupy  an 
unportaiit  position  m  all  English  parishes.  They 
were  first  ordered  to  be  appointed  in  each  parish  by 
the  statute  of  43  Eliz.  c  2,  the  leading*  Poor-law 
Act,  which  directed  four,  three,  or  two  substantial 
householders  in  the  parish  to  be  nominated  yearly, 
and  a  later  statute  fixed  the  time  of  nomination  to 
be  25th  March,  or  a  fortnight  thereafter.  The 
ooorta  have  held  that  not  more  than  four,  nor  less 
than  two,  can  be  appointed,  the  object  being,  pro- 
bably, that  so  mucn  responsibility  should  not  be 
thrown  on  any  one  individuaL  Though  it  is  usual 
for  the  yestry  of  the  parish  to  nominate  two  persons 
to  be  overseers,  still  those  who  really  appoint  them 
are  the  justices  of  the  peace,  who  are  not  bound  to 
r^ard  the  wishes  of  the  vestry  in  this  respect  It 
ii  only  householders  in  the  ^tarish  who  are  qualified 
for  the  office,  and  though  it  is  not  necessair  that 
they  should  actually  reside  in  the  parish,  still  they 
must  occupy  or  rent  a  house  there.    Several  classes 


of  persons  are  exempt  from  serving  the  office,  such 
as  peers,  members  of^ parliament,  clergymen,  dissent- 
ing ministers,  barristers,  attorneys,  doctors,  officers 
of  the  army  and  navy,  &c.  But  all  who  are  not 
specially  exempted  by  some  statute  are  liable  to 
serve  the  office,  and  even  women  may  be  appointed, 
though  they  scarcely  ever  are  so  in  practice.  The 
office  is  compulsory,  and  entirely  gratuitous ;  and  so 
necessary  is  it  that  some  one  shall  fill  the  office, 
that  it  is  an  indictable  misdemeanour  to  refuse, 
without  cause,  to  serve  when  duly  appointed. 
Though  overseers  are  the  proper  managers  of  the 
poor  lot  each  parish,  yet  some  parishes,  especially  in 
large  overgrown  towns,  have  been  regulated  by 
local  acts,  and  guardians  of  the  poor  provided  ;  and 
other  parishes  are  under  what  is  called  a  select 
vestry.  In  such  cases,  the  overseers,  though  still 
appointed,  are  only  allowed  to  give  relief  to  paupers 
in  certain  urgent  and  exceptional  cases,  the  ordinary 
regulation  of  poor-law  affairs  bein^  confined  to  the 
guardians  or  the  select  vestry.  "Hie  primary  duty 
of  the  overseers  consists  in  making,  collecting,  and 
applying  the  poor-rate  for  the  relief  of  the  poor  of 
the  parish,  but,  as  will  be  seen,  advantage  has  been 
taken  by  the  legislature  of  the  existence  of  these 
officers  always  representing  the  parish,  to  throw 
upon  them  various  miscellaneous  duties  which  are 
not  directly  connected  with  poor-law  affairs. 

1.  Of  the  duties  connected  with  the  management 
of  the  poor.  The  overseers  along  with  the  church- 
wardens are  to  make  a  rate  once  or  twice  a  year ;  i.  e., 
a  list  of  all  the  occupiers  of  lands  and  houses  in  the 
parish,  specifying  their  names  and  the  property 
occupied  oy  each,  and  the  ratable  value  and  amount 
due  by  each.  The  next  thing  to  be  done  is  to  go 
before  two  justices  of  the  peace,  and  get  the  rate 
allowed— i  e.,  signed  by  them — and  then  it  is 
published  on  the  church-door  on  the  following 
Sunday.  The  overseers  must  collect  the  rate  also  ; 
but  in  all  large  parishes  there  is  a  collector  of  poor- 
rates  who  is  specially  ap{)ointed  and  paid  for  the 
purpose  of  collecting  it.  If  a  party  refuses  to  pay 
the  rate,  the  overseers  must  take  proceedings  betore 
justices  to  compel  payment,  which  is  done  by  dis- 
training the  eoods  of  the  party,  or,  if  there  are  no 
sufficient  go<xis,  by  getting  a  warrant  to  imprison 
him.  The  party  mav,  however,  appeal  acrainst  the 
rate  to  the  Court  of  Quarter  Sessions.  When  the 
money  is  collected,  the  overseers  have  to  apply  it 
towards  the  relief  of  the  poor,  and  many  other 
purposes  of  a  kindred  nature.  Relief  must  be  given 
to  all  the  poor  in  the  parish  who  are  in  a  destitute 
state ;  but  it  is  the  duty  of  the  overseers,  when  the 
pauper  has  not  a  settlement  in  the  parish,  to  obtain 
an  order  of  removnl,  l  e.,  to  get  an  order  of  justices, 
under  which  the  ^'auper  is  taken  by  force,  and  sent 
to  the  parish  where  he  has  a  settlement.  See 
Bemoval  of  the  Poor.  Belief  is  given,  in  general, 
only  in  the  workhouse,  and  according  to  certain 
niles  and  conditions.  Where  the  parish  is  included 
in  a  poor-law  union,  as  is  now  generally  the  case, 
then  the  duty  of  overseers  in  giving  relief  is 
entirely  confined  to  certain  urgent  cases ;   for  the 

faardians  of  the  union  administer  the  ordinary 
usiness  of  the  workhouse,  and  of  relief  generally. 
Another  duty  incident  to  overseers  of  a  parish  in  a 
union  is  the  duty  of  making  out  valuation  lists — 
L  a,  a  new  valuation  of  the  property  in  the  parish — 
which  list  is  ordered  by  the  guardians  with  a  view 
to  produce  some  uniformity  in  assessing  the  burdens 
on  the  various  occupiers.  Formerly,  the  mode  of 
valuing  property  for  the  purposes  of  the  poor-rate 
was  not  subject  to  any  uniform  rule,  and  in  some 
parishes  the  valuers  made  a  larger  deduction  from 
the  actual  value  than  in  others;  but  in  1862,  a 
statute  passed,  called  the  Union  Assessment  Act, 


OVERSEER— OVERSTONEL 


the  object  of  wliicb  was  to  enable  new  valuations  to 
be  made  on  a  uniform  plan,  till  the  occupiers  in  all 
the  parishes  are  treated  alike.  At  the  end  of  the 
year  of  office,  the  accounts  of  the  overseers  of 
parishes  in  unions  are  audited  by  a  poor-law 
auditor,  who  is  a  paid  officer,  and  who  examines  the 
vouchers,  and  sees  that  no  illegal  payments  have 
been  made. 

2.  The  miscellaneous  duties  now  imposed  by 
statute  on  overseers,  over  and  above  their  original 
duty  of  reUeving  the  poor,  are  numerous.  The  most 
prominent,  perhaps,  is  that  of  making  out  the  list  of 
voters  for  members  of  parliament.  This  duty  is 
done  in  obedience  to  certain  precepts  issued  by  the. 
clerk  of  the  peace  each  year,  who  gives  the  overseers 
full  instructions  how  to  make  out  the  lists,  and 
what  claims  and  objections  to  receive,  and  how  to 
deal  with  them.  The  overseers  must  also  attend 
the  court  of  the  revising  barrister,  when  he  revises 
the  lists,  and  disposes  of  legal  objections.  Another 
duty  of  the  overseers  is  to  make  out  the  list  of 
persons  in  the  parish  qualified  to  serve  as  jurors. 
So  they  must  make  out  the  burgess  lists  when  the 
parish  is  situated  within  a  borough.  They  must 
also  make  out  the  list  of  persons  qualified  to  serve 
as  parish  constables.  Thev  are  also  bound  to 
appoint  persons  to  enforce  the  Vaccination  Acts ; 
thev  must  give  notice  to  justices  of  all  lunatics 
within  the  parish,  and  pauper  lunatics  are  removed 
to  the  county  asylum,  or  in  some  cases,  if  it  is  safe 
in  the  opinion  of  the  medical  officer,  may  be  kept  in 
the  workhouse.  The  overseers  must  also  perform 
certain  duties  as  to  the  election  of  guardians  for  the 
union.  They  must  also  bury  the  dead  bodies  of 
persons  cast  on  shore,  and  of  all  paupers  who  die  in 
the  parish.  They  also  are  the  pro{>er  parties  to 
protect  village  greens  from  nuisances ;  and  m  general, 
where  there  is  no  local  Board  of  Health,  the  over- 
seers are  the  parties  bound  to  act  in  carrying  out 
the  Nuisances  Kemoval  Acts  (see  Nuisance)  within 
the  parish,  which  of  itself  is  an  onerous  duty.  In 
eeneral,  whenever  overseers  are  bound  to  do  miscel- 
laneous duties  of  this  kind,  they  are  authorised  to 
pay  the  necessary  expenses  and  disbursements  out  of 
the  poor-rate ;  but,  as  already  stated,  their  services 
are  gratuitous.  The  duties  which  in  England  are 
performed  bv  overseers,  devolve,  in  Scotland,  upon 
the  parochial  board,  the  sheriif-clerk  of  the  county, 
session-clerk,  and  others. 

OVERSEER,  AasiSTAin?.  An  assistant  overseer 
is  a  paid  officer,  whose  services  have  generally  been 
found  necessary  in  the  larger  parishes,  in  order  to 
relieve  the  annual  overseers  of  their  burdensome 
office  to  some  extent  Accordingly,  the  ratepayers, 
in  vestry  assembled,  appoint  a  person  as  assistant 
overseer  with  a  salary,  who  performs  most  of  the 
same  duties  as  the  overseers.  In  many  cases,  how- 
ever, a  collector  of  poor-rates  has  been  appointed, 
who  is  also  paid  by  salary,  and  in  such  a  case  he 
discharges  like  duties.  ]^th  the  assistant  overseer 
and  the  collector  of  poor-rates  are  bound  to  find 
security  for  the  faithful  discharge  of  their  duties, 
and  for  duly  accounting  for  moneys  in  their  hands. 

OVBRSTONE,  Samubl  Jones  Loyd,  Lobd,  one 
of  the  most  skilful  political  economists,  and  the 
ablest  writer  on  banking  and  financial  subjects  that 
this  country  has  produced.  He  was  born  in  1796, 
being  the  only  son  of  Mr  Lewis  Loyd,  descended 
from  a  respectable  Welsh  family,  and  a  leading 
partner  in  the  eminent  banking  house  of  Jones, 
Loyd,  and  Ca  of  London  and  Manchester.    Having 

fone  through  a  regular  course  of  instruction  at 
Ston,  young  Loyd  was  sent  to  Trinity  College, 
Cambridge,  where  he  had  Pr  Blomfield,  late  Bishop 
of  Lrfmdon,  for  tutor,  and  where  he  acquired  a  very 

168 


extensive  acquaintance  with  classical  literature,  and 
with  the  history  and  literature  of  his  own  country 
and  of  Europe  generally.  On  leaving  Cambridge, 
Loyd  entered  the  banking-house  as  a  partoer  along 
with  his  father,  and  on  the  retirement  of  the  latter, 
he  became  its  head.  He  distinguished  himself 
highly  in  his  capacity  of  banker.  He  had  a  pro- 
found knowledge  of  the  principles  of  banking,  and 
these  he  applied  on  all  occasions  in  conducting  the 
business  in  which  he  was  engaged.  Far-signted 
and  sagacious,  he  was  seldom  deceived  by  appear- 
ances or  pretensions,  however  specious.  Fernai)s, 
if  anything,  he  was  too  cautious  ;  out  he  was  neither 
timid  nor  irresolute.  He  was  eminently  successful 
in  the  employment  of  the  very  large  deposite  at  his 
command,  and  while  he  eschewed  hazardous  trans- 
actions, he  did  not  shrink  from  engaging  in  very 
extensive  operations  when  he  believed  tney  could 
be  underteken  with  a  due  regard  to  that  safety 
which  should  always  be  the  fust  consideration  in 
the  estimation  of  a  banker. 

Loyd  entered  parliament  in  1819  as  member  for 
Hythe,  which  he  continued  to  represent  till  1826. 
He  made  several  good  speeches  in  the  House ;-  and 
was  one  of  a  small  minority  that  voted  for  the 
proposal  to  make  bankers  issuing  notes  give  security 
for  their  payment.  Though  opposed  to  all  changes 
of  a  dangerous  or  revolutionary  character,  Loyd  has 
been  always  a  consistent  liberal  Having  either 
withdrawn,  or  being  on  the  eve  of  withdrawing 
from  business,  Loyd  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1850,  by  the  title  of  Baron  Overstone  and  Fother- 
inghay,  county  Northampton  ;  and  if  great  wealth, 
consummate  intelligence  in  regard  to  matters  of 
^at  public  importance,  and  the  highest  degree  of 
mtegpty  and  independence,  be  qualifications  for  a 
seat  in  the  Lords,  few  peers  have  had  a  better  title 
to  be  enrolled  in  tliat  august  assembly. 

Tlie  first  of  Lord  O.'s  famous  tracte  on  the 
management  of  the  Bank  of  England  and  the  state 
of  the  currency  was  published  in  1837,  and  was 
followed  by  others  between  that  period  and  1857. 
The  proposal  for  making  a  complete  separation 
between  the  banking  and  issue  departments  of  the 
Bank  of  England,  introduced  by  Sir  Robert  Peel 
into  the  act  of  1844,  was  first  brought  forward 
in  these  tracts,  and  its  adoption  has  been  the 
fl;reatest  improvement  hitherto  effected  in  our 
banking  system.  Having  been  collected,  these 
tracts  were  published  in  1857,  with  extracts  from 
evidence  siven  by  Lord  0.  before  committees  of  the 
Lords  aod  Commons.  And  it  would  not  be  easy 
to  exaggerate  the  value  of  this  volume.  Lord  O. 
has  also  reprinted,  at  his  own  expense,  four  volumes 
of  scarce  and  valuable  tracts  on  metallic  and  paper 
money,  commerce,  the  funding  system,  &c.,  which 
he  has  extensively  distributed. 

An  inquiry  took  place  before  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  in  1857  into  the  practical 
working  of  the  act  of  1844,  and  Lord  0.  was  the 
principaui  witness  who  came  forward  in  defence  of 
the  act;  but  several  leading  members  of  the 
committee  being  hostile  to  it,  exerted  themselves  to 
overthrow  his  lordship's  theories  and  opinions,  and 
subjected  him  to  a  severe  cross-examination  ;  which 

Save  Lord  O.  the  opportunity  of  successfully  vin- 
icating  the  principles  and  practical  working  of  the 
act.  This  evidence  was  published  in  a  separate 
volume  in  1857. 

Lord  0.  does  not  often  speak  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  His  speech  on  the  late  commercial  treaty 
with  France  is  probably  the  best  of  his  parlia- 
mentary appearances.  He  has  also  been  a  zealous 
opponent  of  the  principle  of  limited  liabiUty.  He 
was  a  leading  member  of  the  commission  appointed 
to  inquire  into  the  proposal  for  the  introduction  el 


OVERTURE— OVID. 


A  decimal  system  of  arithmetic,  and  powerfully 
advocated  the  opinion  that  it  would  be  injurious 
rather  than  beneticiaL 

All  who  have  the  privilege  of  knowing  Lord  0. 
r^rd  him  as  one  of  the  most  honouraole,  high- 
minded,  and  upright  men  in  the  empire.  But  his 
rigid  adherence  to  principle  in  his  writings,  his 
dealings,  and  his  conversation,  and  his  undisguised 
contempt  for  twaddle  and  pretension  of  all  sorts, 
have  made  him  be  generally  looked  upon  as  austere 
and  without  sympathy.  Such,  however,  is  not 
the  fact.  When  proper  cases  for  the  display  of 
sympathetic  and  generous  feelings  are  brought 
Mfore  him,  none  evince  them  more  strongly.  We 
mav  add  that  his  conversational  talents  are  of  the 
highest  order. 

O^RTURE  (from  Fr.  ouverture,  opening),  a 
musical  composition  for  a  full  instrumental  &nd, 
introductory  to  an  opera,  oratorio,  cantata,  or  ballet 
It  originated  in  France,  and  received  its  settled 
form  at  the  hands  of  LullL  Being  of  the  nature 
of  a  prologue,  it  ought  to  be  in  keeping  with  the 
piece  which  it  ushers  in,  so  as  to  prepare  the 
audience  for  the  sort  of  emotions  which  the  author 
wishes  to  excite.  Such  is  to  a  great  extent  the 
character  of  the  beautiful  overtures  by  Mozart  to 
Zaubn-flOte  and  Don  Oiovanni,  by  Weber  to 
FreUchiiiz,  and  by  Mendelssohn  to  his  MidsiLmmer 
Night's  Ehreavt,  which  are  enriched  by  snatches  of 
the  more  prominent  airs  in  these  oi)eras.  In  the 
end  of  last  century,  overtures  were  written  by 
Haydn,  Pleyel,  and  other  composers,  as  independent 
pieces  to  be  played  in  the  concert  room ;  this  sort  of 
overture  being,  in  fact,  the  early  form  of  what  was 
afterwards  developed  into  the  Symphony  (q.  v.). 
The  overture,  as  well  as  the  symphony,  is  desig- 
■ated  by  the  name  nt\fonia  in  Italian. 

OVERY'SSEL,  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  is 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Friesland  and  Drenthe  ;  £. 
by  Hanover  and  Westphalia ;  S.  and  S.-W.  by 
Gelderland;  and  W.  by  the  Zuider  Zee.  It  has 
an  area  of  1274  square  miles ;  and  (1863)  a  popu- 
lation of  241,833.  The  soil  is  sandy,  with  clay 
lands  by  the  Yssel,  rich  pastures  alonj^  the  Zuider 
Zee  and  rivers,  tracts  of  peat-land  in  various 
puts,  and  extensive  heaths  which  are  gradually 
being  brought  into  cultivation.  From  south  to 
north  the  province  is  intersected  by  an  unbroken 
chain  of  sand-hills.  The  chief  cities  are  Zwolle, 
Deventer,  and  Kampen ;  important  manufacturing 
towns  of  less  note  being  Almelo,  Avereest,  Dalfsen, 
Haaksbergen,  Hardenberg,  Hellendom,  Lonneker, 
Losser,  Raalte,  Staphorst,  Steenwykerswold,  Tub- 
bergen,  Weerselo,  Wierden,  Zwollerkerspel,  &c. 
The  principal  employments  are — agriculture,  manu- 
factures of  various  kinds,  fishing,  making  peat, 
shipping,  and  merchandise.  In  1&62,  of  128,709^ 
acres  under  cultivation,  65,526  were  in  rye,  24,453 
in  potatoes,  18,3(37  in  buckwheat,  7630|  in  oats, 
4460  in  barley;  wheat,  colza,  beans,  flax,  carrots, 
&c,  occupying  smaller  breadths.  The  stock  con- 
sisted of  16,582  horses,  117,067  homed  cattle,  30,352 
sheep,  22,318  swine,  and  8265  goats. 

At  the  five  leading  marketo,  Zwolle,  Deventer, 
Rampen,  Almelo,  and  Steenwyk,  besides  the  ground 
produce,  were  sold  3,007,98H  lbs.  of  butter,  of  17^ 
az.  avoirdupois  per  lb.  In  0.,  331,114  acres  are 
■till  waste  lands,  261.926  are  in  pasture,  and  7388^ 
in  wood. 

Carpet<«  are  manufactured  at  Deventer  and 
Kampen,  leather  at  Blokzvl,  calicoes  and  other 
cotton  fabrics  at  Kampen,  Almelo,  Dalfsen,  Ommen, 
and  many  other  towns.  There  are  extensive  brick- 
works at  Ryssen,  Zwollerkerspel,  Markelo,  and 
Biipenveeii,   producing  (1862)  a  yeariy  aggregate 


of  43,760,000.    Shipbuilding  is  carried  on  at  Zwarts- 
luis,  Vollenhove,  Steenwykerwold,  Avereest,  &c. 

There  are  74  Dutch  Reformed  clergymen,  98 
Roman  Catholic  priests,  and  a  few  churches  belong- 
ing to  smaller  Frotestant  sects.  The  attendance 
at  school  is  about  1  to  9  of  the  population.  In  1862, 
the  births  amounted  to  7318,  of  which  206  were 
illec^timate,  or  about  1  to  35| ;  the  deaths  were 
5673,  or  about  42  to  the  1000  of  the  population. 

The  principal  rivers  are  the  Yssel,  into  which  the 
Schipbeek  runs,  and  the  Overysselsche  Vecht, 
whicn  falls  into  the  Black  Water.  Qther  important 
water-ways  are  the  Dedems-Vaart  and  the  Willems- 
Vaart  canals.  The  island  of  Schokland,  in  the 
Zuider  Zee,  belongs  to  OverysseL 

O'VID  (PuBUTJS  OviDirs  Naso),  the  descendant 
of  an  old  equestrian  family,  was  bom  on  the  20th 
March  43  b.  a,  at^Sulmo,  in  the  country  of  the 
Peligni  He  was  educated  for  the  bar,  and  under 
his  masters,  Arellius  Fuscus  and  Porcius  Latro,  he 
became  highly  proficient  in  the  art  of  declamation. 
His  genius,  however,  was  essentially  that  of  the 
poet,  and  the  writing  of  verses  began  to  absorb  the 
time  that  should  have  been  spent  in  the  study  of 
jurisprudence.  His  father,  having  but  a  scanty 
patrimony  to  divide  between  two  sons,  discouraged 
this  tendency  in  the  younger,  but  in  vain.  Bv  the 
death  of  his  elder  brother,  0.  inherited  all  his 
father's  property,  and  went,  for  the  completion  of 
his  education,  to  Athens,  where  he  acqiiired  a 
perfect  mastery  of  the  Greek  language.  He  after- 
wards made  a  tour  in  Asia  and  SicUy  along  with 
the  poet  Macer.  It  is  uncertain  whether,  on  his 
return  to  Rome,  he  ever  practised  as  advocate. 
Although  by  birth  entitled  to  aspire  to  the  dignitv, 
he  never  entered  the  senate  ;  his  weakness  of  body 
and  indolence  of  habit  prevented  him  from  ever 
rising  higher  than  from  the  position  of  triumvir 
capi talis  to  that  of  a  decemvir,  who  convened  and 

E resided  over  the  court  of  the  centnmviri.  While 
is  public  life  was  unimportant,  his  private  was 
that  of  a  say  and  licentious  man  of  letters.  The 
restraint  of  the  matrimonial  tie  was  alwavs  distaste- 
ful to  him ;  twice  married  in  early  life,  he  soon 
divorced  each  of  his  ^^nves  ;  while  he  carried  on  an 
intrigue  with  a  lady  whom  he  celebrated  as  Corinna, 
and  who  is  believed  to  have  been  no  other  than 
Julia,  the  accomplished  daughter  of  Augustus. 
Before  his  thirtietn  year,  he  married  a  third  time, 
and  became  the  father  of  Perilla,  of  whom  he  was 
tenderly  fond.  Up  till  his  fiftieth  vear,  he  resided 
chiefiv  at  Rome,  in  a  house  near  the  Capitol,  and 
occasionally  visited  his  Pelignan  estate.  His  society 
was  much  courted,  and  his  large  circle  of  distin- 
guished friends  included  Augustus  and  the  imperial 
familv.  By  an  edict  of  the  erai)eror,  however,  he 
was,  in  9  A.  D.,  commanded  to  leave  Rome  for  Tomi, 
a  town  near  the  delta  of  the  Danube,  and  on  the 
very  limit  of  the  empire.  The  sentence  did  not 
condemn  him  to  an  exsilium^  but  to  a  rdegatio — or 
in  other  words,  he  did  not  lose  his  citizenship,  nor 
was  he  cut  off  from  all  hope  of  return.  The  cause 
of  this  sudden  banishment  has  long  divided  the 
opinion  of  scholars,  since  the  one  mentioned  in  the 
edict — the  publication  of  his  Ars  Amatoria — was  a 
mere  pretext,  the  poem  having  been  in  circulation 
for  ten  ^ears  before.  His  intrigue  with  Julia,  or 
with  Julia's  daughter,  and  the  consequent  displeasure 
of  Augustus  or  of  Livia,  have  been  adduced  with 
various  degrees  of  plausibility,  as  the  cause  of  a 
sentence  to  which  0.  himself  onlv  mysteriously 
refers.  The  misery  of  his  life  on  the  inhospitable 
and  barbarous  shore  of  the  Euxine  is  commemo- 
rated by  the  poems  in  the  composition  of  which 
he  found  his  solace.  He  became  a  favourite  with 
the  TomitiB,  whose  language  he  learned,  and  before 

169 


OVIEDO— OVOLIL 


whom  he  pablicly  recited  some  poems  in  honour 
of  Augustus.  But  his  devotion  to  the  emperor, 
ftnd  the  entreaties  addressed  to  the  imperial  court 
by  himself  and  his  friends,  failed  to  shorten  the 
term,  or  to  change  the  scene  of  his  banishment; 
80  he  died,  an  honoured  citizen  of  Tomi,  18  A.  D., 
in  his  sixtieth  year.  His  works  which  have 
come  down  to  us,  either  in  whole  or  in  part, 
appeared  in  the  following  order :  1.  Amorum 
Libri  IIL,  a  revised  and  abridged  edition  of  an 
early  series.  2.  Twenty-one  EpiatolcB  Heroidunu 
3.  The  Ar9  Amatoricu  4  Bemedia'  Amoris,  5. 
NuXy  the  remonstrance  of  a  nut-tree  against  the 
ill-treatment  it  receives  from  the  wayfarer,  and  even 
from  its  owner.  6.  Metamorpkoseon  Libri  X  V,  This 
is  deservedly  O.'s  best-known  work.  It  seems  to 
have  been  written  between  the  po6t*s  fortieth  and 
fiftieth  years,  and  consists  of  all  tne  transformations 
recorded  in  legend  from  the  creation  down  to  the 
time  of  Julius  Csesar,  whose  chance  into  a  star 
forms  the  last  of  the  series.  7.  Faatorum  Libri 
XILy  the  first  six  of  which  are  all  that  remain. 
The  poem  is  a  Roman  calisndar  versified,  and 
describes  the  appropriate  festivals  and  mythic 
legends  from  materials  supx)lied  by  the  old  annalists. 
&  Tristium  Libri  V.,  written  in  eles^iac  metre, 
during  the  first  four  years  of  the  poet's  banishment. 
They  are  mainly  descriptive  of  his  miserable  fate, 
and  are  full  of  appeals  to  the  clemency  of  Augustus. 
9.  Epistolarum  ex  Panto  Libri  IV.,  also  written 
in  elegiac  metre,  and  similar  in  substance  to  the 
Tristia.  10.  Ibis,  a  short  satire  against  some 
traducer  of  the  poet's.  11.  Consolatio  ad  Liviam 
AiLffustam,  held  spurious  by  some  critics.  12.  Medi- 
camina  Faciei  and  Halieuticon,  dubiously  genuine, 
and  of  which  we  possess  but  fragments.  Several 
of  his  works  are  entirely  lost,  the  one  best  known 
to  antiquity  being  Medea,  a  tragedy. 

The  ]X)etical  genius  of  0.  has  always  been  admired. 
A  masterly  facuity  of  composition,  a  fancy  vigorous 
and  rarely  at  fault,  a  fine  eye  for  colour,  and  a 
versification  very  musical  in  its  flow,  are  the  merits 
which  have  made  him  a  favourite  of  poets  from 
Milton  downwards,  in  spite  of  his  occasional  sloven- 
liness and  falsity  of  thought.  The  best  editions  of 
O.'s  entire  works  are  Burmann's  (Amsterdam,  1727), 
and  the  recent  one  of  Merkel ;  while  excellent 
commentaries  on  one  or  other  of  his  poems  have 
been  published  by  Haupt,  Ramisay,  and  Paley. 
A  good  translation  of  his  Metamorphoses  is  that 
edited  by  Garth,  with  the  assistance  of  Dryden, 
Addison,  Congreve,  and  others  ;  while  special  pass- 
ages of  Uie  samepoem  have  been  admirably  rendered 
by  Mr  D'Arcy  Tnompson. 

OVIE'DO,  a  pleasant  and  healthy  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  the  modem  province  of  the  same  name 
(the  ancient  Asturias,  q.  v.),  stands  on  a  plain 
between  the  rivers  Nalon  and  Nora,  61  miles  north- 
north-west  of  Leon,  and  22  miles  south-south-west 
of  Gijon,  on  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  In  the  centre  of 
the  city  is  a  handsome  square,  from  which  four 
principal  streets,  terminating  in  alamedas  or  prome- 
nades, branch  off  toward  the  north,  south,  east, 
and  west,  respectively.  These  main  streets  are 
connected  by  others,  and  all  are  clean  and  well- 
paved.  Pure  water  is  abundantly  supplied  by 
means  of  a  long  aqueduct,  and  is  delivered  in  the 
city  by  eleven  public  fountains.  The  cathedral, 
a  beautiful  cruciform  specimen  of  Gt>thio,  the  orna- 
mentation of  which  is  as  rich  as  it  is  elegant, 
contains  (in  the  Chapel  of  the  Vii^)  the  remains 
of  many  of  the  early  kings  and  princes  of  Asturias, 
and  has  a  fine  old  library.  Some  curious,  but 
eminently  questionable  relics,  are  to  be  found  in 
the  church  of  San  Miguel,  which  is  the  second 
oldest  Christian  building  after  the  Moorish 
160 


invasion.  In  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  city 
there  are  other  churches  in  the  early  Saxon  style, 
which  are  among  the  oldest  churches  in  the  penin- 
sula. The  convent  of  San  Vincente,  founded  in 
1281,  has  been  secularised,  and  is  now  occupied  by 
government  offices,  Ac  Linens,  woollens,  hats,  and 
Srearms  are  manufactured.    Pop.  about  10,000. 

O.  was  known  during  the  middle  ages  as  CivHas 
Episcoporum,  because  many  of  the  Spanish  prelates 
who  had  been  dispossessed  of  their  sees  by  the 
Moors,  took  refuge  her&  This  city,  which  is  the 
see  of  a  bishop,  was  twice  plundered  of  its  ecclesi- 
astical and  other  treasures  during  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence; first  by  Soult,  and  subsequently  by 
Bonnetb 

OYIEBO  Y  VALDES,  Gonzalo  Fsh.  Db,  a 
Spanish  chronicler,  bom  at  Madrid  in  1478,  was 
sent  by  Ferdinand  to  St  Doming,  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  1614,  as  intendant  and  inspector-^neral 
of  the  trade  of  the  New  World.  During  his  long 
residence  in  St  Domingo,  he  spent  his  leisure  in 
acQuiring  an  extensive  knowledge  of  the  West 
Inaies ;  and  after  his  return  to  Spain  published  at 
Toledo,  in  1526,  a  Summario  de  la  Historia  General 
y  Natural  de  las  Indias  Ocddentales,  which  he  dedi- 
cated to  Charles  V.  He  afterwards  made  some 
additions  to  the  work,  which  was  republished  at 
Seville  in  1535,  in  21  vols.,  under  the  title  of  La 
Historia  General  y  Natural  de  las  Indias  Ocetdei^ 
tales.  He  left  other  29  books  in  manuscript  A 
complete  edition  is  now  being  prepared  at  Madrid. 
0.  died  at  Valladolid  in  1557.  Besides  his  History 
of  the  West  Indies,  he  wrote  Las  Qwnquagenas,  a 
valuable,  gossiping,  and  anecdotical  account  of  all 
the  principal  personages  of  Spain  in  his  time,  which 
still  remains  in  MS.  in  the  royal  library  at  Madrid  ; 
and  chronicles  of  Ferdinand,  Isabella,  and  Charles 
y.  A  life  of  Cardinal  Ximenee  is  also  attributed 
to  him. 

Oyi'PABOUS,  a  term  applied  to  animals  in 
which  reproduction  takes  place  by  eggs  (ora). 
Except  the  mammalia,  all  animals  are  either 
Oviparous  or  Ovoviviparous  (q.  v.) ;  the  latter  mode — 
which  is  not  eaisentiaily  different  from  tiie  former — 
being  comparatively  rare.  Even  those  invertebrate 
aniimds  which  multiply  by  eemmation  and  divi- 
sion, have  also  a  true  reproduction  by  ova.  See 
Eqo  and  Kspboduotign. 

O'VOLO,  a  convex  moulding  much  used  in  classic 
architecture.  See  Mocldino.  In  Roman  architec- 
ture, the  ovolo  is  an  exact  quarter  of  a  cirde ;  in 
Greek  architecture,  the  curve  is  sharper  at  the  top 
and  quirked.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  Decorated 
Gothia 

OVOVIVI'PAROXJS,  a  term  applied  to  animals 
of  which  the  egs  is  hatohed  within  the  body  of  the 
mother,  so  thattne  young  is  excluded  alive,  although 
the  foetus  has  been  enclosed  in  an  egg  almost  to  we 
time  of  parturition.  It  is  probable  that  the  egg  is 
often  broken  in  parturition  itself.  Some  fishes  are 
ovoviviparous,  and  some  reptiles;  also  the  Motio- 
tremata.  The  Common  Lizard  and  the  Viviparous 
Lizard,  both  natives  of  Britain,  are  Olustrations  of 
the  near  resemblance  which  may  subsist  between 
oviparous  and  ovoviviparous  animals.  The  dis- 
tinction is  much  less  important  than  might  be 
supposed. 

O'VULE  (Lat  a  little  ^gg),  in  Botany,  the  radi- 
mentary  seed.  The  Germen  (q.  v.)  or  ovary  some- 
times contains  only  one  o^ule,  sometimes  a  small 
definite  number,  sometimes  a  large  imlefinite  num- 
ber. Ovules  are  to  be  regarded  as  metamori>ho6ed 
buds.  *  The  single  ovule  contained  in  the  ovaries  of 
Composites  and  Grasses  may  be  called  a  terminal 
bud,  surrounded  by  a  whorl  of  adhering  leaves  or 


OWEN. 


ctfpeli,  in  the  axil  of  ono  of  which  it  ia  produced.' — 
Bauoor,  Mcmual  of  Boiuny.      The  ovule  is  not 
always  contained  in  an  ovaiy.  In  Gymnogens  (q.  v.) 
it  is  wanting,  and  the  ovule  m  naked;  l^it  the  plants 
possessing  this  character   are  compara.lv^y  few. 
The  ovule  ia  attached  to  the  Placenta  (q.  v.),  a"id  bv 
it  to  the  Carpel  (q.  v.),  from  which  it  is  develoj^cX 
The  attachmeut  to  the  placenta  ia  either  immediate, 
when  tiie  ovule  is  saia  to  be  aessUe,  or  by  means 
of  an  umbilical  cord  {fiinieuhu),  which  sometimes 
elongates  very  much  after  fecundation.    The  ovule 
ii,  in  general,  essentially  formed  of  a  cellular  nucleus 
endowd  by  two  membranes,  the  outer  of  which  is 
called  the  priminef  and  the  inner  the  secundine.    At 
ono  end  of  the  nucleus  there  is  an  openius  of  both 
membranes — iiie  foramen — ^through  wnich  tne  access 
of  the  pollen  in  Fecundation  (q.  v.)  takes  ulace.   The 
Cludaga  (q.  v.)  unites  the  nucleus  and  taese  mem- 
branes at  the  base.    When  the  ovule  is  so  developed 
that  the  chalarA  is  at  the  baae,  and  the  foramen  at 
the  apex,  it  is  said  to  be  ortAotropal  (6r.  orthoa^ 
strait,  tropes^  a  mode).    When  the  ovule  is  bent, 
80  that  the  foramen  is  brought  near  to  the  base, 
it  is  called  eampylotrapal  (Gr.  tampylos^  curved). 
When  by  increasing  on  one  side  moro  rapidlv  than 
on  the  other,  the  ovule  has  its  foramen  close  to 
the  iNise,  the  chalaza  beins  carried  round  to  the 
opposite  extremity,  the  ovule  is  anatropal  (Gr.  ana- 
trqw,  to  turn  upside  down).     Anatropal  ovules  aro 
very  common.     When  the  ovule  is  attached  to  the 
placenta^  so  that  the  foramen  and  chalaza  aro  at 
opposite  ends,  the  base  being  in  the  middle,  it  is 
called  amphUropal  (Gr.  ampid,  around). — When  the 
orule  arises  from  the  base  of  the  germen,  it  is  said 
to  be  erect;  when  it  hangs  from  the  apex  of  the 
cavity  of  the  germen,  it  is  pendulous ;  when  it  arises 
from  the  side  of  the  eermen  above  the  base,  it  is 
amending;  when  it  hangs  from  the  side  of  the 
germen  below  the  apex,  it  is  suspended.    When  two 
or  more   ovules  aro  found,  not  only  in  the  same 
ovary,  but  in  the  same  cell,  they  generally  exhibit 
different    modes    of   attachment      See    Chalaza, 
EuBRTO,  Fbcukdation,  Germkn,  Plaobnta,  Seed. 

OW£K,  Dr  John,  an  eminent  Nonconformist 
divine,  descended  from  an  ancient  Welsh  &mily, 
was  the  son  of  the  Kev.  Henry  Owen,  vicar  of  Stad- 
ham,  in  Oxfordshire,  and  was  born  at  the  vicarage 
in  1616.  In  his  12th  year  he  was  entered  of  Queen^s 
College,  Oxford,  where  he  worked  with  amazing 
diligeoce;  for  years  taking  no  moro  than  four  hourr 
sleep  a  night  In  1635  he  *  commenced'  M.A.  At 
this  period  (if  his  own  statement  does  not  exag- 
gerate) his  great  ambition  was  to  acquire  celebrity 
either  in  churoh  or  state,  he  didn't  particularly  care 
which ;  and  he  affirms  the  irreligiouaness  and  world- 
linesB  of  his  motives  with  entire  frankness.  Yet  he 
appears,  for  all  that,  to  have  been  agitated  even  during 
ms  student-life  by  the  qucestionfs  vexatcB  of  ecclesias- 
tical politics,  ana  made  himself  so  conspicuous  by 
his  Anti-Laudianism,  that  he  was  foroed  to  leave 
Oxford.  In  fact,  his  Puritanism  had  become  so 
dedded,  that  most  of  his  former  friends  had 
abandoned  his  society.  The  next  five  or  six  years 
of  his  life  were  spent,  speaking  generally,  in  a  state 
ol  anxions  and  melancholy  mtrospection.  When 
the  civil  war  finally  broke  out  0.  was  living  as 
chaplain  with  Lord  Lovelace  of  Hurley,  in  i^rk- 
shire.  His  lordship  was  a  royalist,  and  went  to 
join  the  king's  army,  whither  O.,  who  had  warmly 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  parliament,-  could  not 
accompany  him.  About  the  same  time,  his  uncle,  a 
gentleman  of  property  in  Wales,  who,  having  no 
children  of  his  own,  meant  to  have  made  O.  his  heir, 
indignant  at  the  zealous  Puritanism  of  his  nephew, 
settfed  his  estate  upon  another,  and  died  without 
leaving    him    a  farthing.     The  almost   friendless 


scholar  now  removed  to  London,  where  a  casual 
sermon,  preached  by  a  stranger  in  Calamy's  churoh, 
had  the  effect  of  imparting  to  his  soul  the  peace  he 
so  ardently  desired.  In  1642,  he  publianed  hia 
Display  of  Arminianism,  a  work  that  proved  very 
acceptable  to  the  Puritan  party,  and  drew  upon  him 
the  favourable  regards  of  the  House  of  Commons. 
Soon  after,  the  *  Committee  for  Purging  the  Churoh 
of  Scandalous  Ministers'  presented  him  with  the 
living  of  Fordham,  in  Essex.  His  ministrations 
were  exceedingly  popular,  people  coming  from  great 
distances  to  hear  him  preach.  While  residing  at 
Fordham  he  married  a  lady  named  Rooke,  by  whom 
he  had  several  children.  Not  long  after  he  removed 
to  Coggeshall,  where  his  views  of  church  govern- 
ment underwent  a  modification.  Up  to  this  point 
he  had  been  a  Presbyterian,  but  ha  now  be^me 
a  moderate  Independent  or  (^ongregationalist  It 
is  almost  superfluous  to  add  that  the  Presbyterian 
ministere— intolerant,  ddgmaticid,  and  acrimonious 
to  a  degree  that  is  scaroely  credible — fell  ujMn  him 
at  once  for  his  aiiostasy,  but  failed  to  perturb  his 
sober  temper.  At  Coggeshall  he  wrote  his  Solus 
Electorum^  Sanguis  Jesu  {*  The  Blood  of  Jesus,  the 
Salvation  of  the  Elect'),  a  work  the  result  of  seven 
years'  stud^,  and  of  which  he  himself  said  that  *  he 
did  not  beheve  he  shoxdd  live  to  see  a  solid  answer 
given  to  it.'  His  fame  still  increasing,  he  was  sent 
for  in  1646  to  preach  before  the  parliament  To  his 
discourse,  entitled  A  Vision  of  Free  Mercy,  he  added 
an  Appendix,  in  which  he  pleads  for  liberty  of  con- 
science in  matters  of  religion.  He  was  again  chosen 
to  preach  before  the  House  of  Commons  the  day 
after  the  execution  of  King  Charles  I.  (January  31, 
1649),  but  discreetly  avoided  a  vindication  of  the 
act  About  this  time  Cromwell  made  his  acquaint- 
ance, and  thought  so  highly  both  of  his  preaching 
and  character,  tnat  he  insisted  on  0.  accompanying 
him  to  Ireland,  where  the  latter  remained  about 
half  a  year.  In  1650,  he  went  with  Cromwell  to 
Scotland,  and  resided  in  Edinburgh  for  several 
mouths ;  in  1651,  the  House  of  Commons  appointed 
him  dean  of  Christ  Church,  Oxford ;  and  in  1652, 
when  only  in  his  36th  year,  he  was  admitted  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university.  The  manner  in  which 
he  dischar^d  his  duties  reflects  the  ^ig^&^  credit 
on  the  impartiality  of  his  disposition.  Tnou^h  him- 
self an  Independent  and  owing  his  honours  directly 
to  the  Independent  party,  0.  never  shewed  himself  a 
partisan.  Most  of  the  vacant  livings  in  his  patronage 
were  bestowed  on  Presbyterians;  and  Episcopalians 
were  idlowed  to  celebrate  divine  worship  in  their 
own  way,  nor  could  the  vice-chancellor  ever  be 
induced  to  offer  them  the  slightest  molestation. 
While  at  Oxford,  the  *  Athis  of  Independency,'  as 
Wood  grandiloquently  dubs  0.,  wrote  his  Diatriha 
de  Divina  JusUtia,  his  Doctrine  of  the  Saints  Per- 
severance, his  Vindieke  EvangeUccs — against  Biddle 
(q.  V.)  and  the  Socinians — and  his  Mortification  of 
Sin  in  Believers.  He  was  one  of  the  well-known 
•  tryers '  appointed  to  •  purge'  the  churoh  of  *  scan- 
dalous' (i.e.,  royalist)  'ministers,'  and  in  this  capa- 
city signalised  himself  by  his  fWendly  offices  on 
behalf  of  men  of  learning  and  merit  among  whom 
may  be  mentioned  the  celebrated  Dr  Edward 
Pococke,  professor  of  Arabic  A  coldness  now 
appears  to  have  spnmg  up  between  him  and  Crom- 
well 0.  is  said  to  have  been  opposed  to  what 
many  people  call  the  *  ambitious'  designs  of  the 
Protector,  and  in  1657  he  was  succeeded  as  vice- 
chancellor  of  the  university  by  Dr  Conant  The 
year  after  Cromwell's  death,  he  was  ejected  from 
his  deanery,  and  retired  to  Stadham,  in  Oxfordshire, 
where  he  had  purohased  an  estate,  and  where  he 
formed  a  congregation,  to  which  he  ministered  until 
his  removal  to  London  shortly  after  the  Restoration. 

161 


OWEN. 


The  writings  belonging  to  this  period  of  retirement, 
if  we  may  so  call  it,  are,  Communion  wUfi  Ood  ;  On 
the  Divine  Original,  Authority,  Self-Evidencing  Light 
and  Power  of  the  Scriptures;  Theologoumma^  or  De 
Natura,  OrtUy  Profp-essu,  et  Studio  verct  Theologiee; 
and  an  uncritical,  irreflective,  and  nnscholarly 
diatribe  against  Walton's  Polyghtt,  in  which  the 
different  readings  of  Scripture  were  learnedly  set 
forth.  In  1662,  he  published  AnimadversionB  to 
Fiat  Lux,  a  treatise  written  by  a  Franciscan  friar 
in  the  interests  of  Roman  Catholicisnu  It  was 
followed  by  works  on  Indtselling  Sin,  on  the  130th 
Psalm,  and  on  '  The  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,'  the  last 
of  which  began  to  appear  in  1668,  and  is  usually 
reckoned  0.*s  Magnum  Opus.  In  1669  he  published 
Trybih  and  Innocence  VindicaJted,  a  reply  to  Samuel 
(afterwards  Bishop)  Parker's  Discourse  on  Eccle- 
siastical Policy,  and  in  1673  became  pastor  of  a 
large  congregation  in  Leadenhall  Street.  His  last 
publications  of  importance  were  a  Discourse  Con- 
cerning the  Holff  Spirit  (1674) ;  Doctrine  of  Justification 
by  Faith  (1677),  a  treatise  still  much  admired  by 
many  ;  and  Christologia,  or  Glorious  Mystery  of  the 
Person  of  Christ.  • 

O.  in  his  later  years  was  held  in  the  highest 
esteem  by  many  of  the  most  influential  personages 
in  the  land,  such  as  the  Earl  of  Orrery,  the  £^rl 
of  Anglesea,  Lord  WiUoughby,  Lord  Berkley,  Sir 
John  Trevor.  When  drinking  the  waters  at  Tun- 
bridge,  even  the  Duke  of  York  and  Charles  II.  |)aid 
him  particular  attention,  and  had  long  conversations 
with  him  on  the  subject  of  Nonconformity.  0.  died 
at  Ealing,  24th  August  1683,  and  was  buried  in 
^imhill  Fields.  His  funeral  was  attended  by  no  less 
than  sixty  noblemen.  0.  was  the  most  voluminous, 
but  by  no  means  the  most  powerful  writer  among 
the  Puritan  divines.  His  prolix  and  passionless 
disquisitions,  his  dull,  tedious,  and  exhausting  argu- 
mentations,  his  lack  of  subtle  spiritual  perception, 
his  ponderous  and  lumbering  style,  make  his  writ- 
ings the  reverse  of  interesting ;  and  one  can  almost 
pardon  the  irreverent  criticism  of  Robert  Hall,  who 
IS  said  to  have  pronounced  them  'a  continent  of 
mud.'  Yet  0.  deserves  respect  for  his  learning  and 
moderation.  The  best  edition  of  his  works  was 
published  at  Edinburgh  (1856,  et  seq,). 

OWEN,  Richard,  was  bom  at  Lancaster,  July 
20,  1804.  Having  received  his  elementary  education 
at  the  grammar-school  of  that  town,  he  became,  at 
the  age  of  twenty,  a  student  in  Edinburgh  Univer- 
sity. Under  the  guidanoe  of  the  third  Monro, 
Alison,  Jameson,  and  Hope  in  the  university,  and  of 
Barclay  in  the  outdoor  school,  his  natural  talents 
early  developed  themselves.  He  was  an  active 
stuaent,  and  with  others  of  kindred  spirit,  formed 
the  Hunterian  Society,  of  which  he  was  chosen  pre- 
sident in  1825.  In  1826,  he  removed  to  London, 
joining  the  medical  school  of  St  Bartholomew's 
Hospital ;  and  to  the  Medical  Society  of  this  institu- 
tion he  communicated  his  earliest  published  paper : 
'An  Account  of  the  Dissection  of  the  Parte  con- 
cerned in  the  Aneurism,  for  the  Cure  of  which 
Dr  Stevens  tied  the  Internal  Iliac  Artery,'  which 
appeared  in  the  Medxco-Chirurgical  TransactioTis  for 
1830.  It  was  doubted  whether  so  deep-seated  an 
artery  could  have  been  reached,  but  he  snewed  that 
the  ligature  had  been  applied  to  the  internal  iliac, 
4Uid  the  aneurism  had  in  this  way  been  obliterated. 

It  had  been  his  intention  to  enter  the  navy ;  but 
when  he  tinished  his  education,  he  accepted  an 
appointment  as  assistant  to  Mr  Cliit,  the  Curator  of 
the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  and 
helped  him  in  the  preparation  of  his  catalogues  of 
'Pathological  Specimens'  (1830),  'Monsters  and 
Malformations'  (1831),  but  chiefly  of  the  'Specimens 
of   Natural   History  in  Spirite^  (1830).    He  had. 


about  this  time,  the  fortune  to  obtain  a  specimen 
of  Nautilus  pompilius,  an  animal  almost  unknown,  * 
and  of  great  importance  not  only  in  itself,  but  also 
and  chiefly  because  of  its  numerous  fossil  allies. 
The  resulto  of  his  careful  dissection  of  this  specimen 
were  published  in  an  elaborate  Memoir,  which  at 
once  gave  him  a  high  position  amongst  naturalists, 
for  the  advanced  views  on  structure  and  aflinities 
it  contained. 

The  continued  examination  of  Hunter's  extensivo 
collections  in  the  College  of  Surgeons'  Museum  was 
his  great  work.  This  resulted  m  the  enlargement 
and  ari'angement  of  the  collections,  and  in  the  pub- 
lication of  his  Descriptive  and  Illustrated  Caialogue 
of  the  Physiological  Series  of  Comparative  Anatomy, 
which  was  issued  in  sections  during  1833 — 1840; 
of  his  PaloBontological  Catalogue,  of  which  the 
Mammals  and  Birds  were  published  in  1845,  and 
the  Reptiles  and  Fishes  m  1854;  and  of  his 
Catalogue  of  Recent  Osteology  (1854),  in  which  he 
describes  5006  specimens.  The  collections,  which  in 
1828  were  contained  in  one  smal}  badly-lighted 
room,  in  1856,  when  O.'s  connection  with  them 
terminated,  filled  ten  times  the  original  space — 
three  large  galleries  having  been  specially  erected  to 
contain  them. 

O.'s  position  as  curator  of  the  Hunterian  Museum, 
to  which  he  succeeded  on  the  death  of  Clift, 
awakened  in  him  a  special  interest  in  ite  famous 
founder.  In  1837,  he  published  a  new  edition  of 
Hunter's  Animal  Economy,  adding  to  it  all  the 
known  published  papers  of  ite  author ;  and  giving 
in  the  preface,  for  the  first  time,  a  descriptive  narra- 
tive of  Hunter's  real  discoveries.  He  afterwards 
edited  two  volumes  of  Essays  and  Observations  on 
Natural  History,  Anatomy,  dsc,  by  John  Hunter 
(1861),  which  had  been  saved  from  Home's  unprin- 
cipled and  barbarous  destruction  of  Hunter's  manu- 
scripte,  by  having  been  transcribed  by  Clift,  who 
was  the  last  articled  apprentice  of  Hunter.  In  the 
preface  to  these  volumes,  0.  shewed  the  advanced 
views  which  Hunter  entertained  in  Geology  and 
Palaeontology. 

The  first  appointment  of  O.  as  public  lecturer  was 
to  the  chair  of  Comparative  Anatomy  in  St  Bar- 
tholomew's Hospital  in  1834.  Two  years  afterwards, 
he  succeeded  Sir  Charles  Bell  as  Professor  of 
Anatomy  and  Physiology  in  the  College  of  Surgeons, 
and  was  in  the  same  year  appointed  by  the  CoU^e 
as  first  'Hunterian  Professor.'  For  twenty  years 
he  continued  to  illustrate  the  recent  and  fossil 
treasures  of  the  museum,  until,  in  1856,  he  was 
appointed  Superintendent  of  the  Natural  History 
Department  of  the  British  Museiun,  when  lus 
connection  with  the  College  of  Surgeons  ceased. 

We  have  not  space  to  record  even  the  principal  of 
O.'s  numerous  published  papers.    His  earliest  com- 
munications to  the  Royal  Society  were  papers  on 
the  generation  of  the  ornithorhynchus  and  of  the 
kangaroo.    In  numerous  Memoirs  between  1835  and 
1862,  he  expounded  the  structure  and  affinities  of 
the  higher  quadrumana;  and  in  these  and  other 
papers,  he  proposed  the  use  of  the  brain-structure,  as 
an  important  element  in  classification.    It  has  been 
objected,  that  the  particular   parts- to  which    he 
referred  in  characterising  his  hi^^est  class,  are  found 
in  the  lower  classes  ;  but  the  objectors  forget  that 
he  does  not  use  the  existence  of  the  parte  as  his 
characters,  but  only  their  remarkable  development. 
A  similar  objection  may  be  urged  against  every 
system  of  classification,  tor  no  decided  line  can  b» 
drawn  around  any  group,  the  whole  animal  'World 
being  united  b^  a  giaduKtion  of  structure. 

His  exposition  of  the  recent  and  fossil  birxLs  of 
New  Zealand  is  well  known.  He  first  published 
two  elaborate  papers  on  the  anatomy  of  the  Apteryx^ 


OWEN—OWL. 


•nd  then  followed  «t  intervals  seven  or  eicht  mono- 
graphs on  the  gigantic  struthious  Birds  wnich  onoe 
existed  in  these  distant  islands.    His  descriptions 
aod  restorations  of  extinct  animals  are  perhaps  the 
most  important  of  all  his  labours.   He  has  published 
a  monograph  of  the  British  Fossil  Mammalia  and 
Birds,  and  six  parts  of  an  elaborate   systematic 
history  of  British  fossil  Reptiles.    In  describing  the 
fragmentary  fossil  relics  brought  home  by  Darwin 
from  South  America,  he  estamished  many  remark- 
able forms  from  very  scantv  materials,  and  shewed 
that  there  existed  in  America,  during  the  Tertiary 
period,  a  mammalian    Fauna,   the  individuals  of 
which  were,  for  the  most  ]3art,  of  ^gantic  size, 
yet  similar  in  type  to  the  existing  animals  of  that 
continent.     Subsequently,  he  deany  expounded  the 
various  genera  of  huge  sloths  from  the  same  region, 
whose   remains    were    previously    confounded   or 
misonderstood.     A  series  of  fossils  from  Australia 
revesled  1p  him  a  remarkable  group  of  gigantic 
marsupials,  resembling  in  type  the  present  tenants 
of  that  island-continent    His  latest  palseoutological 
paper  is  his  elaborate  Memoir  on  the  sinffular  long- 
tailed  bird  from  Solenhofen,  in  which  he  for  the 
first  time  expounded  the  structure  and  affinities  of 
that  anomalous  creature.      But  we   cannot    even 
record  the  titles  of  his  multitudinous  researches  on 
extinct  animals,  and  must  refer  our  readers,  for  a 
summary  of  them,  to  his  recent  work,  PcMjBontology 
(Edin.  Black,  1861). 

His  great  work  on  the  microscopic  structure  of 
the  teeth  must  be  named.  The  Odontography^ 
published  in  1840—1845,  contains  descriptions  and 
exquisite  drawings  of  the  minute  structure  of  a 
very  extensive  series  of  the  teeth  of  every  class  of 
animals,  and  forms  an  immense  store-house  of  infor- 
mation alike  to  the  anatomist  and  the  geologist. 

He  has  published  original  papers  on  every  branch 
of  the  animal  kingdom,  li^'ing  and  fossil ;  and  it  has 
been  instiy  said  of  him,  that  *■  from  the  sponge  to 
man,  he  has  thrown  light  over  every  subject  he  has 
touched.'  Some  idea  of  the  magnitude  of  his  labours 
may  be  formed  from  the  fact,  that  his  published 
productions  amount  to  more  than  3U0  different 
palters  and  works,  many  of  them  being  of  the  most 
voluminous  and  laborious  character. 

0.,  in  1835,  married  the  only  daughter  of  Clift, 
his  colleague  at  the  College  of  Surgeons.  In  1858, 
he  resumed  his  position  as  Fullerian  Professor  of 
Physiology  in  the  Koyal  Institution  of  Britain, 
which,  some  20  years  before,  he  had  filled  for  two 
sessions ;  and  in  the  following  year,  he  was  apijointed 
Beade  Lecturer  by  the  University  of  Cambridge. 
He  is  a  Fellow  and  active  member  of  most  of  the 
metropolitan  scientitip  societies,  and  an  honorary 
member  of  many  foreign  societies.  In  1858,  he  was 
elected  one  of  the  eight  foreign  Associates  of  the 
Institute  of  France,  in  the  room  of  the  great  botanist, 
Kobert  Brown.  From  France  he  also  received  the 
order  of  the  Legion  of  Honour ;  from  Prussia,  the 
Ocdre  pour  le  M^rite ;  and  from  Italy,  the  Order  of 
8t  Manrioe  and  St  Lazare. 

OWEIli',  Robert,  a  social  theorist  and  schemer* 
was  bom  on  the  i4th  of  May  1771,  at  Newton,  in 
Montgomeiyshire.  He  does  not  appear  to  have  had 
any  more  than  a  merely  commercial  education  to  fit 
him  for  common  business.  The  ])oint  from  which 
his  peculiar  destiny  in  life  may  be  said  to  have 
started,  was  his  marriage  in  1799  to  the  daughter  of 
David  Dale,  the  owner  of  the  celebrated  cotton 
mills  at  New  Lanark,  on  the  Clyde.  This  establish- 
ment was  very  successful  as  a  money  speculation, 
vid  it  18  cnrions  that  Jeremy  Bentham  made  a  small 
inrtune  by  investing  in  it.  Mr  Dale  was  known  to 
be  a  thoroogh  man  of  business,  but  whether  O.,  by 
his  peculiar  facolties  for  organisation,  contributed  to 


the  prosperity  of  the  establishment  in  its  early 
stages,  is  a  doubtful  question.  It  is  certain  that  as 
his  larger  schemes  developed  themselves,  he  was 
felt  to  be  a  dangerous  partner  in  a  good  business, 
and  he  was  gradually  elbowed  dut  of  any  voice  in  the 
management,  and  he  finally  disposed  of  his  share  in 
the  property. 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  of  a  man 
whose  life  will  go  down  to  posterity  as  one  long 
absurdity,  that  in  his  connection  with  New  Lanark 
Mills  he  did  real  practical  good  on  a  scale  by  no 
means  Umited.  He  was  naturally  active  and  inter- 
fering, and  being  a  humane  man,  it  struck  him  that 
much  degradation,  vice,  and  suffering  arose  from 
the  disorganised  manner  in  which  the  progress  of 
machinery  and  manufactures  was  huddling  the  manu- 
facturing population  together.  He  introduced  into 
the  New  Lanark  commimity  education,  sanitary 
reform,  and  various  civilising  agencies,  which  phil- 
anthropists at  the  present  £iy  are  but  imperfectly 
accomplishing  in  the  great  manufacturing  districts. 
The  mills  became  a  centre  of  attraction.  They  were 
daily  visited  by  every  illustrious  traveller  in  Britain, 
from  crowned  heads  downwards,  and  it  was  delight- 
ful not  only  to  see  the  decency  and  order  of  every- 
thing, but  to  hear  the  bland  persuasive  eloquence  of 
the  garrulous  and  benevolent  organiser. 

A  factory  was,  however,  far  too  limited  a  sphere 
for  lus  ambition.  He  wanted  to  organise  the  world ; 
and  that  there  might  be  no  want  of  an  excuse  for 
his  intervention,  he  set  about  proving  that  it  was 
in  all  its  institutions— the  prevailing  religion 
included— in  as  wretched  a  condition  as  any  dirty 
demoralised  manufacturing  village.  Such  was  the 
scheme  with  which  he  came  out  on  the  astonished 
world  in  1816,  in  his  New  Views  of  Society,  or 
Essays  on  (fie  Formation  of  the  Human  Character ; 
and  he  continued,  in  books,  pamphlets,  lectures,  and 
other  available  forms,  to  keep  up  the  stream  of  excit* 
ation  till  it  was  stopped  by  his  death.  He  had  at 
least  three  grand  opportunities  of  setting  up  Umited 
communities  on  his  own  principles — one  at  Aomney, 
in  America ;  a  second  at  Orbiston,  in  Lanarkshire ; 
the  third  at  Harmony  Hall,  in  Hampshire,  so  lately 
as  the  year  1844  They  were,  of  course,  tji  failures, 
and  0.  attributed  their  failure  to  their  not  being 
sufficiently  perfected  on  his  principles.  His  life  was 
a  remarkable  phenomenon,  from  the  preternatural 
sanguineness  of  temperament  which,  in  the  face  of 
failures,  and  a  world  ever  growing  more  hostile, 
made  him  believe  to  the  last  that  all  his  projects 
were  just  on  the  eve  of  success.  In  the  revolutio*i 
of  1848  he  went  to  Paris,  with  ho})es  of  course  on 
the  highest  stretch;  but  his  voice  was  not  loud 
enough  to  be  heard  in  that  great  turmoil.  He 
appeared  at  the  meeting  of  the  Social  Science 
Association  at  Liverpool  in  the  autumn  of  1858, 
with  all  his  schemes  as  fresh  and  complete  as  ever, 
but  it  was  their  last  resuscitation.  He  died  a  few 
weeks  afterwards,  on  17th  November  1858. 

OWL,  a  numerous  and  extremely  well-defined 
group  of  birds,  constituting  the  Linnsean  genus  Strix, 
now  the  family  Striyidos,  the  whole  of  the  nocturnal 
section  of  Birds  of  Prey.  The  aspect  of  the 
owls  at  once  distinguishes  them  from  all  other 
birds,  being  rendered  very  peculiar  by  the  large  size 
of  their  heads,  and  by  their  great  eyes,  directed 
forwards,  and  surrounded  with  more  or  less  perfect 
discs  of  feathers  radiating  outwards,  whilst  the 
small  hooked  bill  is  half  concealed  by  the  feathers 
of  these  discs,  and  by  bristly  feathers  which  grow 
at  its  base.  The  bill  is  curved  almost  from 
its  base ;  the  upper  mandible  not  notched,  but 
much  hooked  at  the  tip.  The  claws  are  sharp  and 
curved,  but,  like  the  bill,  leas  powerful  than  in  the 
I  FcUeonidoB,    The  outer  toe  is  generally  reversible  at 


and  ■oitaiDed  flight  thoa  tbou  of  the  diurnal  birds 
uf  preji  and  the  bony  framework  by  which  they  are 
iiippcu^ad,  and  the  moBcles  which  move  them,  are 
less  powerful ;  the  owla  in  geaeral  taking  their  prey, 
not  by  punuit,  but  by  surprise,  to  which  there  is  a 
beautiful  adaptation  in  the  aoftnasB  uf  their  plumage, 
and  their  coosequentl^  noiaeleBS  flight ;  the  feathers 
even  of  the  wings  bemg  downy,  and  not  offering  a 
firm  resisting  luiface  to  the  air,  as  in  falcoua.  The 
soft  and  loose  plumage  adds  much  to  the  apparent 
size  of  the  body,  and  also  of  tbe  head ;  but  the  head 
OH-es  its  really  large  site  to  large  cavities  in  the 
skull  between  its  outer  and  inner  tablis  or  bony 
layen,  which  cavities  oommiinicate  with  tbe  ear, 
and  are  aapposed  to  add  to  the  acnteness  of  the 
sense  of  be&nng.  This  sense  is  certainly  very  acute, 
and  tba  ear  is,  in  many  of  the  species,  very  large. 
It  is  fumiahed  with  an  external  coniji,  winch  is 
found  in  no  other  birds.  It  is,  however,  concealed 
by  the  feathers,  being  situated  on  tbe  outside  of  the 
disc  which  sarrounds  the  eye  ;  but  the  ft«thers 
immediately  surrounding  the  ear  are  arranced  in  a 
kind  of  cone,  serving  a  purpose  like  that  of  an  ear- 
trumpet.  In  some  species,  the  ear  is  furnished  -with 
a  lemarkable  lid  or  operculum,  which  the  bird  baa 


to  it,  and  evidently  suffering  pain,  which  they 
instinctively  seek  to  relieve  by  frequent  motion  of 
the  third  eyeUd  or  nictitating  membrane  of  tbe  eye. 
The  legs  and  feet  of  owla  are  feathered  to  the  tuos, 
and  in  many  species  even  to  the  claws. 

The  digestive  organs  much  resemble  those  of  the 
FalconidK,  but  there  is  no  crop,  and  the  stomach  is 
more  muscular.  The  gullet  is  very  wide  tbrougb- 
out,  and  owls  swallow  Sieir  prey  either  entire  or  in 
very  large  morsels.  The  larjjest  species  feed  on 
bares,  fawns,  the  largest  gallinaceous  birds,  Ac  ; 
others  on  small  mammalia,  reptiles,  birds,  and 
sometimes  fishes ;  soma  feed  partly  or  chiefly  on 

The  owl  has  from  early  times  been  deemed  a  bird 
of  evil  omen,  and  has  been  an  object  of  dislike  and 
dread  to  the  supeistitious.  This  is  perhaps  partly 
to  be  ascribed  to  the  manner  with  which  it  is  uEten 
•een  suddenly  and  unexpectedly  to  flit  by  when 
tbe  twilight  IB  deepening  into  mght ;  j^rtly  to  the 
fact,  that  some  of  the  best-known  species  frequent 
mined  bnildinga,  whilst  others  haunt  the  deepest 
solitudes  of  woods;  but,  no  doubt,  chiefly  to  the 
cry  of  some  of  the  species,  hollow  and  lugubrious. 
but  lond  and  startling,  heard  during  the  Qours  of 
darkness,  and  often  by  the  lonely  wanderer.      It 


langoagea.  and  of  the  names  appropriated  in  difle. 
ri^nt  countries  to  particular  species,  in  most  of  which 
tba  sound  Oo  or  Om  is  predominant,  with  great 
variety  of  accompanying  consonants.  Many  o[  the 
owls  have  also  another  and  very  different  cry,  which 


Some  of  tbe  owls  have  the  discs  of  the  face  imper- 
fect above  the  eyes,  tbe  whole  aspect  somei^at 
approaching  to  that  of  falcons ;  tbe  concbs  of  the 
ears  amoll,  and  the  habits  less  nocturnal  than  the 
Net  of  this  family.  These  constitute  one  of  the  three 
generallf  nceivea  divisiona  in  which  the  speciea  are 


arranged.  Another  division,  witb  more  perfect  discs 
arouDd  the  eyes,  is  cboracterieed  by  the  presecce 
of  two  feathery  tufts  on  the  head,  pupolaify  calkd 
horns,  or  ears,  and  sometimes  egrets  or  aigrettea 
The  third  division  is  destitute  of  these  tufts,  the 
discs  of  the  face  ore  perfect,  and  the  ears  are  very 
large.  On  these  distinctions,  and  on  the  feathered 
or  unfeathered  toes,  and  other  pointa  not  of  great 
importance,  are  founded  the  genera  into  which  the 
Liunsean  genus  Sirix  baa  been  broken  down  by 
recent  ormtbologists.  See,  for  example,  the  diarao- 
ten  of  Bubo  in  the  anicle  Eaolb  Owi. 

Owls  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in 
all  climates.  Ten  species  are  reckoned  as  nativi* 
of  the  British  Islands,  some  of  which,  however,  are 
very  rare,  and  about  fifteen  are  natives  of  Europe. 
Some  of  the  species  have  a  very  wide  geographical 
range.  One  of  the  most  plentiful  British  speciea 
is  the  Whitb  Owl,  or  Barn  Owl,  or  Scbbbch  Owl 
{Sirix  Jlam'iuia),  one  of  those  having  perfect  disci 
around  the  eyes,  and  no  aigrettes.  It  is  about 
fourteen  inches  in  its  whole  length.  The  tail  is,  as 
in  most  of  the  owla,  nther  short  and  rounded ;  the 


>r  Eiprlr  0*1  fSubo  m. 


\;  1.  SnoviO.^WJVn'M 
(Bnio  Pi,jii.ioNM)  :  4. 
a) ;   a.  Loiig-«artd  Onl 


wings  reach  rather  beyond  tbe  tail  The  toea 
are  not  feathered.  The  bead  and  upper  parts  are 
of  a  pale  orange  colour,  marked  by  a  multitude 
of  smiall,  scattered  ch«tniit-co!oured  spots,  and 
gray  and  brown  liz-zag  lines ;  the  face  and 
throat  white.  This  owl  very  generally  frequents 
old  buildings  and  outhouses.  It  destroys  great 
numbers  of  rats  and  mice,  and  deserves  the 
protection  oC  the  fanner.  Tbe  voracity  ^  owls  ia 
wonderful,  and  tbey  kill,  if  possible,  more  than 
they  need,  storing  it  np  for  future  use.  The  bam 
owl  is  easily  tom^  if  token  young.  When  irritated, 
it  has,  like  some  otbcr.^perha]»  all — owls,  a  habit 
of  hissing  and  suapping  its  mandiblea  together.  It 
almost  never  leaves  its  retreat  by  day,  unless  driven 
out ;  and  when  this  is  the  oase,  all  the  little  birds 
of  the  neighbourhood  congregate  abjiit  it  as  an 
enemy  which  may  then  be  sa^ly  annoyed,  and  tbe 
grimaces  of  tbe  poor  owl,  blinded  by  the  too  strong 
light,  are  very  grotesque  and  amusiDg.  This  species 
has  been  said  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  almost  all  parts 
of  the  world,  but  there  is  reason  to  think  that  simi- 
lar Bjiecies  have  been  confounded. — The  Tawny  Owl, 
Bhown  Owl,  or  Ivc  Owl  [Slrie,  or  S/p^aium,  rtriilula 
or  aiiico)  is  another  of  the  most  common  Britiah  owls, 


0WLGLA8S-0X. 


•  species  about  the  size  of  tlie  bam  owl,  or  rather 

larger,  with  rather  longer  tail,  and  comparatiyely 

thoit  wings,  the  feet  feathered  to  the  claws ;  the 

upper  parts  mostly  ash-gray  mottled  with  brown, 

toe  under  parts  grayish-white  and  mottled. — The 

LoNO-EARED  OwL  (StHx  otus,  OT  Otus  Vulgaris)  and 

the  Short-baked  Owl  (S,  or  O.  hrachyotos),  species 

with  aigrettes,  are  not  unfrequent  British  birds.  The 

Bagle  Owl  (q.  v.)  occurs,  but  is  rare. — Of  the  species 

with  imperfect  discs  around  the  eyes  and  more 

falcon-like    aspect,    the    most   interesting    in   the 

British  fauna  is  the  Snowt  Owl  (Strix,  or  Sumict, 

nifdea),   the  Harfang   of   the    Swedes,    a    species 

occasioiraJly  seen   in   the   Shetland    Islands,    and 

veiy  rarely  in  more  southern  regions  in  winter, 

hut  well  known  in  all  the  very  northern  parts  of 

the  world.    It  is  from  22  to  ^  inches  in  length, 

feeds  on  every  kind  of  animal  food  which  it  can 

obtain,  and  h^  white  pluniage  spotted  and  barred 

with  brown,  the  legs  densely  feathered  to  the  claws. 

— Of  owls  not  natives  of  Britain,  one  of  the  most 

interesting  is  the  Burrowing  Owl  {StriXf  or  Athene, 

cttmcu/oria),  a  North  American  species,  which,  when 

necessary,  excavates  a  burrow  for  itseU,  but  prefers 

to  take  possession  of  those  of  the  marmot,  called  the 

Prairie  uor  (q.  v.).    It  is  not  the  only  species  of  owl 

vhich  inhabits  holes  in  the  ground. — The  BooBooK 

or  BooKBOOK  of  Australia  [Strix,  or  Noctua,  Boo- 

hook)  is  a  species  of  owl,  which  frequently  repeats 

during  the  night  the  cry  represented  by  its  name, 

as  if  it  were  a  nocturnal  cuckoo.     Some  of  the 

species  of  owl  are  small  birds;    among  the  rarer 

British    species    are  one    of    84    inches,   and   one 

scarcely  more  than  7  inches  long.    Some  owls  are 

at  least  partially  birds  of  passage,  of  which,  among 

British  species,  the  short- eared  owl  is  an  example. 

OWLGLASS  (Ger.  Eulenspiegel),  Tyll,  the 
prototype  of  all  the  knavish  *  fools '  of  later  time, 
IB  said  to  have  been  bom  in  the  village  of  Kneittin- 
gen,  in  Brunswick.  His  father  was  called  Klaus 
Ealenspiegc^  and  his  mother  Anna  Wortbeck.  In 
youth,  we  are  told,  he  wandered  out  into  the  world, 
and  played  all  manner  of  tricks  on  the  people  whom 
he  met  with.  His  tomb  is  shewn  at  Molln,  about 
four  leagues  from  Lilbeck,  where  tradition  makes  him 
die  about  1350 ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  Damme,  in 
Belgiam,  also  boast  of  having  his  bones  in  their 
churchyard,  and  place  his  death  in  1301,  so  that 
several  critics  regard  Eulenspiegel  as  an  altogether 
imaginary  person,  a  mere  nmmnis  umbra  alllxed  to 
a  cycle  of. medieval  tricks  and  adventures.  The 
opinion,  however,  considered  most  probable  is  that 
Eulenspiegel  is  not  a  m3rth,  but  that  there  were  two 
historical  individuals  of  that  name,  father  and  son, 
of  whom  the  former  died  at  Damme,  and  the  latter 
at  Molln.  The  stories  that  circulate  in  Germany 
nnder  £nlenspiegel*8  name  were  not  collected,  as 
the  book  containing  them  itself  informs  us,  till  after 
Eulenspieg^l's  deatn,  and  without  doubt  were  origin- 
ally written  in  the  Low  German  tongue;  from 
Low  German,  they  were  translated  into  High  Ger- 
man by  the  Franciscan  Thom.  Murner,  and  this 
translation  was  followed  in  all  the  old  High  Grerman 
editions  of  the  work.  At  a  later  period,  it  under- 
went considerable  alterations,  at  the  hands  of  both 
Protestants  and  Catholics,  who  made  it  a  vehicle 
for  U&e  expression  of  their  own  likings  and  dislikings. 
The  oldest  known  edition  is  that  printed  at  Stras- 
bm^  in  1519.  The  verdict  of  modern  times  has  been 
■nfavoorable,  not  only  to  the  aesthetic,  but  to  the 
■loral  value  of  the  book ;  yet  although  indecencies 
stay  be  found  abundantly  in  it  they  may  i)erhap6  in 
Wge  measure  be  attributed  to  the  age  in  which 
Eafeaspiegel  or  the  author  of  Eulenspiegel  lived. 
For  centuries  it  has  been  a  favourite  people's  book, 
sot  only  in  Grermany,  but  in  many  other  countries. 


Translations  of  it  exist  in  Bohemian,  Polish,  Italian, 
English  (as  a  Miracle  Play)^  Dutch,  Danish,  French, 
and  Latin ;  it  has  been  frequently  imitated,  and 
reprinted  times  without  number  down  to  tiie  most 
recent  years.  Max  Miller,  in  his  Lectures  on  the 
Science  of  Language  points  out  that  Eulenspiegel  is 
the  origin  of  the  French  word  espidgley  waggish. 
When  the  stories  about  Eulenspiegel  were  trans- 
lated into  French,  he  was  called  [Jlespi&gle,  *  which 
name  contracted  afterwards  into  Espiigle^  Iwcsme 
a  general  name  for  every  wag.' 

OWNEBSHIP  is  not  a  legal  term,  though  it  is 
used  frequently  in  law  to  denote  the  highest  degree 
or  kind  of  property  which  one  can  have  m  anything. 
Owner  is  often  used  in  this  sense  as  contradistin- 
^ished  from  an  occupier,  who  has  only  a  temporary 
mterest  in  the  property.  Thus  a  freeholder,  or  one 
who  holds  a  freehold  estate  in  land,  is  an  owner ; 
though,  in  common  parlance,  it  is  not  unusual  also  to 
describe  as  owner  any  one  who  has  a  long  lease  of 
the  property.  When  a  person  is  owner  in  fee  of  land, 
he  has  certain  rights  more  or  less  absolute  as  inci- 
dental thereto ;  for  example,  he  may  build  on  his 
land  as  high  as  he  pleases,  subject  only  to  doing  no 
direct  injury  to  his  neighbour,  such  as  darkening 
his  windows  ;  and  he  may  dig  as  deep  as  he  pleases, 
or,  as  it  is  said,  to  the  centre  of  the  earth.  There 
are  certain  things  which  are  said  to  be  incapable  of 
ownership,  such  as  the  air,  the  sea,  and  the  water  of 
navigable  rivers,  as  to  each  of  which  every  indi- 
vidual member  of  the  public  has  the  right  merely 
of  using  it,  but  no  one  lias  the  ownership — i  e.,  the 
exclusive  right  of  property  as  well  as  possession 
thereof.  As  to  thincs  wild,  such  as  birds,  beasts, 
fishes,  the  rule  is  that  he  who  tirst  catches  the 
animal  becomes  the  owner  thereof,  and  acquires 
such  a  property  in  it,  that  any  one  who  takes  it 
from  him  against  his  wiU  commits  larceny.  But 
though  the  person  who  first  catches  a  wild  animal 
is  entitled  to  it,  penalties  are  sometimes  imposed 
upon  the  person  catching  it,  as  to  which  see  Game, 
Poaching.  In  regard  to  lost  property — i  e.,  property 
which  had  once  been  appropriated  and  possessed  by 
some  one,  but  who  has  casually  lost  or  abandoned 
it — the  rule  is  that  he  who  finds  it  is  entitled  to  keep 
it,  provided  at  the  time  of  finding  it  he  had  no 
means  of  ascertaining  the  owner.  But  the  true 
owner,  if  he  discover  and  can  identify  the  property, 
can  always  in  general  reclaim  it  from  the  finder. 
See  Lost  Property. 

OX  (Bos  taurus),  a  ruminant  quadruped  of  the 
family  Bovidce  (q.  v.),  the  most  useful  to  man  of  all 
domesticated  animals.  The  species  is  distinguished 
by  a  flat  forehead,  longer  than  broad;  and  by 
smooth  and  round  tapenng  horns,  rising  from  the 
extremities  of  the  frontal  ridge.  But  among  the 
many  varieties  or  breeds  which  exist,  there  are  great 
diversities  in  the  length  and  curvature  of  the  horns, 
and  some  are  hornless.  It  is  probable  that  the  ox 
is  a  native  both  of  Asia  and  of  Europe,  (perhaps 
also  of  A&ica ;  and  not  improbable  that  it  may 
have  been  domesticated  at  different  times  imd  in 
different  countries.  It  cannot  be  confidently  asserted 
that  it  now  exists  anywhere  in  a  truly  wild  state  ; 
wild  oxen  are  nowhere  so  abimdant  as  on  the  pam]>aa 
or  great  grassy  plains  of  South  America,  where 
it  is  certain  that  they  are  not  indigenous  ;  and  it 
is  not  impossible  that  the  wild  oxen  still  existing  in 
the  parks  of  a  few  noblemen  in  Britain  may  be  also 
descended  from  domesticated  animals.  Whether  or 
not  the  Urus,  described  by  ancient  authors  as  an 
inhabitant  of  Central  Europe,  was  the  original  of  the 
domestic  ox,  will  be  considered  in  the  article  Urns. 
The  very  early  domestication  of  the  ox  is  attested 
bv  the  mention  made  of  it  in  the  writings  of  Moses, 


and  1>y  tne  worship  of  it  in  Egypt,  trhich  the 
Israelites  imit^tal  in  making  their  golden  calf  at 
Mount  SJDai.  Yet  oxea  do  not  appear  to  have 
formed  any  part  of  the  wealth  of  the  patriarchs. 
f  he  ox  was  probably  used  as  a  beast  of  burden  or 
draucht  before  it  was  valued  for  its  milk.  It  is 
mectiuned  by  Cffisar  as  a  principal  part  of  the 
wealth  of  ttke  BritoDS  at  the  liioe  of  the  Roman 


The  01  is  more  frequently  employed  as  a  beast  of 
burden  and  of  draught  in  some  ports  of  the  conti- 
nent of  Europe  tbon  in  Britain.  From  the  earliest 
historic  times,  the  horse  has  been  more  Renerolly 
thiia  employed  in  Britain,  and  has  now  almost 
entirely  BU]ierwrded  the  ox.  The  cait  of  the  ox  is 
slow  and  plodding,  but  its  strength  enables  it  to 
porfonn  a  great  ainouut  of  work,  and  it  is  not  easily 
exIiBiisted.  It  needs,  however,  intervals  of  rest 
inconvenient  for  the  farmer  ;  and  it  is  not  capable 
of  exertion  at  all  equal  to  that  of  the  horse  on  any 
occasion  of  emvTi^eaay. — The  oi  is  chiefly  valuable 
for  ita  fleah  and  its  milk  ;  but  almost  every  part  of 
the   animal  is   useful — the  fat,   skin,   hair,   boms, 

The  period  of  gestation  of  the  ox  is  nine  months, 
or  270  (lays.  It  rarely  pnxluces  more  than  one  calf 
at  a  birtb.  It  attains  maturity  in  two  or  three  ' 
yeare,  becomes  evidently  ajted  at  ten,  and  seldom  . 
Lves  more  than  fourteen.  Cows  are  seldom  kept  for  i 
the  dairy  after  they  are  seven  or  ejgbt  yeara  old,  | 
OS  after  that  age  tbey  yield  less  milk  and  of  infe-  { 
rior  quality.  Modem  liiisbandry  has  also  found  [ 
means  to  fatten  cattle  for  the  market  at  an  earlier  ; 
age  than  was  formerly  usual ;  and  although  the  beef  . 
is  not  quite  so  good  in  quality,  the  prolit  is  great,  ' 
both  to  the  farmer  and  to  the  community,  through  | 
the  increased  productiveness  of  the  land.  | 

The  ox  is  gregarious,  and  where  circumstances  , 
permit,  as  in  the  South  American  plains,  associates 
in  very  large  herds.  Herds  of  oien  defend  tbem-  | 
selves  with  great  vigour  against  the  large  feline  . 
animals  aud  other  assailants,  the  younger  and  ' 
wrnker  animals  being  placed  in  the  midille.  whilst  ' 
ttie  bulls  in  the  out^  rank  confront  the  adversary 
with  their  boms.  j 

The  varietiee  or  breeds  differ  very  much  in  size.  , 
Among  those  which  occur  in  the  British  Islands,  the 
Shetland  breed  is  not  much  larger  than  a  calf  of 
some  of  the  others.  Some  of  the  breeds  of  the 
torrid  zone  are  also  very  small  ;  but  the  tatty 
hump  on  the  back  may  probably  be  regarded  as 
indicating  a  conuection  with  the  Indian  ox  or  Zebu 
[q.  v.).  which,  although  it  has  been  generally 
regarded  as  n  variety  of  the  common  ox,  is  uer^ 
a  distinct  species — The  '  wild  oi,'  now  existing 
in  a  few  |>arks,  as  at  Chillingham  and  Homiltna, 
seems,  whatever  its  origin,  to  have  been  formerly  on 
iiihabitiuit  of  many  forest  districts  in  Britain,  parti- 
cularly ia  the  north  of  En[;land  aud  south  of  Scot- 
land. The  Uhillinghom  wild  oxen  are  of  a  creamy 
white  colour,  much  smaller  than  many  of  the 
d  jmestio  breeds,  of  a  graceful  form,  with  sharp 
hams,  which  are  not  very  long,  and  not  very  much 
curved.  The  uniform  wliite  colour  is  to  be  ascribed 
to  tbeoare  token  to  destroy  every  calf  which  is  not 
perfect  in  this  respect.  The  habits  of  these  wild 
oxen  are  very  similar  to  those  of  the  domestic  races. 
—The  Wetl  Highland  breed,  or  K^ilue,  differs  very 
little  from  the  Chillingham  or  Hamilton  wild  ox. 


however,  ia  of  the  finest  quality;  and  great  numben 
of  cattle,  reitred  in  the  Highlands  and  Hebridea,  are 
annually  conveyed  to  other  parts  of  the  country,  to 
be  fattened  on  rich  pastures.  The  breed  is  a  very 
hardy  one,  and  peculiarly  suited  to  the  region  in 
which  it  prevails.— The  Oailomay  breed  ia  very  like 
the  preceding,  but  larger  and  destitute  of  horns ) 
and  many  cattle  reitfed  in  the  hilly  paria  of 
Galloway  are  fattened  on  English  pastures  for  the 
London  market — The  Fenibrokt  oad  other  Welsh 
breeds  are  not  nnlike  the  West  Highland;  but 
the  cows  yield  milk  more  abundantly. —The  diminu- 
tive SItellaiid  breed  is  very  hanly,  and  is  celebrated 
for  the  jiue  quality  of  its  beef.  The  SheMand  ox 
is  easily  fattened,  even  on  scanty  postiuage.  The 
milk  whiuh  the  cows  yield  is  also  remarkably 
abundant  in  proportion  to  their  small  sise. — The 
Ayrtliire  breed  is  ]iarticularly  celebrated  for  the 
abuodonce  and  excellence  of  its  milk,  but  the  beef 
is  of  inferior  quality,  and  tlie  animal  is  not  easily 
fattened.  Great  care  boa  been  bestowed  on  this 
breed  in  Ayrshire  and  neighbouring  counties, 
where  dairy  farming  is  much  practised.  The  horns 
are  smaller  than  those  of  the  West  Highland 
breed,  the  hair  much  smoother,  and  the  colour 
chiefly  brownish-red,  with  large  tiatches  of  white. 
— T)ifi  Aldfrney  breed  much  resembles  the  Ayrshire, 
but  the  milk  is  comparatively  small  in  quantity,  and 
remarkable  for  the  richness  of  the  cream,  on  which 
account  Alderney  cows  are  often  kept  for  the  supply 
of  private  dairies.  The  milk  of  an  Alderney  cow, 
mixed  with  that  of  a  dozen  other  cowa.  will  sensibly 
improve  the  quality  of  the  butter.  But  this  breed 
is  worthless  for  the  purposes  of  the  grazier. — The 
Suffolk  Dun  is  a  polled  or  hornless  breed,  of  clumsy 
id  of  httle  value  to  the  grazier,  but  yielding 


a  very  large  quantity  of  n 

Suffolk  has  long  bi'en  celebrateil  for  its  dairy 
product — The  2forlh  Devon  is  a  pretty  large  breed, 
with  rather  short  horns,  very  muscular  and  powerful, 
and  also  very  gentle  and  docile,  so  that  it  is  parti- 
cularly adapted  for  draught ;  and  much  agricuiturBl 
labour  is  st^ll  performed  in  Devonshire  by  teams  of 
oxen  of  this  breed.  The  North  Devon  breed,  how- 
ever, is  surpaased  by  others,  both  for  the  puritoeea 
of  the  dairy  farmer  and  of  the  grazier.— The  Ilrrt. 
ford  breed,  of  stouter  form  than  the  Ayrahiret  but 


and  astraigbt  back  ;  the  horns  are  often  somewhat 
long  ;  the  muzzle  is  short  but  not  brood ;  the  akin  is 
slosely  covered  with  shaggy  hair.  The  milk  is  very 
rich,  but  the  quantity  is  so  small,  that  this  bi-eed 
it  very  unsuitable   for  doiiy   famiiug.    The  beef. 


the   districts    where    it   once    prevailed,   ii>    la    now 

Eiving  place  to  the  S!iorl-hom  breed,  one  of  the  new 
reeds  which  are  the  result  of  care  and  attention. 
The  Short-horn  breed,  so  called  because  the  horns 
ore  shorter  than  in  almost  any  other,  originated 
about  the  beginning  of  the  10th  c  on  the  banks 
of  the  leea,   and  has    spread   very   widely    ijoth 


ox. 


in  England  and  in  Scotland,  in  the  districts  of  described  under  the  article  Dairy.  Cows,  under 
richest  pasturage.  The  colour  yaries  from  pure  our  modern  systems  of  agriculture,  are  selected 
white  to  bright  red;  the  head  is  short  and  very  '  either  for  their  properties  of  giving  large  quantities 
broad ;  the  chest  is  wide,  deep,  and  projecting ;  of  milk,  or  for  raising  stock  which  are  well  suited 
the  fore-legs  are  short,  the  back  straight,  and  not  for  grazing  and  fattening.  For  milking  properties, 
very  long,  the  *  barrel'  fidL  The  ease  with  which  the  Ayrshire  breed  stands  undoubtedly  at  the  head 
oxen  of  this  breed  are  fattened  is  one  of  its  mat '  of  the  list.  In  comparison  with  some  of  the  othet 
recommendations.  The  beef  is  also  of  excellent  '  breeds,  the  Ayrshire  is  rather  deficient  in  size,  with 
quality.  For  dairy  purposes,  the  Short-horn  is  '  the  flesh  spread  thinly  over  its  body.  In  the  male 
surpanied  by  some  other  breeds ;  but  a  cross  between  I  animals  these  characteristics  are  all  the  more 
a  Snort-horn  bull  and  an  Ayrshire  cow  is  found  usef  id  '  prominent,  and  for  this  reason  the  breed  is  not 
both  for  beef  and  milk.  The  Short-horn  breed  is  j  much  liked  by  graziers.  It  is  capable,  however,  of 
now  cherisheil  in  Britain  with  peculiar  care ;  genea-    thriving   on  secondary  or   even  inferior  pastures. 


logies.  are  registered,  and  prodigious  prices  are 
given  for  first-rate  animals.  It  is  also  in  great 
esteem  in  many  parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
and  in  America. — The  Long-horn  breed,  long  preva- 
lent in  the  midland  counties  of  England,  and  still 
prevalent  in  Ireland,  was  brought  to  great  perfec- 
tion by  Bakewell,  one  of  the  tirst  to  shew  what 


Wherever,  therefore,  it  is  found  most  prohtable  to 
follow  dairy  husbandry  in  Scotland,  tne  Ayrshire 
cow  is  preferred.  A  consider&ble  variety  of  breeds 
are  cultivated  both  for  milking  and  grazing  in  the 
western  parts  of  England,  the  principal  of  which 
are  the  Herefords  and  Devons.  In  the  eastern 
counties,  again,  where  arable  culture  and  the  rearing 


CGuld  be  done  in  the  improvement  of  cattle  ;  but  is    and  feeding  of  cattle  are  chiefly  followed,  the  Ayr- 
rapidly  giving  place  to  tne  Short-horn,  b^  which  it  is    shire  gives  place  to  the  Aberdeen,  the  Angus,  and 
much  excelleti  The  length  of  the  horns  m  this  breed 
is  very  remarkable. 
Of  foreign  races  of  oxen,  one  of  the  most  notable. 


the  Teeswater.  The  cow  is  there  selected  for  its 
massive  and  square-built  frame,  soft  skin,  and  meat- 
producing    qualities.      For   more   than  a  century 


on  account  of  its  large  size,  is  that  in  possession  of  i  vast  care  has  been  bestowed  on  the  improvement  of 
the  Kalmuck  Tartars ;  another  is  that  prevalent  in  '  the  short-horns.  In  this  breed  the  pedigrees  of  the 
the  Roman  states,  generaUy  of  a  bluish-ash  colour,  sire  and  the  dam  are  traced  back  for  many  gener* 
with  remarkably  mrge  and  spreading  horns.  A  ations,  and  purity  of  blood  is  quite  essential  in 
large  white  breed  was  long  kept  in  Egypt ;  and  a  herds  of  any  pretensions.  The  large  sums  which 
similar  breed,  without  the  hump  characteristic  of  particular  cows  and  bulls  of  this  bre^  realise,  attest 
the  Indian  Ox,  is  found  in  South  Africa,  where,  the  value  which  modem  breeders  set  u]K>n  animals 
however,  it  has  become  i)artially  intermixed  with  which  are  considered  to  approach  ])erfection  in  their 
European  breeds.  Oxen  are  much  employed  by  the  form  and  style.  In  no  department  of  British  agri- 
"'  ~  --      -         -  culture  are  the  results  of  care  and  attention  more 

strongly  marked  than .  in  the  noble  figure  of  the 

short-nomed  cow  or  bull. 
The    rearing  and   fattening   of   the  ox    is   one 

of   the  most  important   branches    of   agriculture. 

Since  the  prices  of  butcher-meat  have  become  so 
Hottentots  with  one  another,'  he  says,  *  these  backe-  j  much  higher  relatively  to  com  in  this  country,  the 
leyers  make  very  terrible  impressions.    They  gore,    breeding  and  feeding  of  cattle  have  received  a  great 


Kaffirs  as  beasts  of  bui*den ;  they  were  also  formerly 
trained  by  the  Hottentots  to  aid  them  in  battle. 
Peter  Kolben,  in  his  account  of  the  Cape  of  Oood 
Hope,  written  in  1705,  gives  an  interestmg  descrip- 
tion of  these  trained  fighting  oxen,  which,  he 
says,  are  called  Backeleyers,    'In  the  wars  of  the 


and  kick,  and  trample  to  death  with  incredible 
fniy.'  He  ascribes  to  them  also  great  docility,  and 
states  that  they  know  every  inhabitant  of  the  kraal, 
and  are  perfectly  inoffensive  towards  them,  but  ready 
to  run  with  fury  at  strangers.  The  readiness  with 
which  the  draught  oxen  of  South  Africa  observe  the 
words  of  the  driver,  is  said  to  be  almost,  if  not 
qaite,  equal  to  that  of  the  dog.  In  the  training  of 
tnein,  however,  severe  measures  are  often  requisite, 
and  particularly  bv  a  hooked  stick  inserted  through 
the  cartih^e  which  separates  the  nostrils,  as  bum 
are  ringed  when  sent  to  exhibitions  of  cattle  in 
Britain.  Trained  oxen  are  also  employed  in  the 
training  of  their  younger  fellows.  In  some  ports 
of  Africa  the  ox  is  used  for  riding  as  well  as  for 
drau^t.  The  horns,  which  are  very  long,  are  split 
into  ribbons,  or  curved  in  various  directions,  to  pre- 
vent their  points  from  coming  in  contact,  by  any 
accident,  with  the  person  of  the  rider.  The  pace 
of  the  ox  scarcely  exceeds  four  or  five  miles  an 
hoar. 

A  very  remarkable  conformation  of  skull  occurs 
in  some  of  the  herds  of  South  American  oxen,  the 
bones  of  the  nose  and  the  jaw-bones  being  very 
much  shortened ;  yet  there  is  no  Question  that  this 
is  a  mere  accidental  variation,  wnich  has  become 
perpetuated  as  one  of  race.  Importance  has  been 
attached  to  it  in  the  discussions  regarding  specks. 

The  cow  has  been  for  ages  tended  by  man 
4m  account  of  the  agreeable  and  highly  nutritious 
fluid  which  is  obtained  from  it  Muk  is  manufac- 
tured into  cheese  and  bntter,  which  are  capable 
of  being  preserved  for  a  considerable  time.  The 
prooenes    by    which    these 


are    obtained     are 


impetus.  Fifty  years  ago,  many  of  our  old  breeds 
of  cattle  were  kept  till  they  were  four  or  five  years 
old  before  they  were  sent  fat  to  the  butcher.  The 
demand  for  meat  was  so  limited  then  in  the  north, 
that  most  of  the  cattle  were  sent  south  lean,  to 
be  fattened  on  the  pastures  and  turnips  of  the 
eastern  counties  of  England.  The  introduction  of 
steam-shipping,  followed  by  railways,  has  given 
the  Scotch  breeder  and  feeder  great  facilities  for 
disposing  of  fatted  cattle,  and  now  there  are  no  lean 
cattle  sent  to  the  south.  Indeed,  the  extension  of 
green  crops  in  Scotland  has  been  so  great,  that  large 
numbers  of  lean  cattle  are  imported  from  England, 
as  well  as  Ireland,  to  be  fed  in  the  stalls  and  courts 
during  winter.  This  applies  to  the  arable  districts, 
where  the  land  does  not  remain  more  than  one  year 
in  grass.  In  Aberdeenshire,  where  the  land  rests  from 
three  to  four  years  in  grass,  more  cattle  are  bred 
and  turned  out  fat,  which  is  by  far  the  most  profit- 
able system,  seeing  the  breeder  often  gets  a  larger 
share  of  the  profits  than  the  feeder.  The  short« 
homed  blood  is  in  great  request  to  cross  with  the 
native  breeds,  rendering  the  progeny  much  easier 
fattened,  as  well  as  causing  them  to  grow  to  a  larger 
size.  It  is  now  the  most  approved  method  to  feed 
the  calf  from  the  time  it  is  dropped  till  it  is  sent  to 
the  butcher.  Oil- cake  is  generally  considered  the 
best  and  most  healthy  auxiliary  food  for  stock, 
whether  old  or  young.  In  the  pastoral  districts  of 
England,  where  uttie  of  the  land  is  cultivated,  the 
rearing  of  cattle  to  be  sent  into  the  arable  districts 
is  carried  out  The  young  animals  are  fed  with 
hay  in  winter  instead  of  Straw  and  turnips.     Large 

numbers  of    cattle    are    fattened  on  turni^is  and 

167 


OXALIC  ACID— OXAUDBA 


mangold  in  winter  in  Norfolk  and  eastern  counties. 
Larse  allowances  of  cake  and  com  are  there  given  in 
addition  to  the  roots. 

OXALIC  ACID  (C40j,2HO  +  4Aa)  occiiis  in 
oolourless,  transparent,  oblique,  rhomDio  prisms, 
which  have  an  intensely  sour  taste,  and  are  soluble 
in  nine  parts  of  cold  water,  and  much  more  freely  in 
boiling  water.  When  heated  to  212%  the  crystals 
lose  tneir  four  e<^uivalents  (or  28*5  per  cent)  of 
water,  and  the  residue,  consisting  of  tne  hydrated 
acid  {Cfi^2R0)^  becomes  opB(](ue  ;  these  two 
equivalents  of  water  contained  m  the  hydrated 
acid,  cannot  be  expelled  by  mere  heat,  althou^ 
they  can  be  displaced  by  an  equivalent  amount  of  a 
metallic  oxide.  When  the  crystallised  acid  is 
rapidly  heated  to  about  300**,  it  is  decomposed  into 
a  nufld  mixture  of  carbonic  acid,  carbonic  oxide,  and 
water;  formic  acid  being  {uroduced  and  again 
decomposed  in  the  process. 


Crjrtulllaad  OxaUe  Add. 


CAOg  +  4H0 


Carbonia 
Aeld. 


Pormle  A«ld. 


2C0,  +  4H0  +  C,HOj,HO ; 

W*ur« 


Carlwala 
Oxld«. 


and  formic  acid  when  heated  yields  2H0  -I-  2C0. 
When  warmed  with  strong  sulphuric  add,  it  is 
decomposed  into  equal  volumes  of  carbonic  acid  and 
carbonic  oxide  gases,  and  into  water ;  according  to 
the  equation : 


Hydntcd  Osalto    Cuboni«        CaibooU 
AeiiL  Aeld.  OxtJCb 


WM«r. 


Cfifis  =  CA  +  C,0,  +  2H0 

This  reaction  affords  one  of  the  best  means  of 
obtaining  carbonic  oxide  for  use  in  the  laboratory. 
Oxidising  agents,  such  as  binoxide  of  manganese, 
peroxide  of  lead,  nitric  acid,  &c.,  convert  oxalic  into 
carbonic  acid,  and  on  this  property  is  based  a  good 
method  of  determining  the  commercial  value  of  the 
black  oxide  of  manganese. 

Oxalic  acid  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  of  the 
oiganic  acids,  and  expels  carbonic  acid  and  many 
other  acids  from  their  salts.  The  acid  itself,  and 
its  soluble  salts,  are  poisonous.  This  acid  is  very 
widely  diffused  throughout  the  vegetable  kingdom. 
Sometimes  it  occurs  m  a  free  state  (as  in  Boletus 
nUpkureus)j  but  much  more  frequently  as  a  salt,  either 
of  potash,  as  in  the  different  species  of  OxcUis  (from 
which  genus  the  acid  was  originally  obtained  and 
derives  its  name),  and  of  Rumex ;  or  of  soda,  as  in 
various  species  of  Salioornia  and  SdUola;  or  of 
Ume,  as  m  Khubarb  and  many  Lichens.  In  the 
animal  kingdom,  it  never  occurs  except  in  minute 
quantity  and  in  combination  with  lime.  Oxalate  of 
mne  is  found  in  a  crystalline  shape,  both  in  healthy 
and  morbid  urine.  In  the  latter,  it  constitutes  the 
kading  symptom  of  the  affection  termed  Oxaluria 
(q.  v.),  while  in  the  former  it  occurs  after  the  use  of 
wmes  and  beer  containing  much  carbonic  acid,  of 
sorrel,  rhubarb^stalks,  &c.,  and  after  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  alkaline  bicarbonates.  It  is  the 
constituent  of  the  urinary  calculus,  known  from  its 
rough  exterior  as  the  mulberry  calculus.  Crystals 
of  oxalate  of  lime  have  also  been  found  in  the 
mucus  of  the  gall-bladder,  on  the  mucous  mem* 
brane  of  the  impregnated  uterus,  and  in  morbid 
blood.  They  have  likewise  been  detected  in  the 
biliary  vessels  and  excrements  of  caterpillars.  In 
the  mineral  kin^om  these  crystals  have  been 
detected  in  association  with  crystals  of  calcareous 
■par. 

Oxalic  2U!id  is  produced  by  the  action  of  either 
hydrate  of  potash  or  of  nitric  acid  upon  most 
oigaoic  compounds  of  nitural  occurrence.  Its  most 
169 


common  mode  of  preparation  is  by  the  oxidation  of 
starch  or  sugar  by  nitric  acid.  The  oiganic  com- 
pound and  the  nitric  acid  are  heated  in  a  flask  till 
all  effervescence  has  ceased,  after  which  the  solution 
is  evaporated,  and  the  oxalic  acid  separates  in 
crystals  on  cooling. 

Tliis  acid  forms  three  series  of  salts,  viz.,  neutral, 
acid,  and  super-acid,  which,  if  M  represents  the 
metal  entering  into  the  Balt»  may  be  represented  by 
the  f ormulsB : 


HMtnlSdt 


AaldSAll. 


2yL0fifi^   H0,M0,C40^  and  3HO,MO,2C404, 

the  last  being  a  compound  of  the  acid  salt  and  the  acidk 
Oxalate  of  Ume  (2CaO,C40^  +  4Aq)  and  ordinary 
(neutral)  oxalate  of  ammonia  (2NH40,C40g  +  2Aq) 
are  examples  of  the  first ;  binoxalate  of  potash,  or 
salt  of  soirel  (K0,H0,040g  +  2Aq),  is  an  example  of 
the  second ;  while  the  salt  usually  termed  quadroz- 
alate  of  potash  (RO,3HO,2040q  +  4Aq)  is  an 
example  of  the  third  class.  Of  the  numerous 
oxalates,  the  most  important  are  the  oxalate  of 
lime  (in  consequence  of  its  physiological  and  patho- 
logical relations) ;  the  neutral  oxalate  of  ammonia, 
which  is  the  best  test  for  the  detection  of  lime  in 
solution  (in  consequence  of  the  extreme  insolubility 
of  the  resulting  oxalate  of  lime) ;  and  the  acid 
oxalate  of  potash,  which  is  contained  in  the  juices 
of  (KDcdis  and  futMXy  and  is  employed  in  various 
manufacturing  processes. 

The  best  test  for  this  acid  is  the  production  of  a 
white  precipitate  (of  oxalate  of  lime),  on  the 
addition  of  anv  soluble  salt  of  calcium.  The  pre- 
cipitate is  insoluble  in  water,  in  solution  of  potash, 
and  in  acetic  acid,  but  dissolves  in  the  mineral 
acids.  A  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  also  gives  a 
white  precipitate  of  oxalate  of  silver,  which  explodes 
when  heated. 

In  consequence  of  its  employment  in  cotton 
printing,  bleaching  straw,  &c.,  oxalic  acid  is  more 
accessible  to  the  general  public  than  many  other 
poisons ;  and  on  tTiis  account  instances  of  suicide 
from  the  swallowing  of  this  acid  are  by  no  means 
uncommon.  Cases  of  accidental  poisoning,  moreover, 
sometimes  occur  by  its  being  sold  by  mistake  for 
Epsom  salts.  Large  doses  destroy  life  very  rapidly. 
Dr  A.  Taylor  mentions  a  case  in  which  a  man  died 
in  20  minutes  after  taking  two  ounces  of  the  acid. 
Dr  ChristLson  records  a  case  in  which  an  ounce 
killed  a  girl  in  30  minutes,  and  another  case  in 
which  the  same  quantity  destroyed  life  in  ten 
minutes ;  and,  as  a  general  rule  (liable  to  exceptions), 
when  the  dose  is  half  an  ounce  or  upwards,  death 
commonly  takes  place  within  the  hour.  The 
symptoms  are  a  hot  or  burning  add  taste,  with  a 
sense  of  constriction  or  suffocation ;  vomiting,  great 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  stomach,  convulsions,  cold 
perspirations  and  general  collapse  speedily  follow ; 
and  respiration  shortly  before  death  becomes  slow 
and  spasmodic  With  the  view  of  convertinj|  the 
free  acid  in  the  stomach  into  an  insoluble  and  mert 
salt,  chalk,  whiting,  or  lime-water,  with  full  draughts 
of  milk,  should  oe  administered  with  the  least 
possible  delay.  Salt  of  sorrel  is  almost  as  poisonous 
as  the  pure  acid. 

OXAlA'Jyi^M,  or  OXALIDA'CEL^  a  natural 
order  of  exo^nous  plants,  allied  to  Oeraniacea; 
including  herbaceous  plants,  shrubs,  and  trees ;  with 
generally  compound  alternate  leaves ;  calyx  of  ^ve 
equal  persistent  sepals ;  corolla  of  five  equal 
unguicmate  -petals,  spirally  twisted  in  bud;  ten 
stamens,  usually  more  or  less  united  by  the 
filaments,  in  two  rows ;  the  ovary  usually  S-celledv 
with  five  styles ;  the  fruit  a  capsule  opening  by  as 
many  or  twice  as  many  valves  as  it  has  cells,  ct 


OXALTDEiE— OXENSTIERNA. 


more  rmrely  a  berry ;  the  seeds  few,  attached  to  the 
axis.  There  are  upwards  of  300  known  species, 
natives  of  warm  and  temperate  climates.  They  are 
particularly  abimdant  in  North  America  and  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  The  flora  of  Britain  includes 
only  two  small  species  of  OxcUU.  An  acid  juice  is 
Tery  characteristic  of  this  order.  Some  of  the 
tropical  species  produce  agreeable  acid  fruits,  as  the 
Canimbola  (q.  v.). — The  genus  Oxalis  has  a  capsular 
fruit,  and  the  seeds  have  an  elastic  integument, 
which  at  last  bursts  open  and  projects  the  seed  to  a 
distance.  The  species  are  mostly  herbaceous  plants 
with  temate  or  aigitate — rarely  simple  or  pinnate- 
leaves;  a  few  are  shrubs.  The  stems  and  leaves 
genendly  contain  a  notable  quantity  of  BinoxalaU 
of  Potaahj  and  have  therefore  a  sour  taste. — The 
Common  Wood-Sorrbl  (0.  acetoseila),  very  abun- 
dant in  shady  woods  and  groves  in  Britain  and  most 
parts  of  Europe,  a  native  also  of  North  America,  is 
a  beautiful  Uttle  plant,  often  covering  the  ground 
with  its  green  leaves,  amidst  which  the  white  or 
slightly  roseate  flowers  appear.  Its  leaves  all  now 
from  the  root,  a  long  leaf-stalk  bearing  three 
obovate  leaflets;  the  scape  bears  a  single  flower. 
There  is  a  subterranean  scaly  root-stock.  On 
aooonnt  of  their  cp-ateful  acid  taste,  the  leaves  are 
used  in  salads  and  sauces.  The  plant  is  extremely 
abundant  in  Lapland,  and  is  much  used  by  the 
Laplanders.  It  is  antiscorbutic  and  refrigerant,  and 
an  infusion  of  it  is  a  grateful  drink  in  fevers.  Bin- 
oxalate  of  potash  is  obtained  from  the  leaves  by 
expressing  the  juice,  and  crystallising ;  and  is  sold 
not  only  under  the  name  of  SaU  of  Sorrel,  but  also 
of  EssentitU  SaU  of  Lemons^  and  is  used  for  extract- 
ing spots,  and  particularly  iron-marks,  from  linen, 
and  for  other  purposes.  Much  of  it  is  now,  however, 
obtained  from  a  very  different  source.  See  Oxalio 
Acid. — O.  comkulata,  rare  in  Britain,  and  almost 
confined  to  the  south  of  England,  biit  a  plant  of 
very  extensive  distribution,  l^ing  found  in  Eiurope, 
North  America,  India,  Japan,  and  some  of  the 
African  islands,  has  a  branched  stem,  with  decum- 
bent branches,  leaves  very  similar  to  those  of  the 
common  wood-sorrel,  and  yellow  flowers.  Its 
properties  agree  with  those  of  the  common  wood- 
sorreL  Many  other  species  much  resemble  these  in 
their  general  appearance  and  properties.  Some  of 
the  species  exhioit  an  irritability  like  that  of  the 
Sensitive  Plant;  generally,  as  in  the  two  British 
specie^  in  a  slijzht  degree,  and  notably  only  in  hot 
■ODshine,  but  0.  ^ensUiva,  an  East  Indian  species, 
with  pinnate  leaves,  possesses  this  property  in  a 
high  oegree.  Some  species  of  OxcUiSy  as  0.  cernua, 
a  native  of  South  Africa,  are  remarkable  for  pro- 
ducing large  bulbils  in  the  axils  of  the  lower  leaves. 
Several  species  have  tuberous  roots,  and  are  culti- 
vated on  account  of  their  tubers ;  as  O.  ertnata  and 
O,  tuherosa,  natives  of  Peru  and  Bolivia,  where 
they  are  much  esteemed,  and  both  receive  the  name 
Oca.  The  tubers,  when  cooked,  become  mealy  like 
potatoes.  They  have  a  slightly  acid  taste.  O. 
crtmjta  has  been  cultivated  in  gardens  in  Britain  for 
about  thirty  years,  but  continues  to  be  almost 
exclusively  an  object  of  curiosity,  being  too  tender 
for  the  climate,  and  its  produce  very  inconsiderable 
in  quantity.  Its  tubera  are  yellow,  in  size  and 
■hape  like  small  potatoea  The  suociUent  stalks  of 
the  leaves  aboimd  in  a  pleasant  acid  juice,  and  make 
excellent  tarts  and  preserves.  O.  tuberosa  produces 
numerous  small  tubers.  The  Bolivians  often  expose 
them  for  a  long  time  to  the  sun,  by  which  they 
lo0e  their  acidity,  become  saccharine,  and  acquire  a 
taste  and  consistence  IUlc  dried  figs.  O.  DeppH  is  a 
Mexican  species,  with  a  root  somewhat  like  a  small 
parsnip,  quite  free  of  acidity.  It  is  much  cultivated 
m  its  native  country,  and  suooeedi  well  in  the 


southern  parts  of  England.  O.  tetraphyUa  and  0. 
crasaicaulMf  natives  of  Mexico,  and  O.  enneaphyUoy  a 
native  of  tiie  Falkland  Islands,  also  have  eatable 
roots.  Many  species  of  Oxalis  are  much  esteemed 
as  ornaments  ot  gardens  and  green-houses.  ' 

OXALU'RIA,  or  THE  OXAXIC  ACID  1)IA'. 
THESIS,  is  a  morbid  condition  of  the  system,  in 
which  one  of  the  most  prominent  symptoms  is  the 
persistent  occurrence  of  crystals  of  oxalate  of  lime 
m  the  urine.  These  crystids  most  commonly  occur 
as  very  minute  transparent  octohedra,  but  some- 
times in  the  form  of  dimib-bells;  in  order  to  detect 
them,  the  urine,  which  usually  in  these  cases  pre- 
sents a  mucous  cloud,  should  be  allowed  to  stand 
for  some  hours  in  a  conical  glass,  and  after  the 
crystals  have  gradually  subsided,  the  greater  part 
of  the  fluid  should  be  poured  away,  and  the  drops 
remaining  at  the  bottom  examined  with  a  power  of 
not  less  uian  200  diameters.  These  crystals,  which 
are  insoluble  in  acetic  acid,  may  occur  either  in  acid 
or  in  alkaline  urine.  Persons  who  secrete  this  form 
of  urine  are  usually  dyspeptic,  hypochondriacal,  and 
liable  to  attacks  of  boils,  cutaneous  eruptions,  and 
neuralgia.  The  oxalic  acid,  in  these  cases,  is  not 
introduced  into  the  system  with  the  food,  but  is  a 

Sroduct  of  the  disinte^ation  of  the  tissues,  and  is 
ue  to  the  imjperfect  oxidation  of  comi)ound3,  which 
should  normally  have  been  converted  into  carbonic 
acid.  (Anhy<ux>ua  oxalic  acid,  040^,  obviously 
requires  2  e<^nivalents  of  oxygen  to  be  converted  into 
carbonic  acid,  040^,  or  4CO2.  Hence,  if  these  two 
equivalents  of  oxygen  are  wanting  in  the  system, 
in  consequence  of  imperfect  oxy^nation  of  the 
blood,  oxalic  acid,  in  combination  with  lime,  appears 
as  a  final  excretion  in  place  of  carbonic  acid.)  The 
occurrence  of  oxalic  acid  as  a  j^iersistent  se^liment 
in  the  urine,  is  not  only  an  indication  of  an  existing 
morbid  condition  of  the  system,  but  may  ^ive  rise 
to  two  perfectly  distinct  dangerous  comphcations ; 
(1)  a  concretion  of  oxalate  of  lime  (mulberry 
calculus)  may  be  formed  either  in  the  kidney  or 
the  bladder;  and  (2)  bad  consequences  may  arise 
from  the  poisonous  action  of  the  oxalic  acid  on  the 
digestive  organs,  on  the  heart,  and  on  the  nervous 
system. 

The  treatment  is  simple.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  patient  should  avoid  articles  of  diet  con- 
taining oxalic  acid  (such  as  sorrel,  rhtibarb,  tomatoes, 
&c.),  or  readily  converted  into  it  (such  as  sugar),  and 
^1  drinks  containing  much  carbonic  acid  ;  while  he 
should  take  plenty  of  exercise  in  the  open  air,  with- 
out fatiguing  himself  ;  should  use  the  shower-bath, 
unless  he  feels  chilled  and  depressed  after  its 
application,  in  which  case  he  should  rub  the  body 
ail  over  daily  with  a  horse-hair  glove ;  and  should 
employ  as  a  tonic  medicine  either  a  httle  nitro- 
muriatic  acid  in  a  bitter  infusion  (20  minims  of  th€( 
acid  in  an  ounce  and  a  half  of  Infusion  of  Ohyretta), 
or  five  grains  of  citrate  of  iron  and  quinine  three 
times  daily.  Under  this  treatment,  the  oxalates 
usually  almost  entirely  disappear  from  the  urine 
in  two  or  three  weeks. 

OXENSTIERNA,  Axel,  Count,  an  illustrious 
Swedish  statesman,  was  bom  at  Fau<$,  in  Upland, 
16th  June  1583.  He  was  originally  educated  for 
the  church,  and  studied  theology  as  well  as  juris- 
prudence at  Rostock,  Jena,  and  Wittenberg,  in  the 
last  of  which  universities  he  took  his  degrees. 
Although  he  afterwards  devoted  himself  to  public 
affJEdrs,  lie  continued  all  his  life  to  take  a  deep 
personal  interest  in  religious  questions,  and  laboured 
zealously  for  the  extension  of  the  Protestant 
doctrines.  After  leaving  the  university,  he  visited 
most  of  the  German  courts,  but  returned  to  Sweden 

in  IQO'S.  and  soon  afterwards  entered  the  scrvics 

169 


OXBNSTIERNA— OXFORD. 


of  Cballeci  IX.»  who,  in  1606,  despatched  him  aa 
ftmbaMador  to  the  court  of  Mecklenbui^.  He 
became  a  senator  in  1608— a  dignity  which  had 
been  enjoyed  by  thirteen  of  his  predecessors  in 
uninterrupted  succession.  Having  displayed  great 
prudence  and  wisdom  in  the  settlement  of  certain 
dispiites  between  the  Livonian  nobles  and  the  town 
of  Keval,  he  was  appointed  by  Charles — now  infirm 
from  age — ^guardian  of  the  royal  family,  and  head  of 
the  regency.  On  the  accession  of  Gustavus  Adolphus 
(q.  v.),  in  1611,  O.  was  made  chancellor;  and  in 
1613,  acted  as  minister-plenipotentiary  in  the 
negotiations  for  peace  between  Sweden  and  Den- 
mark. In  the  following  year  he  accompanied  his 
sovereign  to  Poland,  and  b^  the  peace  of  Stolbova, 
in  1617,  terminated  hostilities  between  Sweden  and 
Russia.  His  political  sagacity  was  not  less  con- 
spicuously shewn  in  his  successful  efforts  to  prevent 
Gustavus  from  marrying  Ebba  Brahe,  a  Swedish 
beauty,  and  in  bringing  about  a  match  between  his 
mast^  and  the  Princess  Maria-Eleonora  of  Branden- 
burg. In  1621,  on  the  departure  of  the  king  for  the 
Polish  war,  he  was  charg^  with  the  administration 
of  affairs  at  home,  which  he  conducted  with  his 
invariable  felicity ;  subsequently,  he  was  appointed 

fovemor-general  of  the  conquered  districts  ;  and  in 
629,  concluded  peace  with  the  Poles  on  highly 
favourable  conditions.  For  a  while  0.  strongly 
opposed  the  desire  of  Gustavus  to  take  part  in  the 
'ttiirty  Years*  War;*  his  hope  being  to  see  the 
latter  arbiter  of  the  north  of  Europe  ;  but  when  he 
found  that  the  Protestant  sjrmpathies  of  the  king 
were  irrepressible,  he  set  about  collecting  money 
and  troops  for  the  perilous  enterprise,  with  all  the 
quiet  but  woaderfiu  activity  and  persistency  that 
so  remarkably  characterised  him.  After  Gustavus 
had  fairly  entered  on  the  bloody  struggle,  0.  joined 
him,  and  conducted  most  of  the  extensive  and  com- 
plicated diplomacy  which  the  course  of  events 
entailed  on  Sweden.  The  death  of  Gustavus  for 
a  moment  paralysed  him,  but  he  instantly  recovered, 
and  heroically  resolved  to  continue  the  contest  with 
the  imperialists,  in  spite  of  the  visible  disaffection 
of  many  of  the  German  Protestant  princes,  among 
others,  of  the  Elector  of  Saxony.  The  will  of  the 
dead  monarch  was  sent  to  Stockholm ;  according  to 
its  conditions,  the  government — during  the  minority 
of  Christina  (q.  v.) — was  intrusted  to  five  nobles, 
who  empowered  the  chancellor  to  prosecute  the 
war.  His  difficulties  were  enormous,  yet  by  inde- 
fatigable efforts  he  managed  partly  to  allay  the 
discontents,  jealousies,  and  rivalries  of  the  Protest- 
ant leaders.  The  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Swedes 
at  Nordlingen  in  1634,  and  the  perplexities  which 
followed  it,  would  have  stupified  most  men  in  the 
position  of  0.,  but  it  only  called  out  more  energetic- 
ally his  splendid  diplomatic  genius.  Transferring 
the  leadership  of  tne  Protestant  forces  to  Duke 
Bemhard  (q.  v.)  of  Weimar,  he  proceeded,  in  1635, 
to  France  and  Holland,  and  formed  alliances  with 
these  countries.  Returning  to  Germany,  he  assisted 
in  quelling  a  mutiny  among  the  Swedish  troops  at 
Magdeburg ;  put  Pomerania  in  a  state  of  defence,  to 
resist  the  meditated  attack  of  the  Elector  of  Bran- 
denbui^ ;  renewed  the  treaty  with  Poland ;  and 
leaving  Baner  in  command  of  the  Swedes,  retiimed 
to  Stockholm  in  1636,  where  he  was  received  with 
the  liveliest  enthusiasm.  He  still  continued,  how- 
ever, to  direct  ably  the  policy  of  the  Protestants  in 
Germany,  till  the  i>eace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648,  put 
an  end  to  the  war.  O.'s  son  was  one  of  the  Swedish 
envoys  who  signed  the  treaty,  and  it  is  in  a  letter  to 
him  that  the  famous  sentence  of  the  statesman 
occurs,  Nesds,  mi  JUi,  quantilla  prudentia  luymines 
regantuT — (*  You  do  not  yet  know,  my  son,  with  how 

little  wisdom  men  are  eovemed  *)•    Christina,  who 
170 


had  been  declared  of  age  in  1644,  did  not  shew 
a  proper  respect  for  the  Mvioe  of  O. ;  and  after  she 
had — througn  mere  feminine  wilfulness — abdicated 
in  spite  of  all  his  protestations,  he  withdrew  from 
pubhc  life,  and  died  28th  August  1654,  shortly  after 
she  had  left  Sweden.  He  entertained  a  genuine 
affection  for  the  daughter  of  his  noble  master,  and 
in  his  last  moments  her  name  was  upon  his  lips. 
'  Some  treatises  and  historical  fragments  are  attributed 
to  him,  and  his  *  Journal '  has  been  published  in  the 
*  Stockholm  Magazine.'  See  Lundblad's  StMmsk 
Plutardi  (2  vols.  Stock.  1824) ;  FryxeU's  Hisiory 
of  Otistavus  Adolphus;  and  Geijer's  History  oj 
Sweden, 

OX-ETE.     See  OHRYSANTHKBfUlL 

O'XFORD,  an  ancient  and  famous  city  and  seat 
of  learning  in  England,  the  chief  town  of  the  county 
of  Oxford,  is  situated  on  the  north-east  bank  of  the 
Isis,  a  tributary  of  the  Thames,  a  little  above  the 
point  where  it  is  met  by  the  CherwelL  Both 
streams  are  crossed  by  numerous  bridges,  of  which 
the  finest  are  Folly  Bridge  over  the  Isis,  and 
Magdalen  Bridge  over  the  Cherwell.  Lat.  of  the 
city,  bV  45'  65'  N.,  long.  V  15'  29"  W.  Distance 
from  London,  55  miles  west-north-west.  Pop.  (1861) 
27,560.  0.  occupies  an  undulating  site,  is  sur- 
rounded by  rich  and  wooded  meadows,  and  presente 
to  the  eye  of  the  approaching  visitor  a  scene  of 
unequalled  architectural  magnificence — spires,  and 
towers  and  domes  rising  as  thickly  as  chinmey- 
stalks  in  the  manufacturing  towns  of  Lancashire 
or  Yorkshire.  The  four  main  streets  of  O.  meet  at 
right  angles  near  the  centre  of  the  town,  at  a  place 
still  called  Carfax,  a  corruption  of  Quatre  votes^ 
and  which  appears  in  A  gas's  map  (temp.  Elizabetii) 
as  Cater  voys.  These  are — Commarket  Street, 
leading  into  St  Giles's,  and  running  due  north; 
Queen  Street,  leading  to  the  railway-stations,  and 
running  west;  St  Aldate's  Street,  leading  to  the 
Isis,  and  running  due  south;  and  High  Street, 
which  is  the  chief  street  of  the  city,  gracefully 
curving  in  an  easterly  direction,  and  conductins  to 
the  river  Cherwell,  a  smaller  river  joining  the  Isis 
soon  after  it  has  passed  Oxford.  ^ 

The  western  half  of  the  town  is  the  most  uninter- 
esting; and  it  is  a  misfortune  that  the  railway- 
stations  are  placed  here,  as  travellers,  on  arriving, 
are  introduced  to  the  meanest  parts  of  the  city 
first.  The  county  courts  and  jail,  and  the  remains 
of  the  castle,  from  which  the  Empress  Maud  escaped 
while  it  was  besieged  bv  Kin^  Stephen,  will  be 
observed  in  passing.  There  is  one  good  street 
in  this  part — ^viz.,  Beaumont  Street,  built  on  the 
site  of  the  ancient  Beaumont  Palace,  in  which 
Richard  I.  was  bom.  At  the  end  of  this  street 
stands  Worcester  College.  Passing  to  the  north, 
from  Carfax,  along  the  Commarket,  the  old  tower 
of  St  Michael's  Church  is  seen,  a^inst  which  stood 
formerly  the  north  gate  of  the  city ;  next  St  Manr 
Magdalen  Church ;  then  the  Martyr's  Memorial, 
with  the  Taylor  and  Randolph  Building  on  the  * 
left,  and  part  of  Balliol  College  and  bt  John's 
College  on  the  right.  St  Giles's  Church  is  at  the 
north  end  of  this  street,  which  is  very  wide,  and  haa 
a  row  of  elm-trees  on  each  side,  forming  a  picture 
esque  avenue  like  a  foreign  botUevard.  Beyond 
this,  to  the  north,  is  the  Radcliffe  Observatory  and 
Infirmary.  The  High  Street  is  about  10(X)  yards 
in  length ;  it  is  reckoned  one  of  the  noblest  streets 
— architecturally  considered — ^in  Europe,  and  con- 
tains, among  other  edifices,  jpart  of  the  buildings 
of  Magdalen  College,  Queen  s  Collega,  All-Soiib* 
College,  University  College,  and  St  Mary's  and  All- 
Saints'  Churches.  Parallel  to  it  is  Broad  Street,  in 
which  are  situated  Balliol,   Trinity,  and   Exeter 


OXFORD— OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


OoIIegea,  the  Ashmolean  Maseum,  the  Clarendon 
Rooms,  the  Sheldonian  Theatre,  and  close  by  are 
the  AoMiemiod  Schools,  the  Bodleian  Library,  and 
the  Picture  Qallery.     In  St  Aldate*s  Street,  which 
forms  the  southern  part  of  the  series  of  streets 
tlieady  mentioned  as  forming  one  line,  and  ninning 
north  and  south,  is  Christ  Church  College   (the 
entrance  tower  of  which  contains  the  great  bell 
*  Tom  of  Oxford,'  weighing  upwards  of  17,000  Ibe.) 
and  St  Aldate's  Church.     The  other  colleges  and 
important  buildings  connected  with  the  University 
of  O.    lie  back   from  the  principal  streets.      To 
attempt    particularising    the    architectural    char- 
acteristics of  each  of  these  edifices  is  impossible 
within  our  limits.    It  may  suffice  to  say,  that  though 
there  is  nothing  extraordmarily  fine  about  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  colleges,  regarded  individually,  yet 
the  vast  number  of  the  structures  and  variety  of 
styles    present  a  tatU-^twemble  that   is   altogether 
subUme.      The    efifect   is    wonderfully    heightened 
by   the  intersperaion   of   gardens,   meadows,   and 
venerable  trees — old  as  the  buildings  that  tower 
above  them.    Christ  Church  is  celeorated  for  its 
magnificent  hall,  picture  gallerv,  and  library,  as 
weU  as  for  its  extensive  grounds;  its  chapel,  the 
cathedral  church  of   O.,  is  Norman  in  style,  but 
is  inferior,  both  in  size  and  beauty,  to  most  English 
cathedrala    Merton  College  is  situated  a  little  to 
the  south  of  the  High  Street,  and  still  retains  the 
original  chapel  and   part   of   the   other  buildings 
erected  by  Walter  de  Merton  in  the  13th  century. 
Magdalen  College  retains  its  celebrated  cloister  and 
tower  of  the  15th  c,  and  the  buildings  here  are  the 
most   complete  of  any  college   in   Oxford.      Oriel 
College,  a  comparatively  mooem  structure,  is  very 
pictaresqu^  but  far  £rom  chaste  in  its   design ; 
New  College  ranks  among  the  noblest  buildings  in 
the  city — *the  chapel,  the  hall,  the  cloisters,  the 
groined  gateways,  and  even  some  original  doors 
and  windows  remain,  in  their  exterior  at  least,  as 
they  came  from  the  hand  of  their  master  archi- 
tect»'    William    of    W^keham,    600    years    ago  ; 
Queen's  College  is  built  in  the  Grecian  style  of 
architecture,  with  a  spacious  and  handsome  chapel 
and   a  fine  library ;  so  is  Trinity  College ;   Uni- 
versity College   is   a  not   nnpleasing  mixture   of 
Gothic  and  Italian ;  Exeter  College  has  a  splendid 
frontage  on  the  west,  and  its  chapel  (built  1857 — 
1S58),  in  the  Gk)thio  style,  is  the  finest  modem 
building  in  the  city ;  it  has  also  an  excellent  hall, 
and  a   beautiful   Ubrary;    Balliol    College    has   a 
remarkably  fine  chapel,  built  only  a  few  years  ago. 
Among    the   other    churches    in    O.,  besides    uie 
cathecual  chnrch  and  the  college  chapels,  are — St 
Mary's,  which  is  attended  by  the  members  of  the 
nniversitv ;  St  Martin's,  the  church  of  the  corix)ra- 
tion  of  0. ;  St  Peter's-in-the-East,  with  a  Norman 
erypt ;  St  Michael's,  with  a  Saxon  tower ;  and  St 
Aloate's.    The  chief  buildings  connected  with  the 
university,  besides  the  Bod&ian  and  the  Ashmo- 
lean Museum  already  mentioned,  are  the  Radcliffe 
labrary,  a  circular  structure,  adorned  with  Corinth- 
ian columns  and  surmounted  by  a  dome ;  the  Rad- 
cliffe Observatory,  crowned  by  an  octagonal  tower, 
in  imitation  of  the  Temple  of  the  Winds  at  Athens ; 
the  University  Printing-Office,  and  the  Taylor  and 
Randolph  Institution,  founded  '  for  the  teaching  the 
£aropean  languages,'  a  very  handsome  and  exten- 
sive range  of  buUdinga.    The  Botanic  Gardens  are 
not   far  from  the  Cherwell,  and  nearlv  opposite 
Magdalen  Collega      Other  notable  buildings,  not 
connected  witii  die  university,  are — the  Town  Hall, 
the    Radcliffe   Infirmary,   the    County    Gaol,  and 
one  or  two  dissenting  places  of  worship,  such  as  the 
Wealeyan  Chapel  in  New^Inn  Hall  Lane,  and  the 
Independent  Chapel  in  George  Lan& — The  city  of 


O.  is  a  mart  for  the  disposal  of  the  agricultural 
produce  of  the  neighbouring  country,  but  has  little 
trade  of  its  own,  and  is  dependent  ior  its  prosperity 
chiefly  on  the  university.  It  is  a  municipiu  and 
parliamentary  borough,  and  governed  by  a  mayor, 
nine  aldermen,  and  thirty  councillors,  whose  juris- 
diction, however,  does  not  embrace  the  university. 
Both  the  city  and  the  university  send  two  members 
to  parliament. 

O.,  by  the  Saxons  called  Oxnaford,  and  in  the 
Domemlay  Book,  Oxeneford  (probably  from  its  having 
been  originally  a  ford  for  the  passage  of  oxen),  is  a 
place  of  great  antiquity.  The  date  of  its  origin  is 
unknown,  but  as  earlv  as  the  8th  c.  there  was  a 
nunnery  established  here ;  and  in  802,  an  act  of 
confirmation  by  Pope  Martin  11.  describes  it  as  an 
ancient  seat  of  learning.  It  is  said  to  have  been  a 
residence  of  King  Alfred,  and  also  of  Canute,  who 
held  several  paniaments  within  its  walls.  The 
townsmen  closed  their  gates  against  William  the 
Conqueror,  who  stormed  the  town  in  1067,  and  gave 
it  to  one  of  his  followers,  Robert  d'Oyley,  who  built 
a  castle  here  to  overawe  the  disaffected  Saxons, 
some  ruins  of  which  are  still  to  be  seen.  The 
paction  that  terminated  the  strife  between  Stephen 
and  Henry  II.  was  drawn  up  at  Oxford.  In  the 
reign  of  Edward  III.,  the  preaching  of  Wickliffe 
excited  great  commotion  among  the  students,  and 
threatened  well-nigh  the  dissmution  of  the  uni- 
versity. In  the  reign  of  the  *  Bloody  Mary,'  it 
witnessed  the  martyraoms  of  Ridley,  Latimer,  and 
Cranmer;  and  during  the  great  civil  war  of  the 
17th  c,  it  was  for  a  while  the  head-quarters  of  the 
Royalist  forces,  and  was  conspicuous  for  its  adher- 
ence to  Charles  I.  Ever  since  that  period  the  city 
— or,  at  any  rate,  the  university — has  been  in  genend 
characterised  by  an  extreme  devotion  to  the 
*  ohurch '  and  the  '  king.' 

OXFORD  UNIVERSITY  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  King  Alfred.  Without  claiming  for  it  an 
origin  ^uite  so  ancient,  it  is  certain  that  from  very 
early  times  studeuts  resorted  to  Oxford  in  order  to 
attend  lectures  there  delivered  by  learned  men,  and 
that  they  lived  in  the  houses  of  the  townsi)eopl&  In 
some  cases  they  combined  together,  so  as  to  secure 
the  service  of  a  common  teacher,  with  whom  they 
lived  in  a  large  tenement  called  an  inn,  hostel,  or 
hall.  For  a  long  time,  however,  the  great  majority 
of  the  students  lodged  in  rooms  hired  from  the 
citizens ;  and  as  late  as  the  year  1512,  regulations 
were  made  for  the  governance  of  such  students. 
As  their  numbers  increased,  the  haUs  were  multi- 
plied. Anthony  Wood  states  that  he  could  shew 
the  names  and  places  of  more  than  a  hundred.  A 
great  diminution  in  the  numbers  of  the  students  took 
place  about  the  middle  of  the  15th  century.  This, 
among  other  causes,  led  to  the  gradual  di8api>ear- 
ance  of  the  haUs,  which  were  bought '  up  by  the 
wealthier  colleges.  Only  five  of  the  halls  now 
exist,  which  differ  from  the  colleges  only  in  that 
they  are  unincorporated,  and  have  little  or  no 
endowments.  Residence  in  private  lodgings  had 
also  fallen  into  disuse ;  and  by  the  time  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  it  had  become  a  comi)ulsory  rule  that  aU 
undergraduates  should  reside  in  some  college  or 
haU,  at  least  for  the  first  twelve  terms  of  residence. 

The  colleges  were  founded  at  various  periods, 
from  the  ei^d  of  the  13th  c  to  the  beginning  of  the 
18th.  Fourteen  out  of  the  19  were  K>nnded  before 
the  Reformation.  Their  object  originally  was  to 
support  limited  societies  of  students,  who  were  to 
devote  their  lives  to  study— by  no  means,  as  at 
present,  to  educate  large  classes  of  the  community. 
Students,  other  than  those  on  the  foundation,  seem 
not  to  have  been  regarded  by  the  founders  at 
Ian   essential  part   of   the   college.     The  coUegei 

171 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


ftrose,  as  has  been  already  said,  partly  instead 
of  the  old  halls,  and  were  partly  at  tirst  connected 
with  the  monasteries,  it  being  by  means  of 
these  institutions  that  benevolent  persons  were 
enabled  to  give  permanent  support  to  poor 
secular  scholars.  University  and  Balliol,  which 
now  rank  as  the  oldest  colleges,  were  in  point 
of  fact  halls  supported  by  endowments  held  in 
trust  for  the  maintenance  of  their  students.  The 
origioator  of  the  collegiate  system,  in  anything 
like  its  present  form,  was  Walter  de  Merton,  who, 
besides  having  founded  Merton  College,  is 
entitled  to  the  honour  of  having  mainly  con- 
tributed to  fix  the  university  in  iU  present  site. 
All  those  on  the  foundation  of  the  coUe;i:es  before 
the  Reformation  were  called  Clerict  The  great 
majority  of  the  fellows  were  required  to  take 
priest's  orders  within  a  certain  period  after  their 
election.  This  requirement  of  course  involved 
celibacy,  which,  besides,  was  expressly  imposed  in 
some  colleges  ;  and  practically,  in  old  times  as  now, 
was  enforced  bv  the  rule  of  life  and  the  obligation 
of  residence.  The  colleges  are  now,  and  for  long 
have  been,  the  imiversity.  All  students  must  belong 
to  some  college  or  hall ;  and  the  members  of  these 
societies  furnish  the  governors  and  teachers,  and 
learned  men  of  the  university.  With  a  few  excep- 
tions, the  professors,  even  since  the  recent  extension 
of  the  professoriate,  are,  or  have  been,  fellows  of 
colleges. 

Previous  to  the  statute  17  and  18  Vict  c.  81,  the 
constitution  of  the  university  was  as  follows:  1. 
The  Hebdomadal  Board,  or  Weekly  Meeting,  con- 
sisting of  the  Heads  of  Houses  and  the  two  Proctors, 
which  body  exercised  the  chief  share  of  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  university,  and  possessed  the  exclusive 
power  of  initiating  legislation;  2.  Congregation, 
consisting  of  certam  university  dignitaries,  which 
met  merely  for  the  purpose  of  conferring  degrees ; 
3.  Convocation,  consisting  of  all  Masters  of  Arts,  a 
body  whose  consent  was  necessary  before  any  of 
the  measures  proposed  by  the  Hebdomadal  Board 
oould  become  law,  which  elected  the  chancellor,  the 
two  representatives  of  the  university  in  parliament, 
several  of  the  professors,  and  di8i)ensed  the  ecclesi- 
astiual  patronage  of  the  university.  The  statute 
referred  to  introduced  important  changes.  The 
Hebdomadal  Board  has  been  chansed  into  the 
Hebdomadal  Council,  consisting  of  tne  chancellor, 
the  vice-chancellor,  the  proctors,  six  heads  of  houses, 
six  professors,  and  six  members  of  convocation  of 
not  less  than  five  years*  standing — such  heads, 
professors,  and  members  of  convocation,  being 
elected  by  congre^tion,  and  holding  office  for  six 
years.  Congregation,  again,  now  consists  of  all  the 
great  officers  of  the  university,  the  professors,  the 
public  examiners,  and  all  residents ;  and  on  this 
Dody  is  now  bestowed  the  power  of  accepting  or 
rejecting,  and  of  amending  any  statute  framed  by 
the  Hebdomadal  Council.  Tne  composition  and 
powers  of  Convocation  remain  imchanged.  The 
students  not  on  the  foundation  are,  or  rather  were 
divided,  according  to  their  rank  or  wealth,  into 
Peers  and  the  eldest  sons  of  Peers,  FeUow-Com- 
mouers,  Commoners,  and  Servitors.  The  latter, 
properly  so-called,  have  disappeared  from  every 
college  but  Christ  Church,  though  atf  several  of  the 
other  colleges  there  is  an  inferior  class  neai-iy  resem- 
bling them,  called  '  clerks,'  *  Bible-clerks,*  ftc  The 
distmction  between  commoners  and  fellow-com- 
moners, resting  merely  upon  money,  has  been  long 
disapproved  en  by  those  best  able  to  judge  of  its 
effects,  and  is  gradually  disappearing.  The  privi- 
leges of  Peers,  £a,  may  be  waived  at  pleasure,  and 
•ome  colleges  will  only  receive  men  of  rank,  on 
•ondition'  that  these  privileges  are  to  be  waived, 
US 


Indeed,  the  best  colleges,  such  as  Bslliol,  have  long    ^ 
refused  to  recognise  any  of  the  above  distinctaona. 
It  is  very  difficult  to  ascertain  the  actual  numbor 
of  students  at  any  one  time  in  Oxford,  but  now  it 
is  probably  seldom  above  1400. 

There  are  four  terms  in  each  year — yiz,,  Michael- 
mas Term,  which  begins  on  the  10th  of  October 
and  ends  on  the  17th  of  December ;  Hilary  Term, 
which  begins  on  the  14th  of  January  and  ends  the 
day  before    Palm   Sunday ;   Easter  Term,  which 
begins  on  the  10th  day  after  Easter  Sunday  and 
ends  on  the  day  before  Whitsunday ;  Trinity  Term, 
which  begins  on  the  Wednesday  after  Whitsunday 
and  ends  on  the  first  Tuesday  in  July.     Full  Term, 
as  it  is  called,  does  not  begin  till  vie  first  day  of 
the  week  after  the  first  congregation  is  hekL    By 
undergradaates,  Michaelmas  and  Hilary  Terms  are 
kept    Dy   six    weeks*  residence,  and   Easter   and 
Trinity  Terms  by  three    weeks  each ;   but  more 
than  this    is    required  by  most  of   the    collies. 
Twenty-six  weeks  may  be  taken  as  the  ordinary 
lenffth  of  the  academic  year.    Twelve  terms  of  resi- 
dence are  required  for  the  degree  of  KA.  from  lUl 
except    peers,    baronets,   knights,  kc ;    and  their 
eldest  sons,  if  matriculated  as  such^  who  are  allowed 
to  go  up  for  their  degree  after  eight  terms'   resi- 
dence, but  not  until  their  twelfth  term  from  matri- 
culation.   The  degree  of  M.A  is  obtainable  in  the 
twenty-seventh  term  after  matriculation ;   in   the 
privileged  cases,  in  the  twenty-third.    By  a  statute 
passed  in  1850,  the  following  examinations  were 
made  necessary  for  a  degree  in  arts.    1.  Kesnonsions, 
called  *  Little  Go  *  or  *  Smalls '  in  the  familiar  language 
of  undergraduates,  te  be  passed  previous  to  the  6th 
tenn.    Subjecte :  one  Latin  and  one  Greek  author 
— or  portions  of  thena,  as  five  books  of  Homer,  five 
of  Virgil,  two  Greek  plavs,  &c. — with  a  paper  of 
grammatical  questions;   a  piece  of  English  to  bo 
translated  into  Latin ;    two  books  <tf  Euclid,  or 
algebra   up  to    simple    equations  inclusive ;    and 
arithmetic.    2.  The  First  Public  Examination,  or 
Moderations,  to  be  passed  between  the  7th  and  10th 
terms.    Subjecte :  the  Four  Gospels  in  Greek  (except 
in  the  case  of  persons  not  membere  of  the  Church 
of  England,  when  some  one  Greek  author  is  to  be 
substituted) ;  one  Greek  and  one  Latin  author,  not 
the  same  as  those  ofiered  for  lesponsions,  and  one 
must  be  a  poet,  the  other  an  orator ;   a  piece   of 
English  into  Latin,  and  a  paper  of  grammatical 
qiiestions;   logic,  or  three  books  of    Euclid,  and 
algebra.    Honours  are  awarded  at  tins  examination 
both  in  classics  and  pure  mathematics.    Candidates 
are  recommended  to  take  up  especially  poete  and 
orators.     Verses,  as  well  as  Greek  and  Latin  prose- 
writing,  are  required,  and  a  paper  of  grammatiGal 
and  philological  questions  is  set.      In  the  mathe- 
matical school,  which  in  this  examination  exists  aa 
a  separate  school  for  honours  only,  candidates  are 
examined  in  pure  mathematics  up  to  the  Integral 
Calculus  and  the  Calculus  of   Finite  Differerces 
inclusive.    The  main  design  of  this  examination  was 
to  improve  pure  scholarahip  in  Oxford,  but  it  is 
understood  not  to  have  answered  ite  purpose  very 
successfully.      3.  The   Public    Examination,    held 
twice  a  year,  to  be  passed  as  early  as  the  12th; 
and  for  honours,  not  later  than  the  18th  tenn  of 
standing.       There   are   Four  Schools,   in    Oxfonl 
phraseology,  at  this    examination,   two  of   whioh 
must    be  passed   to   obtain   the   degree    of    B.A. 
The  First  School,  to  be  passed  first,  and  by  all,  is 
called  the  School  of  Litem  Humaniores.    Subiects : 
the  Four  Gospels  and  the  Acte  of  tiie  Apostlea  in 
Greek;  the  subjecte  of  the  Books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testamento ;  the  evidences  and  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles  with  Scripture  proofs  (in  the  case  of 
persons  not  members  of  the  Church  of  EngLand*  an 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY. 


•xtn  sathor,  Greek  or  Lfttin,  may  bo  subetitnted 
for  diviDity) ;   one  Greek  and  one  Latin  book,  a 
philosopher    and   a   hiBtorian,    not   the    same   aa 
oad  been  brousht  up  at  responsiona.    Candidates 
for  honours  in  this  school — which  are,  par  excellence, 
tfie  honours  of  the  university — take  up  *  the  Greek 
and  LAtin  languages,  Greek  and   Roman  history, 
chronology,   eeography,   antiquities,   rhetoric    and 
poetics,  moral  luid  political    philosophy.*     These 
subjects  may  be   illustrated  by  moaem   authors. 
BuUer  and  Bacon  are  the  favourite  modem  books 
taken  up.    The  poets  and  orators  having  been  taken 
up  at  moderations,  the  ancient  historians  and  phil- 
osophers form  the  bulk  of  the  books  in  this  school 
Plato  has  of    late   years  been    much   taken    up. 
'Questions  to  be   answered,  passages  to  be  tran- 
slated, and  subjects  to  be  treated  in  Greek,  Latin,  and 
English  will  be  proposed  by  the  examiners.'    Second 
School — Mathematics.      For  *a  pass,*  the  first  six 
books  of  Euclid,  or  the  first  part  of  algebra;  for 
honours,    mixed   as    well    as    pure    mathematics. 
Third  School— of  Natural  Science.    For  *  a  pass,*  an 
aoQuaintance  with  the  principles  of   two  of  the 
following   branches    of    science— mechanical    phil- 
osophy,  chemistry,  physiology;    for   honours,    an 
acquaintance   with   the   principles    of    the    three 
branches  of  science  named  above,  and  an  accurate 
knowled^  of  some  one  branch  of  science.     Fourth 
8chool--Law  and  Modem  History.  For  *  a  pass,*  either 
(first  period)  History  of  England  from  the  Conquest 
to  the  accession  of  Henry  VII L,  with  the  first 
volume  of  Stephen's  Blackstone  ;  or  (second  period) 
History  of  England  from  the  accession  of  Heniy 
VIIL    to  that  of  Queen  Anne,  with  the  second 
volume  of  Stephen's  Blackstone,    Justinian  may  be 
taken  up  instead  of  Blackstone.     Candidates  for 
honours  are  expected  to  add,  for  the  first  part, 
appropriate   parts    of   Gibbon,    Guizot,    Sismondi, 
William  ai  Malmesbury,  and  Milman*s  Latin  Chris- 
UamUy ;  for  the  second  part,  portions  of  Clarendon, 
Robertson,  Ranke,  and  Sismondi    In  law,  candi- 
dates for  honours  are  expected  to  add  Wheaton, 
Vattel,  or  Grotius.    In  1864^  a  statute  was  passed 
introducing  a  slight  but  important   modification. 
Candidates  for  degree,  instead  of  being  required 
to  pass  through  Uoo  schools  at  the  final  examin- 
ation,   will    now   be   idlowwl    their   degree    after 
passing  through  one,  school  only :  provided,  1,  that 
they  uiall  have  obtained  a  thira  class  in  some  one 
school ;  and  %  tiiat  they  shall  have  taken  up  at 
least  three  books  at  moderations.    The  beneficial 
efiecta  anticipated  from  this  change  aro  twofold: 
1,  at  the  end  of  a  year  and  a  half  any  man  whose 
tastes  lead  him  to  a  special  line  of  study,  may  give 
up  classics  if  he  will  read  for  honours  in  something 
ebe ;  and  2^  a  far  greater  number  of  men  wUl,  it  is 
hoped,  be  induced  to  read  for  honours  than  at  pre- 
sent, and  reading  for  honours  is  a  totally  different 
thing  from  reading  for  a  pass.     Examinations  also 
take  place  for  degrees  in  law,  medicine,  divinity, 
and  music  ;  but  ^ese  are  in  great  measure  formaL 
The  examinations  for  degrees  in  arts  are  the  proper 
work  of  the  university. 

Besides  these  honours,  various  distinctions  are 
oomferred  by  the  university.  There  are  several  uni- 
versity scholarships,  more  particularly  the  Vinerian 
law  fellowships  and  schoLarshi^ ;  the  Eldon  Law 
scholarship;  two  Sanscrit  and  tive  Hebrew  scholar- 
ships ;  two  mathematical  scholarships ;  the  Hertford 
scholarship,  for  the  encouragement  of  the  study  of 
Tajjh,  and  the  Ireland  scholarship,  for  the  encour- 
agement of  the  study  of  Greek.  There  is  also  the 
Newdigate  prize  for  the  best  composition  in  English 
Terse ;  and  the  three  chancellor's  prizes  lor  the 
best  compositions  in  Latin  verse,  Latin  prose, 
uid  Ift^g^'^h  prose;  the  Gaisford  prizes  for  Greek 


composition ;  and  the  Arnold  and  Stanhope  prizes  for 
the  oest  essays  on  an  historical  subject  But  the 
great  prizes  are  the  scholarships  and  the  f  llowships. 
By  the  commissioners  under  17  and  18  Vict  c  81, 
these  have  been  for  the  most  part  thrown  open,  an  1 
are  now  awarded  after  examination  without  restric- 
tions as  to  kin  or  place  of  birth.  At  All-Souls,  and 
also  at  St  John's  College,  since  the  labours  of  the 
commissioners,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  keep 
up  the  former  exdusiveness.  The  scholarshipSp 
inaiich  are  ^p  numerous  as  to  be  within  tiie  reach 
of  any  young  man  of  ability,  range  from  £60  to  £80 
a  year,  with  rooms  free,  which,  together  with  an 
exhibition  from  school,  would  go  a  considerable 
way  towards  defraying  the  expense  of  a  university 
education.  At  the  close  bf  this  education  come 
the  fellowships;  and  it  has  been  calculated  that 
when  the  arrangements  of  the  commissioners  are 
complete,  there  will  be  between  20  and  30  fellow- 
ships, varying  from  £200  to  £300  per  annum,  open 
yearly  to  competition. 

Oxford  is,  of  course,  chiefly  fed  from  the  great 
English  schools — of  late  years,  perhaps,  more  espe- 
cially from  Eton  and  Ru^by.  A  close  connection 
subsists,  by  the  terms  oi  the  foundation,  between 
Winchester  and  New  College,  between  Westminster 
and  Christ  Chiurch,  and  between  Merchant  Taylor's 
and  St  John's.  For  the  nature  of  this  conuection,  see 
under  these  colleges.  A  student  desirous  of  going 
to  Oxford,  must  apply  to  the  Head  of  the  Cmlece 
to  which  he  wishes  to  belong.  Application  should 
be  made  early,  as  all  the  good  colleges  are  filled  up 
for  several  years  in  advance.  But  the  Heads  are 
understood  to  reserve  to  themselves  the  iK>wer  of 

giving  rooms  at  once  to  any  young  men  who  may 
ave  distinguished  themselves  at  the  yearly  examin- 
ation for  scholarships,  even  though  their  names 
may  not  have  been  before  on  the  list  There  is 
no  universUy  examination  at  matriculation ;  but 
all  the  good  colleges  have  such  an  examination 
before  they  receive  any  one — the  standard  of  the 
examination,  of  course,  varying  with  the  college. 
After  being  received  into  the  college,  each  uuder- 
graduate  is  assigned  to  a  college  tutor,  who  exercises 
a  special  control  over  his  reading;  but  he  also 
attends  the  instruction  of  the  other  college  tutors 
or  lecturers,  as  the  course  of  his  studies  may  require. 
The  cost  of  tuition  varies  at  different  colleges, 
but  an  average  of  £65  may  be  given  as  paid  by  the 
under^aduate  during  his  whole  career.  This  pay- 
ment IS  at  some  colleges  distributed  over  three,  at 
others  over  four  years.  Besides  this,  almost  every 
undergraduate  finds  it  necessary,  at  some  period 
before  taking  his  degree,  to  real  with  a  private 
tutor,  whom  ne  chooses  for  himself.  Private  tuition 
has  grown  to  be  quite  an  institution  in  Oxford, 
though  not  formally  recognised.  Many  of  the  ablest 
young  men,  after  taking  their  degree,  remain  in 
Oxford  for  a  year  or  two,  taking  private  pupils. 
Much  discussion  has  taken  place  on  the  merits  and 
faults  of  this  system ;  but,  on  the  whole,  it  must 
be  allowed  to  be  useful  for  the  tutor,  as  clearing 
up  and  concentrating  his  knowledge,  while,  at  least 
to  undergraduates  who  read  for  honours  (with  a  few 
rare  exceptions),  it  may  be  considered  as  absolutely 
necessary.  Private  tutors  usually  charge  £10  a 
term  for  three  hours  a  week,  previous  to  1852; 
the  professoriate  of  Oxford  was  strictly  ornamental 
A  jyrreat  effort  was  then  made  to  stir  it  into  life, 
which  has  been  partially  successful  New  pro- 
fessorships were  created,  and  the  endowments  of  old 
ones  were  increased  by  the  commissioners,  under 
17  and  18  Vict  c.  81.  But  the  former  of  these 
measures,  at  least,  whatever  it  may  have  done  for 
the  interests  of  science,  has  produced  but  little 
effect  on  tiie  undergraduates.    They  still  limit  theit 


OXFORD  UNIVERSITY— OXIDES. 


nnge  of  stndies  by  the  Tequirements  of  the  examinA- 
tions  of  the  schools,  and  it  were  hard  to  expect 
^em  to  do  otherwise.  But  professorial  teaching 
has  undoubtedly  become  more  popular  in  the  ordi- 
nary branches  of  study.  Lectures  by  the  professors 
of  Law  and  Modern  History,  of  Moral  Philosophy. 
Logic,  Greek,  and  Latin  are  felt  to  be  useful,  and 
are  therefore  well  attended.  With  Vegard  to  the 
expenses  of  Oxford,  it  is  difficult  to  say  anything 
very  definite.  Tbey  vary  at  different  colleges,  not 
only  indirectly  from  the  tone  of  the  society,  but 
even  directly  from  the  charges  made  for  necessaries. 
A  man  shoidd  be  exceedingly  comfortable  at  Oxford 
with  £300  a  year;  on  £200,  he  can  manage  with 
economv.  Very  few  young  men  could,  with  pru- 
dence, be  exposed  to  the  difficulties  of  livinz  in 
Oxford  on  less  than  the  latter  sum.  There  have 
indeed  been  instances  of  men  passing  creditably 
through  the  university  course  on  £100  a  year;  but 
these  are  exceptional  cases,  and  require  great  tirmness 
to  resist  temptations.  The  necessary  expenses,  how- 
ever, do  not  exceed  that  sum ;  the  habits  of  the  young 
men  themselves  cause  a  great  part  of  the  expenses. 
Discipline  inside  the  college  is  maintained  by  the  head 
of  the  house  and  the  tutors;  in  the  town  and  its 
neighbourhood,  by  the  proctors,  who  are  university 
officers  invested  with  great  authority.  The  former 
cannot  be  very  strict  without  a  sjrstem  of  espionage, 
and  of  giving  weight  to  what  are  called  '  privileged 
communications  * — ^un  worthy  means  too  oftc^  resorted 
to  even  in  good  colleges.  Men  have  been  often 
punished  without  being  heard  in  defence— the  names 
of  their  accusers  being  kept  from  them,  the  verv 
nature  of  their  offence  not  being  mentioned.  Suda 
injustice  often  gives  rise  to  great  and  well-founded 
discontent.  Doubtless  the  matter  is  attended  with 
difficulty ;  but  anything  like  unfairness  or  secrecy 
should  be  always  avoided  in  dealing  with  young  men. 
Perhaps  the  tutors  at  Oxford  interfere  too  much 
with  the  private  life  of  the  undergraduates.  Such 
matters  are  best  regulated  by  the  general  tone  of 
the  place,  which  is,  on  the  whole,  good.  At  the  best 
colleges,  a  young  man  may  pemaps  be  led  into 
folly ;  very  seldom  into  vice  or  meanness.  As  a 
nUe,  the  proctorial  authority  is  openly  and  wisely 
exercised.  The  aggregate  revenue  of  the  colleges 
and  the  university  must  considerably  exceed 
£200,000  a  year. 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  colleges  and  halls  as 
they  rank  in  the  university ;  an  account  of  each  will 
be  found  in  its  alphabetical  place :  University,  Balliol, 
Merton,  Exeter,  Oriel,  Queen's,  New  College,  Lincoln, 
All  Souls,  Magdalen,  Brasenose,  Corpus  Christi, 
Christ  Church,  Trinity,  St  John's,  Jesus,  Wadham, 
Pembroke,  Worcester,  St  Mary  Hall,  Magdalen  Hall, 
New  Inn  Hall,  St  Alban  Hall,  St  Edmund  HalL  To 
these  may  be  added  Litton's  HaH,  being  a  private 
hall  under  the  mastership  of  the  Rev.  Edward 
Arthur  Litton,  in  virtue  of  a  statute  passed  in  1855, 
empowering  any  M.  A  of  a  certain  standing  to  open 
a  private  naXl  on  his  obtaining  a  licence  from  the 
vice-chancellor.  The  idea  has  not  proved  popular ; 
neither  this  hall,  nor  one  which  was  some  time  ago 
opened  by  the  Rev.  George  Butler  can  be  said  to 
have  succeeded. 

Among  the  books  which  may  be  consulted  with 
regard  to  Oxford  are — Ayliffe's  History  of  Oj^ord^ 
Wood's  A  nnalSf  the  University  Calendar,  and  above 
all,  the  Report  of  the  Royal  Commissionerg  /or  1852. 
The  ordinances  issued  by  the  commissioners  under 
16  and  17  Vict  c.  11,  have  been  lately  published  by 
Macmillan  &  Co.,  in  an  accessible  form,  and  will  be 
found  to  contain  the  latest  information  as  to  the 
government  of  the  colleges. 

OXFORD     BLUES.       See    HoBn    Guabd8» 

BOYAU 
174 


OXFORD  CLAY,  the  principal  member  of  the 
Middle  Oolite  series,  is  a  bed  of  stiff  dark-blue  or 
blackish  clay,  sometimes  reaching  a  thickness  of 
600  feet.  There  occur  in  its  lower  portion  in  some 
places  layers  of  tough  calcareous  sandstone,  called 
iCelloway  Book,  from  a  place  in  Wiltshire,  where  it 
is  quamed.  The  O.  C.  lies  beneath  the  plain  on 
which  Oxford  is  built,  and  extends  south-west  and 
north-east  from  the  shore  at  Weymouth  to  the  fen 
lands  south  of  the  Wash,  thence  it  may  be  traced 
through  Lincoln  into  Yorkshire,  untU  it  disappears 
under  the  sea  at  Scarborough.  The  close  packing  of 
the  fossils  in  the  fine  compact  clay  has  caused 
them  to  be  beautifully  preserved;  the  shells  fre- 
quently retain  their  iridescence,  and  even  the  softer 
parts  of  the  cephalopoda  have  sometimes  left  with 
tolerably  clear  definition  their  form  in  the  clay. 
The  fossils  are,  however,  often  filled  with  iron 
pyrites,  which,  on  exrtosure  to  the  atmosphere, 
readily  decomposes  and  destroys  all  traces  of  the 
beautiful  organism.  The  remains  of  chambered 
shells  of  the  genera  belemnites  and  ammonites  are 
verv  abimdant,  and  with  them  are  associated  other 
shells,  interesting  Crustacea,  and  the  species  of 
fishes  and  reptiles  which  are  characteristic  of  the 
oolite. 

OXFORDSHIRE,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  river  Thames,  on  the  E 
by  Bucks,  and  on  the  W.  by  Gloucestershire.  Area, 
472,717  acres.  Pop.  (1861)  171,23a  The  surface, 
where  it  is  not  level,  is  undulating.  In  the  north- 
west  the  hills  rise  in  Broom  Hill  to  836  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  in  the  south-east  of  the  county  are 
the  Chiltern  HiUs  (q.  v.),  rising  near  Nutfield  to 
820  feet  in  height  It  is  watered  along  its  southern 
border  by  the  Thames,  and  the  other  chief  rivers 
are  the  Windrush,  Evenlode,  Cherwell,  and  Thame, 
affluents  of  the  Thames.  By  means  of  the  Oxford 
Canal,  which  joins  the  Thames  at  Oxford,  the  towns 
and  districts  lower  down  the  river  (Abingdon, 
Wallingford,  &c.),  are  supplied  with  coal  from  the 
Leicestershire  coal-fields.  The  soil  is  fertile ;  the 
state  of  agriculture  is  advanced,  about  400,000 
acres  are  either  under  crop  or  in  piasture  ;  and  the 
county  may  be  considered  one  of  the  most  produc- 
tive in  the  country.  Three  members  are  returned 
to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the  county. 

OXIDATION  is  the  term  applied  to  the  onion 
of  any  body  with  oxygen,  the  body  being  then  said 
to  be  oxidised,  and  the  resulting  compound  being 
termed  an  oaide.  Many  bodies  possess  the  property 
of  entering  into  several  distinct  combinations  with 
oxygen.  For  example,  manganese  (Mn)  forms  no 
less  than  six  such  compounds — ^viz.,  MnO,  Mn^O^ 
Mn304,  MnO^  MnO„  Mn^Oj,  which  represent  dUSier- 
ent  stages  of  oxidation. 

O'XIDES,  Metallic,  are  the  most  important 
of  all  the  compounds  of  the  metals,  and  in  many 
cases  occur  naturally  as  abundant  and  valuable 
ores.  They  are  divided  by  chemists  into  three 
classes — ^viz.,  (1)  basic  oxides  or  bases,  (2)  saline  or 
indifferent  oxides,  and  (3)  acid  oxides  or  metallic 
acids.  The  different  oxides  of  the  same  metal 
usually  afford  illustrations  of  two,  and  not  nnfre> 
quently  of  all  three  of  these  classes.  Thus  (to  taker 
tne  case  of  manganese  referred  to  in  the  last  article) 
the  protoxide  (MnO)  is  a  powerful  base,  the  rea 
oxide  (Mn304)  is  a  saline  or  mdifferent  oxide,  shew- 
ing little  tendency  to  combine  either  with  acids  or 
alkalies,  while  permanganic  acid  (Mn207)  presents 
all  the  properties  of  an  acid.  'As  a  general  rule, 
the  greater  the  number  of  atoms  of  oxygen  which 
an  oxide  contains,  the  less  is  it  disposed  to  unite 
with  the  acids;  on  the  contrary,  it  frequently 
possesses  acid  properties,  and  then  unites  with  bases 


OXLEYA— OXYGEN. 


to  fonn  salts.  Protoxides  generally  are  strong 
salifiable  bases;  they  require  one  equivalent  of  a 
monobasic  acid  to  form  neutral  salts.  Sesquioxides 
are  weaker  bases ;  their  salts  are  usually  unstable ; 
the^  require  three  atoms  or  equivalents  of  a  mono- 
basic acid  to  form  a  salt  which  is  neutral  in  com- 
position,  though  it  may  not  be  neutral  to  test-paper; 
and  in  eeneral,  all  oxides  require  as  many  equivalents 
of  acid  as  they  contain  atoms  of  oxy^n  in  their 
composition,  some  of  the  metallic  acids,  Uke  tiie 
stannic  and  titanic,  contain  two  atoms  of  oxygen  to 
one  atom  of  metal,  but  most  of  them  contain  three 
atoms  of  oxygen — such,  for  example,  as  the  manganic, 
ferric,  chromic,  tungstic,  molybdic,  and  vanadio 
acids ;  whilst  in  a  few  cases,  such  as  the  arsenic, 
antimonic,  and  permanganic,  the  proportion  of 
oxygen  is  still  higher.* — Miller's /tiorgranic  Chemistry, 
2d  edit.  p.  314 

Of  the  basic  oxides,  which  form  by  far  the  most 
important  class,  it  may  be  observed  that  they  are 
devoid  of  all  metallic  appearance,  and  present  the 
characters  of  earthy  matters,  and  that  six  only  of 
them  are  soluble  in  water  to  any  considerable 
extent — viz.,  the  three  alkalies,  and  baryta,  strontia, 
and  lime.  All  the  oxides  are  solid  at  ordinary 
temperatures,  and  as  a  general  rule,  the  addition  of 
oxyeen  to  a  metal  renders  it  much  less  fusible  and 
soluble ;  the  protoxide  of  iron,  the  sesquioxide  of 
chiomiom,  and  molybdic  add  being  the  only  oxides 
that  melt  more  readily  than  the  metal  from  which 
they  are  produced. 

OXLiET'A,  a  ^nns  of  trees  of  the  natural  order 
CedrelacetB^  of  which  one  species,  0.  xanthoxyla^  the 
Yellow  Wood  of  Eastern  Australia,  is  a  very  large 
tree,  100  feet  high,  valuable  for  its  timber,  which 
is  yellow,  and  is  used  for  building  boats,  and  for 
TariouB  kinds  of  carpentry. 

CXPECKEB.    See  Bbkf-batbb. 

CXTTS,  the  ancient  name  of  a  great  river  in 
Central  Asia,  which  is  called  by  the  Turks  and 
Persians  Jra^N,  and  Ax6  or  AmJ-DARiA  by  the 
natives  of  the  country  through  which  it  flows.  The 
O.  lises  in  Lake  Sari-kol,  m  or  near  the  Bolar 
Mountains ;  flows  first  west,  and  then  in  a  genend 
north-westerly  direction  through  the  countries  of 
Buddukshan,  Bokhara,  and  Khiva,  and  empties 
itself  by  several  mouths  into  the  Sea  of  Aral  at  its 
southern  extremity.  In  the  first  part  of  ite  course, 
ito  Tolnme  is  increased  by  numerous  affluents,  but 
it  receives  no  tributaries  after  entering  Khiva,  from 
which  point  its  course  is  wholly  through  a  dxy 
■andy  desert.  Its  total  length  is  about  1150  miles, 
and  it  drains  an  area  estimated  at  221,250  English 
square  miles.  A  very  remarkable  fact  in  conuection 
with  this  river  is  the  unanimous  testimony  of 
antiquity  (with  the  exception  of  Pomponius  Mela)  to 
the  fact  of  its  flowing  into  the  Caspian  Sea.  Strabo 
and  Ptolemy,  the  two  great  geoc;raphers  of  ancient 
times,  distinctly  assert  this ;  ana  tne  former  states 
that  merchandise  from  the  interior  of  Eastern  Asia 
was  brought  down  by  this  river  to  the  Caspian  Sea, 
and  thence  to  the  Euxine  by  land-transit;  and 
others  state  that  they  have  discovered  traces  of 
the  debouchure  of  a  large  river  (which  could  be  no 
other  than  the  O.)  in  the  Bay  of  Balkan,  an  inlet  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  supposed 
course  of  the  0.  coincides  with  its  present  one  as 
f ar  as  Ut  4(r  SO'  K.,  and  long.  6V  SO'  K,  near 
Hazarasp,  from  which  point  it  took  a  west-south- 
west direction,  and  joined  the  Caspian  bv  three 
mouths,  the  most  northerly  and  lai^est  of  which 
skirted  the  south  of  the  great  Balkan  range,  and 
fell  into  the  Bay  of  Balkan ;  while  the  most  southerly 
fsQ  into  toe  &iy  of  Adji  Bojar,  70  miles  south  of 


the   former.     The  O.  was   the  boundary  of   ths 
empires  of  Cyrus  and  Alexander. 

OXYA'CIDS.  When  Lavoisier,  in  1789,  gave 
the  name  of  oxygen  to  the  DephUxfUtuxUed  Air 
discovered,  in  1774,  by  Priestley,  he  believed  that  the 
presence  of  that  bod^  was  essential  to  the  existence 
of  an  acid,  and  this  view  was  supported  by  the 
composition  of  the  principal  acids  which  were  then 
known,  such  as  sulpnuric,  nitric,  carbonic,  and  phos- 
phoric acids.  But,  by  degrees,  acids  were  discovered 
into  which  no  oxygen  entered,  but  which  always 
contained  hydrogen,  and  hence  acids  were  divided 
into  two  great  classes,  the  oxyackls  and  the  hydracids; 
oxygen  being  supposed  to  be  the  acidifying  prin- 
ciple m  the  former,  and  hydrogen  in  the  latter.  At 
the  present  day,  scientific  chemists  usually  restrict 
the  term  acid  to  compounds  into  which  hydrogen 
enters,  and  the  acids  are  regarded  as  salts  of  the 
last-named  element ;  thus,  sulphuric  acid  (HO,SOy) 
and  nitric  acid  (HCNO,)  are  the  sulphate  and 
nitrate  of  oxide  of  hydrogen ;  hydrochloric  acid 
(HCl)  is  chloride  of  hydrogen,  &c. 

OXYCHLO'RIDES,  chemical  compounds  con- 
taining both  chlorine  and  oxygen  in  combination 
with  some  other  element  or  radical  Chloride  of 
lime  (CaOCl),  chloride  of  potash  (KOCl),  oxychloride 
of  lead  or  Turner's  yellow  (PbCl,7PbO)  belong  to 
this  class. 

CXYGEN  (symbol  O,  equivalent  8,  specific 
gravity  1'1056)  is  a  colourless,  inodorous,  tasteless 
gas,  which  has  never  been  reduced  by  cold  and 
pressure  to  a  liquid  or  solid  condition.  Its  chemical 
affinities  for  other  elementary  substances  are  verv 
powerful ;  with  most  of  them,  it  is  found  in  combi- 
nation, or  may  be  made  to  combine,  in  more  than 
one  proportion;  with  several  in  four,  five,  or  six 
proTwrtions  ;  and  there  is  only  one  element  (fluorine) 
with  which  it  does  not  enter  into  any  combination. 
Owin|;  to  the  intensity  with  which  many  of  these 
combinations  take  place,  this  gas  has  the  ^lower  of 
supporting  Combustion  (q.  v.J  in  an  eminent  degree. 
Of  all  known  substances,  it  exerts  the  smsJlest 
refracting  power  on  the  rays  of  light.  It  possesses 
weak  but  decided  magnetic  properties,  like  those  of 
iron,  and  like  tlus  substance,  its  susceptibility  to 
magnetisation  is  diminished  or  even  susiiended  by 
a  certain  elevation  of  temperature.  It  is  only 
slightly  soluble  in  water ;  lOO  cubic  inches  of  that 
liquid  dissolving  41 1  cubic  inches  of  gas  at  32%  and 
onlv  2  99  inches  at  69^ 

Oxygen  gas  is  not  only  respirable,  but  is  essential 
to  the  sup{X>rt  of  animal  life;  and  hence  it  was 
termed  vital  air  by  some  of  the  older  chemists.  A 
small  animal  placed  in  a  bell-glass  containing  pure 
oxygen  will  not  be  suffocated  so  soon  as  if  it  were 
placed  in  the  same  glass  tilled  with  atmospherio 
air.  For  further  details  on  this  property  of  oxygen, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Uie  article  Kespiration. 

Oxygen  is  the  most  abundant  and  the  most  widely 
distributed  of  all  the  elements.  In  ite  free  steto 
{vmxed  but  not  combined  with  nitrocen),  it  consti- 
tutes about  a  fifth  of  the  bulk,  and  considerably 
more  than  a  fifth  of  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere. 
In  combination  with  hydrogen,  it  forms  eight-nintlis 
of  all  the  water  on  the  g;lobe ;  and  in  combinaticn 
with  silicon,  calcium,  aluminium,  &c.,it  enters  largely 
into  all  the  solid  constituente  of  the  earth's  crust ; 
silica  in  ite  various  forms  of  sand,  common  qiuu-tz, 
flint,  &c. — chalk,  limestone,  and  marble— and  all 
the  varieties  of  clay,  conteining  about  half  their 
weight  of  oxy^n.  It  is,  moreover,  found  in  the 
tissues  and  fluids  of  all  forms  of  animal  and  veget- 
able life,  none  of  which  can  support  existence 
independently  of  this  element. 

Tnere  are  various  modes  of  obtaining  oxygen,  the 

176 


OXYGEN— OYSTER 


nmplest  of  wliioh  consists  in  the  exposure  of  certun 
metallic  oxides  to  a  high  temperature.  It  was 
originally  obtained  by  its  discoverer,  Dr  Priestley, 
from  the  red  oxide  of  mercury,  which,  when  heated 
to  about  750**,  resolves  itself  into  metallic  mercury 
and  ox^sen  gas.  It  may  be  similarly  obtained  from 
red  oxi£  and  peroxide  of  lead,  the  resulting  pro- 
ducts in  these  cases  being  protoxide  of  lead  and 
oxygen.  The  following  are  the  chief  methods  now 
employed:  (1.)  The  black  oxide  (or  binoxide)  of 
manganese  (MnO^)  is  much  employed  as  a  source 
of  this  gas.  The  mineral  is  reduced  to  small  pieces 
of  about  the  size  of  a  pea,  and  introduced  into  an 
iron  bottle,  with  a  pipe  through  which  the  gas 
may  escape.  When  the  Wtle  is  placed  in  a  furnace, 
and  attams  a  red  heat,  the  mineral  parts  with 
one-third  of  its  oxygen,  and  the  red  oxiae  of  man- 

ganese  (MnCMn^G  J  remains  behind ;  the  reaction 
eing  explained  by  .the  equation : 


BUek  osld* 
of  ll*ngsn«Mk 

SMnO, 


lUdoxld* 

of  MUgMMMk 

MnO,Mn^O| 


Oiyg«a. 
+      20 


(2.)  A  yerv  pure  and  abundant  supply  of  oxygen 
may  be  obtained  by  heating  chlorate  of  potash 
(KOyClO^),  which  yields  up  au  its  oxygen  (amount- 
ing to  39*16  per  cent.)i  and  leaves  a  residue  of 
chloride  of  potassium.  One  ounce  of  this  salt  yields 
nearly  two  gallons  of  oxygen  gas.  It  is  found  by 
experiment,  that  if  the  chlorate  o£  potash  is  mixed 
with  about  a  fourth  of  its  weight  oi  black  oxide  of 
copper,  or  of  binoxide  of  manganese,  the  evolution 
of  the  gas  is  greatly  facilitated,  although  the  oxides 
do  not  seem  to  undergo  anv  change  during  the 
process.  (3.)  Oxygen  is  readily  obtamed  by  heating 
strong  sulphuric  acid  with  about  half  its  weight  of 
powdered  black  oxide  of  manganese,  or  chlorate  of 
potash,  in  a  glass  retort ;  the  I'eaction  in  the  former 
case  being  expressed  by  the  equation : 


BiMk  oxid* 
of  MangannM. 


MnO, 

Snlptaat* 
of  MaofaoMC 

MnO,SOa    + 


Snlptaarle  kcld. 

+     HO,SOj 


HO 


Oijffaa. 

+     0 


and  in  the  latter  case,  being  of  a  more  complicated 
character.  (4)  Various  processes  have  been  proposed 
for  obtaining  the  gas  on  a  lai^e  scale,  of  which  the 
following,  recommended  by  St  Claire  Deville  and 
Debray,  is  perhaps  the  best :  The  vapour  of  hydrated 
sulphuric  acid  is  passed  over  red-hot  platinum,  by 
which  it  is  decomposed  into  oxygen  and  sulphurous 
acid,  the  latter  of  which  may  easily  be  separated 
(and  made  available  for  the  formation  of  sulphites) 
by  its  solubility  in  water  or  alkaline  solutions.  It 
has  been  calculated  that  a  cubic  m^tre  (35'375  cubic 
feet)  of  oxygen  costs  Ss.  icL  when  obtained  from 
chlorate  of  potash;  nearly  4s,  IcL  when  obtained 
from  manganese ;  and  only  lOd,  when  obtained 
from  sulphuric  acid. 

Of  the  compounds  of  oxygen,  it  is  unneoessary 
to  speak  here,  as  they  are  described  in  the  articles 
on  the  other  chemical  elements. 

Oxygen  was  discovered  almost  simultaneously,  in 
the  year  1774,  b^  Priestley  and  by  Scheele,  the  Eng- 
lish chemist  having  the  precedence  by  a  few  weeks. 
Priestley  gave  it  the  name  of  Dephhgisticated  Air; 
Scheele  termed  it  Empyreal  Air  ;  Gondorcet  shortly 
afterwards  suggested  Vital  Air^  as  its  most  appro- 
priate designation ;  and  in  1789,  Lavoisier,  who,  by. 
a  series  of  carefully  conducted  and  very  ingenious 
experiments,  provea  that  the  combustion  of  bodies 
in  the  air  consisted  essentially  in  their  chemical 
oombination  with  oxygen,  and  thus  overthrew  the 
Phlogiston  (q.  v.)  theory,  gave  it  the  name  which  it 

now  retain^  in  consequence  of  his  (erroneously) 
176 


believing  that  it  possessed  a  certain  property  which 
is  described  in  the  article  Oxtacids. 

OXYHY'DROQEN  MICROSCOPE.  See 

Solar  Microscope. 

OXYRHY'NCHTTS,  the  name  of  a  celebrated 
Egyptian  fish,  said  to  be  reverenced  throughout 
Egypt,  and  sacred  to  the  goddess  Athor.  Its  nam« 
in  E^;yptian  is  Mo,  and  the  fish  in  the  hieroglyphs 
was  used  for  this  syllable,  and  particularly  ex- 
prrased  the  idea  of  the  body.  In  the  ritual,  th# 
deceased  particularly  stated  that  he  had  not  caught 
this  fish.  The  name  ap(>ears  to  have  comprised  ux« 
genua  Mormoras,  distinguished  by  its  pointed  nose 
and  long  dorsal  fin.  The  fish  was  worshipped  in  one 
of  the  nomes,  which  was  called  after  it,  and  the 
inhabitants  held  it  in  such  reverence  t^t  they 
would  not  touch  any  fish  captured  by  a  hook.  When 
the  portions  of  the  body  of  Qsiris  were  flung  into 
the  Kile,  this  fish  alone  ate  one  portion  of  his  body. 
The  O.  was  not  eaten  in  Egypt,  except  by  the 
natives  of  the  Cynonopolites  Nomos.  Its  modem 
name  is  Mizelehy  which  seems  retained  in  the  Coptie 
Pemge,  the  name  of  the  city  of  Oxyrhynchus.  it  is 
represented  both  in  the  sculptures  and  on  the  coins 
of  the  Nome,  and  was  anciently  embalmed. — The 
city  of  Oxyrhynchus  is  the  modern  Behneseh,  lying 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Lower  EgypC 
near  the  Bahr-el- Jusuf. 

OXYU'RIS  VERMI'CULARIS  is  the  name 
now  assigned  by  most  zoologists  to  the  intestinal 
worm  described  as  Aacaris  (q.  v.)  vermicularis,  yet 
it  is  the  original  and  true  Ascaris.  For  the  mode  of 
recognising  the  presence  of  this  worm,  and  treating 
patients  su£fering  from  its  presence,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  Vermifuges  and  Worms. 

O'YER  AND  TB'RMINERjFr.  OMfr,tohear; 
terminer^  to  determine).  A  commission  of  oyer  and 
terminer  is  granted  by  the  crown  to  the  judges  and 
others  to  hear  and  determine  all  treasons,  felonies, 
and  trespasses ;  and  it  is  by  virtue  of  this  commission 
that  the  judges  on  circuit  dispose  of  criminal  cases 
in  the  various  circuits.  Sometimes  a  special  com- 
mission  of  the  samP  kind  is  issued,  authorising 
the  judges  to  go  and  try  prisoners  at  other  than  th« 
ordinary  times. 

O'YSTER  {Ostrea\  a  genus  of  lamellibranchiate 
molluscs,  of  the  section  with  a  single  adductor 
mu8cl&  See  Lamellibranchiata.  The  shell  con- 
sists of  two  unequal  and  somewhat  irregularly 
shaped  yalves,  of  laminated  and  coarsely  foliated 
structure;  and  the  hinge  is  without  tooth  or 
ridge,  the  valves  being  held  together  by  a  ligament 
lodged  in  a  little  cavity  in  each.  The  animal  is, 
in  its  organisation,  among  the  lowest  and  simplest 
of  lameUibranchiate  molluscs.  It  has  no  foot;  and, 
except  when  very  young,  no  power  of  locomotion, 
or  organ  of  any  kind  adapted  to  that  purpose.  Its 
food  consists  of  animalcides,  and  also  of  minute 
vegetable  particles,  brought  to  it  by  the  water,  a 
continual  current  of  which  is  directed  towards 
the  mouth  by  the  action  of  the  gills.  The  gills  are 
seen  in  four  rows  when  the  valves  of  the  snell  are 
separated,  a  little  within  the  frinji^ed  edge  of  the 
mantl&  In  the  most  central  part  is  the  adductor 
muscle ;  towards  the  hinge  is  the  liver,  which  is 
large;  and  between  the  adductor  muscle  aod  the 
liver  is  the  heart,  which  may  be  recognised  by 
the  brown  colonr  of  its  aunde.  The  mouth — 
for,  as  in  the  other  lamellibranchiata,  there  is  no 
head— is  situated  beneath  a  kind  of  hood,  formed 
by  the  union  of  the  two  edges  of  the  manUe 
near  the  hinge.  It  is  jawless  and  toothless.  Tlie 
ovaries  are  very  large  during  the  season  of  repro- 
duction, which  extends  over  certain  months  in 
summer,  when  oysters  are  out  oi  season  for  the 


tiblc  Oysten  an  hennitpIinMlite.  Thej  prodi... 
mt  namben  of  yootig.  LciniwenhiKk  cafculttt^d 
thkt  from  30UO  to  400U  eiUt  wiihiD  wi  0.  at  once 
wheD  'aiok,'  '  milky'  or  full  of  gpawu  ;  and  aocord- 
ms  to  Foil,  ona  O.  produces  about  l.'ii-'^i'^f'O  eggtk 
The  ^ga  aro  hatched  within  the  ihell  and  mnntle 
o(  the  pnreot,  ajul  the  ymiDg  are  to  be  aeen  swkii- 
nine  slowly  to  a  whitish  and  mucous  or  creamy 
floid  nuTODDding  the  gilU,  which  becapiea  darker 
and  of  a  muddy  appeanuioe  when  they  are  about 
to  be  expelled.  Each  yoniu-  0.  is  then  about 
Y^ith  of  an  inch  in  lenstb,  and  about  two  millioDS 
are  capable  of  bdne  (dosely  packed  in  the  space 
of  a  cubic  inch.  When  the  parent  O.  expels  the 
young,  and  this  is  done  Biuiultaaeoasly  by  mnlti- 
todea  on  an  oyster-bank,  the  water  becomes  filled 
as  with    ■   thick   oloud,   and   the    spawn — called 

rby  fishennen — is  wafted  awaf  by  currents ; 
greater  part,  of  cotuoe,  to  be  generally  lost,  by 
beiDg  driven  to  unsuitable  situations,  as  eijiosed 
rocu,  mnddy  ground,  or  sand  to  which  it  cannot 
adhere,  or  to  be  devoured  by  fishes  and  other  marine 
p"'"*^W,  but  some  to  find  an  object  to  which  it 
an  attach  itself  for  life.  The  young  come  forth 
famished  with  a  temporaiy  organ  for  swimming, 
ciliated,  and  proTided  with  powerfal  muscles  for 
extending  it  beyond  the  Talvea  and  withdrawing 
it  at  pleasure ;  and  wheu  the  O.  has  become  fixed 
in  its  permanent  place  of  abode,  this  organ,  being 
DO  longer  of  any  use,  has  been  supixwed  to  drop 
otr,  or  giadoally  to  dwindle  away  and  disappear. 
Bnt  Dr  F.  Backland  has  recenUy  expressed  the 
ojHnioa,  that  the  swimmiug  orgaa  of  the  young 
oyster  ia  the  'lltDgs,'  and  remains  as  the  'luogs 


Fig.  L 


Fig.  2. 


in  tlie  mature  oyster.  The  four  figures  here 
{(iven  represent  the  young  oyster  much  magni- 
Iiih].  Figs.  1.  3,  4  ore  views  of  the  upper  and  under 
aide  ;  tig.  2  is  on  edge  view,  lu  very  favourable 
•itaations,  oystera  grow  rapidly,  so  that  the  Com- 


mon O.  is  ready  lor  the  table  in  a  year  and  a  1 
or  two  years  ;  but  in  other  places,  a  longer  ti 
ia  reqairad,  often  about  five  years. 


The  tpeciet  of  0.  are  Dumerons,  and  ar«  found  in 
the  seas  of  all  warm  aad  temperate  climates.  Noni 
have  been  found  in  the  coldest  parts  of  the  world. 
The  CoMMOK  0.  (O.  ediUU)  is  the  only  British 
species.  Like  it,  the  other  species  are  gencraUy 
found  where  the  water  is  of  no  great  deptb ;  and 
some  of  thtm,  also  hke  it,  are  very  abundant  in 
estuaries,  where  the  water  is  not  very  salt.  The 
manjirnve  swamps  of  warm  climates  ofteu  abound 
in  oysters  of  excellent  flavour  (0.  paralitica,  &c.) 
adhering  to  the  roots  and  branches  of  the  trees, 
within  the  reach  of  the  tide.  Some  of  the  species 
differ  from  the  Common  O.  not  a  little  in  form,  as 
the  LoNQ-HiNOKD  O.  (0.  Canadeiuu)  of  North  Ame- 
rica, which  is  very  elongated ;  and  some  of  them 
far  exceed  it  in  size.  Sir  J.  £.  Tennent  states  that 
ho  meaaured  the  shell  of  an  e<tible  O.  in  Ceylon, 
and  fouud  it  a  little  more  than  11  inches  in  len^'th 
by  half  as  many  in  breadth ;  '  tbua  unexpectedly 
attesting  Oie  correctness  ot  one  of  the  storiea  related 
by  the  historians  of  Alexander's  ex|>edition,  that  in 
India  they  had  found  oysters  a  foot  long.'  Some 
a]>ecics  of  O.  have  the  valves  plaited  with  strong 
longitudinal  plaits. — For  the  illustrations  here 
given,  we  are  indebted  to  the  kindneas  of  the  editor 
of  the  Field. 

Young  oysters  readily  attach  themselves  to  the 
shells  of  old  ones,  aud  thus,  in  favourable  ciroum. 
Stances,  oyater-banks  increase  raiiidly,  so  as  to  All 
up  shallow  parts  nf  the  sea,  aod  to  form  walls  which 
ettectuaUy  resist  the  waves  and  tide.  This  is  very 
remarkably  the  case  on  the  alluvial  shores  of  Georgia 
and  some  other  parts  ot  North  America,  where 
these  banks  ore  called  Baaxnt  Banke,  because  the 
racoon,  among  other  animals,  visits  them  to  feed 
upon  the  oysters.  Marshy  land  extends  inwards 
from  12  to  18  miles  from  the  eea,  with  tidal  rivers 
meandering  through  it,  and  these  rivers  are  kept 
pretty  constant  to  their  channels  by  the  walls  of 
living  oj'sters  on  both  aides.  Laree  bunches  of 
oysters  may  even  be  found  among  Uie  long  grass. 
It  is  not  unusual  for  the  inhabitants  of  the  neigh- 
bourhood to  light  a  fire,  and  roast  a  bunch  ot  oysters 
on  the  8]x>t.  So  abundant  ore  the  oysters  in  many 
places,  that  a  vessel  of  100  tons  misht  be  loaded 
within  three  times  her  own  length.  American 
oysters,  which  are  of  excellent  fiavour,  are  on 
important  article  of  commerce  in  Ameriiio,  and 
have  begun  to  be  imported  (olive)  into  Britain. 

Notwithstanding  the  prodigious  fecundity  of  the 
0.,  however,  the  beds  or  banks  which  yield  it  for 
the  markets  of  Britain  and  other  l^luropeon  coun- 
tries are  not  sufficiently  productive  to  satis^  the 
demonil,  and  it  is  not  so  much  an  article  of  ordinary 
food  for  all  classes,  as  a  luxury  of  the  wealthy. 
The  usual  moite  of  taking  oysters  by  dredging  is 
destructive,  although,  for  oyster-beds,  which 
are  at  al!  states  of  the  tide  covered  with  a 
considerable  depth  of  water,  ootbinK  1>etter 
has  been  deviseil,  and  the  anxiety  of  fisher- 
men   to  make    the    most    of    the    present 
opportunity   has   caused  many  beds  to  be 
almost  ruined  b^  over- dredging.     But  the 
artilicial  formation  of  oyster-beds  has  been 
resorted  to  with  great  promise  of  success. 
It  is  indeed  no  novelty,  having  been  prac- 
tised by  the  Romans.    Pliny  says  that '  the 
fimt  person  who  formed   artificial   oyster- 
beds   was   Sergiua  Orata,  who   established 
them  at  Baiie.  ....     This  was  doue  by 
him,  not   for  the  gratification  of  gluttony,, 
but  for  the  sake   of  gain,  as  he  contrived, 
to  make  a  larite  income  by  the  exercise  of 
his  ingenuity,'     Ser^^iis  Ornta  lived  iu  the  time  oi 
Augustus.    Among  the  vicaria   of  later  emperoiw 
and  other  wealthy  Bomans  were  ostnario,  specially 


devotrd  to  oystert;  and  oyster-culture  hu  never 
ceued  to  be  practised  in  Italy,  although  to  an 
inconsiderable  extent,  and  particularly  in  hake 
Fusoro,  the  Aclieron  of  Virgil,  a  muddy  salt- 
vater  pond  nowhere  mora  than  tno  yanli  deep. 
In  Britain,  it  haa  alao  hag  been  practised  to  some 
extent,  particularly  on  the  coaats  of  Kent  and 
'Essex,  for  the  supply  of  the  London  market. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  however,  that  this 
branch  of  industry  is  capable  of  vast  deTelop- 
ment,  and  that  many  thouianda  of  acrea  along  the 
British  coasta  might  be  profitably  occupied  in  the 
production  of  oysters,  which  niieht  become,  far 
more  than  hitherto,  a  common  article  of  food.  The 
subject  hoa  recently  received  much  attention  from 
the  Franch  government,  and  moat  snccessfiU  experi- 
mcnta  have  been  maile.  not  only  by  the  government, 
but  also  by  private  ludividiiola  The  shorea  of  the 
Isle  of  BI  hove  within  these  few  yeara  been  in 
great  part  converted  into  nystcrbeda.  the  successful 
entertirise  of  an  olil  soldier  having  led  many  of  his 
Di'ighrKinrs  to  follow  his  example,  so  that  now  more 
than  301)0  men  are  employed  in  oyster- culture  in 
that  iaiand  alone. 


left  dry  by  the  retiring  tide.  In  the  latter  kind  of 
situations,  they  instinctively  keep  their  valves  closed 
when  the  water  deserts  them.  It  ii  in  snch  aitu- 
ations  that  oyster-culture  can  be  most  easdy  and 

Sroiitably  carried  on.    Oar  apace  will  not  admit  of 
etails,   which    we    would    gladly  give.      Various 
metlioda   are    ado]ited    of    preparing   the    artificial 
oyster-bed,  by  providing  auiUble  sohd  objects  for  the 
oystere  to  attach  themselves  to.     Stones  are  piled 
together,  and  in  inch  B  way  that  there  are  many 
open  ipaces  among  them  ;   stakea  are  driven  into 
the   mud  or  sand ;   bundles   of   anutll  sticka   are 
fastened  to  stones  or  stakes;  floors  of  plank*  are 
formed,  at  a  little  height  above  the  bottom,  with 
alleys   between  them,  the    under   surface   of    the 
planks  being  roughened  by  the  adze ;  and  tiles  am 
arranged  io  various  ways,  so  as  to  turn  to  account 
the  whole  space  at  the  disposal  of   the   oyster- 
cultivator  OB  high  as  the  ordinary  tidea  reach.     The 
method  must  be  varied   in  accordance  with    th« 
situation,  and  the  probable  violence  of  winds  and 
waves ;    but  shelt^^   situaticjns  are  best   in  all 
respects ;  and  experience  in  France  seems  to  prove, 
that  tiles  covered  with  cement  are  preferable  to 
everything    that  haa   yet   been   tried   as 
convenient  for  the  cidtivator,   presenting 
a  surface  to  which  oysters  readily  attach 
themaelves,    and    from    which    tliey     can 
eoaily  be  removed,  whilst  the  lai^er  sea- 
weeiis  do  not  grow  on  it  ao  readi^  as  on 
BtoTies    or   wood.     By  the   use  of   tiles, 
covered   with   cement,  the   cultivator   is 
also  able  easily  to  remove  youug  oysten 
from  breeding-grounds  to  fet^ng-groutidi ; 
the   beat    breeding- grounds  being  by  do 
meann   those  in   wiiich  the  oyster  most 
rapidly  attains  ita  greatest  eitc,  and  that 
greenish  tinge  which  Parisian  epicures  so 
much  desire  to  see,  and  which  is  owing 
to   the    abundant    conferva   and    gretn 
monads  of  quiet   muddy  waters. — It   haa 
been  long  known  that  the  oysters  of  par- 
ticular localities  are  finer  than  those  pro- 
duced elsewhere.     Nowhere,  perha]B,  are 
liner  oysters  produced  than  ou  eonie  iiarts 
of  the  British  coasts.   Those  of  Kutiipiceie, 
now  Kichborough,  in  Kent,  were  highly 
esteemeil  by  the  Romans,  whose  epicoriam 
'~     oysters    exceeded    that    of    modem 


Of  the  cnlinary  a 


Tfc»  ae«iiB"an;tDg  tgan  nprcKati  a  picoa  of  wood  •lib  e; 

OTtvamoDtlui  UioHDuukgd  Ii,fraiu  aiuon  uttrentj  diym.' 

Oyrters  live  equally  well  in  sihiationi  where  they  ,  th 
■re  ooDstanUy  under  water,  and  in  those  which  ore  |  lb 


■e  generally  believed  to  be  inor 
and  more  easily  diiiested,  aa  t 


e  from  eating  them  ai 
to  ensue  from  eating  other  kinds  of 
uncooked  food.  Probably  uo  pamsita 
CBjwblo  of  developing  into  any  forta 
injurious  to  the  human  being  eiiata   ia 

the  genus  Oiirea  gives  ita  name  in  snina 
EDological  systems  to  a  family  Otlraiilia, 
The  fossil  sjKciea  are  more  numeroua  tlum 
tiie  recent 

The  name  0.  ii  popolarly  extended  to 
many  molluscs  not  included  among  tho 
Olfriiula.  as  the  Pearl-oyeter  (q.  v.). 

Oysters   raised   in   artificial    beds    «ra 

called  'natives,'  and  are  considered  very 

Bujwrior  to  those  which  ore  dredged  from 

the  natural  beds ;   althoogh  to  tbess  last 

me  of  '  native '  would  seem  more  ap|iTopri&t« 

0  the  other.    From  30,000  to  40,000  buahela 


0Y8TEHS— OZ^NA. 


of  'nKtirea*  ar«  aoDmnied  annnally  in  LaDdon 
■lane,  and  in  addition  to  theee  fullv  12O,U00  buehelii 
of  the  lea-oyitfr  are  also  aold  in  that  city.  It  has 
been  computed  that  ibis  enormuui  bulk  contains 
man  thaa  60U,000.000  individuola,  and  repreaeatj 
a  valne  of  nearly  £I<>U,()00  eterlins.  A  large  trade 
in  oyaten  has  gurnng  op  in  the  ifnited  States,  and 
in  New  York  alane  it  ii  stated  that  the  oyster- 
tisde  exceeds  that  of  all  Europe,  and  amounta  in 
Talae  to  £1.250,000  per  annum. 

Fonil  Oytten. — A  mngls  species  occun  in  the  Car- 
boniferona  Limeetone,  and  as  we  rise  in  the  cruat  of 
the  earth,  the  genoa  becomes  more  and  more  com- 
mon, no  IcM  than  200  species  havin;;  been  recorded, 
Biony  oE  them  scarcely  diattnijuiBhabla  from  the 
liriog  sfteciea.  The  sub-genus  Utyphsa  was  a  free 
■hell,  with  a  large  thick  left  valve  and  small  con- 
cave right  valve.  Thirty  species  have  been  found 
in  beda  of  the  Oolite  and  Uhallc  periods.  In  the 
same  beds  there  occure  another  form  of  Oi 
n-ith  subspiral  reversed  ambones,  to  which  the 
generic  name  EionQrra  ha*  been  ^iven.  forty 
■peciea  of  thia  form  have  been  described. 

OYSTERS,  Law  as  Ta  The  rule  is,  that  he 
who  baa  the  right  of  property  in  the  soil 
shore  ia  entitled  to  catch  or  keep  and  breed  oystere 
there.  But  the  shore  below  the  medium  Ime  of 
the  tides  belongs  to  the  crown,  and  not 
individual ;  and  it  ia  only  by  virtue  of  some  grant 
from  the  cro«p  that  an  individual  or  a  corporation 
can  estalilish  aa  exclusive  title  to  the  sea.shore,  and 
in  inch  a  case  is  exclusively  entitle'l  to  any  oystei 
beds  there.  It  is  thus  always  by  virtue  of  a  grant 
from  the  crown  thiit  oyster. lisheriea  are  claimed  oa 
the  pro]>erty  of  an  individual  or  of  a  corporation. 
Sonic  of  these  fisheries  are  regulated  by  local  acts, 
and  if  so,  then  they  are  governed  by  the  particular 
nJea  laid  down  by  these  actiL  But  the  general 
law,  so  far  aa  not  qualilied  by  any  local  statute,  is 
a«  follows;  Whoever  st«ala  oysters  or  oyster. brood 
from  an  oyBter-l)ed  which  is  private  iinijierty,  is 
piilty  of  felony  ;  an<l  whoever  unlawfully  or 
wilfully  nsea  any  dmige  net  or  instrument  within 
the  limits  of  a  private 

I   guilty  OI  a  misdemeanour,  and  is  liable 
imj>riaoned  for  three  montlis.    But  persons  are  not 

Event«d  frem  lishing  for  floating  tish  within  tbe 
its  of  an  ovater-tialiery,  if  they  use  nets  adapteil 
for  Boating  fish.  Certain  statutes  aa  old  as  the 
time  of  Richard  II.  were  passed  to  protect  oyster- 
Im-id,  liiit  these  were  recently  repealed  by  the 
Salmon  Fishery  Act  {Pateraon  s  Fidury  Latm  or 
V,e  UhU-I  Kingdom).  Under  the  convention 
between  England  and  France,  confirmed  by  the 
statute  6  and  7  Vict  c.  79.  a  close  senson  ia  pre- 
scribed for  oyster- 1 i all ing,  and  the  open  season  oom- 
mencea  on  1st  September,  and  ends  on  the  30th 
April  following.  During  the  close  season,  all  oyster 
flshing-boata  may  be  foanied  by  officers  of  the 
cosAt-^iard  service  or  navy ;  and  oysters  illegally 
caught  may  be  seized  and  destroyed,  and  the 
maslpr  ia  liable  to  a  penalty.  No  oysters  taken  io 
e  seas  between  the  United  Kingdom  and  J^'i 


)  the  United  Kingdom  di 


lunng 


the  above  close  seasoD ;  but  as  regards  the  part  oi 
the  aek  not  ^vemed  by  the  convention  with 
France,  there  a  no  close  season.  The  law  as  to 
oysters  in  Scotland  is  aubatantially  the  same  aa  in 
England.  Aa  to  Ireland,  the  Irish  Fishery  Acts 
give  power  to  the  Irish  Fishery  Commissioners  to 
i^rant  a  licence  to  owners  or  occupiers  oE  land 
ixiunded  by  the  sea-shore,  to  approjiriate  a  certain 
tract  of  the  shore  for  the  purpose  of  forming  oyster- 
beds,  and  thereupon  the  beds  become  private 
property  (Palerwina  FiAtry  Lair/,  {•.  237).    There 


is  also  a  close  seaaon  in  Ireland  for  oysters,  tha 
same  as  is  established  under  the  convention  with 

OYSTER  BAY,  a  favourite  watering-place  on 
the  north  coaat  of  Long  lalaud.  New  York,  II-  S,, 
on  a  deep  sheltered  bay,  opesins  into  Long  Island 
Sound,  26  miles  north-east  of  New  York  city.  It 
abounds  in  handsome  residences  and  fine  scenery, 
and  offers  facilities  for  fishing,  bathing,  4c.  Pop, 
'-  I860,  916a 

OYSTSK-CATCHEB  {Hiemaioput),  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  family  C/iaradriailce  {q.  v.),  chiefly 
inhabiting  sea-coasts,  wiiere  they  feed  on  molluscs, 
crustaceans,  annelids,  and  other  marine  animals— 
onietimeB  even  on  small  fishes.  Their  logs  are  of 
□oderate  length,  like  those  of  the  plovers,  and.  like 
them,  they  have  no  hind-t4>e.  The  most  remarkable 
geueric  distinction  is  found  in  the  bill,  which  ia 
loug,  strong,  straight,  much  compressed  and  wedge- 
liko  towards  the  jioint  They  are  generally  said  ta 
make  use  of  the  bUI  for  opening  the  shells  of  oysters 
and  other  molluscs  ;  but  the  late  Mr  James  WiUou 
expresses  a  very  reasonable  doubt  on  this  point 
The  habits  ot  the  British  species  {H.  oitraUyae).  so 
faraatliey  have  been  accurately  observed,  MreewiUi 
those  of  the  -American.     It  is  the  only  European 


talopai  oilraleffui]. 


those  of  continental  Euroiie,  the  north  of 
Africa,  and  of  the  north  of  Asia.  Its  whole  leirgth 
is  a1x>ut  16  inches.  Ita  tinely-contrasted  black  and 
white  colours  have  gaiueil  it  the  name  of  Se&  Pib. 
It  ia  most  abumlout  on  the  sea-coast,  but  often 
visits  inland  regions,  and  sometimes  breeds  in  them. 
It  does  not  make  a  nest,  but  lays  its  eggs— usually 
four — on  the  shin;^ly  beach  or  bare  groimd.  On 
some  of  the  sandy  Hat  co;ists  of  Lincolnshire,  the 
0.  is  so  abundant,  that  a  bushel  of  the  eggs  have 
been  collected  in  a  morning  by  a  single  fisherman. 
The  .American  0.  is  a  bird  of  passage,  deserting  the 
northern  regions  in  winter.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  Biropean  siiecies,  and  diCTera  from  it  in  colours, 
and  in  greater  length  and  slendemess  of  bilL 

OZ-^'NA  (from  the  Or.  oto,  I  smell)  signiGes  a 
discharge  of  f<Etid.  purulent,  or  sanious  matter 
from  the  nostrils,  it  is  a  symptom  rather  than  a 
disease,  and  may  arise  from  ulceration  of  the  mem- 
brane lining  the  nostrils,  or  from  caries  of  the 
adjacent  bones,  and  may  accompany  syphilitic, 
scorbutic,  scrofulous,  or  cancerous  aOectioDs  of 
these  or  adjacent  parts.  A  slighter  fonn  of  ozsna 
sometimes  follows  chronic  ooiyza  (or  oold  in  the 
head),  malignant  scarlatina,  and  urysi{ielaB  of 
the  face.  The  discharge  is  seldom  accompanied 
by    acute   pain,  nuless  when  caused   by   cancwi 


OZ^INA— OZONE. 


•ometimes,  bawever,  an  aching  is  complained  of. 
The  prognosis  must  depend  upon  the  nature  of 
the  disease,  of  which  the  discharge  is  a  symptom. 
The  treatment  may  be  divided  into  the  general 
or  constitutional,  and  the  locaL  The  acneral 
treatment  should  consist  of  tonics  combined  with 
alteratives,  as  the  preparations  of  bark  with 
the  alkalies,  or  with  the  mineral  acids;  a  dry, 
bracing  air,  or  a  temporary  removal  to  the  seaside, 
is  also  usually  of  service.  If  the  discharge  arises 
from  syphilis  or  scurvy,  the  treatment  suitable  to 
those  diseases  should  be  prescribed.  The  local 
treatment  consists  in  the<  inhalation,  once  or  twice 
a  day,  of  the  steam  of  boiling  water,  to  which  a 
1  ittle  creosote  or  carbolic  acid  has  been  added  ;  and 
in  more  severe  cases,  in  the  thorough  syringing  of 
the  nostrils,  so  as  to  wash  away  aU  collections  of 
matter  with  a  copious  stream  of  warm  water,  to 
wltich  a  little  chloride  of  sine  has  been  added 
(about  30  minima  of  Burnett's  solution  to  half  a 
pint  of  water). 

O'ZONEj  (Gr.  020, 1  smell).  It  was  remarked  long 
ago  that  a  peculiar  odour  was  produced  by  the  work- 
ing of  an  electrical  machine.  Van-Marum  found 
that,  when  electric  sparks  were  passed  through  a 
tube  containing  oxygen,  the  gas  became  powerfully 
impregnated  with  this  odour — which  he  therefore 
called  the  '  smell  of  electricity.'  Subsequent  writers 
attributed  the  phenomenon  to  the  formation  of 
nitric  acid,  due  to  a  trace  of  nitrogen  mixed  with 
the  oxygen  ;  especially  as  the  gas  was  found  to  act 
energetically  upon  mercury.  'Hius  supposed  to  be 
explained,  these  curious  results  were  soon  forgotten. 
But  in  1840,  Schonbein  (q.  v.)  with  remarkable 
acnteness,  made  a  closer  investigation  of  the  ques- 
tion, and  arrived  at  many  most  curious  results, 
which  have  not  even  yet  been  satisfactorily 
accounted  for.  The  problem  remains,  in  fact,  one 
of  the  most  perplexing,  as  well  as  interesting, 
questions  unsolved  in  chemistry. 

The  earlier  results  of  Schonbein  were  as  follow : 
(1.)  When  water  is  decomposed  by  the  voltaic 
current,  the  electrodes  being  of  gold  or  platinum, 
the  oxygen  (which  appears  at  the  positive  pole) 
possesses  in  a  high  degree  the  smell  and  the  oxidis- 
mjg  power  developed  by  Van-Marum  by  means  of 
friction-electricity.  (2.)  When  the  i)ositive  electrode 
is  formed  of  an  oxidisable  metal,  these  results  are 
not  observed,  but  the  electrode  is  rapidly  oxidised. 
(3.)  The  oxygen  collected  at  a  platinum  electrode 
retains  these  prox)erties  for  an  indefinite  period,  if 
kept  in  a  closed  vessel ;  but  loses  them  by  heating, 
by  the  contact  of  an  oxidisable  substance,  and  even 
bv  contact  with  such  bodies  as  charcoal  and  oxide 
of  manganese.  To  the  substance,  whatever  it  ma^ 
be,  which  possesses  such  powerful  chemical  affini- 
ties, SchUnbein  gave  the  name  ozone,  from  its  pecu- 
liar smelL 

In  1845,  he  shewed  that  the  same  substance  can 
be  produced  by  the  action  of  phosphorus  on  moist 
air ;  and  suggested  that  it  might  be  a  higher  oxide 
of  hydrogen. 

De  la  Rive  and  Marignac  shortly  afterwards, 
rei>eating  the  experiments  of  Van-Marum,  shewed 
that  electric  s|)arks  produce  ozone  even  in  pure  and 
dry  oxygen;  and  came  to  the  conclusion,  that  ozone 
is  oxygen  in  an  aUotropic  state,  as  diamond  is  a 
form  of  coke  or  charcoal. 

Baumert,  in  1853,  endeavoured  to  shew  that  there 
are  two  kinds  of  ozone— one  formed  from  pure 
oxj'gen  by  electric  sparks,  which  he  allowed  to  be 
allotropic  oxygen  ;  tne  other  formed  in  the  voltaic 
decomposition  of  water,  which  he  endeavoured  to 
prove  to  be  a  teroxide  of  hydrogen  (HO,).  But 
Andrews,  in  1856,  completely  refuted  this  view,  by 
shewing  that  no  such  oxide  of  hydrogen  (at  least 

180 


in  a  gaseous  form)  is  produced  in  the  electrolysis 
of  water ;  and  that  ozone,  from  whatever  source 
obtained,  is  the  same  body  ;  and  is  not  a  ooihpoimd, 
but  an  allotropic  form  of  oxygen. 

8ch()ubein  has  more  recently  tried  to  shew  that 
whenever  ozone  is  produced,  another  remarkable 
body  (called  antozone)  is  also  produced ;  and  that 
these  are  simply  oxygen  in  different  electrical 
states.  The  facts  on  which  these  ideas  are  founds 
are,  however,  capable  of  other  explanations. 

In  1860,  Andjrews  and  Tait  puolished  the  results 
of  a  series  of  w)lwnietric  experiments  on  this  subject, 
which  led  to  some  remarkable  conclusions — among 
wliich  are  the  following:  When  the  electric  dis- 
charge is  passed  throu^  pure  oxygen,  it  conlracU, 
If  ozone  be  oxygen  in  an  allotropic  form,  it  must 
therefore  be  denser  than  oxygen,  it  was  found  also 
that  a  much  greater  amount  of  contraction,  and  a 
correspondingly  greater  quantity  of  ozone,  were  pro- 
duced by  a  silent  discharge  of  electricity  between 
fine  points,  than  by  a  brilliant  series  of  sparks. 
The  contraction  due  to  the  formation  of  the  ozone 
is  entirely  removed  by  the  destruction  of  the  ozone 
by  heat ;  and  this  process  can  be  repeated  indefi- 
mtely  on  the  same  portion  of  oxygen. 

In  attempting  to  determine  the  density  of  ozone, 
they  used  various  bodies  to  take  up  the  ozone  from 
the  oxygen  containing  it ;  and  met  with  many  vetj 
curious  results.  Thus,  if  mercury  be  introduced,  it 
is  immediately  attacked  and  oxidised,  and  yet  tiie 
oxygen  increaseJi  in  volume.  If  iodine  be  employed, 
it  is  immediately  oxidised,  and  no  dtange  of  volume 
is  observed,  though  the  apparatus  would  have  at 
once  rendered  visible  a  change  to  the  amount  c^ 
inrv^^th  of  the  bulk  of  the  oxygen.  By  measuring 
the  ^contraction  produced  by  electricity  in  the 
oxygen,  then  the  effect  of  introducing  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium,  and  determining  the  amount  of 
oxygen  taken  up  from  the  quantity  of  iodine  set  free, 
An£*ews  and  Tait  shewed  that  the  density  of  ozone, 
if  it  be  allotropic  oxygen,  must  be  practically  infinite 
— L  e.,  that  ozone  muSt  have  the  density  of  a  liquid 
or  a  solid  at  least,  although  existing  in  the  gaseous 
form.  This  conclusion  is  meyitable,  unless  we  make 
the  very  improbable  assumption,  that  when  iodine, 
&c.,  are  exix)sed  to  ozone,  exactXy  one  half  of  the 
ozone  combines  with  the  iodine,  and  the  other  half 
is  restored  to  the  form  of  oxygen.  The  paper  from 
whose  statements  we  have  quoted  ooncludes  witli  a 
suggestion  that  it  is  pombU  that,  in  the  formation 
of  ozone,  oxygen  may  be  decomposed.  This  is, 
of  course,  contrary  io  all  the  received  notions 
of  chemistry — but  such  a  supposition  would  at 
once  reconcile  all  the  apparently  contradictory 
facts  connected  with  this  singular  hody,  Soret  and 
Von  Babo  have  recently  repeated  and  verified  a 
few  of  these  results  ;  but  in  spite  of  the  wonderful 
sagacity  of  Schonbein,  and  the  laborious  experi- 
mental inquiries  of  many  chemists,  the  nature  of 
ozone  is  still  utterly  unknown. 

It  is  not  even  proved  that  ozone  exists  in  the 
atmosphere,  except  as  the  immediate  result  of  elec- 
tricity, though  of  late  years  the  attention  of  meteor- 
ologists has  been  directed  to  the  effect  which  is 
(almost  invariably,  and  sometimes  in  fine  weather 
powerfully)  produced  by  tlie  air  on  what  are  called 
ozone-test- papers —papers  steeped  in  iodide  of  potas- 
sium (and  generally  spoiled  by  the  addition  of 
starch)  which  are  rendered  brown  (or  blue)  by  the 
Uberation  of  iodine.  No  doubt,  ozone,  if  present, 
would  produce  this  effect;  but  there  are  msuiy 
other  substauces  which  we  know  are  gener<my 
present  in  the  atmosphere,  which  are  perfectly 
competent  to  produce  all  the  efiects  observed 
Tliis,  like  tiie  nature  of  ozone,  is  still  an  open 
question. 


p 


THE  sixteenth  letter  of  tlie  EnfflisK 
and  other  western  European  amha- 
1>et8,  was  in  Hebrew  called  Fe,  l  &, 
month,  and  was  most  likely,  in  its  origi- 
nal form,  a  rude  sketch  of  a  mouth.    P 
_  18  the  thin  letter  of  the  labial  series  (p,  &, 
£  v)  and  is  interchangeable  with  the  other 
letters  of  the  series.  P,  in  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and 
Latin,  is  replaced  by/  in  the  Teutonic  tonguea 
Bee  F.    Words  beginninfi  with  p  in  English,  and  its 
kindled  Teutonic  tongues,  are  almost  all  of  foreign 
origin  (Slavic,  Celtic,  Latin),  as  pain  (Fr.  j^et'/i^,  Lat. 
gflpwa),  lAotigh  (Pol.  plug)^  pit  (Lat  puteus,  a  well). 
The  Greek  prep,  apo  (Sans,  apa)  became  in  Lat  ab  ; 
Gr.  kupo,  Lat  sub  ;  Sans,  upa^  Lat  ob  ;  but  before 
sharp  letters,  as  (  and  «,  the  original  p  was  retained 
in  pronunciation,  as  is  shewn  by  inscriptions  {aps^ 
tulUj  opiinui).    There  are  remarkable  interchanges 
of  p  widi  the  sharp  guttural  k  or  q.    Thus,  for  Lat 
quvt^  quod,  quam,  the  Oscan  dialect  had  pia,  pod, 
pam  :  Lat  equuSj  coquo,  corresponded  to  Gr.  hippos 
(^>1.  hikkos),  pepo;   similarly,  Gaelic  mac  (son), 
eeathair  (Lat  quatuor,  four),  coig    (Lat  quinque, 
five),  correspond  to  Welsh  mapy  pedtvar  (Gr.  pet- 
tores)^  pwnp  (Gr.  vente  or  pempe).     Ixl  Gr.,  p  is 
sometimes  replaced  by  t,  as  tis,  tessares,  for  pis, 
pettores.     In  such  words  as  redemption,  consumption, 
p  has  been  introduced  as  an  intermediary  between 
the  incompatible  sounds  m  and  t    The  initial  p  of  i 
Latin  words  has  for  the  most  part  passed  into 
French  nnaltered ;  in  other  positions,  p  has  become 
r;   thus,  Fr.  itfSque^  cheveu,  ddcevoir,  pauvre,  from 
Lat  episcopus,  ecqniliis,  dedpere,  pauper, 

PA'GA  {Coelogenys),  a  genus  of  rodent  quadru- 
peds, aUied  to  the  a£;outis,  cavies,  and  capyb^ra, 
and  inhabiting  Brazil  Guiana,  and  some  of  the 
West  India  Islands.  The  dentition  very  nearly 
resembles  that  of  the  agoutis.  The  cheek-bones 
are  prodigionsly  developed,  in  a  way  of  which  no 
example  exists  in  any  other  mammalian  animal,  so 
that  the  zygomatic  arches  enclose  a  large  hollow 
space,  whilst  the  bone  also  descends  to  an  unusual 
depth  from  the  arch,  even  below  the  lower  jaw- 
bone. Within  this  structure,  which  gives  an  extra- 
ordinary breadth  and  peculiar  aspect  to  the  face,  is 
a  sac  in  each  cheek,  opening  in  front,  and  lined  with 
a  fold  of  t^e  skin  of  the  face.  The  whole  of  this 
•eeras  to  be  intended  to  preserve  the  tnie  cheek- 
pouches  from  external  shocks.  The  cheek-pouches 
open  frook  the  mouth  in  the  usual  way,  and  are 
capable  of  very  great  distention.  The  lip  is  cloven  ; 
the  ears  are  small ;  the  eyes  are  larse  and  full ;  the 
neck  is  short ;  the  tail  is  a  mere  tubercle  ;  the  feet 
kave  each  five  toes  ;  the  legs  are  thick  ;  the  back  is 
rrmnded.  The  form  and  gait  are  clumsy,  yet  the  P. 
(C  paoa)  is  very  quick  and  active.  It  hves  in  moist 
^roimds,  burrowing  like  the  rabbit,  but  not  so  deeply ; 
Its  burrow,  however,  is  always  provided  with  three 
•penina.  It  feeds  on  vegetable  substances,  and 
otten  does  great  damaee  to  plantations  of  sugar- 
cane. It  is  one  of  the  Suggest  rodents,  being  am)ut 
two  ieet  loD^    It  is  generally  of  a  dark  brown 


colour,  with  four  rows  of  white  spots  along  th# 
sides,  the  throat  and  belly  white.  A  lighter- 
coloured  species  has  been  described,  but  is  perhapt 
a  mere  variety.  The  flesh  of  the  P.  is  much 
esteemed,  and  is  very  fat 

PAGAY  {Prosopis  dtUcis),  a  tree  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminosce,  sub-order  Mimoseoe  ;  a  native  of 
Peru,  of  rather  large  size,  with  a  broad  head ;  pro- 
ducing pods  from  twenty  inches  to  two  feet  long, 
which  contain  black  seeda  imbedded  in  a  sweet 
flaky  substance  as  white  as  snow.  This  flakv 
substance  is  used  as  an  article  of  food  and  much 
relished  by  the  Peruvians. 

PACE  (Lat  passus),  in  its  modem  acceptation,  is 
the  distance,  when  the  legs  are  extended  in  walking, 
between  the  heel  of  one  foot  and  that  of  the  other. 
Among  disciplined  men  the  pace  becomes  of  constant 
length,  and  as  such  is  of  the  utmost  value  in  deter- 
mining military  movements,  the  relative  distances 
of  corps  and  men  being  fixed  by  the  number  of 
paces  marched,  and  so  on.  The  pace  in  the  British 
army  is  2  4  feet  for  ordinary  marching,  and  3  feet 
for  *  double-quick  *  or  running  time. — With  the 
Komans,  the  pace  had  a  difierent  signification,  and 
it  is  important  to  bear  the  distinction  in  mind,  when 
reading  of  distances  in  Latin  works ;  the  single 
extension  of  the  legs  was  not  with  them  a  pace, 
{passus),  but  a  step  {gradus) ;  their  pace  [passus) 
being  the  interval  l)etween  the  mark  of  a  heel  and 
the  next  mark  of  the  same  heel,  or  a  double  step. 
This  i)ace  was  equivalent  to  4'84  English  feet  The 
pace  was  the  Roman  unit  in  itinerary  measure  ;  the 
mile  being  1000  paces,  or  5000  Roman  feet,  equal 
to  "917  of  an  English  mile.  See  Mile.  Whether 
measurements  were  effected  by  actually  counting 
the  paces,  or  by  the  time  occupied,  is  not  clear ;  but 
either  method  would,  with  disciplined  troops,  give  a 
safe  result 

In  the  middle  a^es,  writers  confuse  acoonnts  of 
distances  by  allusion  to  a  geometrical  pace,  a 
measure  which  varied  with  different  authors. 

PACHO'MIUS,  an  Egyptian  monk  of  the  4th 
c.,  is  held  in  high  Estimation  by  the  Roman  Catholic 
church,  as  being  the  first  to  substitute  for  the  free 
asceticism  of  the  solitary  recluse,  a  regular  cceno- 
bitic  system.  He  was  bom  towards  the  close  of  the 
3d  c,  was  brought  up  as  a  pagan,  but  converted  to 
Christianity  by  the  kindness  of  certain  Christians 
whom  he  encountered  at  Thebes.  About  340  a.  p., 
at  Tabenna,  an  island  in  the  Nile,  he  founded  the 
first  monastic  institution.  The  members  agreed  to 
foUow  certain  rules  of  life  and  conduct  drawn  up  by 
P.,  and  to  subject  themselves  to  his  control  and 
visitation.  He  also  established  the  first  convent 
for  nuns,  which  was  under  the  presidency  of  his 
sister,  and  laboured  with  so  much  diligence  and 
zeal,  that  at  his  death,  according  to  Palladius,  not 
fewer  than  7000  monks  and  nuns  were  under  his 
inspection.  The  various  writings  extant  under  ^ 
the  name  of  P.  are — Regrdoe  Monastiocs  (of  doubtful 
genuineness),  Monita.  SS.  PP.  Pachomii  et  Tfieodori^ 

181 


PACHYDERMATA— PACIFIC  OCEAN. 


Eplstolm  d  Verba  Mystica  (a  farraffo  of  unintelligible 
allegory),  and  Prcecepta  S.  Paaiomik  See  Acta 
Sanctorum^  vol.  iiL 

PACHYDKBMATA  (Gr.  thick-skins),  in  the 
system  of  Cuvier,  an  order  of  Mammalia,  including 
part  of  tiie  BnUa  (Rhinoceros,  Elei)haut),  and  aU 
the  BeUuts  (Horse,  Hippopotamus,  Tapir,  Hog,  &c.) 
of  Linnaeus,  besides  one  genus  {Hyrax  or  Daman)  of 
the  Linnsean  Glires.  It  has  been  often  described 
fts  less  natural  than  any  other  of  Cuvier's  mam- 
malian orders,  as  it  consists  of  animals  among  which 
there  are  wide  diversities,  and  the  associating  char- 
acters are  rather  negative  than  positive;  but  it  is 
now  universally  received  by  naturalists  as  indicating 
a  real,  though  not  a  close  affinity ;  and  when  we 
extend  our  view  from  existing  to  fossil  species, 
numerous  connecting  links  present  themselves.  As 
defined  by  Cuvier,  the  order  consists  of  those  hoofed 
mammalia  ( Ungidaia)  which  are  not  ruminants ; 
all  of  which  possess,  as  a  more  positive  character,  a 
remarkable  thickness  of  skin.  This  order  he 
divides  into  three  sections— (I.)  Prolosridexiy  having 
a  prolonged  snout  or  proboscis,  through  wliich  the 
nostrils  pass  as  elongated  tubes,  a  powerful  organ  of 
prehension,  and  a  delicate  organ  of  touch,  and 
having  also  five  toes  on  each  foo^  enclosed  in  a  very 
firm  horny  skin  ;  (2.)  Ordinaria,  destitute  of  pro- 
boscis, although  in  some  (Tapirs),  there  is  such  an 
elongation  of  the  upper  lip  and  nostrils  as  approxi- 
mates to  it ;  and  the  nose  is  employed  by  hogs,  &c., 
in  seeking  their  food,  not  only  as  an  organ  oi  smell, 
but  as  an  instrument  for  turning  up  the  ground,  and 
as  an  organ  of  touch ;  the  number  of  toes  varies, 
four,  three,  or  two  on  each  foot ;  those  with  an  even 
number  of  toes,  having  in  the  cleft  foot  a  resem- 
blance to  the  Buminautia ;  and  (3.)  SolidungtUa,  in 
which  the  foot  has  but  one  apparent  toe,  enclosed 
in  a  hoof.  Some  naturalists  have  thought  it  better 
to  separate  the  Solidungula  or  EqiiidoR  (q.  v.)  from 
the  P.,  as  a  distinct  order ;  whilst  others  have 
enlarged  instead  of  restricting  the  limits  of  the 
order,  by  adding,  as  a  fourth  section,  the  Herbiv- 
oroi'j  Ce'.acea^ 

Those  P.  which  have  a  number  of  toes  differ 
com])letely  from  the  mammalia  bavins  claws 
(Unguiculata)  in  their  inability  to  bend  tneir  toes 
in  order  to  seize  any  object.  Some  of  the  Edentata 
have  very  large  hoof-like  claws,  but  this  difference 
still  subsists.  The  fore-limbs  of  the  P.  are  also 
incapable  of  any  rotatory  motion,  serving  for  su])port 
and  locomotion  only,  not  at  all  for  prehension  ;  the 
metatarsal  and  metacarpal  bones  being  consolidated 
as  in  the  Ruminantia^  and  they  have  no  clavicles. 

The  largest  terrestrial  mammalia  belong  to  this 
order.  Most  of  the  P.  are  of  large  size,  although 
the  damans  are  a  remarkable  exception,  and  some 
of  the  hog  family  are  also  comparatively  smalL 
Most  of  them  have  a  clumsy  form,  with  a  slow  and 
awkward  gait ;  but  they  are  capable  of  activity 
beyond  what  might  be  supposed,  and  sometimes 
move  at  a  pretty  rapid  pace.  Gracefulness  and 
fleetness  are  characteristics  of  the  otherwise  exceji- 
tional  Solidungula.  The  P.  Ordinaiia  have  gener- 
ally great  strength,  and  the  larger  ones  push  their 
way  through  the  entangled  thickets  of  tropical 
forests,  bending  or  breaking  the  lianas,  small  trees, 
and  branches  which  oppose  their  progress,  their 
thick  hides  I'esisting  the  spines  and  broken  branches 
by  which  the  skins  of  other  animals  would  be 
pierced.  The  horse  and  other  Solidungula  are  not 
mhabitants  of  forests  and  jungles,  but  generally  of 
grassy  plains,  and  their  hides  are  much  less  thick 
and  hard  than  those  of  most  of  the  Pachydermata. 

The  physiognomy  of  the  P.  in  general  is  rather 
dull  and  unexpressive,  the  eyes  ^ing  small,  and 
having  that  character  of  which  a  familiar  example 
ila 


is  found  in  the  common  hog.  When  enraged, 
however,  they  manifest  their  fierceness  in  t£eir 
eves;  and  although,  in  general,  mild  and  gentle, 
thev  are  capable  of  being  aroused  to  great  fury. 

The  skeleton  of  the  P.  Ordutaria  and  Ptoboscidea 
is  strong  and  massive  ;  the  neck  short,  the  processes 
of  its  vertebrae  strongly  developed ;  the  skull  afford- 
ing a  large  surface  for  the  muscles  which  support 
and  move  it. 

The  P.  generally  feed  on  vegetable  substances. 
Some  are  omnivorous.  The  digestive  organs  are 
more  simple  than  in  the  BuminanliOj  but  exhibit 
considerable  diversity.  The  stomach  is  simple  in 
some,  and  in  others  is  more  or  less  completely 
divided  into  sacs,  approaching  to  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  characters  of  the  HuminanHa,  The 
intestines  are  generally  longer  than  in  the  Hum*' 
nantia>.  The  dentition  exhibits  considerable  diver- 
sity ;  the  adaptation  to  vegetable  food  being  the 
most  prevalent  character.  The  most  important 
pecuhanties  of  the  dentition  and  digestive  organs 
are  noticed  in  the  articles  on  particular  families  and 
genera. 

PACI'FIC  OCEAN,  the  Urgest  of  the  five  great 
Oceans  (see  Ocean),  lies  between  America  on  the 
east,  and  Asia,  Malaisia,  and  Australasia  on  the 
west.  The  name  *  Pacific,*  given  to  it  by  Magellan, 
the  ^Tfit  Eurbpean  navigator  who  traversed  its  wide 
expanse,  is  doubtless  very  appropriate  to  certain 
portions  of  this  ocean ;  but,  as  a  whole,  its  8i)ecial 
claims  to  the  epithet  are  at  the  least  douotful, 
though  the  name  has  by  long  usage  become  too  well 
established  to  be  easily  supplanted  by  any  other. 

The  greatest  length  of  tne  P.  0.  from  the  Arctic 
(at  Behnng's  Strait)  to  the  Antarctic  circles  is  9200 
miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth,  along  the  parallel  of 
latitude  5°  N.,  about  10,300  miles ;  while  its  area  may 
be  roughly  estimated  at  80,000,000  English  square 
miles,  or  about  |ths  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth. 
Its  form  is  rhomboidal,  with  one  comer  incomplete 
(at  the  south),  and  its  surface  is  studded  with  num- 
berless islands,  either  scattered  or  in  groups ;  these, 
however,  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  western  side, 
and  to  the  limits  of  30"*  N.  lat.  and  30"  a  lat,  where 
the  depth  of  the  ocean  is  not  great.  Along  the 
whole  eastern  side,  from  Behring's  Strait  to  Cape 
Horn,  there  is  a  belt  of  sea  of  varying  width,  wbic^, 
with  a  very  few  exceptions,  is  wholly  free  from 
islands. 

The  coasts  of  the  P.  O.  present  a  general  resem- 
blance to  those  of  the  Atlantic,  and  the  similarity 
in  the  outline  of  the  western  coasts  of  each  is  even 
striking,  especially  north  of  the  equator;  but  the 
shores  of  the  former,  unlike  those  of  the  latter,  are 
sinuous,  and,  excepting  the  north-east  coast  of  Asia^ 
little  indented  with  inlets.  The  shore  i»n  the 
American  side  is  bold  and  rocky,  while  that  of 
Asia  varies  much  in  character. 

Though  the  P.  O.  is  by  far  the  largest  of  the  five 
great  oceans,  being  about  equal  to  the  other  four  in 
extent,  the  proportion  of  land  drained  into  it  ia 
comparatively  insitrnificant.  Its  basin  includes  only 
the  narrow  strip  oi  the  American  continent  tu  the 
west  of  tlie  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains ;  Mela- 
nesia (with  the  exception  of  almost  the  whole  of 
AustraUa),  which  contains  few  rivers,  and  none  of 
them  of  large  size ;  the  Indo-Chinese  states,  China 
Proper,  with  the  east  part  of  Mongolia,  and  Man- 
churia in  the  Asiatic  continent. 

Winds. — The  trade-winds  of  the  Pacific  hava 
certain  pecuUarities,  which  have  only  lately  been 
discovered.  In  general,  they  are  not  found  to  pre- 
serve their  peciuiar  characteristics  except  within 
certain  limits,  thus,  the  south-east  trades  ar« 
found  to  blow  steadily  only  between  92*  aiid  140* 
of   west  longitude;    while  the   north-eaet   i^radoa 


PACIFIC  OCEAN— PACKFOXO. 


are  similarly  fluotuating,  except  between  long.  115* 
W.  and  214**  W.    Beyond  these  limits,  their  action 
is  in  whole  or  in  part  neutralised  by  the  monsoons 
and  other  periodiciEJ  winds  pecoliar  to  the  tropical 
regions  of  the  Pacific.    In  Polynesia,  especially  near 
the  New  Hebrides  group,  hurricanes  are  of  frequent 
occurrence    from    November   to   April,    but    they 
exhibit  few  of   the  terrible  characteristics  wlu'ch 
distinguish  the  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies  and 
Indian  Ocean.     North  and  south  of  the  tropical 
cone,  the  winds  exhibit  little  periodicity,  being  found 
to  blow  from  all  parts  of  the  compass  at  any  given 
season  of  the  year,  though  a  general  westerly  direc- 
tion is  most  frequent  among  tiiem.     On  the  coast  of 
Patagonia  and  at  Cape  Horn,  west  winds  prevail 
during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  while  in  the  Sea  of 
Okhotsk  they  are  of  rare  occurrence.     The  frightful 
T^'^phoon   (q.  v.)  is  the  terror  of  mariners  in  the 
Chinese  seas,  and  may  ocdur  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year.      There  are  many  other  winds  and  storms, 
8ueh  as  white  squalls,  cyclones,  '  tempestades,'  &c., 
which  are  confined  to  particular  localities,  and  will 
be  found  noticed  under  other  heads,  and  also  under 
Storms. 

Currents. — ^The    currents   of   the  P.   O.,  though 
less  marked  in  character  and  eifeots  than  those  of 
the  Atlantic,  are  yet  of  sufficient  importance  to 
require  a  brief  notice.     The  Southern  Pacific  current 
takes  its  rise  south  of  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and 
flows  eastward  at  the  rate  of  half  a  mile  per  hour, 
dividing  into  two  branches  about  long.  OS"*  W.,  the 
northern  branch  or  Current  of  Metitor  txamn^  north- 
ward, and  gradually  losing  itself  in  the  counter 
equatorial  current ;  the  southern  branch  continuing 
its  eastward  course  till  it  is  subdivided  by  the  oppo- 
sition of  Cape  Horn  into  two  branches,  one  of  which. 
Vie  cold  Current  of  Peru  or  Humboldfs   current, 
advances  northward  along  the  west  coast  of  South 
America,  becoming  fiually  absorbed  in  the  equatorial 
current ;  the  other  washing  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and 
becoming  an  Atlantic  current.    The  P.  O.,  like  the 
Athintic,  also  possesses  its  equatorial  current,  sepa- 
rated into  a  northern  and  southern  current  by  the 
equatorial  counter-current.      It  swee|)s  across  the 
wnole  ocean  from  east  to  west.     Two  subdivisions 
of    the  southern  current,    called  respectively  the 
'  current    of   Kossel  *   and   the   '  warm   current   of 
Australia,*  flow,  the  one  through  the  Polynesian 
Archipelago  to  New  Guinea,  and  the  other  along 
the  east  coast  of  Australia.    The  northern  equatorisd 
current,  after  reaching  the  coast  of  Asia,  turns  north- 
east, -waahine  the  shores  of  China  and  Japan,  under 
the  name  of  tne  Black  or  Japan  current;  it  then  sends 
off  a  branch  along  the  coast  of  Kamtchatka,  and 
advaxLoes  eastward  till  it  becomes  lost  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  North  America.     There  are  other 
minor  currents,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  is 
that  of  Fleurien,  which  describes  a  kind  of  irregular 
circle  with  a  radius  of  about  240  miles.    It  is  situated 
in  lat.  25'— 4(r  N.,  and  long.  133°— 155°  W,    All 
these  currents  have  their  corresponding  coimter- 
currents. 

There  are  two  'sargassos'  or  weedy  seas  of 
considerable  extent  in  the  P.  O.,  one  lying  15** 
east-south-east  of  New  Zealand ;  the  other,  and  by 
far  the  larger,  about  15**  west  of  San  Francisco  in 
California.  There  is  also  a  large  region  lying  nearly 
half-way  between  Cape  Horn  and  New  Zealand, 
which  seems  to  correspond  to  the  deserts  on  land,  as 
mariners  report  it  almost  wholly  destitute  of  any 
signs  of  life  either  in  sea  or  air. 

History. — The  existence  of  this  ocean  first  became 
known  to  Europeans  through  Columbus,  who  had 
received  accounts  of  it  from  some  of  the  natives 
of  America,  though  it  was  first  seen  by  Balboa, 
September  29,  1513,  and  first  traversed  by  Magellan 


eight  years  afterwards ;  but  its  size,  limits,  and  ttL# 
number  and  position  of  its  islands,  &c,  were  littlo 
known  till  long  afterwards,  and  even  now  it  presents 
a  rich  field  for  the  labours  of  discoverers.  Captain 
Cook  deserves  the  tii-st  place  among  those  who  have 
devoted  themselves  to  the  investigation  of  the  P.  O. ; 
and  after  him  come  Anson,  the  two  Boucrainvilles, 
La  Perouse,  D'Entrecasteaux,  Carteret,  Vancouver, 
Kruzeustern,  Kotzebue,  &c 

PACI'NIAN  CORPUSCLES  are  very  remark- 
able structures  appended  to  the  nerves.  In  the 
human  subject,  they  are  found  in  great  numbers  in 
connection  with  the  nerves  of  the  hand  and  foot, 
and  sparingly  on  other  spinal  nerves,  and  on  the 
plexuses  of  the  sympathetic,  bat  never  on  nerves  of 
motion.  They  always  present  a  proximal  end, 
attached  to  the  nerves  by  a  stalk  of  fibrous  tissue 
prolonged  from  the  neiu'ilemma,  and  occasionally 
one-tenth  of  an  inch  long ;  and  a  distai  end,  lying  free 
in  the  connective  or  areolar  tissue.  In  the  human 
subject,  the  corpuscles  vary  in  length  from  one- 
twentieth  to  one-tenth  of  an  inch.  Tiiey  are  usually 
seen  very  reatUly  in  the  mesentery  'of  the  cat, 
appearing  as  pellucid  oval  grains,  rather  smaller 
than  hemp-seea.  The  microscopic  examination  of 
these  bodies  discloses  an  internal  stnicture  of  a  vexy 
remarkable  kind.  They  consist,  first,  of  a  series  of 
membranous  capsules,  from  thirty  to  sixty  or  more 
in  number,  enclosed  one  within  the  other ;  and 
secondly,  of  a  single  nervous  fibre,  of  the  tubular 
kind,  enclosed  in  the  stalk,  and  advancing  to  the 
central  capsule,  which  it  traverses  from  beginning 
to  end,  and  where  it  finally  terminates  in  a  fixed 
swollen  extremity.  The  ten  or  fifteen  innermost 
capsules  are  in  contact  with  one  another,  while  the 
rest  are  separated  by  a  clear  8])ace  containing  fiuid, 
which  is  so  abundant  as  to  con  ititute  far  the  largest 
portion  of  the  bulk  of  the  entire  corpuscle.  Such 
are  the  views  of  Pacini  (as  given  m  his  Nuovi 
Organi  Scoperte  nd  Corpo  Unuino,  1840),  who  is 
usually  regarded  as  their  discoverer,  although  they 
had  been  nciticed  and  ronghly  described  nearly  a 
century  before  by  Vater,  of  Henle,  and  of  Todd  and 
Bowman  ;  but  later  observations  made  by  Huxley, 
Leydi^,  Kolliker,  and  others,  shew  that  the  qiiestion 
of  theu*  tnie  nature  is  still  an  ox>en  one.  Huxley 
asserts  that  their  central  portion  is  solid,  and  not 
hollow ;  that  in  birds,  and  in  the  human  hand, 
there  is  no  fiuid  between  the  laminea— and  indeed, 
that  the  laminse  themselves  have  no  real  existence — 
the  Pacinian  corpuscle  being  merely  a  solid  mass  of 
connective  tissue  (a  thickened  process  of  the  neuri- 
lemma of  the  nerve  to  which  it  is  attached),  whose 
apparent  lamination  depends  on  the  re^lar  disposi- 
tion of  its  elastic  elements.  If  Pacmi's  view  of 
these  structures  be  correct,  there  is  probably  some 
general  analogy  between  the  electric  organs  of  the 
torpedo  and  these  corpuscles ;  at  present,  we  know 
notning  with  certainty  regarding  tneir  office. 

PACKFO'NG,  or  PETO'NG,  a  Chinese  alloy  or 
white  metal,  consisting  of  arsenic  and  copper.  It  is 
formed  by  putting  two  parts  of  arsenic  in  a  crucible 
with  five  parts  of  copper  turnings,  or  finely  divided 
copper;  the  arsenic  and  copper  require  to  be  placed 
in  alternate  layers,  and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a 
layer  of  common  salt,  and  pressed  down.  When 
melted,  the  alloy  contains  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
arsenic,  and  is  yellowish-white  in  colour  when  in 
the  rough  state,  but  takes  a  fine  white  polish  resem- 
bling suver.  It  is  not  very  ductile,  and  cannot  be 
fused  without  decomposition,  as  the  arsenic  is  easily 
dissipated.  It  was  formerly  much  used  in  this 
country,  as  well  as  China  and  India,  for  making 
the  pans  of  small  scales,  dial-plates,  and  a  variety 
of  other  articles  requiring  nicety  of  make,  such  as 

183 


PAOKHORSE-PADANG. 


mdoated  icalca  for  philosot^c>l 
u  probaHy  never  imported  now,  the  nickel  alloy« 
of  Europe  having  qnite  superseded  its  me ;  in 
China,  however,  it  ii  atill  extemively  employed. 

PA'CKHORSB,  a  horee  employed  in  the  carriage 
of  goods,  which  kra  either  futeoed  on  it«  back  in 
bnodlea,  or,  if  weighty,  are  placed  in  panniers,  alung 
one  on  e&ch  aide  across  the  horse  s  back.  The 
saddle  to  which  the  bundles  were  fastened  consisteil 
of  two  pieces  of  wood,  carved  n  m  to  Kt  the  horse's 
back,  and  joined  toaether  at  the  eods  by  other  two 
atrught  pieces.  This  frame  was  well  paoded  nnder- 
DBath,  to  prevent  injury  to  the  horse's  back,  and 
was  firmly  fsBtened  by  a  girth.  To  each  side  of  the 
•addle,  a  strong  hook  was  attached,  for  the  purpose 
of  cairying  packages,  panniers,  *o.  Panniers  were 
■ometimea  simply  uong  across  the  hone's  back  with 


Faokhoise  and  Faonien. 

a  pad  iioLler  the  band.  The  panuien  were  wicker 
baskeCa,  and  of  various  shapes,  aooordin^  to  the 
nature  of  their  nsuol  contents,  being  sometimes  long 
and  narrow,  but  most  generally  having  a  length  ot 
three  feet  or  upwards,  a  depth  of  about  two'thirds 
of  the  length,  and  a  width  of  from  one  to  two  feet 
(see  fig.}.  The  packhonie  with  panniers  was  at  one 
time  in  general  use  for  carrying  merchandise,  and 
for  those  agricultural  operations  for  which  the  horse 
and  cart  are  now  employed ;  and  in  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Spain  and  Auatria,  and  in  other  parts 
of  the  world,  it  still  forms  the  sole  medium  for 
transport  ;  though  the  mule  has,  especially  in 
Europe,  been  substitut«d  for  the  horse. 

An  army  requires  to  be  accompanied  by  several 
thousand  pack-animals,  sometitneB  horses,  bnt  pre- 
lerably  mnlea ;  and  in  Asia,  commonly  camels,  or 
even  elephants.  Pack-saddles  are  variously  fitted, 
according  to  the  objects  to  be  carried  i  some  for 
provisions  or  ammunition  ;  others  for  carrying 
wounded  men,  tents,  and,  in  mountain. warfare,  even 
small  cannon.  In  battle,  the  inunediate  reserves 
of  small.arm  ammunition  are  borne  in  ttie  rear  of 
divisions  by  pack-animals  ;  the  heavy  reserves 
being  in  wagons  between  the  army  and  its  base  of 

PAODURT-UVA,  a  sweet  and  delicious  Brad- 


weds  have  the  taste  of  almonds. 

PAGTO'LUa,  anciently  the  name  of  a  small 
brook  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  which  rises  on  the 
northern  slope  of  Mount  Tmolus  (modem  Box  Dagh), 
flows  north  psat  Sardis.  and  empties  itself  into  the 
Hermna  (modem  Kodat).  It  is  never  more  than 
ten  feet  broad,  and  one  foot  deep.  The  sands  or 
mud  of  P.  were  long  famous  in  antiquity  for  the 
particles  of  gold  dust  which  they  contained,  and 
which  are  supposidto  have  boen  carried  down  by 


ita  waters  from  the  bosom  of  ^nolos — a  hiQ  rich 
in  metals.  The  collection  of  these  particles,  aooord- 
ing  to  legend,  was  the  aouroe  of  Craans'a  vaat 
wealth,  Uiil  as  early  even  as  the  time  of  8b«bo, 
P.  had  ceased  to  yield  any  ct  the  precious  doat 
The  brook  is  now  called  Sambai. 

PA'CTUH  ILLl'OITUH  ia,  ia  the  law  <rf 
Scotland,  a  contract  or  agreement  for  aome  illegal 

Enrpose,  L  e.,  a  purpose  uthcr  expressly  wohibited 
y  statute,  or  by  the  general  policy  of  the  law. 
'niuB,  an  immoral  oontract  between  a  man  and 
woman  would  be  held  void  on  the  groond,  that  the 
law  discountenoncefl  practices  contra  bono*  mora. 
A  contract  between  a  oUent  and  agent,  called  A 
pactum  dt  quota  lUU,  whereW  a  share  of  the 
liroperty  which  is  the  subject  of  litJgatinD  ia  given 
to  the  agent  instead  of  bis  usual  fees,  is  void  iu  most 
cases  i  wough  it  ts  often  diibcnlt  to  determine  what 
contracts  fall  within  this  rale.  The  courts,  however, 
have  construed  very  jealously  every  contract  which 
tends  to  corrupt  the  administration  of  the  law,  and 
hence  an  af^reetnent  between  a  town  and  counti; 
agent  to  divide  the  profits  has  been  held  a  pactum 
iUkitum.  So  agreements  by  a  client  to  give  an 
excessive  sum  to  his  taw-agent  as  a  giCt  have  been 
often  set  aside— In  England,  similar  doctrines 
prevail,  though  the  phrase  pactum  iUicitam,  which 
was  borrowed  from  the  Ronian  law,  is  not  used, 
contracts  of  this  description  being  technically 
described  as  illegal  contracts. 

PADAIfO,  the  capital  of  the  I>ntch  government 
of  the  west  coast  of  Sumatra,  ia  situated  in  1*  iL 
lilt.,  and  100'  22  E.  long.,  and  baa  about  12,000 
inhabitants.  The  river  Padang  Sows  throngh  tho 
town,  but  ia  only  navigable  for  small  vessels,  the 
larger  requiring  to  anchor  in  the  roadstead,  about 
thi^  miles  distant  On  the  left  bank,  attuid  the 
houses  of  the  natives,  unsightly  bamboo  erectioiiB, 
elevated  about  eight  f«et  ^om  the  ground  br 
posts  of  the  cocoa-nut  tree,  and.  coveted  tvitb 
leaves.  The  government  buildings,  houses  of  the 
Eunipeans  an<L  Chinese,  Ac.,  are  on  the  right,  and 
mostly  built  of  wood  or  stone,  and  roofed  with  tile. 
P.  is  pictureMuely  enclosed  by  a  semicircle  of 
mountains,  behind  which  rises  a  loftier  chain,  two 
being  volcanoes.  There  are  a  Protestant  chiirdi, 
a  Roman  Catholio  church,  flonrishing  schools,  a  forl^ 
military  hospital,  government  workshops,  large 
warehouses,  Ac.  An  agent  ot  the  Netherlands 
Trading  Company  (q.  v.)  resides  at  Padang.  Being 
the  centre  of  the  exports  and  imports  of  Sumatra's 
west  coast,  P.  has  a  lively  trade,  not  only  with 
Java,  the  other  islands  of  the  EsBtem  Arciiipelago, 
and  Europe,  but  also  with  the  interior  of  the  island. 

The  climate  is  considered  healthy,  although  tha 
heat  is  great.  Colonel  ?4ahuys  found  the  thermometttr 
range  ^m  70°  to  80°  at  6  A.H.,  from  S2°  to  68°  at 
noon,  84°  to  90°  at  2  p.m.,  78°  to  84°  at  6  p.m.,  and 
from  72°  to  80°  at  10  in  the  evening 

The  governor  resides  at  a  country-house  about  tvro 
and  a  half  miles  above  P.,  and  rules  over  a  territory 
stretching,  from  the  itesidency  of  Benooolen,  which 
has  a  population  of  112,000  souls,  and  stands  imin»< 
diately  under  the  government  at  Batavia,  north- 
west over  seven  degrees  of  latitude.  It  is  divided 
into  the  residencies  of  Lower  Padang,  Upper  Padang, 
and  Tapanoeli ;  the  popnlation,  in  1868,  being 
1,&51,2S1,  of  whom  1597  were  Enropeana,  and  2SiS 
Chinese. 

Lower  Padang  was  tile  first  district  of  the  west 
coast  of  Sumatra  which  submitted  to  the  Datch, 
who  had  formed  a  settlement  at  Padang  as  early  aa 
1660,  and  by  repeated  wara,  gradual^  extwded 
their  territory. 

Upper  Padang  lies  to  the  north-west  of  the  loww 


PADDLE— PADDLE- WHEEL. 


prorince.  from  which  it  U  serrated  by  a  ch^  of 
lofty  moontuDB,  some  of  which,  as  the  Sinoalan^, 
Merapie,  tuid  Sago,  attain  to  nearly  10,000  feet  la 
height ;  Merapie  being  an  active  volcano,  the  laat 
eniptioDB  of  which  wen  in  1346  and  1S55,  though  it 
Knt  forth  Tolomea  of  emoke  in  1361.  This  residency 
poMesseB  the  most  lorely  diatricts  of  the  ialaod,  or 
tf  any  tropic  laod,  the  moiuitaiD  alopea  beina 
■tndfted  with  Tillages,  rice-fields,  cocoa-nut  and 
coffee  trees,  of  which  last,  it  is  calculated  that  there 
an  32,000,000  in  Upper  Fadan^  In  addition  to 
the  cofTee-anltnre,  gambier,  casna,  pepper,  ratans, 
indigo,  caontchonc,  Ac,  are  larzely  produced,  aod 

Klc(  iron,  copper,  lead,  and  quicksilver  are  {oond. 
the  district  of  Tfuiah  Datar  ie  'the  town  of 
Piggeroejon^  formerly  the  capital  of  the  powerfol 
kingdom  of  Menangkabo,  and  the  reeidence  of  the 
king. 

T^nnoeli,  the  remaining  reetdency  nnder  the 
nremtiient  of  Snmatra's  west  coast,  lie*  north-west 
from  Upper  Padang.  The  indenendent  spirit  of  the 
inland  cativea  has  caused  the  Netherlonders  much 
trouble,  but  each  fresh  outbreak  only  extends  their 
t^ritory  and  power  furtlier  into  the  interior,  and 
towards  the  north-west  of  the  island. 

PADDLE,  probably  the  precursor  of  the  Oak 
tq.  T.),  and  still  its  substitute  among  barbarous 
Bstiona,  ia  a  wooden  impletnent.  eonsiBting  of  a  wide 
flat  blade  with  a  short 
handle,  by  means  of 
which  tho  operator 
spoons  the  watertowards 
him.  In  canoes  for  only 
one  Bitter,  a  double 
paddle  is  generally  used, 
which  is  dipped  alter- 
nately on  either  side  : 
the  inhabitants  of  Green- 
laud  are  especially  akil- 
'  '  ■  this  operation, 
'^---■'hepo"'- 
1  thi 
Double  Paddle,  the  oar.  The  paddle  has, 
however,  one  advantage 
— Tis.,  that  the  rower  faces  the  bow  of  his  boat, 
•od  therefore  sees  what  ia  before  him.  In  threading 
narrow  streama,  tc,  this  is  an  appreciable  gain. 

PADDLB-WHBEL— one  of  tbe  appliances  in 
iteim-ressels  by  which  the  power  of  the  engine  is 
nude  to  act  upon  the  water  and  produce  locomotion 
— is  a  skeleton  wheel  of  iron,  on  the  outer  portion  of 
whoaa  radii  flat  boards,  called  floats  or  paddles,  are 
fixed,  which  beat  upon  the  water,  and  produce, 
continaously,  the  same  effect  as  is  given,  in  an 
btennittent  manner,  by  tbe  blades  of  oars.  The 
use  of  paddle-wheels  in  conjunction  with  steam  as  a 
motive-power  dates  from  about  the  commencemHnt 
cf  the  present  centnry,  but  the  employment  of  the 
mddle-wheel  itself  is  as  ancient  as  the  time  of  the 
^^ptiaDB.  A  specimen  is  also  known  to  have  been 
bied  in  Spain  in  the  16th  century. 

Tbe  fig.  shews  the  usual  form  of  paddle-wheel, 
that  called  the  radial,  in  which  the  floats  are  fixed. 
It  will  be  seen  that  a  certain  loss  of  power  is 
involved,  as  the  full  force  of  the  engine  on  the 
water  is  only  experienced  when  the  float  is  vertical, 
sad  as  on  entering  and  leaving;  the  water  tbe  power 
B  mainly  devoted  to  respectivSy  lifting  and  drawing 
down  the  vessel.  This  objection  has  great  force  at 
the  moment  of  starting,  or  when  progress  is  very 
slow,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  small  power  a  paddle- 
steamer  evinces  when  tiying  to  tug  a  stranded 
venel  off  a  sandbank ;  but  when  in  futl  progress, 
the  actkn  is  leaa  impeded  by  this  circumstance,  tbe 
water  in  front  of  Uie  wheel  being  depressed,  and 


Q 


a 


The  action  of  the  paddle 


Fkddle. 


that  abaft  bemg  thrown  into  the  form  of  a  wave,  m 

~  in  each  case  to  offer  a  nearly  vertical  reaistuioo 

the  float    The  extent  of  lie  inuneraioa  muoli 


Ordinary  Paddle-wheeL 

iflucncea  the  economy  of  power,  as  when  the  water 
reaches  to  the  centre  of  tbe  wheel  or  above  it,  it  is 
lus  that  tbe  greatest  waste  mugt  take  place. 
From  this  it  ie  advantageous  to  give  the  wheel  aa 
large  a  diameter  as  po^ible,  and  to  place  tbe  axis 
at  the  highest  available  point  in  the  vessel. 

To  overcome  the  dranbacka  to  the  radial  whe«l, 
Elijah  Galloway  patented,  in  1B29,  the  FeaUifrtd 
Paddle-vAtd,  in   which   tile    floats    are   mounted 


Feathered  Faddle-vheel. 

on  axes,  and  are  connected  by  rods  with  a  common 
centre,  which  ia  made  to  revolve  eccentricalljr  to 
the  Biis  of  the  paddle-wheel  By  this  raetnod, 
the  floats  are  kept,  while  immersed,  at  right  aoglea 
to  tbe  surface  of  the  water.  So  long  as  tba 
water  ia  smooth,  and  the  immersion  constant,  the 
gain  is  great ;  consequently,  feathered  floats  are 
much  used  in  river-stoBmers ;  but  for  ocean-steamen, 
the  liability  to  derangement,  i>erhttpa  at  a  critical 
period,  and  the  variable  depth  of  immersion,  prevent 
them  from  becoming  favourite*. 

A  recent  wheel,  called  the  Cyclmdal,  has  the  floats 
divided  into  smaller  sections,  in .  order  that  the 
action  on  the  water  may  reach  the  maximum  of 
uniformity. 

From  various  causes,  Uie  wheel  slips  somewhat  in 
the  water— L  e.,  revolves  more  rapidly  than  the  alup 
makes  way.  The  difference  between  the  two  speeds 
is  called  the  «Itp,  and  amounts  M)metiine8  to  one-fifth 
of  the  actual  speed. 


PADDY— PADUA. 


PADDY,  or  PADDIE,  the  name  commonly 
applied  in  India  to  rice  in  the  busk.  It  is  the 
Tamul  and  the  Malay  name.    See  llics. 

PADEXLA  tital  a  frying-pan ;  plur.  paddle),  a 
shallow  vessel  of  metal  or  earthenware  used  in 
illuminations.  The  illumination  of  St  Peter's  at 
Rome,  and  other  large  buildings  in  Italy,  is  effected 
by  the  tasteful  arrangement  of  large  numbers  of 
these  little  pans,  which  are  converted  into  lamps 
by  partly  filling  them  with  talliiw  or  other  grease, 
and  placing  a  wick  in  the  centre.  This  mode  of 
illummation  was  first  adopted  on  a  large  scale  in 
Great  Britain  on  the  occasion  of  the  marriage  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  with  the  Princess  Alexandra, 
when  the  inhabitants  of  Edinburgh  produced  by 
this  means  a  most  magnificent  illumination  of  their 
city. 

PADERBORN,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Westphalia,  situated  in  51^ 
43'  N.  lat,  and  8**  45'  E.  long.,  in  a  pleasant  and 
fruitful  district,  is  built  at  the  source  of  the  Fader, 
which  bursts  forth  from  below  the  cathedral  with 
sufficient  force  to  drive  mills  within  20  paces  of  its 
point  of  exit.  Pop.  11,279.  P.  has  narrow,  dark, 
old-fashioned  streets,  presenting  no  special  attrac- 
tions, although  it  has  some  interesting  ouildings,  as, 
for  instance,  the  fine  old  cathedral,  com])leted  in 
1143,  with  its  two  magnificent  fagades,  and  containing 
the  silver  coffin  in  which  are  deposited  the  remains 
of  St  LiboriuB.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop  and 
chapter,  and  of  an  administrative  court  The 
manufactures  of  P.,  which  are  not  very  considerable, 
include  tobacco,  starch,  hats,  and  wax-cloths,  and 
there  are  several  breweries,  distilleries,  and  suimr- 
refineries  in  the  town,  which  carries  on  a  consiaer- 
able  trade  in  cattle,  corn,  and  oils.  P.  is  one  of  the 
important  stations  on  the  Great  Westphalia  Rail- 
way. P.,  which  ranked  till  1803  as  a  free  imperial 
bishopric,  owes  its  foundation  to  Charlemagne,  who 
nominate  the  first  bishop  in  795.  Several  diets 
were  held  during  the  middle  'ages  at  P.,  which  at 
that  period  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  fiourishiug  of 
the  Hanseatic  Cities,  while  it  was  also  numbered 
among  the  Free  Imi)erial  Cities.  In  1604,  it  was. 
forcibly  deprived  by  the  prince-bishop,  Theodor 
of  FUrstenburg,  of  many  of  the  special  rights  and 
prerogatives  which  it  luul  enjoyed  since  its  foun- 
dation, and  compelled  to  acknowledge  the  Roman 
Catholic  as  the  predominant  church,  m  the  place  of 
Protestantism,  which  had  been  established  during 
the  time  of  Luther.  In  1803,  P.  was,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  decree  of  the  im|ierial  commissioners, 
attached  as  an  hereditary  principality  to  Prussia, 
which  had  taken  forcible  possession  of  the  territory 
of  Paderbom  ;  and  after  being  for  a  time  incor- 
porated in  the  kingdom  of  Westphalia,  it  was 
restored  to  Prussia  m  1813,  and  incorporated  in 
the  Westphalian  circle  of  Minden. 

PA'DIHAM,  a  rising  manufacturing  town  in 
Lancashire,  near  the  Calder,  3  miles  west-north- 
west of  Burnley,  and  17  miles  east-north-east  of 
Preston.  The  older  portion  is  ill-built,  and  has  a 
mean  appearance,  but  the  more  modern  quarter 
contains  a  number  of  good  buildings.  P.  is  the 
seat  of  active  cotton  manufactures.  PopiUation  of 
the  town,  within  the  lighting  district  (1861),  5675. 

PADILLA,  Juan  de,  one  of  the  most  popular 
heroes  in  Spanish  history,  was  a  scion  of  a  Toledan 
family,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  illustrious  in 
Spain,  and  was  appointed  by  the  Emperor  Charles 
v.  military  commandant  of  Saragossa.  While  he 
was  so  employed,  a  formidable  rebellion,  caused  by 
the  excessive  taxes  which  the  emperor  imxx)sed  on 
the  Spanijuds,  to  defray  Uie  cost  of  his  various  wars 
in  Italy,  Germany,  and  the  Low  Countries,  broke  out 
186 


among  the  towns  {coMtnunidade^  of  Castile,  and  the 
rebels,  who  were  known  as  communeros,  called 
upon  P.  to  put  himself  at  their  head.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  religious  element  into  the  quarrel 
tended  greatly  to  strengthen  the  insurgents,  and 
for  an  instant  P.  was  the  ruler  of  Spain,  and  formed 
a  new  junta  to  carry  on  the  governments  Ho  was 
successful  in  a  number  of  enterprises  undertaken 
against  the  royalist  party ;  but  on  2.3d  April  1521, 
was  completely  beaten  by  the  royalists  at  Villalos. 
This  confiict  decided  the  fate  of  the  rebellion  and 
of  P.  himself,  who  was  taken  prisoner,  and  next 
day  beheaded* 

His  wife.  Dona  Maria  de  Pacheco,  rallied  the 
wrecks  of  the  rebel  army,  and  for  a  long  time  held 
Toledo  against  the  royalist  besieging  army,  and 
after  its  fall,  retired  to  Portugal,  where  she  died 
soon  afterwards.  With  P.  and  his  wife  expired  the 
last  remnant  of  the  ancient  freedom  of  Spain. 
Numerous  poems  and  dramas  celebrate  their  deeds. 

PADI'SHAH,  in  Turkish  Padishao  (Persian 
padi,  protector  or  throne,  shah,  prince),  one  of  the 
titles  of  the  Sultan  of  the  Ottoman  Emj^ire,  and  of 
the  Shah  of  Persia  Fermerly,  this  title  was  accorded 
only  to  the  kings  of  France  amons  EuropMean 
monarchs,  the  others  being  called  Andy  king. 
It  was  subsequently  allowed  to  the  Emperor  of 
Austria,  and  still  later,  by  a  special  article  in  the 
treaty  of  Kutshuk-Kainardji  (10th  January  1775), 
to  the  autocrat  of  AH  the  Russias.  Padishah  was 
the  title  assumed  by  Baber  and  his  suocessors  on 
the  throne  of  Delhi 

PA'DUA  (ItaL  Padova),  capital  of  the  province 
of  the  same  name  in  Austrian  Italy,  stands  on  a 
beautiful  2)lain  on  the  Bacchiglione,  23  miles  by 
railway  west-south-west  of  Venice.    It  is  surrounded 
by  waUs  and  ditches,  and  is  fortifieil  by  bastions. 
Its  houses  are  lofty,  supported  for  the  most  part  on 
long  roAK^  of  arches,  generally  pointed ;  and  most  oi 
its  streets,   esjjecially  in  the    older  quarters,  are 
narrow,   dark,  dirty,    and  ill-paved.      There    are, 
however,  several  handsome  gates,  as  those  of  San 
Giovanni,  Savonarolo,  and  Folconetto  ;  a  number  of 
fine  squares,  of  which  the  Prato  della  Valle  is  the 
lar^st  and  the  finest,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  stream, 
ana  planted  with  trees ;    and  several  magnificent 
buildmgs.    Of  these,  the  Caf6  Pedrocchi  is  esteemed 
the  finest  edifice  of  the  kind  in  Italy.     Portions  of 
a  Roman  edifice  were  discovered  wmle  the  founda- 
tions of  this  building  were  being  made,  and  the 
marbles  found   now  adorn  the  pavement,  &c.,    of 
the  salone.    The  Palazzo  della  Municipality,  built 
1172 — 1219,  is  the  most  peculiar  and  most  national 
in  the  city.    It  is  an  immense  building,  forming 
one    side    of   the    market-place,    rests    wholly   on 
arches,    and    is   surrounded    bv    a   lo^rgia    (q.  v.). 
Its  east  end  is  covered  with  shields  and  armorial 
bearings,  and  its  roof   is  said  to  be  the  largest 
unsupported  by  pillars  in  the  world.    Its  hoU   ia 
267i    feet    long,    and   89    feet   wide,   is    covered 
with  mystical  and  metaphorical  jointings,  and  coD'  » 
tains  a  monument  of  Livy,  the  Roman  liistorian, 
and  a  bust  of  Belzoni,  the  traveller,  both  natives 
of   this  city.      The  other   chief    edifices  are  the 
cathedral,  the  church  of  Sant'  Antonio,  a  beauti- 
ful building    in  the  Pointed  style,  with    several 
Byzantine    features,    and    ^remarkably    rich    and 
splendid   in    its    internal    decorations ;    and    the 
churches  of  San  Giorgio  and  of  Santa  Gi»xstina;  all 
of  them  richly  decorated  with  paintings,  sculpt  urea, 
&C.    The  university  of  P.,  the  most  famous  estab- 
lishment in  the  citv,  was  celebrated  as  early  as  the 
year  1221..  It  embraces  46  professorships,  and  ia 
attended  by  from  1500  to  2000  students.    Connected 
with  the  university  are  an  anatomical  theatre  and 


PADUCAH— PAGANISM. 


ft  botanic  garden,  both  dating  from  the  16th  c,  and 
each  the  tint  of  its  kind  in  £urope.  There  is  also 
a  museum  of  natural  history,  an  observatory,  a 
chemical  laboratory,  and  a  library  of  100,000 
Tolumes,  and  1500  manuscripts.  Ihere  are  also 
numerous  palaces,  theatres,  and  hosjiitals.  Pop. 
54,000. 

P.,  the  Roman  Patamum,  is  one  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Italy.  According  to  a  wide- spread 
belief  of  antiquity,  alluded  to  by  Virgil,  it  was 
founded  by  the  Trojan  chief  Antenor,  but  we  really 
know  nothing  of  its  history  imtil  it  became  a 
Koman  town.  During  the  nrst  centuries  of  the 
empire,  it  was  the  most  flourishing  city  in  the  north 
of  Italy,  on  account  of  its  great  woollen  manufac- 
tures, and  could  retiun  to  the  census  more  ])er8on8 
Treaithy  enough  to  be  ranked  as  equites  than  any 
other  place  except  Home.  But  in  452  Attila 
utterly  razed  it  to  the  ground.  It  was,  however, 
rebuilt  by  Narses,  again  destroyed  by  the  Lombards, 
but  once  again  rose  from  its  ashes,  and  became  a 
very  famous  city  in  the  middle  ages.  It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Carrara  family  in  1318,  and  in 
1405  it  was  conquered  by  Venice,  the  fortunes  of 
which  it  has  since  shared. 

PADXJ'OAH,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  IT.  S.,  on  the 
■outh  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  j^st  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Tennessee  River,  347  miles  below  Louisville. 
It  is  the  cntrep6t  of  a  fertile  country,  and  has  a 
lar^  trade  by  the  rivers^  and  the  New  Orleans  and 
Ohio  Railway,  of  which  it  is  the  northern  terminus. 
It  contains  county  buildings,  three  banks,  three 
shipyards,  steam  saw-mills,  extensive  manufiictnring 
establishments,  and  ten  churches.    Pop.  about  7000. 

"PJEfAN  (of  doubtfid  etymology),  the  name  given 
by  the  ancient  Greeks  to  a  kmd  of  lyric  poetry 
originally  connected  with  the  worship  of  ApoUo. 
The  oldest  pseans,  as  we  learn  from  Homer,  ap])ear 
to  have  been  either  hymns,  addressed  to  that 
deity  for  the  purpose  of  appeasing  his  wrath  {Iliad, 
L  473),  or  thanksgiving  odes,  sun|^  after  danger 
was  over  and  glory  won  (Iliadj  xxiii.  391).  Kever- 
theless,  at  a  later  period,  they  were  addressed  to 
other  deities  also.  Thus,  according  to  Xenophon, 
the  Lacedsmonians  sung  a  poian  to  Poseidon  after 
an  earthquake,  and  the  Greek  army  in  Asia  one  to 


P^DO-BAPTISM.    See  Bapttsic,  Infant. 

P^'ONY  (Pceonta),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  lianunculacea ;  having  large  flowers, 
with  Ave  persistent,  unequal,  leafy,  and  somewhat 
leathery  sepals,  6—10  petals,  many  stamens,  and 
2 — 5  germens,  which  are  crowned  with  a  fleshy 
recurved  stigma.  The  leaves  are  compound,  the 
leaflets  often  variously  and  irregularly  divided. 
The  fibres  of  the  root  are  often  thickened  into 
tubers.  The  roecies  are  large  herbaceous  perennials, 
or  rarely  half-shrubby;  natives  of  Europe,  Asia, 
and  the  north-west  of  America.  None  of  them  are 
truly  indigenous  in  Britain,  although  one  (P, 
corallina)  has  found  admittance  into  the  English 
^ora.  On  account  of  the  beauty  of  their  flowers, 
some  of  them  are  much  cultivated  in  gardens,  parti- 
cularly the  Common  P.  (P.  officinalis),  a  native  of 
the  mountain- woods  of  the  south  of  Europe,  with 
carniine  or  blood-red  flowers.  A  variety  with 
double  powers  is  common. — The  White  P.  (P.  albi- 
Jlora)  is  anotiier  favourite  species.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  central  parts  of  Asia,  its  lluwers  are  fragrant. 
—The  Trbe  p.,  Chinjhe  P.,  or  Moutan  (P,  Moiitan), 
is  a  half-shrubby  plant,  a  native  of  China  and  Japan. 
In  favourable  circumstances,  it  attains  a  very  large 
size,  and  a  height  of  twelve  feet  or  more.  It  has 
bflsa  long  cultivated  in  China  and  Japan ;  and  is 


now  also  a  favourite  ornamental  plant  in  the  south 
of  Europe,  and  in  the  south  of  England  and  Ireland ; 
but  the  late  spring- frosts  of  most  parts  of  Britain 
are  injurious  to  it,  although  it  can  bear  severe  frost 
in  winter,  when  vegetation  is  at  a  stand.  It  flowers 
in  spring.  The  varieties  in  cultivation  are  numerous. 
It  is  propagated  by  cuttings,  and  also  by  grafting. 
Its  germens  are  surrounded  by  a  cup-shaped  laci- 
niated  membrane. — The  roots  of  most  of  the  pceonies 
have  a  nauseous  smell  when  fresh,  and  those  of  the 
Common  P.  were  in  high  repute  among  the  ancients 
as  an  antispasmodic — ^nence  the  name  I'oeony,  from 
Paion,  a  Greek  name  of  Apollo,  the  god  of  medicine 
— but  their  medicinal  properties  are  now  utterly 
disre^rded.  The  globose,  shining  black  seeds  of 
pteomes  were  formerly,  in  some  countries,  strung 
into  necklaces,  and  hung  round  the  necks  of  children, 
as  anodtjne  necklaces,  to  facilitate  dentition.  The 
Daurians  and  Mongolians  use  the  root  of  P.  albijlora 
in  their  soups,  and  grind  the  seeds  to  mix  with  their 
tea. 

P^'STUM,  anciently  a  Gi-eek  city  of  Lucania, 
in  the  present  NeaiK>litan  province  of  Principato 
Citeriore,  on  the  Sinus  Pceslanus,  now  the  Gulf  of 
Salerno,  and  not  far  from  Mount  Albumua.  It 
was  founded  by  the  Troezenians  and  the  Sybarites, 
some  time  between  650  and  610  B.C.,  and  was 
originally  called  Poseidonia  (of  which  Pcestum 
is  believed  to  be  a  Latin  corruption),  in  honour 
of  Poseidon  (Neptune).  It  was  subdued  by  the 
Samnites  of  Lucania,  and  slowly  declined  in  pro- 
sperity after  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans, 
who  estabhshed  a  colony  here  about  273  B.a  The 
Latin  poets  celebrate  the  beauty  and  fragrance  of 
its  flowers,  and  particularly  of  its  roses,  which 
bloomed  twice  a  year.  Wild  roses,  it  is  said,  still 
grow  among  its  ruins,  which  retain  their  ancient 
property,  and  flower  regularly  both  in  May  and 
November.  P.  was  burned  by  the  Saracens  in  the 
10th  c,  and  there  is  now  only  a  small  village  called 
Pesto,  in  a  marshy,  unhealthy,  and  desolate  district; 
but  the  ancient  greatness  of  the  city  is  indicated  by 
the  ruins  of  temples  and  other  buildings.  These 
appear  to  have  been  first  noticed  in  the  early  part 
of  the  ISth  c,  by  a  certain  Count  Gazola,  m  the 
service  of  the  king  of  Naples;  they  were  next 
described  by  Antonini,  in  a  work  on  the  toi>ography 
of  Lucania  (1745),  and  have  since  been  visited  by 
travellers  from  all  parts  of  Europe. 

PAGAN  IN  I,  NicoLO/  a  famous  violinist,  son  of  a 
commission-broker  at  Genoa,  where  he  was  bom  in 
1784  His  musical  talent  shewed  itself  in  his  child- 
hood; in  his  ninth  year,  he  had  instructions  from 
Costa  at  Genoa,  and  afterwards  from  Rolla  at  Parma, 
and  fix>m  Ghiretti.  In  1801,  he  began  his  pro- 
fessional tours  in  Italy ;  in  1828,  he  created  a  great 
sensation  on  appearing  for  the  first  time  in  the 
principal  towns  of  Germany;  and  in  1831,  his 
viohn-playin^  created  an  equal  furore  in  Paris  and 
London.  His  mastery  over  the  violin  has  never 
been  equalled,  but  he  was  too  much  addicted  to 
using  it  in  mere  feats  of  musical  legeixlemain,  such 
as  his  celebrated  performance  on  a  single  string.  His 
execution  on  the  guitar  was  also  very  remarKable ; 
for  four  years  he  nutde  that  instrument  his  constant 
study.  P.  died  at  Nice  in  1840,  leaving  a  large 
fortune, 

PA'GANISM,  another  name  for  Heathenism  or 
Polytheism.  The  word  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
paganus,  a  designation  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  (pagus),  m  contradistinction  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  towns,  the  more  educated  and  oivifised 
inhabitants  of  towns  havinff  been  the  first  generally 
to  embrace  Christianity,  wnilst  the  old  polytheism 
linirered  more  in  remote  rural  districts. 


PAGE— PAGODA. 


PAGE  (deriyatioa  yanously  assigned  to  Gr.  paiSj 
a  boy,  and  Lat  pagus,  a  village),  a  youth  employed 
in  the  service  of  a  royal  or  noble  personage.  The 
practice  of  employing  youths  of  noble  oirth  in 
personal  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  existed  in 
early  times  among  the  Persians,  and  was  revived  in 
the  middle  ages  under  feudal  and  chivalric  usages. 
The  young  nobleman  passed  in  courts  and  castles 
through  the  degree  of  page,  preparatory  to  beinff 
admitted  to  the  further  deCTees  of  esquire  ana 
knight.  The  practice  of  ^ucating  the  higher 
nobility  as  pages  at  court,  began  to  decline  after  the 
15th  c,  till  pages  became  what  they  are  now,  mere 
relics  of  feudal  usages.  Four  pages  of  honour,  who 
are  personal  attendants  of  the  sovereign,  form  ^lart 
of  the  state  of  the  British  court.  They  receive  a 
salarv  of  £200  a  year  each,  and  on  attaining  a 
suitable  age,  receive  from  her  Majesty  a  commission 
in  the  Foot  Guards  without  purchase. 

PAGET,  Family  of.  This  noble  family,  thoug^ 
said  to  be  of  Norman  extraction,  do  not  trace  their 
descent  further  back  than  the  reign  of  Henry  VII., 
in  whose  time,  one  William  P.  held  the  office  of  one 
of  the  sergeants-at-mace  of  the  city  of  London.  His 
son  William,  who  was  educated  at  St  Paul's  School, 
and  at  Cambridge,  was  introduced  into  public  life  by 
Stephen  Gardiner,  Bishop  of  Winchester,  early  in 
the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  who  sent  him  abroad  to 
obtain  the  opinions  of  foreign  doctors  as  to  his  con- 
templated divorce  from  Catharine  of  Aragon.  From 
this  time  forth  his  rise  was  rapid,  and  he  was 
constantly  employed  in  diplomatic  missions  until  the 
death  of  the  king,  who  appointed  him  one  of  his 
executors.  He  now  adhered  to  the  party  of  the 
Protector  Somerset,  and  was  raised  to  the  peerage 
in  1552,  as  Lord  Paget  of  Beaudesert  He  shared  in 
the  power,  and  also  in  the  fall,  of  the  Protector,  and 
was  heavily  fined  by  the  Star  Chamber,  who  also 
deprived  him  of  the  insignia  of  the  Order  of  the 
Garter.  His  disgrace,  however,  was  not  of  long 
continuance,  and  a  change  taking  place  in  the 
councils  of  his  op|  tnents,  he  soon  obtained  his 
pardon.  On  the  accession  of  Qaeen  Mary,  he  was 
Bwom  a  member  of  the  privy  council,  and  obtained 
several  large  grants  of  lands.  He  retired  from 
public  life  on  the  accession  of  Elizabeth,  who 
regarded  him  with  much  favour,  though  he  was  a 
strict  Roman  Catholic.  The  representotive  of  the 
family  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Mary  Queen  of  Scots, 
and  suffered,  in  consequence,  the  confiscation  of  his 
property.  The  fifth  Lord  P.  so  far  departed  from 
the  traditionary  policy  of  the  family  as  to  accept 
from  the  parliament  the  lord-lieutenancy  of  Buckina;- 
hamshire ;  but  he  returned  to  his  allegiance  shortly 
afterwardJs,  and  held  the  command  of  a  regiment 
under  the  royal  standard  at  the  battle  of  EdgehiU. 
His  ^andson  was  advanced  to  the  earldom  of 
Uxbridge,  but  this  title  becoming  extinct,  the  repre^ 
^eentation  of  the  family  devolved  on  a  female,  who 
carried  the  barony  of  Paget  by  marriage  into  the 
house  of  Bayly.  The  son  of  this  marriage,  however, 
having  assumed  the  name  of  Paget,  obtained  a 
renewal  of  the  earldom  of  Uxbridge,  and  the  second 
earl,  for  his  gallantry  at  Waterloo,  was  advanced  to 
the  marquisate  of  Anglesey.  Of  late  years,  the  P. 
family  have  usually  held  three  or  four  seats  in  every 

Sarliament,  and  they  have  constantly  supported  the 
beral  party. 

PA'GING-MACHINE.  Several  machines  have 
been  made  for  paging  books  and  numbering  bank- 
notes, cheques,  railway-tickets,  and  other  similar 
papers.  The  ^reat  object  of  these  machines  is  to 
prevent  the  chance  of  error  or  fraud  by  making 
it  impossible  that  a  page,  cheque,  &c  can  be 
abstracted    or    lost   without   detection.      Messrs 


Waterlow  and  Sons  of  London  perfected  an  inge- 
nious machine,  by  which  pa^s  of  books,  such  as 
ledgers  and  other  commercial  books,  and  bank- 
notes, &C.,  are  numbered  in  regular  succession.  The 
numbers  are  engraved  on  metal  rowels,  usually  of 
steel  or  brass.  A  series  of  these  rowels  are  so 
arranged,  that  when  the  machine  is  worked,  the 
numbers  must  be  impressed  on  the  pa{)er  in  regular 
succession  from  1  to  99,999;  and  it  is  impossible 
to  produce  a  duplicate  number  until  the  whole 
series  has  been  printed.  The  instrument  is  made  to 
supply  ink  to  the  types,  so  that  it  may  be  locked  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  admit  of  being  worked  without 
the  chance  of  its  being  tampered  with. 

An  extremely  ingenious  modification  of  this 
machine  has  been  perfected  by  M.  Auguste  Trouillet 
of  Paris,  under  the  name  of  *Num6rateur  M6cani^ue,' 
which  is  not  onl^  more  simple,  but  admits  of  wider 
application ;  for  it  not  only  pages  books  and  numbers 
notes,  tickets,  &c.,  but  can  also  be  used  for  number- 
ing bales  and  other  packages  of  merchandise.  The 
instrument  has  six  rowels,  on  each  of  which  is  a 
set  of  engraved  numbers,  so  arranged,  that  their 
revolutions  produce  in  re^lar  succession  the 
required  numi>er8,  by  the  action  of  a  lever  which 
moves  horizontally,  and  supplies  the  type  with  ink 
as  it  moves  backwards  and  forwards. 

PA'GO,  an  island  belonging  to  the  Austrian 
crownland  of  Dalmatia,  separated  from  Croatia  by 
the  Morlacca  Canal,  a  channel  from  two  to  three 
miles  in  width.  It  is  long  and  narrow,  runs  parallel 
to  the  Croatian  Coast,  and  has  an  area  of  84  square 
miles.  Pop.  4910,  who  are  most  industrious,  and 
support  themselves  by  vine-culture,  the  manufacture 
of  salt  and  fishing. 

PAGO'DA  (according  to  some,  a  corruption  of 
the  Sanscrit  word  bhdgavcUa,  from  bhagavat,  sacred  ; 
but  according  to  others,  a  corruption  of  put-gmla^ 
from  the  Persian  put^  idol,  and  gada,  house)  is  the 
name  of  certain  Hindu  temples,  which  are  amongst 
the  most  remarkable  monuments  of  Hindu  archi- 
tecture. Though  the  word  itself  designates  but 
the  temple  where  the  deity — especially  S'iva,  and 
his  consort  Durgft  or  P&rvatt — was  worshipped,  a 
pagoda  is  in  reality  an  aggregate  of  various  monu- 
ments, which,  in  their  to^ity,  constitute  the  holy 
place  sacred  to  the  god.  Sanctuaries,  porches, 
colonnades,  gatewavs,  walls,  tanks,  &c.,  are  gener- 
ally combined  for  this  purpose,  according  to  a  plan, 
which  is  more  or  less  unifonn.  Several  series  of 
walls  form  an  enclosure ;  between  them  are  alleys, 
habitations  for  the  priests,  kc.,  and  the  interior  is 
occupied  by  the  temple  itself,  with  buildings  for 
the  pilgrims,  tanks,  porticos,  and  open  colonnades. 
The  wzuls  have,  at  their  openings,  gopuras,  or  large 
pyramidal  gatewa3rs,  higher  than  themselves,  and 
so  constructed  that  the  gopura  of  the  outer  wall  is 
always  higher  than  that  of  the  succeeding  inner 
wall,  the  pagoda  itself  beinff  smaller  than  the 
smallest  eopura.  The  extent  of  the  enclosing  walls 
is  generally  considerable ;  in  most  instances,  they 
consist  of  hewn  stones  of  colossal  dimensions,  placetl 
upon  one  another  without  mortar  or  cement,  but 
with  such  admirable  accuracy,  that  their  joints  are 
scarcely  visible.  The  gateways  are  pyramidal 
buildings  of  the  most  elaborate  workmanship ;  they 
consist  of  several,  sometimes  as  many  as  fifteen 
stories.  The  pagodas  themselves,  too,  are  of  a 
pyramidal  shape,  various  layers  of  stones  having 
been  piled  upon  one  another  m  successive  recession ; 
in  some  pagodas,  however,  the  pyramidal  fotin 
begins  only  with  the  higher  stories,  the  broad  basis 
extending  to  about  a  third  of  the  height  of  the 
whole  building.  The  sides  of  the  difier<ent  terraces 
are  vertical;   but  the  transition  from  du^  to  tbo 


PAGODA— PAIN. 


other  is  effected  by  a  vault  Barmounted  b^  a  series 
of  sma]l  cupolas,  which  hide  the  vault  itseli     A 
■ingle  cupola,  hewn  out  of   the  stone,  and   sur- 
mounted ay  a  globe,  generally  crowns  the  whole 
structure;   but  sometimes  the  latter  also  ends  in 
fantastical  spires  of   a  fanlike  shape  or  concave 
roofs.    The  pagodas  are  covered  all  over  with  the 
richest  ornamentation.    The  mlasters  and  columns, 
which  take  a  prominent  rank  in  the  ornamental 
portion  of  these  temples,  shew  the  greatest  variety 
of  forms ;  some  jpagodas  are  also  ovenaid  with  strips 
of  copper,  having  the  appearance  of  gold.      Tne 
most  celebrated  pagodas  on  the  mainland  of  India 
are  those  of  Mathura,  Trichinopoli,  Chalambron, 
Konjeveram,  Jaggemaut,  and  Deogur,  near  EUora. 
— That  of  Mathura  consists  of  four  stories,  and  is 
about  63  feet  high;   its  base  comprises  about  4Q 
square  feet.     Its  first  story  is  made  of  hewn  stones, 
copper,  and  covered  with  gilt ;  the  others  of  brick. 
A  great  number  of  figures,  especially  representing 
deities,  tigers,  and  elephants,  cover  the  building. — 
The  pi^oda  of  Tanjore  is  the  most  beautiful  monu- 
ment of  this  kind  in  the  south  of  India;  its  height 
is  200  feet,  and  the  width  of  its  basis  is  ec^ual  to 
two-thirds  of  its  height. — The  pa£;oda  of  Trichinopoli 
is   erected  on  a  hiu,  elevated  about  300  feet  over 
the  plain;   it  differs  in  style  from  other  |)agodas 
dedicated  to    Brahminical  worship,  and    exhibits 
great  simihirity  with  the  Buddhistic  monuments  of 
Tibet. — The  ereat  pagoda  of  Chalambron,  in  Tanjore, 
is  one  of   the  most  celebrated  and   one   of   the 
most  sacred  of  India.     It  is  dedicated  to  S'iva  and 
Pirvati,  and  filled  with  representations  belongjing 
to  the  mythical  history  of  these  gods.    The  bmld- 
ines  of  which  this  pagoda  is  composed  cover  an 
oblonc  square,  360  feet  long,  and  210  feet  wide. — 
At  Konjeveram,  there  are  two  pagodas — the  one 
dedicated  to  8'iva,  and  the  other  to  P&rvatL^The 
pagodas  of  Jaggernaut,  on  the  north  end  of  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  are  three ;  they  are  erected  like- 
wise in  honour  of  S'iva,  and  are  surrounded  by  a  wall 
of  black  stones— whence  they  are  called  by  Europeans 
the  Black  Pagodas — measuring  1122  feet  in  length, 
696  feet  in  width,  and  24  feet  in  height      The 
height  of  the  principal  of  these  three  pagodas  is  said 
to  be  344  feet ;  according  to  some,  however,  it  does 
not  exceed  120^123  feet. — The  pagoda  of  Deoffur, 
near  Ellora,  consists  also  of  three  pagodas,  sacred  to 
S'iva;  they  have  no  sculptures,  however,  except  a 

trident,  the  weapon  of  S  iva, 
which  is  visible  on  the  top  of 
one  of  these  temples. — The 
monuments  of  Mavalipura, 
on  the  coast  of  Coromandel, 
are  generally  called  the  Seven 
Pagodas ;  but  as  these  monu- 
ments—which are  rather  a 
whole  city,  than  merely 
temples— are  buildings  cut 
oat  of  the  living  rock,  they 
belong  more  properly  to  the 
rock-cut  monuments  of  India, 
than  to  the  special  class  of 
Indian  architecture  comprised 
under  the  term  pagoda. 

The  term  pagoda  is,  in  a 
loose  way,  also  applied  to  those 
Chinese  buildings  of  a  tower- 
form,  which  consist  of  several 
stories,  each  story  containing 
a  sinffle  room,  and  being  sur- 
rounded by  a  ^^ery  covered 
with  a  protruding  root  These 
boilclings,  however,  differ  materially  from  the 
Hindu  pagodas,  not  only  bo  far  as  their  style  and 
eztezior  appearance  are  concerned,  but  inasmuch 


Porcelain  Tower  of 

Kanking. 


as  they  are  buildi^gs  intended  for  other  than 
religious  purposes,  "nie  Chinese  call  them  Ta^  and 
they  are  generally  erected  in  commemoration  of  a 
celebrated  personage,  or  some  remarkable  event; 
and  for  this  reason,  too,  on  some  elevated  spot, 
where  they  may  be  conspicuous,  and  add  to  the 
charms  of  the  scenery.  Some  of  these  buildings- 
have  a  height  of  160  feet;  the  finest  known  speci- 
men of  them  is  the  famous  Porcelain  Tower  of 
Nanking  (q.  v.).  The  application  of  the  name 
pagoda  to  a  Chinese  temple  should  be  dis- 
countenanced, for,  as  a  rule,  a  Chinese  temple  is 
an  insignificant  building,  seldom  more  than  two 
stories  high,  and  built  of  wood ;  the  exceptions  are 
rare,  and  where  they  occur,  as  at  Peking,  such 
temples,  however  magnificent,  have  no  architectural 
affinity  with  a  Hindu  pagoda. 

PAOU'BnS  AKD  PAGU'RIDJO.  See  Hermit 
Cbab. 

PAHLANPUIt,  a  town  of  India,  capital  of 
the  state  of  the  same  name,  260  miles  east-south- 
east of  Hyderabad.  It  is  a  walled  town,  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  trade  and  of  several  manufactures. 
Pop.  estimated  at  30,000,  many  of  whom  are 
artificers  and  shopkeepers.  The  state  of  which 
P.  is  capital  lies  between  lat  23'  67—24^  41'  N., 
and  long.  IV  51'— 72'*  45'  E.  One-seventh  of  the 
population  are  Moslem,  and  the  remainder  Hindus. 
The  state,  out  of  a  revenue  of  £30,000,  pays  an 
annual  tribute  of  £5000  to  the  Gnicowar,  and  £600 
per  annum  for  the  maintenance  of  a  British  political 
agent.  The  exact  area  of  the  state  is  not  known ; 
the  state,  however,  contains  300  villages ;  pop. 
130,000.  The  products  are  wheat,  rice,  sugar-cane^ 
and  cotton.  In  the  north  and  west,  the  soil  yields 
only  one  crop  annually ;  but  in  the  south  and  east, 
three  crops  are  obtained  in  the  year. 

PAILA  is,  according  to  the  Pur&n'as  (q.  v.),  one 
of  the  disciples  of  Vyftsa  (q.  v.),  the  reputed 
arranger  of  the  Vedas  (q.  v.) ;  he  was  taught  by  the 
latter  the  R'igveda,  and,  on  bis  part,  communicated 
this  knowledge  to  B&shkali  and  Indrapramati. 
This  tradition,  therefore,  implies  that  P.  was  one  of 
the  earliest  compilers  of  the  R'igveda. 

PAIN  is  an  undefinable  sensation,  of  the  nature 
of  which  all  persons  are  conscious.  It  resides 
exclusively  in  the  nervous  system,  but  may  originate 
from  various  sources.  Irritation,  or  excessive 
excitement  of  the  nervous  system,  ma^  produce  it ; 
it  frequently  precedes  and  accompanies  inflamma- 
tion ;  while  it  sometimes  occurs  in,  and  seems  to  be 
favoured  by,  a  state  of  positive  depression,  as  is  seen 
in  the  intense  pain  wnich  is  oft  n  exi)erienced  in 
a  limb  benumbed  with  cold,  in  the  pain  which  not 
unfrequently  accuiupanies  palsy,  and  in  the  well- 
known  fact,  that  neuralgia  is  a  common  result  of 
general  debility.  Hence,  pain  must  on  no  account 
be  regarded  as  a  certain  indication  of  inflammation, 
although  it  rarely  happens  that  pain  is  not  felt  at 
some  period  or  other  in  inflammatoiy  diseases. 
Moreover,  the  pain  that  belongs  to  inflammation, 
differs  very  much,  according  to  the  omn  or  tissue 
affected ;  the  pain,  for  example,  in  inflammation  of 
tiie  lungs,  differs  altogether  m  character  from  that 
whidi  occurs  in  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  and 
both  these  pains  from  that  occurring  in  inflammation 
of  the  kidne3r8. 

Pain  differs  not  only  in  its  character,  which  may 
be  dull,  sharp,  aching,  tearing,  gnawing,  stabbing 
&C.,  but  in  its  mode  of  occurrence ;  for  example,  it 
may  be  flying  or  persistent,  intermittent,  remittent, 
or  continued.  It  is  not  alwajrs  that  the  pain  is  felt 
in  the  spot  where  the  cause  of  it  exists.  Thus, 
inflammation  of  the  liver  or  diaphragm  may 
cause  pain  in  tiie   right   shoulder,  the  irritation 

U9 


PAINE— PAINTING. 


caused  by  stone  in  the  bladder  produces  pain  at 
the  outlet  of  the  urinary  passage ;  disease  of  the 
hip-joint  occasions  pain  in  the  luiee,  disease  of  the 
heart  is  often  accompanied  with  pain  in  the  left 
arm,  and  irritation  of  the  stomach  often  gives  rise 
to  headache.  Pain  is  differently  felt  by  persons  of 
different  constitutions  and  temperaments,  some 
persons  being  little  sensitive  to  painful  impressions 
of  any  kind,  while  others  suffer  greatly  from  slight 
causes.  There  even  seem  to  be  national  differences 
in  this  respect;  and  before  the  introduction  of 
chloroform,  it  was  a  matter  of  oommon  observa- 
tion that  Irishmen  were  always  more  troublesome 
subjects  for  surgical  operations  than  either  English- 
men or  Scotchmen ;  and  the  negro  is  probably  less 
sensitive  to  pain  than  any  of  the  white  races. 

Although  in  most  cases  we  are  to  reeard  pain 
merely  as  a  symptom  to  be  removed  only  d^  means 
which  remove  the  lesion  which  occstsions  it,  there 
are  cases  in  which,  although  it  is  only  a  symptom, 
it  constitutes  a  chief  element  of  disease,  and  one 
against  which  remedies  must  be  specially  directed. 
As  examples  of  these  cases,  may  be  mentioned 
neuralgia,  gastral^ia,  colic,  dysmenorrhoea,  and 
perforation  of  the  mtestines ;  and  in  a  less  degree, 
the  stitch  of  pleurisy,  which,  if  not  relieved,  impedes 
the  respiration,  ana  the  pain  of,  tehesmus,  which 
often  causes  such  efforts  to  empty  the  lower  bowel, 
as  seriously  to  disturb  the  functions  of  the  intestine, 
and  to  exhaust  the  strength. 

For  the  methods  of  relieving  pain,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  the  articles  on  the  different  diseases  in 
which  it  specially  occurs  (as  Colic,  Nectraloia, 
Pleubisy,  &c.),and  to  those  on  Ghloroforai,  Ether, 
Indian  Hemp,  Morphia,  Narcotics,  Opium,  &c. 

PAINE,  Thomas,  an  author  famous  for  his  con- 
nection with  the  American  and  French  revolutions, 
and  for  his  advocacy  of  infidel  opinions,  was  bom 
29th  January  1737,  at  Thetford,  in  the  county  of 
Norfolk  in  England.  He  was  trained  to  the  business 
of  his  father,  who  was  a  staymaker,  but  afterwards 
obtained  a  situation  in  tiie  Customs,  and  the 
management  of  a  tobacco-manufactory.  His  income, 
however,  was  small,  and  he  fell  into  debt,  and  was 
dismissed  in  1774,  upon  which  he  went  to  America, 
was  favourably  received  by  a  bookseller  in  Phila- 
delphia, and  in  1776  published  a  pamphlet  entitled 
Common  Sense,  written  in  a  popular  style,  in  which 
he  maintained  the  cause  of  tne  colonies  against  the  ' 
mother-country.     The  success  and  influence  of  this 

gublication  were  extraordinary,  and  it  won  him  the 
iendship  of  Washington,  Franklin,  and  other 
distinguished  American  leaders.  He  was  rewarded 
by  Congress  with  the  appointment  of  Secretary  to 
the  Committee  of  Foreign  Affairs,  visited  France 
in  the  summer  of  1787,  where  he  made  the  acquaint- 
ance of  Buffon,  Maleslierbes,  La  RochefoucaiUd,  and 
other  eminent  men ;  and  in  the  autumn  following, 
went  to  Endand,  where,  in  1791,  he  published  The 
Rights  of  Man,  the  most  famoiui  of  all  the  replies 
to  Burke's  Reflections  upon  the  Frencit  Revolution. 
The  work  has  gone  through  innumerable  editions, 
and  has  been  translated  into  almost  all  the  lan- 
guages of  Europe.  His  defence  of  tliQ  principles  of 
the  French  Revolution  against  the  magnificent  assault 
of  Burke  and  the  outcry  of  the  English  aristocracy  is 
vigorous,  and  by  no  means  unsuccessful  But  the 
viuue  or  at  least  the  popularity  of  the  work  has  been 
injured  by  its  advocacy  of  extreme  liberal  opinions. 
His  assaults  on  the  British  constitution  exposed 
him  to  a  government  prosecution,  and  he  fled  to 
France,  where  he  was  admitted  to  citizenship ;  and 
in  1792,  the  department  of  Pas-de-Calais  elected 
him  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention,  where  he 
voted  with  the  Girondists.  At  the  trial  of  Louis 
XVI.,  says  Madame  de  Sta^,  *  Thomas  Paine  alone 
190 


proposed  what  would  have  done  honour  to  France 
if  it  had  been  accepted — the  offer  to  the  king  of  an 
asylum  in  America;*  by  which  he  offended  the 
Mountain  party;  and  in  1793,  Robespierre  caused 
him  to  be  ejected  from  the  Convention,  on  the 
ground  of  his  bein^  a  foreigner,  and  thrown  into 
prison.  During  his  imprisonment,  he  wrote  The  Age 
of  Reason,  against  Atheism,  and  against  Christianity, 
and  in  favour  of  Deism.  After  an  imprisonment  of 
fourteen  months,  he  was  released,  on  the  intercession 
of  the  American  government,  and  restored  to  his 
seat  in  the  Convention.  He  was  chosen  by  Napoleon 
to  introduce  a  popular  form  of  government  into 
Britain,  after  ?ie  should  have  invaded  and  conquered 
the  island.  But  as  Napoleon  did  not  carry  out  his 
design,  P.  was  deprived  of  an  opportunity  of  playing 
the  part  of  legislator  for  his  conquered  countrymen. 
He  then  retired  into  private  life,  and  occupied 
himself  with  the  study  of  flnance.  In  1802,  he 
returned  to  the  United  States,  and  died  there  8th 
June  1809.  The  most  complete  edition  of  his  works 
is  that  by  J.  P.  Mendum  (Bost.  1856) ;  the  most 
noted  of  his  numerous  biographers  is  William 
Cobbett  (1796). 

PAINS  AND  PENALTIES.  When  a  person 
has  committed  some  crime  of  peculiar  enormity, 
and  for  which  no  adequate  punishment  is  provided 
by  the  ordinary  law,  the  mode  of  proceeding  is  by 
introducinc;  a  bill  of  pains  and  penalties,  the  object 
of  which,  therefore,  is  to  inflict  a  punishment  of  an 
extraordinary  and  anomalous  kind.  These  bills  are 
now  seldom  resorted  to,  and  the  last  instance  of  an 
attempt  to  revive  such  a  form  of  punishment  was 
by  the  ministers  of  George  IV.  against  Queen 
Caroline,  an  attempt  which  was  signally  defeated. 
When  a  bill  of  this  kind  is  resolved  upon,  it  is 
introduced,  and  passes  through  all  the  stages  like 
any  other  bill  in  parliament,  except  that  the  party 

Proceeded  against  is  allowed  to  defend  himself  or 
erself  by  counsel  and  witnesses.  The  proceeding 
is  substantially  an  indictment,  though  in  form  a 
bill. 

PAINTER,  in  naval  matters,  is  the  rox)e  by 
which  a  boat  is  fastened  to  a  ship  or  pier. 

PAINTERS'  CREAM,  a  composition  used  by 
artists  to  cover  oil-paintings  in  progress,  when  they 
leave  off  their  work ;  it  prevents  diying,  and  the 
consequent  shewing  of  hues  where  new  work  is 
begun.  It  consists  of  six  parts  of  flne  nut  oil,  and 
one  part  of  gum-mastic  The  mastic  is  dissolved 
in  the  oil,  and  then  is  add^d  a  quarter  part  o£ 
acetate,  or  sugar  of  lead,  finely  triturated  with  a 
few  drops  of  the  oiL  When  well  incorporated  with 
the  dissolved  mastic,  water  must  be  added,  and 
thoroughly  mixed,  until  the  whole  has  the  con- 
sistency of  cream.  It  is  applied  with  a  soft  brush, 
and  can  easily  be  removed  with  water  and  a 
sponge. 

PAINTING,  the  art  of  representing  objects  to 
the  eye  on  a  flat  surface  by  means  of  lines  and 
colour,  with  a  view  to  convey  ideas  and  awaken 
emotions.  See  Art.  As  one  of  the  fine  arts,  paint- 
ing occupies  a  prominent  place ;  some  claim  for  it 
the  first  place,  as  combining  the  chief  elements — 
namely,  form,  light  and  shade,  and  colour.  As  com- 
pared, however,  with  music  and  poetry,  it  lacks  the 
important  element  of  movement,  the  representation 
being  confined,  in  a  great  measure,  to  one  aspect 
and  one  instant  of  time.  In  its  ruder  and  more 
elementary  forms,  in  which  the  primary  design  ipvas 
to  communicate  ideas,  painting  is  perhaps  the  oldest 
of  the  arts,  older,  at  all  events,  than  writing  (see 
Alphabet,  Hieroglyphics)  ;  and,  as  a  vehicle  of 
knowledge,  it  possesses  this  advantage  over  writing — 
that  no  description,  however  mini.'vto,  can  convey 


PAINTING. 


•ccnrate  and  distinct  an  idea  of  an  object  as  a 
pictorial  representation,  much  less  make  so  vivid 
an  impression.  Besides  this,  it  is  not  Umited,  as 
writing  is,  by  differences  of  language,  but  speaks 
alike  to  all  nations  and  all  ages. 

The  great  antiquity  of  painting  is  proved  by 
remains  discovered  in  Egypt,  and  by  reference  to  it 
in  ancient  writings.  It  has  been  ascertained  that  as 
early  as  the  19th  c  B.C.,  the  walls  and  temples  of 
Thebes  were  decorated  by  painting  and  sculpture. 
Ezekiel,  who  prophesied  about  598  years  b.  c,  refers 
to  paintings  m  Jerusalem  after  the  manner  of  the 
Babylonians  and  Ghaldseans.  Though  no  speci- 
mens have  come  down  to  us,  it  is  evident  that 
paintings  of  the  hij^hest  excellence  were  executed 
in  Greece.  This  is  proved  by  what  is  recorded 
of  them,  for  the  subjects  of  many  of  those 
mentioned  required  the  putting  forth  in  a  high 
degree  of  all  the  qualities  requisite  for  the  pro- 
duction of  the  greatest  historical  works,  such 
as  form,  grouping,  expression,  foreshortening. 
From  the  immense  sums  given  for  paintings,  the 
care  with  which  they  were  preserved  in  temples 
and  other  public  buildings,  and  from  the  fact 
of  the  high  state  of  sculpture  at  contemporary 
periods,  as  proved  by  well-known  works  now 
extant,  it  may  be  deduced  that  painting,  which, 
like  sculpture,  is  based  on  design  or  drawing,  must 
have  occupied  an  equally  high  position.  Even 
tile  imperfect  specimens  of  painting  discovered  in 
Pompeii,  where  the  style  and  influence  of  Greek 
art  may  be  traced  to  some  extent,  lead  to  conclu- 
sions highly  favourable  to  the  high  position  of 
painting  in  classic  times.  The  chief  schools  of 
painting  in  Greece  were  those  of  Sicyon,  Corinth, 
Athens,  and  Rhodes.  The  first  great  artist  of  whose 
works  there  is  any  authentic  description,  and  from 
details  of  which  an  idea  may  be  formed  of  his 
attainments,  is  Polygnotus  of  Thasos  (flor.  420  B.  c), 
who  painted,  among  other  works,  those  in  the 
Pcecile,  a  celebrated  portico  at  Athens,  and  the 
Lesche,  or  public  hall  at  Delphi 

The  works  of  Ai)ollodoru8  of  Athens  (flor.  408 
B.C.)  are  described  and  highly  praised  by  Pliny. 
Zeuxis,  the  pupil  of  A])ollodoru8,  Eupompus,  Andro- 
cidea,  Parrhasius  (q.v.)  the  Ephesian,  and  Timanthes 
of  Sicyon,  prosecuted  painting  with  distinguished 
success,  and  by  them  it  was  carried  down  to  the 
time  of  Philip  the  father  of  Alexander.  Of  the 
same  period  was  Pamphilus,  celebrated  not  only  for 
h\n  works,  but  as  the  master  of  the  artist  universally 
acknowledged  as  the  greatest  of  the  ancient  painters, 
Apelles  (q.  v.),  who  was  born  probably  at  Colophon, 
and  flourished  in  the  latter  half  of  the  4th  c.  B.a 
fie  was  highly  esteemed  by  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  executed  many  important  works  for  that 
monarch.  Protogenes  of  Rhodes  was  a  contem- 
porajry,  and  may  be  styled  the  rival  of  Apelles, 
who  greatly  admired  his  works.  His  picture  of 
Jalysus  the  hunter  and  the  nymph  Rhodos  was 
preserved  for  many  years  in  the  Temple  of  Peace  at 
Konae.  Art  in  Greece  had  now  reached  its  highest 
point ;  its  course  afterwards  was  downwards. 

In  Italy,  art  was  followed  at  a  very  early  period 
by  the  Etruscans,  and,  according  to  Pliny,  painting, 
as  well  as  sculpture,  was  successfully  practised  m 
Ardea  and  Lanuvium,  cities  of  Latium,  perhaps 
more  ancient  than  Rome.  The  finest  specimens  of 
Etruscan  art,  however — as  the  paintings  on  tombs, 
and  the  remains  of  armour  and  fictile  ware  orna- 
mented with  figures,  evince  unmistakably  the 
inilaence  of,  or  rather  are  identical  with  Greek  art. 
According  to  Phny,  it  was  introduced  from  Corinth 
about  650  B. a    No  great  national  school  of  painting 

of 


flourished  in  Rome,  for  though  the  names 
Bamaos  who  were  painters  are  cited,  the  principal 


works  of  art  that  adorned  the  temples  and  palaces 
of  Rome  were  obtained  from  Greece,  and  it  is 
probable  that  ihany  of  the  paintings  executed 
there  were  by  Greek  artists,  ^hen  the  seat  of 
empire  was  transferred  to  the  East,  such  art  as 
then  remained  was  carried  with  it,  and  in  a  new 
phase  was  afterwards  reco^ised  as  Byzantine  art — 
a  conventional  style,  in  which  certain  typical  forma 
were  adopted  and  continually  repeated.  This  mode 
has  been  preserved,  and  is  practised  in  church-paint- 
ing in  Russia  at  this  present  time. 

Much  discussion  has  arisen  in  modem  times  as 
to  the  supposed  technical  modes  or  processes  of 
paintintv  employed  by  the  ancients.  It  seems 
established  that  painting  in  fresco  was  much  prac< 
tised ;  but  many  of  the  most  valuable  pictures  we 
read  of  were  removable,  and  there  are  accounts  of 
some  carried  from  Greece  to  Rome.  *The  Greeks 
preferred  movable  pictures,  which  could  be  taken 
away  in  case  of  fire'  {Wilkinson  on  Bgj/ptian 
and  Greek  Paintings)^  and  Pliny  says  Apelles 
never  painted  on  walls ;  besides  fresco  paintings  on 
walls,  therefore,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
ancients  painted  on  boards  ;  indeed,  the  name 
7^(U)ula  or  Tabula  picta  proves  this,  and  it  seems  to 
be  now  generally  acknowledged  that  these  were 
executed  in  tempera — that  is,  with  size,  and  pro- 
bably fixed  or  protected  by  some  kind  of  varnish, 
in  tne  preparation  of  which  oil  was  used  ;  or  in 
encaustic,  a  process  in  which  wax  was  employed  to 
fix  and  give  brilliancy  and  depth  to  the  colours, 
heat  being  applied  in  working  with  it. 

Painting  was  revived  in  Europe  in  the  13th  c. ; 
previous  to  that  period,  Byzantine  artists  chiefly 
were  employed.  On  the  conquest  of  Constantinople 
by  the  Latins  in  1204,  the  Byzantine  school  was 
broken   up,  and  many  Greek  artists  were  trans- 

Slanted  to  Italy,  where  art  was  now  destined  to 
ourish,  so  the  works  of  the  Italians  who  profited 
by  their  instructions,  were  necessarily,  at  the  com- 
mencement, composed  in  the  Byzantine  style.  The 
first  Italian  whose  name  is  associated  with  the 
revival  of  Italian  art  is  Giiido  of  Siena;  a  work 
by  him,  a  large  Madonna,  inscribed  with  his  name 
and  thQ.date  1221,  is  still  preserved  in  that  city. 
The  next  is  Giunto  da  Pisa  (1236).  But  Giovanni 
Cimabue  (q.  v.),  (1240 — 1300),  is  commonly  styled 
the  founder  of  the  Italian  school.  Several  works 
of  considerable  importance  are  ascribed  to  him; 
and  though  he  followed  the  Byzantine  arrange- 
ment, he  ventured  occasionally  out  of  the  path, 
introduced  the  study  of  nature  in  his  drawinjs;, 
and  imparted  a  greater  degree  of  softness  to  his 
painting  than  the  Byzantine  artists.  The  influ- 
ence of  Byzantine  art  was  not  confined  to  Italy; 
it  operated  in  Germany,  Bohemia,  and  France ;  but 
there  also  art  began  to  assume  a  national  character 
early  in  the  13th  c.,  and  paintings  are  still  pre- 
served at  Cologne,  dated  1224.  The  Italian  school 
of  painting,  or  that  style  in  which  so  many  of 
the  highest  (qualities  of  art  have  been  so  suc- 
cessfully earned  out,  received  its  chief  impetus 
from  Giotto  (q.v.),  the  son  of  Bordone,  born  in 
1276  at  Vespignano,  near  Florence,  where  he  died  in 
1336.  It  is  said  that  he  was  originally  a  shepherd- 
boy,  and  being  discovered  by  Cimabue  drawing  a 
sheep  on  a  slate,  was  instructed  by  him  in  paint- 
ing. His  style  is  distinguished  from  that  of  earlier 
pamters  by  the  introduction  of  natural  incidents 
and  impressions,  by  greater  richness  and  variety  of 
composition,  b^  the  dramatic  interest  of  his  groups, 
and  oy  total  disregard  of  the  typical  forms  and  con- 
ventional style  of  his  predecessors.  His  influence  was 
not  confined  to  Florence,  but  extended  over  the  whole 
of  Italy ;  and  works  by  this  artist  may  be  traced  from 
Padua  to  Naples.    Giotto  followed  Pope  Clement  V. 

191 


PAINTINa 


to  Avignon,  and  is  said  to  have  executed  many 
important  pictures  there,  and  in  other  cities  in  France. 
The  most  celebrated  of  his  frescoes  now  extant  are 
those  at  Assisi ;  some  noted  works  by  him  in  that 
class  also  remain  at  Padua,  Florence,  and  Naples. 
Most  of  the  small-easel-pictures  ascribed  to  him  are 
of  doubtful  authenticity,  but  some  preserved  in  the 
gaUei^  at  Florence  are  acknowledged  to  be  genuine. 
Slis  high  powers  as  a  sculptor  and  architect  are 
also  exemplified  by  works  in  that  city.    Giotto  had 
numerous   scholars  and  imitators,  and  several  of 
tiiese  have  left  works  which  shew  that  while  they 
profited  by  his  instruction  or  example,  they  were  also 
gifted  with  original  talent.    Among  these  may  be 
noticed  Taddeo  Oaddi,  the  favourite  pupil  of  Giotto 
(bom  1300,  living  in  1352) ;  Simone  Memmi  (1284— 
1344) ;  and  Andrea  Orcagna  (1329—1389).  one  of 
the  artists  employed  in  the  decoration  of  the  cele- 
brated Gampo  Santo  at  Pisa.      Painting  in  Italy 
continued  to  be  impressed  with  the   feeling  and 
style  of  Giotto  for  upwards  of  a  hundred  years; 
but  early  in  the  fifteenth   century,  the   frescoes 
executed  by  Masaccio  (1401—1443)  in  the  Bran* 
caoci  Ghapel  in  the  Carmelite  Church  at  Florence, 
deuiy  prove  that  it  had  entered  on  a  new  phase, 
and  had  come  forth  strengthened  by  an  import- 
ant element  in  which  it  formerly  was  deficient, 
viz.,  correct  delineation  of   form,  raided  by   the 
study  of  nature.    These  celebrated  frescoes,  twelve 
in  number,  were  at  one  time  all  ascribed  to  Masaccio ; 
but  it  seems  now  to  be  acknowledged  by  judges  of 
art  that  two  of  these  are  by  ^lasolino  da  Panicale 
(1378—1415),  the  master  of  Masaccio ;  and  three,  or 
probably  four,  and  a   small  portion    of   one,  by 
Filippino  Lippi  (1460—1505).    The  frescoes  by  Mas- 
accio, however,  are  superior  to  those  bv  Masolino 
and  Lippi,  and,  indeea,  for  many  of   the  highest 
qualities  in  art,  have,  as  comiKJsitions,  only  oeen 
surpassed  by  Raphael  in  his  celebrated  cartoons.    In 
about  a  century  from  Masaccio's  time,  painting  in 
Italy  attained  its  highest  developmefit ;  but  before 
referring  to  tiiiose  artists  who  are  acknowledged  as 
having  carried  painting  to  the  highest  elevation 
it  has  attained  since  the  period  of  the  middle  ages, 
it  is  right  to  note  the  names  of  some  of  the  painters 
who   aided   in  raising  it  to   that   position.     The 
works  of  Fra  Giovanni  da  Fiesole  (1387;— 1455)  are 
highly  valued  and  esteemed  by  many  critics  as  the 
purest  in  point  of  style  and  feeling,  and  so  the 
Dest  fitted  for  devotional  purposes.    Confining  his 
efforts  to  simple  and  graceful  action,  and  sweet 
and  tender  expression,  he  adhered  to  the  traditional 
types,  and  ventured  on  none  of  the  bold  inUova- 
tions   which    were    introduced   in   his   time,    and 
carried    so    far  by  Masaccio.     His    example,    as 
regards   feeling  and  expression,  infiuenoed    many 
succeeding    artists,   particularly   Pietro    Perugino, 
the  master  of  Raphael  (1446—1524),  and  Francesco 
Francia  of  Bologna  (1450  or  1453—1517),  by  both 
of  whom  these  qualities,  united  to  greatly  improved 
technical  power,  were  brought  to  high  exc^ence. 
Giovanni  Bellini,  the  founder  of  the  early  Venetian 
school  (1422 — 1512),  has  left  many  admirable  works ; 
he  had  numerous  scholars,  among  them  Titian  and 
Giorgione.   Domenico  Corradi  or  uhirlandajo,  under 
whom   Michael  An^relo  studied,   successfully   fol- 
lowed out  that  direction  given  to  art  by  Masaccio, 
which    involved    individualitv    of    character    and 
expression  in  the  figures.     Andrea  Mantegna,  of 
the    school    of   Padua    (1430—1506),    along    with 
strong    expression,    gave    an    impetus    to    form, 
modelled  on  Greek  or  classic  art     Luca  Signorelli 
of  Cortona  (about  1440 — 1521),  successfully  exem- 
plified powerful  action  and  bold  foreshortenmg,  par- 
ticulariy  in  his  frescoes  at  Orvieto,  which,  with  his 
other  works,  are  supposed  to  have  strongly  influenced 
19S 


the  st^le  of  Michael  Angela  Antonello  da  Messina 
(1447 — 1496)  is  said  to  have  been  a  pupil  of  Jan 
Van  Eyck,  who  imparted  to  him  his  secret  in  the 
preparation  and  use  of  oil-colours,  the  knowledge 
of  which  he  spread  among  the  Venetians.  The 
above  statement,  however,  as  to  the  exact  period 
at  which  oil-painting  was  first  introduced,  is  one 
attended  with  much  doubt.  Painting  with  colours 
mixed  in  oil  is  mentioned  by  Italian  writers  before 
the  period  of  Van  £vck ;  painting  in  tempoxt^ 
or  size,  was  continued  in  Italy,  ^urticularly  in 
the  Florentine  and  Roman  schools,  to  the  time 
of  Raphael ;  and  the  transition  from  the  one 
methoa  to  the  other  has  been  so  gradual,  that  many 
judges  of  art  have  expressed  inability  to  determine 
whether  the  pictures  of  Perugino,  Francia,  and 
Raphael  are  in  oil  or  tempera,  or  in  both.  The 
practice  of  painting  on  canvas,  in  place  of  wooden 
Iwards  or  panels,  was  introduced  and  carried  on  for  a 
considerable  time  in  Venice  before  it  was  adopted  in 
other  parts  of  Italy,  and  canvas  is  the  material  best 
suited  for  pictures  in  oil-colours  when  they  are  not 
of  small  dimensions ;  so,  on  the  whole,  the  conclu- 
sion seems  to  be,  that  though  oil-painting  was  not 
unknown  in  Florence  and  the  south  of  Italy,  painting 
in  tempera  was  longer  practised  there  than  in  Venice. 
At  the  time  when  the  painters  above  referred  to 
flourished,  there  were  many  able  artists  in  Germany, 
whose  works  are  deservedly  very  highly  ]>ri2ed. 
Among  these,  Jan  Van  £yck  (o*  v.),  (about  1390— 
1441),  deserves  special  noticeu  To  him  is  genendly 
given  the  credit  of  being  the  first  painter  who  used 
oil  in  place  of  size  in  his  colours.  Hia  works  are 
remarkable  for  brilliant  and  transparent  colouring 
and  high  finish.  He  had  numerous  scholars ;  among 
these,  Justus  of  Ghent  (flor.  1451),  Hugo  Vander 
Croes  (died  1480)— supposed  to  be  the  painter  of 
the  celebrated  wings  of  an  altar-piece,  now  at 
Holyrood  Palace,  containing  portraits  of  James 
III.  and  his  queen — ^Roger  of  Bruges  (1365 — 
1418),  Hans  Hewling  or  Memling  (di^  1489),  the 
best  scholar  of  the  Van  Eyck  school;  Quintin 
Matsys  (1460—1529),  Jan  Van  Mabuse  (1470—1532), 
Albert  DUrer  (q.v.),  (1471—1628),  Lucas  Van 
Leyden  (q.  v.),  (1494—1533).  The  caW  of  the  two 
last-named  extended  to  the  best  period  of  art^  and 
for  manv  high  qualities  their  works  strongly  com- 
pete with  those  of  the  ablest  of  the  Italians ;  while 
portraits  by  Hans  Holbein  (q.  v.),  (1497—1654),  and 
Antonio  More  (1512 — 1588)  rank  with  those  of  any 
school  or  period.  The  leading  qualities  in  Gkrman 
art  are  invention,  individuality  of  character,  clear* 
ness  of  colouring,  and  high  finish ;  but  they  ars 
inferior  to  the  Italians  in  embodying  beauty ;  their 
representation  of  the  nude  is  angular  in  form  and 
deficient  in  the  elegance  and  grace  attained  by  the 
painters  of  Italy;  and  in  their  draperies  they  do  not 
attain  the  simplicity  and  grandeur  so  remarkable  in 
the  works  of  tneir  southern  comi)etitorB. 

Anything  like  an  account  of  the  artists  by  whom 
painting  was  carried  to  its  highest  pitch,*of  sufiicient 
com^ehensiveness  to  exhibit  their  peculiar  sssthetie 
quahties,  cannot  be  attempted  in  so  short  a  notice 
as  this ;  but  that  deficiency  is  in  some  degree 
supplied  by,  and  reference  is  made  to,  the  biographi- 
cal notices  of  distinguished  painters  mven  m  this 
work  under  their  names.  Keeping  wis  reference 
in  view,  therefore,  the  next  step  is  to  note  the 
relative  positions  generally  assigned  to  the  most 
distinguiuied  painters  of  that  period,  with  refer- 
ence to  the  estimation  in  which  their  works  are 
now  held.  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (q.  v.),  (1452— 
1519),  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti  (1474—1563), 
and  Raphael  or  Raflaello  Sanzio  of  Urbino  (1483-- 
1520),  are  universallv  acknowledged  as  the  three 
greatest  among  the  Italian  artists;  but  two  other 


PAINnNG. 


may  be  added  n<i  wortby  to  be  put  in  an 
equally  hish  place^thoee  of  Titian  (q.  v.),  (1477 — 
1576),   ana  Antonio  Allegri,  sumamed  Gorreggio 
(<l*  ^')t  (1494 — 1634).    Theae  five  paiu'^'^rs  exhibit  in 
their  work^  some  of  them  the  whole,  others  the 
greater  portion  of  the  Tarious  elements — which  in  the 
earlier  periods  of  art  had  existed  apart,  and  compo;jcd 
distinct  styles — ^united,  and  more  highly  developed ; 
while  eaoh  of  them  has  taken  up  one  of  these 
elements,  and  carried  it  not  only  further  than  his 
ntedeceesors  had  done,  but  farther  than  it  was  by 
nm  oontempoiaries,  or  by  any  subsequent  artist. 
Thus  we  see  in  Leonardo's  celebrated  picture  of 
the  ^Last  Supper,'  that  though  he  has  aaopted  the 
traditional  style  of  composition  handed  down  from 
Giotto's  time,  and  carried  out  the  religious  feeling 
and   dignified   expression  aimed  at  by  the  older 
masters,  the  whole  is  deepened  and  elevated  by 
the  manner  in  which  it  is  worked  out — namely,  by 
a  mind  and  hand  possessing  mastery  over  all  the 
elements  that  are  combinea  in  the  production^  of 
the  highest  works  of  art.    Michael  Angelo  was  a 
proficient   in   all   the   qualities  that  constitute  a 
painter,  but  he  carried  several  of  them — viz.,  gran- 
deur of  design,  anatomical  knowledge,  and  power 
of  drawing — far  beyond  all  other  artists  of  his  own 
or  of  later  times.     Titian  and  Correggio,  again, 
with  flpreat  power  over  every  art-element,  have  each 
carried  one  quality  further  than  all  other  artists — 
the   former,  colour;   the  latter,  light  and  shad& 
Raphael  is  generally  allowed  the  first  place  among 
painters,  for,  though  each  of  the  four  artists  just 
referred   to  carried  one,  or  perhaps  two,  of  the 
qualities  of  painting  further  than  he  did,  he  excelled 
tnem  in  every  other  element  but  the  one  for  which 
each  was  particularly  distinguished,  and  in  several 
ol  the  highest  qualities  of  art  he  attained  to  greater 
excellence  than  any  other  artist ;  the  expression  of 
dignity  of  movement  by  broad  masses  and  grand 
lines  aimed  at  in  the  works  of  Masaccio,  is  success- 
fully realised  in  the  cartoons  at  Hampton  Court; 
and  the  pictures  in  which  Ferugino  and  Francia  so 
earnestly  and  successfully  embodied  female  beauty, 
matemad  afiection,  and  infantine  purity,  are  as  much 
inferior  to  pictures  of  similar  subiects  by  Raphael 
as  they  are  above  those  executed  during  the  decad- 
ence   of    Italian  art       Besides   the    nve   leading 
masters  just  referred  to,  there  were  many  other 
Italian  artiste  of  great  talent,  who  may  be  ranged 
in  three  classes:    1,  the  Gontem])oraries  of  those 
artists ;  2,  those  influenced  by  their  style  ;  3,  their 
■cholara.     Among  their  contemporaries,  the  works 
of    Fra    Bartolommeo    (1469—1517)   and    Andrea 
Vannochi,  called  Andrea  del  Sarto  (1488—1530), 
both  Florentines,  deservedly  rank  very  high.    Gior- 
gio BarbareUi,  called  Giorgione  (1478—1511),  was, 
under  Bellini,  a  fellow-pupil  of,  and  is  generally 
styled  the  rival  of  Titian ;  and  his  works,  which 
are  of  great  exoellenoe,  prove  that  he  was  worthy  of 
that  name.    In  class  2,  Correffgio  himself  may  rank 
as  being  influenced  by  Leonaroas  style,  but  the  great 
promineoce  of  his  other  qualities  makes  his  style 
original  and  independent.      On  Bernardino  Luini 
(abont  1460,  living  in  1530),  Leonardo's  influence  is 
direct;    and  as  he  was  an  able  painter,  his  pic- 
tores    are  ver^r  valuable  for  embodying  many  of 
those  q[ii.ilities  in  art  which  Leonardo  ha^  so  much 
improved.      Sebastiano   del    Piombo,    a    Venetian 
(1^B5 — 1547)t  studied  under  Giovanni  Bellini  and 
Giorgione;    and  after  settling  in  Rome,  became 
intimate  with  Michael  Angelo,  who  employed  him 
to  paint  some  of  his  designs,  with  a  view  of  bene- 
fiting by  his  admirable  colouring.    His  pictures  are 
greatly  esteemed,  as  uniting  rich  colour  to  grandeur 
of  design.     Class  S.   All  the  five  leading  artists 
■hove  refttred  to  had  pupils  or  scholars,  particu- 


larly such  of  them  as,  like  Raphael,  were  much 
engaged  in  extensive  works  in  fresco,  in  the  exe- 
cution of  which  assistants  are  generallv  employed, 
A  complete  list  of  these,  however,  would  occupy  too 
much  space  here.    Among  the  scholars  of  JVnchael 
Angelo,  Daniele  da  Volterra  (1509 — 1566)  was  the 
best ;  and  among  Raphael's  scholars,  the  first  place 
is  generally  accorded  to  Giulio  Pippi  or  Romano 
(q.  v.),  (1492—1546).    After  the  first  quarter  of  the 
I6th  c,  painting  in  Italy,  except  in  the  Venetian 
school,  shewed  symptoms  of  rapid  decline;  that 
school,  however,  continued  its  vitality  longer  than 
any  other  in  Italy,  having  flourished  with  all  the 
life  of  originality  during  the  whole  16th  centurv. 
This  is  attested  by  the  productions  of  many  able 
Venetian  painters ;  but  among  those,  the  works  of 
Jaoopo  Robusti,  or  Tintoretto  (q.  v.),  (1512 — 1594), 
and  Paolo  Caliari,  or  Veronese  (q.  v.),  (152a— 1588), 
are  by  far  the  most  important.    The  pictures  of 
the  former  exhibit  great  vigour  in   composition, 
and  much  richness  of  colour— the  former  quality 
evincing  the  influence  of  Michael  Angelo ;  the  latter, 
that  of  Titian.    Veronese  ranks  before  even  Tinto- 
retto :  his  compositions  are  animated  and  full,  and 
as  a  colourist  he  is  a  powerful  rival  to  Titian,  not 
aimin<^  at  the  rich  glow  of  that  master's  tints,  but 
excelling  every  artist  in  producing  the  brilliancy  and 
sparkling  efi'ect  of  mid-daylight  on  figures  gorgeously 
attired,  and    seen   against   backgrounds  enriched 
with  landscape  and  architecture.    The  other  ^reat 
schools  of  Italy,  however,  as  already  said,  had  less 
vitality  than  the  Venetian,  and  shewed  symptoms 
of  decay  at  the  end  of  the  first  quarter  of  the  16th 
century.    Raphael  left  numerous  scholars  and  assist* 
auts;  many  of  these,  after  his  death  in  1520,  quitted 
Rome.   The  pillage  of  that  city  by  the  French  under 
Bourbon  in  1527  had  also  the  effect  of  dispersmg 
them,  and  this  naturally  led  to  the  style  of  Raphael 
so  far  as  they  could  acquire  it,  being  transplanted 
into  other  parts  of  Italy;  but  Raphael's  style  was 
founded  on  nis  own  peculiar  feeling  for  the  beautiful, 
and  on  his  own  peculiar  grace;  and  all  that  his 
scholars  had  acquired  or  could  convey  was  a  mere 
imitation  of  his  external  forms,  without  the  spirit 
and  pure  feeling   of   which  these  forma    are  the 
expression.      The    imitation    of    Michael    Aneelo- 
became  the  great  object  with  the  Florentines ;  but 
his  scholars  and  imitators  being  unable  to  compre- 
hend his  powerful  spirit,  and  not  possessing  his 
technical  powers  and  theoretical  knowledge,  their 
pictures    are  merely  exaggerated  compositions   of 
academic  figures.     Nor  were  Correggio's  scholars 
more  successful  in   following   his  walk,  for  they 
exi^erated  the  peculiarities  of  his  style,  which  in 
their  hands  became  affected  and  insipid.    Leonardo's 
scholars  repeated  his  distinguishing  qualities,  modi- 
fied by  their  own  individual  peculiarities,  and  avoided 
that  academic  ostentation  displayed  by  the  followers- 
of  the  masters  just  named.    Their  reputation  there- 
fore stands  higher. 

The  Gremian  painters  who  succeeded  Barer,  Van- 
Leyden,  and  the  other  celebrated  artists  of  their 
period,  before  referred  to,  endeavoured  to  improve 
their  national  style  by  the  study  of  Italian  art,  at. 
first  attempting  to  combine  the  two  styles,  and  after- 
wards, to  the  close  of  the  16th  c.,  devoting  them- 
selves exclusively  to  the  study  or  imitation  of  the- 
Italian  painters.  The  works  of  these  artists,  the  worst, 
productions  of  any  school,  form  a  connecting  link, 
oetween  those  of  the  famous  old  German  masters, 
and  the  vigorous,  varied,  and  attractive  works  of 
the  painters  of  the  Netherlands  in  the  17th  century. 

Towjuxis  the  end  of  the  16th,  and  during  the  first- 
half  of  the  17th  a,  a  revival  of  art  in  Italy  was. 
attempted.  This  was  sought  for  in  two  ways  by 
two  classes  of  artists ;  the  larger  body  were  knowa 

183 


PATNTING. 


by  the  name  of  Eclectics,  from  their  having  endea- 
voured to  select  and  unite  the  best  qualities  of  each 
of  the  great  masters,  combined  with  the  study  of 
nature ;  the  other  cUss  were  distinguished  by  the 
name  of  Naturalisti,  and  they  aimed  at  forming  an 
independent  style,  distinct  from  that  of  the  earlier 
masters,  based  on  the  indiscriminate  imitation  of 
common  life,  treated  in  a  bold  and  lively  manner. 
In  their  development,  both  classes  exercised  an 
influence  on  each  other,  particularly  the  Naturalisti 
on  the  Eclectics.  Eclectic  schools  arose  in  various 
parts  of  Italy,  but  the  most  celebrated  was  that  at 
Bologna,  founded  by  Lodovico  Carracci  (q.  v.),  (1555 
-^1619),  assisted  by  his  two  nephews,  Agostino  Car- 
racci (1558—1602),  and  Anmbale  Carracci  (1560 
— 1609)  the  most  eminent  of  the  three.  Many 
painters  of  mark  were  reared  in  this  school ;  among 
those,  Domenico  Zampieri,  called  Domenichino 
(q.  v.),  (1681—1641),  and  Guido  Reni  (q.v.),  (1675 
— 1642),  were  by  far  the  most  eminent.  The  art 
of  the  Eclectics  has  been  greatly  overrated.  Till 
recently,  the  leaders  of  that  school  were  always 
placed  on  an  equality  with  the  best  masters  of  the 
early  part  of  the  16th  c,  and  far  above  any  of  the 
painters  of  the  15th  century.  These  notions  have 
recently  undergone  a  complete  change ;  it  is  now 
acknowledged  that  the  attempt  of  the  Eclectics  to 
combine  the  excellences  of  various  great  masters, 
involves  misapprehension  with  regaixl  to  the  con- 
ception and  practice  of  art,  for  the  greatness  of  the 
earlier  masters  was  brought  out  in  their  individual 
and  peculiar  qualities,  the  uniting  of  which  implies 
a  contradiction.  Michael  Angelo  Aroerighi  da  Car- 
avaggio  (q.  v.),  (1569—1609)  was  the  founder  of  the 
Katuralisti  school ;  he  resided  principally  at  Rome, 
but  at  a  later  period  went  to  Naples,  Malta,  and 
Sicily.  The  Naturalisti  were  in  their  greatest 
strength  at  Naples,  where  they  perseveringly 
opposed  the  followers  of  the  Carracci,  their  leader 
being  Giuseppi  Ribera,  a  Spaniard,  hence  called 
Spagnoletto  (q.  v.),  (1593—1656).  With  much  of  the 
force  of  Caravaggio,  he  united  more  delicacy  and 
greater  vivacity  of  colour.  The  historical  or  Scrip- 
tural subjects  of  Salvator  Rosa  (q.  v.),  (1615—1673) 
are  in  the  style  of  the  school  oi  the  Naturalisti; 
but  on  account  of  his  genre  pieces  and  landscapes, 
Salvator  is  entitled  to  occupy  the  place  of  the  origi- 
nator of  a  style  noted  for  certain  qualities  of  poetic 
feeling.  The  influence  of  the  school  of  the  Natu- 
ralisti had  more  im]x>rtai)t  results  than  that  of  the 
Eclectics,  for  it  affected  to  some  extent  the  leading 
masters  of  the  Spanish  school.  At  Rome,  contem- 
poraneously with  Domcnichino,  Guido,  and  other 
leading  masters  of  the  schools  of  the  Eclectics  and 
Naturalisti,  the  three  following  artists  elevated  land- 
scape-painting to  a  high  position — Nicholas  Poussin 
(q.v.),  a  Frenchman  (1594—1665);  Claude  Gel6e, 
also  a  native  of  France  (1600 — 1682),  called  Claude 
Lorraine  (q.  v.) ;  and  Gaspre  Duchet,  named  Gaspar 
Poussin  (q.v.))  bom  in  Rome,  but  the  son  ot  a 
Frenchman  (1613 — 1675).  Among  the  great  masters 
*who  occasionally  practised  landscape-painting  as  a 
distinct  branch  of  art,  the  earhest  were  Titian  and 
Giorgione ;  the  Carracci  (particularly  Annibale)  car- 
ried out  their  style  with  consideraole  success ;  the 
landscapes  of  Domenichino  are  esteemed,  and  other 
scholars  of  the  Carracci  tamed  their  attention  in 
that  direction.  The  reputation  of  N.  Poussin  is 
principally  based  on  his  ngure-pictures,  the  subjects 
of  which  were  mythological  and  Scriptaral.  Into 
these  pictures,  he  endeavoured,  with  considerable 
success,  to  infuse  the  classical  style ;  but  his  com- 
positions were  generally  arranged  with  a  large  space 
of  landscape  background,  which  was  in  many  cases 
not  the  least  important  portion  of  the  picture ;  and 
these,  and  the  pictures  he  painted  failing  strictly 


under  the  class  of  landscapes,  are  distinguished  for 
largeness  of  style  and  poetic  feding.  Claude  and 
Gaspar  directed  all  their  efforts  to  landscape,  and 
attamed  to  high  eminence  in  that  department  of  art 

The  earlier  specimens  of  painting  in  Spain 
resemble  in  style  the  works  of  the  old  Ghrman 
painters,  who  seem  to  have  disposed  of  many  of 
their  pictures  in  that  country,  while  Spanish  art  of 
the  16th  c.  was  modelled  on  that  of  Italy,  Titian 
and  Raphael  being  the  masters  studied ;  but  when 
works  of  the  Spanish  school  are  spoken  of,  those 
executed  in  the  17th  o.  are  always  understood  to 
be  referred  to,  as  it  was  then  tiiat  Spanish  art 
became  entirely  national  in  feeling  and  style,  and 
that  is  the  period  in  which  the  best  works  of  the 
school  were  produced.  The  two  most  distinguished 
Spanish  painters  are  Don  Diego  Velasquez  (q.  v.), 
(1599—1660),  and  Bartholom6  Esteban  Miuillo  (q.  v.), 
(1618—1682).  The  portraits  of  the  former  are 
characterised  by  trutnful  and  dignifled  expression, 
gr^t  breadth  and  vigorous  handling,  and  rank 
with  the  best  works  of  that  class  of  any  school; 
while  the  Scripture  subjects  of  the  latter,  which 
are  noted  for  tender  expression,  rich  colour,  and 
powerful  light  and  shaae,  may  be  classed  with 
similar  works  by  Rubens  and  van  Dyck.  Spagno- 
letto, a  Spanish  painter,  has  already  been  referred 
to  as  a  leading  artist  of  the  school  of  the  Naturalisti 
at  Naples.  Alonzo  Cano  (1601 — 1667),  Francisco 
Zurbaran  (1598—1662),  and  Claudio  Coello  (bom 
between  1630  and  1640—1693),  have  a  high  repu- 
tation. No  name  of  a  Spanish  painter  of  emin- 
ence occurs  after  the  close  of  the  17th  century. 

Very  soon  after  the  period  when  the  Exslectic  and 
Naturalisti  schools  arose  in  Italy,  a  revival  of  art 
also  occurred  in  the  Netherlands.  This  was  very 
different  in  its  effects  from  the  revival  in  Italy,  the 
only  results  from  which  were  academical  imitation 
of  the  older  masters,  and  coarse  naturalism,  either 
separately  or  combined  in  varied  proportions ; 
while  the  works  of  the  artists  of  the  Netherlands 
executed  about  the  same  period,  though  they  do 
not  exhibit  the  hish  qualities  found  in  the  compo- 
sitions of  the  Italian  masters  of  the  best  period, 
possess  many  new  and  attractive  features — freedom, 
originaUty  of  treatment,  attention  to  the  peculiar 
character  of  individual  life,  and  the  daily  intercourse 
of  men  with  each  other  in  all  its  variety,  and  tiie 
study  of  nature,  brought  out  with  truth  and  deli- 
cacy of  execution.  Two  important  schools  of  art 
were  established  by  this  movement— the  Flemish 
and  the  Dutch.  The  Flemish  school  flourish^  in 
Brabant,  where  the  Roman  Catholic  faith — ^then 
making  strenuous  efforts  to  oppose  the  Reformed  reli- 
gion— still  retained  and  actively  employed  art  in  its 
service.  The  Dutch  school  flourished  m  Protestant 
and  republican  Holland,  where  the  artist,  having  to 
trust  to  private  encouragement,  painted,  for  the  most 
part,  familiar  subjects  from  everyday  life ;  and 
in  place  of  altar-pieces  for  churches,  produced  the 
subjects  then  in  ctemand — viz.,  large  historical  and 
allegorical  pictures  for  palaces,  portraits,  genre 
pictures,  or  works  in  which  life  and  manners  are 
depicted  in  various  phases — landscapes  with  and 
without  figures,  sea-pieces,  battle-pieces,  composi- 
tions representing  hunting,  animals,  game,  &c.  The 
catalogue  of  the  names  of  the  able  artists  of  these 
two  schools  is  long;  in  the  Flemish  school,  tkose 
who  stand  highest  are  Peter  Paul  Rubens  (q.  v.), 
(1577—1640),  Anthony  Van  Dyck  (q.  v.),  (169»— 
1641),  David  Teniers  (q.v.)  the  Younger  (1610— 
1690),  F.  Snyders  (1579—1657).  The  following  are 
the  most  eminent  in  the  long  list  of  artists  m.  tiie 
Dutch  school:  Rembrandt  (q.v.),  (1608—1669), 
Vanderhelst  (1613—1670),  Albeii;  Cuyp  (a.  v.),  (1605 
—1691),   Terburgh    (1608— 16M),   A.    V.   Ostads 


T| 


PAiNTma 


(1610—1685),  J.  Bnisdaal  (q.  t.)>  (I^^  or  1636— 
1681),  Hobbima  (1629-1670),  P.  Potter  (1625— 
1654),  K.  da  Jarden  (1635—1678),  Jan  Steen  (q.  v.), 
(1636—1689),  6.  Metzn  (1615-1658),  F.  Miens 
(1635— 1681),  W.  Van  de  Velde  (q.  v.),  (1633—1707), 
A.  Van  der  Neer  (1613—1684),  P.  Wouvennans 
(q.T.U1620— 1668). 

Painting  has  been  practised  for  a  yery  long  period 
in  France ;  bnt  there,  as  in  Spain  and  in  Britain, 
the  marked  preference  shewn  in  early  times  by  the 
sovereigns  of  the  country  for  the  works  of  foreign 
artists,  their  nndenraluins  native  talent,  and  their 
directing  it  into  a  channd  siipplied  from  a  foreign 
source,  had  the  effect  of  neutralising  it  as  the  exponent 
of  national  feeling.  Francis  L  is  acknowledged  to 
have  been  a  pa^n  of  art ;  he  had  -a  desire  to 
posMss  fine  works,  and  he  liberally  rewarded  able 
artists,  but  his  patronage  was  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  foreigners.  Louis  XIV.  did  what  he  could 
to  place  French  art  above  that  of  every  other 
nation ;  but  he  had  no  knowledge  of  it  him- 
self ;  he  did  not  comprehend  its  nature  and  true 
intention,  and  imagined  that  pictures  if  jKiinted 
bv  Frenchmen  must  necessarily  be  national 
Nevertheless,  his  influence  was,  on  the  whole, 
highly  beneficial  to  French  national  art  He 
always  shewed  himself  desirous  to  employ  native 
rather  than  foreign  talent,  and  he  encouraged  and 
enlarged  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  which  had 
been  fonnded  at  the  commencement  of  his  reign, 
under  the  direction  of  Lebrun.  Although  in  many 
respects  the  principles  and  the  regulations  of  the 
Acaiiemy  tended  rather  to  the  perpetuation  of 
dehaseil  Italian,  than  to  the  development  of  genuine 
French  art;  vet  the  bringing  together  of  a  body 
of  influential  IPrench  artists,  was  the  measure  most 
likely  to  foster  the  feeling  of  nationality  and  to 
lead  to  the  foundation  of  a  national  school  of  art. 
In  the  16th  c.,  Francois  Clouet  was  distinguished 
as  a  portrait-painter  ;  and  Jean  Cousin  as  a  painter, 
sculptor,  and  architect  In  the  17th  c,  among  many 
names,  those  chiefly  deserving  notice  are  Simon 
Voaet,  the  brothers  Le  Nain,  N.  Poussin,  Glaude 
Lforraine,  Mignard^  S.  Bounlon,  Le  Sueur,  J.  Cour- 
tois  (called  Borgognone),  and  CoypeL  Among  these, 
the  works  of  the  brothers  Le  Nain  alone  possess 
national  feeling  and  character,  and  they  are  neld  in 
▼ery  considerable  estimation ;  those  of  the  others 
were  executed  under  the  influence  of  foreign  art ; 
and  excepting  Claude's  splendid  landscapes,  Poussin's 
learned  compositions,  and  some  of  Borgognone*s 
battle-pieces,  hold  a  low  position.  The  works  of 
Anthony  Watteau  (1684—1721)  are  tnilv  national, 
excellent  in  execution,  and  very  highly  valued. 
This  artist  may  be  classed  as  at  the  head  of  the 
school  of  the  18th  c— the  period  in  which  art  in 
France  became  really  national.  Not  only  did  most  of 
the  painters  of  his  school— which  lasted  till  the  end 
of  the  oentnry,  when  classic  art  ruled  for  a  time— form 
their  style  upon  the  works  of  Watteau,  but  his  influ- 
ence also  affected  the  British  school,  which  arose  soon 
after  that  of  France  was  developed.  Lancret  ( 1 690 — 
1742)  was  the  most  successful  imitator  of  Watteau ; 
Pater  (1696 — 1736)  followed  in  the  same  course ; 
Chardin  (1699—1779),  though  influenced  by  him, 
had  an  original  style  of  his  own,  and  his  works  now 
stand  high.  The  pictures  of  Boucher  (1704—1770) 
exhibit  the  defects  of  the  French  school  of  the 
18th  c.,  unredeemed  by  the  delicacy  and  grace,  and 
high  technical  execution  and  truth  of  Watteau, 
Chaidin,  and  Greuze  (1725-1805),  the  hist  of 
whom  lustained  the  character  of  French  national 
art,  sod  carried  it  into  the  19th  c.,  when  it  was 
re-established,  after  the  classic  school  of  David, 
fonnded  at  the  Revolution,  and  patronised  under 
febe  empire  of  the  first  Napoleon,  had  in  its  turn  been 


hiid  aside.  David  (q.  y.),  (1748—1825),  the  leader 
of  this  school,  carried  his  admiration  of  classic  art 
to  the  length  of  substituting  the  study  of  statueSi 
the  works  by  which  the  ut  of  the  ancients  is 
chiefly  known,  for  that  of  nature.  He  had  nume- 
rous able  pupils,  several  of  whom,  tired  with  this 
constant  repetition  of  conventional  form,  recuired 
to  nature,  extended  their  range  of  subjects,  and 
infused  new  vigour  into  the  Fr^ch  school.  Among 
many  distinguished  Frendi  artists,  the  following 
names  may  be  mentioned :  G^ricault,  Prud'hon,  Leo- 
pold Robert,  Delaroche  (q.  v.),  Horace  Vernet  (q.  v.), 
Ary  Scheffer  (q.  v.),  and  Eugene  Delacroix  (q.  v.),  all 
lately  deceased,  and  Ingres  (q.  v.),  their  distinguished 
contemporary,  still  living.  A  number  of  artists, 
chiefly  pupils  of  those  above  mentioned,  now  sustain 
the  high  position  of  the  French  school  in  every 
department  of  art ;  while  in  that  of  landscape  illus- 
trative of  French  scenery,  a  branch  of  art  never 
much  studied  in  past  times,  great  i)rogress  has  been 
made,  and  the  rise  of  this  flourishing  branch  of 
French  art  is  acknowledged  bv  the  French  them- 
selves to  be  due  to  the  works  of  the  English  painter 
Oonstable,  exhibited  in  Paris  in  1824 

The  English  school  was  the  latest  national  school 
that  arose  in  Europe,  for  although  the  modem 
schools  of  Germany  and  Belgium  are  of  still  later 
date,  having  arisen  in  the  present  century,  still  they 
can  scarcely  be  classed  as  new  schools,  but  rather  as 
revivals  of  former  national  schools.  In  England,  as 
in  France,  foreign  artists  chiefly  were  in  eany  times 
employed  by  uie  court  and  the  nobles.  Henry 
VIlI.  competed  with  Francis  L  for  the  services  of 
the  greatest  of  the  Italian  artists,  and  permanently 
secured  those  of  Hans  Holbein,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  of  those  of  Germany.  Charles  I. 
liberally  patronised  Rubens  and  Van  Dyck ;  and  if 
he  had  reicned  longer,  would  in  all  probability,  like 
Louis  Xlv.,  have  founded  a  national  schooL  But 
referring  to  the  separate  notices  in  this  work  of  the 
foreign  artists  under  their  names  respectively  who 
were  employed  in  this  country,  and  to  the  article 
Miniature  Paintino  for  notice  of  several  eminent 
native  artists  in  that  branch  of  art,  it  is  only 
necessary  here  to  touch  on  the  subject  of  painting 
in  this  country  from  the  time  it  acquired  a  truly 
national  character.  At  the  beginning  of  the  18th  c., 
art  in  Britain  was  at  the  lowest  ^b;  the  career 
of  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller  (q.  v.),  (1648—1725  or  1726), 
the  last  of  the  foreigners,  was  drawing  to  a 
close;  Sir  James  ThornhUl  (1676—1734),  an  English- 
man, followed' out  the  decorative  kind  of  art  on 
which  Verrio,  La  Guerre,  and  others  were  so  much 
employed ;  but  after  his  death,  that  debased  style 
finally  went  down.  The  time  had  now  airived  for 
native  artists,  if  there  were  any  entitled  to  the 
name,  to  assert  their  independence;  and  accordingly, 
in  1734 — 1735,  as  many  as  from  thirty  to  forty 
artists  combined  together  in  London,  and  instituted 
an  academy  for  studying  the  human  figure.  About 
the  same  time  a  similar  movement  was  going  on  in 
Edinburgh ;  the  contract  or  indenture  for  establish- 
ing a  school  of  art,  dated  18th  October  1729,  and 
signed  by  seventeen  artists,  besides  amateurs,  is  in 
the  possession  of  the  Royal  Scottish  Academy.  The 
effort  above  referred  to,  of  artists  combining  to 
found  a  Life  Academy,  was  mainlv  due  to  William 
Hogarth  (1697 — 1764),  who,  on  this  account^  and 
from  his  first  having  developed,  in  a  very  high 
degree  of  excellence  in  his  works,  the  leading 
characteristics  of  the  En^rfish  school,  is  justly 
entitled  to  be  considered  its  founder.  This  com- 
bination led  to  these  iniportant  results — ^it  shewed 
the  artists  their  strength,  and  enabled  them,  after 
a  probation  of  thirty-four  years,  to  found  the 
Royal  Academy,  an  institution  managed  by  artists, 

196 


PADrriNG. 


ftnd  intended  to  support  and  enoourage  a  national 
■chool  of  art.  The  means  by  which  the  Royal 
Academy  proposed  to  attain  its  purpose  were  the 
lollowing:  1,  by  founding  a  school  where  artists 
may  learn  their  profession ;  and  2,  by  instituting 
an  exhibition  where,  inde])endently  of  private 
patronage  and  support,  artuts  may  brins  their 
works  oirectly  before  the  public.  Hogartn  died 
four  years  before  the  Royal  Academy  was  organ- 
ised; but  he  powerfully  contributed  to  its  estab- 
lishment by  his  exertions  in  bringing  the  artists 
together  in  1734,  by  supportine  the  modem  exhi- 
bitions at  Spring  Gardens,  and  by  ridiculing  by 
his  ^ncil  and  pen  the  passion  of  the  cogno- 
scenti of  the  day  for  crying  up  as  superior  to  the 
modem  the  doubtful  specimens  of  old  art  which 
were  largely  imported  and  disposed  of  at  great  prices 
*  in  numerous  sisderoomB  established  for  the  pur- 
pose in  London.  As  regards  technical  execution, 
and  indeed  in  style  generally,  the  English  artists 
were  at  first  indebted  to  the  French  school,  which, 
in  the  commencement  of  the  18th  c.,  was  in  great 
vigour.  Hogarth  himself,  in  these  respects,  looked 
closely  at  the  works  of  Watteau,  engraving  from 
which  were  well  known  in  this  country  in  his  time ; 
indeed,  Watteau's  pictures  were  so  greatly  admired 
here  that  he  came  over  and  spent  the  year  1720 
painting  in  London.  But  Hogarth,  though  sdive  to 
the  qualities  in  art  produced  by  others,  ranks  among 
painters  as  one  of  the  most  original,  for  he  greatly 
extended  the  dramatic  element  in  painting,  and 
imparted  an  originality  and  vigour  to  it  never 
before  attained;  and  his  example  has  led  to  that 
element  being  one  of  the  leading  features  of  the 
Et^liah  school,  as  is  exemplified  in  the  works  of 
WiUtie  (q.  v.),  Leslie  (q.  v.),  Stuart  Newton,  Boning- 
ton,  and  others;  and  those  of  many  distinguished 
artists  of  the  present  day.  In  the  department  of 
portrait-painting,  many  of  the  works  of  the  British 
school  rsmk  wim  those  of  Titian,  Van  Dyck,  and 
Velasquez,  such,  for  instance,  as  Reynolds's  portraits 
of  Nelly  O'Brien  and  Lady  Hamilton,  Gainsborough's 
Mrs  Graham  and  Mrs  Siddons,  and  some  of 
Raebum*s  heads,  &c.  While  in  that  of  landscape, 
the  position  of  the  English  school  is  acknow- 
ledged to  be  very  high,  its  influence  now  strongly 
affectinff  the  French  school— this  is  proved  by 
the  woncs  of  R.  Wilson,  Gainsborough  ((}.  v.),  and 
^  Turner  (q.  v.),  the  last  of  whom,  for  wide  range 
of  subject,  and  rendering  of  atmospheric  effect, 
stands  alone ;  Constable,  whose  powerful  grasp  of 
nature  has  excited  the  emulation  of  the  French 
artiste ;  Galcott  (q.  v.),  Collins  (q.  v.),  Nasmyth,  J. 
Thomson,  Muller,  and  others ;  and  their  successors, 
the  artiste  of  the  day,  who  ably  represent  the 
English  school  Animal-painting  has  also  been 
elevated  to  a  high  position.  And  an  important 
department,  that  of  painting  in  water-colours, 
originated  in  England,  and  has  there  attained  far 
hi^er  excellence  than  in  any  other  countrv. 

I^ainting  is  cultivated  with  success  and  receives 
lauch  'encouragement  in  America,  but  there  the 
features  that  mark  a  national  school  have  not  yet 
bad  time  for  development.  From  the  close  con- 
nection between  Britain  and  America,  the  art  of 
the  latter  country  was  naturally  influenced  by  and 
became  assimilated  to  that  of  the  former.  America 
may,  however,  justly  take  credit  for  having  contri- 
buted in  no  small  degree  to  strengthen  the  British 
school  of  art,  as  several  ver^  able  members  of  the 
Royal  Academy  were  Americans.  Benjamin  West 
(1738 — 1820)  was  one  of  the  original  members,  and 
elected  President  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1806. 
J.  S.  Copeley  (1737—1815),  elected  R. A.  in  1799 ; 
his  '  Death  of  Chatham,'  and  '  Defence  of  St  Heliers, 
Jersey,  against  the  French,  and  Death  of  Major 


Pierson  at  the  moment  of  Victory,*  are  excellent 
works,  and  as  such  were  conserved  in  the  National 
Gallery,.  London.  C.  R.  Leslie  (1794—1859)  was 
born  in  London  of  American  parente ;  but  in  1799, 
went  to  Philadelphia,  where  he  was  educated. 
Returning  to  London  in  1811,  he  entered  the 
schools  of  the  Royal  Academy ;  was  elected  acade- 
mician in  1826,  and  professor  of  painting  in  1848L 
G.  S.  Newton  (1794— 1835)— he  was  admitted  a 
student  of  the  Royal  Academy  in  1821,  and  elected 
academician  in  1832.  Washington  Allston  (1780 — 
1843)  was  elected  an  associate  in  1818;  but  after- 
wards returned  to  America,  where  he  died.  With 
the  exception  of  the  last  named,  the  feeling  evinced 
in  the  works  of  all  these  artiste,  influenced  oy  study 
and  continued  residence,  was  essentially  English; 
indeed  few  have  eoualled  Iieslie  and  Newton  in 
their  power  of  embodying  the  various  incidente  made 
national  by  English  poete;  and  in  none  of  their 
works  can  anything  be  set  down  as  contributing  in 
any  degree  to  the  foundation  of  a  national  American 
schooL  There  is  everv  reason  to  think,  however, 
that  such  a  school  is  being  gradually  evolved,  and 
will  soon  be  developed.  A&eady  something  like 
originality  of  a  national  kind  is  exhibited  in  land- 
scape T>ainting,  in  which  some  American  artiste  are 
endeavouring  to  embody  scenes  embracing  a  vast 
extent  of  country,  or  of  extraordinary  magnitude — 
such  as  those  met  with  in  the  Andes,  at  Niagara, 
or  exhibited  by  floating  icebergs ;  and  American 
literature,  having  now  assumed  imposing  propor- 
tions,  and  great  historical  evente  oeing  now  in 
rapid  progress,  illustrations  of  American  poetry  and 
pictures  of  stirring  national  evente  will  be  called 
forth ;  and  able  American  artiste  will  doubtless  be 
found  to  embody  them  and  create  a  school  truly 
national 

A  general  surVey  of  painting  at  the  present  time 
exhibite  the  following  aspect  and  arrangement :  1. 
A  school  in  Germany,  which  arose  during  the  present 
century,  ostensibly  a  revival  of  the  old  national, 
but  truly  modelled   on  the   early  Italian   school, 
the  religious  element  being  prominent.     Ite   prin- 
cipal  works   are   mural,  of   large  dimension,    and 
mostly  executed  in  fresco,  or  on  a  kind  of  fresco 
lately  invented,  called  silica  or  water-glass  painting, 
from  a  vehicle  of  that  kind  being  used.      Inven- 
tion,   composition,    grouping,    and    powerful     and 
correct  drawing,  characterise  the  modern  German 
works ;    but    l>eing    of    necessity    executed    from 
cartoons,   they  are  deficient   in  that  amount    of 
individual  expression,  and  natural  colour  and  effect^ 
that  can  only  be  attained  by  a  direct  and  continued 
reference  to  the  object  represented.    2L  A  Bel^aa 
school,  which  arose  in  the  present  century,  aud  ia 
also  a  revival  of  the  earlier  national  schooU.     Some 
of  the  Belgian  artiste  lean  to  the  manner  of  the 
verv  early  Flemish  school,  others  to  that  of  'which 
Rubens  was  the  head.    The  greater  portion  of  the 
Belgian  works  are  easel-pictures,  and  many  of  them 
rank  high  for  individual  expression,  colour,    and 
technical  execution.    3.  A  French  school,  exhibiting 
in  active  operation  the  various  styles  that  have  at 
different  periods  prevailed  in  that  country,  some- 
times modilied  or  adapted  to  the  taste  and  feeling 
of  the  times.    The  works  of  the  French  school  c^ 
the  eighteenth  century  were  utterly  condemned  by 
French  artists  at  the  close  of  that  and  commence- 
ment of  the  present  century.    They  would  tolerate 
nothing  but  what  they  called  classic  art     L'*Ecole. 
dassique,  as  it  was  styled,  was  in  ite  turn  supplanted 
by  VEoole  romantique.    Now,  however,  all  styles  are 
tolerated,  even  those  of  foreign  schools — ^f or  instanoe, 
the  English  school  of  landscape — and  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that,  by  the  extensive  range  of  subject^ 
invention,  drawing,  and  other  high  qualitieci    *K^ 


PAINTING. 


French  artists  display  in  their  works,  the^  hare  >  never  found,  probably  from  ha^dng  used  an  impasto 


now  raised  that  school  to  a  very  high  jsosition.  4 
A  British  school,  which  has  been  in  existence  as  a 
natioDAl  school  nearly  as  long  as  that  of  France, 
nndistarbed  by  the  oonvxdsions  that  affected  it^ 


or  body  of  colour  sufficiently  powerful  to  bear  oni 
on  the  ^nnd.  A  dark  ground  swords  a  facility 
for  worung  expeditiously,  and  that,  probably,  was 
the  principal  cause  for  its  being  adopted.     The 


Vitality  in  art  is  maintained  by  dose  reference  to  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters  genendly  used  light 
nature,  and  this  has  all  along  been  the  leading  grounds;  some  of  them  light-brown,  nearly  the 
characteristic  of  the  English  school ;  while  the  |  colour  of  oak.  Van  Dyck  occasionally  used  jgray, 
tendency  of  the  artists  at  present  is,  taking  advan- 1  and  sometimes,  when  he  painted  in  Italy,  duU-red 
tage  of  the  aid  of  science,  which  has  lately  discovered  |  grounds.  In  the  British  sdiool,  light  grounds  are 
photos^raphy,  to  ^tudy  nature  with  still  greater  I  preferred.  Some  artists  use  smooth  canvas,  others 
earnestness  and  care.  The  high  claims  of  the  British  !  prefer  it  rouffh,  and  avail  themselves  of  the  texture 
school,  long  denied  abroad,  are  now  fully  admitted. :  to  increase  the  richness  of  the  surface  of  their  work. 
Formerly,  foreigners  never  classed  a  British  school  i  All  these  varieties  in  the  materials  are  called  for 
among  those  of  Europe,  but  now  this  is  invariably  in  conseouence  of  the  numerous  styles  or  modes 
done.  One  of  the  most  popular  writers  on  art  in  !  adopted  oy  painters  in  oil  colours.  Every  artist 
France,  Th6ophile  Gautier,  m  his  work.  Lea  Beaux- '  has  his  peculiar  way  of  working,  and  in  bringing  out 
ArU  en  Europe.,  divides  the  art  of  the  world  into  '  the  colour  or  effect,  or  special  quality  in  nis  pic- 
four  strongly  defined  zones — viz.,  Great  Britain,  ture,  by  which  the  feeling  or  idea  of  the  subject  he 
Beljf^um,  (^rmany,  and  France — Britain  being  dis-  i  conceives  is  expressed.  Jlo  two  artists — imitators 
tinguished  by  *  individuality,'  a  potent  element  in  and  copiers  are  not  referred  to — pioduce  their  tints 
art ;  Belgium,  by  *  skill ;'  Germany,  by  *  ideality  ;*  by  mixing  colours  in  the  same  proportions,  nor, 
and  France,  by  *  eclecticism,*  or  a  selection  and   indeed,  by  using  the  same  colours;  and  it  is  diffi- 


oombination  of  the  qualities  of  all  other  schools. 

Begarding  technical  modes  or  processes  of  paint- 
ing, reference  is  made  to  the  separate  notices  under 


cult  to  lay  down  general  rules  for  the  execution  of 
works,  seeing  that  depends  very  much  on  individual 
feeling  and  appreciation.    The  design  or  drawing  is 


Frbsco,  Encaustic,  Mimiatubb  Paintino.  The  first  outlined  on  the  canvas,  if  it  is  ught,  with  char 
period  when  the  method  of  mixing  up  colours  |  coal,  or  with  white  chalk  when  it  is  &rk,  and  these 
with  oil  was  introduced,  and  the  artists  to  whom  '  lines  are  easily  dusted  off  or  rubbed  out  when  correc- 
the  invention  is  attributed,  have  been  already  tions  are  made.  It  is  then  put  in  with  black  chalk 
alluded  to.  It  is  necessary,  however,  to  enter  on  or  a  lead  pencil  Not  many  years  a^  it  was  the 
some  details  touching  the  mechanical  processes  in  practice  of  painters,  particularly  landscape-painters 
oil-painting,  the  branch  of  the  art  that  occupies  the  ;  — Nasmyth,  for  instance — to  rub  in  the  design 
mcwt  promment  position;  and  the  practice  of  clean-  i  with  some  brown  colour,  such  as  a  tint  composed  of 
ingaud  restoring  pictures.  |  burned  sienna  and  black ;  but  this  practice  is  not 

The  implements  used  by  a  painter  in  oil  are  char-  '  much  adopted  now.  Some  artists  make  but  a  slight 
coal,  chalk,  or  lead  pencils,  for  drawing  the  outline  ;  '  outline,  and  paint — or,  as  it  is  called  technically 
hair-pencils  or  brushes  of  various  sizes,  made  of  nib — in  the  subject  in  a  bold,  rough  manner, 
hog's  bristles  or  finer  hair,  such  as  sable ;  a  knife  afterwards  gradually  finishing  it  up ;  others  draw 
or  Bpatnla  to  mix  the  colours,  and  a  palette  or  small  the  design  very  carefully,  and  work  the  picture  up 
table  of  thin  wood,  to  be  held  in  the  left  hand,  on  j  in  portions,  finishing  or  nearly  finishing  one  portion 
which  the  colours  and  tints  are  placed  and  mixed ;  j  before  commencing  another.  In  arranging  the 
an  easel  or  stand  fpr  supporting  the  picture  is  also  >  colours,  or  as  it  is  called,  setting  the  palette,  many 
required,  and  a  light  rod  for  steadying  or  restinff  '  artists  use  a  great  variety  of  colours,  others  produce 
the  hand  on.  Large  pictures  are  always  executed  rich  tones  with  few  colours ;  some  mix  up  tints  in 
on  canvas,  stretched  tightly  on  a  frame,  and  primed  various  gradations,  others' place  the  colours  on  the 
or  coated  with  paint  SmaU  pictures  are  often  palette,  commencing  at  the  outer  edge  with  white, 
painted  on  boards  or  panels,  generally  of  hard  wood, ;  followed  by  yellows  and  burned  sienna  (a  reddish 
such  as  oak  or  mahogany,  and  similarly  primed  or  brown),  then  reds,  including  Lakes,  such  as  pink, 
prepared ;  but  canvas,  even  for  small  works,  seems  ,  madder,  next  blue,  and  lastly  black,  and  merely 
at  present  to  be  generally  preferred.  Panels  are  apt ,  mix  up  the  tint  on  the  centre  of  the  palette  with 
to  twist,  or  warp,  or  split,  and  in  the  event  of  the  their  brush,  as  they  proceed.  In  laying  the  colours 
surface  of  a  picture  chipping  or  breaking  off  from  '  on  the  canvas,  the  painter  with  his  brush  mixes  or 


the  ground,  the  damage  can  be  more  easily  reme- 
died, and  its  progress  stopped,  when  the  picture  is 
on  canvas,  by  re-fining.  The  colour  of  the  ground 
of  the  canvas  or  panel  nas  been  the  subject  of  much 
diversity  of  opimon  among  artists  in  different  coun- 


dilutes  them  with  what  is  called  a  vehicle  or  medium. 
Hero,  again,  the  practice  of  artists  is  very  varied ; 
and  this  is  a  matter  of  importance,  as  the  tone  and 
quality  of  the  picture,  as  regards  texture  or  surface 
and  transparency,  is  much  affected  by  the  medium 


tries  and  at  various  periods ;  and  it  is  certainly  a  employed,  and  the  manner  of  using  it.  The  dura- 
matter  of  great  importance,  as  it  affects  the  general ,  bihty  of  the  work  also  depends  very  much  on  the 
eolonr  of  ue  work,  or  makes  it  necessary  for  the  medium  and  the  artisVs  management  of  it.  A 
artist  to  adopt  a  peculiar  style  of  working.  The  '  medium  composed  of  mastic  vai^ish  and  drying  or 
eoloor  of  tiie  ground  fised  by  the  early  masters  was  boiled  linseed  oil,  named  magilp,  is  that  most 
white,  or  nearly  pure  white.    This  arose  from  tem-    generally  used.    This  mixture  coagulates  or  forms 


poTs  or  size  being  the  medium  first  used  in  painting, 
and  a  pure  white  m:t>und  prepared  with  size  was 
fieceasary  for  that  xind  of  work.  This  practice, 
except  as  regards  the  Venetian  school,  continued 
till  the  deehne  of  Italian  art  Dull  red  was  the 
vnivenal  colour  adopted  in  the  edectio,  Natur- 
alisti,  and  late  Italian  sohods,  and  this  is 
eoe  of  tife  canses  of  the  works  of  these  schools 
jeing    characterised    by    blackness     and    heavi- 


a  jelly,  and  has  the  advantage,  when  placed  on  the 

palette,  of  not  running  off  it,  or  mixing  with  the 

colours  when  the  palette  is  not  held  level    Some 

painters  prefer  using  raw  linseed  oil  mixed  with  a 

dryer,  such  as  lithuge,  or  drying  oil  mixed  with 

turpentine,  or  copal  varnish  and  turpentine,  or  copal 

varnish  and  oil.  Math  mastic  varnish  added,  to  make 

it  coagulate.    Other  ingredients  are  often  mixed 

with  the  medium,  to  give  a  thick  consistency  to  the 

at  the  same  time,  it  is  certain  that  rod  |  paint,  such  as  fat  or  thickened  nut  oil,  paste,  Ac. ; 

grounds  were  also  used  by  many  of  the  best  Vene- 1  and  various  preparations  sold  by  artists'  colourmea 

painters,  in  whose  works  these  defects  are .  are  much  used ;  for  instance,  Boberson's  medium, 

197 


PAINTINO- 


And  Sir;(atif  vie  Harlem,  a  preparation  imported  from 
PariB.  The  mode  of  usin^  the  medium  is  of  creat 
oonsefiuence ;  some  apply  it  very  sparingly,  ouiers, 
particularly  those  who  prefer  magilp,  or  a  medium 
that  coagulates,  employ  it  lavishly.  By  the  first 
method,  firmness  and  decision  of  touch  may  be 
exhibited,  by  the  latter,  richness  and  brilliancy  of 
tone ;  the  excess  tends  to  produce,  in  the  one  case, 
a  hard  and  dry  surface,  and  the  want  of  the  pro- 
tection that  varnish  mixed  with  the  colour  gives 
against  atmospheric  action;  the  other  induces  a 
surface  having  a  homy  appearance,  and  a  tendency 
to  darken,  or  crack,  or  open  up. 

Arresting  the  decay  of  pictures,  and  repairing,  or, 
as  it  is  styled,  restoring  them,  after  they  nave 
suffered  from  age  or  bad  usage  are  matters  which 
engage  much  attention.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  many  paintings  of  vast  importance  have  been 
saved  by  the  care  and  skill  of  those  who  have 
earnestly  devoted  themselves  to  that  kind  of  work ; 
bu£  picture-cleaning  is  now  a  trade  followed  in 
numerous  instances  by  ignorant  pretenders  and 
quacks,  who  hold  out  that  they  possess  some  means 
by  which  they  can  freshen  a  picture,  and  restore  it 
to  the  state  it  was  in  when  originally  executed. 
Generally  speaking,  the  great  extent  to  which 
this  business  is  carried  on  is  owing  to  the  cre- 
dulity of  those  who  dabble  in  collecting  old  pic- 
tures, one  great  incentive  to  which  being  the  hope 
of  picking  up,  or  discovering,  some  picture  of  great 
value  concealed  imder  the  dirt  and  discoloration 
acquired  in  a  long  course  of  years ;  but,  neverthe- 
less, there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many  proprietors  of 
works  of  art  who  collect  from  f%r  ni^her  motives, 
are  remarkably  prone  to  call  in  the  picture-cleaner 
when  his  services  are  anything  but  necessary  or 
beneficial  Sir  Edwin  Landseer,  E.A.,  when  exam- 
ined by  the  Select  Committee  of  the  House  of 
Commons  appointed  to  inquire  into  certain  alle- 
gations of  damaee  by  cleaning,  sustained  by  the 
pictures  in  the  I*^tional  Gallery  of  London  (Report 
and  Evidence  ordefed  to  be  printed,  1858),  states, 
in  the  following  terms,  his  idea  of  this  rage  for 
picture-cleaning,  or  rather  picture-destroying :  *  The 
first  thing,  whenever  a  picture  is  sold,  I  think,  is, 
that  it  goes  to  a  picture-restorer,  or  a  picture-liner, 
or  a  picture-cleaner,  no  matter  what  its  condition 
is.  It  is  exactly  the  same  thing  as  when  you  buy 
a  horse ;  your  groom  says  he  will  be  all  right  when 
he  has  a  dose  of  physic  through  him,  whether  he 
wants  it  or  not.'  The  mania  for  picture-cleaning  is 
not  confined  to  this  country ;  it  is  extensively  car- 
ried on  with  even  more  niinous  consequences  abroad, 
particularly  in  Italy,  where  there  is  a  large  trafiic 
m  old,  and  few  commissions  for  modem  works,  and 
where  in  many  of  the  public  galleries  one  or  more 
picture- cleaners,  for  whom  work  must  be  found,  are 
attached  as  permanent  officers. 

The  process  of  picture-cleaning,  or  the  removal  of 
the  old  varnishes  or  other  incrustations  by  which 
a  painting  may  be  obscured,  is  effected  either  by 
(nechanicai  or  chemiciJ  means.  The  first  method 
ia  ''iccomplished  when  the  varnish  on  the  surface  is 
mastic,  by  rubbing  wdth  the  fingers  the  surface  of 
varnish  when  in  a  dry  state,  by  which  action  it  is 
brought  off  in  a  fine  white  powder ;  or  by  scraping 
or  erasing  the  surface  with  sharp  steel  instrument 
when  the  surface  of  the  picture  is  tolerably  smooth. 
The  first  of  these  processes  is  the  best  that  can  be 
employed  ;  but  when  the  surface  is  rough  or 
unequal,  the  prominent  portions  are  apt  to  be 
over-rubbed ;  erasing  or  scraping  is  often  practised 
in  Italy,  but  rarely  in  this  country.  The  chemical 
means  consist  in  the  application  of  solvents,  chiefly 
alkali,  or  alcohol,  to  dissolve  the  old  varnish.  The 
danger  here  is,  that  the  action  of  these  solvents  is 

198 


not  always  8top{)ed  with  sufficient  promptness  and 
dexterity,  and  part  of  the  surface  of  the  picture 
is  taken  off;  consequently  it  is  by  this  latter 
process  that  most  destruction  is  caused.  For  the 
various  methods  employed  in  picture-cleaning,  the 
Report  and  Minutes  of  Evidence,  already  re&rred 
to,  may  be  consulted,  and  the  Ouide  TfiSoriqiie  d 
Pratiqiie  de  ff Amateur  de  Tableaux,  par  Theodore 
Lejeune  (Paris,  1864),  in  which  are  stated  all  the 
most  approved  methods  of  cleaning  and  restoring 
pictures. 

Works  on  painting  and  painters :  Vasari  (Florence, 
1568);  Borghini  (Florence,  1584);  Rodolphi  (Venice, 
1648)  ;  Zanetti  (Venice,  1771) ;  Lanzi  (1792),  Bohn's 
edition  of  Roscoe's  translation  ;  Von  Rumohr  (Ber- 
lin, 1827) ;  Kugler's  Hand-book  of  Painting,  Italian 
Sclioola  of  Painting,  edited  by  Eastlake  (1855) ; 
German,  Flemish,  and  Dutch  Schools,  by  the  same, 
edited  by  Sir  Edmund  Head,  Bart  (1846) ;  Hand- 
book to  Spanisli  Schools  and  French  Scfiods  (1848) ; 
Hand-book  for  Young  Painters,  by  C.  R.  1/eslie^ 
R.A.  (1865). 

PAINTING  (House),  is  one  of  the  useful  arts, 
combining  much  that  is  artistic  with  much  that 
is  absolutely  necessary.  The  primary  object  of 
painting  houses,  or  parts  of  them,  either  internally 
or  externally,  is  to  preserve  them  from  decay — to 
cover  the  parts  liable  to  suffer  from,  exposure  with 
a  durable  composition.  That  now  used  is  made  of 
ground  white-lead  mixed  with  linseed  oil  This 
produces  white  paint,  which  forms  the  basis  of  all 
others.  The  various  colours  given  to  it  are  pro- 
duced by  the  grinding  of  pigments  (or  gtainers) 
along  with  the  white-lead.  The  commonest  of  these 
are  ochres  (yellow  and  red  earths),  lampblack, 
Venetian  red,  umber,  Prussian  blue,  chrome,  ver- 
milion, &c.  Substances  called  driers  are  also  mixed 
with  the  paint,  such  as  spirits  of  turpentine,  boiled 
oil,  litharge  and  sugar  of  lead  ground  in  oil.  Paint 
may  be  mid  on  any  material — stone,  wood,  iron^ 
and  plaster  being  the  most  usual  in  buildings.  It 
has  the  effect  of  preserving  these,  by  filling  up  the 
pores  in  them,  and  forming  a  coating  on  whicn  the 
moisture  of  the  atmosphere  does  not  act.  The 
paint  is  laid  on  in  several  coats  or  layers,  each  bein^ 
allowed  ts  dry  before  the  next  is  applied.  The  usiuJ 
number  oi  coats  for  new  wood  or  plaster  varies 
from  three  to  six.  Five  coats  form  a  good  and 
lasting  protection  from  the  weather.  Plain  painting 
is  generally  iinished  with  a  coat  preiiared  with  a 
mixture  of  oil  of  turpentine,  which  takes  off  the  gloss 
from  the  paint,  and  leaves  the  surface  quite  mat  or 
dead.  This  is  caXledflaUing.  A  very  common  form 
of  decoration  in  all  aces  has  been  to  imitate  the 
veins  or  colours  of  marbles,  and  the  grains  or  marks 
of  growth  of  various  woods.  In  modem  times,  these 
arte  form  a  separate  branch  of  house-painting,  some 
men  being  grainers,  others  marblers,  £c.  The  mode 
in  which  uiese  imitations  are  produced  is  by  forming 
a  grounding  of  several  coats  of  plain  paint— usually 
four — and  applying  the  colouring  coat  over  this.  Ia 
marbling,  the  colouring  matter  is  marked  and  veined 
with,  feathers,  in  place  of  brushes;  and  in  graining, 
steel  combe  are  used.  When  the  surface  is  dry,  it 
is  protected  with  one  or  more  coats  of  copal  varnish. 

Besides  painting,  the  decorator  uses  paper- 
hangings  for  adomins  the  waUs  of  houses.  These 
are  ap^ied  to  the  wsSIb  with  paste.  Size-colouring 
is  also  used ;  the  colouring  matter  in  this  case  being 
mixed  with  strong  Size  (q.  v.)  in  place  of  oil ;  but 
this  has  the  disadvantage  of  being  easily  acted  on 
by  moisture.  It  ia  often  used  for  the  ceilings  of 
common  rooms,  and  for  the  walla  of  kitchens  and 
servants'  apartments,  being  much  cheaper  than  oil- 
paint  In  ancient  times,  in  Greece  ard  Rome,  w^ax 
was  used  for  mixing  the  colours  with;  Nit  althou^ 


:i^?--^r: 


PAINTS,  PAINTERS'  COLOURS-PAISLEY. 


I 


there  are  many  very  fine  specimens  of  Roman  paint- 
ings still  preserved  on  the  walls  of  the  houses  of 
Pompeii,  the  mode  in  which  these  decorations  were 
applied  is  not  now  known. 

PAINTS,  PAINTERS*  COLOURS,  or   PIG- 
MENTS.   These  names  are  applied  to  the  prepared 
or  unprepared  compositions  by  which  wood,  stone, 
and  other  materials  are  coated  with  a  preservative 
aurface  of  oil,  mixed  with  an  earthy  matter,  to  give 
it  colour  and  consistency  ;   also  to  the  materiaUi 
used  by  artists  to  produce  the  coloured   surfaces 
of  their  pictures.    The  art  of  painting,  in  its  primi- 
tive   state,    consisted    merely    in    applying    such 
natural,  mineral,    and  vegetable    colours  as  were 
spontaneously  yielded,  without  any  vehicle  to  render 
them  permanent ;    consequently,  tliey  had  to  be 
renewed  as  often  as  they  were  rubbed  or  washed  off 
from  the  surfaces  to  which  they  were  applied.     The 
paints  now  in  use  are  nearly  all  mixed  with  a  liquid 
vehicle,  and  are  applied  in  the  liquid  state.    The 
mixing  materials  are  varied  according  to  the  require- 
ments of  the  work.     Thus,  for  some  kinds  of  decor- 
ative work,  and  for  water-colour  drawings,  gum, 
glue,  size,  or  other  adhesive  materials  dissolved  in 
water,  are  employed ;    whilst  for  the  painting  of 
buildings,  &c.,  and  for  oil-paintings,  oils  of  various 
kinds  are  used  for  mixing  and  thinning  the  colours. 
Thus,  for  painted  work  exposed  to  the  weather,  it 
is  found  that  linseed  oil  boiled  with  the  sulphates 
of  lead  (litharge)  or  zinc,  or  with  acetate  of  lead 
(susar  of  lead),  is  the  best.     The  preparation  of 
boiled  oil  is  one  requiring  particular  care,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  it  bright  and  clear.     Hence  the 
roportions  of  the  metallic  salts  are  much  varied 
y  different   manufacturers,  and  by  some  various 
other  ingredients  are  added.     The  time  of  boiling, 
and  the  method  of  liltering,  are  also  much  varied. 
For  indoor  work,  plain  linseed  oil  and  oil  (spirit) 
of  turpentine  are  used ;  if  a  glosinf  surface  is  wished, 
the  linseed   oil  must  be  in  excess ;   if  a  dull  or 
flattened  surface^  tlien  the  quantity  of  turpentine,  or 
turps,   as  it  is  often   technically  called,  must  be 
increased ;  and  it  is  usual  to  add  a  small  quantity 
of  ground   litharge  and  sugar  of  lead,  which  are 
prepared  for  this  purpose,  and  sold  under  the  name 
of  Dners.     For  artists'  colours,  very  fine  linseed  or 
nnt  oil  is  uscd^  unboiled,  and  in  small  quantity,  and 
turpentine  is  employed  to  dilute  them.    Paints  for 
very  rough  purposes,  such  as  ship- work,  stone  walls, 
Ac,  are  often  mixed  with  whale  oil  boiled  with 
white  vitriol  (acetate  of  zinc),  litharge,  and  vinegar, 
and  they  are  diluted  with  conmion  linseed  oil  and 
turpentine. 

Most  of  the  paints  used  for  ordinary  purposes  are 
composed  first  of  the  colouring  matter,  then  of  a 
quantity  of  white-lead,  with  which  and  the  oil  they 
are  worked  into  a  paste  of  the  shade  required,  and 
afterwards  thinnea  down  with  oil  and  turpentine 
when  used*  The  white-lead  which  thus  forms  the 
basis  of  most  paints,  and  by  itself  a  colour,  is  a 
carbonate  and  oxide  of  the  metal,  produced  by 
exposing  pieces  of  lead  to  the  action  of  the  steam  of 
acetic  acid  in  beds  of  fermenting  tan.  It  is  the 
principal  white  paint  used,  but  is  liable  to  discolor- 
ation from  the  gases  contained  in  impure  atmos- 
pheres. Other  white  pigments  are  prepared  from 
the  oxide  of  zinc,  and  the  carbonate  and  sulphate 
of  bai^tes.  Pale  yellow  is  made  with  chromate  of 
strontian,  orange-yellow  with  sulphiiret  of  cadmium, 
whilst  several  varieties  of  this  colour  are  pro- 
duced by  chromate  of  lead,  sulphuret  of  arsenic,  or 
king's  yellow,  and  various  native  earths  in  which 
siliob  and  alumina  are  combined  with  oxide  of 
Amongst  these  are  Yellow  Ochre,  Oxford, 


iroQ. 


Roman,    Stone,    Orange,    Indian,    and    American 
Ochres.    Beds  are  either  purely  mineral,  or  they  are 


lakes,  i  e.,  organic  colours  precipitated  on  alumina 
bases.  Of  the  latter,  there  are  madder-lakes,  pre* 
pared  from  madder-roots,  and  carmine-lakes,  pre- 
pared from  cochineal ;  of  the  former,  vermiLiott 
(bisulphuret  of  mercury),  Indian  red  (a  native  oxide 
of  iron),  Venetian  red  (also  an  oxide  of  iron),  red 
lead  (red  oxide  of  lead  or  minium).  A  very  beautiful 
red  is  used  by  artists  called  palladium  red ;  it  is 
formed  of  ammonio-perchloride  of  palladium.  Blues 
consist  of  the  artificial  ultramarine,  and  for  artists' 
purposes,  of  the  real  ultramarine,  also  the  silicate  of 
cobalt,  and  for  water-colours,  indigo  and  Prussian 
blue.  Oreens  are  either  produced  by  mixtures  of 
yellows  and  blues,  or  they  are  made  directly  from 
the  phosphates,  carbonates,  acetates,  and  arsenites 
of  copper,  also  from  the  sesquioxide  of  chromium 
and  from  terre  verte,  a  native  miner^d,  consisting  of 
iron,  silica,  potassa,  and  magnesia.  The  last  two 
are  the  best  for  artists.  Browns  are  numerous,  and 
various  in  their  composition.  Decomposed  peat^ 
burned  madder,  burned  Prussian  blue,  burned  terre 
verte,  asphalt,  manganese  brown,  catechu,  umber 
(which  is  an  oxide  of  iron  with  manganese),  and 
mummy,  or  the  asphalt  mixed  with  other  matters 
taken  from  Egyptian  mummies,  are  amongst  tiie 
best  known  and  most  used.  Blacks  are  made  of 
Lamp-black  and  Bone-black  (q.  v.),  peroxide  of 
manganese,  and  blue-black,  whicn  is  made  of  the 
charcoal  of  burned  vine  twigs. 

In  all  cases*,  the  colouring  materials  of  paints 
require  to  be  very  finely  ground,  and  as  many  are 
very  poisonous,  great  care  is  required  in  their  pre- 
paration, and  several  forms  of  mill  have  been 
m  vented  for  the  purpose.  The  princi})le  upon  which 
all  are  made  is  to  secure  the  operator  from  the 
poisonous  dust  and  exhalations,  and  to  reduce  the 
colouring/ material,  if  ground  dry,  to  an  impalpable 
powder,  or  if  mixed  with  the  oil,  to  a  perfectly 
smooth  paste. 

PAISIELLO,  GiOYANNi,  an  eminent  musician, 
son  of  a  veterinary  surgeon  at  Taranto,  was  born 
in  1741,  and  received  his  musical  education  in  the 
Conservatorio  St  Onofrio  at  Naples.  Of  his  earlier 
operas  produced  at  Naples,  the  most  celebrated  was 
Vol  Finto  al  Vero,  composed  in  1777.  Some  of  his 
best  works,  particularly  Jl  Barbiere  de  Seviglia, 
were  written  during  an  eight  years'  resiaence  at  St 
Petersburg.  At  Vienna,  he  composed  twelve  sym- 
phonies for  a  large  orchestra,  and  the  opera  buffa, 
II  re  Teodoro,  Between  1786  and  1799,  he  produced 
a  number  of  operas  for  the  Neapolitan  theatre,  and 
was  appointed  by  Ferdinand  IV.  his  maestro  di 
capella^  In  consequence  of  having  accepted  under 
the  revolutionary  government  the  office  of  national 
director  of  music,  ne  was  suspended  from  his  func- 
tions for  two  years  after  the  restoration  of  royalty, 
but  eventually  restored  to  theno.  In  1802,  he  went 
to  Paris  to  direct  the  music  of  the  consular  chapel ; 
but  the  indifferent  reception  shortly  after  given 
to  his  opera  of  Proserpine,  led  him  to  return  to 
Naples,  where  he  died  in  1816.  His  compositions 
are  characterised  by  sweetness  and  gracefulness  of 
melody,  and  simplicity  of  structure.  Besides  no 
fewer  than  ninety  operas,  P.  composed  masses, 
requiems,  cantatos,  an  oratorio,  instrumental  quar- 
tetts,  harpsichord  sonatas,  concertos,  and  a  highly- 
praised  funeral  march  in  honour  of  General  Hoche. 

PAI'SLET,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary  burgh, 
and  an  important  manufacturing  town  of  Scotland, 
in  the  county  of  Renfrew,  on  both  banks  of  the 
White  Cart,  lour  miles  above  its  junction  with  the 
Clyde,  and  eight  miles  west-south-west  of  Glasgow 
by  railway.  It  is  on  the  whole  a  quiet,  duU-loolung 
town,  dirty  in  the  older  quarters,  but  containing 
several  good  streets,  as  George,  Forbes,  and  Gilmoor 

199 


PALACB-PAIJS06RAPHY. 


Streets  ;  and  since  the  introduction  of  an  abundant 
supply  of  water  from  the  Gleniffer  Hills,  ib  much 
improved  in  its  sanitary  condition. 

By  far  the  most  interesting  edifice  is  the  Abbey. 
It  was  founded  by  Walter,  the  His^h  Steward  of 
Scotland,  about  1163,  for  a  prior  and  13  monks  of 
ihe  Cluniac  order  of  Reformed  Benedictines,  and 
was  dedicated  to  St  James,  St  Mirren,  and  St 
liilburga.  It  was  the  burying'plaoe  of  the  Stewarts 
before  the  accession  of  that  family  to  the  throne, 
and  was  occasionally  used  by  them  afterwards  as 
a  place  of  sepulture.  It  was  raised  to  the  rank  of 
an  abbey  in  1245,  was  burned  by  the  English  in 
1307,  but  was  afterwards  restored.  What  remains 
of  the  building  is  the  nave,  of  six  bays,  chiefly  in 
the  First  Pointed  style.  It  is  now  used  as  the 
parish  church,  and  measures  924  feet  by  35  feet. 
The  transept  is  niinoos,  but  the  north-eastern 
window,  25  feet  high  by  18  feet  broad,  remains. 
In  1862  a  thorough  restoration  of  the  Abbev  (at  a 
cost  of  £4000)  was  made,  the  happiest  feature 
of  which  was  the  removal  of  the  modem  and 
unsightly  galleries.  St  Mirren's,  or  the  *  Sounding 
Aisle,'  so  called  from  its  echo,  abuts  upon  the 
Abbey  ChurclL  It  has  a  monument  in  the  shape 
of  a  recumbent  female  figure  resting  on  an  altar 
tomb,  in  the  attitude  of  prayer,  supposed  to  com- 
memorate Marjory  Bruce,  daughter  of  the  famous 
King  Robert 

Among  the  other  edifices  the  principal  are,  the 
County  Buildings,  a  quadrangular  pile  in  the  castel- 
lated style ;  the  Neifson  Educational  Institution,  a 
noble  bequest,  built  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
and  surmounted  by  a  fine  dome;  the  Infirmary;  the 
School  of  Design ;  and  the  Grammar  SchooL  This 
last  institution  was  founded  by  King  James  VI., 
and  the  present  building  is  (June  1864)  just  being 
oompleteoL  * 

In  the  beginning  of  the  last  oentuiy,  the  prin- 
cipal manufactures  were  coarse  linens  and  chequered 
cloths.  About  the  middle  of  that  century,  the 
weaving  of  linen  and  of  silk  gauze  became  the  staple 
manufactures.  In  1784  silk  gauze  was  manufactured 
to  the  value  of  £350,000,  and  employed  5000  looms. 
Shawls,  which  used  to  be  a  principal  and  are  still 
an  important  article  of  manufacture,  began  to  be 
made  nere  in  the  beginning  of  the  present  century. 
Wit^n  recent  years  the  annual  value  of  the  shawl 
trade  of  P.  was  estimated  at  about  £1,000,000 
sterling.  Cotton  thread  is  manufactured  on  a  most 
extensive  scale;  indeed  P.  may  be  considered  the 
seat  of  the  thread  manufacture  for  the  home  and 
American  markets.  Different  varieties  of  tartan 
dioths,  handkerchiefs,  carpets,  &&  are  made;  soap, 
starch,  and  com  flour  are  largely  manufacturea ; 
dyeing  is  carried  on  by  several  mms  on  an  extensive 
scale;  and  a  number  of  cotton-thread  factories, 
power-loom  factories,  print  works,  machine  shops, 
bleach- fields,  &c  are  in  operation  in  the  town 
and  vicinity.  The  following  is  the  annual  value  of 
some  of  the  principal  manuiactures^of  P. :  Paislev 
wove  shawls,  £300,000;  printed  shawls,  black 
squares,  silk  gauzes,  &c,  £600,000;  winceys,  silk 
dresses,  scarfs,  &c,  £100,000 ;  cotton  thread  (which 
gives  employment  to  from  3000  to  4000  people), 
£570,000.  At  the  St  James*  Day  Fair,  in  August, 
hone-races,  originated  by  act  of  the  bailies  of  the 
burgh  in  1608,  are  held.    Pop.  (1861),  47,419. 

PALACE,  this  title  is  applied,  with  few  excep- 
tions, in  this  country  to  houses  occupied  by  royal 
personages  only.  In  Italy  the  name  is  given  to  all 
nne  dwellings. 

PALACKT,  FRAimBBK,  a  Bohemian  philologist, 
critic,  and  historian,  was  bom  14th  June  1798  at 
Hodslavitz,  in  Moravia»  and  studied  at  Presborg 
900 


and  Vienna,  confining  his  akentian  chiefly  to  philo' 
logical  and  historicsT  investigations.  In  1831  he 
was  appointed  by  the  states  of  Bohemia  historio- 
grapher to  that  country,  and  was  intrusted  with 
the  compilation  of  a  ^neral  history  of  Bohemia. 
In  furtherance  of  this  work,  he  ransacked  all 
the  libraries  and  archives  in  Bohemia,  and  made 
long  visits  to  Germany  and  Italv  in  search  oi 
materials.  He  took  part  in  the  political  agitation 
of  1848,  and  was  the  leader  of  the  Slav  or  national 
party  as  opposed  to  the  German  at  the  Diet  of 
Kremsier,  after  the  dissolution  of  which  he 
returned  to  his  literary  labours.  His  great  and 
justly  celebrated  work,  Oeachkhte  von  B6hmen,  *The 
History  of  Bohemia'  (Praene,  1836—1860,  8  vols, 
octavo),  distinguished  equuly  by  profound  research 
and  vigour  of  style,  was  received  on  its  publication 
with  &e  utmost  enthusiasm,  though  the  zeal  with 
which  the  writer  defended  the  cause  of  the  Slavic 
race  drew  down  upon  him  the  bitter  comments  of 
German  critics ;  and  the  manner  in  which  he  spoke 
of  John  Huss  in  the  3d  volume  of  the  work  greatly 
offended  the  Catholics.  P.  is  the  author  o?  some 
other  works  of  considerable  merits  such  as  the 
Theorie  des  Sdionen,  *  The  Theory  of  the  Beautiful ' 
(1821) ;  AOgemeine  Oeadiiehte  der  Aesthdik  (1823) ; 
Die  UUesten  Denkmdler  der  B6hmiachen  Sprache, 
'The  most  Ancient  Monuments  of  the  Bohemian 
Tongue'  (Prague,  1840) ;  £>er  Mongden  EinfaU  im 
Jakre  1241,  'The  Invasion  of  the  Mongols  in  1241' 
(Prague,  1842) ;  and  he  has  also  edited  some  parts  of 
the  'Scriptores  rerum  Bohemicarum'  and  'Tontes 
rerum  Austriacarum.' 

PA'LADIN,  a  term  originally  derived  from  the 
Counts  Palatine,  or  of  the  Pabloe  (see  Palatine), 
who  were  the  highest  dignitaries  in  the  Byzantine 
court,  and  thence  used  generally  for  a  lord  or 
chieftain,  and  by  the  Italian  romantio  poets  for  a 
knight-errant. 

PALJEA'STER  (Gr.  ancient  star-fish),  a  genus  of 
star-fish  peculiar  to  the  Silurian  ^iod,  which  in 
general  appearance  resemble  the  living  brittle  stars, 
but  when  more  minutely  examined,  present  so  many 
anomalies,  that  they  cannot  be  referred  to  any 
existing  family.  Five  or  six  species  have  been 
descril^ 

PALiEO'GBAPHY  (Gr.  pa2aios,  old,  and  prt^^, 
writing),  the  science  of  ancient  writings.  6  com- 
prehends not  merely  the  art  of  reading  them,  but 
such  a  critical  knowledge  of  all  their  circumstances 
as  will  serve  to  determme  their  age,  if  they  happen 
to  be  xmdated,  and  their  genuineness,  in  the  absence 
of  any  formal  authentication.  For  these  purposes, 
the  paledographer  needs  to  be  acquainted  with  the 
various  substances,  such  as  bark,  leaves,  skins, 
paper,  Ac.,  which  have  been  used  for  writing ;  with 
the  various  manners  of  writing  which  have  prevailed, 
and  the  changes  which  they  nave  undergone  ;  with 
the  various  forms  of  authenticating  writings,  sud^  as 
seals,  si^ets,  cachets,  signatures,  superscriptions, 
subscriptions,  attestations,  &&,  which  have  been 
employed  at  different  times;  with  the  various 
phases  through  which  the  grammar,  vocabulary,  and 
orthography  of  the  language  of  tiie  writing  with 
which  he  is  dealing,  has  pamed ;  and  with  more  or 
less,  as  the  case  may  be,  of  the  history,  laws,  insti- 
tutions, literature,  and  art  of  the  age  and  ooontiy 
to  which  the  writing  professes  to  belong. 

Paledography  may  be  said  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  learned  French  Benedictine,  Jean  Mabillon, 
whose  De  Be  DipiomcUioa,  first  published  in  1681 
in  1  voL  foL,  reprinted  in  1709,  and  again  in  1789, 
in  2  vols,  fol.,  IS  still,  perhaps,  the  most  masterly 
work  on  the  subjects  Along  with  the  iVbifwsim 
TraUS  de  Diplamatiqut  (Par.  1750— 1765»  6  volfc 


PALiEOLOGUS— PALiEONISCira 


4to)  of  the  Benedictines  of  St  Maur,  and  the  EU' 
mmfo  de  Paliograpkie  (Par,  1838,  2  yoIb.  4to)  by 
M.  Natalia  de  Wailly,  it  is  the  great  authority  for 
FVench  palflBography.  English  paloograph  v  is  ]^- 
haps  less  favoarably  represented  in  Astle  s  Ongin 
•nd  Progress  of  Writing  (Lond.  1803),  than  Scottish 
pal»ography  in  Anderson's  and  Raddiman's  Diplo- 
maia  SooHoi  (Edin.  1739).  Mnratori  treats  of  Italian 
paleopraphy  in  the  thira  volume  of  his  great  work, 
the  AfUiqmtcUea  licUkcB  Medu  .^Svi ;  and  amonff 
later  works  on  the  same  snhject  may  be  mentioned 
the  Diplomatiea  Pontificia  (Kome,  1841)  of  Marino 
Harini  The  pakec^raphy  of  Greece  is  illnstrated  in 
the  Pal€eograpkta  wwca  (Par.  1708)  of  Montfaucon. 
Spanish  palie<Mzraphy  may  be  studied  in  the  Bilh 
Mftheca  de  la  Polygraphia  Espanola  (Mad.  1738)  of 
Don  C.  Rodriguez.  Of  woiks  on  €terman  palao- 
Offraph^,  it  may  be  enough  to  name  Eckard's  intro- 
dueho  %n  Rem  Diphmatieam  (Jen.  1742),  Heumann's 
ComTFtentarii  de  Re  Diplomatiea  (Norimb.  1745), 
Waltber's  Lexieon  Diphmatieum  (Gott  1745),  and 
Kopp*8  Pakeograpkia  Criiica  (Manh.  1817).  Hebrew 
palaeography  has  oeen  elaborated  by  Gesenins  in  his 
Oesehichte  der  Hebrdiechen  Sprache  und  Sckrift^  and 
other  works.  The  great  work  on  paleeography 
generally — one  of  the  most  sumptuous  works  of  ito 
daas  erer  published — ^is  the  Paliographie  Unwersdle 
(Par.  1839—1845,  in  6  vols,  fol.)  of  M.  J.  B.  SQ- 
▼estre.  See  Black  Lsttkr,  Contbactions,  Palimp- 
sest, Paftrl 

PAIi^O'LOGXTS,  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
Byzantine  family,  which  first  appears  in  history 
about  the  11th  c.,  and  attained  to  imperial  dignity 
in  the  person  of  Michael  VIIL  in  1260.     This 
emperor  successfully  undertook  many  expeditions  to 
Greece  and  the  Archipelago,  and  used  his  utmost 
endeavours  to  heal  the  schism  between  the  Roman 
and  Greek  Churches,  though  with  exceedingly  little 
success.     His  successor  on  the  throne  was  his  son 
Aia>BOKicus  XL  (1282 — 1329),  under  whose  reign  the 
Turks  commenced  in  earnest  a  series  of  assaults  on 
the  Byzantine  dominions.    Andronicus  attempted  to 
oppose  them  with  a  force  composed  of  mercenaries, 
but  his  success  was  veiy  doubtful,  as  these  troops, 
with  perfect  impartialiiy,  attacked  both  his  enemies 
and  his  subjects.    To  pay  them  he  was  compelled 
to  levy  such  imposts  as  went  far  to  destroy  Byzan- 
tine commerce.     He  associated  his  son,  Michael 
IX.,  with  himself   in   the   government,  and  was 
dethroned  by  his  grandson,  Ain)RONicus  III.  (1328 
— 1341),    an   able   warrior    and    wise   ruler,   who 
repeate^hr  defeated  the  Bulgarians,  Tartars  of  the 
Golden  Horde,  and  the  Servians,  and  diminished  the 
oppressive  imposts  of  the  previous  reign.    He  was, 
however,   unsuccessful   against    the    Catalans    in 
Greece,  and  the  Turks  during  his    reign  ravaged 
Thrace  as  far   as   the  Balkan.     He  was  greatly 
esteemed  by  his  subjects,  and  well  merited  the  title 
of  *  Father  of  his  Countiy,'  which  they  bestowed 
upon  him.    His  son,  John  VI.  (1355—1391),  a  weak 
and  ▼oluptuous  prince,  attempted  in  vain  both  by 
force  ana  bribery  to  stop  the  progress  of  the  Turks ; 
at  last  the  pope,  moved  by  nis  urgent  entreaties, 
which  were  backed  by  a  promise  to  submit  the 
Greek  Church  to  his  (the  pope's)  supremacy,  urged 
the  Hungarians  and  Servians  to  arm  in  d^ence  of 
the   Greek  emperor,  but  the  result  was  only  an 
additional    triumph    to    Sultan    Amurath.      The 
imbecile  emperor  was  several  times  deposed,  and  on 
his  final  reinstatement  by  the  sultan,  acknowledged 
himself  as  his  vassal  for  the  capital  and  a  small 
Iract  along  the  Propontis  and  Black  Sea.    Indeed, 
uo  degraded  had  the  Byzantines  become,  that  they 
obeyed  the  Sultan  Bajazet's  summons  to  aid  him 
in  reducing  Philadelphia,  the  last  Greek  stronghold 
m  Asia  IGnor.    His  son,  Avdbonioub  IY.  (1355 — 


1373),  who  had  been  associated  with  him  in  tht 
government,  died  in  exile.  Makitel  II.  (1391— 
1425)  pursued  the  same  tactics  as  his  father  John 
yi.,  and  with  the  same  result.  The  allied  army 
of  the  Hungarians,  Grermans,  and  f^nch,  which 
he  had  summoned  to  his  aid  against  the  Turks, 
was  totally  routed  at  Nicopolis  by  Bajazet,  and 
Constantinople  itself  closely  besieged.  The  inva- 
sion of  Asia  Minor  by  Timtir,  however,  compelled 
the  sultan  to  withdraw  his  whole  force,  and  his 
subsequent  defeat  and  capture  at  Angora  in  1402, 
and  tne  contests  among  his  sons  for  the  supre- 
macy^, gave  the  Greek  empire  a  breathing  space. 
Having  aided  Mohammed  L  in  his  contests  with  his 
brothers,  Manuel  was,  by  the  c;rateful  sultan,  pre- 
sented with  some  districts  in  Greece,  Thessalonica, 
and  on  the  Euxine.  John  VIL  (1425—1449),  on 
being  nressed  by  the  Turks,  again  held  out  to  the 
pope  the  old  bait  of  the  union  of  the  Greek  and 
Western  Churches  under  his  sway,  and  even  pre- 
sented himself  at  the  council  of  Florence,  where,  in 
Jtdy  1439,  the  union  of  the  churches  was  agreed  to. 
But  on  his  return  to  Constantinople,  the  opposition 
of  the  Greek  ecclesiastics  to  the  union,  supiM>rted  by 
the  people,  rendered  the  agreement  of  Florence  a 
dead  letter.  The  pope,  however,  saw  that  it  was 
for  his  interest  to  fulfil  his  part  of  the  agreement, 
and  accordingly  stirred  up  Wladislas  of  Hungary  to 
attack  the  Turks  (see  Jaoellons),  but  this  act  only 
hastened  the  downfall  of  the  Palseologi  John's 
brother,  Constantinb  XIII.  (1449—1453),  a  heroic 
scion  of  a  de^nerate  race,  accepted  the  crown  after 
much  hesita^on,  knowing  his  total  inability  to  with- 
stand the  Turks,  and  even  then  took  the  precaution 
of  obtaining  the  sultan's  consent  before  he  exerdsed 
the  imperial  authority ;  but  some  rebellions  in 
Caramania  which  now  occurred,  baffling  Sultan 
Mohammed  II.*s  efforts  to  quell  them,  the  emperor 
was  willingly  persuaded  by  his  rash  advisers  that 
the  time  had  now  arrived  for  rendering  himself 
independent  of  the  Turks.  The  attempt,  however, 
only  brought  swifter  destruction  on  the  wretched 
remnant  of  the  Byzantine  empire,  for  Mohammed 
invested  the  capital  by  sea  and  land,  and  after  a 
siege,  which  lasted  fiom  6th  April  to  29th  May 
14^  Constantinople  was  taken  by  storm,  and  the 
last  of  the  Palseologi  fell  fighting  bravely  in  the 
breach.  A  branch  of  this  family  ruled  Montferrat 
in  Italy  from  1306,  but  b^ame  extinct  in  1533L 
The  PalsBologi  were  connected  by  marriage  with 
the  ruling  families  of  Hungary,  Servia,  and  the  last 
of  the  family  married  Ivan,  Czar  of  Russia — a  fact 
which  the  Czars  of  Russia  have  persisted  till  lately 
in  bringing  forward  as  a  claim  in  favour  of  their 

ftretensions  to  the  possession  of  European  Turkey, 
t  is  said  that  direct  descendants  of  tne  Pidseologi 
exist  to  the  present  day  in  France.  (For  further 
information,  see  the  separate  articles  on  some  of  the 
emperors,  and  Byzaktinb  Empibk) 

PAIiJBONI'SCUS  (Gr.  ancient  sea-fish),  a  genus 
of  ganoid  fish,  with  a  fusiform  body,  covered  with 
rhomboid  scales,  a  heterocercal  tail,  and  moderately* 
sized  fins»  each  furnished  with  an  anterior  spine. 


Palssoniscus. 

The  single  dorsal  fin  is  opposite  to  the  interval 

between  the  anal  and  ventral  fins.     Twenty-eight 

species  have  been  described  from  the  Carbomferoua 

and  Permian  measures. 

Ml 


PAL-ffiONTOLOOY. 


PAL^Ei  >NT0X06Y  (Or.  science  of  fossil  ani- 
mals) is  that  division  of  Geology  (q.  v.)  whose  pro- 
vince it  is  to  inquire  into  the  evidence  of  oi^ganio 
life  on  the  globe  during  the  different  bygone 
geological  periods,  whether  this  evidence  arises  m>m 
tne  actual  remains  of  the  different  plants  and 
animals,  or  from  recognisable  records  of  their  exist- 
ence, such  as  footi)rints,  Coprolites  (q.  v.),  Ac 

The  metamorpnic  action  which  has  so  remarkably 
altered  the  oldest  sedimentary  rocks,  is  sufficient  to 
have  obliterated  all  traces  of  organic  remains  con- 
tained in  tiiem.  Fossils  are  consequently  extremely 
rare  in  these  older  palaeozoic  strata,  and  indeed  it  is 
only  after  long  search,  and  within  the  last  few 
months,  that  imdoubted'  remains  have  been  found 
in  the  Laurentian  rocks.  We  were  unable  to  record 
their  existence  in  the  article  JjAXTRBNtiak  System; 
but  in  the  article  LiMEsrroNE,  we  referred  to  the 
existence  of  beds  of  limestone  as  requiring  the 
presence  of  animal  life  for  their  production*  It  is 
true  that  in  1852  an  organic  form  resembling  a  coral 
was  found  in  the  limestone  of  the  Ottawa,  but  much 
doubt  was  always  entertained  regarding  this  solitary 
discoveiy.  In  1863,  however,  there  was  detected 
an  organism  in  the  serpentine  limestone  of  GrenviUe, 
of  true  Laurentian  a^e,  which  Dr  Dawson  describes 
as  that  of  a  Forammifer,  growing  in  large  sessile 
patches,  after  the  manner  of  Carpentaria,  but  of 
much  greater  dimensions,  and  presenting  minute 
points,  which  reveal  a  structure  resembling  that  of 
other  foraminiferal  forms,  as,  for  example,  Ualcarina 
and  Nummtdina.  Large  portions  of  the  limestone 
appear  to  be  made  up  of  these  organisms,  mixed 
with  other  fragments,  which  suggest  comparisons 
with  crinoids  and  other  calcareous  fossils,  but  which 
have  not  yet  been  distinctly  determined.  Some  of 
the  limestones  are  more  or  less  coloured  by  carbona- 
ceous matter,  exhibitiue  evidences  of  organic  struc- 
ture, probabJy  vegetable.  In  this  single  Fora- 
miniFer,  and  the  supposed  coral,  we  have  all  that 
is  positively  known  of  the  earliest  inhabitants  of 
our  globe,  with  which  we  are  yet  acquainted.  That 
these  are  but  the  smallest  fraction  of  the  fauna  of 
the  period  in  which  they  lived,  is  evident  from  the 
undetermined  fragments  associated  with  them,  as 
well  as  from  the  extensive  deposits  of  limestone  of 
the  same  age.  And  that  contemporaneous  with 
them,  there  existed  equally  numerous  representa- 
tives of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  cannot  be  doubted, 
when  it  is  remembered  that  the  animal  can  obtain 
its  food  only  through  the  vegetable,  and  not  directly 
from  inorganic  materials.  Besides,  their  remains 
apparently  exist  in  the  limestone  at  Grenville,  a 
rock  which,  from  its  very  nature,  rarely  contains 
vegetable  fossils. 

The  Cambrian  rocks,  though  of  immense  thick- 
ness, have  hitherto  yielded  indications  of  only  a 
Yery  few  animals,  but  these  have  a  special  interest, 
as  uiey  are  the  oldest  fossil  remains  yet  detected  in 
Britain.  They  consist  of  an  impression  which  Salter 
considers  to  be  portion  of  a  triiobite,  named  by  him 
PaloBopygey  of  the  burrows  and  tracks  of  sea- worms, 
and  of  two  species  of  radiated  zoophytes  called 
Oldhamki — animals  which  in  this  case  also  can  be 
nothing  more  than  the  most  fra^entary  representa- 
tions of  the  fauna  of  the  periocL  No  indications  of 
Testable  life  have  yet  been  noticed  in  the  Cam- 
brian rocks,  for  we  cannot  consider  the  superficial 
markings  on  some  of  these  strata  as  having  anything 
to  do  with  f ud. 

Undoubted  representations  of  the  four  inverte- 
brate sub-kingdoms  early  make  their  appearance  in 
the  Silurian  strata,  and  the  occurrence  before  the 
dose  of  the  period  of  several  fish,  adds  to  them  the 
remaining  sub-kin^om— the  vertebrata.  If  we 
tsoept  the  silicious  frustules  of  Diatomaces  which 


are  said  to  have  been  detected  in  these  rocks,  no 
satisfactory  traces  of  plants  have  vet  been  observed, 
although  extensive  layers  of  anthracitic  shales  are 
common.  Of  the  lower  forms  of  the  animal  king- 
dom, some  sponge-like  bodies  have  been  found,  and 
corals  are  remarkably  abundant,  chiefly  belonging 
to  the  order  Rugosa,  a  paleozoic  type,  the  members 
of  which  have  horizontal  tabulae,  and  vertical  plates 
or  septa,  either  four  in  number,  or  a  multiple  of 
four.  Graptolites,  another  family  of  zoophytes, 
flourished  in  the  dark  mud  of  the  Silurian  seas,  and 
did  not  survive  the  period.  All  the  great  divisions 
of  the  MoUusca  are  represented  by  numerous  genera, 
several  of  which  are  not  very  different  from  some 
living  forms.  A  few  true  star-fishes  have  left  their 
records  on  the  rocks,  but  the  most  striking  feature 
in  the  Echinodermata  of  the  period  is  the  Cysti- 
deans,  or  armless  sea-lilies,  which,  like  the  Grapto- 
lites, did  not  pass  beyond  the  ^lurian  seas.  Tubes, 
tracks,  and  burrows  of  annelids  have  been  observed ; 
and  numerous  Crustacea,  belonging,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  or  two  shrimp-uke  species,  to  the 
characteristic  palseozoic  Trilooite,  of  which  the  num- 
ber of  individuals  is  as  remarkable  as  the  variety 
of  species  and  genera.  It  is  only  in  the  upper 
portion  of  the  group  (the  Ludlow  beds)  that  the  nsh 
remains  have  bsen  found.  These  have  been  referred 
to  six  different  genera,  and  are  chiefly  loricate 
ganoids,  of  which  Cephaiaspis  is  the  best  known. 

The  rocks  of  the  Old  Red  Sandstone  period 
supply  the  earliest  satisfactory  remains  of  plant& 
The  Ferns,  Sigillariae,  Lycopodites,  and  Calamitea, 
so  abundant  m  the  Coal  Measures,  make  their 
appearance  among  the  newer  of  these  beds,  and 
even  fragments  of  dicotyledonous  wood  have  been 
observed.  The  various  sections  of  the  invertebrata 
are  well  represented,  but  the  remarkable  character- 
istic in  the  animal  life  of  the  period  is  the  abun- 
dance of  strange  forms  of  heterocercal-tailed  fish, 
whose  buckler-shields,  hard  scales,  or  bonv  spinea 
occur  in  the  greatest  abundance  in  some  beds.  The 
reptiles  and  reptile  tracks  in  the  Red  Sandstone  of 
Moray,  originally  referred  here,  are  now  universally 
considered  as  belonging  to  the  New  Bed  measiirea. 

The  striking  feature  in  the  rocks  of  the  Carbonif- 
erous period  is  the  great  abundance  of  plants,  the 
remains  of  which  occur  throughout  the  whole  series* 
the  coal-beds  being  composed  entirely  of  them,  the 
shales  being  largely  charged  with  them,  the  sand- 
stones containing  a  few,  and  even  the  limestones  not 
being  entirely  without  them.  These  plants  were 
specially  fltted  for  preservation,  the  bulk  of  tlienx 
being  vascular  crjrptogams,  a  class  which  Lindley 
and  Hutton  have  shewn  by  experiment  to  be  capable 
of  long  preservation  under  water.  They  are  chiefly 
ferns ;  some  are  supposed  to  have  been  arborescent 
lycopods,  while  others  {SigUlariOf  CaianiUes^  and 
AsUrophylHtea)  are  so  different  from  anything  now 
known,  that  their  position  cannot  be  definitely 
determined,  though  it  is  most  probably  among  the 
higher  cryptogams.  Several  genera  of  conifers  have 
been  established  from  fossilised  fragments  of  wood  ;  ^ 
and  some  singular  impressions,  which  look  like  the 
flowering  stems  of  dicotyledonous  plants,  have  been 
found.  The  limestones  are  chiefly  composed  of 
crinoids,  corals,  and  bracbiopodous  shem.  The 
corals  attain  a  great  size,  and  the  crinoids  ai«« 
extremely  abundant,  their  remains  making  some* 
times  beds  of  limestone  1000  feet  thick,  and  hun- 
dreds of  square  miles  in  extent.  Many  new  genera  of 
shells  make  their  appearance.  The  trilobites,  which 
were  so  abundant  in  the  earlier  rocks,  are  reduced  to 
one  or  two  genera,  and  finally  disappear  with  this 
period.  Fish  with  polished  bony  scales  are  found ; 
and  others,  like  the  Port  Jackson  sh^rk,  with  pave- 
ments of  flat  teeth  over  their  mouth  and  gullet^ 


PALEONTOLOGY. 


fitting  them  to  crush  and  grind  the  shell-protected 
•nimnls  on  which  they  fed.  Strance  fish-like 
reptiles  existed  in  the  seas,  and  air-breatninc  species 
have  been  found  on  the  continent  and  in  America. 
The  wing-cases,  and  parts  of  the  bodies  of  insects, 
have  also  been  found. 

The  Permian  period  is  remarkable  for  the  paucity 
of  its  organic  remains,  but  this  may  arise  from  our 
eomparative  ignorance  of  its  strata.  The  plants 
and  animals  are  on  the  whole  similar  to  those 
found  in  the  Carboniferous  measures,  and  a  great 

Sroportion  of  them  belong  to  the  same  genera, 
lany  ancient  forms  do  not  pass  this  period,  as  the 
SigUlaria  amxig  plants,  and  the  Produda  among 
animals. 

The  red  sandstones  of  the  Triassic  period  are 
remarkably  destitute  of  orranio  remains — the  iron, 
which  has  given  to  them  this  colour,  seems  to  have 
boen  fatal  to  animal  life.  In  beds,  however,  on  the 
continent,  in  which  the  iron  is  absent,  fossils  abound. 
These  fossils  present  a  singular  contrast  to  those 
met  with  in  the  older  rocks.  The  Palaeozoic  forms 
bad  been  gradually  dying  out,  and  tiie  few  that 
were  still  found  in  the  Permian  strata  do  not 
survive  that  period,  while  in  their  place  there 
appear  in  the  Trias  many  genera  whicn  approach 
more  nearly  to  the  living  forms.  Between  the 
organisms  of  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods  there 
exist  a  more  striking  difference  than  is  to  be  found 
between  those  of  any  previous  periods.  Looking  at 
this  life-character,  the*rocks  from  the  Permian  down- 
wards have  been  grouped  together  under  the  title 
Palaeozoic ;  while  m>m  the  Tnas  upwards  the  whole 
of  the  strata  have  received  the  name  of  Neozoic 

The  extensive  genera  of  Ammonites  and  Belem- 
nites  make  their  first  appearance  in  the  Trias. 
Several  new  forms  of  Cestraciont  %sh  occur,  and 
the  reptiles  increase  in  number  and  variety ;  amons 
them  is  the  huge  batrachian  Labyrinthodon,  ana 
the  singular  fresh-water  tortoise,  Dicynodon.  The 
bird-tracks  on  the  sandstones  of  Connecticut  are 
by  some  referred  to  this  age.  Small  teeth  of  mam- 
naalia,  believed  to  be  those  of  an  insectivorous 
animal,  like  the  Myrmecobius  of  Australia,  have 
been  found  in  the  Keuper  beds  of  Germany  and 
Somerset 

In  the  Oolitic  series  we  have  an  abundance  of 
organic  remains,  in  striking  contrast  to  the  scanty 
traces  in  the  Permian  and  Triassic  periods.  Many 
new  genera  of  ferns  take  the  place  of  the  Palaeozoic 
forms,  and  a  considerable  variety  of  Conifers  make 
their  appearance,  some  of  which  have  close  affinities 
with  living  species,  one,  indeed,  being  referred  to  a 
■till  existmg  genus.  The  same  approximation  to 
living  types  is  to  be  found  in  the  animal  kingdom. 
Several  of  the  foraminifers^are  referred  to  Uving 

genera.  Among  the  corals,  the  representatives  of  two 
ving  families  make  their  appearance.  No  new 
gsnera  are  found  among  the  Brachiopoda ;  but  the 
onchif era  and  Gasteropoda  shew  a  great  addition  of 
new  genera,  some  of  which  are  still  represented  by 
living  species,  while  not  many  new  genera  were 
added  to  the  Cephalopoda,  though  they  were  indi- 
vidnally  very  abundant  In  some  places  the  Lias 
ahale  consists  of  extensive  pavements  of  Belemnites 
and  Ammonites.  The  Cnnoids  give  place  to  the 
increaaing  variety  of  sea-urchins  ana  star-fishes. 
Numbers  of  insects  have  been  found.  The  Ces- 
^racionts  continue  to  be  represented  in  tne  Oolitic 
■eaa,  bnt  with  them  are  associated  several  true 
aharka  and  rays;  and  the  homocercal-tailed  fiiQi 
become  numeroua  Labyrinthodont  reptiles  abound : 
the  huge  Me^osaur  and  its  companions  occupied 
the  land;  while  the  seas  were  tenanted  with  the 
remarkable  Ichthyosaur  and  Plesiosaur,  and  the  air 
with  the  immense  bat-like  Pterodactyle.     Seven 


genera  of  Mammalia  have  been  found,  all  believed 
to  be  small  carnivorous  or  insectivorous  maisupiaU, 
except  the  Stereognathus,  which  Owen  considers 
to  have  been  a  plf^ental  mammal,  probably  hoofed 
and  herbivorous. 

In  the  Cretaceous  beds,  which  are  chiefly  deep- 
sea  deposits,  the  remains  of  plants  and  land  animals 
are  comparatively  rare.  The  Wealden  beds,  how- 
ever, which  had  a  fresh-water  origin,  contain  the 
remains  of  several  small  marsupials,  some  huge 
carnivorous  and  herbivorous  reptiles,  a  few  fresh- 
water sheUs,  and  some  fragments  of  drift-wood.  The 
true  chalk  is  remarkably  abundant  in  the  remains 
of  foraminifers — indeed,  in  some  ]ilaces,  it  is  com- 
posed almost  entirely  of  the  shell  of  these  minute 
creatures.  Oi  the  mollusca,  the  Brachiopoda  are  in 
some  beds  very  abundant ;  the  Conchifera  introduce 
several  new  forms,  the  most  striking  of  which  is  the 
genus  Hippurites,  which  with  its  allies  did  not 
survive  this  period ;  the  cephalopodous  genera  which 
appeared  in  the  Oolite,  continue  to  abound  in  the 
chalk,  many  new  forms  being  introduced;  while 
others  disappear  with  the  period,  like  the  Belem- 
nites and  Ammonites.  Sea-urchins  become  still 
more  numerous.  In  some  beds  the  remains  of  fish 
are  abundant^  and  while  cartilaginous  species  still 
exist,  the  bony  fishes  become  more  numerous ;  and 
amonff  them  the  family  to  which  the  salmon  and 
cod  belong  makes  its  appearance.  Reptiles  are 
common  in  the  Wealden,  and  the  flying  Pterodac- 
tyles  attained  a  greater  size,  and  were  probably 
more  numerous  than  in  the  former  period.  The 
remains  of  a  single  bird  has  been  obtained  from  the 
greensand,  but  with  this  exception,  birds  as  well  as 
mammals  have  left  no  traces  that  have  yet  been 
found  in  the  Cretaceous  beds,  though  doubtiess  they 
existed. 

In  the  Tertiary  strata,  the  ffenera  are  either  those 
still  living,  or  forms  very  closely  allied  to  them, 
which  can  be  sepai'ated  only  by  the  careful  examina- 
tion of  the  accurate  scientific  observer.  The  plants 
of  the  Eocene  beds  are  represented  by  dicotyledonous 
leaves,  and  palm  and  other  f ruitsL  Foraminifers  are 
remarkably  abundant,  whole  mountain  masses  being 
formed  of  the  large  genus  Nummulites.  Brachiopoda 
are  rare,  but  Conchifera,  Gasteropoda,  and  Cephal- 
opoda increase  in  number;  the  new  forms  being 
generically  almost  identical  with  those  now  living. 
The  principal  hving  orders  of  fish,  reptiles,  and 
birds  are  represented  in  the  Eocene  strata.  A  con- 
siderable variety  of  pachydermatous  mammals,  suited 
apparently  to  five  on  marshy  grounds  and  tiie  bor- 
ders of  lakes,  have  been  found  in  France  and 
England,  and  associated  with  them  are  some  car- 
nivorous animals,  whose  remains  are,  however,  much 
rarer.  An  opossum  has  been  found  at  Colchester. 
The  fra^ents  belonging  to  the  supposed  monkey 
are  portions  oi  a  small  ^lachyderm,  Hyrctcotherium 
(q.  v.). 

Littie  need  be  said  of  the  invertebrata  of  the  Mio- 
cene period,  beyond  remarking  their  growing  iden- 
tity in  senera  with  the  living  forms.  Among  the 
mammals,  the  Quadrumana  make  their  first  appear- 
ance. The  true  elephant  and  the  allied  mastodon  are 
represented  by  several  species ;  a  huge  carnivorous 
whale  has  been  discoveried,  and  several  Camivora 
and  deer,  with  a  huge  edentate  animal,  have  been 
described.  Owen  thus  speaks  of  these  animals; 
*Our  knowledge  of  the  progression  of  Mammalian 
life  dnrins  the  Miocene  period,  teaches  us  that  one 
or  two  of  the  generic  forms  most  frequent  in  the 
older  Tertiary  strata  stiU  lingered  on  the  earth,  but 
that  the  rest  of  the  Eocene  Mammalia  had  been 
superseded  by  new  forms,  some  of  which  present 
characters  intermediate  between  those  of  Aocene 
and  those  of  Pliocene  genera.' 


PALiEOPyGfi—PALiBOZOIC. 


In  passing  upwards  through  the  Tertiary  strata, 
the  org[amc  remains  become  more  and  more  iden- 
tical with  living  forms,  so  tliat  when  we  reach  the 
Pliocene  and  Pleistocene  periods,  the  great  propor- 
tion of  the  invertebrata  are  the  same  species  which 
are  found  occupying  the  present  seas.  Amonjo;  the 
higher  orders  of  animals,  the  life  of  a  species,  is 
much  shorter  than  in  the  lower,  and  consequently, 
though  the  vertebrata  approach  so  nearly  to  existing 
forms  as  for  the  most  part  to  be  placed  in  the  same 
genera,  yet  the  species  differ  from  any  of  the  living 
representatives  of  the  different  genera. 

The  Suffolk  *  Crags,*  which  are  the  only  British 
representatives  of  the  Pliocene  period,  contain  the 
relics  of  a  marine  testacea,  that  differs  little  from 
the*  present  tenants  of  the  European  seas,  between 
60  and  70  per  cent,  being  the  same  speoies.  The 
ear-bones  of  one  or  more  species  of  Cetacea  have 
been  foimd,  and  at  Antwerp,  the  remains  of  a  dol- 
phin have  been  discovered  in  beds  of  this  age. 

The  various  local  deposits  which  together  form 
the  Pleistocene  strata,  the  latest  of  the  geological 
periods,  contain  a  great  variety  of  oi^anic  remains, 
in  the  submarine  forests,  and  in  he&  of  peat,  the 
stumps  of  trees  are  associated  with  the  remains  of 
underwood  and  herbaceous  plants  of  species  still 
living.  Nearly  all  the  mollusca  and  other  marine 
invertebrata  still  survive.  It  is  among  the  verte- 
brata that  the  most  remarkable  forms  appear — 
forms  which  in  the  main  differ  little  from  the 
existing  race  of  animals  except  in  their  enormous 
size.  Elephants  and  rhinoceroses,  6tted  for  a  cold 
climate  by  their  covering  of  long  coarse  hair  and 
wool,  roamed  over  the  northern  regions  of  both  the 
Old  and  the  New  World,  and  were  associated  with 
animals  belonging  to  genera  which  still  exist  in  the 
eame  region,  as  Bears,  deer,  wolves,  foxes,  badj^ers, 
otters,  wolverines,  weasels,  and  beavers,  besides 
others  nvhose  representatives  are  now  found  further 
south,  as  the  hippopotamus,  tapir,  and  hyena.  Con- 
temporary with  these,  there  lived  in  South  America 
a  group  of  animals  which  were  types  in  everything 
but  in  size  of  the  peculiar  existing  fauna  of  that 
continent.  Among  these  were  gigantic  sloth-like 
animals,  titted  to  root  up  and  push  down  the  trees, 
instead  of  climbing  to  strip  them  of  their  foliage,  like 
the  sloth.  The  armadillo  was  represented  by  the 
huge  Glyptodon,  whose  body  was  protected  by  a 
strong  teseelated  coat  of  mail.  The  species  of  fossil 
tai>ir8  and  peccaries  are  more  numerous  than  their 
living  representatives.  The  lamas  were  preceded 
by  the  large  Macrauchenia,  and  the  opossums  and 
platyrhine  monkeys  were  also  prefigured  by  related 
species.  Besides  these,  there  have  been  found  the 
remains  of  tyo  mastodons  and  a  horse,  none  of 
which  are  represented  by  any  indigenoua  living 
animal  in  South  Atiierica.  The  peculiar  group  of 
animals  confined  to  Australia  were  prefigured  by 
huge  marsupials,  some  having  close  analogies  to  the 
living  kangaroos  and  wombats,  while  owers  were 
related  to  the  carnivorous  native  tiger.  The  gigantic 
wingless  birds  of  New  Zealand  correspond  m  type 
with  the  anomalous  apteryx,  now  existing  only  on 
these  islands. 

Associated  with  the  remains  of  elephants,  mas- 
todons, cave-bears,  and  cave-hyenas,  there  have 
been  found,  in  England  and  France,  numerous  speci- 
mens of  flint  implements,  which  are  undoubtedly 
the  result  of  human  workmanship,  and  shew  at  least 
that  man  was  contemporaneous  with  these  extinct 
animals.  If  more  certain  evidence  were  needed  of 
this,  it  has  been  obtained  in  the  discovery  of  flint 
implements,  bone  implements  fashioned  and  carved 
by  means  of  the  flint  knives,  the  horns  of  a  rein- 
deer, two  kinds  of  extinct  deer,  Bos  primigenius, 

and  other  animals,  associated  with  numerous  bones 
Mi 


of  man,  included  in  the  breccia  of  the  cave  of 
Bruniquel  in  France.  Owen  considers  the  evidence 
of  the  contemporaneity  of  the  various  remains  as 
conclusive.  The  sevenJ  human  skulls  which  have 
been  obtained  shew,  according  to  the  same  authority, 
no  characters  whatever  indicative  of  an  inferior  or 
transitional  type.  There  are  no  certain  data  to  give 
probability  to  the  guesses  which  have  been  made  as 
to  the  number  of  years  which  have  elapsed  since 
these  deposits  in  which  the  relics  of  man  occur 
were  formed.  The  whole  inquiry,  moreover,  is  so 
recent,  and  the  accumulation  of  facts  is  almost 
every  day  going  on,  that  it  would  be  premature  to 
speak  dogmatically  on  the  subject. 

PAL^OPY'oi:  (Gr.  ancient  rump),  a  genus  of 
fossil  Crustacea,  founded  on  a  sin^e  impression 
from  the  surface  of  a  bed  in  the  Xongmynd,  of 
Cambrian  age.  Salter  believes  it  to  be  the  cephalic 
shield  of  a  trilobite,  but  it  may  be  only  an  acci- 
dental marking.  If  it  be  the  impression  of  an 
organism,  it  is  so  distorted  and  imperfect  that  little 
can  be  made  of  it ;  its  peculiar  interest  arises  from 
its  being  associated  with  the  earliest  forms  of  life 
that  have  been  observed  on  the  globe. 

PAL-ffiOSAU'RUS  (Gr.  ancient  lizard),  a  genus  of 
fossil  saurian  reptiles  peculiar  to  the  Permian  period. 
The  remains  of  two  species  occur  in  the  doh>mitio 
conglomerate  at  Kedland,  near  Bristol  The  teeth 
were  more  or  less  compressed,  and  were  furnished 
with  serrated  cutting  margins;  The  vertebree  were 
biconcave,  and  had  a  remarkable  depression  in  the 
centre  of  each  vertebra,  into  which  the  spinal  canal 
was  sunk.  The  leg-bones  shew  that  the  Paloeosaurs 
were  fitted  for  moving  on  the  land.  Owen  thus 
exhibits  their  afiinities :  *  In  their  thecodont  type 
of  dentition,  bi<^cave  vertebras,  double-jointed  ribs, 
and  proportionate  size  of  the  bones  oi  the  extre- 
mities, they  are  allied  to  the  Teleosaurus,  but  with 
these  they  combine  a  Dinosaurian  femur,  a  lacertian 
form  of  tooth,  and  a  crocodilian  structure  of  pectoral 
and  probably  pelvic  arch.' 

PAL^OTHE'RIUM  (Gr.  ancient  wild  beast),  a 
genus  of  pachydermatous  mammalia  whose  remains 
occur  in  the  Eocene  beds  of  England  and  the  con- 
tinent. At  least  ten  species  have  been  described, 
ranging  in  size 
from  that  of  a 
sheep  to  that  of  a 
horse.  The  upper 
Eocene  gypseous 
quarries  oi  Mont- 
martre  supi)lied 
the  first  scanty 
materials,  which 
Cuvier,  by  a  series 
of  careful  and  in- 
structive induc- 
tions, built  up  into  an  animal,  whose  fidelity  to 
nature  was  afterwards  verified  by  the  discovery  of 
a  complete  series  of  fossils.  In  general  appearance 
the  PalsBotherium  resembled  the  modem  tapir,  and 
especially  in  having  the  snout  terminating  in  a  short 
proboscis.  It  had  three  toes  on  each  foot,  each 
terminated  by  a  hool — ^The  formula  of  the  teeth  is 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Hyracothere,  viz.. 


Palaeotherium. 


^  3=3' ^' PH' ^- ^ 


4-4 


»^3— 3-**» 


but  the  structure  of  the  molars  approaches  nearer 
to  the  molars  of  the  rhinoceros.  It  is  supposed 
that  animals  of  this  genus  dwelt  on  the  margins  of 
lakes  and  rivers,  and  that  their  habits  were  similar 
to  those  of  the  tapir. 

PAL.£OZO'IC   (Gr.  ancient  life),  the  name 
given  to  the  lowest  division  of  the  fossiliferoua 


PALiESTRA-PALAPTERYX 


rocks,  because  they  contain  the  earliest  forms  of 
life.  They  were  formerly,  and  are  still  generally, 
known  as  the  Primary  rocks.  The  strata  included 
und^  these  titles  are  the  Laurentian,  Cambrian, 
Silnrian,  Old  Bed  Sandstone,  Carboniferous,  and 
Pennian  systems.  Phillips,  for  the  sake  of  uni- 
foimity,  introduced  Mesozoic  as  equivalent  to 
Secondary,  and  Neozoic  to  Tertiary  rocks. 

PAL^'STRA,  a  building  for  gymnastic  sports. 

PALAFOX  Y  MELZI,  Don  Joa^  De,  Duke  of 
Saragossa,  a  Spanish  patriot,  was  bom  in  1780  of  a 
distinguished  Aragonese  famOy,  and  received  an 
excellent  education.  He  accompanied  Ferdinand 
VIL  to  Bayonne,  and  on  seeing  him  made  a  prisoner 
there,  fled  to  Saiagossa,  where  he  exerted  himself  to 
OTevent  the  invasion  of  Aragon  bv  the  French. 
His  defence  of  Saragossa  (q.  v.),  27th  July  1808 — 
2l8t  February  1809,  which  only  yielded  to  the 
French  after  a  second  investment,  is  one  of  the  most 
briliiant  and  heroic  incidents  in  modem  history,  and 
has  (inferred  lasting  glory  on  P.  and  the  whole  city. 
The  ancient  fame  of  we  Spaniards  for  obstinate  valour 
in  the  defence  of  walled  cities  was  rivalled,  if  not 
surpassed,  and  Saragossa  could  proudJly  claim  to  vie 
with  Numantia.  P.,  sick  and  exhausted,  was  taken 
piisoner  and  conveyed  by  the  ungenerous  French  to 
the  dungeons  of  Vincennes,  where  he  was  treated 
with  great  hardshipw  Released  in  1813,  he  returned 
to  Spain,  and  was  appointed  in  the  following  year 
captain-general  of  Aragon.  P.  was  no  great  politi- 
cian, but  he  loved  liber^  and  hated  anarchy,  and  on 
more  than  one  occasion  he  supported  the  former  and 
crushed  the  latter.  After  bemg  created  Duke  of 
Saragossa,  and  Grandee  of  Spain  of  the  first  class  in 
18d6,  he  kept  himself  apart  from  politics^  He  died 
at  Madrid,  16th  February  1847. 

PALAIS  KOYAL,  a  heterogeneous  mass  of 
buildings  on  the  eastern  side  of  me  Rue  Richelieu 
in  Paris,  composed  of  a  palace,  theatres,  public 
gardens,  bazaars,  shops,  caf  &,  and  restaurants.  The 
old  palace  was  built  between  1624  and  1636  on  the 
site  of  the  Hdtel  Rambouillet  by  Cardinal  Richelieu, 
who  at  his  death  bequeathed  it  to  Louis  XIIL, 
daring  whose  reign  it  was  for  a  time  occupied  by 
Henrietta  of  Fnuace,  widow  of  Charles  L  Anne  of 
Austria,  the  queen  mother,  resided  here  with  her 
voong  son,  Louis  XIV.,  till  she  was  driven  from  it 
by  the  intrigues  of  the  Fronde ;  and  after  having 
remained  many  years  unoccupied,  it  was  given  to  the 
king's  younger  brother,  Phihp  Duke  of  Orleans,  and 
thenceforth  was  regarded  as  the  town  residence  of 
the  Orleans  branch  of  the  Bourbons,  and  known  by 
its  present  name,  instead  of  its  original  title  of  Palais 
Kicmelieu.  Durins  the  minority  of  Louis  XV.  it 
acquired  a  scand^ous  notoriety  as  the  scene  of  the 
wild  orgies  in  which  the  regent,  Duke  of  Orleans, 
and  his  dissolute  partisans  were  wont  to  indulge ; 
while  in  the  time  of  his  son,  Philip{)e  £galit6,  it 
becams  the  focus  of  revolutionary  intrigue,  and 
the  refidezvons  for  political  demagogues  of  ever^ 
shade  of  opinion.  This  prince,  partly  to  repair  his 
impoverished  fortune,  anid  partly  to  persuade  the 
sans-culottes  of  Paris  of  the  sincerity  of  his  pro- 
fessed sympatiiy  with  their  striving  for  equality, 
converted  part  of  his  gardens  into  a  place  of 
public  resort^  and  the  pavilions  of  the  great  oourt 
into  bazaars,  which  were  divided  into  shops  and 
itaHs.  On  the  downfall  of  £galit6,  the  P.  K.  was 
taken  XHMsession  of  by  the  republican  government, 
and  used  for  the  sittings  of  the  tribunes  djurins  the 
Keign  of  Tenor.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bourbons, 
it  reverted  to  tiie  Orleans  family,  and  was  occupied 
bv  Louis  Philipi)e  till  his  election  to  the  throne  of 
Irance  in  1830,  when  it  was  incorporated  in  the 
general  domains  of  the  state,  and  ceased  to  be  an 


appanage  of  the  House  of  Orleans.  The  palace 
was  sacked  by  the  mob  during  the  Revolution  A 
1848,  when  many  of  its  best  painting  and  mo^t 
precious  works  of  art  were  destroyed;  and  after 
having  been  temporarily  appropriated  to  various 
public  purposes,  it  was  thoroughly  repaired  and 
magnificently  furnished,  and  given  by  the  preseufe 
emperor,  in  1855,  to  his  uncle  Jerome  Bona- 
parte, whose  son  Prince  Napoleon  now  resides 
there.  The  main  entrance,  with  its  elegant  facade, 
is  in  the  Rue  St  Honor6 ;  and  on  passing  through 
the  first  court,  the  second  or  Cour  Koyale  is 
reached,  to  the  left  of  which  stands  the  The&tre 
Frangais,  while  immediately  facing  it  is  the  cele- 
brated Galerie  Yitr§e,  or  Glass  Gallery,  which 
contains  on  the  ground  floor  some  of  the  most  bril- 
liant shops  of  Paris,  while  the  upper  stories  are 
chiefly  occupied  by  caf6s  and  restaurants.  The 
garden,  which  is  surrounded  by  this  and  other 
galleries,  measures  700  feet  by  300.  With  its  avenues 
and  parterres,  fountains  and  grass  plots,  it  still  con- 
stitutes one  of  the  liveliest  and  most  frequented  spots 
in  Paris  ;  and  although  much  of  their  old  glory  has 
faded,  its  caf 6s,  as  those  De  la  Rotonde,  De  Foi,  V  ery, 
Les  Trois  Fr^res  Provenoiux,  &c.,  yet  maintain  a 
world-wide  reputation.  The  high  premium  paid  for 
the  privilege  of  supplying  visitors  frequenting  certain 
caf6s  with  seats  ana  refreshments  in  the  garden, 
and  the  exorbitant  rents  demanded  for  shops  and 
stalls  of  every  class,  constitute  a  profitable  source  of 
revenue  to  the  governments 

PALANQUI'N,  or  PALKI,  the  vehicle  commonly 
used  in  Hindustan  by  travellers,  is  a  wooden  box, 
about  8  feet  long,  4  feet  wide,  and  4  feet  high,  with 
wooden  shutters  which  can  be  opened  or  shut  at 
pleasure,  and  constructed  like  Venetian  blinds  for 
the  purpose  of  admitting  fresh  air,  while  at  the 
same  time  they  exclude  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
sun,  and  the  heavy  showers  of  rain  so  common  in 
that  country.  The  furniture  of  the  interior  consists 
of  a  cocoa  mattress,  well  stuffed  and  covered  with 
morocco  leather,  on  which  the  traveller  reclines  ;  two 
small  bolsters  are  placed  under  his  head,  and  one 
under  his  thighs,  to  render  his  position  as  comfortable 
as  possible.  At  the  upper  end  is  a  shelf  and  drawer, 
and  at  the  sides  are  nettings  of  larger  dimensions 
than  the  ordinary  pockets  in  carriages,  for  containing 
those  articles  wmcn  may  be  necessary  to  the  traveller 
during  his  journey.  At  each  end  of  the  palan* 
quin,  on  the  outside,  two  iron  rings  are  fixea,  and 
tne  hamnuds,  or  palanquin-bearers,  of  whom  there 
are  four,  two  at  each  end,  support  the  palanquin  by  a 
pole  passing  throuch  these  nnes.  Travelling  in  this 
mode  is  continued  both  by  day  and  night.  (See 
Dawk.)  The  pal  uquin  is  also  used  at  the  present 
day  in  Brazil,  with  the  prominent  exception  of  Rio 
Janeiro. 

Similar  modes  of  travelling  have  been  at  various 
times  in  use  in  Western  Europe,  but  only  for  short 
distances.  The  Roman  '  litter,^  the  French  '  chaise  a 
porteurs,'  and  the  *  sedan-chair '  were  the  forms  of 
vehicle  most  in  use,  and  the  two  latter  were  in  general 
use  in  towns  till  they  were  superseded  by  hack- 
ney coaches.  The  Roman  'litter'  was  one  of  the 
criteria  of  its  owner's  wealth,  the  rich  man  generally 
exhibiting  the  prosperous  condition  of  his  affairs  by 
the  multitude  of  tnd  bearers  and  other  attendants 
accompanying  him. 

PALA'PTEBYX  (Gr.  ancient  apteryx),  a  genus 

of  fossil  birds  whose  remains  are  found  in  the  river* 

silt  deposits  of  New  Zealand,  associated  with  the 

gigantic  Dinomis,  and  which,  like  it,  resembled  in 

the  form  of  the  sternum,  and  the  structure  of  the 

pelvis  and  legs,  the  living  wingless  apteryx.    Two 

species  have  been  describe 

909 


PATiATE,  Tat,  forma  tbe  roof  of  the  tDoath, 
And  coneUla  of  two  portions,  the  hard  palate  in 
troat  and  tbe  ioft  palate  behind.  The  fremework 
of  the  hard  palaU  is  formed  by  the  palnto  proceaa  of 
tiie  saperior  maiillai?  bone,  and  hy  the  horizontal 
proceaB  of  the  palate  bone,  and  is  Iwunded  in  front 
and  at  the  sides  by  the  alveolar  arches  and  gunu, 
and  posteriorly  it  ia  continuous  with  the  «oft  palate. 
It  is  covered  by  a  dense  itruotoie  fonned  t>y  the 


•0(1  paUU  1  I,  T,  Ih 


periosteum  and  mucnnt  membrane  of  the  month, 
which  are  closely  adherent.  Along  the  middle  line 
IE  a  linear  ridge  or  raphe,  on  either  side  of  which  the 
mucous  membrane  is  thick,  pole,  and  cormgated, 
while  behind  it  ia  thin,  of  a  darker  tiot,  and  smooth. 
Thia  membrane  is  covered  with  scaly  epithelium, 
and  ia  fiiraiahed  with  numerous  folliclea  (the  palatal 
glands).  The  w/l  palate  ia  a  movable  fold  of 
mucous  membrane  eoclosiag  mascular  dbres,  and 
■uspended  from  the  poctcnor  border  of  the  hard 
palate  so  to  form  an  incomplete  septum  between 
the  mouth  and  the  pharynx ;  ita  aides  being 
blended  with  the  pharynx,  while  ita  lower  bolder 
is  free.  When  occu|iyiiig  ita  uaua!  poeicioo  (that  is 
to  say,  when  the  muscular  fibres  contained  in  it  ore 
relaxed),  its  anterior  surface  is  concave  ;  and  when 
it*  muscles  are  colled  into  action,  as  in  swallowine 
a  morsel  of  food,  it  ia  raised  and  mode  tense,  and 
the  food  ia  thus  prevented  from  passing  into  the 
posterior  narea,  and  ia  at  the  some  time  directed 
obbqnelj  backward*  and  downwards  into  the 
pharyox. 

Hanffing  from  the  middle  of  ita  lower  border  ia 
a  small  conical  pendulous  proceaa,  the  uniila  ;  and 
passing  outwards  from  the  uvula  on  each  side  are 
two  curved  folds  of  mucous  tnembrano  containing 
muscular  Hbres,  and  caUed  Hie  archri  or  pUlart  0/ the 
t^  palaU.    The  anterior  pillar  is  continued  down- 


wards te  the  aide  of  the  baae  of  the  tongue,  and  it 
formed  by  the  projection  of  the  p^to-gloasn* 
muscle.  The  poaturior  pUlar  ia  lareer  than  the 
anterior,  and  runs  downwards  and  backwarda  to 
the  aide  of  the  pharjrux.    The  anterior  and  poaterior 

Eillon  are  closely  united  above,  but  are  separated 
elow  by  an  angular  interval,  in  which  the  bnuil  of 
either  side  is  lodged.  Tbe  tooaila  {amygdala)  ai« 
glandular  organs  of  a  rounded  form,  which  vary 
considerably  in  size  in  different  iodividuals.  They 
ore  composed  of  an  assemblage  of  mocoos  follicles, 
which  secrete  a  thick  grayish  matter,  and  open  on 
the  surface  of  tile  gland  by  numerous  (12  to  16) 
orifice& 

The  space  left  between  the  arches  oE  the  palata 
on  the  two  aides  is  called  the  ittkmiu  of  Ott  javoa. 
It  ia  bounded  above  by  the  free  margin  of  Uu 
palate,  below  by  tbe  tongue,  and  on  each  ude  bj 
the  pillars  of  tbe  soft  palate  and  tensila. 

Aa  the  upper  lip  may  be  tisaured  through  imper- 
fect development  (in  which  caae  it  presents  tbo 
condition  known  as  hare-li;i),  so  also  may  there  be 
more  or  lees  decided  fissure  of  the  palate  In  the 
slighteet  form  of  this  affection,  the  uvula  merely  is 
iiaaured,  while  in  extreme  cases  the  cleft  extends 
through  both  the  soft  and  hard  palate  as  far 
forwaM  aa  the  line,  and  is  then  often  combined 
with  hare-lip.  When  the  tiasure  is  considerable,  it 
materially  interferes  with  the  acts  of  sucking  and 
swallowing,  and  the  infant  runs  a  great  liak  of 
bein)f  starved;  and  if  the  child  grows  up,  ite  orti- 
cnlatmn  is  painfully  indistinct.  When  the  fissure 
il  oonGned  to  the  soft  palate,  repeated  cauterisatioa 
of  the  angle  of  the  fissure  boa  been  found  suScicut 
to  effect  a  cure  by  means  of  the  oontroctian  that 
follows  each  bum.  As  a  general  rule,  however,  the 
child  is  allowed  to  reach  the  age  of  puberty  when 
the  operation  of  ttapkylorapkii  (or  suture  of  the  soft 
parts)  ia  performed— an  operation  always  difficult, 
and  not  always  succeasftil.  For  the  method  of 
performing  it,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  Practicai 
Surgery  of  Mr  Fer^^uBson,  who  has  introduced 
seTcml  most  important  modifications  into  the  old 
operation. 

Acuta  inflammation  of  tbe  tonsils,  popularly 
known   as  Qdlnsv,  is   treated  of   in   a  separata 

Chronic  enlargement  of  the  tonsils  is  very 
frequent  in  scrofulous  children,  and  is  not  rare  in 
acrofidous  peisona  of  more  advanced  age,  and  may 
give  rise  to  very  considerable  inconvenience  and 
distress.  It  may  occasion  difficulty  in  swallowing, 
confused  aod  inarticulate  speech,  deafness  in  various 
degrees  from  closure  of  the  eustachian  tubes  (now 
often  termed  throat  dca/naa),  and  noisy  and  labori- 
ous reapiration.  especially  during  sleep;  and  it  may 
even  cause  death  by  suffocation,  induced  by  th# 
entanglement  of  viscid  mucus  between  the  enliu^^ 
glands.  Iodide  of  iron  (eBi>ecially  in  the  form  of 
Blancard's  Pills)  and  cod-liver  oil  are  the  medicinea 
upon  whose  action  most  reliance  should  be  placed  in 
these  coses,  while  a  strong  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  (a  scruple  of  the  salt  to  an  ounce  of  distilled 
water),  or  some  preparation  of  io<line,  should  be 
applied  once  a  day  to  the  affected  parts.  If  thene 
fail,   the  tonsils   1      '   ' 


guUtotiiit  ^>ecially  invented 
for  the  purpose. 

Enlargement  or  relaxation  of  the  nvnla  u  not 
uncommon,  and  gives  rise  to  a  oonstant  tickling; 
cough,  and  te  expectoration,  by  the  irritetion  of  tbe 
larynx  which  it  occastona  li  it  will  not  yield  to 
astringent  or  stimulating  gargles,  or  to  the  itmnjier 
local  applications  directed  for  enlarged  tooaila,  ito 
exteemity  must  be  seized  with  Ute  lontgt,  and  it 


PALATINATE  -PALATINE 


iDiist  be  diTided  through  the  middle  with  a  pair  of 
loDgBcissora. 

PALATINATE,  a  name  applied  to  two  Grerman 
itates,  which  were  united  previously  to  the  year  1620. 
They  were  diBtinfl;uished  as  the  Upper  and  Lower 
Palatinate.  The  Upper  or  Bavarian  P.,  now  forming 
ft  circle  of  the  kingdom  of  Bavaria,  waa  a  duchy, 
and  was  hounded  Dy  Baireuth,  Bohemia^  Neubuig, 
BaTsria,  and  the  district  of  NUmberg.  Area,  27^ 
square  miles;  pop.  (1807)  2S3,800.  Amberg  was 
the  chief  city,  and  the  seat  of  government.  The 
Lower  P.,  or  the  Palatinate  on  the  Bliine,  embraced 
an  area  of  from  3045  to  3150  8<^uare  miles;  and 
consisted  of  the  electoral  P.,  the  pnncipalitv  of  Sim- 
mem,  the  duchy  of  ZweibrUcken,  the  h^df  of  the 
oonnty  of  Sponheim,  and  the  principalities  of  Bel- 
denz  and  Lautem.  For  the  area  and  population  of 
the  modem  provinces  of  the  Upper  and  Lower  P., 
see  article  Bavabia. 

The  counts  of  the  electoral  or  Rhenish  P.  were 
established  in  the  hereditary  possession  of  the  terri- 
tory of  that  name,  and  of  the  lands  attached  to  it, 
as  early  as  the  11th  century.    After  the  death  of 
Herman  III.,  the  Emperor  Friedrich  I.  assigned  the 
P.  to  Conrad  of  Swabia.    After  Conrad's  death,  his 
son-in-law,   Duke  Henry  of  Brunswick,  came,  in 
1196,  into  the  possession   of  these  lands,  but  he, 
having  been  outlawed  in  1215  by  Friedrich  XL,  was 
sacceeded  by  his  son.  Otto  III.,  Duke  of  Bavaria. 
Ladwig  IL,  or  the  Strong,  succeeded  the  preceding 
in  the  P.  in  1253,  and  was  in  turn  succeeded  in 
12d4  by  Rudolf  L,  who,  however,  was  banished  by 
his  brother,  the  Emperor  Ludwig,  because  he  had 
taken  part  with  Friedrich  of  Austria.    The  country 
was  ruled  by  his  three  sons.    Ruprecht  III.,  who 
died  in  1410,  was  a  German  emperor.    Of  his  four 
SODS,  Ludwig  III.  received  the  electoral  or  Rhenish 
P. ;  Johann,  the  Upper  P. ;  Stephan,  ZweibrUcken ; 
and  Otto,  Mosbach.    The  second  and  fourth  lines 
soon  died  out,  as  well  as  also  that  of  Ludwis  IIL, 
which  came  to  a  close  in   1559,  upon  whi(m  the 
possessions  of  that  prince,  together  with  the  elec- 
torate, passed  to  Fredrich  III.  of  the  Simmem  line. 
He  was  succeeded   by  Ludwig  IV.  in  1570,  by 
Fnednch  IV.  in  1583»  and  by  Friedrich  V.  in  1610, 
who,  after  he  accepted  the  Bohemian  crown,  was 
driven  from  his  possessions  by  the  emperor  in  1619, 
and  his  office  of  elector  was  transferred  to  Maxi- 
milian, Duke  of  Bavaria.      Karl  Ludwig,  son  of 
Friedrich  V.,  received  the  Lower  P.  at  the  peace  of 
Westphalia,  and  in  his  favour  a  new  or  eighth 
electorship  was  created.     With  his  son  Karl,  the 
Simmem  line  terminated  in  1685,  upon  which  the 
P.  fell  into  the  hands  cd  PhiUpp  Wilhelm,  count 
palatine  of  Neuburg. 

The  House  of  Neubuig  was  descended  from  Lud- 
wig the  Black,  count  palatine  in  ZweibrUcken, 
second  son  of  Stephan,  count  palatine  in  Simmem. 
Wolfgang,  a  descendant  of  Ludwig's,  was  the 
founder  of  all  the  other  lines  of  counts  palatine.  Of 
bis  three  sons,  Johann  founded  the  hue  of  Neu- 
Zweibriicken,  Ksil  the  Birkenfeld  line,  Philipp  Lud- 
wig the  Neuburg  line.  Philipp  Ludwig  had  three 
eons,  Wolfgang  Wilhelm,  August,  and  Johann  Fried- 
rich. The  first  founded  uie  Neuburc  line,  the 
second  the  Sulzbach  line,  the  third  di^  childless. 
The  son  of  Wolfgang  Wilhelm  died  in  1690.  His 
son,  Johann  Wilhelm,  became  heir  to  the  Beldenz 
hue  in  1694.  He  was  succeeded  bv  his  brother, 
Kari  Philipp,  who  in  turn  was  succeeded  in  1742  by 
Kari  Theodor,  from  the  Sulzbach  line,  who  united 
the  Bavarian  territories  with  the  Palatinate.  Duke 
Maximilian  of  ZweibrUcken  next  succeeded  in  1799, 
who  at  the  peace  of  Luneville  (1801)  was  com- 
pelled to  cede  a  portion  of  the  Rhenish  P.  to  France, 
a  part  to  Baden,  a  part  to  Hesse-Damistadt,  and  a 


part  to  Nassau.  Treaties  of  Paris  of  1814  and  1815 
re-assigned  the  Palatinate  lands  beyond  the  Rhine 
to  Germany,  Bavaria  receiving  the  largest  share,  and 
the  remainder  being  divided  between  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt and  Prussiai 

PA'LATINE  (from  Lat  pdlatium,  a  palace).  A 
Come8  Palatinu8,  or  Count  Palatine,  was,  under  the 
Merovinsian  kings  of  France,  a  high  judicial  officer, 
who  had  suoreme  authority  in  all  causes  thai 
came  under  tne  immediate  cognizance  of  the  sove* 
reiffn.  After  the  time  of  Clukrlemagne,  a  similar 
title  was  given  to  any  powerful  feudal  lord,  to 
whom  a  province,  generally  near  the  frontier,  was 
made  over  with  jura  regalia,  or  judicial  powers, 
similar  to  what  the  counts  palatine  had  received 
in  the  palace,  and  the  district  so  governed  waa 
called  a  palatinate  or  county  palatine.  There  were 
three  oounties  palatine  in  £ngland — ^Lancaster, 
Chester,  and  Durham — which  Vere,  no  doubt, 
made  separate  regalities  on  account  of  their  respec- 
tive  proximity  to  the  frontier  of  Wales  and  to 
that  turbulent  Northumbrian  province  which  could 
neither  be  accounted  a  portion  of  England  nor 
of  Scotland.  In  virtue  oi  their  regal  rights,  the 
counts  palatine  had  their  courts  of  law,  appointed 
their  judges  and  law  officers,  and  could  pardon 
treasons,  murders,  and  felonies ;  all  writs  and  judi- 
cial process  proceeded  in  their  names,  and  the  king's 
writs  were  of  no  avail  witiiin  the  bounds  of  the  pam- 
tinate.  Lancaster  seems  to  have  been  maae  a 
county  palatine  bv  Edward  III.  Henry,  first  Duke, 
and  John,  second  Duke  of  Lancaster,  were  both 
invested  by  him  with  the  dijmity  of  count  palatine. 
Henry  VL  was  hereditarily  Duke  and  Count  Pala- 
tine of  Lancaster,  and  on  his  attainder,  soon  after 
Edward  IV. 's  accession,  the  duchy  and  countv  were 
forfeited  to  the  crown,  and  connrmed  on  Edward 
IV. — afterwards  on  Henry  VII.  and  his  heirs  for 
ever.  The  Queen  is  now  Duchess  and  Countess 
Palatine  of  Lancaster.  There  is  still  a  chancellor  of 
the  duchy  and  county  palatine,  whose  duties  are 
few  and  unimportant,  but  the  administration  of 
justice  has  gradually  been  assimilated  to  that  of  the 
rest  of  England.  See  La.ncasteb.  Chester  is  sup- 
posed to  have  become  a  countv  palatine  when  made 
over  with  regal  jurisdiction  by  William  the  Con- 
queror to  Hugues  d'Avranches.  In  the  reign  of 
Henry  III.  it  was  annexed  to  the  crown  by  letters 
patent,  and  since  that  time  the  earldom  palatine  of 
Chester  has  been  vested  in  the  eldest  son  of  the 
sovereign,  or  in  the  crown,  whenever  there  is  no 
Prince  of  Wales.  Durham  seems  to  have  first 
become  a  palatinate  when  William  the  Conqueror 
constituted  Bishop  Walcher  Bishop  and  Diike  of 
Durham,  with  power  (according  to  William  of 
Malmesbury)  to  restrain  the  rebeUious  people  with 
the  sword,  and  reform  their  morals  with  his  elo- 
quence. The  Palatinate  jurisdiction  continued  united 
with  the  bishopric  till  1836,  when  it  was  separated 
hy  act  of  parliament,  and  vested  in  WiUiam  IV.  and 
his  successors  as  a  franchise  distinct  from  the  crown, 
together  with  aU  forfeitures,  mines,  and  ^ura  regalicu 
It  has  since  been  more  completely  incorporated  with 
the  crown.  Pembroke  was  at  one  time  a  county 
palatine,  but  ceased  to  be  so  in  Henry  VIII.^ 
time.  The  Archbishop  of  York  also  exercised 
the  powers  of  a  palatine  in  the  county  of  Hexham 
in  Northumberland,  of  which  he  was  deprived  in 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth.  In  very  early  times  there 
were  a  number  of  similar  privileges  in  Scotland, 
the  most  important  of  which  was  toat  of  the  Earls 
PaJatine  of  Stratheam.  In  Germany,  the  P/cUz- 
groj,  or  count  palatine,  exercised  a  jurisdiction 
much  more  extensive  than  the  simple  Graf  or 
oount.  A  considerable  district  in  Germany  was 
long  under  the  jurisdiction  of  a  oount  palatine^ 

S07 


PALATINE  HILL-PALEMBANG. 


who  was  one  of  the  electon  of  the  empire.     See 
Palatinate. 

PALATINE  HILL  {Mona  PakUinua),  the 
central  hill  of  the  famouB  seven  on  which  ancient 
Rome  was  bnilt,  and,  according  to  tradition,  the 
seat  of  the  earliest  Roman  setQementa.  In  point 
of  hifi^rical  interest,  it  ranks  next  to  the  Capitol 
and  the  Forum.  Its  summit  is  about  160  feet  aoove 
the  sea.  The  form  of  the  hill  is  irregularly  quad- 
rangular. Its  north-western  slope,  towaros  the 
Capitoline  Hill  and  the  Tiber,  was  called  Germalus 
or  Germalus.  The  origin  of  the  name  is  uncertain, 
although  several  derivations  are  given  connecting  it 
with  legendary  stories.  Romulus  is  said  to  have 
founded  the  city  upon  this  hill,  and  on  Germalus 
grew  the  sacred  fig-tree  (near  to  the  Lupercal)  under 
which  he  and  his  brother,  Remus,  were  found 
sucking  the  she-wolf.  Upon  the  P.  H.  were  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  StcUor,  the  temple  of  Cvbele^  the 
sacred  square  enclosure  called  Boma  QuadrcUOf  and 
other  sacred  places  and  edifices,  besides  man^  of  the 
finest  houses  m  Romei  Augustus  and  Tiberius  had 
their  residences  here,  whence  Tacitus  termed  it 
ipsa  imperii  arx  (the  very  citadel  of  government) ; 
and  at  last  Nero  included  it  entirely  within  the 
precincts  of  his  aurea  domus,  which  Vespasian  sub- 
sequently restricted  to  the  biU.  From  the  time  of 
Alexander  Severus  it  ceased  to  be  the  residence  of 
the  emperors,  but  the  naxae  palace  (paUUium),  derived 
from  it,  was  given  to  the  abodes  of  sovereigns  and 
great  princes,  and  has  been  adopted  into  modem 
umguages.  The  ruins,  or  rather  tne  rubbish  of  the 
palace,  and  of  numerous  ancient  edifices,  are  still 
strewn  over  its  surface,  which  is  clothed  with  vine- 
yards and  orchards. 

PALAWA'N,  or  PARAGOA,  one  of  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  (q.  v.). 

PALE,  in  Heraldry,  one  of  the  figures  known  as 
ordinaries,  consisting  of  a  horizontol  band  in  the 
middle  of  the  shield,  of  which  it  is  said  to  occupy 
one-third  (No.  1).  Several  charges  of  any  kind  axe 
said  to  be  *  in  pale '  when  they  stand  over  each 
other  horizontally,  as  do  the  three  lions  of  England. 
A  shield  divided  through  the  middle  bya  horizontal 
line  is  said  to  be  '  parted  per  pale.'  The  Pallet  is 
the  diminutive  of  the  pale,  and  is  most  generally 
not  borne  sinely.  No.  2,  Or  three  pallets  gmes,  were 
the  arms  of  Raymond,  Count  of  Provence.  When 
the  field  is  divided  into  an  even  number  of  parts  by 
perpendicular  lines,  it  is  called  '  paly  of '  so  many 


pieces,  as  in  No.  3,  Palv  of  six  argent  and  gules, 
the  arms  of  the  family  oi  Ruthven.  When  divided 
by  lines  perpendicular  and  bendways  crossing,  it  is 
called  paly  oendy,  as  in  No.  4.  An  Endorse  is  a 
further  diminutive  of  the  pallet,  and  a  pale  placed 
between  two  endorses  is  said  to  be  endorsed  (No.  5). 

PALE,  in  Irish  history  (see  Ireland,  Hibtort), 
means  that  portion  of  the  kingdom  over  which  the 
English  rule  and  English  law  was  acknowledged. 
There  is  so  much  vagueness  in  the  meaning  of  tiie 
term,  that  a  few  woras  of  explanation  appear  neces- 
sary. The  vagueness  arises  from  the  great  fluctua- 
tions which  vie  English  authority  underwent  in 
Ireland  at  various  periods,  and  from  the  consequent 
fluctuation  of  the  actual  territorial  limits  oi  the 
Pale.  The  designation  dates  from  the  reign  of  John, 

who  distribute  the  portion  of  Irdand  then  nom- 
S08 


inally  subject  to  England  into  twelve  counties 
palatine,  Dublin,  Meath,  Kildare,  Louth,  Carlow, 
Kilkenny,  Wexford,  Waterford,  Cork,  Kerry,  Tip- 
perary,  and  Limerick.  To  this  entire  district,  in  a 
general  way,  was  afterwards  given  the  designation 
of  the  Pale.  But  as  it  may  be  said  that  the  term  is 
commonly  applied  by  the  writers  of  each  a^e  to  the 
actual  Englisn  territory  of  the  period,  and  as  thii 
varied  very  much,  care  must  be  taken  to  allude  to 
the  age  of  which  the  name  Pale  is  used.  Thus,  very 
soon  after  the  important  date  of  the  Statute  of 
Kilkenny,  at  the  close  of  the  reign  of  Edward  IIL, 
the  English  law  extended  only  to  the  four  counties 
of  Dublin,  Carlow,  Meath,  and  Louth.  In  the  reign 
of  Henry  VL,  the  limits  were  still  further  restricted. 
In  a  general  way,  however,  the  Pale  m&Y  be  con- 
sidered as  comprising  the  counties  of  Dublin,  Meath, 
Carlow,  Kilkennv,  and  Louth.  This,  although  not 
quite  exact,  will  be  sufficient  for  most  purposes. 

PA'LEA  (Lat  chaff),  a  term  employed  in  Botany 
to  designate  the  bracte  of  the  florets  in  Grasses 
(q.  v.),  called  corolla  by  the  older  botanists ;  also  to 
designate  the  small  bracte  or  scales  which  are 
attached  to  the  receptacle  of  the  head  of  flowers  in 
many  of  the  ComposUa  (q.  v.).  Any  part  of  a  plant 
covered  with  chaify  scales  is  descril>ed  as  pal^ueous, 

PALEMBA'NG,  formerly  an  independent  Idng- 
dom  on  the  east  coast  of  Sumatra,  now  a  Netherlands 
residency,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Djambi,  N.W. 
by  Bencoolen,  S.  by  the  Lampong  districts,  and  S.R 
by  the  Strait  of  Bimca,  has  an  area  of  28,140  square 
miles ;  and  a  population  amounting,  in  1860,  to 
378,225  souls.  Much  of  the  land  is  low-lying 
swamp,  covered  with  a  wilderness  of  impenetrable 
bush ;  but  in  the  south  it  rises  into  mountains,  of 
which  Oeloe  Moesi  is  6180  feet  in  height.  Gold-dust^ 
iron-ore,  sulphur  with  arsenic,  lignite,  and  common 
coal  are  found ;  also  days  suited  for  making  coarse 
pottery,  ftc.  Spring  of  pure  oil  occur  near  the  coal- 
nelds  of  Bali  Boekit,  and  of  mineral  water  in  various 
places.  Rice,  cotton,  sugar,  pepper,  tobacco,  and,  in 
the  interior,  cocoa-nute  are  grown ;  the  foresto  pro- 
ducing gutta-percha,  sum-elastic,  ratans,  wax,  ben- 
zoin, satin-wood,  &c.  The  rivers  abound  with  tish ; 
and  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  tiger,  panther,  and 
leopard  roam  the  woods,  as  well  as  the  deer,  wild 
swme,  and  goats,  with  many  varieties  of  the  monkey. 

In  the  dry  season  the  thermometer  Tanges  from 
80°  to  92"  F.,  and  in  the  rainy  season,  W  Xo  9fr  i 
but  the  climate  is  not  considered  unhealthy,  except 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  swampa  The  natives 
are  descended  from  Javanese,  who  m  the  16th  c.,  or 
earlier,  settled  in  P.,  and  ruled  over  the  whole  land. 
The  race,  however,  has  become  mixed  with  other 
Malays,  and  the  language  has  lost  ite  purity.  In 
the  north-west  interior  is  a  tribe  caJled  the  Koeboea 
(Ktlbfls),  of  whose  origin  nothing  is  known,  but  who 
are  probably  the  remainder  of  the  aborigines. 
They  do  not  follow  after  apiculture,  go  about  almost 
naked,  and  live  chiefly  oy  fishing  and  hunting. 
No  idea  of  a  Supreme  Being  seems  to  be  possessed 
by  them,  though  they  beheve  in  existence  after 
death. 

PALEMBANG,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  and 
residency,  is  62  miles  from  the  Soensang,  or  prin- 
cipal mouth  of  the  river  Moesi,  in  2''  59^  8.  lat., 
and  104*^  44'  E.  long.  The  dty  is  biult  on  both 
banks  of  the  Moesi,  and  other  streams  which  fall 
into  it»  and  is  five  miles  in  length  by  half  a 
mile  in  breadth.  The  river  is  upwards  of  1000 
feet  broad,  and  from  40  to  60  feet  in  depth,  so 
that  the  largest  vessels  can  sail  up  to  the  harbour. 
The  native  houses  are  raised  on  posts,  and  neatly 
constructed  of  planks  or  bamboos ;  the  Chinese, 
Arabians,  and  Europeans,  chiefly  Uving  in  floating 


'zrjT 


PALENCIA-  PALERMO. 


homes  called  rakits,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of 
600,  and  holding  commuuijation  with  one  another 
and  with  the  natives  hy  hoata.  The  fort  is  built  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river,  and  beiiind  it  are  an 
institution  for  the  blind  and  a  splenu.d  mosque. 
There  is  a  school,  where  30  £u]x>pean  childicn  are 
educated,  a  government  elementary  school  for 
natives,  and  several  good  Chinese  schools.  Many 
of  the  natives  can  read  and  write,  and  in  1856  a 
native  printing-press  was  erected  by  Kemas  Moha- 
Bed  AsaheL 

The  inland  trade  is  considerable,  boats  from  P. 
sxchanginff  salt,  cotton  jB;oods,  iron,  and  copper 
wares,  earthenware,  provisions,  ftc.,  for  the  produce 
of  the  land.  In  185)5,  the  number  of  boats  which 
arrived  from  the  interior  amounted  to  22,903,  about 
a  half  fewer  than  the  previous  year,  brinj^ng  90,830 
ptcols  of  rice,  the  picol  being  nearly  133  lbs. ;  32,383 
of  padi;  2344^  of  benzoin;  40574  ^^  gum-elastic; 
2245  of  gutta-percha;  33,697  of  raw  cotton ;  54,436 
bundles  of  ratans,  &c  The  foreign  trade  is  large, 
and  chiefly  carried  on  with  Java,  Banca,  Singapore, 
China,  and  Siam.  In  1859,  the  imports  from  Java 
alone  had  a  value  of  £172,091  sterling ;  the  exports 
thither,  £75,337.  The  natives  of  P.  are  good  ivory 
carvers,  gold  and  silver  smiths,  jewellers,  cutlers, 
japanners,  painters,  boat-builders,  bookbinders,  &c., 
and  expert  at  all  the  ordinary  handicrafts.  The 
women,  in  addition  to  cotton  fabrics,  spinning,  and 
dyeing,  weave  silk  stuffs  embroidered  with  gold. 
Pop.  44,000,  of  whom  100  are  Europeans,  3000 
Chinese,  and  2000  Arabians. 

PAIiE'NCIA  (the  ancient  PaUantia),  a  city  of 
Spain,  in  Old  Castile,  capital  of  the  modem  province 
of  the  same  name,  stands  in  a  treeless,  but  weU- 
watered  and  fruitful  plain,  on  the  Carrion,  30  miles 
north-east  of  Valladohd.  It  is  a  bishop^s  see,  and  is 
surrounded  by  old  walls,  36  feet  hign  and  9  feet 
thick,  around  which  are  pleasant  promenades.  The 
cathedral,  a  li^t  and  elegant  Grothio  edifice,  was 
built  1321 — 1504.  The  lirat  university  founded  in 
Castile  was  built  here  in  the  10th  c,  but  was 
removed  to  Salamanca  in  1239.  Nearly  one-third 
of  the  population  is  employed  in  the  manufacture 
of  blanKets  and  coarse  woollen  cloths.  The  posi- 
tion of  the  town  on  the  Carrion,  and  on  the  Castdian 
Canal,  is  favourable  to  the  development  of  com- 
merce. The  vine  is  cultivated,  and  there  is  a  good 
trade  in  wool    Pop.  12,811. 

PAIiE'KQU^  RuTNS  OF,  are  on  the  Bio  Chaca- 
mas,  a  branch  of  the  river  Usumasinta,  in  the  state 
of  Chiapas,  Mexico,  8  miles  south-east  of  the  village 
of  Santo  Dominffo  de  Palenque,  lat.  IT  ^  N.,  long. 
92*  25'  W.  The  ruins  extend  over  a  large  area, 
covered  with  a  dense  tropical  forest,  and  are  of 
difficult  exploration.  They  consist  of  vast  artificial 
terraces,  or  terraced  truncated  pyramids,  of  cut  stone, 
surmounted  by  edifices  of  peculiar  and  solid  archi- 
tecture, also  of  cut  stone,  covered  with  figures  in 
relief,  or  figures  and  hieroglyphics  in  stucco,  with 
remains  of  brilliant  colours.  Most  of  the  buildings 
are  of  one  story,  but  a  few  are  two,  three,  and  some 
may  have  been  four  stories.  The  principal  structure, 
known  as  the  Palace,  is  228  feet  long,  180  feet 
deep,  and  25  feet  high,  standing  on  a  terraced 
truncated  pyramid  of  correspondine  dimensions.  It 
was  faced  witii  cut  stone,  cemented  with  mortar  of 
lime  and  sand,  and  the  front  covered  with  stucco 
and  painted.  A  corridor  runs  around  the  building, 
•pening  into  four  interior  courts,  which  open  ioto 
many  smaller  rooms.  On  slabs  o€  stone  are  carved 
Bomerous  colossal  figures,  and  the  remains  of 
statues  more  resemble  Grecian  than  Eiryptian  or 
Hindu  art  Other  B|)acious  and  elaborately  orna- 
lied  bnildingn  appear  to  have  been  temples  of 


religion.  These  ruins  were  in  the  same  conditioi 
when  Cortez  conquered  Mexico,  as  now,  over- 
grown with  a  forest,  and  their  site  forgotten.  They 
were  only  discovered  in  1750l  Three  explorations 
were  made  by  the  Spanish  government,  but  they 
were  little  known  until  visited  by  Messrs  J.  L. 
Stephens  and  F.  Catherwood,  and  their  account 
published  with  plans  and  drawings.  See  Stephens's 
Incidents  of  Travel  in  Central  America,  ^c.,  and 
Catherwood's  Views  of  AnderU  Monumenia  of  Central 
America^  &c.  There  are  in  Mexico  dim  traditions 
of  the  existence,  at  a  remote  period,  of  the  capital 
of  a  theocratic  state,  the  centre  of  a  long  since 
extinguished  civilisation,  of  which  the  only  traces 
are  tnese  wonderful  ruins  and  unexplained  hiero- 
glyphics. ^ 

PALE'RMO,  an  arohiepiscopiU  city,  important 
seaport,  and  the  capital  of  the  island  of  Sicily; 
capital  also  of  the  province  of  the  same  name,  and 
(according  to  the  latest  official  statistics)  after 
Naples,  tiie  most  populous  city  in  the  Italian 
dominions;  is  situated,  on  the  nortii  coast  of  the 
island,  135  miles  by  water  west  of  Messina.  Lat^ 
38"  6'  N.,  long.  13"  20^  E.  It  stands  in  a  highly- 
cultivated  and  fertile  plain  called  La  Conca  ctOro 
(The  Golden  Shell),  commands  a  beautiful  view  of 
the  Gulf  of  Palermo  on  which  it  stands,  and  is 
backed  toward  the  interior  by  ridges  of  mountains. 
In  shape  the  town  is  an  oblong  parallelogram,  the 
direction  of  its  len^h  being  from  south-west  to 
north-east  It  is  divided  into  four  quadrangular 
parts  by  two  great  streets,  the  beautiful  Via 
Vittorio  Emanuele,  formerly  the  Via  Toledo  or 
Cassaro^  and  the  Strada  Nuova  or  Macgueda^ 
which  cross  each  other  at  right  angles  in  the 
middle  of  the  citjr.  It  is  upwards  of  four  miles 
in  circumference,  is  surrounded  bv  walls  pierced 
with  12  gates  and  flanked  with  bastions,  and  is 
defended  oy  several  batteries.  The  houses  are 
balconied,  flat  roofed,  and  have  glass  doors  instead 
of  windows.  The  streets,  besides  the  two  main 
thoroughfares  already  mentioned,  are  generally  well 
laid  out,  and  there  are  several  fine  promenaaes,  of 
which  the  famous  Marina,  extending  along  the 
shore,  on  the  line  of  the  ancient  fortincations,  and 
bordered  by  the  palaces  of  the  nobles,  is  the  most 
magnificent  P.  contains  295  churches,  almost  idl 
of  them  rich  in  decorations  and  works  of  art,  38 
monasteries,  and  25  convents.  At  the  intersection 
of  the  two  principal  streets  there  is  a  large  octag- 
onal space  or  Piazza,  lined  with  palaces,  and  adorned 
with  statues  and  marble  fountains.  The  royal 
palace  is  a  huge  pile  of  buildings,  with  a  splendid 
chapel,  built  in  1129,  and  contains  many  pillars  of 
rare  workmanship  and  rich  mosaics  with  Arabic 
inscriptions.  The  cathedral  is  a  fine  edifice,  origin- 
ally Gothic,  but  to  which  incongruous  Greek  addi- 
tions have  been  made,  is  adorned  with  marble 
columns  and  statues,  and  contains  monuments  of  the 
Emperor  Frederick  IL  and  of  King  Koger,  the 
founder  of  the  Norman  monarchy  in  Sicily.  Among 
the  principal  public  institutions  of  P.  are  the  univer- 
sity, attended  in  1861  by  603  students ;  an  academy 
of  arts  and  sciences,  a  medical  academy,  an  institu- 
tion for  arts  and  antiquities,  a  beautiful  and  exten- 
sive public  garden,  public  libraries,  theatres,  &c  P. 
is  an  archbishop's  see,  the  residence  of  the  governor 
of  the  island,  and  the  seat  of  the  supreme  courts.. 
Manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  oil-cloth,  leather,, 
gloves,  &c,  are  carried  on.  The  harbour  is  formed 
by  a  mole,  1300  feet  in  length,  on  which  there  is  a. 
light-house  and  battery.  In  1862,  5559  vessels  of 
761,702  tons  entered  and  cleared  the  port,  and  ia 
the  same  year  the  imports  amounted  to  £1,078,840^. 
and  the  exports  to  £1,748,480.  The  climate  of  P. 
is  one  of  the  most  delightful  in  Europe,  being  mild' 


PALERMO  -PALESTINR 


in  winter,  and  pleasantly  tempered  by  sea-breezes 
in  the  hot  season.    Pop.  (1864)  187,182. 

The  enyirons  of  P.  are  interesting  as  well  as 
picturdsque,  and  embrace  many  pleasant  villas  and 
noble  mansions.  North-west  of  the  oity  is  Monte 
Pellegrino,  the  Eircte  of  the  ancients,  an  abrupt 
rocky  mass,  in  which  there  is  a  grotto  or  cave, 
in  which  Santa  Bosalia,  a  young  Norman  prin- 
cess, lived  a  life  of  religious  retirement.  In  P., 
Santa  Rosalia  is  esteemed  more  highly  than  even 
Santa  Maria ;  the  festival  in  her  honour  lasts 
from  the  9th  to  the  13th  July,  and  is  the  most 
imi)ortant  festival  held  on  the  island.  During  its 
celebration  the  city  is  illuminated,  the  streets  are 
gay  and  brilliant,  and  there  is  an  immense  influx  of 
strangers  from  the  vicinity.  But  the  chief  feature 
of  the  festival  is  the  procession  to  the  cave.  An 
immenso  silver  imaee  of  the  saint  is  borne  thither 
on  a  w^on,  70  feet  lon^,  30  feet  broad,  and  80  feet 
high.  Its  form  resembles  that  of  a  Roman  galley. 
With  seats  for  a  choir.  The  wagon  is  drawn  by  56 
mules,  driven  by  28  postilions  covered  with  the 
gayest  trappings. 

P.,  the  ancient  Panormu»^  was  orisinally  a  Phos- 
nician  colony,  but  had  become  a  dependency  of 
Carthage  before  the  name  occurs  in  history,  with 
the  exception  of  a  short  time  about  276  B.a,  when 
it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Greeks,  it  continued  to 
be  the  head-quarters  of  the  Carthaginian  power  in 
Sicily,  until  it  was  taken  by  the  Romans  during  the 
First  Punic  War  (254  b.  a),  when  it  became  one  of 
the  principal  naval  stations  of  the  Romans.  The 
name  Panormus  is  derived  from  the  excellent 
anchorage  (Gr.  hormoB)  in  the  bay  ;  but  the  Phceni- 
dan  name  found  on  coins  is  Machanalhy  meaning 
'  a  camp.*  The  Vandals,  and  afterwards  the  Arabs, 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  island,  and  after  the 
Norman  Conquest  it  continued  to  be  the  seat  of  the 
kins  of  Sicily.  It  still  remained  the  royal  residence 
an£r  the  Ara^nese  kings ;  but  the  court  was 
removed  after  Sicily  became  united  to  the  Kingdom 
of  Naples.    See  Sicily. 

PALESTINE  (PahEgtina,  PhilisHa),  or  the 
HOLY  LAND,  a  country  of  South- Western  Asia, 
comprising  the  southern  portion  of  Syria,  and 
bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Mediterranean,  R  by 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan,  N.  bv  the  mountain-ranges 
of  the  Lebanon  and  the  glen  ol  the  Lit&ny  (Leontes), 
and  S.  by  the  Desert  of  Sinai ;  lat.  3r  16'— 33'  20' 
N.,  long.  34''  30'— 35°  30'  E.  Within  these  narrow 
limits,  not  more  than  145  miles  in  length  by  45  in 
average  breadth— an  area  less  than  that  of  the  prin- 
cipality of  Wales — is  comprised  the  *Land  of  Israel ' 
or  *  Canaan,*  the  arena  of  the  greatest  events  in  the 
world's  history.  The  principsd  physical  features  of 
P.  are,  (1)  a  central  plateau  or  table-land,  with  a 
mean  height  of  1600  feet,  covered  with  an  agglomer- 
ation of  hills,  which  extend  from  the  roots  of  the 
Lebanon  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  country ; 
(2)  the  Jordan  valley  and  its  lakes ;  and  (3)  the 
maritime  plain,  and  the  plains  of  EsdraSlon  and 
Jericho.  On  the  east,  the  descent  from  the  central 
vlateau  is  steep  and  rugged,  from  Lake  Huleh  to  the 
i)ead  Sea.  On  the  west,  it  is  more  gentle,  but  still 
well  marked,  towards  the  plains  of  Philistia  and 
"Sharon.     The  ascertained  altitudes  on  this  plateau, 

Sroceeding  from  south  to  north,  are  Hebron,  3029 ; 
erusalem,  2610 ;  Mount  of  Olives,  2724;  Mount  G«ri- 
zim,2700;  Mount  Tabor,  1900;  Safed,  2775  feet  above 
the  sea.  Nearly  on  the  parallel  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee, 
the  range  of  Carmel  extends  from  the  central  plateau 
north-west  to  the  Mediterranean,  where  it  termi- 
nates abruptly  in  a  promontory  surmounted  by  a 
oonvent.  It  rises  from  600  feet  in  the  west,  to  1600 
feet  in  the  east,  and  is  composed  of  a  soft  white 
limestone,  with  many  caverns.  Beyond  the  boun- 
SlO 


dary  of  P.  on  the  north,  bat  visible  from  the  greater 
part  of  the  country,  Monnt  Hermon  rises  to  9381 
leet,  and  is  always  snow-clad.  From  the  formation 
of  the  central  plateau,  the  drainage  is  nearly  always 
east  and  west,  to  the  Jordan  and  the  MediterraneaiL 
The  streams  of  the  plateau  are  insignificant,  and 
generally  dry  in  summer. 

The  geological  formation  of  the  country  consists 
of  Jurassic  and  cretaceous  limestone,  often  coTered 
with  chalk,  and  rich  in  flints,  with  occasional  inter- 
ruptions of  tertiary,  basaltic,  and  trappean  deposits. 
The  upper  strata  consist  of  limestone  of  a  white  or 
pale-brown  colour,  containing  few  fossils,  but  aboond- 
mg  in  caverns,  which  form  one  of  the  peculiarities  of 
the  country.  The  general  features  of  the  landscape 
exhibit  soft  rounded  hills,  separated  by  narrow 
glens  or  valleys  of  denudation  ;  the  strata  are 
occasionally  level,  but  more  frequeni^  violentiy 
contorted,  as  seen  on  the  route  from  Jerusalem  to 
Jericho,  where  the  fissures  are  often  1000  feet  deep, 
and  only  30  or  40  feet  wide.  Ironstone  occurs  m 
small  quantities ;  rock-salt,  asphaltum,  and  sulphur 
abouna  near  the  Dead  Sea,  wnere,  as  also  near  the 
Sea  of  GaUlee,  there  are  many  hot  springs.  Vol- 
canic agency  is  evident  in  the  obtruded  lava  of 
former  ases,  and  in  frequent  earthquakes  of  modem 
times,  liie  vast  crevasse  through  which  the  Jordan 
flows,  and  which  cleaves  the  land  from  north  to 
south,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  fissures  on  the 
surface  of  the  globe  ;  it  is  from  5  to  12  miles  wide, 
and  of  the  extraordinary  depth  of  2630  feet  at  the 
bottom  of  the  Dead  Sea.  ThroujB;h  this  the  river 
descends  at  the  rate  of  11  feet  in  a  mile,  with  a 
course  so  tortuous  that  it  travels  132  miles  in  a 
direct  distance  of  64,  between  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
and  the  Dead  Sea.  It  is  the  only  perennial  river  of 
P.,  except  the  Kishon,  which  is  permanent  onlv  in 
its  lower  course,  and  the  Lit&nv  on  its  norwem 
border.  See  Jordan.  The  only  lakes  of  P.  are  in 
the  valley  of  the  Jordan.  See  GENNBSAREr,  Sejl  or, 
and  Dead  Sea. 

The  plain  of  Philistia  extends  from  the  coast  to 
the  first  rising  ground  of  Judab,  about  15  miles 
in  average  width;  the  soil  is  a  rich  brown  loam, 
almost  without  a  stone.    It  is  in  many  parts  per- 
fectly level ;  in  others  undulating,  with  mounds  or 
hillocks.    The  towns  of  Gaza  and  Ashdod,  near  the 
sea,  are  surrounded  by  groves  of  olives,  sycamores, 
and  palms.    This  plain  is  still,  as  it  always  was,  a 
vast  corn-field,  an  ocean  of  wheat,  without  a  break 
or  fence ;  its  marvellous  fertility  has  produced  the 
same  succession  of  crops,  year  after  year,  for  forty 
centuries  without  artificial  aid.   The  plain  of  Shsiron 
is  about  10  miles  wide  in  the  south,  narrowing 
towards  the  north,  till  it  is  terminated  by   the 
buttress  of  Carmel.  Its  nndulatin^  surface  is  crossed 
by  several  streams ;  the  soil  is  nch,  and  capable  of 
producing  enormous  crops ;  but  only  a  small  portioift 
of  it  near  Jaffa  is  cultivated,  and  it  is  rapidly  being 
encroached  on  by  the  sea  sand,   which,  between 
Jaffa  and  Ciesarea,  extends  to  a  width  of  3  milea 
and  a  height  of  300  feet.    The  famous  ancient  cities 
of  this  region,  Csesarea,  Diospolia,  and  Antipatria, 
have  vanished.    Jaffa  (Joppa)  alone  remains,  sup- 
ported by  travellers  and  pilgrims  from  the  west  on 
the  way  to  Jerusalem.   The  great  plain  of  EsdraSlon, 
or  Jezreel,  extends  across  the  centre  of  the  country 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan,  separating 
the  mountain-ranges  of  Carmel  and  Samaria  from 
those  of  Galilee.     Its  surface  is  drained  by  the 
Kishon,  which  flows  west  to  the  Mediterranean  at 
Haifa.     The  plain  is  surroimded  by  the  hUla   of 
Gilboa  and  Little  Hermon ;  the  isolated  Mount  Tabor 
rises  on  its  north-east  side.    It  is  extremely  fertile 
in  grain  where  cultivated,  and  covered  with  gigantic 
thistles  where   neglected.     It  is   richest   in    '* 


PALESTINE-PALESTRINA. 


oentral  paii»  which  slopes  east  to  the  Jordan — the 
hattle-field  where  Giaeon  triumphed,  and  Saul 
and  Jonathan  were  overthown.  It  is  the  home  of 
wandering  Bedonins,  who  camp  in  its  fields,  and 
enllop  over  its  green-sward  in  search  of  plunder. 
Many  pfauses  of  deep  historical  interest  are  connected 
with  this  plain.  Shunem,  Nain,  Endor,  Jezreel, 
Gilboa,  Bethshan,  Nazareth,  and  Tabor  are  all  in  its 
vicinity.  The  plain  of  Jericho  is  a  vast  level 
expanse,  covered  with  the  richest  soil,  now  quite 
n^lected.  Around  the  site  of  Jericho,  *  the  city  of 
p^n^treee,*  there  is  not  now  a  single  palm ;  but  a 
recent  experiment  proved  its  capability  of  producing 
in  abtmdance  all  the  crom  for  which  it  was  formerly 
famoua  The  climate  of  1*.  is  very  varied;  January  is 
tiie  coldest  and  July  the  hottest  month.  The  mean 
anntud  temperature  of  the  year  at  Jerusalem  is  65*" 
Fahr.,  resemblingthat  of  Madeira,  the  Bermudas, 
and  (California.  The  extreme  heat  of  the  summer 
months  is  modified  by  sea-breezes  from  the  north- 
west. In  the  plain  of  Jericho  and  the  Jordan 
valley  it  is  extremely  hot  and  relaxing.  The  drocco, 
a  south-east  wind,  is  often  oppressive  in  early  sum- 
mer. Snow  falls  in  the  uplands  in  January  and 
February,  and  thin  ice  is  often  found  at  Jerusalem, 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  61  inches.  Heavy  dews 
fall  in  summer,  and  the  nights  are  cold.  Violent 
thunder-storms  occur  in  winter.  In  the  south, 
Judah  and  part  of  Benjamin,  is  a  dry  parched  land ; 
the  bare  limestone  rock  is  covered  here  and  there 
with  a  scanty  soil,  and  the  vast  remains  of  terraces 
shew  how  assiduously  it  must  have  been  cultivated 
in  ancient  times  to  support  the  teeming  population 
indicated  by  the  ruins  of  cities  with  which  every 
eminence  is  crowned.  To  the  north  of  Judea  the 
country  is  more  open,  the  plains  are  wider,  the  soil 
richer,  and  the  produce  more  varied,  till  at  Nablous 
the  running  streams  and  exuberant  vegetation 
recall  to  the  traveller  the  scenery  of  the  Tyrol. 
Even  in  its  desolation,  P.  is  a  land  fiowing  with 
milk  and  honey.  There  is  no  evidence  of  its  climate 
having  changed  or  deteriorated,  nor  any  reason  to 
suppose  that  it  would  fail  to  support  as  great  a  popu- 
lation as  ever  it  did,  provided  the  same  means  as 
formerly  were  used  for  its  cultivation.  It  has  the 
same  bright  sun  and  unclouded  sky,  as  well  as  the 
early  and  latter  rain,  which,  faowever,  is  diminished 
in  quantity,  owing  to  the  destruction  of  trees. 

The  botany  of  P.  is  rich  and  varied,  resembling 
that  of  Asia  Minor.  Among  its  trees  are  the  pine, 
oak,  elder,  and  hawthorn  in  the  northern  and  higher 
districts,  and  the  olive,  fig,  carob,  and  svcamore 
elsewhere.  The  cultivated  fruits  are  tne  vine, 
apple,  pear,  apricot,  quince,  plum,  orange,  lime, 
^nana,  almond,  and  prickly  pear.  Wheat,  barley, 
peas,  potatoes,  and  European  vegetables,  cotton, 
millet,  rice,  maize,  and  sugar-cane  are  among  its 
producta  The  date  now  ripens  its  fruit  only  in  the 
south  and  on  the  sea-board.  The  brilliant  flowers 
which  in  spring  enamel  the  surface  and  tinge  the 
entire  ]andscax>e,  comprise  the  adonis,  ranunculus, 
mallow,  poppy,  pink,  anemone,  and  geranium.  In 
the  Jordan  valley,  900  or  1000  feet  below  the  sea- 
level,  the  v^g^tation  is  tropical  in  its  character, 
resembling  that  of  Aiabia ;  the  nubk  {Spina  Ghruti), 
the  oleander,  and  the  small  yellow  'apples  of 
Sodom '  are  conspicuous.  The  most  valuable  pro- 
dacts  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  derived  from 
the  vine,  fig,  olive,  and  mmberry  trees.  Wine  for 
home  Qse  is  made  in  all  the  central  and  southern 
districts;  the  best  is  made  at  Hebron  from  the 
grwes  of  EshcoL     Olive  oil  is  a  valuable  export 

llie  wild  animals  of  P.  comprise  the  Synan  bear 
n  Leoanon,  the  panther,  jackal,  fox,  hyena,  wolf, 
wild  boar,  gazelle,  and  fallow-deer ;  the  lion  is  now 
ttkknown.    The  domestic  animals  are  the  Arabian 


camel,  ass,  mule,  horse,  buffalo,  ox,  and  broad-tailed 
sheep.  Ainong  the  birds  are  the  eagle,  vulture^ 
kite,  owl,  nightingale,  jay,  and  kingfisher— th« 
latter  of  brilliant  plumage — the  cuckoo,  heron, 
stork,  crow,  partridge,  and  sparrow.  Fish  swarm 
in  the  Sea  of  G^lee,  and  bats  and  lizards 
abound. 

The  divisions  of  P.  in  Old  Testament  times  wers 
into  9^  tribes  in  the  west,  and  24  tribes  in  the  east 
of  the  Jordan.  In  New  Testament  times,  on  the 
west  of  the  Jordan  the  provinces  of  Galilee  in  the 
north,  Samaria  in  the  middle,  and  Judea  in  the 
south ;  on  the  east  of  the  Jordan,  Perea  and  Deca* 
polis.  The  boundaries  of  the  tribes  and  provinces 
are  very  uncertain.  Its  modem  divisions  have 
changed  with  every  new  race  and  dynasty  of  con- 
querors. Under  Turkish  rule,  the  whole  of  P., 
Proper  (west  of  the  Jordan)  is  comprised  in  the 
pashalic  of  Sidon ;  the  pasha  besides  at  Beyrouth 
and  to  him  the  pasha  of  Jerusalem  is  subordinate. 
The  present  population  is  very  mixed,  comprising 
Syrians,  Mohammedans,  Maronites,  Druses,  Chris- 
tians, Jews,  and  Turks.  The  Jews  are  all  foreigners, 
almost  exclusively  inhabiting  the  four  holy  cities— 
Jerusalem,  Hebron,  Tiberius,  and  Safed  ;  their  whole 
number  was,  in  1863,  estimated  at  only  9000.  The 
country  is  oppressed  by  Turkish  avarice,  and  over- 
run by  the  predatory  Arabs.    See  Syria. 

PALESTRI'NA  (the  ancient  Prceneste),  an  epis- 
copal city  of  the  States  of  the  Church,  Italy,  in  the 
Comarca  di  Roma,  and  22  miles  east-south-east  of 
Romts,  occupies  a  strong  position  on  the  south-west 
slope  of  a  high  hill,  an  offset  of  the  Apennines. 
Besides  several  interesting  churches,  the  town 
contains  a  castle,  once  the  chief  stronghold  of  the 
Colonna,  to  whom  the  town  belonged  ;  and  the 
palace  and  garden  of  the  Barberini  family.  The 
view  across  the  Campagna  and  toward  the  Alban 
Hills  is  magnificent.  Pop.  4700,  who  manufacture 
coarse  woollen  goods. 

P.  is  built  almost  entirelv  upon  the  site  and  the 
gigantic  substructions  of  the  Temple  of  Fortune, 
one  of  the  great  edifices  of  the  former  city  of 
Praenesta  l^is  city  was  one  of  the  most  ancient 
as  well  as  powerful  and  important  cities  of  Latium. 
It  covered  the  hill  (2400  feet  above  sea-level)  on 
the  aloi)Q  of  which  the  modern  town  stands,  and 
was  overlooked  by  a  citadel  of  great  strength.  The 
site  of  this  citadel  on  the  summit  of  the  hill  is 
now  occupied  by  a  castle  of  the  middle  a^es,  called 
Caetd  S.  Pietro ;  but  remains  of  the  ancient  walls 
are  still  visible.  We  first  hear  of  Prseneste  as  a 
member  of  the  Latin  League ;  but  in  499  B.C.  it 
quitted  Ihe  confederacy,  and  joined  the  cause  of 
the  Romans.  In  380  B.C,  the  Fnanestines,  having 
rejoined  their  ancient  allies,  opened  a  war  with 
Rome ;  but  were  completely  routed  on  the  banks 
of  the  Allia  by  T.  Quintius  Uincinnatus,  and  beaten 
back  to  their  own  gates.  They  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  famous  Latin  War,  340  B.a  Having 
given  shelter  to  tiie  youn^r  Marius  in  the  year 
82  B.a,  this  city  was  besieged  by  the  forces  of 
SuUa,  and  on  its  being  taken  all  the  inhabitants 
were  put  to  the  sword.  A  military  colony  was  then 
established  in  their  place,  and  soon  the  city  be^an 
to  flourish  anew.  Its  elevated  and  healthy  situation, 
at  no  great  distance  from  the  capital,  made  it  a 
favourite  place  of  resort  of  the  Romans  during 
summer.  Augustus  frequented  it;  Horace  often 
found  this  city  a  pleasant  retreat ;  and  here  Hadrian 
built  an  extensive  villa  The  Temple  of  Fortuns 
is  described  by  Cicero  as  an  edifice  of  great  anti- 
quity as  well  as  splendour,  and  its  oracle  was 
much  consulted.  The  town  became  the  stronghold 
of  the  family  of  Colonna  in  the  middle  ages ;  but 
was  given  to  the  Barberini  family  by  Urban  VIIL 


PALESTRINA-PALEY. 


PALESTRINA,  Giovanni  Pierluioi  da,  a  dia- 
tingiiishecl  musical  composer  of  the  16th  century. 
He  derived  his  surname  from  the  town  of  Palestrina, 
in  the  Roman  States,  where  he  was  horn  in  1524. 
At  the  age  of  sixteen,  he  went  to  Rome,  and  studied 
music  under  Claude  Goudimel,  afterwards  one  of  the 
victims  of  the  St  Bartholomew  massacra  In  1551 
he  was  made  maestro  di  capella  of  the  Julian 
Chapel,  and  in  1554  he  puhlished  a  collection  of 
Masses,  so  highly  approved  of  by  Pope  Julius  IIL, 
to  whom  they  were  dedicated,  that  he  appointed 
their  author  one  of  the  singers  of  the  ^lontifical 
chapeL  Bein^  a  married  man,  he  lost  that  office 
on  the  accession  to  the  pontificate  of  Paul  IV.,  in 
whose  eves  celibacy  was  a  necessary  qualification 
for  its  duties.  In  1555  he  was  made  choir-master 
of  St  Maria  Maggiore,  and  held  that  position  till 
1571,  when  he  was  restored  to  his  office  at  St  Peter^s. 
In  1563,  tiie  coimcil  of  Trent  having  undertaken 
to  reform  the  music  of  the  church,  and  condemned 
the  profane  words  and  music  introduced  into  masses, 
some  compositions  of  P.  were  pointed  to  as  models, 
and  their  author  was  intrusted  with  the  task  of 
reraodelliDg  this  part  of  religious  worship.  He 
composed  three  masses  on  the  reformed  plan ;  one 
of  them,  known  as  the  Mass  of  Pope  Marcellus 
(to  whose  memory  it  is  dedicated),  may  be  consi- 
dered to  have  saved  music  to  the  church  bv  estab- 
li:!hinff  a  type  infinitely  beyond  anything  that  had 

E receded  it,  and,  amid  all  the  changes  wnich  music 
as  since  gone  through,  continues  to  attract  admir* 
ation.  During  the  remaining  years  of  his  life,  the 
number  and  the  quality  of  the  works  of  P.  are 
equally  remarkable.  His  published  works  consist  of 
13  books  of  Masses,  6  books  of  Motets,  1  book  of 
Lamentations,  1  book  of  Hynms,  1  book  of  Offer- 
tories, 1  book  of  Magnificats,  1  book  of  Litanies,  1 
book  of  Spiritual  Madrigals,  and  3  books  of  Madri- 
gals.  P.  must  be  considered  the  first  musician  who 
reconciled  musical  science  with  musical  art,  and  his 
works  form  a  most  important  epoch  in  the  history 
of  music.  Equally  estimable  m  private  life,  and 
talented  as  a  musician,  P.  struggled  through  a  life 
of  poverty  during  eight  pontincates;  his  appoint- 
ments were  meagre,  and  nis  publications  unremun> 
erative.  He  died  in  1594.  A  memoir  of  his  life 
and  writings  has  been  written  by  the  Abb6  BainL 

PALE'STRO,  a  village  of  Piedmont,  S  miles  south- 
east of  Vercelli,  famous  as  the  scene  of  a  battle 
between  the  Sardinians  and  Austrians  in  May  1859. 
On  the  30th  of  that  month  the  Piedmontese  drove 
the  Austrians  from  this  village,  and  on  the  31st 
defended  it  with  great  bravery  against  an  Austrian 
attack.  The  Piedmontese  in  the  battle  of  the  31st 
were  assisted  by  3000  French  Zouaves,  and  on  that 
occasion  the  Austrians  lost  2100  men  killed  and 
wounded,  950  prisoners,  and  6  pieces  of  cannon. 
On  June  1st  the  allies  entered  Novara. 

PAXETTB.    See  PAiNTiNa 

PALEY,  Db  William,  a  celebrated  English 
divine,  was  bom  at  Peterborough  in  1743.  His 
father  was  a  Yorkshireman,  and  not  lone  after  P. 
was  born  returned  to  his  native  parish  of  Gisgles- 
wick,  one  of  the  wildest  and  most  sequesterea  dis- 
tricts in  the  West  Riding,  to  become  master  of  the 
grammar-school  there.  Young  P.  was  brought  up 
among  the  shrewd,  hard-head^  peasantry  of  York- 
shire; and  it  is  probable  that  he  either  naturally 
possessed,  or  insensibly  acquired  their  moral  and 
mental  characteristics.  At  all  events,  he  soon 
became  conspicuous  in  the  family  for  his  good 
aense ;  and  when  he  left  to  enter  Christ's  College, 
Cambridge,  as  a  sizar,  in  his  sixteenth  year,  his 
father  said:  'He  has  by  far  the  clearest  head  I 
ever  met  with.'    At  Cambridge^  P.  led  for  the  first 


two  years  a  gay,  idle,  and  dissipated  life,  bat  there- 
after became  a  severe  student,  and  took  his  bache- 
lor degree  in  176.*)  with  highest  honours.  He  then 
taught  for  three  years  in  an  academy  at  Greenwich, 
In  1765  he  obtained  the  first  pnze  for  a  prose 
Latin  dissertation — the  subject  being  *A  Compari- 
son between  the  Stoic  and  Epicurean  Philosophy 
with  respect  to  the  Influence  of  each  on  the  Morals 
of  a  People,'  in  which  he  characteristically  argued 
in  favour  of  the  latter.  Next  year  he  was  elected 
a  Fellow  and  Tutor  of  Christ's,  and  also  took  the 
degree  of  M.A.  In  1767  he  was  ordained  a  priest 
His  career  as  a  college  tutor,  which  lasted  al>out  ten 
years,  was  eminently  successful ;  and  it  appears  to 
have  beun  during  this  period  that  he  systematised 
his  principles  in  moral  and  political  philosophy.  In 
1776,  P.  married,  and  was  of  course  obliged  to  give 
up  his  fellowship,  hut  was  compensated  by  a  pre- 
sentation to  the  livings  of  Mosgrove  and  Appleby 
in  Westmoreland  and  of  Dalston  in  Cumberland 
Four  years  later  he  was  collated  to  a  prebendal  stall 
in  the  cathedral  church  of  Carlisle,  in  17S2  he 
became  archdeacon,  and  in  1785  chancellor  of  the 
diocese.  The  last  of  these  years  witnessed  the 
piiblication  of  his  Elements  of  Moral  and  Political 
Philosophy,  In  this  work  he  propounds  his  ethical 
theory,  which  is  commonly  called  utilitarianism, 
but  is  really  a  mixture  of  utility  and  theology.  He 
begins  by  renouncing  the  favourite  doctrine  of  the 
Moral  Sense,  against  which  he  adduces  a  series 
of  strong  objections.  He  then  takes  up  the  question 
of  the  source  of  obligation,  and  resolves  it  into  the 
will  of  God,  enforced  by  future  punishment,  admit- 
ting candidly  that  virtue  is  prudence  directed  to 
the  next  world.  The  will  of  God,  in  so  far  as  it  is 
not  rendered  explicit  by  revelation,  is  to  be  inter- 

Ereted    by  the    tendency  of  actions    to   promote 
uman  happiness ;   the  benevolence  of  the  Deity 
being  supposed.   Objection  has  frequently  been  taken 
to  the  principles  on   which  P.  rests  his  system, 
but  the  lucidity  and  appositeness  of  his  illustra- 
tions are  be3^oud  all  praise.    If  his  treatise  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  profoundly  philosonhical  work,  it 
is  at  anyratc  one  of  the  clearest  and  most  sensible 
ever  wi'itten,  even  by  an   Englishman  ;  and  if  it 
failed  to  sound  the  depths  of  'moral  obligation,'  it 
at  least  brushed  off  into  oblivion  the  shallow  and 
muddy  mysticism  that  had   long    enveloped    the 
philosophy  of   politics.      P.'s  plain  sarcastic  view 
of  the  *  divine  right  of  kings,'  which  he  puts  on  a 
level  with   the  *  divine  right  of  constables,'  gave 
extreme  offence  to  George  III.,  but  was  neverthelesa 
much  admired  by  not  a  few  of  his  majesty's  sub- 
jects, and  is  now  held  by  everybody  to  be  beyond 
question.    In  1700  appeared  his  most  original  and 
valuable  work — the  Horcs  PauUncSt  or  ike  Truth  of 
the  Scripture  Historn  of  St  Paid  evinced  by  a  Com- 
parison, of  the  Epistles  wJuch  bear  Ids  Name  icith  the 
Ads  of  the  Apostles,  and  with  one  anotlier.    The  aim 
of  this  admirable  work  is   to   prove,  by  a  great 
variety  of  'undesigned  coincidences,'  the  improb- 
ability,  if  not  impossibility,  of  the  usual  infidel 
hypoUiesis  of  his  time — viz.,  that  the  New  Testa- 
ment  is  a  '  cunningly-devised  fable.'    It  was  dedi- 
cated   to  his   friend  John   Law,   then  Bishop  of 
Killala  in  Ireland,  to  whose  favour  he  had  been 
indebted  for   most   of  his  preferments.    P.*8  next 
important  work  was  entitled  A  View  of  the  Emdences 
of  Christianity,  published  in  179i.      It  is  not  equal 
in  originality  to  its  predecessor,  but  the  use  which 
the  author  has  made  of  the  labours  of  such  emineafc 
scholars  as  Lardner  and  Bishop  Douglas  is  gene- 
rally reckoned  most  dexterous  and  effective,    /later 
and  keener  criticism  is  indeed  anything  but  satwfied 
with  P.'s  '  Evidences ; '  but  in  P.'s  own  day  he  waa 
held  to  have  achieved  a  splendid   triumph  ov«^ 


PALGRAVB-PALIMPSEST. 


iceptics,  and  was  handsomely  rewarded.  The 
Biuiop  of  London  appointed  him  a  prebend  of  St 
Pancras;  shortly  after  he  was  promoted  to  the 
gnbdeanery  of  Lincoln  (worth  £700  per  annum) ; 
Cambridge  conferred  on  him  the  degree  of  D.D. ; 
and  the  Bishop  of  Durham  the  ri^  rectory  of 
Bishop  Wearmonth  (worth  £1200  per  annum),  in 
conseqaence  of  which  he  honourably  resigned  his 
livings  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle.  After  1800  he 
became  subject  to  a  painful  disease  of  the  kidneys, 
but  notwithstanding  ne  continued  to  write,  and  in 
1S02  published  perluips  the  most  widely  popidar  of 
all  his  works,  JVatunU  Theology,  or  Evidences  of  the 
Eri^ence  and  AUributes  o/theDettp,  which,  however, 
is  based,  and  to  a  laree  extent  borrowed  from  the 
RHigiouB  Philo9opfier,  the  work  of  a  Dutch  phQoso- 
pher  named  Nieuwentyt,  an  English  translation  of 
which  appeared  in  1718^1719.  The  plaparisms  are 
most  }>al|iable,  but  have  been  accounted  for  on  the 
su])}iosition  that  the  Natural  Theolofjy  was  'made 
ap*  from  his  loose  papers  and  notes  written  when 
P.  was  a  college  tutor,  and  that  he  had  forgotten 
the  sources  from  which  he  derived  them.  It  is  also 
but  fair  to  8tat«  that  he  has  taken  nothing  which  he 
has  not  greatly  improved;  nihil  tetigitj  quod  non 
omnviL  A  somewhat  noted  edition  of  this  work, 
enriched,  or  at  least  expanded  by  annotations  and 
dissertations,  is  that  by  Lord  Brougham  and  Sir 
Charles  BeU  (1836-1839).  P.  died  May  25,  1805. 
He  had  a  family  of  four  sons  and  three  daughters. 
A  complete  edition  of  his  works  was  published  in 
1838  by  one  of  his  sons,  the  Rev.  Edmund  Paley. 
The  best  biography  is  that  by  Meadley  (1809). 

PALGRAVE,  Sib  Francis,  a  distinguished  anti- 
quary and  historian,  was  bom  in  London  in  July 
1788,  of  Jewish  parentage,  being  the  son  of  Mr 
Meyer  Cohen,  a  member  of  the  Stock  Exchange. 
He  was  educated  at  home  under  a  Dr  Montucci,  and 
even  when  a  child  shewed  extraordinary  genius. 
When  only  eight  years  old,  he  made  a  translation 
into  French  of  the  Battle  of  the  Frogs  and  Mice 
from  the  Latin  version  of  Beauclerc,  which  was 
printed  by  his  father  in  1797.  In  1803  he  was 
articl*^  as  a  clerk  to  a  legal  firm,  and  at  the  expira- 
tion of  his  articles,  contmued  with  the  same  firm 
as  managing  clerk  imtil  1822,  when  he  took 
chambets  in  the  Temple,  and  was  employed  under 
the  Record  Commission.  He  had  previously  made 
himself  known  as  a  literary  antiquarian,  by  the 
publication,  in  1818,  of  some  Anglo-Norman  Chan- 
sons, which  he  edited  witli  much  care.  On  the 
occasion  of  his  marriage  in  1823,  he  changed 
his  name  of  Cohen  to  P.,  that  being  the  maiden 
name  of  his  wife's  mother.  He  was  called  to  the 
bar  in  1827«  and  had  considerable  practice  for 
some  years  in  pedigree  cases  before  the  House  of 
Lords.  In  1831  he  published  a  History  of  Eng- 
loMd^  which  formed  a  part  of  the  Family  Library; 
and  in  1832  appeared  his  Rise  and  Progress  of 
ike  English  CommantoeaUh ;  also  Observaiions  an 
the  Principles,  <fec,  qf  New  Municipai  Corpora- 
tions. In  that  year  he  received  tiie  honour  of 
knighthood,  and  was  subsequently  one  of  the 
Municipal  Corporation  Commissioners.  In  1835, 
ihe  Commissioners  issued  their  Report,  which  was 
signed,  however,  by  only  sixteen  of  the  members — 
Sir  F.  P.  being  one  of  the  four  dissentients.  In  the 
same  year  he  published  a '  Protest  *  against  the  Com- 
missioners* Report,  in  which  he  oaUed  in  question 
several  of  its  rtatements,  views,  and  arguments.  In 
1S38,  on  the  reconstruction  of  the  Record  Service,  Sir 
F.  P.  was  appointed  deputv-keeper  of  Her  Majesty's 
Beoords,  ana  held  that  onioe  during  the  rest  of  his 
Hfe.  Besides  tiie  works  already  mentioned.  Sir  F. 
P.  edited  for  the  government  the  following  :  Calen- 
of  the  Treasury  oftksEaxkeqyufr^  ParSamentary 


Writs,  Ouria  Regis  Records,  and  Documents  lUustrO' 
tive  of  the  History  of  Scotland.  In  his  private  capa 
city,  he  produced  the  Merchant  and  the  Friar,  an 
imaginaiy  histoiy  of  Maroo  Polo  and  Friar  Bacon  ; 
also  a  Hand-book  for  Travellers  in  Northern  Italy, 
and  a  History  of  England  and  Normandy.  Of  thip 
last  work  a  volume  appeared  in  1851,  and  a  second 
in  1857  ;  and  it  is  understood  that  there  are  mate- 
rials existing  in  MS.  for  a  third  and  fourth  volume. 
Sir  F.  P.  also  wrote  numerous  articles  for  the  Edin- 
burgh  and  Quarterly  Reviews,  principally  of  an  anti- 
quarian cluuracter,  but  some  of  them  purely  literary 
or  artistic.  His  great  merit,  in  his  historic  writings^ 
consists  in  the  ^ctensive  use  made  by  him  of  origi* 
nal  documents,  by  aid  of  which  he  not  only  him* 
self  very  much  enlarged  our  acquaintance  with  the 
history  and  social  aspects  of  the  middle  ages,  but 
pointed  out  to  others  the  advantage  to  be  derived 
from  a  careful  study  of  the  orinnal  sources  of  infor- 
mation now  known  to  abouim  among  our  public 
records.  Sir  F.  P.  died  at  Hampstead,  on  the  6th  of 
July  1861. 

A 

PALI  (a  corruption  of  the  Sanscrit  Prdkrit,  q.  v.) 
is  the  name  of  the  sacred  language  of  the  Buddhista 
Its  origin  must  be  sought  for  in  one  or  several  of 
the  popular  dialects  of  ancient  India,  which  are 
comprised  under  the  general  name  of  Pi&krit,  and 
stand  in  a  similar  relation  to  Sanscrit  as  the 
Romance  lancjuages,  in  tiieir  earlier  period,  to  Latin. 
It  has  been  formerly  assumed  that  P.  arose  from 
the  special  Pr&krit  dialect  called  M&gadhl,  or  the 
language  spoken  in  Magadha ;  but,  according  to  the 
view  expressed  by  Lassen  in  his  IniUsche  AUerthums- 
hinde,  an  hypothesis  of  this  kind  is  not  tenable, 
since  the  peculiarities  of  this  dialect  are  not  com- 
patible with  those  of  the  P.  language.  The  same 
distinguished  scholar  holds  that  the  Prikkrit  dialects, 
called  the  S'aurasenl  and  Mfth&ilkshVri,  have  a 
closer  relation  to  the  P.  than  any  other,  and  that 
the  origin  of  the  latter  must  therefore  be  traced  to 
the  country  of  Western  Hindustan,  between  the 
Jumna  river  and  the  Vindhya  mountain;  though 
he  observes,  at  the  same  time,  that  the  P.  is  older 
tiian  these  dialects,  and  that  the  latter  are  therefore 
more  remote  from  Sanscrit  than  the  former.  Whether 
the  oldest  works  of  the  Buddhist  religion  were 
written  in  P.  may  be  matter  of  doubt.  It  is 
more  probable,  on  the  contrary,  that  the  language 
in  which  the  founder  of  the  Buddhist  religion  con- 
veyed his  doctrine  to  the  people  was  not  yet  that 
special  language,  but  a  mixture  of  classical  and 

S:>pu]ar  Sanscrit,  such  as  it  still  appears  in  the 
uddhistic  S&tras.  At  a  later  period,  however, 
P.  became  the  classical  lancuage  in  which  the 
Buddhists  wrote  their  sacreo,  metaphysical,  and 
profane  works.  The  most  import^t  historical 
work  written  in  this  langnaee  is  the  Mahdvans'a 
(q.  V.) ;  other  P.  works,  whicn  have  lately  become 
known  in  Europe,  and  deserve  especial  mention, 
are  the  Dhammapada,  on  the  Buadhist  doctrine, 
and  five  JdtaJeas,  containing  a  fairy  tale,  a  comical 
story,  and  three  fables — ^both  works  edited  and 
translated  by  V.  Fausboll  (Copen.  1855  and  1861). 
P.  ceased  to  be  a  living  language  of  India  when 
Buddhism  was  rooted  out  of  it ;  it  was  carried  by 
the  fugitive  Buddhists  to  other  coimtries,  especially 
Ceylon,  Burmah,  and  Siam  ;  but  in  these  countries, 
too,  it  had  to  give  way  before  the  native  tongues, 
in  which  the  later  Buddhist  literature  was  com- 
posed. 

PAXIMPSEST  (Gr.  paUmpsestos,  'rubbed  a 
second  time*),  the  name  given  to  parchment,  papy- 
rus, or  other  writing  material,  from  which,  after  it 
had  been  written  upon,  the  first  writing  was  wholly 
or  in  part  removed  for  the  purpose  of  the  page  being 

213 


PALIMPSEST. 


wf  ilten  up  )n  a  second  time;  When  the  MS.  had  been 
written  with  one  Bpecies  of  ink  employed  by  the 
ancients,  which  was  merely  a  fatty  pigment,  composed 
chiefly  of  lampblack,  and  only  colouring  the  simace, 
but  not  proaucing  a  chemical  change,  there  was 
little  difficulty  in  obliterating  the  writing.  It  was 
accomplished  by  the  use  of  a  sponge,  taia,  if  neces- 
sary, of  a  scraper  and  polishing  tool;  and,  where 
proper  pains  were  taken,  the  erasure  of  the  first 
writing  was  complete.  But  when  the  ink  was 
minersJ,  its  effect  reached  beyond  the  surface.  In 
that  case  a  scraping -tool  or  pumice-stone  was  indis- 
pensable ;  if  these  were  hastily  or  insufficiently 
applied,  Uie  erasure  was  necessarily  imperfect ;  and 
thus  it  often  happens  in  ancient  MSS.  that,  from 
the  want  of  proper  care  on  the  part  of  the  copyist 
in  preparing  the  parchment  for  re-writing,  the 
original  writing  may  still  be  read  without  the 
sli^test  difficulty. 

The  practice  of  re-preparing  used  parchment  for 
second  use  existed  among  the  Romans.  The  mate- 
rial thus  re-prepared  was  of  course  reserved  for  the 
meaner  uses.  We  meet  freqiient  allusions  in  the 
classical  writers,  as  Plutarch,  Cicero  {Ad  Familiares, 
vii.  18),  Catullus  (xxii.  115),  and  others,  to  the 
palimpsest,  in  the  sense  of  a  blotter  or  first  draft- 
book,  on  which  the  rough  outline  or  first  copy  of  a 
document  was  written,  preparatory  to  the  accurate 
transcript  which  was  intended  for  actual  use ;  and 
it  appears  equally  certain  that  in  many  cases  whole 
books  were  written  upon  re-prepare^d  parchment  or 
papyrus,  not  only  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans, 
but  also  among  the  ancient  Egyptians. 

Of  palimpsests  of  the  classic  period,  however,  it  is 
hardly  necesscary  to  say  no  specimen  has  ever  been 
discovered.  It  is  to  the  necessities  of  the  medieval 
period  that  literature  owes  the  unquestionably  im- 
portant advantages  which  have  arisen  from  the 
revival  of  the  ancient  practice  of  re-preparing 
already  used  material  for  writing.  Under  the 
early  emperors,  the  intercourse  with  Egypt  and  the 
east  secured  a  tolerably  cheap  and  abundant  supply 
of  Papyrus  (q.  v.),  which  rendered  it  unnecessary  to 
recur  to  the  expedient  of  the  palimpsest ;  and  this 
became  still  more  the  case  in  the  5th  and  6th  cen- 
tories,  when  the  tax  on  papyrus  was  abolished.    Bat 


after  the  separation  of  east  and  west,  and  still  mon 
after  the  Mohammedan  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  supply 
of  papyrus  almost  completely  ceased ;  and  from  the 
7th  0.  in  the  west,  and  the  10th  or  11th  in  the  east^ 
tlie  palimpsest  is  found  in  comparatively  frequent 
use ;  and  its  frequency  in  the  15th  c.  may  be  esti< 
mated  from  the  fact  that  some  of  the  earliest  boob 
were  printed  on  palimpsest     Some  writers  have 
ascribed  the  prevalence  of  its  use  to  the  indiflferenoe, 
and  even  to  the  hostility  of  the  monks  and  clergy 
to  classical  literature,  and  have  attributed  to  their 
reckless  destruction  of  classic  MSS.,  in  order  to  pro- 
vide material    for    their   own    service-books  And 
legendaries,  the  deficiencies  in  the  remains  of  ancient 
learning  which  scholars  have  now  to  deplore.    That 
some  part  of  the  loss  may  have  so  arisen,  it  ii 
impossible  to  doubt,  although  it  is  equally  certain 
that  we  owe  to  the  medieval  monks  and  clei^ 
whatever  of  ancient  literature  has  been  preserved  to 
our  day.     But  the  condition  in  which  the  existing 
palimpsests  are  uniformly  found — for  the  most  part 
mere  fragments  of  the  ancient  writers  whose  worb 
they  originally  contained — goes  far  in  itself  to  shew- 
that   the    MSS.  which  were  broken    up   by  the 
medieval  copyists,  for  the  purpose  of  being  re-written, 
were  almost  always  already  imperfect,  or  otherwise 
damaged ;  nor  is  tiiere  anjrthing  in  the  condition  of 
any  single  palim[)sest  which  has  reached  our  day  tQ 
justify  the  belief,  that  when  it  was  taken  up  for  the 
purpose  of  rescription,  the  original  work  which  it 
contained  was  in  a  state  at  all  approaching  to  com- 
pleteness.   Fortunately,  however,  there  are  many 
of  the  relics  of  ancient  learning  of  which  even  the 
mutilated  members  have  an  independent  value ;  and 
this  is  especially  true  of  Biblical  MSS.,  particularly 
under  the  critical  aspect,  and  in  a  still  broader 
sense,  of  all  the  remains  of  the  ancient  historiana 

It  will  easily  be  understood,  therefore,  that  the 
chief,  if  not  the  sole  interest  of  palimpsest  MSS. 
lies  in  the  ancient  writing  which  they  had  con- 
tained, and  that  their  value  to  literature  mainly 
depends  on  tiie  degree  of  legibleness  which  the 
ancient  writing  still  retains.  It  is  difficult  to  make 
this  fully  intelligible  to  the  reader  without  an  actual 
inspection,  but  the  facsimile  which  is  annexed  will 
furni£^  a  sufficient  idea^     The  particular  passage 


eTO  fn-N  es^c  p  p  a.  m  i  rn  een  taxkasxhut;^ 


OfJ 


II 


■elected  for  the  illustration  is  from  page  62  of  the 
Vatican  MS.,  from  which  Mai  deciphered  the  frag- 
ments of  the  De  Jtepublica,  The  darker  letters  are 
those  of  the  modem  MS. ;  the  faint  lines  are,  as 
may  be  supposed,  those  of  the  original  codex. 
Although  so  much  more  faint  than  the  modem 
writing,  they  can  be  read  with  facility  on  account  of 
their  greater  size.  We  shall  transcribe  both  texts 
in  ordinary  characters.   The  original  was  as  follows : 

Bar 

lorrCR  IHQVIT 
AFBICANDS  RB8P. 

(The  ordinary  contraction  for  Xetpvhliea,) 

The  corresponding  lines  of  the  modem  MS.,  which 
2U 


is  from  St  Augustine's  oommentuy  on  the  Plsalinik 

are— 

homo  est  quia 

ek  omnes  TLpttui  (Chrbtianl)  membra  sunt  Xfi,  (Cbristi) 

membra  X^.  quid  cantaut.    Amuit 

DeMderando  cantant.    AUquaiido 

In  this  specimen,  as  very  commonly  occurs  the 
original  writing  is  much  lai^er  than  the  mc<derB; 
the  modem  lines  and  letters  do  not  cover  tboef*  of 
the  old  MS.,  but  they  follow  the  same  oiUe*'.  In 
other  specimens  the  new  writing  is  transverse :  in 
some,  the  old  page  is  turned  upside  down.  £>ome- 
times,  where  tne  old  page  is  divided  into  columns, 
tiie  new  writing  is  carried  over  them  all  in  a  ido^tt 


PALIMPSEST. 


line;  sometimes  the  old  page  is  doubled,  so  as  to 
form  two  pages  in  the  new  MS.  Sometimes  it  is 
cat  into  two,  or  even  three  pages.  The  most  per- 
plexing case  of  all  for  the  decipherer  is  tiiat  in 
which  the  new  letters  are  of  the  same  size,  and 
are  written  upon  the  same  lines  with  those  of 
the  original  MS.  Examples  of  this  are  rare,  and 
even  when  they  occur,  the  difference  between  the 
form  of  the  ancient  characters,  which  are  ordi- 
narily uncial,  and  that  of  the  modern,  ia  in  itself  a 
creat  aid  to  the  decipherer.  Some  variety,  also,  is 
foimd  in  the  language  of  the  palimpsests.  In  those 
which  are  found  in  the  western  horaries,  the  new 
writing  is  almost  invariably  Latin,  while  tiie 
original  is  sometimes  Greek,  and  sometimes  Latin. 
In  the  palimpsests  discovered  in  the  east,  the 
original  is  commonly  Greek,  the  new  writing  being 
lometimes  Greek,  sometimes  Syriac,  sometimes 
Annenian;  and  one  palimpsest,  the  material  of 
which  LB  papyrus,  is  found  in  which  the  original 
was  the  enchorial  Egyptian  language,  while  the 
modem  writing  is  Gre£. 

The  possibility  of  turning  palimpsest  MSS.  to 
account  as  a  means  of  extending  onr  store  of  ancient 
literature,  was  suggested  as  far  back  as  the  days  of 
Montfsucon ;  but  tne  idea  was  not  turned  to  prac- 
tical account  tiU  the  latter  part  of  the  18th  century. 
The  first  palimpsest  editor  was  a  German  scholar, 
Br  Paul  Bruns,  who  having  discovered  that  one  of 
the  Vatican  MSS.  was  a  palimpsest,  the  effaced 
matter  of  which  was  a  fragment  of  the  91st  book  of 
Livy's  Roman  History^  printed  it  at  Hamburg  in 
1773w     In  the  field  of  discovery  thus  opened  by 
Brans  but  little  progress  was  made  until  the  foUow- 
iag  c.,  when  Dr  Barrett  of  Trinity  College,  Dublin, 
pobiiahed  his  palimpsest  Fragments  of  St  Matthew, 
and  when  palimpsest  literature  at  once  rose  into 
interest  ana  importance  in  the  hands  of  the  cele- 
brated Angelo  Mai  (q.v.).     A  detailed  account  of 
Mai's  successes  will  be  given  hereafter,  when  we  shidl 
enumerate  the  principal  publications  in  this  curious 
dei^artment  of  letters;   and  under  his  own  name 
will  be  found  the  history  of  his  personal  labours. 
The  great  historian  Niebuhr  about  the  same  time 
ap{)li^  himself  to  the  subject,  and  was  followed  by 
Blume,  Pertz,  Graupp,  and  other  German  scholars, 
whose  labours,  however,  were  for  the  most   part 
confined  to  the  department  of  ancient  Koman  law. 
More  recently,  the  discoveries  of  Dr  Tischendorf  in 
BibHcal  literature,  and  those  of  Dr  Cureton  as  well 
in  sacred  as  in  profane  literature,  have  contributed 
still  more  to  add  importance  to  the  jialimpsest  MSS. 
which  have  been  supposed  to  exist  in  the   mon- 
asteries of  the  Levant.    Herr  Mone  has  had  similar 
success  in  the  department  of  liturgical  literattire, 
and   Dr    Frederick  Augustus  Pertz,  son   of    the 
scholar  already  mentioned,  may  be   said  to  have 
carried  to  its  highest   point   the    interest  which 
attaches  to  these  curious  researches,  by  editing  from 
a  tkrUx  wriUen  palimpsest  a  very  considerable  series 
of  fn^gments  of  the  Koman  annalist,  Gains  Granius 
licinianus. 

It  remains  to  enumerate  brieflv  the  most  import- 
ant palimpsest  publications  which  have  hitnerto 
appeared,  distributed  according  to  the  language  of 
the  effaced  original 

I  Greek  Paumfsests.— Among  these,  the  first 
|ilace  of  course  belongs  to  the  Greek  Biblical  palimp- 
tests,  the  earliest  of  which  was  (1)  Fragments  of  the 
Oospd  o/St  Matthew,  in  facsimile  as  well  as  in  ordiu' 
vry  type,  printed  from  a  palimpsest  MS.  of  Trinity 
College,  Dublin,  by  the  Kev.  I.  Barrett,  D.D.  (4to, 
Bnbhn,  ISOl).  The  original  writing  appears  to  be 
ni  the  6th  century.  Dr  Barrett's  touiscript  of  the 
text  has  not  proved  in  all  respects  correct,  but  the 
on^Lnal  lias  amce  been  carefully  re-examined,  and 


the  ancient  writing  fully  brought  out.  It  is  chieflv» 
however,  to  a  coUection  of  Svriac  MSS.  brought 
from  the  east  that  we  are  indebted  for  the  moro 
recent  palimpsest  restorations  of  the  ancient  Biblical 
readings.  In  this  line  the  chief  discoverer  has 
been  Dr  Constantine  Tischendorf.  From  his  pea 
we  have  (2)  the  celebrated  Codex  Ephremi  or  Codex 
Regius  of  the  Boyal  Librarv  at  Paris.  This  MS. 
haa  been  early  observed  to  De  palimpsest,  and  the 
original  Greek  text  was  collated  m  part  by  Wetstein 
and  by  KUster.  It  was  still  more  carefully  examined 
by  M.  Hase  in  1835 ;  and  finally,  in  1S40,  by  Dr 
lischendorf,  by  whom  the  New  Testament  was 
printed  in  1843,  and  the  fragments  of  the  Old  in 
1845.  The  modem  writing  of  this  palimpsest  con- 
sisted of  the  works  of  St  Ephrem  the  Syrian.  (3.) 
FragmerUa  Sacra  Palimpsesta  (4to,  Leipsic,  1855), 
containing  fragments  of  the  Books  of  Numbers, 
Deuteronomy,  Joshua,  Judges,  Kings,  Isaiah,  to- 
gether with  48  pages  of  fragments  of  the  New 
Testament,  the  Gospels,  the  Acts,  and  the  Epistles 
of  St  Paul  to  the  Corinthians  and  to  Titus.  The 
modem  writing  of  these  palimi)sests  was  partiy 
Greek,  partly  Armenian,  and  Arabic.  (4.)  Frag- 
menta  Evangelii  Iauxr  et  Libri  Genesis  (4to,  Leipsic, 
1857).  The  fragments  of  St  Luke's  Gospel  amount 
to  95  pages:  The  volume  also  contains  fragments 
of  St  John's  Gospel  and  of  Ezekiel  and  the  Third 
Book  of  Kings.  The  modern  writing  is  partiy 
Syriac,  partiy  Coptic.  Alone  with  these  Biblical 
palimpsests  (5)  may  be  classed  another,  the  original 
of  which,  however,  contains  not  only  some  Greek 
fragments,  but  also  portions  of  the  ancient  Gothic 
version  of  the  Bible  by  Ulphilas.  The  MS.  from 
which  this  is  taken  is  known  from  its  place  in  the 
WolfenbUttel  Library  as  the  Codex  OuelpherbytantUL 
It  was  first  noticed  in  1755  by  Knittd,  by  whom  a 

Portion  of  the  Gothic  version  was  published  in  1762. 
hese  fragments  were  reprinted  in  1772,  and  again 
in  1805.  The  modern  writing  of  the  MS.  consisted 
of  the  Origenes  of  Isidorus  Hispalensis.  A  lai^e 
addition  to  the  text  of  UlphUas  was  made  in  1817 
by  Mai  and  Castiglione,  from  palimpsests  discovered 
in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan ;  and  the  whole 
have  since  been  combined  into  one  edition  by  Dr 
Gabelentz,  and  finally  by  Dr  Massmann  (4to, 
Stutteart,  1855).  We  may  also  mention  under  the 
same  head  some  interesting  Greek  liturgical  remains 
edited  by  F.  I.  Mone  (Frankfort,  1850),  from  a 
palimpsest  discovered  at  Carlsruhe. 

In  Greek  classical  literature,  also,  we  owe  some- 
thing to  the  labours  of  palimpsest  editors.  From 
one  of  the  Syriac  MSS.  already  referred  to,  Dr 
Cureton  has  edited  larse  fragments  of  the  Iliad  of 
Homer,  amounting  in  iQl  to  nearly  4000  lines ;  and 
although  all  these,  it  need  hardlv  be  said,  were 
known  before,  yet  the  text  is  of  the  utmost  value 
as  a  source  of  criticism,  being  certainly  of  much 
greater  antiquity  than  the  very  earliest  known  MSS. 
of  the  Iliad,  A  stiU  larger  and  more  original  con- 
tribution to  Greek  classical  literature  was  made  by 
Mai  in  the  5th  volume  of  his  Scriptorum  Veterum 
Nova  CoUectio  (Bome,  1831—1838).  From  a  very 
laree  palimpsest  discovered  in  the  Vatican  Library 
he  has  printed  in  this  volume  copious  fragments  of 
almost  all  the  Greek  writers  on  Roman  history — 
from  the  lost  books  of  Polybius  no  less  than  100 
4to  pa^es ;  130  pages  of  Diodoms  Sictdus ;  64  ol 
Dionysius  of  Hancamassus ;  100  of  Dion  Cassius; 
together  with  considerable  fragments  of  Appian, 
lamblichus,  Dexippus,  Eunapius,  and  others.  This 
is,  perhaps,  after  the  De  ReptMica  of  Cicero,  the 
most  important  accession  to  the  existing  store  of 
classic  learning  which  the  palimpsests  have  hitherto 
supplied. 
IL  Latin  Palimfsjestb. — (1.)  The  earliest  frag* 

Sift 


PALINDROME-PALiaANDBR  WOOD. 


ment  of  Latin  literature,  printed  from  a  palimpsest 
original,  is  the  portion  of  the  91st  book  of  Livy 
already  referred  to,  published  at  Hamburg  and  also 
at  Rome  in  1773.  It  was  re-edited  in  a  more  com- 
plete form  by  Niebuhr  in  1820.  (2.)  Of  the  Latin 
palimpsests  edited  by  Mai,  the  earliest  were  some 
uragments  of  lost  Orations  of  Cicero  from  two  differ- 
ent palimpsests  in  the  Ambrosian  Library  at  Milan, 
in  the  latter  of  which,  the  second  writing  consisted 
of  the  acts  of  the  council  of  Ghalcedon.  These 
Orations  were  published  in  two  successive  volumes 
in  1814  (a)  £ight  Orations  of  Svnmiaohus  (1815). 
i4.)  The  Comedies  pf  Plautus,  including  a  fragment 
of  the  lost  play  entitled  Vidularia  (1815).  (5.)  The 
works  of  M.  Com.  Fronto,  together  with  the 
Epistles  of  Antoninus  Pins,  Lucius  Verus,  M. 
Aurelius,  and  others  (1815).  (6.)  The  celebrated 
Dialogue  of  Cicero,  De  RepiU>UccL^  &om  a  palimpsest 
of  the  Vatican,  the  modem  writing  of  wnich  is  the 
commentary  of  St  Aueustine  on  the  Psalms.  There 
is  none  of  Mai's  publications  which  presents  his 
critical  abilities  in  so  favourable  a  light  as  this 
precious  volume,  which  appeared  at  Rome  in  1821. 
(7.)  Soon  after  the  De  Bepublica  he  published 
another  volume  from  palimpsest  sources,  the  most 
important  of  whose  contents  were  some  fragments 
of  ancient  Roman  law,  which  preparecT  the  way  for 
the  more  distinguished  success  of  !Niebuhr ;  who,  in 
a  palimpsest  of  the  library  of  Verona,  recognised  a 
portion  of  (8)  the  In^itutiones  of  Gains,  and  pro- 
eared  an  accurate  transcript  for  the  press,  which 
was  printed  at  Berlin  in  1820.  The  latest  consider- 
able Latin  publication  in  this  department  is  (9)  Oai 
Oranii  Liclniani  Annalium  quce  euperaunt  (Berlin, 
1857),  edited  from  a  palimpsest  of  the  British 
Museum  by  the  younger  Pertz.  This  palimpsest, 
as  was  already  stated,  is  a  thrice  written  codex,  the 
earliest  and  original  contents  being  the  Annales  of 
Qaius  Granius.  The  second  writmg  was  also  in 
Latin,  and  the  work  is  a  grammatical  treatise,  of 
which  the  chapters  De  VeH>o  and  De  Adverbio  are 
still  legible.  The  most  modem  writing  is  Syriac, 
written  in  the  cursive  character.  Oaius  Granius 
is  a  writer  named  by  Maorobiua,  of  whom  nothing 
else  IS  knoMm. 

It  will  be  gathered  from  the  above  that  the 
ancient  works  recovered  by  means  of  palimpsest 
MSS.  are  all  fragment2iry,  and  one  is  naturally  led 
to  rate  at  a  low  value  the  result  thereby  obtained. 
But  it  must  be  remembered  that  in  some  of  the 
departments  to  which  these  fra^ents  belong,  every 
scrap,  no  matter  how  trilling,  has  an  independent 
value.  So  it  is,  for  example,  in  Biblical  remains — 
a  single  text  may  present  a  valuable  reading,  the 
merest  fragment  may  throw  light  on  an  important 
critical  question.  In  history,  in  like  manner,  a 
small  fragment  may  disclose  an  interesting  fact,  or' 
supply  a  significant  commentary  upon  facts  other- 
wise ascertained.  And  as  regaras  critical  uses 
especially,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  obliter- 
ated text  of  the  palimpsest  MSS.,  for  the  most  part^ 
far  exceeds  in  antiquity  the  very  oldest  known 
codices  which  we  possess,  and  is,  probably,  second 
only  in  age  to  the  papyri  of  Herculaneura. 

The  method  of  treating  palimpsest  MSS.,  with  a 
view  to  deciphering  their  contents,  has  been  fully 
described  by  different  editors.  Mai,  after  having 
washed  the  palimpsest  with  an  infusion  of  galls, 
exposed  it  to  the  light  and  air,  and,  generally 
speaking,  found  this  sufficient  for  his  purpose. 
Pejrron  washed  the  parchment  in  water,  afterwards 
in  dilute  muriatic  acid,  and  finally  in  prussiate  of 
potash.  A  mixture,  compounded  on  this  principle, 
u  oUled  from  its  inventor,  M.  Gioberti,  Tinctura 
Oiohertina,  Sometimes  the  same  treatment  does 
not  succeed  equally  well  on  both  sides  of  the  paroh- 


ment;  the  inner  surface,  from  its  softer  texture, 
sometimes  requiring  a  more  active  preparation. 
When  the  ink  contamed  animal  substances,  as  milk, 
or  the  blood  of  the  cuttle-fish,  Dr  Mone  pluneed  the 
parchment  in  a  close  vessel  filled  with  od,  which  he 
neated  to  a  temperature  of  400"  K  In  the  prefaces 
of  Mai*s  volumes  will  be  found  msny  amusing  and 
interesting  facts  illustrating  the  dimculties  which 
attend  this  curious  branch  A  literary  labour. 

PA'LINDROME  (Gr.  paUn,  backwards,  and 
dromos^  a  running),  the  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
verse  ver^  common  in  Latin,  the  peculiarity  of  wJr'ch 
is  that  it  may  be  read  the  same  backwarda  as 
forwards.    A  few  examples  will  suffica 

8%  bene  te  tua  latu  taxai  ma  lauU  tenons. 
£t  necat  eger  amor  non  Jtoma  rege  taceniet 
Soma  reges  una  non  anu$  eger  amw, 

A  Roman  lawyer  gets  the  credit  of  the  following : 

Si  nummi  immunu^ 

which  Camden  translates : 

'  Give  me  my  fee,  and  I  warrant  you  free.' 

It  is  said  that  in  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  a 
certain  lady  of  rank,  having  been  compelled  to  retire 
from  the  court  on  account  of  some  fama,  the  truth 
of  which  she  denied,  took  for  her  motto : 

AblcUa  at  alba, 
*  Retired  but  pure.' 

The  English  language  has  few  palindromes,  bnt  one 
at  least  is  inimitable.  It  represents  our  first  parent 
politely  introducing  himself  to  Eve  in  these  words : 

<  Madam,  I'm  Adam.' 

Compare  Henry  B.  Wheatley's  book  on  Anagrams 

(1862). 

PALIKGENE'SI A  (Gr.  paUn,  again,  and  genesu, 
birth)  is  a  term  that  appears  to  liave  originated 
among  the  Stoics,  who  employed  it  to  denote  the 
act  ofthe  Demiurgus,  or  Creator,  by  which,  having 
absorbed  all  being  into  himself,  he  reproduced  it  in 
a  new  creation.  The  occurrence  of  the  word  in  the 
New  Testament  (Titus,  iii  5,  where  it  is  used  to 
denote  regeneration)  has  given  it  a  place  in  Christian 
theology,  and  divines  have  variously  used  it  to 
express  the  resurrection  of  men,  the  new  birth  of 
the  individual  soul,  and  the  restoration  of  the  world 
to  that  perfect  state  that  it  lost  by  the  Fidl — *■  the 
new  heavens  and  the  new  earth  wherein  dwelleth 
righteousness.'  Savans  have  also  applied  tiie  term 
to  designate  both  the  great  geological  changea 
which  the  earth  has  undergone  and  tiie  trans&iv 
mations  in  the  insect  kingdom^  such  as  of  cater* 
pillars  into  butterfiies,  &c. 

PA'LINODE,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  is  a  peonliar 
practice  by  which,  in  actions  for  damages  on  account 
of  slander  or  defamation  raised  in  the  Commissary 
Court,  and  even  in  the  Sheriff  Court,  the  pursuer 
may  conclude  not  only  for  damages  but  for  palinode, 
i  e.,  a  solemn  recantation.  On  a  recent  case,  the 
question  arose  whether  this  ancient  practice  still 
existed  as  part  of  the  law  of  ScoUano,  and  it  was 
held  that  it  did.  In  actions,  however,  in  the 
Court  of  Session,  damages  only  are  given  as  the 
remedy. 

PA'LISADE,  a  paling  of  strong  timber,  used  in 
Fortification.  For  the  mode  in  which  the  palisade  is 
employed  see  Fostifioation,  under  the  head 
Stochade, 

PALISANDER  WOOD,  the  continental  name 
for  Rosewood  (q.  v.).  By  some  of  the  French 
cabinet-makers  the  name  boi$  de  FaUaandrt  is  alM 


PALISSY— PALL. 


applied  to  violet  wood  and  to  a  kind  of  striped 
ebony. 

PALISSY,  BkrnAbd,  a  French  potter,  famooa 
for  hia  glass  paintings  and  beautiful  figured  pottery^ 
was  bom  near  Agen,  now  in  the  department  of  Lot 
et  Garonne,  France,  about  1510,  ana  at  an  early  ace 
was  apprenticed  to  a  potter.  He  devoted  himsdf 
to  chemical  researches  for  the  improvement  of  his 
art,  and  made  many  journeys  through  France  and 
Germany  for  the  same  purpose ;  at  the  same  time 
carrying  on  the  business  of  a  land-surveyor.  An 
enamelled  cup  of  '  Faience,*  which  he  saw  by  chance, 
inspired  him  with  the  resolution  to  discover  the 
mode  of  producing  white  enameL  Neglecting  all 
other  labours,  he  devoted  himself  to  investigations 
and  experiments  for  the  lone  period  of  16  years. 
He  had  by  this  time  exhaustea  all  his  resources,  and 
for  want  of  money  to  buy  fuel  was  reduced  to  the 
necessity  of  burning  his  household  furniture  piece  by 
piece  ;  his  neighbours  laughed  at  him,  his  wife  over- 
whelmed him  with  reproaches,  and  his  starving 
family  surrounded  him  crying  for  food ;  but  in  spite 
of  all  these  discouragements  he  persisted  in  the 
search,  and  was  in  the  end  rewarded  by  success.  A 
few  vessels  adorned  with  figures  of  animals,  coloured 
to  represent  nature,  sold  for  high  prices,  and  enabled 
him  to  complete  his  investigivtions,  after  which  he 
became  famous ;  and  though  a  Huguenot,  was  pro- 
tected and  encouraged  by  the  king  and  the  nobility, 
who  employed  him  to  embellish  their  mansions  with 
specimens  of  his  art.  He  was  lodged  in  or  near  the 
Tuilenes,  and  was  specially  exempted  by  Queen 
Catharine  from  the  massacre  of  8t  Bartholomew, 
more  from  a  reeaixl  to  her  own  benefit  than  from 
kindness.  In  March  1575  he  commenced  a  course 
of  lectures  on  natural  history  and  physics,  and  was 
the  first  in  France  to  substitute  positive  facts  and 
rigorous  demonstrations  for  the  fanciful  interpre- 
tations of  philosophers.  In  the  course  of  these 
lectures,  he  gave  (1584)  the  first  right  notions 
of  the  origin  of  springs,  and  the  formation  of 
■tones  and  fossil  shells,  and  strongly  advocated  the 
importance  of  marl  as  a  fertilising  agent.  These, 
along  with  his  theories  regarding  the  best  means 
of  purifying  water,  have  wen  fully  supported  by 
recent  discovery  and  investigation.  In  1588  he  was 
arrested  and  tnrown  into  the  Bastile  as  a  heretic, 
but  died  in  1590  before  his  sentence  was  pronounced. 

P.  left  a  collection  of  objects  of  natural  history, 
the  first  that  had  been  formed  in  France.  His 
works  are  at  the  present  day  almost  beyond  price, 
and  his  ornaments  and  arabesques  are  amount  the 
meet  beautiful  of  the  *  renaissance.'  As  a  smcere, 
earnest,  and  courageous  man,  he  was  no  less  eminent 
tiban  as  an  artist 

PALIU'RUS,  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the 
natural  order  RhamnacecB,  nearly  allied  to  Zizyphua 
(see  Jujube),  but  very  different  in  the  fruit,  which 
is  dry,  orbicular,  and  girded  with  a  broad  mem- 
branous wins.  P,  aculeatua  is  often  called  Christ's 
Thork,  and  Iby  the  Germans,  Jews*  Thorn  {Juden- 
dom),  from  an  imagination  that  it  supplied  the 
crown  of  thorns  with  which  our  Saviour  was 
crowned.  It  is  a  deciduous  shrub  or  low  tree,  with 
slender,  pliant  branches  and  ovate  3-nerved  leaves, 
each  of  which  has  two  sharp  spines  at  the  base,  one 
straight  and  the  other  re-curved.  It  is  a  native  of 
the  countries  around  the  Mediterranean,  of  India, 
and  many  parts  of  Asia.  It  is  often  used  for  hedges 
in  Italy  and  other  countries ;  its  sharp  spines  and 
pliant  branches  admirably  adapting  it  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  fruit  has  a  singular  appearance,  being 
flat  and  thin,  attached  by  the  middle  to  the  foot- 
stalk, the  middle  being  raised  like  the  crown  of  a 
bak^  whilst  the  expansion  resembles  the  brim.    The 


seeds  are  sold  by  the  druggists  of  the  east,  and  ai» 
used  medicinally,  but  their  qualities  are  doubtful 


Christ's  Thorn  {Paliwrut  aculealui) : 
a,  ripe  fruit. 

This  shrub  is  not  micommon  in  shrubberies  in 
England,  being  very  ornamental  when  in  flower, 
but  the  fruit  does  not  ripen. 

PALK  STRAIT,  or  PALK'S  PASSAGE,  th« 
northern  portion  of  the  passage  between  the  south 
coast  of  Hindustan  and  tnc  island  of  Ceylon.  This 
passage  is  continued  southward  by  the  Gulf  of 
Manaar  (q.  v.).  It  is  from  40  to  80  miles  in  width, 
and  is  80  miles  in  length.  It  is  so  shallow — in  some 
places  being  no  more  than  two  fathoms  in  depth 
— ^that  it  cannot  be  navigated  in  safety  by  large 
vessels.    In  P.  S.  there  are  several  pearl  fisheries. 

PALL  (Lat  pallium,  also  palla,  a  cloak),  the 
name  given  in  English  to  two  very  different  portions 
of  the  vesture  employed  in  the  religious  use  of  the 
Roman  and  some  ouier  churches.  One  of  these  is 
the  funeral  pall,  an  ample  covering  of  bUck  velvet 
or  other  stcdST,  which  is  cast  over  the  cofiin  while 
being  borne  to  buriaL  The  ends  of  the  pall  are 
held  during  the  funeral  procession  by  the  most 
distineuished  amouj^  the  friends  of  the  deceased, 
generidly  selected  u*om  among  those  unconnected 
by  blood.  In  its  second  and  most  strictly  litur^cal 
use,  the  word  uaH  is  applied  to  one  of  the  covenngs 
used  at  the  altar  in  the  celebration  of  the  mass. 
Primitively,  as  appears  from  Optatus  and  other  early 
writers,  the  altar  was  covered  with  a  large  linen 
cloth— called  by  the  Latins  paUmni,  and  bv  the 
Greeks  c»^o»— the  extremities  of  which  were  folded 
back  so  as  to  cover  the  bread  and  wine  prepared  for 
the  celebration  of  tiie  eucharist.  In  later  times  a 
separate  covering  was  employed  for  the  sacra- 
mental chalice,  to  which  latter  the  name  pall  is  now 
reserved  in  the  use  of  the  Roman  Church.  The 
modem  Roman  pall  is  a  square  piece  of  linen  cloth — 
sometimes  limber,  sometimes  made  stiff  by  inserting 
pasteboard— sufficiently  large  to 
cover  the  mouth  of  the  chaUoe.  The 
upper  surface  is  often  of  silk  em- 
broidered, or  of  cloth  of  gold.  The 
surface  in  contact  with  tne  chalice 
must  always  be  of  linen. 

PALL,  in  Heraldry,  the  upper 
part  of  a  saltire  conjoined  to  the 


PaU. 


lower  part  of  a  pale.    It  appears  much  in  the  arms 

of  ecclesiastical  sees. 

U7 


PALL-MALL-PALLAS. 


PALL-MALL.    See  Mall. 

P  ALL  AD  I O,  Andrea,  a  famous  Italian  archi- 
tect, was  born  at  Vicenza,  30th  November  1618. 
After  having  studied  with  the  greatest  care  the 
writings  of  Vitrnvius,  and  the  monuments  of  anti< 
auity  at  Rome,  he  settled  in  his  native  city,  and 
nrst  acquired  a  reputation  by  his  restoration  of  the 
Basilica  of  Vicenza.  Pope  Paul  IIL  then  invited 
him  to  Rome,  designing  to  intrust  him  with  the 
execution  of  the  works  then  going  on  at  St  Peter's, 
but  his  holiness  dying  before  the  arrival  of  P.,  the 
la'  "^er  had  to  return  home.  He  was  employed  for 
many  years  in  the  construction  of  numerous  build- 
ings in  Vicenza  and  the  neighbourhood,  in  all  of 
which  he  displayed  the  most  exquisite  taste  com- 
bined with  the  most  ingenious  and  imaginative 
ornamentation.  His  stvle,  known  as  the  Piuladian, 
is  a  composite,  and  is  characterised  by  great  splen- 
dour of  execution  and  justness  of  proportion,  and  it 
exercised  an  immense  miluence  on  the  architecture 
of  Northern  Italy.  His  principal  works  are  the 
Rotonda  Oapra,  outside  Vicenza ;  the  Palazzo  Chieri- 
cado  and  the  Palazzo  Tiene,  in  the  city ;  the  Palazzo 
Barbara,  at  Maser  in  the  Trevimano,  the  Teatro 
Olympico  at  Vicenza  (his  last  work),  the  Palazzo  at 
Montagnana  for  Francesco  Pisana ;  the  churches  of 
San  Giorgio  Maggiore  and  II  Santissimo  Redemptore 
at  Venice,  the  atrium  and  cloister  at  the  convent 
Delia  Caritdr,  and  the  fa^e  of  San  Francesco  della 
Vigna  in  the  same  city.  P.  died  at  Vicenza,  August 
6, 1580.  He  wrote  a  work  on  architecture,  which  is 
highly  prized.  The  best  edition  is  that  published  at 
Vicenza  in  4  vols.,  1776. 

PALLADIUM  (symb.  Pd,  equiv.  63,  specific 
gravity  11*8)  is  one  of  the  so-called  noble  metaU, 
which  in  its  colour  and  ductility  closely  resembles 
platinum.  It  is  not  fusible  in  an  ordinary  wind- 
furnace,  but  melts  at  a  somewhat  lower  temperature 
than  the  last-named  metal ;  and  when  heated  beyond 
its  f iising-iK)int,  it  volatilises  in  the  form  of  a  green 
vapour.  It  undergoes  no  change  in  the  open  air  at 
ordinary  temperatures;  but  at  a  low  red  heat,  it 
becomes  covered  with  a  purple  film,  owing  to  super- 
ficial oxidation.  It  is  soluble  in  nitric  and  iodic 
acids,  and  in  aqua  regia.  It  combines  readUy  with 
gold,  which  it  has  the  property  of  rendering  brittle 
and  white.  (When  it  forms  20  per  cent  of  the  mass, 
the  alloy  is  perfectly  white.)  When  alloyed  with 
twice  its  weight  of  silver,  it  forms  a  ductile  com- 
pound, which  has  been  employed  for  the  construc- 
tion of  small  weights ;  but  for  this  purpose  aluminium 
is  superior.  Professor  Miller  stat^  that  it  *has 
been  applied  in  a  few  cases  to  the  construction  of 
graduated  scales  for  astronomical  instruments,  for 
which,  by  its  whiteness,  hardness,  and  unalterability 
in  the  air,  it  is  well  adapted;'  its  scarcity  must, 
however,  prevent  its  general  use  for  this  purpose. 

It  was  discovered  in  1803  by  WoUaston  in  the  ore 
of  platinum,  of  which  it  seldom  forms  so  much  as 
1  per  cent  Another  source  of  this  metal  is  the 
native  alloy  which  it  forms  with  gold  in  certain 
mines  in  Brazil,  and  which  is  term^  ouro  poudre  ; 
and  it  is  irom  this  alloy  that  the  metal  is  chiefly 
obtained. 

Palladium  forms  with  oxygen  a  protoxide,  PdO, 
which  is  the  base  of  the  ^ts  of  the  metal ;  a 
binoxide,  PdO^ ;  and  according  to  some  chemists,  a 
suboxide,  Pd^O.  On  exposure  to  sufficient  heat,  these 
compounds  give  off  their  oxygen,  and  vield  the 
metal  The  salts  of  the  protoxide  are  of  a  brown 
or  red  colour. 

PALLADIIJM,  amoiffi  the  ancient  Greeks  and 

Romans,  an  image  of  Pallas,  who  was  generally 

identified  with  Atnene,  upon  the  careful  keeping  of 

which  in  a  sanctuary  the  public  welfare  was  believed 

ai8 


to  depend.  The  Palladium  of  Troy  is  particulariy 
celebrated.  According  to  the  current  myth,  it  was 
thrown  down  from  heavea  by  Zeus,  and  fell  on  the 
plain  of  Troy,  where  it  was  picked  up  by  Hub,  the 
fotmder  of  that  city,  as  a  favourable  omen.  In  the 
course  of  time,  the  belief  spread  that  the  loss  of  it 
would  be  followed  bv  the  &li  of  the  city;  it 
was  therefore  stolen  by  OdjEsseus  and  Diomedea 
Several  cities  afterwards  boasted  of  possessing  it^ 
particularly  Argos  and  Athens.  Other  accounts, 
nowever,  s^rm  that  it  was  not  stolen  by  the  Greek 
chiefs,  but  carried  to  Italy  by  Maeaa;  and  the 
Romans  said  that  it  was  preserved  in  the  temple 
of  Vesta,  but  so  secretly,  that  even  the  Pontifex 
Maximus  might  not  behold  it.  All  images  of  this 
name  were  somewhat  coarsely  hewn  out  of  wood 

PALLAODIUS,  RiTnuus  Taurus  ^miuanus,  a 
Roman  author,  who  probably  lived  in  the  4th  c.  A.n., 
under  Valentinian  and  Theodosius.  He  wrote  a 
work,  De  Be  Bustica  (On  Agriculture),  in  14  books, 
the  last  of  which  ia  a  poem  of  85  elegiac  couplets. 
It  is,  from  a  literary  and  grammatical  point  of  \'iew, 
full  of  faults ;  but  as  it  was  a  complete  calendar  of 
Roman  agriculture,  it  was  very  useful  for  its  time, 
and  was  much  read  and  followed  during  the  middle 
ages.  P.  has  borrowed  largely  from  his  predecessors. 
Tne  best  edition  is  that  by  J.  G.  Schneider  in  his 
8criptort8  Rei  Bustica  Veteres  LaUni  (4  vols.,  Leip. 
1794). 

PAXLAa    See  Minerva. 

PALLAS,  Peter  Simon,  an  eminent  traveller 
and  naturalist,  was  born,  22d  September  1741,  at 
Berlin,  where  his  father  was  a  physician.    He  studied 
medicine,  natural  history,  and  other  branches  of 
science,  at  the  universities  of  Berlin,  GQttingen,  and 
Leyden,  and  was    employed   in   classifying  many 
valuable  collections  of  obiects  of  natural  history, 
both  in  Holland  and  England.    He  gained  a  high 
reputation  by  the  publication  of  his  Elenchua  Zoo- 
phytorum  (Hague,  1766),  a  work  still  much  valued ; 
Miscellanea  Zoolofjica  (Hague,  1766),  and  SpicUegia 
Zoologica  (2  vols.,  Berlin,  1767—1804).    The  Empress 
Catharine  invited  him,  in  1768,  to  St  Petersburg, 
where  he  was  well  received,  and  had  honours  con- 
ferred on  him,  and  he  was  subsequentlv  appointed 
naturalist  to  a  scientific  expedition  Douna  for  Siberia, 
there  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus.     P.  spent  six 
years  on  this  journey   (1768—1774),   exploring  in 
succession  the  Ural  Mountains,  the  Kirghis  Steppes^ 
great  part  of  the  Altaian  range,  and  the  country 
arouna  Lake  Baikal  as  far  as  Kiachta,  great  part  of 
Siberia,  and  the  steppes  of  the  Volga,  returning  to 
St  Petersburg  in  1774,  with  an  extraordiuxury  trea- 
sure of  specimens  in  natural  history,  which  form 
the  nucleus  of  the  Museum  of  the  Academy  of  St 
Petersburg.    His  travels  (Reieen  durch  ventchiedene 
Promnzen  des  Buss,  Beichs)  were  published  at  St 
Petersburg  (1771 — 1776),  in  three  volumes,  and  were 
followed  mr  his  Sajnmlung  historisdver  Nackrichtak 
iiher  die  MongoL  V^Ueerachafien  (2  vols.,  St  Petersh. 
1776—1802),  and  his  Neue  nordi^che  Beitrdge  zur  ^ 
phifsikdUachen  und  geographischen  Erd-  und  VdUeer* 
beachreibungj  NaJturgeadtiade  und  Oekonomie  (6  vola.^ 
St  Petersb.  1781—1793).  Without  positively  neglect- 
ing any  branch  of  natural  history,  he  now  devoted 
himself  more  particularly  to  botany ;  and  his  mag- 
nificent Flora  Bossica  (St  Petersb.  1784—1788),  a 
work  which,  however,  he  was  not  able  to  complete, 
and  his  Species  Astragaiorum  (14  parts,  Leip.  1800-— 
1804),  were  among  the  results  of  his  studies.      He 
published  also  Icones  Insectorum  prteeipue  Bo^sias 
Sibiriceque  Peculiarium  (Erlangen,  1781,  1783,  and 
1806) ;  and  contributed  to  a  glossary  of  idl  tho 
languages  of  the  Russian  eAipire,  which  was  pub- 
lished at  St  Petersburg.      As  he  wishetj   to  liv* 


PALLAVICmO— PALM. 


in  the  Crimea,  the  Empress  Catharine  presented 
him  with  an  estate  in  the  finest  part  of  that  penin- 
sula, where  he  resided  generally  from  1796.  His 
Travda  in  the  South  of  Ruma  were  published  in 
1799  (2  vols.,  Leip.,  with  volume  of  plates).  After 
the  death  of  his  wife,  he  went  to  Berlin,  where  he 
died,  8th  September  1811.  A  large  and  valuable 
work  of  his,  on  the  Fauna  of  Russia,  has  not  yet 
(1862)  been  published. 

PALLAVICINO,  PrsTRO  Sforza,  an  Italian 
historian,  son  of  the  Marquis  Alessandro  Pallavicino 
of  Parma,  was  born  at  Rome,  20th  November  1607. 
Much  to  the  disgust  of  his  father,*  he  took  priest's 
mders,  and  helcf  several  important  ecclesiastical 
ap|>ointments  during  the  pontilicate  of  Urban  VIIL 
In  1637»  he  became  a  member  of  the  Jesuit  Society, 
and  was  created  a  cardinal  in  1657  by  Pope 
Alexander  VIL  He  died  at  Rome,  6th  June  1667. 
P.  was  a  fine  scholar,  and  often  presided  in  the 
famous  Roman  academy  of  the  UnwristL  The  best 
known  of  all  his  writings  is  his  Istbria  del  CondUo 
de  Trento  (Rome,  1656 — 1657),  intended  as  a  reply 
to  the  still  more  celebrated  and  liberal,  although,  dv 
Catholics,  deeply  suspected,  work  of  Paul  SarpL 
Among  his  other  works  may  be  mentioned  Vimlica- 
Uonea  Soc  Jea,  (Rome,  1649) ;  Arte  della  Per/ezione 
Cristiana — /  FasU  Sacri  (the  unpublished  MS.  is 
in  the  library  of  Parma) ;  Ermentjilda<,  a  tragedy 
(Rome,  1614) ;  Gli  Avwrtimmii  QrammaiicaU 
(Rome,  1661) ;  Trallato  dello  Stilo  e  del  Dialogo 
(Rome,  1662),  and  Lettere  (Rome,  1668). 

PAXiLI,  a  town  of  Rajputana,  in  Judpore,  stands 
on  the  right  bank  of  a  branch  of  the  Luni  River,  in 
lat.  25"  ^'  N.,  long.  73'  24'  E.  It  is  an  entrepot  for 
the  opium  sent  from  Malwa  to  Bombay,  and  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  commerce.  It  imports  European 
manufactured  goods  extensively,  and  is  estimated  to 
contain  about  50,000  inhabitants. 

PALLIOBRANCHIA'TA.  See  Branchiopoda. 

PA'LLiIUM,  the  name  given  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  to  on€  of  tae  ecclesiastical  orna- 
ments worn  by  the  pope,  by  patriarchs,  and  by 
archbishops.  Its  use  is  held  by  Itoman  Catholics  to 
descend  from  a  very  early  period.  It  is  worn  by 
the  pope  at  all  times,  as  a  s^bol  of  his  reputed 
universal  and  abiding  jurisdiction.  By  archbishops 
it  cannot  be  worn  unm  it  has  been  solemnly  asked  for 
and  granted  by  the  pope,  and  even  then  only  during 
ike  solemn  service  of  the  great  church  festivals,  and 
on  occasions  of  the  ormnation  of  bishops  or  of 
priests,  and  other  similar  acts  of  the  archiepiscopal 
Older.  The  pallium  is  a  narrow  annular  cuuid  of 
white  woollen  web,  about  three  inches  wide,  upon 
which  black  crosses  are  embroidered,  which  encircles 
the  neck  of  the  archbishop,  and  from  which  two 
narrow  bands  of  the  same  material  depend,  one 
£iUing  over  the  breast,  the  other  over  the  back  of 
the  wearer.  Its  material  is  the  subject  of  much  care 
and  oeremoniaL  It  is  made  wholly  or  in  part 
from  the  wool  of  two  lambs,  which  are  blessed 
annually  on  the  festival,  and  in  the  church  of  St 
Agnes.  During  the  night  of  the  vigil  of  the  feast 
of  St  Peter  and  St  Paid,  the  pallia  made  of  this 
wool  are  placed  on  the  altar  above  the  tomb  of  these 
apostles,  and  on  the  feast  of  St  Peter  and  St  Paul  are 
delivered  by  the  pope  to  the  subdeacon,  whose  duty 
it  is  to  keep  them  in  charge.  Within  three  months 
of  his  consecration,  every  new  archbishop  is  obliged 
to  apply  to  the  pope,  in  person  or  by  proxy,  for  the 
pallium  ;  nor  is  it  Lawful  for  him,  until  ne  shall  have 
received  it,  fo  exercise  any  act  of  what  is  properly 
archiepiscopal,  as  contradistinguished  from  episcopai 
jurisdiction.  Thus,  he  cannot,  for  example,  call  a 
provincieU  synod.  The  pallium  cannot  be  transferred 
from  one  archbishop  to  another,  but  must  be  received 


direct  from  the  pope.  On  the  andibishop's  deathi 
his  palliimi  is  interred  with  him.  Its  use  is  held  to 
svmoolise  the  office  of  the  *  good  shepherd '  bearing 
the  lost  sheep  on  his  shoulders,  and  is  connecte'l  by 
some  writers  with  the  vesture  of  the  Jewish  high- 
priest  in  Exod.  xxviii  4.  In  the  medieval  church,  the 
granting  of  the  pallium  to  archbishops  was  one  of 
the  chief  occasions  of  the  tribute  which  was  paid  by 
the  national  churches  to  the  support  of  the  great 
central  office  and  dignity  of  the  papacy.  In  some 
sees,  as,  for  instance,  uiose  of  the  great  prinoe-bisho])s 
of  the  Rhine,  the  tribute  was  as  much  as  20,000 
florins.  Roman  Catholics,  however,  maintain  that 
this  tribute  was  not  a  payment  for  the  jiallium,  but 
an  offering  to  the  holy  see,  made  on  occasion  of  the 
grant  of  that  emblem  of  jurisdiction. 

PALM,  a  measure  of  length,  originally  taken  from 
the  width  of  the  hand,  measured  across  the  joints  of 
the  four  fingers.  In  Greece,  it  was  known  as  palaistif 
and  was  reckoned  at  3  inches,  or  |^  of  a  cubit,  which 
was  their  standard  unit.  The  Romans  adopted  two 
measureis  of  this  name — ^the  one  was  the  Greek 
palaisUf  and  was  called  paimus  minor;  the  other, 
which  was  not  introduced  till  later  times,  was 
called  palmu8  major,  or  palma,  and  was  taken  from 
the  laigth  of  the  hand,  being  therefore  usually 
estimated  at  three  tunes  the  length  of  the  other. 
At  the  present  day,  this  measure  varies  in  a  mosi 
arbitrary  manner,  being  different  in  each  country, 
and  occasionally  varying  in  the  same.  The  Enghsh 
palm,  when  used  at  aU,  which  is  seldom,  is  con- 
sidered to  be  the  fourth  part  of  an  English  foot, 
or  3  inches.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most 
common  measures  to  which  the  name  palm  is 
given: 

Vft1u«  ill  Bi 
InchM. 

B      3  03375 


Greek  pa/a»f?,        .       #       . 
Botnan  pa/mitf,  or  lesser  palm, 
II       paimOy  or  greater  palm, 
English  palm  (^  of  a  foot), 
Hamburg  palm  ( I  of  a  foot),    • 
Amsterdam  *  mund '  palm, 
II  'diameter'  pulm, 


=  2*9124 

=  8-737a 

s  3*0000 

a  8*7633 

B  41300 

=  11-9687 

3-9371 


Spanish  palm,  or  palmo  mnyn-^      .       •    =       8  8450 

ti         n  ' ,  or  paimo  witnor,  =        2*7817 

Portuguese  palm,  or  palmo  de  Craveira^     =       8*6616 

In  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  the  palm  is 
generallv  confined  to  wood-measurement,  while  ia 
rortugal  it  is  the  standard  of  linear  measure. 

PALM,  Johanh  Fhiupp,  a  bookseller  of 
Nuremberg,  who  has  acq^uired  an  historic  celebrity 
as  a  victim  of  Napoleonic  justice  in  Germanv.  £[e 
was  bom  at  Schorndorf  in  1766,  and  succeeded  his 
father-in-law.  Stein,  as  a  bookseller  in  Nurembeig, 
the  old  name  of  the  firm  being  retained.  In  the 
spring  of  1806,  a  pamphlet,  entitled  DeuUchland 
in  seiner  ti^sten  Erniedrigung  (Germany  in  its 
Deepest  Humiliation),  which  oontaiined  some  bitter 
truths  concerning  Napoleon,  and  concerning  the 
conduct  of  the  French  troops  in  Bavaria,  was  sent 
by  this  firm  to  a  bookseller  in  Aussburg  in  the 
ordinary  course  of  trade,  and,  as  P.  to  the  last 
moment  of  his  life  averred,  without  any  regard, 
on  his  part,  to  its  contents.  Napoleon's  police 
traced  it  to  the  shop  in  Nm-emberg,  and  an  mves* 
tigation  was  ordered,  from  which  nothing  resulted 
Palm  was  in  Munich,  and  perhaps  esca])ea  imprison- 
ment there  because  his  name  was  not  the  same  with 
that  of  the  firm ;  but  supposing  all  safe,  he  returned 
to  Nurembei|;,  and  was  there  taken  prisoner,  and 
examined  before  Marshal  Bemadotte,  whose  adju- 
tant represented  his  arrestment  as  the  conse- 
quence of  direct  orders  from  Paris.  An  extrar- 
ordinary  court-martial,  held  at  Brunau,  to  which  he 
was  removed,  condemned  him  to  death,  without 

any  advocate   being  heard  in  his  defence.     All 

tl9 


PALMER-WORM— PALMITIC  ACID. 


»D  «o  prond  of  hhn*— -P.  entered  upon  a  manly  and 
dignified  vindication  of  his  foreign  policy ;  and  Mr 
Roebuck's  motion  was  carried  by  a  majorily  of  46. 
In  December  1851,  the  public  were  startled  at  the 
news  that  P.  was  no  longer  a  member  of  the  Russell 
cabinet.  He  had  expressed  his  approbation  of  the 
coup  (TSUU  of  Louis  Napoleon,  without  consulting 
either  the  premier  or  the  Queen )  and  as  explana- 
tions were  refused,  her  Majesty  ezercisea  her 
constitutional  risht  of  dismissing  ner  minister.  P. 
avenged  himself,  as  soon  as  parliament  met,  by 
shattering  the  Russell  administration  to  pieces  on  a 
comparatively  trifling  question  regarding  the  militia. 
He  refused  an  offer  n>om  the  Ean  of  Derbv  to  join 
the  government  which  he  was  oonunissioned  to  form, 
but  accepted  the  post  of  Home  Secretary  in  the 
coalition  administration  of  the  Earl  of  Aberdeen  in 
1852.  The  fall  of  this  government,  on  Mr  Roebuck's 
motion  for  a  Sebastopm  committee,  placed  P.  in  his 
71st  year  in  the  position  of  prime  mmister,  to  which 
he  was  unanimously  called  by  the  voice  of  the 
nation.  He  vigorously  prosecuted  the  Russian  war 
until  Sebastopol  was  taken,  and  peace  was  made. 
His  soverumeut  was  defeated  in  March  1857,  on  Mr 
Cobden's  motion,  condemnatory  of  the  Chinese  war. 
Parliament  was  dissolved,  and  P.  met  the  House  of 
Commons  with  a  large  majority.  But  his  adminis- 
tnition  fell  in  February  1858;  upon  the  Conspiracy 
Bill,  intended  to  protect  the  French  emperor  against 
the  machinations  of  plotting  refugees.  A  short 
Conservative  administration  followed ;  but  in  June 
1859,  P.  was  again  called  to  the  post  of  First  Lord 
of  the  Treasury,  which  he  has  continued  to  fill 
to  the  present  moment  (June  1864).  It  has  been 
his  ambition  to  be  considered  the  minister  of  a 
nation  rather  than  the  minister  of  a  political  party ; 
and  his  opponents  have  been  constrained  to  admit 
that  he  has  held  office  with  more  general  acceptance 
than  any  English  minister  since  the  time  of  the 

great  Lord  Chatham.  As  an  orator,  he  is  usually 
omely  and  unpretending,  but  always  sensible  and 
practical.  He  is  a  dexterous  tactician,  and  a  ready, 
witty,  and  often  brilliant  debater.  He  is  popular 
as  a  minister,  because  he  is  thoroughly  English 
in  his  ends  and  aims.  Even  his  robust  health, 
manl^  bearing,  and  physical  vigour,  are  elements 
of  his  popularity,  because  they  are  regarded  as 
a  glorification  of  the  English  sports,  which  he  has 
never  been  ashamed  to  patronise.  He  desires 
nothing  so  ardently  as  to  i)romote  the  wealth  and 
grandeur  of  Great  Britain,  and  his  national  cha* 
racter  and  national  spirit  are  thoroughly  appreciated 
bv  his  countrymen.  Me  married,  in  1839,  the  widow 
of  the  fifth  Earl  of  Cowper,  daughter  of  the  first 
Viscount  Melbourne.  As  he  is  without  issue,  and 
His  only  brother,  the  Honourable  W.  Temple,  many 
years  British  minister  at  Naples,  died  unmarried, 
the  title  becomes  extinct  on  his  decease. 

PALMER- WORM,  a  name  given  to  many  large 
kinds  of  grub,  the  larvae  of  coleopterous  insects, 
destnictive  to  vegetable  substances  of  various  kinds. 
It  is  used  in  the  English  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment as  the  translation  of  the  Hebrew  gazam, 
rendered  hampt  by  the  Septuagint,  which  modem 
Hebrew  writers  and  others  very  generally  regard 
as  a  kind  of  locust,  although  more  probably  it  is 
cither  the  grub  of  a  coleopterous  or  the  caterpillar 
of  a  lepidopterous  insect. — See  Kitto  in  Pictorial 
Bible,  on  Joel  l  4 

PcUmer-flies  are  much  used  by  anglers  on  the 
English  streams,  and  are  at  certain  seasons  excel- 
lent  lures  for  trout^  &o. 

PALME'TTO  {Sabal  palmetto,  or  Chamcerops 
palmetto),  a  species  of  palm,  a  native  of  maritime 
parts  of  North  America^  as  far  nortii  as  lat  35^, 


which  is  further  north  than  any  other  American 
species  of  palm  is  found.  It  attains  a  height  of  40 
---50  feet,  and  has  a  crown  of  large  palmat^  leaves, 
the  blade  from  one  foot  to  five  feet  in  length  and 
breadth,  and  the  footstalk  long.  The  flowers  are 
small,  greenish,  and  in  long  racemes;  the  frait 
black,  about  as  long  as  a  pea-pod,  and  uneatable. 
The  leaves  are  made  into  hats.  The  terminal  bad 
or  cabbage  is  eaten.  The  wood  is  extremely  pormis : 
but  is  preferred  to  every  other  kind  of  wood  in  North 
America  for  wharfs,  as  it  is  very  durable,  and  not 
liable  to  be  attacked  by  worms. — The  Chamaropt 
(q.  V.)  humilia  of  the  south  of  Europe  is  also  csUed 
Palmetta 

PALMETTO-LEAVES,  the  leaves  of  the  Palmyra 
(q.  V.)  palm,  Borassua  JlaheUi/armia,  which  grows  ex- 
tensively in  India  and  Polynesia.  The  leaves  have 
great  value  as  a  material  for  the  manufacture  of 
ats,  mats,  &c.,  and  for  this  purpose  are  frequently 
imported  into  Europe.  In  their  native  country,  they 
are  used  as  thatch,  and  for  a  great  variety  of  other 
useful  applications. 

PALMIPEDES,  or  WEB-FOOTED  BIRDS,  also 
called  Natatores,  or  Swihmbbs,  an  order  of  birds, 
the  Atueree  of  Linnsus,  very  natural  and  univer< 
sally  recognised  by  ornithologists,  having  the  feet 
specially  formed  for  swimming,  and  the  toes  toebbid, 
i  e.,  connected  by  a  membrane,  at  least  those  which 
are  directed  forwards.  In  swimming,  tiie  feet  are 
contracted  when  drawn  forwards,  uie  toes  being 
brought  together,  and  expanded  to  their  utmost 
extent  in  the  backward  stroke.  In  accordance  with 
their  aquatic  habits,  the  P.  are  further  characterised 
by  a  boat-like  form,  calculated  to  move  through  the 
water  with  little  resistance;  and  by  a  dense  and 
polished  plumage,  oiled  by  a  secretion  from  certain 
glands  near  the  tail,  very  impervious  to  water; 
whilst  warmth  is  further  secured  by  a  clothing  of 
down,  more  or  less  abundant,  beneath  the  feathers. 
They  are  remarkable  for  the  length  of  the  breast- 
bone {sternum),  and  the  neck  is  often  longer  than 
the  legs,  a  thing  very  unusual  in  birds,  so  that  they 
can  plunge  the  head  far  down  in  searoh  of  food. 
The  length  of  the  wings  differs  very  much  in 
different  sections  of  the  order,  and  with  it  the 
power  of  flying ;  as  does  also  the  power  of  diving, 
which  some  possess  in  a  high  degree,  and  others, 
even  of  the  same  family,  in  a  very  inferior  degree. 
To  this  order  belong  geese,  swans,  ducks,  divers, 
grebes,  auks,  guillemots,  pufiSns,  penguins,  petrels, 
albatrosses,  gulls,  terns,  shearwatars,  noddies, 
pelicans,  cormorants,  frigate-birds,  gannets,  darters, 
tropic-birds,  &o. 

PALMITIC  ACID  (HOfiJRtflz)  »  oi»e  of  the 
most  important  of  the  Fatty  Acids,  represented  by 
the  general  formula  H0,CnHn.i09  (see  On^  and 
Fats).  In  a  pure  state,  when  crystallised  from 
alcohol,  it  occurs  in  the  form  of  beautifully  white 
acicular  crystals  arranged  in  tuft-like  groups. 
These  crystals  are  devoid  of  odour  or  taste,  com- 
municate a  fatty  feeling  to  the  finger,  fuse  at  14^'fl, 
and  solidify  on  cooling  in  the  form  of  crystalline 
scales.  This  acid  is  lighter  than  water,  in  which  it 
is  perfectiy  insoluble ;  but  it  dissolves  freely  in 
boiling  alcohol  and  in  ether,  and  the  solutions  have 
a  distmctly  acid  reaction.  In  small  quantities  it 
may  be  distilled  without  decomposing,  if  the  heat 
be  carefully  regulated.  The  neutral  palmitatea  of 
the  alkalies  constitute  soaps,  and  are  soluble  in 
water ;  if,  however,  their  solutions  are  largely 
diluted  with  additional  water,  they  are  decomposed, 
an  insoluble  acid  salt  being  precipitated,  wnile  a 
portion  of  the  base  remains  in  solution.  Th6 
addition  of  chloride  of  sodium  (common  salt}  to  a 
solution  of  an  alkaline  palmitate  produces  a  aizniUr 


PALMITINE— PALMS. 


•ffect.  The  other  most  important  compounds  of 
palmitic  acid  are  those  which  it  forms  with  glycerine 
and  with  cetylic  ether.  With  f^lycerine  this  acid  forms 
three  compounds,  viz.,  a  triglyceride  or  tripalmitate 
(constituting  the  ordinary  PALMiTurB  of  chemists),  a 
diglyceride,  and  a  monoglyceride.  In  addition  to 
its  existence  in  the  form  of  palmitine,  palmitic  acid 
ia  found  in  a  free  state  in  old  palm  oiL  In  combi- 
nation with  cetylic  ether,  or  of  oxide  of  cetyl,  whose 
oompoeition  is  represented  by  the  formula  C33H33O, 
it  ia  the  main  constituent  of  Spermaceti  (q.  v.),  which 
IB  in  fact  essentiidly  a  palmitate  of  oxide  of  cetyl 
iGjJ3.^Ofiyfi^0^  ;  and  as  a  palmitate  of  oxide  of 
meussyl — a  substance  which  will  be  noticed  in  the 
article  Wax — it  is  the  chief  ingredient  of  bees- wax. 

PAXMITINE  is  a  white  fat,  usually  occurring, 
when  crystallised  from  ether,  in  the  form  of  a  mass 
of  small  scaly  ciystals.  According  to  Dufiy,  it  occurs 
like  the  allied  fat  stearine  in  &ee  modifications, 
each  of  which  has  a  different  melting-iK>iut — viz., 
114** '8,  14.3**,  and  145^  On  cooling,  it  solidifies  into 
a  wax-like  mass,  of  lower  specific  gravity  than  water, 
and  insoluble  in  that  fluid,  but  readily  soluble  in 
ether  and  in  boiling  alcohol  It  is  a  constituent  of 
almost  every  kind  of  fat,  and  is  the  preponderating 
ingredient  in  those  of  a  semi-solid  consistence,  and  in 
m^ny  oils.  It  receives  its  name  from  the  abundance 
in  which  it  occurs  in  palm  oil,  and  it  may  readily  be 
obtained  from  this  source  by  removing  the  liquid 
portion  (the  oleine)  by  pressure,  and  purifying  the 
remaining  palmitine  by  crystallisation  from  ether,  or 
a  mixture  of  ether  and  alcohol  It  has  been  stated 
in  the  article  on  Glycerine  (q.  v.)  that  the  com- 
position of  that  substance  may  be  represented  by  the 
formula  CqH503,3HO.  When  palmitic  acid  imites 
with  it  to  form  a  triglyceride  (or  the  substance 
usually  recognised  as  palmitine),  three  atoms  of  the 
anhydrous  acid  expel  and  replace  the  three  atoms  of 
water  in  the  glycerine,  and  the  resulting  compound, 
palmitine,  is  consequently  represented  by  the 
formula  C^Ufis  -I-  3(Ca^siO,),  or  CiojHj^Oi, 

PALiMS  (Palmm  or  Pcdmacece),  a  natural  order 
o£  endogenous  plants,  not  excelled  in  importance  by 
any  order  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  except  Grasses. 
They  are  generally  tall  and  slender  trees,  often  of 
gigantic  height,  without  a  branch,  and  bearing  at  the 
aommit  a  magnificent  and  graceful  crown  of  very 
large  leaves.  The  stem  is  sometimes,  however,  of 
humble  growth,  and  more  rarely  it  is  thick  in  pro- 

rortion  to  its  height;  sometimes,  but  rarely,  it  is 
ranched,  as  in  the  Doom  (^.  v.)  Palm ;  and  some- 
timea,  as  in  Rattans  (q.  v.),  it  is  flexible,  and  seeks 
support  from  trees  and  bushes,  over  which  it  climbs 
in  jungles  and  dense  forests,  clinging  to  them  by 
means  of  hooked  spines.  Some  of  the  species  with 
flexible  stem  attain  a  prodigious  length,  ascending 
to  the  tops  of  the  highest  trees,  and  falling  down 
asain.  Rumphius  asserts  that  they  are  sometimes 
1200,  or  even  1800  feet  long.  Whatever  the  form  or 
magnitude  of  the  stem  of  a  palm,  it  is  always  woody, 
imd  the  root  is  always  fibrous.  It  is  only  towards 
its  circumference,  however,  that  the  stem  is  hard. 
And  there  in  many  species  it  is  extremely  hard ; 
but  the  centre  is  soft,  often  containing,  when  young, 
a  great  quantity  of  starch  (sago),  and  sometimes 
filled,  when  old,  with  a  mass  of  fibres  which  can  be 
separated  without  difficulty.  Concerning  the  struc- 
ture of  the  stem,  see  Endogenous  Plants.  The 
stem  is  generally  marked  externally  with  rinm  or 
scar%,  where  former  leaves  have  been  attached ; 
sometimes  it  is  rough  with  the  remaining  bases  of 
the  leaves,  and  part  of  it  is  sometimes  covered  with 
their  fibrous  appendages.  No  other  plants  have 
leaves  so  large  as  many  of  the  P. ;  the  largest  of 
ail  are  those  of  some  of  the  fan-leaved  P.,  but  there 


are  P.   with   pinnate  leaves  50  feet  long  and  8 
feet  broad,  and  undivided  leaves  are  to  oe  seen 
30  feet  long  by  4  or  5  feet  broad.    There  are,  how- 
ever, also  smaU  P.,  and  P.  with  flexible  stems,  which 
have  small  leaves.    The  number  of  the  large  leavea 
which  form  the  crown  of  even  the  most  magnificent 
palm  is  never  great.    Whatever  the  size  or  form  of 
the  leaves,  they  are  always  stalked,  the  stalk  being 
often  in  dimensions  equal  to  a  large  bough  of  a 
great  oak  or  other  such  tree.     The  leaves  are  com* 
monly  pinnated,  the  number  of  pinnules  or  leaflets 
being  often  very  great ;  but  about  one-sixth  of  the 
whole  number  of  known  species  of   P.  have  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  and  a  few  species  have  undivided 
leaves.  The  leaves  are  in  all  cases  persistent,  only  fall* 
ing  off  in  succession  as  the  palm  advances  in  growth, 
and  new  ones  are  formed  at  the  summit.   The  flowers 
are  sometimes  hermaphrodite,  sometimes  unisexual ; 
the  same  tree  having  sometimes  male,  female,  and 
hermaphrodite  flowers,  whilst  other  species  are  mon- 
oecious and  others  dioecious.    The  perianth  has  six 
divisions,  three  outer  and  three  inner ;   there  are 
generally  six,  rarely  three  stamens ;   the  ovary  is 
composed  of  three  carpels,  distinct  or  united,  each 
with  one  cell  containing  one  ovule.    The  flowers  are 
small,  but  are  often  produced  in  dense  masses  of 
very  striking  appearance.     Humboldt  reckons  the 
number  of  flowers  on  a  single  palm  {Alforma  amyg- 
dalina)  as  about  600,000,  and  every  bunch  of  the 
Seje  Palm  of  the  Oronoco  consists  of  about  8000 
fruits.     The  flowers  are  produced  on  scaly  spadices, 
often  much  branched,  and  enclosed,  before  expand- 
ing, in  leathery  or  woody  spathes,  often  very  large, 
and  sometimes   opening  by  bursting  with  a  loud 
explosion.      The  nowers  of  some  P.  emit  a  very 
powerful  odour,  which  attracts  multitudes  of  insecta 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  a  kind  of  berry,  sometimes 
a  drupe,  either  with  a  fleshy  or  a  fibrous  covering  ; 
and  sometimes  contains  a  very  hard  and  bony  nut. 
The  fruit  is  sometimes  only  of  the  size  of  a  pea  or  a 
cherry ;  sometimes,  notwithstanding  the  smallness 
of  the  flowers,  it  is  of  very  large  size,  of  which  the 
cocoa-nut  is  a  familiar  example. 

Palms  are  mostly  natives  of  tropical  countries, 
being  found  almost  everywhere  within  the  tropics, 
and  forming,  perhaps,  the  most  striking  character- 
istic of  tropical  vegetation.  The  tropical  parts  of 
America,  however,  particularly  abound  in  them, 
producing  a  far  greater  number  of  species  than  any 
other  part  of  the  world.  A  few  species  are  found 
in  temperate  regions  ;  one  species  only,  ChamasropB 
humilis,  being  a  native  of  £iu*ope,  and  extending  as 
far  north  as  lat.  44°,  whilst  the  northern  limit  of 
P.  in  Asia  is  about  lat.  34°,  and  in  North  America, 
lat.  35^  In  South  America,  the  southern  limit  of 
P.  is  lat.  36" ;  in  Australia,  it  is  lat.  35° ;  in 
Africa,  no  native  species  is  found  further  south  than 
lat.  30°  ;  but  in  New  Zealand,  one  species  extends 
as  far  south  as  lat.  38°  22'.  Some  of  the  species, 
however,  which  are  found  in  tropical  America  grow 
in  mountain  regions  bordering  upon  the  fimite  of 
perpetual  snow.  Some  P.  have  very  narrow  geo- 
graphical limits ;  the  cocoa-nut  palm  is  by  far  the 
most  extensively  distributed  species.  Some,  like 
the  cocoa-nut,  grow  in  maritime,  others  in  inland 
districts.  Some  grow  on  dry  and  sandy  ground, 
others  in  the  ricnest  alluvial  soil,  and  some  in 
swampy  situations ;  some  in  open  districts,  others 
in  dense  forests.  Some  species  are  generally  found 
singly,  some  in  groups ;  some  even  cover  tracts  of 
country  in  which  no  other  tree  appears. 

The  uses  of  P.  are  many  ana  various;  there  is 
almost  no  species  which  is  not  capable  of  beiiur 
api)lied  to  some  use.  Tribes  in  the  lowest  grade  ^ 
civilisation  depend  almost  entirely  on  particular 
species  of  palm,  as  the  oocoa-nut  palm,  for  the 


PALMS— PALMYRA  PALNL 


•apply  of  all  tlieir  wants.  The  fruit  of  some  species 
IB  eaten ;  sometinies  the  fleshy  part  of  the  fruity 
sometimes  the  kernel  of  the  nut.  The  importance 
of  the  date  and  the  cocoa-nut  needs  only  to  be 
alluded  to ;  but  in  tiiis  respect  they  far  excel  the 
fruits  of  aU  other  palms.  A  grateful  beverage  is 
made  from  the  fruit  of  some  P.  (see  AasAi),  consist- 
ing simply  of  a  mixture  of  the  pulp  with  water; 
but  a  kmd  of  wine  can  be  obtained  also  by  ferment- 
ation (see  Date).  A  kind  of  bevera^  more  gene- 
rally used  is  the  sap  of  palm-trees,  either  fresn  or 
fermented  {jxdm-vnne  or  toddy),  from  which  also  a 
kind  of  spirits  called  Arrack  (q.  v.)  is  obtained-  by 
distillation  ;  whilst  from  the  fi«ah  sap,  boiled  down, 
sugar  is  obtained — ^the  jaggery  of  the  East  Indies. 
The  sap  of  Yarions  species  of  palm  is  collected  and 
used  for  these  purposes,  and  that  of  many  others  is 
probably  not  less  suitable.  The  pulp  of  the  fruit  of 
some  species,  and  the  kernel  of  others,  yield  bland 
fixed  ou  useful  for  yarious  purposes.  See  Oil  Palm 
and  OoooA-NuT.  The  sort  and  starchy  centre  of 
the  stem  of  some  P.  affords  a  very  important  and 
abundant  article  of  food.  See  Saoo.  The  terminal 
bud,  or  cabbage,  of  some  Bi>ecies  is  boiled  for  the 
table ;  and  although  the  taking  of  the  bud  is  death 
to  the  tree,  this  is  Uttie  regarded  where  vegetation 

goes  on  with  a  rapidity  and  luxuriance  unknown  in 
lie  colder  parts  of  the  world.  The  young  sprouts 
arising  from  the  seeds  of  P.,  when  they  have  uegun 
to  vegetate,  are  another  esculent  of  tropical  coun- 
tries. From  the  stems  of  some  species  of  palm,  as 
the  Wax  Palm  (q.  v.)  of  the  Andes,  and  from  the 
leaves  of  some,  as  the  Camahuba  Palm  (q.  v.),  wax 
is  obtained,  which  is  used  for  the  same  purposes  as 
bees-wax.  The  wood  of  P.  is  used  in  house  building, 
and  for  many  other  purposes ;  some  affording  very 
hard  and  beautiful  wood  for  ornamental  work,  whilst 
others  are  suitable  only  for  coarse  purposes.  The 
great  leaf -stalks  are  also  used  for  some  of  the  purposes 
of  timber.  The  stems  of  the  most  slender  species 
are  used  for  walking-sticks,  &o.,  and,  split  or  unsplit, 
lor  wicker-work.  See  Rattan.  The  leaves  of  many 
P.  are  used  for  thatching  houses.  The  spathes  of 
some  species  are  used  as  vessels  or  bags.  The  fibres 
of  the  leaf,  the  fibres  connected  with  the  leaf-stalk, 
the  fibres  of  the  rind  of  the  fruit,  and  the  fibres  of 
the  stem  of  different  kinds  of  P.  are  used  for  making 
cordage,  mats,  nets,  cloth,  Ac.  The  most  important 
of  these  fibres  are  Coir  (q.  v.)  or  Cocoa-nut  Fibre, 
Gomuto  (q.  v.)  or  £joo  Fiore,  and  Piassaba  (q.  v.). 
The  coarsest  fibres  are  employed  as  bristles  for 
making  brushes,  &o.  Stripes  of  the  delicate  epi- 
dermis of  the  young  unopened  leaves  of  some  SouUi 
American  P.  are  twisted,  and  so  used  for  making  a 
kind  of  thread;  hammocks  made  of  which  are  highly 
valued.  See  Astrogabtdm.  The  leaves  of  the 
Palmyra  Palm  and  Talipot  Palm  are  used  in  some 
parts  of  the  east  for  writing  upon,  an  iron  style 
being  employed  instead  of  a  pen.  One  of  the  kinds 
of  the  resinous  substance  culed  DragorCa  Blood  is 
obtained  from  the  fruit  of  a  palm.  The  Betel  (q.v.) 
Kut,  abounding  in  catechu,  is  the  fruit  of  a  palm. 
The  fruit  of  many  P.  is  very  acrid.  The  ashes  of  the 
fruits  of  some  American  species  are  used  by  the 
Indians  as  a  substitute  for  salt,  probably  on  account 
of  potash,  or  some  salt  of  potash,  which  they  con- 
tain ;  and  much  potash  may  be  obtained  from  the 
stems  and  leaves  of  palms.  Vegetable  Ivory  (q.  v.) 
is  the  kemd  of  the  miit  of  a  pum  ;  and  somewhat 
similar  to  it  in  quality  is  the  Coquilla  Nut  (q.  v.). 
But  a  complete  enumeration  of  uie  uses  to  which 
P.  and  thoir  products  are  applied  is  alxnost  impos- 
sible. 

Some  of  the  more  important  spedes  ol  P.  are 
noticed  in  separate  articles. 

About  &^r%  hundred  species  are  known ;  but  it  is 


probable  that  many  are  still  undescribed.  The 
most  complete  wort  on  P.  is  the  monograph  by 
Marti  us,  Oenera  et  Species  Palmarum  (3  vols.,  lar^e 
folio,  Munich,  1823—1345),  a  magnificent  work, 
with  219  coloured  plates;  but  many  new  species 
have  been  discovered  since  its  publication. 

The  cultivation  of  P.  in  hothouses  is  attended 
with  great  expense.  Separate  houses  are  devoted 
to  them  in  a  few  gardens,  of  which  the  matest  is 
that  at  Kew.  A  very  fiiie  palm-house  nas  been 
erected  in  the  Botanic  Garden  of  Edinburgh.  P. 
are  cultivated  in  hothouses  merely  as  objects  of 
interest,  and  for  the  gratification  of  a  refineid  taste, 
never  for  the  sake  of  their  fruit  or  any  other 
product 

PALMT'RA,  the  name  gjven  by  the  Greeks  to 

a  great  and  splendid  city  of  Upper  Syria.  Its 
original  Hebrew  name  was  Tadmor,  which,  like  the 
Greek  word,  means  '  city  of  palms.'  It  was  built, 
according  to  the  writers  of  Kings  (Book  L  chap.  ix. 
verse  isj  and  Chronicles  (Book  IL  chap.  viiL  verse 
4),  by  Solomon  in  the  10th  c  B.  c. ;  but  it  is 
more  probable  that  he  only  enlarged  it.  It  occupied 
a  f  ertue  oasis,  veil  watered,  and  abounding  in  palm- 
trees.  Barren  and  naked  mountains  overlook  it 
from  the  west,  and  to  the  east  and  south  stretches 
the  illimitable  sandy  desert  P.  was,  in  the  Solo* 
monic  age,  a  bulwark  of  the  Hebrew  kingdom 
against  uie  wandering  hordes  of  Beduins ;  bat  its 
early  history  is  obscure  and  insignificant  After 
the  fall  of  Selcucia,  it  became  a  great  centre  of 
conmiercial  intercourse  between  the  east  and  the 
west  of  Asia.  Its  commercial  importance,  wealth, 
and  magnificence  greatly  increased  after  the  time 
of  Trajan,  who  subjected  the  whole  country  to 
the  Koman  empire.  In  the  3d  c.,  Odenathus,  a 
Syrian,  founded  here  an  empire,  which,  after  his 
murder,  rose  to  great  prosperity  under  his  wife^ 
Zenobia  (q.  v.),  and  included  both  Syria  and 
Mesopotamui;  but  this  was  not  of  long  duration, 
for  the  Roman  Emperor  Aurelian  conquered  it  in 
the  year  275,  and  the  city  was  soon  after  almost 
entirely  destroyed  in  revenge  for  the  slaughter  of  a 
Koman  garrison.  It  never  reoovered  from  this  blow, 
although  Justinian  fortified  it  anew.  The  Saracens 
destroyed  it  in  744  A  village  called  Tedmor, 
inhabited  by  a  few  Arab  families,  now  occupies  the 
site.  The  ruins  of  the  ancient  city^  white  and 
dazzlinff  in  the  Syrian  sun,  excite  at  a  litUe  dis* 
tance  die  admiration  of  all  beholders ;  but  when 
examined  in  detail,  they  are  said  to  be  far  from 
imposing,  though  in  regard  to  this  latter  point 
opinions  differ.  They  were  visited  by  English 
merchants  resident  at  Aleppo  in  1691,  and  again  by 
Messrs  Wood  and  Dawkins  in  1751,  and  since  thea 
by  a  vast  number  of  travellera  The  ruins  of  n 
temple  of  Baal,  the  sun  god,  are,  however,  oon> 
fessedly  magnificent  The  language  of  ancient 
Palmyrene  appears,  from  inscriptions  which  remain, 
to  have  been  an  Aramaic  language.  See  Murray's 
Handbook  for  Syria  a$id  Famine  by  Porter  (Loud. 
1858). 

PALMYRA  PALM  {BoroMiu  Jlabdli/ortnia)^  m 
species  of  palm  with  a  magnificent  crown  of  fan- 
shaped  leaves,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies.  The 
stem  attains  a  height  of  25 — 40,  or  even  60  feet,  and 
tapers  slightly  upwards.  The  leaves  are  about 
four  feet  long,  with  stalks  of  about  the  same  length, 
the  stalks  spiny  at  the  edges;  each  leaf  having 
70 — 80  rays.  The  fruit  is  somewhat  trianffiUar, 
about  the  size  of  a  child's  head;  having  a  uiick, 
fibrous,  and  rather  succulent  yeUowish-brown  or 
glossy  black  rind,  and  containing  three  seeds  each 
as  large  as  a  goose's  ^gg.  The  P.  P.  is  the  most 
common  palm  of  India,  growing  spontaneously  in 


PALMTBA  WOOD— PALPITATION 


mtDj  disMcta,  oatliv.it"d  in  othen,  and  reacUnff 
u  fu-  north  u  lat  30°.    It  i»  of  bIow  growth  ;  and 
the  wood  Dear  the  circainferencj  "f  the  stem  id  old 
trees  is  veiy  hard,  black,  heavy,  diir.i1>In.  Baac»»til  ~ 
o[  a  high  polish,  aod  voIuBbfe,  easily  Lli\'iiea  Id 
longitadioAl   direction,   but   very   difficult    to    ( 
urou.     The  P.  P.  abouuda  greatly  iu  the  nor„ 
of   Ceylon,    forming    CTtenaive    forest* ;    aod    the 
timber  ii  exported  to  the  opnomta  coast  of  India, 
beiug  of  niperior  quality  to  that  which  is  produced 
there.    It  is  much  naed  in  house  building.     The 
stalks  of  the  leaves  are  used  for  making  fences,  Ao. 
The   leaves  are  used    for   tbatclmig   hous^ ;    ' 
msking  baskets,  mats,   hats,  nmbrdlas,  snd  1 
fans ;    and    tor    writing    apon.      Their    fibres 
employed  for  making  twino  and  small  rope ;  they 
are  about  two  feet  long,  and  very  wiry.   A  fine  down 
found   at   the  base  of  the  leat-stalks  is   used  for 
itraiain^  liquids,  and  for  stanchiag  wounds.     The 
P.  P.  yields  palm-wine,  and  of  course  also  arrack 
snd  su^r  (ja^ger^).     It  furnishes  great  part  ol 

C-wine,  sugar,  and  arrack  of  India.  See  Abb 
fruit  is  cooked  id  a  great  variety  of  ways,  and 
nsed  for  food.  The  seeds  are  jeliv-Iike,  and  palat- 
able when  youDg.  A  bland  fixed  oil  is  extracted 
from  the  fniit.  The  young  plants,  when  a  few 
iDchea  hich,  are  esteemed  as  a  culinary  vegetable, 
being  boiled  and  eaten  generally  with  a  little  of  the 
kernel  of  the  cocoa-nut ;  aud  sometimes  they  are 
dried  and  pounded  into  a  kiDd  of  meal  Mnlti- 
tndes  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  north  of  Ceylon 
depend  almost  entirely  on  the  P.  P.  for  the  supply 
of  all  their  wants.  Li  the  >  Palmyra  BegioDS  '  of 
the  Southern  Dekkan  vast  nnmben  of  the  people 
snbsist  chiefly  on  the  fruit  of  this  palm. 

The  Deleb  Palm  (q.  v.),  so  important  to  the 
inhabitants  of  Central  Africa,  is  believed  to  be 
nearly  allied  to  the  Palmyra  Palm. 

PALMTRAWOOD.  Properly  this  name  applies 
only  to  the  wood  of  the  Palmyra  palm  (Boramti 
/abdii/ormis),  but  it  is  geneially  used  for  all  kinds 
of  palm-tree  wood  import«d  into  this  country, 
aiDongrt  which  very  much  is  the  wood  of  the 
cocoa- Dut  palm,  Coeo*  nuq/cro,  and  the  allied 
species  C^iiumoKi.  These  woods  are  also  called 
SpeetUd  Wood  and  Porcupine  Wood  by  the  dealers 
—the  former  name  being  applied  to  those  veneers  cut 
transversely,  and  shewing  the  ends  of  numerous 
black  fibres  mixed  with  we  lighter  coloured  por- 
tions ;  and  the  latter  to  longitudinal  sections,  in 
which  the  mixed  black  and  white  fibres  much 
resemble  porcupines'  quills. 

PAXO  BLA'NCO  {Flolovia  dUaiOhoidet),  alarge 
tree,  a  native  of  Chili,  the  wood  of  which  is  white, 
and  very  useful  and  durable.  It  is  remarkable  as 
one  ot  the  few  large  trees  belonging  to  the  natural 
order  CompotillB. 

PALO'LO.  or  BALOLO  {Paloh  mridi*).  a  dotai- 
branchiata  annelid,  allied  to  the  Lug- worm, 
extretuely  abundant  at  certain  sessous  in  the  sea 
above  and  near  the  coral  reeb  wliich  surround 
maoy  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  as  the  Samoa 
Islands  and  the  Fiji  Islands.  The  body  is  cylin- 
drical,  slixhtly  tapering  at  both  ends,  divided  into 
nearly  equal  joints,  esch  joint  with  a  small  tuft  of 
gills  on  each  side.  In  thickness,  the  P.  resembles  a 
very  laab  straw  ;  it  is  about  three  inches  long, 
eeneraUy  of  a  greenish  colour,  with  a  row  of  round 
black  spots ;  but  the  colour  varies  to  red,  brown, 
and  white.  These  annelids  make  their  ap[>earance 
in  great  multitudes,  apparently  rising  out  uf  the 
Ooral  reefs,  and  with  a  periodical  regularity  which 
is  very  remarkable.  They  are  eagerly  sought  after 
by  the  islanders,  who  are  on  the  watch  for  their 
'  go  out  iu  canoes  early  in  the  morn- 


ing to  take  them  by  mi 

occur  in  such  nnmbers  . 

fuU  of  them,  and  they  may  be  grasped  by  bandf  uls. 


Palolo  Tlrldis  (copied  from  Seemann'i  T7a'] : 

flKDn  'ijtu'bad. 
■•  i  4,  puMrlor  iivn 


illihtl;  magnlStd : 


They  are  a  delica^  of  which  the  South  Sea  islanden 


ippedii 


eighteen  hours  in  an  oveo. 
PA'LPI     (from    the     Lat    p^po,    I    touch) 
e  organs  occurring  in  Insects,  Crustaceans,  and 
Arachnidans.       In    Insects,    one  ,or    two    pair    of 
jointed  appendages  bearing  this  name  are  attached 
to  the  maxiUs.  while  one  pair  is  attached  to  the 
labium ;   and  in  the   high^   Crustaceans,  similar 
appendages   are    attached   to  the  mandibles    aod 
foot-jawa.     In  both  these  classes,  the  palpi  probably 
re,  IhroBgh  the  sense  of  touch,  to  take    cog- 
uice  of  the  qualities  of  the  substances  which  are 
ployed  as  food.     In  the  Arachnidans,  the  palpi 
attached  to  the  maxillfe  only  ;  and  vary  exceed- 
ingly in  form  and  functions.     In  the  scorpions,  for 
itance,  they  are  extremely  developed,  and  termin- 
i  in  pincers  which  resemble  the  ctaelEe  (or  pincers) 
crabs  and  lobsters ;  while  in  the  spiders,  they 
terminate  in  a  single  movable  claw  in  the  female, 
and  in  the  male  t£e  last  joint  is  dilated,  and  acts 
as  an  accessory  generative  organ, 

PALPITATION  is  the  term  nsed  to  signify 
inordinately  forcible  pulsations  of  the  heart,  so  as 
to  make  themselves  felt,  and  frequently  to  give  rise 
to  a  most  tmnblesauie  and  disagreeable  sensation. 
It  may  be  either  functional  or  a  symptom  of  organic 
' '  "  Be  of  the  heart  Here  we  shall  merely  con- 
it  as  a  functional  disorder.  AltLouL^h  it  may 
be  persistent,  it  for  more  frequently  comes  on  in 
[laioiysms,  which  usually  terminate  within  half  an 
hoai,  recurring  atterwsriis  quite  irregulnriy,  some- 
times daily  or  several  times  a  day,  and  sometimes 
lot  till  after  a  long  iotervaL  The  attack  often 
;omea  on  under  some  mental  or  physical  excitement,, 
tfut  sometimes  when  the  patient  is  quite  com[>osed, 
Dr  even  asleep.  If  the  paroxysm  is  a  severe  one,  the- 
heart  feels  as  if  bounding  upwards  into  the  throat  j 
and  there  is  a  sensation  of  oppression  over  the 
cardiac  region,  with  hurried  or  even  difficult  respir- 
Excludiug  organic  diseases,  the  causes  ot 
this  affection  ore  either  (1}  an  ahnorinally  excitabla 


PALSY -PAMPAS  GRASa 


oondttioD  ot  the  nerves  of  the  heart,  or  (2)  ui 
■nheoltb;  coadition  of  the  blood. 

1.  AmuugBt  the  caiiies  of  disturbed  innerratioa 
mkybe  eapecinilly  noticed  the  K^iuse  of  tea  [especially 
gi-een  tea),  coffee,  spirilfl,  and  tobaoca  Aoy  irrita- 
uon  of  the  atomech  and  intestinal  canal  may  be 
redacted  to  the  beirt ;  and  hence  palpitation  may 
frequently  be  traced  to  HrLtiilence,  undue  acidity, 
■nci  intestinal  worms,  especially  tape- worms.  Every- 
thing that  causes  presaure  on  the  heart,  such  as 
tight  lacing,  abdominal  droiisy,  or  an  enlarged 
aterua,  is  also  liable  to  occasion  this  affection. 

2.  If  the  blood  is  abnormally  rich  and  Btimnlating 
it  may  give  rise  to  palpitation,  aa  in  Plethora  (q.  v.); 
but  the  opposite  condition,  known  m  Anemia 
(^.  v.),  ia  a  muuh  more  common  cause  of  this  affec- 
tion. In  amemia  the  blood  is  watery  and  deficient 
in  fibrine,  and  (far  more)  in  red  corpuscles ;  and 
being  thus  in  an  unnatural  state,  it  acts  as  an 
unnatural  stimulant,  and  inducea  frequent,  although 
not  usually  strong  pulsation*.  In  cases  of  this 
kind,  aingnlar  murmurs  (not  unlike  those  which  are 
heud  when  we  apply  certain  shells  to  the  ear)  are 
heard  on  applying  the  BtethoBco|ie  to  the  neck  over 
the  course  ot  the  great  jusjular  veins. 

The  age  at  which  pilpit.itiou  most  usually  ctnnes 
on  is  from  16  to  25  years  ;  and  the  affection — eepeci- 
ally  if  it  arise  from  amemia — is  very  much  more 
common  in  the  female  than  in  the  male  seK. 

The  treatment  of  pal[)itation  must  entirely  depend 

(tea,  coffee,  alcohol,  and  tobacco)  should  be  suspended 
OF  abaniloaeiL  If  the  patient  is  clearly  plethoric, 
with  a  full  atrong  pulse,  he  shoAtld  taXe  saline 
cathartio^  and  live  upon  comparatively  low  diet 
(including  little  animal  food)  until  this  condition 
is  removed.  When,  on  the  other  hand,  lh«  palpitv 
tion  ia  due  to  an  ansmic  condition,  the  remedies 
are  preparations  of  iron,  aloetio  purgatives,  an 
abuudance  of  animal  food,  bitter  ale,  the  cold 
shower- batb,  and  exercise,  short  of  producing 
positive  fatigue,  in  a  pure  bracing  air.  In  the 
paroxysms,  relief  will  often  be  affonled  bf  the 
administration  of  a  diffusible  stioiulaat,  siuih  M 
ammoniated  tincture  of  valerian,  aromatic  spiiit  of 
«mmouia,  kc 

PA'LSY.    See  Faraltsi^ 

PA'IiV.     See  Pale. 
.     PA'MLICO  SOUND,  a  large  bay  on  the  oout 
of  North  Carolina,  U.S..  separated  from  the  ocean 

along,  narrow  islands  of  gnuil,  an  angle  of 
>  largest  forming  Uajie  Hiittcr.is,  and  connected 
with  the  ocean  by  narrow  jiossages,  the  chief  of 
which  is  Ocracoke  Inlet,  and  on  the  north  with 
Albemarle  Sound ;  it  ia  80  miles  long,  and  front 
10  to  30  miles  wide,  and  receives  the  Neoae  and 
'Pamlico  Rivers. 

PA'MPAS  (in  the  Quichua  tongae,  'a  vallef'  or 
'plain  ')  is  a  term  empUyed  in  a  general  sense  as  a 
designation  of  Southern  American  plains,  in  contra- 
distinction to  the  '  prairiea '  of  North  America,  and 
in  this  sense  it  is  frequently  employed  by  geo- 
graphers. It  is  also  usd  in  Peru  as  ■  general 
designatiOQ  of  tracts  of  level  land  either  on  the 
OMsi  or  among  tbe  mountains,  and  in  this  sense 
occurs  as  a  component  of  many  proper  names,  being 
then  trausforuu^J  into  bainba.  The  chief  pampas  in 
Peru  ace  those  of  the  Sacramento.  But  in  its  more 
■pecial  and  pro]>er  signiticatiou,  the  word  pampas  is 

Kren  to  tbe  immense  aud  partly  undulating  plains 
nnded  by  the  Rio  Nejjro  of  Patagonia,  the  La 
Plata  aud  Paraguay,  aud  tbe  base  of  the  Cordilleras. 
These  pMus  during  the  wet  season  afford  abundant 
IMtturago  to  tha  many   herds  of  wild  oxen  and 


horses  which  roam  over  them,  bnt  they  beeoM 
rapidly  parched  under  the  bnming  heat  of  the  nn, 
except  in  the  low-lying  traots,  or  along  the  baniu  of 
rivers.  The  most  fertile  of  the  pampas  he  mst- 
wards  towards  the  Cordilleras.  Flora  the  rapid 
alternation  of  vigorous  growth  with  parching 
drought,  the  growth  of  trees  is  impossible,  and  tbeir 
place  is  accordingly  supplied  by  sparse  groups  ol 
stunted  shrubs.  The  soil,  which  is  in  general  poor, 
is  a  diluvium  composed  of  sandy  clay,  aod.aboiuuli 
in  the  bones  of  extinct  mammals.  Strips  of  wster- 
less  desert,  known  as  travetiiu,  stretch  scroti  (bs 
pampas ;  these  travesiss  are  destitute  of  all  vegeto- 
tion  with  the  exception  of  a  few  bushes,  and  an 
markedly  distinct  in  geological  character.  The  soil 
of  the  pampas  is  more  or  less  impregnated  with  lalt, 
aud  saltpetre  abounds  in  many  pucea.  The  wM 
animals  of  tbe  |vam]>as  are  horses,  oxen  (both  intro- 
duced by  the  Spaniards),  nandous,  and  giianacoa 
The  skins  of  the  horses  and  oxen,  and  the  Besh  ot 
tbe  latter,  form  a  most  important  item  in  the  trsde 
of  this  region.  Tbe  half-white  inhabitants  o[  the 
pampas  are  called  Gnachos  (q.  v.).  The  whole  aria 
of  the  pampas  has  been  estimated  at  about  1,500,000 
square  miles. 

PAMPAS  GRASS  (Oynenim  argealatm),  k 
grass  which  covers  the  pampat  in  tbe  south  of 
Brazil  and  more  southern  parts  of  South  America, 
and  hsa  been  introduced  mto  Britain  as  an  oms- 
mental  plant.  It  is  quite  hardy,  and  ita  tufts  bin 
a  splendid  appearance    Tha  leaves  ore  six  or  eight 


Pampas  Oion  (OyMritm  arfftnlatm). 

feet  long,  the  ends  hanging  gracefnlly  over :  tbi 
flowering  stems  ten  to  fourteen  feet  high  ;  the 
panicles  of  flowers  sQvery  white,  and  from  eighteen 
uches  to  two  feet  long.  Tbe  herbage  is  too  coarse 
to  be  of  any  agricultural  value.  The  n-ale  and 
female  flowers  are  on  separate  plants  ;  in  iiamcles ; 
the  spikelets  2. flowered,  one  floret  stalked,  sod 
the  other  sessile ;  the  ptiae  of  the  feuule  florets 
elongated,  awn-shaped,  and  woMly. — Aa-ythtT  speriM 


PAMPHLET-PANAMA, 


ot  the  same  genus,  O*  Meeharoides,  also  a  Brazilian 
gnuKj  yields  a  considerable  quantity  of  sugar. 

PA'MPHLET  (variously  derived  from  Simnish 
papcUeta,  slip  of  paper  on  which  anjrthing  is  written, 
and  paginajilatcL,  threaded  page),  a  smaU  book  con- 
noting of  a  sheet  of  paper,  or  a  few  sheets  stitched 
together,  but  not  bound.  It  generally  contains  a 
ihort  treatise  on  some  subject,  political  or  otherwise, 
which  IB  exciting  public  attention  at  the  time  of  its 
appearance.  The  word  is  of  considerable  antiquity, 
as  it  is  to  be  met  with  in  Chaucer ;  but  it  was  not 
till  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  c.  that  pamphlets 
began  to  be  of  conunon  use  in  political  and  religious 
controversy  in  England  and  France.  Under  the 
present  French  empire,  political  pamphlets  appear 
from  time  to  time  which  are  generally  believed  to 
be  written  under  imperial  dictation,  and  either  to 
speak  ttie  sentiments  of  the  emperor,  or  to  be  feelers 
of  public  opinion. 

PAMPHYXI A,  anciently  a  country  on  the  south 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  with  Cilicia  on  the  east  and 
Lycia  on  the  west.  It  was  originally  bounded  on 
the  inland  or  northern  side  by  Mount  Taurus,  but 
afterwards  enlarged,  so  as  to  reach  the  confines  of 
Phrygian  P.  is  mountainous,  was  formerly  well 
wooded,  and  bad  numerous  maritime  cities.  The 
inhabitants — a  mixed  race  of  aborigines,  Cilicians, 
and  Greek  colonists— spoke  a  language  the  basis  of 
which  vras  probably  Greek,  but  which  was  distigured 
and  corrupted  by  the  infusion  of  barbaric  elements. 
Their  coins  shew  that  they  had  adopted  to  some 
extent  the  religion,  arts,  and  games  of  the  Hellenic 
race.  Its  political  history  is  unimportant.  Along 
with  Phrygia  and  Lycia  it  fell  to  the  share  of 
Antigonus  on  the  partition  of  the  Macedonian 
empire.  It  afterwards  passed  successively  into  the 
hands  of  the  Grseco-Syrian  princes,  the  kings  of 
Pergamus,  and  the  Romans. 

PAMPLO'NA,  a  fortified  city  of  Spain,  capital 
of  Navarre,  of  which  it  is  the  key,  occupies  an 
eminence  not  commanded  by  any  nei^hi)ouring 
height,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ai^a,  a  tnbutary  of 
the  Ebro,  111  miles  north-north-west  of  Zaragoza  bv 
railway,  and  20U  miles  north-north-east  of  Madrid. 
The  citadel,  overlooking  the  river  and  commanding 
the  plain,  is  a  regular  pentagon,  each  side  being 
KJOO  feet  in  extent,  and  is  connected  with  the  city 
by  an  esplanade  or  glacis.  Magnificent  views  of 
the  Pyrenees  on  the  north  are  obtained  from  the 
citadel,  and  there  are  several  very  pleasant  prome- 
nades. The  Cuenca  (plain)  of  P.  is  about  30  miles 
in  circumference ;  and  although  the  climate  is  some- 
what chilly  and  damp,  the  gardens  are  fruitful  and 
the  meadows  verdant^  The  city  is  well  built  and 
clean ;  water  is  brought  from  hills  about  nine  miles 
distant,  by  means  of  an  aqueduct  built  after  the 
•olid  Roman  style  by  Ventura  Kodriguez,  and  a 
portion  of  which,  2300  feet  in  length,  is  supported 
on  97  arches,  35  feet  in  span,  and  §5  feet  in  height. 
The  town  contains  a  number  of  squares  with  foun- 
t^ns,  a  theatre,  and  the  regular  plaza  de  toroa — 
bull  arena-  -capable,  it  is  said,  of  containing  10,000 
people.  AgriciUture,  the  wine  trade,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  linens  and  leather  are  the  only  note- 
worthy branches  of  industry.  Pop.,  with  suburbs, 
£2,702. 

P.  waa  called  by  the  ancients  Pompeiopolis,  from 
the  circtunstance  of  its  having  been  rebuilt  by  the 
amiB  of  Pompey  in  68  B.a  ft  was  taken  by  the 
Goths  in  466,  by  the  Franks  under  Childebert  in 
542,  and  again  under  Charlemagne  in  778.  It  was 
subsequently  far  a  time  in  possession  of  the  Moors, 
who  cormpted  the  name  Pompeiouolis  into  Bambi- 
hitah,  wlience  the  modem  Pamplona  In  later 
it  was  seized  by  the  French  m  1808,  and  held 


by  them  till  1813,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  allies  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington. 

PAN,  among  the  Greeks,  the  chief  god  of  pastures, 
forests,  and  flocka  The  later  rationalising  mythol- 
ogists,  misconceiving  the  meaning  of  his  name, 
"v^ich  they  confounded  with  to  pan^  *  the  whole,'  or 

*  the  universe,'  whereas  it  is  more  probably  connected 
with  pad  (Lat.  paaeo)^  *to  feed,*  'to  pasture,'  repre- 
sented him  as  a  personification  of  the  universe,  but 

I  there  is  absolutely  nothing  in  the  myth  to  warrant 
such  a  notion.  I^an  neither  in  his  genius  nor  his 
historv  figures  as  one  of  the  great  pnncipal  deities, 
and  his  worship  became  general  only  at  a  compara- 
tively late  period  He  was,  according  to  the  most 
common  belief,  a  son  of  Hermes  (Mercury)  bv  the 
daughter  of  Dryops;  or  by  Penelope,  the  wife  of 
Ulysses ;  while  otner  accounts  make  Penelope  the 
mother,  but  Ulysses  himself  the  father — though  the 
paternity  of  the  god  is  also  ascribed  to  the  numerous 
wooers  of  Penelope  in  common.  The  original  seat  of 
his  worship  was  the  wild  hillv  and  wooded  solitudes 
of  Arcadia,  whence  it  gradually  spread  over  the  rest 
of  Greece,  but  was  not  introduoea  into  Atiiens  until 
after  the  battle  of  Marathon.  Homer  does  not 
mention  him.  From  his  very  birth  his  appearanoe 
was  peculiar.  He  came  into  the  world  witn  horns,  a 
goat's  beard,  a  crooked  nose,  pointed  ears,  a  tail,  and 
goat's  feet ;  and  so  frightened  his  mother  that  she 
ran  off  for  fear,  but  his  father,  Hermes,  carried  him 
to  Olympus,  where  all  the  gods,  especially  Dionysus 
(Bacchus),  were  charmed  with  the  little  monster. 
When  he  grew  up,  he  had  a  grim  shaj^y  aspect, 
and  a  terrible  voice,  which  bursting  abruptly  on  the 
ear  of  the  traveller  in  solitary  pliMies — for  Pan  was 
fond  of  making  a  great  noise — mspired  him  with  a 
sudden  fear  (whence  the  word  panic).  It  is  even 
related  that  the  alarm  excited  by  his  blowing  upon 
a  shell  decided  the  victory  of  the  gods  over  the 
Titans.  He  was  the  patron  of  all  persons  occupied 
in  the  care  of  cattle  and  of  bees,  in  hunting  and  in 
fishing.  During  the  heat  of  the  day  he  used  to  take 
a  nap  in  the  deep  woods  or  on  the  lonely  hillsides, 
and  was  exceedingly  wroth  if  his  slumber  was  dis- 
turbed by  the  halloo  of  the  himters.  He  is  also 
represented  as  fond  of  music,  and  of  dancing  with  the 
forest  nymphs,  and  as  the  inventor  of  the  syrinx  or 
shepherd's  flute,  also  called  Pan's  pipe.  Cows,  goats, 
Icomos,  milk,  honey,  and  new  wine  were  offered  to  him. 
The  fir-tree  was  sacred  to  him,  and  he  had  sanctuaries 
and  temples  in  various  parts  of  Arcadia,  at  Troezene, 
at  Sicyon,  at  Athens,  &c.  The  Romans  identified 
the  Greek  Pan  with  their  own  Italian  god  Inuus, 
and  sometimes  also  with  Faunus.    See  Faun. 

When,  after  the  establishment  of  Christianity,  the 
heathen  deities  were  degraded  by  the  church  into 
fallen  angels,  the  characteristics  of  Pan — viz.,  the 
horns,  the  goat's  beard,  the  pointed  ears,  the 
crooked  nose,  the  tail,  and  the  goat's  feet — wene 
transferred  to  the    Devil   himself,  and   thus   the 

*  AiUd  Homie '  of  popular  superstition  is  simply  Pan 
in  disguise. 

PANAMA',  a  city  and  seaport  of  the  Granadian 
Confederation  (New  Granada),  capital  of  the  *  state* 
of  the  same  name,  at  the  head  of  the  Bay  of 
Panama,  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  isthmus  of 
the  same  name,  in  lat.  S"*  66'  N.,  long.  79**  31'  W. 
It  occupies  a  tongue  of  land  which  extends  some 
distance  out  to  sea  in  shallow  waters.  The  harbour 
is  safe,  but  vessels  of  more  than  80  tons  burden 
cannot  approach  within  two  miles  of  the  shore. 
Large  vessels  anchor  at  a  distance  of  three  miles, 
near  the  island  of  Perica  The  important  edifices 
of  the  cit/ include  a  beautiful  cathedral,  a  coUege, 
and  several  convents,  all  of  which,  however,  are 
falling  into  decay.   There  is  considerable  trade  with 

227 


PANAMA-PANCHATANTRA. 


Europe  in  pearls,  mother-of-pearl,  shells,  and  gold- 
dust,  obtaHed  in  the  vicinity.  P.  is  chiefly  import- 
ant, however,  as  the  Pacific  tenniuus  of  the  Panama 
Railway.  This  railway  was  completed  in  1855,  is 
about  40  miles  in  lenfifth,  and  connects  P.  on  the 
Pacific  with  Aspinwalf  colony  on  the  Atlantic.  Bv 
means  of  it  the  route  to  California  is  much  shortened, 
and  mails  from  the  Pacific  are  much  facilitated. 
Pop.  about  10,000.  The  former  city  of  P.,  the  seat 
of  the  Spanish  colonial  government  established  in 
1518,  stood  six  miles  north-east  of  the  port  of  P., 
and  is  now  a  heap  of  ruins. 

PANAMA,  IsTHMns  ot,  is  that  portion  of  the 
narrow  ridge  of  mountainous  country  connecting 
Central  ana  South  America,  which  is  bounded  on 
the  W.  by  the  frontier  of  Costa  Rica,  and  on  the 
K  by  the  surveyed  inter-oceanic  route  from  the 
Bay  of  Caledonia  on  the  N.  to  the  Oalf  of  San 
Miguel  on  the  S.  or  Pacific  side.  It  extends  in 
long,  from  IT  to  83"  W.  The  *  State  *  of  P.,  one 
of  those  which  form  the  Oranadian  Confederation, 
is  co-extensive  with  the  isthmus  of  the  same  name. 
Area,  29,756 ;  pop.  estimated  in  1861  at  175,000, 
exclusive  of  8000  independent  Indians.  The  Isthmus 
is  traversed  throughout  by  a  chain  of  mountains 
forming  the  barrier  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  and  of  which  the  highest  peak  is 
that  of  Picacho  (7200  feet)  in  the  west^  Numerons 
streams,  the  largest  of  which  is  the  Tuira  (162  miles 
long,  and  navigable  for  102  miles),  fall  into  both 
oceans.  On  the  Pacific  shores  are  numerous  beauti- 
ful islands,  among  which  Las  Perlas,  so  called  from 
.their  p^rl  'fisheries,  and  the  island  of  Coiba,  are  the 
chief.  On  the  north  coast,  the  principal  harbours 
are  the  Chiriqni  Lagoon,  San  Bias,  and  Caledonia; 
on  the  south  shore,  Damas  in  the  island  of  Coiba, 
the  Bay  of  San  Miguel,  and  Golfo  Dulc&  (>old, 
which  m  ancient  times  was  obtained  here  in  great 
(quantities,  is  still  found,  and  mines  of  salt,  copper, 
iron,  coal,  ftc,  are  worked.  The  climate  is  unhealthy, 
except  in  the  interior  and  on  the  flanks  of  the 
mountains.  Almost  all  the  plants  of  the  torrid 
zone  may  be  raised  here,  but  maize,  rice,  plantains, 
&c.  (erown  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  the  transit), 
are  tne  chief  crops.  Cotton  of  excellent  quality  is 
indigenous  and  perennial  ;  cloth  and  grass  ham- 
mocks, grass  (Panama)  hats,  matting,  &c.,  are  manu- 
facturer Commeroe,  however,  afifords  the  principal 
employment. 

In  1855  a  railway  across  the  Isthmus,  from 
Aspinwsdl  city  on  the  Atlantic  to  Panama  on  the 
Pacific,  was  opened.  See  Panama.  The  Isthmus 
has  frequently  been  surveyed  with  the  object  of 
finding  a  route  for  an  inter-oceanic  canaL  As  yet 
the  inability  of  the  government  of  New  Granada 
to  prpvide  the  requisite  funds  has  stood  in  the  way 
of  the  accomplishment  of  this  design.  The  scheme 
of  an  inter-oceanic  canal,  however,  is  a  practicable 
one,  and  in  time  it  will  in  all  probability  be  carried 
out. 

PANATHENJB'A,  the  most  famous  festival  of 
Attica,  celebrated  at  Athens  in  honour  of  Athene, 
patron  goddess  of  the  city,  and  intended  to  remind 
the  people  of  Attica  of  their  union  into  one  com- 
munity by  the  mythical  Theseus.  Before  the  time 
of  Theseus,  or — ^to  speak  more  critically— before  the 
formation  of  the  Attic  confederacy,  this  festival 
was  only  for  the  citizens  of  Athens,  and  was  called 
simply  AthencBcu  According  to  tradition,  the  Athe- 
nsea  owed  its  origin  to  King  Erichthonius  about 
1506  or  1521  B.  a  The  later  PanatheiuBa  appears 
to  have  been  a  double  festival  All  writers  who 
mention  it,  speak  of  a  Lesser  and  Greater  Pana- 
thenasa,  the  former  held  annually,  the  latter  every 
fourth  year.    Both  took  place  in  the  month  Heoa- 


tomhoBon  (July),  and  lasted  several  days.  The 
Lesser  PanathensBa  was  celebrated  with  gymnastic 
games,  musical  competitions,  declamations,  and  a 
torch  race  in  the  evening,  the  whole  concluding 
with  the  sacrifice  of  on  ox.  llie  prize  of  the 
victors  was  a  vessel  filled  with  oil  from  the  sacred 
tree  on  the  Acropolis.  The  Greater  Panathenaea 
only  dififered  from  the  Lesser  in  being  more  solemn 
and  magnificeut.  Rhapsodlsts  sang  the  Homeric 
poems  ;  dramatic  representations  were  given ;  and 
a  splendid  procession  took  place  to  the  temple  of 
Athene  Polias,  on  the  last  day  of  the  festival,  to 
present  the  goddess  with  a  peplus  or  embroidered 
robe,  of  crocus  colour,  woven  by  the  maidens  {erga' 
atinai)  of  the  cit^r.  Not  alone  the  Athenians,  but 
the  whole  population  of  Attica  poured  forth  on  this 
occasion.  The  procession  is  grandly  sculptured  on 
the  frieze  of  the  Parthenon  by  Phidias  and  his 
disciples. 

PA'NAX.    See  Ginskno. 

PA'NOAKE.  This  article  of  food  is  prepared  by 
pouring  a  rich  batter  of  tiour,  eggs,  ana  milk  into 
a  frying-pan,  so  as  to  cover  it  about  half  an  inch 
in  thickness  ;  the  pan  having  been  previously 
heated,  and  well  supplied  with  butter,  lara,  or  ohve 
oiL  A  quick  fire  is  necessary  to  cook  it  well,  and 
when  the  under  side  is  done,  a  dexterous  cook  by 
jerking  the  frying-pan  manaffes  to  reverse  the  cake, 
so  as  to  bring  the  upper  side  downward  to  be  cooked 
in  its  turn.  It  is  now  a  common  practice  to  make 
pancakes  rather  smaller  than  the  bottom  of  the 
pan,  and  freouently  to  add  minced  apples  and 
other  materials  to  vary  and  flavour  them ;  these 
are,  however,  better  known  under  the  name  of 
Fritters. 

This  dish  is  {>arttcnlarlv  associated  with  Shrove 
Tuesday,  but  the  origin  of  the  connection  is  by  no 
means  clear.  Perhaps  it  is  the  relic  of  a  heathen 
custom.  The  Saxons  called  February,  Solmonathf 
•which,*  says  a  writer  in  Not^  and  Queries  (First 
Series,  voL  v.  p.  491),  'Br  Frank  Sayers,  in  his 
DUqiMtioiM,  says  is  explained  by  Bede,  MenMs 
Placentarntm,  and  rendered  bv  Spelman,  in  an 
inedited  MS.,  "  Pancake  month,"  oecause,  in  the 
course  of  it,  pancakes  were  offered  by  the  pagan 
Saxons  to  the  suxl' 

PANCHATANTRA  (literally,  the  five  books)  is 
the  name  of  the  celebrated  Sanscrit  fable-book  of 
the  Hindus  whence  the  Hitopadet^a  (q.  v.)  was 
compiled  and  enlarged.  Its  authorship  is  ascribed 
to  a  Brahman  of  the  name  of  Vishn'us'armaD,  who, 
as  its  introduction  in  a  later  recension  relates,  had 
undertaken  to  instruct,  within  six  months,  the 
unruly  sons  of  Amaras'akti,  a  king  of  MahiUUrojiya 
or  Mihil&ropya,  in  all  branches  of  knowledge 
required  by  a  king,  and  for  this  purpose  composed 
this  work.  If  the  latter  part  of  wis  story  be  true» 
it  is  more  probable,  however,  as  Professor  Benfey 
assumes*  that  Vishn'us'arman  was  merely  the 
teacher  of  the  princes,  and  that  the  existing  work 
itself  was  composed  by  some  other  personage ;  for 
an  older  recension  of  the  work  does  not  8i)eak 
of  his  having  brought  his  tales  into  the  siiape 
of  a  work.  The  arrangement  of  the  P.  is  quite 
similar  to  that  of  the  Jlitopade^cL  The  fables  ar» 
narrated  in  prose,  and  the  morals  drawn  from 
or  connected  with  them  are  interwoven  with  the 
narrative  in  verse;  many  such  verses,  if  not  all, 
being  quotations  from  older  works. — On  the  history 
of  tne  P.,  and  its  relation  to  the  fable-books  and 
fables  of  other  nations,  see  the  excellent  work  of 
Professor  Theodor  Benfev,  Panchaiantra :  /"An/ 
Biicher  ind'MJier  Fahdn,  M&rchen  und  Bndhlungak 
(2  vols.,  Leip.  1859),  the  first  volume  containing;  bis 
historical  and  critical  researches  on,  and  the  Iskttor 


PANCREAS— FAHBAKAOB*. 


PANCRBAS  (ft«lii  the  Or.  pan,  all,  and  hftu, 
flub)  U  •  conglomerste  jrlitnd,  lying  tnnuversely 
4en)M  the  p<wteriur  wall  of  the  abdomen,  Tarying  in 


length  from  6  to  8  ioches,  haring  &  brewltii  of  abont 
aa  inch  and  a  half,  and  a  thicbneu  of  from  half  an 
inch  to  mn  inch.  Ab  may  be  seen  io  the  tiKiire,  it 
bean  a  slight  resemblance  in  shape  to  a  hammer  ; 
ita  right  extremity,  forming  the  /liad  of  the  gland, 
being  broad,  and  bent  downwards  at  a  considerable 
■Dzte  from  the  body,  which  terminatfs  leftwards  in 
a  tA|>ering  end,  termed  the  tail.  exi.,:ac<ing  as  Ear 
M  the  apleen.  Its  usual  weight  is  abont  three 
odDcea.  The  head  of  the  pancreas  lies  in  the  con- 
cavity of  the  duodennm. 

The  secretion  of  this  gland,  or  the  pancreatic 
fluid,  ia  oonreyed  from  ita  various  parts  by  means  nf 
flw  pancreatic  dnct  or  canal  of  Wiraimg  (its  dis- 
covenT)  to  the  duodenum,  into  the  descending 
poTtioa  of  which  it  entera  by  an  oriUce  common  to 
It  and  to  the  oommoD  biliary  duct.  In  varioiia 
mammaJa,  and  occasionally  in  man,  the  pancreatic 
and  biliary  ducts  open  separately  into  the  intestine. 
This  zland  is  found  in  all  mammals,  birds,  reptiles, 
anjphi1>iaiia,  and  oeaeona  tishes,  and  In  some  cartil- 
aginous lishea. 

The  physical  and  chemical  ohoracters  of  the  pan- 
creatic fluid,  and  its  uses  in  the  animal  economy,  are 
•ulliciently  noticed  in  the  article  DioestioN. 

The  diseases  of  the  pancreas  are  few,  and  do  not 
dcnif y  their  eiiatence  by  any  very  marked  symptoms. 
The  presence  of  □□iligested  fat  in  tlie  stools  has  been 
frequently  observed  in  cases  in  which  aft^r  death 
the  pancreas  hoa  been  found  to  be  diseased  ;  and  if 
Benurd'a  views  regarding  the  saponifying  power  of 
the  pancreatic  juice  on  ^tty  matters  (described  in 
the  article  already  referred  to)  be  correct,  the  reason 
why  the  fat  ahould  appear  in  the  evacuations  in 
theee  caaea  is  sufficiently  obvious.  The  most  common 
form  of  disease  is  cancerous  deposit  in  the  head  of 
the  gl.-tnd,  which  frequently  induces  jaundice  by 
obstmctiag  the  common  biliary  duct  near  its  open- 
ing. An  accurate  diagnosis  of  disease  of  this  organ 
is  eitreoiely  difficult,  but  fortunately  is  of  compara- 
tively little  importance,  as  it  cannot  tead  to  efficient 
treatment ;  alt  that  can  be  done  in  these  cases  being 
to  palliate  the  most  distressing  symptoms. 

PANCSOVA,  an  active  trading  town  of  Austria, 
ta  the  Servian  military  frontier,  70  miles  aouth-aouth- 
weat  of  Temeevar,  and  close  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Temea  in  the  Danube,  which  is  here  a  mile  wide. 
tt  H  a  militfiry  itation,  oontaina  several  churches,  a 


high  school,  and  a  ijuaraiitiue  ertabliahjnent  3ill 
spinnmg,  brandy  distilling,  and  an  active  trad* 
in  cattle,  pigs,  and  oom  are  carried  on.  Pop. 
11,000. 

PANDA  (JOarua  fidgau),  a  quadruped  of  the 
family  Urnda  (see  Beab),  a  native  of  the 
Himalaya,  the  only  knotrn  species  of  its  eenns, 
which  has  a  very  short  muzzle,  smalt  rounded  ears, 
a  moderately  long  tail,  covered  with  long  hair, 
■emi-retractile  claws;  The  P.  ia  atwut  the  size  of 
a  Urge  cat  It  dwells  chiefly  in  trees,  preying 
touch  on  birds,  but  it  also  eats  small  quadrupeds 
and  large  insects.  It  has  a  thick,  line,  woolly 
covering,  adapting  it  to  a  cold  climate,  concealed 
by  long,  soft,  glistening,  and  richly  coloured  hair, 
mostly  chestnut  brown,  which  passe*  into  bisick  on 
tlie  Bides  and  lega,  and  into  white  on  the  head. 
The  P.  ia  said  to  eicel  all  other  animals  in  the 
btilliancy  of  its  fur,  which,  however,  has  not  yet 


Panda  {Ailurtu  fnlgetu). 

acquired  any  commercial  value.  The  sdea  of  the 
feet  are  thickly  covered  with  woolly  hair.  The  K 
is  also  called  Wah  and  CAit-va,  from  a  peculiai 
cry  which  it  utters. 

PANDANACBf.  a  natural  order  of  endoeenoiu 
plants,  constituting  a  remarkable  feature  m  the 
scenery  nf  many  tropical  countries,  but  unknown 
in  the  colder  regions  of  the  globe.  They  are  trees 
or  bnahea,  often  sending  down  adventitious  roots, 
sometimes  weak  and  decumbent,  or  climbing.  There 
are  two  sections  of  the  order,  one  {Pandanete] 
including  the  genera  Fandanaa,  frtycinelia,  Ac, 
having  long,  simple,  imbricated  leaves,  usually  spiny 
on  the  back  and  margin,  their  base  embracing 
the  stem,  their  spiral  arrangement  often  notably 
visible;  the  other  iCydatitAea)  containing  the  genera 
Cyclantkui,  2fipa  (q.  v.),  Garludovica,  FhyMrphot, 
Ac.,  having  pinnate  or  fan-ahaped  leaves,  and  in 
general  aj>pearance  much  resemhhng  palms,  with 
which  they  have  been  often  ranked.  The  two 
sections,  however,  ate  very  similar  iu  their  flowert 
and  fruit,  in  which  they  not  a  little  resemble  tlie 
humbler  Anuxa  and  Typhacejx.  The  flowers  are 
mostly  unisexual,  naked,  or  with  only  a  few  scales, 
arranged  on  a  spadix,  and  wholly  covering  it.  The 
stamens  are  numerous ;  the  ovaries  usually 
clustered,  one-celled,  each  crowned  with  a  stigma  ^ 
the  fruit  coDsists  of  tibrous,  one-seeded  drupes, 
coUecte<l  or  almost  combined,  or  of  berries  with 

many    seeds There    are    not    quite   100    known 

qiecies.  Some  are  valuable  for  the  fibre  of  their 
leaves,  some  for  their  edible  fruit,  &c.  See  Screw 
PiKB,  KlBKU,  and  Nifj.  The  uneiponded  leaves 
of  CaHvdomca  paimala  furnish  the  mateiial  of 
wliich  Panama  halt  are  mode.     Tiw  tree  which 


PANDA  VAS-PANEL 


yieldr  VaaErABut  Itokv  (q.  v.)  u  aoother  of  the 
P&lni-/ibe  BectiDH  of  this  order. 

PAMD'AVAS,  or  the  dejcenimta  of  P&o'd'i 
(q  v.),  i»  the  name  of  the  five  jirinceB  whoso  cont«t 
fol  regal  supremacy  with  their  coueiDS,  the  Kama 
(q.  v.],  the  soQB  of  Dhr'itarilsht'ra,  forms  the  fouiido- 
tion  >f  the  narrative  of  the  great  epic  poem,  the 
Malidb/iOTalaiti.v.).  Their  nuD<ai  &re  TuJAuAfAiro, 
S/ltnia,  Atjuna,  Natvla,  »nd  SaJuKUva— the  former 
threo  being  t^e  loas  of  Pdc'd'u,  by  one  of  his  wives, 
Pr'ithA ;  ood  the  latter  two,  by  his  other  wife, 
Mijirl  But  though  PUn'd'n  is  thtu  the  recoi^nised 
father  of  these  pnocee,  the  legend  of  the  Makd'ihd- 
rala  looks  upon  him,  in  truth,  merely  as  their  father 
by  courtesy ;  for  it  relntes  thst  Yudhisbt'hirii 
was  the  son  of  Dbarma,  the  god  of  justice  ;  Bbtmti, 
of  V&yu.  the  god  of  wind  -,  Arjuna,  of  Indro,  the 
god  ol  the  firmament  j  and  Nakula  and  Sahadeva, 
of  the  As' wins,  the  twia-soni  of  the  sun. 

PANDECTS  (Or.  Pandtrton,  tU  receiring ; 
from  pan,  all,  and  iMioinai,  I  receive),  one  of  we 
celebrated  legislative  woriu  of  the  Emperor  Jiuti- 
niau  (q.  v.),  called  also  by  the  name  Digeitum,  or 
Dii:est.  It  was  an  attempt  to  form  a  complete 
system  of  law  from  the  authoritative  commentariea 
of  the  jurists  upon  the  laws  of  Rome.  The  compila- 
tion of  the  Pandect  was  uudert^eu  after  that  great 
collection  of  the  laws  themselves  which  is  known  as 
the  Codex  Jiiatitiianeus.  It  was  intrusted  to  the 
celebrated  Tribonianus,  who  had  already  distin- 
guished himself  in  the  prei>aratioD  of  the  Codeii. 
Tribonianus  formed  a  commiaaion  consiating  of  17 
membera,  who  were  occupied  from  the  year  630 
till  S33    in   eiamining,  selecting,  coni;irestiintr,  and 


systeinatiaiu^  the  authorities,  consisting  of  upwardi 
of  2I)U0  treatises,  whose  iuterpretntion  of  the  ancient 
laws  of  Borne  was  from  that  time  forward  to  be 
adopted  with  the  authority  of  law.  A  period  of  ten 
years  had  been  allowed  them  for  the  completion  of 
theit  work  ;  but  so  diligently  did  they  prosecute  it, 
that  it  woa  completed  in  less  than  one-third  of  the 
alljLLcJ  time  ;  and  some  idea  of  its  extent  may  be 
formed  from  the  fact  that  it  contains  upvards  of 
9000  separate  extracts,  selected  according  to  subjects 
from  the  2000  treatises  referred  to  above. 

The  Pandects  are  divided  into  60  Books,  and  also 
into  7  Parts,  which  corresjiond  respectively  with 
Books  1—4,  5-11,  12—19,  20—27,  28—35,  36-44, 
Bud  46  -60,  Of  these  diviaions,  however,  the  latter 
(into  Parte)  is  seldom  attended  to  in  ciUtiona 
Each  Book  is  subdivided  into  Titles,  nnder  which 
are  arranged  the  extracts  from  the  various  jurists, 
who  are  39  in  number,  and  are  by  some  called  the 
classical  jurista,  although  other  writera  on  Roman 
law  conSne  that  aiipellation  to  five  of  the  number, 
Papinian,  Paulua,  Utpian.  Gaius  (q.  v.),  and  Modes- 
""  ^  from  these  indeed 


bulk  of  the  collection ;  those  from  Ulpi'an  alone 
making  one-third  of  the  whole  work,  those  from 
Pnulus  one-sixth,  and  those  from  Papinian  ope- 
twelftb.  Other  writera  besides  these  39  ore  cited, 
but  only  indirectly,  L  e.,  when  cited  by  the  jurists 
whose  woriii  form  Uie  basis  of  the  collection.  The 
principle  upon  which  the  internal  arrangement  of 
the  extracts  from  individual  writera  was  made  had 
long  been  a  subject  of  contiovemy.  The  question 
seems  now  to  be  satisfactorily  solved  ;  but  the 
details  of  the  discussion  would  carry  ua  beyond  the 
prescribed  limits.  Of  the  execution  of  the  work,  it 
may  be  said  that  although  not  free  from  repetition 
(the  same  extracts  occurring  under  different  heads), 
and  from  occasional  inaptness  of  citation,  and  other 
inconaiatencies,  yet   it   deserves   the   vei^  highest 


taken  along  with  ita  oeceaaaty  comidement  tha 
Codex,  it  may  justly  be  regarded  (having  been  tha 
basis  of  all  the  medieval  le^slation)  as  of  the  utmost 
value  to  the  study  of  the  principles  not  alone  cf 
Buiuui,  but  of  all  European  law. 

PANDORA  (L  e.,  the  '  AU-ondowed'),  accoidiag 
to  Grecian  myth,  was  the  first  woman  era  the  earth. 
When  Prometheus  had  stolen  tire  from  Jupiter, 
Zeus  instigated  Hephsstus  to  make  woman  out  of 
earth  to  bring  vexation  upon  man  by  her  graces. 
The  gods  endowed  her  with  every  gift  necessary  for 
this  purpose,  beauty,  boldness,  Cunning.  &o.  ;  and 
Zeus  sent  her  to  K]iimetheuB.  the  brother  of  Prome- 
theus, who  foruot  his  brother's  warning  against 
receiving  any  gift  from  Zeus.  A  later  form  of  the 
myth  re])raeentB  P,  as  possessing  a  vessel  or  box 
ftlled  with  wi]i);ed  blessings,  which  mankind  would 
have  continued  to  enjoy  if  cnriosity  bad  not 
prompted  her  to  opea  it,  when  all  the  blessingi 
flew  out,  eicept  Hope. 

PAIfDOURS,  a  people  of  Servian  oriciit  who 
live  scattered  amone  the  mountains  of  Hungary, 
near  the  village  of  Pandour  in  Uie  county  of  Sold. 
The  name  has  been  applied  to  that  jiortion  of 
the  light-armed  infantry  in  the  Austrian  service 
which  is  raised  in  the  Slavonian  districts  oa  tbe 
Turkish  frontier.  The  P.  originally  fought  under 
the  orders  of  their  own  proiier  chief,  who  was  called 
Hartin-Baaha,  and  randered  essentia]  service  to  the 


originally  fought  after  the  fashion  of  the  *  free 
lances,'  and  were  a  terror  to  the  enemy  whom  they 
annoyed  incessantly.  Their  ap|>earanoe  waa  exceed- 
ingly picturesque,  being  somewhat  oriental  in  char- 
acter, and  their  arms  consisted  of  a  musket,  pistols, 
a  Hungarian  sabre,  and  two  Turkish  poniards. 
Their  habits  of  brigandage  and  cruelty  rendered 
them,  however,  as  much  a  terror  to  the  [leople  they 
defended  as  to  the  enemy.  Since  1750  they  have 
gradually  put  onder  a  stricter  discipline,  and 
w  incorporated   with  the  Austnau  frontier 


PAN'D'U,  literally, '  white,'  ia  the  name  of  the 
father  of  the  Pln'd'avaa  (q.  v, ),  and  the  brother  of 
Dbr'itaWtsht'ra.  Althou^'b  the  elder  of  tbe  two 
princes,  he  wne  rendered  by  his  *  pallor' — implying, 
perhaps,  a  kind  of  discase^iucapable  of  succession, 
and  therefore  obliged  to  relinquish  his  claim  to  hia 
brother.  He  retired  to  the  Himalaya  Mount^oa, 
where  his  sons  were  born,  and  where  he  died. 
His  renunciation  of  the  throne  became  thus  tha 
cause  of  contest  between  the  P&n'd'avaa,  bis  sons, 
and  the  Kurus,  or  the  sons  of  Dbr'itar!lsfat'r& 

PAHBL  (through  Fr.  from  lAt.  pannut, »  piece 


of  doth,  a  patch),  a  apace  or  eotnpartment  of  » 
wall,  ceiiing,  woodwork,  ic,  enclosed  by  hean^ 
muuldiiiin,  Tramiag,  and  so  forth.  It  h  gio^r&lly 
under  the  iilaoe  of  the  aun'ouudiiix  itylea.      1a 


PANEL-PANINL 


I  aometimeB  bigUy  orouDented  with  tracery, 
ihields,  &a.  {M  in  Ajft.  2  uid  3).  la  late  Gothic 
uchitflcture,  the  panel  is  very  often  carved  into 
the  'linen  pattern'  (tijf.  1).  Panelling  is  >  etyle 
of  orOBnieiit  greatly  uaed  in  Elizabethan  Orohitec- 
ture.  The  oeilinga  and  walla  are  covered  with 
it,   snd  every  piece   of  furniture  is  cut   up  into 

Caela  of  every  variety  of  form.     Panels  are  said  to 
'  fiel(]c<l'  when  the  centre  of  tbe  panel  it  raised 
with  moiddings,  && 

PANEL  (properly  the  slip  or  'pane'  of  parch- 
ment on  which  Uie  namea  of  the  jurora  are  written) 
M,  in  the  practice  uf  the  E^gli^  law,  need  to 
denote  the  body  or  set  of  Jurore,  consiating  of  12 
men,  who  try  a  cause,  civil  or  criminaL  In  Scotch 
criming  law,  tiie  prieouer  is   uaually  called  the 

PANGE  LINGUA  (Lat  'Proclaim,  0  Tongus"), 
one  of  the  moat  remarkable  of  the  hymni  of  the 
Rotnao  Breviary,  and  tike  its  kiodr^  hymn,  Lauda 
Sim,  a  meet  cbaracterietio  example  ai  well  of  the 

medieval  Latin  veraificatioa  as  of  that  union  of 
theolosy  with  aaceticisrn,  which  a  large  class  of 
thew  h>-niiis  present.  The  PangC  Lingua  is  a  L 
in  honour  of  the  Eucharist,  and  iM^longs  to  those.  —  _ 
of  the  Festival  of  Oorinui  ChriatL  It  is  from  the 
pen  of  the  great  angelic  doctor,  Thomas  Aquinas 
(q.  v.),  and  conaista  of  mi  Btro]ihea  of  verses  in 
alternate  rhyme.  Besides  its  place  in  the  office 
of  the  Breviary,  this  hymn  forma  part  of  the 
■ervice  called  Benediction  with  the  Sleiwed  Sacra- 
ment, and  is  sung  on  all  occaaions  of  the  enpoaition, 
procession,  and  other  public  acta  of  Eucliariatic 
worship. 


,       . .  Maiiu  (q.  v.),   but 

originally  belonpng  to  At.  penlaiiuctyla,  oJao  calW 
Shobt- TAILED  SIanis,  and  in  some  pai-ta  of  India 
Bajjekkeit;  this  s)ii'cieB  being  a  native  of  most 
{lartB  of  the  East  Inilifs,  and  P.,  ita  Malayan  name. 


PAKIC  is  where  fear,  whether  arising  from  an 
adequate  or  ina<lei|iiate  cau>e,  obtains  the  maa(ei> 
over  every  other  consideration  and  motive,  and 
urges  to  dastird  extravajonoe.  or  hurrie*  into 
danger,  or  death.  An  inexplicnble  sound  causes  a 
mah  from  a  church,  a  vague  report  in  the  markek- 
place  causes  a  run  on  a  liank,  and  j>recipitBte  the  very 
events  that  arc  dreaded.  This  emotiou  either  ditfen 
from  natural  ajipreheuaion,  or  presents  ao  intense 
and  uncontrollable  a  form  of  the  feeling,  that  it  is 
propagable  from  one  itersnn  to  another,  and  involves 
alike  the  educated  and  ignorant— those  who  act  from 
judgment  as  well  as  thns«  who  act  from  imiiulaa 
There  are,  beaides  this  feature,  several  ^unds  for 
beheving  that  such  nmnifeatations  of  involuntary 
terror  are  of  morbid  origin,  and  should  be  regarded 
as  moral  epidemics.  They  have  generally  arisen 
during,  or  have  followed,  seasons  of  scarcity  and 
physical  want  and  disease,  the  ravaees  of  war,  or 

¥>riods  of  great  religious  fervour  and  superstition. 
he  dancing  mania,  the  retreat  of  the  French  army 
from  Moscow,  and  recent  and  familiar  commerciu 
panics  alTurd  illustrations  of  certain  of  these  rela- 
tions. The  most  notalile  instance  of  univeieal  [lanic, 
and  that  which  demonstrates  most  ajitly  the  con- 
nection here  indicated,  is  the  dread  of  the  apprcaclK 
ing  end  of  the  world  which  pervaded  all  minds,  and 
almost  broke  up  human  society  in  the  lUth  centuiy. 
The  empire  of  Chorleinaij^ne  had  fallen  to  pieces ; 
public  miafortune  and  civil  discord  merged  into 
misery  and  famine  so  extreme  that  cannibalism 
prevailed  even  in  Paris  ;  superstitious  and  vague 
predictions  became  formalised  into  a  prophecy  of 
the  end  of  all  things  and  universal  doom  in  the  year 
1000.  This  expectation  suspended  eveu  vengeauoe 
and  war.  The  'truce  oE  God'  was  proclaimed. 
Enormous  riches  were  placed  upon  the  altars. 
Worship  and  [iraise  never  ceased.  The  tields  were 
left  uncultivated ;  serfs  wore  set  free ;  four  king* 
and  thousands  of  nobles  retired  to  tiie  cloister ; 
and  all  meu,  according  to  their  tendencies,  prepared 

It  ia  worthy  of  note  that  during  all  pestilenocs 
there  have  arisen  epidemic  ttrrors,  not  ao  much  of 
the  devastations  uf  disease,  as  of  plots  and  poiaoa- 


traceable    Xo   local    and    physical 

>f  the  singular  atl'ection  timoria,  which 
the  marshy  and  unhealthy  districts  in 
Sardinia,  Uie  tremor  and  trepidation,  and  other 
phenomena,  are  ascribed  to  the  magical  influeuoe 


Pangolin  {Manit  ftiUadaetifia). 

^iprebension  of  danger,  into  k  compact  ball,  the 
liead  in  the  centre,  and  its  muscular  mail-covered 
tail  enfolding  olL  Tbe  food  of  the  P.  consists 
chiefly  of  ants,  and  like  the  rest  of  the  genua,  it 
M  entirely  destitute  of  teeth,  and  has  a  muad, 
extenaile  tongue.  Its  claws  are  long  and  strong; 
it  doubled  them  op  like  the  American  tjit-eaters 
when  it  walks.  It  residt^  in  burrows,  which  it 
excavates  tu  the  depth  of  seven  or  eight  feet  in 
the  grcoud.  It  is  capable  of  climbing  trees,  and 
the  tail  is  prehensile.  Tha  whole  length  of  the 
animal,  including  tha  tail,  is  almost  five  feet,  the 
faul  being  not  •^uit-  haif  the  length  of  the  body. 


of 
PA'NICLB,  i 

,].v.)  inwhii 

but  also  aubi  ,  _ 

panicle  may  thus  be  regarded  as  a  Raceme  (q.  v.), 
of  which  the  branches  (I'l  Dower- stalks)  are  branched. 
The  itanicle  is  a  very  common  kind  of  inHorescenoe. 
Most  of  the  rassses  exhibit  it,  and  many  other 
plants,  both  endogenous  and  exogenous.  The  com- 
mon lilac  affords  a  good  example  uf  it.  The  panicle, 
variously  modilied  as  to  its  form,  and  the  arrange- 
ment and  relative  lengths  of  its  branches  and 
branchlets,  becomea  »  Cyme  [q.  v.),  Thynu* 
(q.  v.),  tc 

PA'NiCUM.    See  Millet. 

PAN'INI,  the  greatest  known  grammarian  ot 
ancient  India,  whose  work  ou  the  Sanscrit  language 
has  up  to  the  present  day  remained  tha  standud 
of  fJMiBcrit  grammar.  Its  merits  are  so  great, 
that  F.  was  ranked  among  tbe  H'ishis  (q.  v.j,  or 


pAnINI— PANIPUT. 


inspired  seers,  and  at  a  later  period  of  Sanscrit 
literature,  was  supposed  to  have  received  the  funda- 
mental  rules  of  liis  work  from  the  god  Siva  him- 
self. Of  the  personal  history  of  P.,  nothing  positive 
is  known,  except  that  he  was  a  native  of  the  village 
S'al&tura,  situated  north-west  of  Attock,  on  the 
Indus — whence  he  is  also  sumamed  S'&I&turtya — 
and  that  his  mother  was  called  Dftkshl,  wherefore, 
on  his  mother's  side,  he  must  have  been  a  descend- 
ant of  the  celebrated  family  of  Daksha.  A  tale- 
book,  the  KatJidsaritsdgara  (L  e.,  the  ocean  for 
the  rivers  of  tales),  gives,  indeed,  some  circum- 
stantial account  of  the  life  and  death  of  P. ;  but 
its  narrative  is  so  absurd,  and  the  work  itself  of 
so  modem  a  date — it  was  written  in  Cashmere, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c. — that  no  credit 
whatever  can  be  attached  to  the  facts  related 
by  it,  or  to  the  inferences  which  modem  scholars 
have  drawn  from  them.  According  to  the  views 
expressed  by  GoldstUcker  {Pdn'im,  his  Place  in 
Sanscrit  Literature:  London,  1861),  it  is  probable 
that  P.  lived  before  S'^kyamuni,  the  founder  of  the 
Buddhist  religion,  whose  death  took  place  about 
543  B.a,  but  that  a  more  definite  date  of  the  great 
grammarian  has  but  little  chance  of  ascertainment 
m  the  actual  condition  of  Sanscrit  philology. — The 
grammar  of  P.  consists  of  eij^t  Adhyd.ya8,  or  books, 
each  book  comprising  four  r&das,  or  chapters,  and 
each  chapter  a  number  of  Siitras  (q.  v.),  or  aphor- 
istical  rules.  The  latter  amount  in  the  whme  to 
8996;  but  three,  perlu^is  four,  of  them  did  not 
originally  belong  to  the  work  of  P&n'inL  The 
arrangement  of  these  rules  differs  completely  from 
what  a  European  would  expect  in  a  grammatical 
work,  for  it  is  based  on  the  principle  of  tracing 
linguistic  phenomena^  and  not  concerned  in  the 
classification  of  the  linguistic  material,  according  to 
the  so-called  parts  of  speech.  A  chapter,  for  in- 
stance, treating  of  a  prolongation  of  vowels,  will 
deal  with  such  a  fact  wherever  it  occurs,  be  it  in 
the  formation  of  bases,  or  in  conjugation,  declension, 
composition,  &c.  The  rules  of  conjugation,  declen- 
sion, &c.,  are,  for  the  same  reason,  not  to  be  met 
with  in  the  same  chapter  or  in  the  same  order  in 
which  Euro])ean  grammars  would  teach  them ;  nor 
would  any  single  book  or  chapter,  however  appar- 
entiy  more  svstematically  arranged — from  a  Euro- 
pean point  of  view — such  as  the  chapters  on  affixes 
or  composition,  suffice  by  itself  to  convey  the  full 
linguistic  material  concerned  in  it,  apart  from  the 
rest  of  the  work.  In  a  general  manner,  P.'s  work 
may  therefore  be  called  a  natural  history  of  the 
Sanscrit  language,  in  the  sense  that  it  has  the  strict 
tendency  of  givmg  an  accurate  description  of  facts, 
instead  of  making  such  a  description  subservient  to 
the  theories  acconiing  to  which  the  linguistic  mate- 
rial is  usuall3r  distributed  by  European  grammarians. 
Whatever  objections  may  be  raised  against  such  an 
arrangement,  the  very  fact  of  its  differing  from  that 
in  our  grammars  makes  it  peculiarly  instructive  to 
the  European  student,  as  it  accustoms  his  mind  to 
survey  language  from  another  point  of  view  than 
that  usually  x)resented  to  him,  and  as  it  must  induce 
him,  too,  to  question  the  soundness  of  many  lin- 
eiiistic  theories  now  looked  upon  as  axiomatic  truths. 
As  the  method  of  P.  requires  in  a  student  the 
power  of  combining  many  rules  scattered  all  over 
the  work,  and  of  combining,  also,  many  inferences 
to  be  drawn  from  these  rules,  it  exercises,  moreover, 
on  the  mind  of  the  student  an  effect  analogous  to 
that  which  is  supposed  to  be  the  peculiar  advantage 
of  the  study  of  mathematics.  The  rules  of  P.  were 
criticised  and  completed  by  K&tyftyana  (q.  v.),  who, 
according  to  all  probability,  was  the  teacher,  and 
therefore  the  contempK)rary,  of  Patanjali  ;  and 
he,  in  his  turn,  was  criticis^  by  Patanjali  (q.  v.), 
232 


who  sides  frequentiy  with  P&n'inL  lliese  three 
authors  are  the  canonical  triad  of  the  grammarians 
of  India ;  and  their  works  are,  in  truth,  so  remark* 
able  in  their  own  department,  that  they  exceed 
in  literary  merit  nearly  all,  if  not  all,  grammatical 
productions  of  other  nations,  so  far  as  the  two 
classes  are  comparable.  The  rules  of  P.  were  com- 
mented on  by  many  authors.  The  best  existing 
commentary  on  them  is  that  called  the  Kds'ikd- 
vr^iUif  by  V&mana  Jayilditya,  which  follows  these 
rules  in  their  ori^nal  order.  At  a  later  period, 
attempts  were  made  to  arrange  the  rules  of  P.  in 
a  manner  which  approaches  more  to  the  Euro- 
pean method;  the  cnief  work  of  this  cat^ory  is 
the  SiddJidrda-Kaumudty  by  Bhat't'oji-dtkshita.  P. 
mentions,  in  his  Sdtras,  several  grammarians  who 
preceded  him,  amongst  others,  S'&kat&yana.  Manu- 
scripts of  a  grammar  ascribed  to  a  grammarian  of 
this  name  exist  in  the  Library  of  the  India  Office  in 
London,  and  in  the  Library  of  the  Board  of  Exam- 
iners at  Madras.  On  the  cround  of  a  few  pages 
only  of  the  latter  an  attempt  nas  been  very  recently 
made  to  prove  that  this  grammar  is  the  one  referred 
to  by  P.,4ind  therefore  older  than  ^e  work  of  the 
latter.  But  the  facts  adduced  in  proof  of  this 
hypothesis  are  so  ludicrously  weak,  and  the  reason- 
ing upon  them  sb  feeble  and  inconclusive,  whereas 
the  evidence  in  favour  of  the  comparatively  recent 
date  of  this  work  is  so  strong,  that  no  value  whatever 
can  be  attached  to  this  hasty  hypothesis.  For  the 
present,  therefore,  P.'s  work  still  remains  the  oldest 
existing  grammatical  work  of  India,  and  probably  of 
the  human  race.  The  Siitras  of  P.,  with  a  modem 
commentary  by  two  native  pandits,  and  with 
extracts  from  the  Vdrttikas  of  Jt&ty&yana  and  the 
Mahdbkdshya  of  Patanjali,  wero  edited  at  Calcutta 
in  1809.  This  edition,  together  with  the  modem 
commentary,  but  with  garbled  extracts  from  the 
extracts  mentioned,  was  reprinted  at  Bonn  in  1839 — 
1840  by  Dr  0.  Boehtlin^  who  added  to  it  remarks 
of  his  own  and  some  indices. — For  the  literature 
connected  with  P.,  see  Colebrooke's  preface  to  his 
Grammar  of  the  Sanscrit  Language  (Oalc  1805), 
and  GoldstUcker^s  Fdn^ini,  £a,  as  mentioned 
above. 

PANIPU'T,  the  chief  town  of  a  district  of  the 
same  name  in  the  province  of  Delhi,  is  situated  54 
miles  (by  road  78  miles)  north  by  west  from  Delhi, 
in  a  fertile  tract,  the  resources  of  which  are  largely 
developed  by  artiticial  irrigation.  Pop.  (1853) 
22,612.  Being  a  station  on  the  great  military  road 
between  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab,  and  to  some 
extent  an  outpost  of  Delhi,  it  has  been  at  various 
times  the  scene  of  strife  between  the  inhabitants  of 
India  and  invaders.  The  ^rst  great  battle  of  P. . 
was  fought  in  1526,  and  gained  by  Mirza  Baber,  the 
ex-rulcr  of  Ferghana,  at  tne  head  of  12,000  Mongols, 
over  Ibrahim  the  emperor  of  Delhi,  whose  un  war- 
like array  numberea  100,000  men,  with  1000 
elephants.  This  victory  seated  Baber  on  the 
throne  of  Hindustan  as  the  first  of  the  *  Great 
Mogul*  dynasty.  The  second  great  battle  was 
fought,  in  1556,  by  the  Mongols  undo*  Akbar, 
grandson  of  Baber,  and  third  of  the  Mogul  emperors, 
aeainst  Hemn,  an  Indian  prince  who  nad  usurped 
tne  throne  of  t>elhL  Hemu's  amnr  was  defeated 
with  great  slaughter,  and  himself  siain.  The  tJiird 
battie  was  fought  on  the  14th  d  January  1761, 
between  Ahmm  Abdalli,  ruler  of  Afghanistan, 
and  the  till  then  invincible  Mahrattas.  The  Jata, 
who  had  been  forced  to  join  the  Mahrattas,  deserted 
to  the  Afghans  at  a  time  when  victory  seemed  to  be 
declaring  for  the  former ;  and  this  act  of  ti  eachery, 
together  with  the  loss  of  their  leaders,  threw  the 
Mahrattas  into  confusion,  and  in  spite  if  their 
most  resolute  valour  they  suffered  a  total  defeat 


PANIZZI— PANNONIA. 


Thej  left  60,000  slain  on  the  field  of  battle,  including 
aB  their  leaden  except  Holkar,  and  30,000  men 
irere  killed  in  the  porsuit,  which  was  continued  for 
four  days.  The  Mahrattas  never  recovered  this 
cnuhiog  blow.  It  was  at  Kumaul,  a  town  a  little 
to  the  north  of  P.,  that  Nadir  Shah  of  Persia,  in 
1739,  won  the  celebrated  battle  over  the  Mogul 
emperor,  which  placed  North- Western  India  at  nis 
feet 

PANIZZI,  Antonio,  principal  librarian  of  the 
British  Museum,  was  bom,  on  the  16th  of  September 
1797,  at  Brescello,  in  the  ci-devant  duchy  of  Modena. 
For  his  education  he  was  sent  first  to  the  public 
school  of  Reggio,  and  afterwards  to  the  university 
of  Padua,  where,  in  1818,  he  took  the  degree  of 
Doctor  of  Laws,  with  a  view  to  practisins  at  the 
bar.    Early  in  life  his  sympathies  were  en&sted  on 
behalf  of  the  friends  of  Italy,  as  opposed  to  domestic 
granny  and  foreign  intrusion,  and  when,  in  1821, 
the  popular  revolution  broke  out  in  Piedmont,  the 
young  advocate  became  one  of  its  leaders.     The 
attempt,  however,  failed;  and  P.,  who  had  been 
denooncied  by  a  pretended  friend,  was  arrested  at 
Cremona.      Having  by  some  means  contrived  to 
66031)6,  he  took  refuge  in  Lugano,  and  from  thence 
m  a  ^ort  time  found  his  way  to  Geneva.     Mean- 
while, during  his  absence,  he  was  tried  at  home  per 
amtumacianiy  as  it  is  called,  and  sentenced  to  death, 
with  confiscation  of  property.    Nor  was  he  allowed 
to  remain  at  Creneva.     The  governments  of  Austria 
and  Sardinia  demanded  from  the  Swiss  Confederation 
the  expulsion  of  all  concerned  in  the  recent  out- 
break, and  among  these  P.  was  obliged  to  depart. 
Forbidden    to    pass   through   France,  he    reached 
England  by  way  of  Germany  and  the  "Netherlands. 
He  now  resid^  for '  about  a  month  in  London, 
whence  he  proceeded  to  Liverpool,  with  an  intro- 
duction from  Ugo  Foscolo  to  Roscoe  the  historian, 
who  receired  him  with  the  utmost  hospitality.    At 
Liverpool,  where  he  was  introduced  into  the  best 
circles   by    Mr  Roscoe,    he    taught    Italian,    and 
continued  to  reside  in  that  to^'n  until  1828,  when 
he  came  to  London  a^in,  and  was  chosen  professor 
of  Italian  in  the  umversity  of  London,  just  then 
opened  for  students.    In  1831,  through  the  instru- 
mentality of  Lord  Brougham,  he  was  appointed  one 
of  the  assistant-librarians  in  the  British  Museum ; 
and  utKm  the  retirement  of  the  Rev.  Mr  Baber,  ii^ 
1S37,  m>m  the  office  of  Keeper  of  the  Printed  Books, 
Mr  P.  was  appointed  his  successor.    In  the  previous 
year  there  hiad  been  a  parliamentary  committee  on 
the  state  of  the  British  Museum,  l>efore  which  Mr 
P.  gave  valuable  evidence,  and  likewise  urged  the 
adoption  of   measures  for  the  improvement  and 
aogmentation  of  the  library,  which,  upon  becoming 
keeper,  he  was  in  a  still  better  position  to  advocate. 
In  1838  he  superintended  the  removal  of  the  printed 
books  from  the  old  ^uite  of  rooms  in  Montague 
House  to  the  new  library ;  and  in  the  same  year, 
in  conjunction  with  some  of  his  assistants,  he  drew 
up  the  well-known  91  rules  for  the  formation  of  a 
new  catalogue  of  the  library.     These  rules  were 
approved  by  the  trustees,  and  the  first  volume  of 
a  cataloffue  framed  after  them  was  printed  and 
published  in  1841.    No  other  volume  has  been  since 
published,  and  Mr  P.,  before  a  royal  commission  of 
mquiry  into  tho  Museum    in   1847,  justified  the 
iospension  of  the  printing  until  the  whole  catalogue 
<houId  be  fimshed.     In  1845,  Mr  P.  drew  up  an 
elaborate  report  of  the  deficiencies  existing  in  the 
library,  in  consequence  of  which  the  trustees  applied 
to  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  for  *  an  annual  grant 
of  £10,000  for  some  years  to  come,  for  the  purchase 
of  books  of  all  descriptions.'     This  ^nt  having 
been    obtained,  the   library  rapidly  mcreased   in 
anmbera,  to  rach  a  degree  that  in  1849  the  books 


amounted  to  435,000,  as  compared  with  235,000, 
the  ascertained  number  in  1838.  The  number  of 
volumes  is  now  estimated  at  between  600,000  and 
700,000.  Upon  the  resignation  of  Sir  H.  Ellis,  in 
1856,  Mr  P.  was  appointed  to  the  post  of  principal 
librarian  of  the  British  Museum,  which  office  he  still 
holds.  In  a  literary  capacity,  Mr  P.  is  ^own  by  an 
edition  of  the  Orlando  Innamorato  di  SokLrdo^  and 
(hiando  Furioso  di  Arioato :  urith  an  Essay  on  ths 
Romantic  Narrative  Poetry  of  the  Italians,  Memoirs 
and  Notes,  by  A.  Panizzi  (9  vols.  Lond.  1830—1834). 
He  has  also  edited  the  Sonetti  e  Canzone  of  Boiardo 
(Lond.  1835),  and  a  collection  of  reprints  of  the  first 
four  editions  of  the  Divina  Commedia,  printed  at 
the  expense  of  Lord  Vernon  (Lond.  1858).  He  is  also 
the  author  of  a  privately-printed  pamphlet,  Chi  era 
Francesco  da  Bologna,  tending  to  prove  the  identity 
of  the  type-founder  employed  by  Aldus,  and  the 
inventor  of  the  well-known  Aldine  or  Italic  type, 
with  the  celebrated .  painter  Francesco  fVancia. 
Mr  P.  is  also  understood  to  have  written  some 
articles  of  literary  or  historic  character  for  more 
than  one  of  the  Quarterly  Reviews. 

PA'NJIM.    SeeGoA. 

PA'NNAH,  or  PU'NNAH,  a  decayed  town  of 
India,  in  the  district  of  Bundelcuiid,  stands  on  the 
north-eastern  slope  of  a  plateau,  115  miles  south- 
west of  Allahabad.  It  was  formerly  a  large,  thriving, 
and  well-built  town ;  but  whole  streets  are  now 
desolate,  or  are  tenanted  only  by  monkeys,  which, 
posted  on  the  roof  or  at  the  windows,  view  the 
town^s-people  without  alarm.  The  palace  of  the 
rajah  is  a  beautiful  building,  surmounted  by  elegant 
kiosks,  but  is  in  many  places  ruinous.  The  source 
of  the  former  prosperity  of  P.  was  its  rich  diamond 
mines.  Owing  to  the  diminished  value  of  the  gem, 
however,  and  the  increased  tax  upon  the  produce  of 
the  mines,  this  branch  of  industry  has  mudi  fallen 
offi  The  diamonds  are  generally  tinted  with  colour ; 
very  few  of  them  bein^  of  first-water,  or  completely 
colourless.  This  tovm  is  the  chief  place  of  a  territory 
of  the  same  name,  which  is  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  British  district  of  Banda,  and  on  the  south 
by  the  British  district  of  Nerbudda.  See  Bukdel- 
ouin>. 

PANNELS,  in  Artillery,  are  the  carriages  upon 
which  mortars  and  tiieir  beds  are  conveyed  on  a 
march. 

PANNO'NIAf  a  province  of  the  ancient  Roman 
empire,  bounded  on  the  N.  and  R  by  the  Danube, 
on  the  W.  by  the  mountains  of  Noriciim,  and  on  the 
S.  reaching  a  little  way  across  the  Save  ;  and  thus 
including  part  of  modem  Hungary,  Slavonia,  parts 
of  Bosnia,  of  Croatia,  and  of  Uamiola,  Stvria,  and 
Lower  Austria.  It  received  its  name  from  the 
Pannonians,  a  race  of  doubtful  origin,  but  who  at 
first  dwelt  in  the  country  between  the  Dalmatian 
Mountains  and  the  Save,  in  modem  Bosnia,  and 
afterwards  more  to  the  south-east  in  Moesia.  The 
Roman  arms  were  first  turned  against  them  and 
their  neighbours,  the  lapydes,  by  Augustus  in  35 
B.a,  and  after  the  conquest  of  Segestica  or  Siscia 
(Siszek)  he  subdued  them.  An  insurrection  took 
place  in  12  B.  c.,  which  Tiberius  crushed  after  a  long 
struggle ;  and  a  more  formidable  one  of  the  Dalma- 
tians and  Pannonians  together  in  6  a.  d.,  which  was 
suppressed  by  Tiberius  and  Germanicus,  but  not 
till  8  A.  D.  Fifteen  legions  had  to  be  assembled 
against  the  Pannonians,  who  mustered  200,000 
warriors.  Hereupon  the  Pannonians  settled  in  the 
more  northern  countries,  which  received  their  name, 
and  of  which  the  former  inhabitants,  the  Celtio 
Boii,  had  been  in  great  part  destroyed  in  Cesar's 
time.    The  country  was  now  formed  into  a  Roman 


PANORAMA-.PAOT?AORAPH. 


pToviiLoe,  T*liich  was  secured  against  the  inroads  of 
the  Marcon-Jtoni  and  Quad!  by  the  Danube,  and  on 
its  other  m)ntier8  had  a  line  of  fortresses.  Military 
roads  were  constructed  by  the  conquerors,  who  also 
planted  in  the  country  many  colonies  and  municipia, 
and  thus  cave  it  a  rough  coating  of  civilisation. 
Great  numbers  of  the  Pannonian  youth  were  drafted 
into  the  Roman  legions,  and  proved,  when  disci- 
plined, amon/^  the  bravest  and  most  efifective  soldiers 
in  the  imperial  army.  P.  was  subsequently  divided 
into  Upper  (or  Western)  and  Lower  (or  £astern)  P., 
and  under  Galerius  and  Gonstantine  underwent  other 
changes.  Upper  Pannonia  was  the  scene  of  the 
Marcomannic  war  in  the  2d  century.  In  the  5th 
c  it  was  transferred  from  the  Western  to  the 
Kastem  Empire,  and  afterwards  given  up  to  the 
Hun&  After  Attila^s  death,  in  453,  the  Ostrogoths 
obtained  possession  of  it.  The  Lonsobards  under 
Alboin  made  themselves  masters  of  it  in  527,  and 
relinauished  it  to  the  Avari  upon  commencing  their 
expedition  to  Italy.  Slavonian  tribes  also  settled 
in  the  south.  Charlemagne  brought  it  under  his 
sceptre.  In  the  reigns  of  his  successors,  the  Slavo- 
nians spread  northward,  and  the  country  became 
a  i)art  of  the  great  Moravian  kingdom,  till  the 
Magyars  or  Hungarians  took  it  in  the  end  of  the 
9tb  century.  In  the  time  of  the  Komans,  Siscia 
(8iszek),  Vindobona  (Vienna),  Camuntum  (near 
Haimburg),  and  Arrabo  (Raab)  were  among  its 
principal  towns. 

PANORA'MA  (Gr.  pan,  all,  orafna,  a  view),  a 
pictorial  representation  of  the  whole  surrounding 
landscape  as  seen  from  one  point.  The  invention 
of  the  panorama  is  claimed  by  the  Germans  for 
Professor  Breisig  of  Danzig,  but  it  does  not  appear 
that  he  ever  constructed  one.  The  real  inventor 
was  Mr  Barker,  an  ingenious  artist  of  Edinbargh, 
to  whom  the  idea  occurred  while  taking  a  sketch 
of  the  city  from  the  top  of  Arthur  Seat.  After 
surmounting  numerous  difficulties— one  of  which 
was  the  invention  of  a  new  kind  of  perspective  for 
the  horizontal  lines — ^he  succeeded  in  producing  an 
effective  panoramic  view  of  Edinbur^n,  which  was 
exhibited  in  that  citv  in  1788,  and  m  London  in 
the  following  year.  The  next  panorama  executed 
by  Barker  was  a  view  of  London  from  the  top  of 
the  Albion  Milla  A  lar^e  building  was  now  erected 
in  Leicester  Square  for  uie  exhibition  of  such  viewa 
On  Mr  Barker  s  death  in  1806,  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  son,  in  partnership  with  a  pupil,  Mr  Burforo, 
the  painter  of  the  chief  modem  panoramas.  The 
first  step  in  the  construction  of  a  panorama  is  to 
obtain  sketches  of  the  entire  region  to  be  repre- 
sented ;  each  sketch  is  a  representotion  of  a  portion' 
of  the  landscape  in  the  form  of  a  sector  of  a  circle, 
with  the  sketcher's  position  as  a  centre,  and  the 
horizon  for  circumference.  The  canvas  to  which 
the  sketches  are  to  be  transferred  is  hung  round 
the  sides  of  a  circular  room,  and  forms  the  surface 
of  a  cylinder,  on  the  inside  of  which  the  panorama 
is  painted.  The  canvas,  brushes,  &c,  are  of  the 
finest  description  manufactured,  and  the  painting 
and  colouring  are  elaborated  in  the  most  carefiu 
manner,  in  order  to  render  the  optical  illusion — 
which  every  one  who  has  seen  a  good  panorama 
must  have  experienced — as  complete  as  possible. 
The  stage  from  which  the  picture  is  viewed  is 
plaoed  in  the  centre  of  the  room,  about  30  feet  on 
every  side  from  the  picture;  the  picture  itself  is 
fastened  above  to  a  strong  circular  hoop,  and, 
bangins  down,  has  its  lower  edge  fastened  to  a 
simUar  lioop,  which  is  heavily  weighted  to  keep  the 
picture  steady.  The  light  is  admitted  by  an  aper- 
ture in  the  roof,  which  is  concealed  by  an  awning 
from  the  spectators  on  the  stage.  Notwithstanding 
important  defects  in  the  pauonmuu  one  of  which  is 


that  the  light  more  strongly  illumines  the  upper  than 
the  lower  parts  of  the  picture— thus  t}\rowing  the 
foreground  comparatively  into  shade — many  cases 
are  on  record  of  spectators  licing  for  the  time  com- 
pletely under  the  influence  of  mental  illusion.  One 
of  the  best  instances  of  this  occurred  during  the 
exhibition  of  the  third  panorama  in  London. 
Part  of  the  view  consisted  of  a  representation  of 
the  wreck  of  a  ship's  boat,  with  sauors  struggling 
in  the  waves ;  and  at  sight  of  this,  a  dog  belonging 
to  one  of  the  spectators  at  once  leapea  over  the 
handrail  to  the  rescue  of  the  supposed  drowning 
men.  Panoramas,  though  frequently  exhibited  in 
France,  Germany,  and  other  European  countries, 
have  met  with  little  success  out  of  Great  Britain. 
The  most  popular  panorama  ever  executed  was  thak 
of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo,  the  exhibition  of  which 
brought  in  ten  thousand  pounds.  There  are  many 
modifications  of  the  panorama,  but  that  above 
described  is  the  most  important. 

PANSLAVISM.  This  term  is  appUed  to  tin 
movement  lately  set  on  foot,  and  generally  ascribed 
to  Kussian  influence,  for  the  amalgamation  of  all 
races  of  Slavonic  descent  into  one  body,  having  one 
language^  one  literature,  and  one  social  polity.  The 
writings  of  Adam  Gurowski  and  Kollar,  and  the 
anonymous  pamphlet  which  appeared  at  Leipzig  in 
1837,  under  the  title  of  Die  Ewropadsche  Penlardm, 
have  exercised  a  very  widespread  influence  in  this 
direction  among  all  the  Slavonic  people  of  the 
German  states;  and  although  the  other  nations  of 
Europe  have  hitherto  had  no  reason  to  anticipate 
any  practical  results  from  a  movement  towards 
Pauslavism,  the  Slavonians  of  the  Austrian  empire 
have  always  taken  occasion  to  shew  that  they 
regarded  themselves  as  standinp[  apart  from  Ger- 
man interests  in  times  of  public  disturbance.  Thus, 
in  1848,  instead  of  taking  part  with  their  fellow- 
citizens  in  the  election  of  representatives  to  the 
German  parliament  at  Frankfurt,  the  leading 
promoters  of  Panslavism  summoned  a  Slavonic 
congress  at  Pracue,  which  was  attended  by 
Slavonians  from  Bohemia,  Moravia,  and  Silesia, 
and  by  Slavonic  Poles,  Croats,  Servians,  and 
Dalmatians,  who  appeared  in  their  national  coetumesL 
The  impracticability  of  the  grand  schemes  promul- 
gated in  the  manifestoes  of  the  conclave,  was  suffi- 
ciently shewn  by  the  necessity  under  which  the 
meml^ers  found  themselves  of  employing  German 
as  the  only  language  commonly  understood  by  alL 
Disunion  and  dissensions  were  the  speedy  result  of 
this  incongruous  meeting,  whose  seditious  tur- 
bulence at  last  was  summarily  put  down  by  the 
bombardment  of  the  city  of  Prague,  and  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  leading  i&mtators.  Since  that 
period,  the  striving  towaras  Pauslavism,  although 
ever  present  as  the  guiding  influence  of  all  Slavonio 
insurrectionary  movement,  has  found  no  further 
public  expression. 

PANSY.    See  Violkt. 

PA'KTAGRAPH  (Gr.  panto,  all,  graphein,  to  ' 
delineate),  an  instrument  by  the  aid  of  which  any 
engraving  may  be  copied  on  paper,  though  its  use  ia 
in  practice  restricted,  to  the  copying  of  maps  and 
plans.  The  copy  can  be  drawn  to  any  scale.  The 
instrument  consists  of  four  rods,  AB,  AC,  DP, 
and  £F,  jointed  together,  as  in  the  figure ;  the 
points  D  and  £  are  so  taken  that  AD  iM  equal  to 
EF,  and  AE  to  DF,  and  conseouently  ADFJ?  is 
always  a  parallelogram.  If  C  oe  a  determinate 
point  near  the  end  of  the  rod  AE,  and  any  line, 
UHB,  be  drawn  cutting  the  other  three  rods, 
the  triangles  BAG  and  SDH  are  similar;  so  that 
when  the  point  B  is  fixed,  the  points  C  and  H, 
which  can,  from  the  atracture  of  the  initrumen^ 


PANTBLLARIA— PANTHEISM. 


moTe  in  any  direction,  will  describe  similar  figures 
different  in  size ;  that  described  bv  C  being  to  that 
described  by  H  in  the  pro^rtion  of  CB  to  HB.  The 
practical  working  of  the  instrument  is  as  follows : 
file  points  H  and  B  are  determined  by  the  ratio 
BH  to  BC,  which  is  the  proportion  the  scale  of  the 
copy  bears  to  that  of  the  original ;  a  socket,  which 


dides  along  the  arm,  is  fastened  exactly  at  B  on  the 
nnder  side ;  below  this  is  [tlaced  a  heavy  weight, 
with  a  stalk  fitting  into  the  socket,  thus  rendering 
B  the  centre  of  motion  of  the  instrument,  if  the 
weight  be  heavy  enough.  A  pencil  is  fitted  into 
anouier  socket  at  H,  and  a  rod  of  metal  with  a 
sharp  point,  called  the  tracer^  is  fastened  at  C, 
and  the  instrument  is  fitted  with  castors  at  various 
points  underneath,  to  allow  of  its  being  moved 
ireely.  The  operator  then  passes  the  trace>*  over 
the  outline  to  be  copied,  and  simultaneously  the 
pencil  at  H  makes  the  copy  on  the  required  scale. 
If  a  copy  on  a  scale  nearly  as  large  as  the  original 
be  required,  the  fulcrum  must  be  placed  in  DF,  and 
the  jpendl  in  DB ;  while  if  a  magnified  copy  be 
leqmredy  the  pencil  and  tracer  must  exchange  the 
positions  assigned  them  in  the  first  case.  The 
defects  of  this  instrument  are  its  weight  and  the 
dil&culty  of  rendering  it  perfectly  mobile,  both 
01  which  prevent  that  steady  motion  of  the  tracer 
which  is  necessary  for  making  an  accurate  copy. 

To  remedy  these  defects,  the  pantagraph  has  been 
constructed  in  a  variety  of  forms,  all  of  which, 
however,  like  the  one  described,  depend  upon  the 
principle  that  the  two  triangles  which  have  for  their 
angular  points,  the  fulcrum  the  pencil-point,  and  a 
joint,  and  the  fulcrum  the  tracer-^oint  and  a  joint, 
jDost  always  preserve  their  similarity. 

PANTELLA'RIA,  an  island  of  Italy,  in  the 
Mediterranean,  60  miles  south-west  from  tne  nearest 
point  of  land  in  Sicily,  to  which  it  belong,  being 
included  in  the  province  of  GirgentL-  The  island  is 
a  volcanic  mass,  oval  in  shape,  and  is  36  miles  in 
circumference.  Its  surface  is  diversified  by  two 
mountaiDB.  The  chief  products  are  cotton,  pulse, 
fruits,  and  pasture.  The  vine  and  olive  flourish, 
but  corn  is  not  grown  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
soppiy  local  consumption.  A  highly-esteemed 
breed  of  asses,  of  a  large  size  and  unusually  fine 
appearance,  is  reared  here.  The  island  contains 
warm  springs  and  other  evidences  of  its  volcanic 
fonnation.  In  tiie  north-west  is  the  town  of 
Oppidolo,  with  batteries,  a  castle,  and  a  small 
port 

PA'NTHEISM  (Gr.  pan,  all,  and  Iheos,  God),  the 


name  ^ven  to  that  system  of  speculation  which,  ti 
its  spiritual  form,  identifies  the  universe  with  God, 
and  therefore  may  be  called  akosmisrti,  and  in  its 
more  material  form,  God  with  the  universe.  It  is 
only  the  latter  kind  of  pantheism  that  is  logically 
open  to  the  accusation  of  Atheism  (q.  v.) ;  the 
former  has  often  been  the  expression  of  a  profound 
and  mystic  religiosity.  The  antiquity  of  pantheism 
is  undoubtedly  ^reat,  for  it  is  prevalent  in  the  oldest 
known  civilisation  in  the  world — ^the  Hindu.  Yet 
it  is  a  later  development  of  thought  than  Polytheism 
(q.  v.),  the  natural  instinctive  creed  of  primitive 
races,  and  most  probably  originated  in  the  attempt 
to  divest  the  popular  system  of  its  josser  features, 
and  to  give  it  a  form  that  would  satisfy  the  require- 
ments 01  philosophical  speculation.  Hindu  pantheism 
as  akowitsm  is  taught  especially  by  the  Upanishada 
(q.  v.),  the  Ved&nta  (q.  v.),  and  Yoga  (q.  v.)  phil- 
osophies, and  by  those  poetical  works  which  embody 
the  doctrines  of  these  systems;  for  instance,  the 
Bhagavadg!t&,  which  follows  the  Yoga  doctrine.  It 
is  poetical  and  religious,  rather  than  scientific,  at 
least  in  its  phraseology ;  but  it  is  substantially 
similar  to  the  more  logical  forms  developed  in 
Europe.  The  Hindu  thinker  regards  man  as  bom 
into  a  world  of  iUusions  and  entanglements,  from 
which  his  great  aim  should  be  to  deliver  himself. 
Neither  sense,  nor  reason,  however,  is  capable  of 
helping  him  ;  only  through  long  continued,  rigorous, 
and  holy  contemplation  of  the  supreme  unity 
(Brahma)  can  he  oecome  emancipateii  from  the 
deceptive  influence  of  phenomena,  and  fit  to  appre- 
hend that  he  and  they  are  alike  but  evanescent 
modes  of  existence  assumed  by  that  infinite,  eternal, 
and  imcbangeable  Spirit  who  is  all  in  alL  Hindu 
pantheism  is  thus  purely  spiritual  in  its  character  ; 
matter  and  (finite)  mind  are  both  alike  absorbed 
in  the  fathomless  abyss  of  illimitable  and  absolute 
being. 

Greek  pantheism,  though  it  doubtless  originated 
in  the  same  way  as  that  of  India,  is  at  once  sbore 
varied  in  its  form,  and  more  ratiocinative  in  its 
method  of  exposition.  The  philosophy  of  Anaxi- 
mander  (q.  v.)  the  Milesian  may  almost,  with  equal 
accuracy,  be  described  as  a  system  of  atheistic 
physics  or  of  materialistic  pantheism.  Its  leading 
idea  is,  that  from  the  infinite  or  indeterminate  {to 
apeiron)^  which  is  *  one  yet  all,**  proceed  the  entire 
phenomena  of  the  universe,  and  to  it  they  return. 
Aenophanes  (q.  v.),  however,  the  founder  of  the 
Eleatic  school,  and  author  of  the  famous  meta- 
physical 7710^,  £x  nihUoy  nihil  JU,  is  the  first  classical 
thinker  who  promulgated  the  higher  or  idealistic 
form  of  panthdisin.  Denying  the  possibility  of 
creation,  he  argued  that  there  exists  only  an  eternal, 
infinite  One  or  All,  of  which  individual  objects  and 
existences  are  merelv  illusory  modes  of  representa- 
tion ;  but  as  Aristotle  finely  expresses  it— and  it  is 
this  last  conception  which  gives  to  the  pantheism  of 
Xenophanes  its  distinctive  character — *  casting  hia 
eyes  wistfully  upon  the  whole  heaven,  he  pro- 
nounced that  umty  to  be  Oo<V  Heracleitus  (q.  v.), 
who  flourished  a  century  later,  reverted  to  the 
material  pantheism  of  the  Ionic  school,  and  appears 
to  have  held  that  the  'All'  first  arrives  at  con- 
sciousness in  man,  whereas  Xenophanes  attributed 
to  the  same  universal  entity,  intelligence,  and  self- 
existence,  denying  it  only  personality.  But  it  is 
often  extremely  difiicult,  if  not  impossible,  to  draw 
or  to  see  the  distinction  between  the  pantheism  of 
the  earlier  Greek  philosophers  and  sneer  atheism. 
In  general,  however,  we  may  affirm  that  the  pan- 
theism of  the  Eleatic  school  was  penetrated  by  a 
religious  sentiment,  and  tended  to  absorb  the  world 
in  God,  while  that  of  the  Ionic  school  was  thoroughl v 
materialistic,  tended  to  absorb  God  in  the  worla» 

2» 


PAMTHEON— PANTHER. 


■od  differed  frora  atheism  nitlier  in  ntsae  than  io 
fad  But  the  mnst  decided  and  tlie  most  spiiitiul 
repreaeatativeB  o!  thia  philoaopliy  araon^  the  Greeks 
were  the  so-called  '  AlexandriaD '  i/eo-PlalonMU 
(q.  T,)i  in  whom  we  see  ckarly,  for  the  flrat  time,  the 
influence  of  the  East  upon  Greek  thought  The 
dootrinet  of  Emoaation,  of  Ecatasj,  expounded  by 
Plotinus  (q.  v.)  and  Proclus  (q,  r.),  no  lesa  tlian  the 
fantastic  Dfemonism  of  lamMichus  (q.T.)i  point  to 
Persia  and  India  aa  their  birthplace,  and  '     '    ' 


bj  being  ijreaented  in  a  mors  logical  and  iutelligibl 
fomi,  and  diveated  of  the  peculiar  mythological 
•Uusions  in  which  the  philosophy  of  the  latter  is 
Bonietimcs  dressed  up. 

During  ilie  middle  agea,  speculation  wm,  for  Hie 
moat  port,  held  in  with  tight  reini  by  the  church, 
ttud  ia  consequence  we  hear  little  of  pantheism. 
Almost  the  only  philosopher  who  advocated,  or  who 
even  seema  t«  have  thought  about  it,  ia  John  Scotus 
Eriscna  (see  Eriqena).  who  woa  probably  led  to  it 
1^  nia  study  of  the  Alexandriana,  but  hia  specula- 
bona  do  not  appear  to  have  been  thought  by  him 
incolQ|>atihle  with  a  Cbriatian  faith  i  and  in  point 
of  fact  there  are  several  profoundly  mystical 
expresaiona  em;iloycd  in  the  New  TcstamcDt.  esiiS' 
dally  in  the  EiiiBtles  of  John,  in  which  the  BOanng 

airitualiam  Ol  Chriatianitj;  culminates  in  language 
at  baa  at  teaat  a  pantheistic  form  ;  e.  g.,  '  God  is 
love ;  and  he  that  dwelleth  in  love  dwellcth  in 
Oad,  and  God  in  him.'  Erigcna  ia  regarded  as  tlie 
link  that  unites  ancient  and  modern  pantheism. 
We  find  in  him  now  a  reflection  of  the  Eaat  and  of 
Greece,  and  now  a  foreshadowing  of  the  dnctrines 
of  Schdling  and  He^eL  His  opiaions  were,  with 
tome  scholastic  modilicatious,  iutroduced,  in  the 
12tb  and  13th  centiuiea,  into  theology  by  Amalrio 
or  Amaury  de  Chartrea  (a  disciple  also  of  Abelard), 
Mtd  bis  pupil  David  de  Dinant,  who  were  condemned 
ka  heretics  by  a  council  held  at  Paris. 

Modem  pantheism  first  ahewa  itself  in  Qiordano 
Bruno  (q.v.),  burned  at  Rome  fur  his  opinions  in 
1600.  In  Bruno  reaiipear  the  Hpeculationa  of  the 
Eleatics  and  of  the  Keo-Platoniats,  but  with  a  atiU 
more  detiiiite  recognition  than  we  meet  with  in 
them  of  an  absolutely  perfect  supreme  spirit.  The 
universe,  in  the  eyes  of  the  nnfoi-tunate  Italian,  is 
not,  properly  apcaking,  »  creation,  but  only  an 
emanation  of  the  Intinite  mind — the  eternal  eipres- 
lion  of  its  infinite  activity;  and  hence  the  Infinite 
mind  penetrates  and  fills,  with  different  degrees  of 
oonsciousnees.  all  the  heights  and  depths  of  the 
nnivcrse.  To  see  God  everywhere,  to  realise  that 
Be  alone  is,  and  that  all  else  is  but  a  perishable 
phenomenon  or  passing  illuaiun— that  there  is  but 
one  iutulhgence  lu  God,  man,  beast,  and  what  we 
call  matter — thia  should  be  the  aim  of  all  true 
philosophy.  Spinoza  (q.  v,}  comea  next  among  pan- 
theists in  the  order  of  time,  but  he  ia  perhaps  the 
greatest,  certainly  the  moat  HgoroUB  and  preciae  of 
the  whole  class  that  either  the  ancient  or  the 
modern  world  has  seen.  Hia  system  ia  based,  like 
the  geometry  ui  Euclid,  on  certain  deflnitions  and 
axioms,  and  he  claims  to  have  given  it  as  conclnaive 
and  mathematical  a  demonatration  aa  the  Utter. 
None  will  deny  the  keenness  and  cogency  of  hia 
ratiocination.  But  human  beings  will  not  ue  forced 
into  pantheistic  convictions  by  any  mere  logical 
goad,  however  sharp  ;  and  the  system,  impregnable 
aa  it  seems,  has  never  had  a  formal  adherent.  The 
principal  result  at  which,  after  a  long,  firm-linked 
chain  of  reaauning,  Spinoza  arrives,  is,  that  there 
is  but  one  substance,  infinite,  self-existent,  eternal, 
Dececsary.  simple,  and  indivisible,  of  which  all  else 
aie  but  the  modes.  This  aubstance  is  the  sclf- 
czist«nt  God.    To  call  Spinoza  an  atheist  ia  ridi- 


ciiloug.  The  extravagant  phrase  of  Schledermaeher, 
'  a  God-intoiicBted  man '  {ein  gutl-trantenar  maia], 
would  be  grtatly  nearer  the  truth,  tor 


1  of  philosophj  whatever  exhibits  such  a 

itrulling   and    even    overwhelming   tense  i 

niprescnt    Ood.      Many  critics  liavs 


that  he  was  fat  more  of  an  old  Hebrew  in  hii 
system  than  he  dreamed.  Althongh  he  had  no 
direct  followera,  he  excrciaed  great  influence  on 
the  development  of  metaphysical  speculation  it 
Germany,  where,  with  the  exception  of  Kant  (q.  v.), 
the  three  greatest  philosophers  of  recent  times— 
Pichte  (q.v,),  Schelliog  (q.v.),  and  Hegel  (q.v.)- 
have  all  promulgatetl  aystema  of  a  thoroughly  pan- 
theistic and  ideal  character.  Neither  England. 
Prance,  nor  America  has  produced  a  single  grrat 
pantheistic  philosouher  (unless  Mr  Emerson  te 
regarded  as  such) ;  but  there  is  an  Immense  amount 
of  pantheistic  sentiment  floating  about  in  the  (toetry, 
criticism,  theology,  and  even  in  the  speculative 
thinking,  in  these  and  all  European  countries  in 
the  present  aije.  This  ia  attributable  to  the  rava^'es 
made  by  biblical  criticism,  and  the  progress  of  the 
physical  sciences  in  the  region  of  religious  behcu. 
Multitudes  of  men  are  puzzled  what  to  think  and 
what  to  believe.  They  do  not  like  to  face  the  fact 
that  they  have  actually  lost  faith  in  revelation, 
and  are  no  longer  relying  for  help  and  goidance  on 
the  Spirit  of  God,  but  on  the  laws  of  nature ;  u 
tbey  take  refuge  from  the  abhorred  aspect  of  the 
naked  truth  that  they  are  '  atheists'  in  a  cloud  of 
raae-cotoured  [>oetical  phraaes,  which,  if  they  mesa 
anything,  mean  pactlii-iam. 

FANTHE'ON,  a  Greek  or  Roman  temple  dedi- 
cated to  all  the  gods.    The  '  Pantheon '  of  Borne 


Half  SectiaD  of  .^antheMi  (from  Pe^nNon). 

iaow  a  church)  is  a  building  deterredly  celebrated 
or  ila  fine  dome.  It  suggested  the  idea  of  the 
domes  of  modem  times. 

PANTHER  (Felu  pardtu),  one  of  the  largot 
Feliila,  now  generally  supposed  to  be  identical 
with  the  Leopard  (q.  v.),  or  a  mere  variety  of  it, 
diflering  only  in  a  somewhat  larger  ai^c  and 
deeper    colour.      Cuvier,    however,     diatinguishei 


PANTHEE-PAOLL 


Anther  {FdtM  pardai). 
K  P.  (vtdg. '  Ptinter')  ia  given  to  tbe  Patuft  i 


fnednuo  a 


FA'NTOMIUB,   among  the   Miaieiit , 

dcaoted  not  a  ipectacle  but  a  i>eTaoiL  The  panto- 
mimes were  •  clan  of  acton  who  {u  the  name 
implies)  acted  not  by  speaking,  but  wholly  by 
mimicnr — geatore,  moTements,  and  poaturingB-— oor- 
iMpODduig  therefore  pretty  closely  to  the  modem 
bsllet-dancera.  When  tbey  first  made  tbeir  appear- 
aoce  in  Boms  cannot  be  ascertained  ;  probably  Uie 
UMrioaa  (Etnuo.  hinUr,  a  (lancer)  lumight  from 
Etnuia  to  Boioe  364  B.  c.  were  pantomimea ;  bat 
tbe  name  doen  not  once  occur  during  the  republic, 
thcmgh  it  IB  common  enough  from  the  veiy  dawn  of 
tbe  empire.  Angnatas  shewed  great  favour  to  this 
dus  of  performen,  and  is  oonsequently  supposed 
W  some  writen  to  have  been  himself  the  inventor 
d  the  art  of  dnmb  actinic.  The  moat  celebrated 
'  tnee  of  the  Augustan  age  were  Bathyilas  (a 
1  of  Mscenas),  Fvlades,  and  Hylaa.  Tbe 
a  soon  spread  over  all  Italy  and  the  provinces, 
■no  became  so  popular  with  the  Roman  Dobles  and 
knighta  (who  lued  to  invite  male  and  female  per- 
fonnei*  to  their  bouses  to  entertain  their  guests), 
that  Tiberius  reckoned  it  necessary  to  administer  a 
^eck  to  their  vanity,  by  issuing  a  decree  forbidding 
the  aristocracy  to  Erequent  their  houses,  or  to  be 
seai  walking  with  them  in  the  streets.  Under 
Caligula  th^  were  again  received  into  tbe  imperii 
faroDT;  and  Nero,  who  carried  every  unworthy 
weakneaa  and  viae  to  the  extremity  <n  caricature, 
himself  acted  as  a  pantomime.  From  this  period 
they  enjoyed  nnintemipted  popularity  aa  long  as 
jn^niam  held  sway  in  the  empire. 

Ai  the  pantomimes  wore  masks,  no  facial  mimicry 
waa  ponible ;  everything  depended  on  the  mova- 
ments  of  the  body.  It  was  the  hands  and  fingers 
chiedy  that  spoke  ;  henoe  the  eipreasions,  maniu 
twfliarittima,  digili  damoti,  ito.  To  such  perfection 
was  this  ait  carried,  that  it  ia  said  the  pantomimes 
ODold  give  a  finer  and  more  precise  expression  to 
imsiou  and  action  than  the  poets  themselves.  The 
sobjecta  thua  represented  in  diunb  show  wcie  always 
mythological,  and  oonseqnently  pretty  well  known 
to  the  spectatoia.  The  dress  of  the  acton  was 
made  to  reveal,  and  not  to  conceal  tbe  beautlea  of 
their  peraon  ;  and  aa,  after  the  2d  c,  women  began 
to  appear  in  public  a*  pantomime*,  the  efiTeot,  as 


may  easily  be  supposed,  of  the  resthetical  coetnmr 
was  injunoos  to  morality.  Sometimes  tbeee  pimto- 
mimic  actresses  even  appeared  quite  naked  before 
ao  audience — a  thing  which  could  never  liava 
happened  had  the  Roman  coQimunitie«  not  become 
thoroughly  baae,  sensual,  and  impure.  It  was  quit« 
natural,  therefore,  that  pantomimic  eibibitions 
should  have  been  deoonnced  by  the  early  Christian 
writers,  aa  they  even  were  by  pagan  monUists  like 
JuvenaL 

Under  HARLEQVtN  is  deicribed  the  character  of 
tbe  modem  pantomimea,  which  word  denotes  not 
the  performers,  but  tbe  pieces  performed.  A  few 
additional  facte  are  here  given  to  complete  that 
notice.  The  Christmas  Pantomime,  or  Harlequinade 
i*.  in  ite  present  shape,  easentisJly  a  British  enter- 
tainment, and  WBfl  first  introduced  into  this  eonntrj 
by  a  danciDg-maater  of  Shrewaburj  named  Weaver, 
in  IT02.  One  of  bis  pantomimes,  entitled  Tlu  Lout* 
oj'  Mart  and  Venua,  met  with  great  auccesa.  The 
arrival,  in  the  year  1717,  in  London  of  a  troupe  ot 
French  pantomuniata  with  performing  dogs  gave  an 
impetus  to  this  kind  of  drama,  which  was  further 
developed  m  1756  by  tbe  arrival  of  the  Grimaldi 
family,  the  head  of  which  was  a  posture-maitor  and 
dentist.  Under  the  auspices  of  this  family,  the  art 
of  prodndng  pantomimea  was  greatly  cultivated, 
and  the  entertainment  much  relished.  Joseph 
Grimaldi,  the  son  of  the  dentist,  was  clever  at 
inventing  tricks  and  devising  machinery,  and  Afothtr 
Qoote,  and  othen  of  his  harlequinadee,  had  an 
extended  run.  At  that  time  the  wit  of  the  clown 
was  the  great  feature  ;  but  by  and  by,  as  good ' 
clowns  became  scarce,  other  adjuncto  were  sapplied, 
such  aa  panoramas  or  diorsmic  views  \  aud  now  the 
chief  reliance  of  the  manager  is  on  scenic  effects, 
large  aams  of  money  being  lavished  on  the  niis«  m 
Kent,  Tbia  is  particolariy  tbe  cose  aa  regards  the 
transformation  scene — L  e.,  the  scene  where  the 
charactcre  are  changed  into  clown,  harlequin,  Ac. — 
as  much  aa  £1000  being  frequently  spent  on  this  one 
sETort.  In  London  alone,  a  sum  of  about  £4U,000  ia 
annoally  expended  at  Christmas  time  on  panto- 
mimes. The  King  oj  tin  Peaeoda,  a  pantomime 
produced  at  the  London  Lyceum  Theatre  during 
the  management  of  Madame  Vestns,  cost  ujiworda 
of  £300a  Even  ^oyincial  theatres.  Such  as  thoaa 
of  Manchester  or  Edinburgh,  oonsider  it  right  to  go 
to  oonsiderable  expense  in  the  production  d  their 
Chriitmaa  pantomime. 

PA'OLI,  pAaQnALE  Dx,  a  Cortieoa  patriot,  waa 
bora  in  1726,  at  Morosaglia,  in  Conico.  His  father, 
having  taken  a  leading  part  in  tbe  nnsuccesafnl 
insurrection  of  the  islandcn  w^  ii^  the  Oenoese 
and  their  French  rilliea,  was  obliged  to  retire  to 
Naples  in  1739,  uking  his  son  with  him.  Here 
P.  received  an  excellent  edncatton.  In  July  I76S, 
he  waa  summoned  by  the  supreme  magistracy  to 
Corsica,  and  waa  elected  captain-general  of  tbe 
island,  and  the  chief  of  a  democratic  government, 
possessing  all  the  power  of  a  king,  but  without  the 
title.  He  energetically  and  successfully  applied 
himself  to  the  reformation  of  tbe  barbarous  lawi 
and  customs  of  tbe  island,  and  at  the  same  time  to 
the  expulsion  of  the  Qenoese,  who,  notwithstanding 
the  aid  they  received  from  an  influential  section  of 
the  islanders,  were  deprived  of  nearly  alt  their 
strongholds,  tiieir  fieet  waa  defeated,  and  tbey  were 
finally  obliged  to  seek  help  from  France.  After  the 
withdrawn  of  the  French  troops,  th';y  were  again 
speedily  deprived  of  the  places  they  had  recaptured, 
and  in  1768  tbey  ceded  tbe  island  to  France.  P. 
refused  i^l  the  advantogeona  oflTen  by  which  the 
French  government  sousht  to  bribe  him,  as  he  had 
before  refused  those  of  toe  Genoese,  and  continued 
struggle  for  the  independence  of  bi«  country, 


PAPA^PAPAL  STATE& 


bnt  lie  was  signally  defeated  by  the  Comte  de 
Vanx,  at  the  head  of  the  French  troops,  and  the 
French  became  masters  of  the  island.  After  one 
year's  struggle,  P.  was  compelled  to  take  refuge 
on  board  of  a  British  frigate,  in  which  he  sailed 
for  England,  where  he  was  treated  with  fl»neral 
sympathy.  Twenty  years  afterwards,  the  French 
reyolution  of  1789  recalled  him  to  Corsica, 
and  as  a  zealous  republican  he  entered  into  the 
schemes  of  the  reyolutionary  party ;  but  during  the 
anarchy  of  France  in  1792 — 1793,  he  conceived  a 
scheme  for  makins  Corsica  an  independent  republic. 
Until  this  time  he  had  been  on  the  best  terms 
with  the  Bonaparte  family,  but  they  now  joined  the 
Jacobin  party  whilst  he  allied  himself  with  Britain, 
favoured  the  landing  of  2000  British  troops  in  the 
island  in  1794,  and  joined  them  in  driving  out  the 
French.  He  tiien  surrendered  the  island  to  George 
III.,  but  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  govern- 
ment, he  quarrelled  with  the  British  viceroy,  whilst 
many  of  his  countrymen  were  displeased  with  the 
course  he  had  adopted  in  allying  nimself  with  the 
BritisL  He  therefore  retired  from  the  island  in 
1796,  and  spent  the  remainder  %>f  his  life  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  London.  P.  died  near  London, 
February  5^  1807. 

PAT  A,  a  large  market-town  in  the  west  of 
Hungary,  stands  in  a  beautiful  district  on  the 
Tapolcza,  an  afiluent  of  the  Marczal,  60  miles  south- 
south-east  of  Presburg.  It  contains  a  stately  castle, 
with  a  beautiful  garden,  handsome  Catholic  and 
Lutheran  churches,  a  Catholic  gynmasium,  Keformed 
college,  and  an  hospital.  Stoneware,  doth,  and 
pipes  are  manufactured,  and  a  trade  in  wine  is 
carried  on.    Pop.  12,400. 

PAPA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  title  now,  in  the 
Western  Church,  given  exclusively  to  the  Bishop 
of  fiome.  Originally,  however,  meaning  simply 
'  father,'  it  was  given  indiscriminately  to  all  bishops. 
Tertullian  {De  PudicUia,  cziii.)  so  employs  it. 
Dionysius,  a  priest  of  Alexandria,  calls  his  bishop 
Papa  Heiaclias.  St  Cyprian,  in  the  letters  of  his 
clergy,  is  addressed  BeaHssimo  Papce  Cypriano, 
The  same  form  is  employed  towards  him  by  the 
clergy  of  Rome  itself.  £ven  Arius  so  addresses  his 
own  bishop  Alexander.  In  the  next  century,  St 
Jerome  addresses  the  same  title  to  Athanasius,  to 
Epiphanius,  and  most  of  all  to  Augustine.  Indeed 
it  would  appear  certain  that  down  to  the  time  of 
Gregory  of  Tours  it  was  used  not  uncommonly  of 
bishops  in  the  Western  Church.  And  there  are 
evidences  of  its  beine  occasionally  applied  to  the 
inferior  clergy,  for  whom,  however,  some  adjunct 
was  employed,  in  order  to  distinguish  them  from 
bishops.  Thus,  we  sometimes  read  of  papcB  pisinni, 
minor  popes ;  and  the  tonsure  was  called  by  the 
name  papa  ktra.  In  the  Greek  Church,  as  is  well 
known,  whether  in  Greece  Proper  or  in  Kussia,  papa 
is  the  common  appellation  of  the  clergy.  The  cir- 
cimistance  of  its  having  been  originally  of  general 
application,  is  acknowledged  by  all  learned  Koman 
Githolic  controversialists  and  historians. 

PA'PACY.    See  Popbs. 

PAPAL  STATES  (Italian,  Stati  dklla  Chtbsa, 
or  Stati  Pontifici),  a  territory,  or  rather  ^up  of 
states  in  Central  Italy,  formerly  united  into  one 
sovereignty,  with  the  pope  for  its  head.  It  was  of 
an  irregular  form,  resembling  the  letter  Z,  the  upper 
portion  lying  to  the  east  of  Uie  Apennines,  the  lower 
to  the  west  of  that  range,  these  two  bein^  connected 
by  a  third  strip,  which  crossed  the  peninsula  from 
east  to  west.  The  P.  S.  were  bounded  on  the  N. 
by  the  Po,  on  the  S.  by  Naples,  on  the  K  by 
the  (jrulf  of  Venice  and  Naples,  and  on  the  W. 
by  Modena,  Tuscany,  and   the    Tyrrhenian    Sea. 

its 


Detached  portions,  as  Benevento  and  Ponteoorro, 
lay  within  the  Neapolitan  territory.  The  country 
is  traversed  by  the  Apennines,  which  attain  their 
highest  elevation  in  the  Monte  della  Sibilla,  wludi 
is  about  7402  feet  above  sea-leveL  Owing  to  this 
range,  which  traverses  the  peninsula  in  the  direction 
of  ito  length,  lying  so  much  nearer  the  east  than  the 
west  coast,  the  rtreams  to  the  east  of  it  have  a 
short  course  and  little  volume,  being,  in  fact,  mere 
mountain  torrents ;  while  on  the  we^  side  a  few  of 
the  rivers  are  of  considerable  size.  Of  the  latter, 
the  Tiber  (q.  v.)  is  the  largest.  The  eastern  coast 
is  bold  and  rugged,  and  destitute  of  proper  harbouTB, 
that  of  Ancona  alone  excepted ;  towanis  the  north, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Po,  it  gradually  subsides  into 
a  low,  level,  marshy  tract,  with  numerous  lagunes. 
The  country  west  of  the  Apennines  is  traversed 
by  ranges  of  hills  parallel  to  them,  and  gradually 
decreasing  in  elevation  as  they  approach  the  sea. 
The  coast  itself  is  almost  wholly  flat,  saody,  or 
marshy,  with  no  deep  bays  and  few  good  harbours 
besides  Civita  Vecchia.  There  are  numerous  small 
lakes,  principally  in  the  northern  portion  of  the 
country,  the  chief  of  which  are  Lake  Bolsena,  Lake 
Perugia,  and  Lake  Bracciano,  the  last  an  old  crater, 
situated  almost  1000  feet  above  sea-leveL 

The  country  was  divided  for  administrative 
purposes  into  20  districts,  as  follows :  1  Comarca, 
mcluding  Rome  and  the  Agro  Romano ;  6  Legations, 
Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  Ravenna,  Urbino,  Velletri ; 
and  13  Delegations,  Ancona,  Ascoli,  Benevento, 
Camerino,  Civita  Vecchia,  Fermo,  Frosinone,  Ma- 
cerata,  Orvieto,  Perugia,  Spoleto,  Rieti,  Viterbo; 
with  a  total  area  of  16,774  English  square  miles, 
and  a  population  (1853)  of  3,124,66a  The  Legations 
of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli,  and  Ravenna  constituted 
the  Bomagna  ;  Spoleto  and  Perugia  were  known  as 
Umbria  ;  and  Ancona,  Fermo,  Macerata,  and  Ascoli 
constituted  the  March  of  Ancona.  The  inhabitants, 
with  the  exception  of  16,000  Jews,  are  of  Italian 
race,  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
only  provinces  now  remaining  under  the  papal 
rule  are,  Rome  with  the  Comarca,  the  leraition  of 
Velletri,  and  the  delegations  of  Civita  vecchia, 
Frosinone  (excepting  Pontecorvo),  and  Viterbo, 
with  a  total  area  of  4493  English  square  miles, 
and  a  population  of  about  7^,000.  The  chief 
cities  and  towns  in  the  present  territory  are,  Romc^ 
(the  capital),  Viterbo,  Velletri,  Alatri,  and  Civita 
Vecchia. 

Climate  and  Products. — The  climate  of  the  P.  S. 
is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  and  the  heat  of 
summer  is  tempered  by  the  mild  and  cooling  sea- 
breezes  ;  but  in  the  flats  south  of  the  Po  and  in  the 
Campagna  of  Rome,  the  noxious  atmosphere  pro- 
duoed  by  the  exhalations  from  the  marshes  is  most 
destructive  of  human  life.  Fevcu*  and  ague  are 
very  prevalent  among  the  inhabitants  of  the  neigh* 
bouring  districts,  and  notwithstanding  the  attempts 
to  remedy  the  deadly  influence  of  the  marshes 
by  drainage  and  cultivation,  it  has  hitherto  been 
undiminished  (see  Maremme).  Violent  siroccos 
are  occasionally  experienced  on  the  west  coasts 
The  northern  portion,  from  its  elevation,  is  exposed 
to  severe  cold  during  winter.  The  soil  of  the  P.  S. 
is  in  general  extremely  fertUe ;  but  the  higher 
mountain  districts  are  either  quite  barren,  or  only 
adapted  for  pasture ;  and  not  more  than  one- third 
of  the  whole  surface  is  under  cultivation.  The 
practice  of  agriculture  is  in  its  most  primitive 
state,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  agricnltiire, 
as  a  science,  originated  here,  and  was  practised 
for  many  centuries  before  it  was  introduced  into 
the  other  countries  of  Europe ;  but  the  many 
political  changes  and  revolutions  which  have  <»on- 
vulsed  the  country,  have  acted  as  a  bar   to   all 


PAPAL  STATES. 


enterprifle;  It  most,  however,  be  mentioned,  that 
the  present  pope  has,  by  salutary  enactments,  and 
by  the  establishment  of  agricultural  societies,  done 
nnch  for  the  improvement  of  this  branch  of 
indiutiy.  The  products  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  rest  of  Italy.  The  manufactures  are  compara- 
tively unimportant— silks,  wooUens,  and  leather 
are  the  chief ;  but  ptlate-elass,  rope,  sailcloth, 
cotton  goods,  paper,  artificial  flowers,  wax-candles, 
soap,  rtoneware,  &c,  are  also  manufactured  in 
vanous  places.  The  fisheries  are  important.  The 
chief  minerals  are  alum,  vitriol,  saltpetre,  sulphur, 
ooal,  rock-salt,  marble,  and  alabaster. 

^ny  of  the  manufactured  goods,  and  wine,  olive 
oil,  wool,  hemp,  tobacco,  bread-stuflb,  catgut,  &c, 
are  exported,  the  total  exports  (1858)  amounting 
to  11,690,258  send!  (£2,528,100);  while  the  imports 
for  the  same  year  reached  the  value  of  13,510,143 
lendi  (£2,921,662) :  since  this  date  no  reliable 
statistics  of  the  trade  of  the  districts  still  remaining 
under  the  pontifical  rule  have  been  received. 

OovamntenL — The  pope  possesses  absolute  and 
unlimited  power,  but  the  members  of  the  college 
of  cardinals,  who  elect  him,  generally  keep  the  chief 
offices  of  state  in  their  own  hands,  and  assist  the 
pope  in  the  government  of  his  states,  as  well  as  in 
the  a£^rs  oi  the  church.  The  secretary  of  state  is 
at  the  head  of  political  affairs,  and  is  nominated  by 
the  pope.  He  presides  over  both  the  ministerial 
council  and  the  council  of  state.  The  former  coun- 
dl,  which  consists  of  five  or  more  ministers,  heads 
of  departments,  selected  by  the  pope,  has  a  voice 
in  legislation,  and  also  the  right  of  authoritative 
interpretation  of  the  laws;  the  latter,  which  con- 
sists of  thirteen  members,  also  nominated  by  the 
pope,  has,  in  matters  of  legislation  and  finance, 
only  the  ri^ht  of  giving  advice ;  but  it  settles  any 
question  oi  competency  that  may  arise  between  the 
Tarious  branches  of  the  administration.  Since  1850, 
there  has  also  been  a  separate  finomz-eonevXta  for 
the  regulation  of  financial  affairs.  The  Comaica, 
which  is  more  directly  under  the  central  govern- 
ment, is  ruled  by  a  cardinal-president ;  the  Legation 
is  ruled  by  a  cardinal- le^te,  aided  by  a  provincial 
chamber  of  deputies.  There  are  civH  ana  criminal 
courts  in  all  the  provinces,  minor  courts  in  the  com- 
munes, with  courts  of  appeal  in  aU  the  chief  cities, 
and  a  central  tribunal  at  Rome.  All  the  proceedings 
of  these  courts  are  public,  except  trials  for  political 
offences.  There  are  loud  complaints  of  abuses  in 
all  departments  of  the  administration.  Ecclesi- 
asticaliv,  the  country  is  divided  into  archbishoprics 
and  bishoprics. 

The  papal  army,  which  formerly  amounted  to 
20,000  men,  now  (June  1863)  numbers  only  8513 
men,  infantry,  cavaJry,  artillery,  Ac.  included,  and  a 
considerable  portion  of  the  present  papal  territory 
is  garrisoned  by  French  troops,  without  whose 
aid  the  pope's  power  could  not  oe  maintained. 

The  income  and  expenditure  for  1859,  the  last 
year  of  the  entirety  of  the  P.  S.,  were  respectively 
14,453,325  scudi  (je3, 126,028),  and  15,019,346  scudi 
(£34248,038) ;  but  the  three  succeeding  vears  shewed 
a  widely  different  result ;  the  expenses  beinff  largely 
increaseid  by  the  cost  of  the  war,  while  from  the 
rebellious  provinces  scarcely  any  taxes  were  col- 
lected. The  income  and  expenditure  for  these  three 
years  were  nearly  as  follows  : 


EspradltuNk                               In«onA 

IMO 

.       £4.720,809       *        .        £1,716,658 

1861  . 

.      4,3i)1.644   .        .        .      1,716.658 

18«2 

S,145,H28        .        .          1,072,911 

The  finances  are  still  in  the  same  deplorable  con- 
dition, and  the  national  debt  amounts  to  about 
£17,000,000.  The  tax,  known  as  *  Peter's  pence,' 
which  was  lately  collected  from  all  the  itoman 


Catholic  countries,  had  produced  at  the  beginning 
of  1863  about  £1,080,000. 

History. — During  the  rule  of  the  Goths  and  Lorn* 
bards  in  Italy,  the  mhabitants  of  Rome  and  all  who 
desii^d  to  live  free  from  the  barbarian  yoke,  feeling 
that  the  Greek  empire  was  incapable  of  protecting 
them,  and  at  the  same  time  observing  the  perti- 
nacity and  energy  with  which  the  pope  asserted  the 
importance  and  dignity  of  Rome,  naturally  looked 
up  to  him  as  in  some  sort  a  protector ;  and  it  is  to 
the  gradual  growth  and  spread  of  this  feeling  that 
the  important  position  subsequently  taken  by  the 

Sopes  as  authorities  in  temporal  matters  is  chietiy 
ue.  About  720  A.D.,  Gregory  111.,  having  quarrelled 
with  the  Emperor  Leo  the  Isaurian,  declarea  the  inde- 
pendence of  Rome.  In  726,  Pepin  le  Bref  compelled 
the  Lombard  king  to  hand  over  Ravenna,  Rimini, 
Pesaro,  Fano,  Cesena,  Urbino,  Forli,  Comacchio 
and 'fifteen  other  towns,  to  the  pope,  who  now 
assumed  the  state  of  a  temporal  sovereign.  Pepin'M 
example  was  followed  by  his  son  Charlemagne; 
but,  notwithstanding,  the  pope's  sovereignty  was 
more  nominal  than  real,  as  the  towns  were  not  in 
his  possession,  and  he  only  obtained  a  small  share 
of  tneir  revenues.  In  the  11th  c,  the  Normans 
greatly  aided  to  increase  the  papal  temporal  autho- 
rity, and  in  1053  the  duchy  of  Benevento  was 
annexed.  In  1102,  the  Countess  Matilda  of 
Tuscany  left  to  the  pope  her  fiefs  of  Parma,  Mantua, 
Modena,  and  Tuscany  ;  but  these  were  immediately 
seized  by  the  German  emperor,  and  of  this  magnifi- 
cent bequest  only  a  few  estates  Ccome  into  the  pope's 
hands.  Between  this  period  and  the  end  of  the 
13th  c.,the  popes  succeeded,  often  by  unscrupulous 
means,  in  obtaining  from  many  of  the  free  towns  of 
Italy  an  acknowledgment  of  the  superiority  of  the 
Roman  see  over  them ;  and  in  1278  the  Emperor 
Rodolf  L  confirmed  the  popes  in  the  aca  uisitions  thus 
obtained,  defined  authoritatively  the  boundaries  of 
the  P.  S.,  and  acknowledged  the  pope's  exclusive 
authority  over  them,  by  absolving  their  inhabitants 
from  their  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  empire.  The 
P.  S.  at  this  time  included  Penigia,  Bologna,  Berti- 
noro,  the  Duchy  of  Spoleto,  the  Exarchy  of  Ravenna, 
and  the  March  of  Ancona  ;  but  many  of  the  towns 
were  either  republics  or  hereditary  principalities, 
and  in  none  did  the  pope  possess  real  authority. 
Sixtus  IV.,  in  the  end  of  the  15th  c,  managed 
to  annex  the  Romagna  to  his  dominions ;  in 
effecting  which  he  is  accused  of  having  employed 
intrigue,  perjury,  and  murder.  His  successors, 
Alexander  VI.  and  Julius  II.,  increased  the  P.  S. 
by  i^e  addition  of  Pesaro,  Rimini,  Faenza,  Parma, 
Placentia,  and  Reggio.  By  the  victory  of  the 
French  at  Marignan  (1515),  the  very  existence  of 
the  papal  power  was  threatened ;  but  the  able  policy 
of  Leo  X.  averted  tiie  threatened  daujger.  In  1545, 
Paul  III.  alienated  Parma  and  PlacentuL,  and  erected 
them  into  a  duchy  for  his  son,  Pietro  Luigi  Famese ; 
but  this  loss  was  partly  made  up  by  the  acquisi- 
tions of  Gregory  XlIL  In  1598,  the  possessions  of 
tiie  House  of  £ste,  viz.,  Ferrara^  Comacchio,  and  a 
part  of  the  Romagna,  were  seized  bv  Pope  de- 
ment VIII.  ;  and  the  P.  8.  receivea  their  final 
additions  in  Urbino  (1623),  Ronciglione,  and  the 
duchy  of  Castro  (1650).  The  Romagna  was  seized 
by  Napoleon  in  1797»  and  incorporated  in  the 
Cisalpine  Republic ;  and  in  the  following  year, 
Rome  was  taken  by  the  French,  and  the  P.  S. 
erected  into  the  Roman  BepubUc  Pius  VII.,  in 
1800,  obtained  possession  of  his  states,  but  they 
were  almost  immediately  retaken  by  the  French, 
and  finally  (1809)  incorporated  with  France,  Rome 
being  reckoned  the  second  city  of  the  empire.  In 
1814,  the  pope  returned  to  his  dominions,  and  was 
formally  reinstated  by  the  treaty  of  Vienna,  mainly 


PAPAVERACEiE— PAPENBURG. 


through  the  exertions  of  the  non-Roman  Catholic 
powers,  Russia,  Prussia,    and   Britain  ;    but    the 
deric^  miflgoyemment  contrasted  so  strongly  with 
the  liberal  administration  of  France,  that  in  1830 
the  people  of  Anoona  and  Bologna  rose  in  rebellion. 
They  were  put  down  by  the  aid  of  an  Austrian 
army,  but  the  abuses  in  the  administration  were  so 
flagrant,  that  even  Austria  urged  the  necessity  for 
reform.      Her   remonstrances,   however,  were  not 
attended  to,  and  the  Bolognese  again  rebelled.   This 
second  revolt  supplied  Austria  with  a  pretext  for 
occupying  the  northern  Legations,  and  the  French 
at  the  same  time  garrisoned  Ancona.     Occasional 
risings  took  place  from  time  to  time  up  to  1846, 
when  the* present  pope,  Pius  IX.,  assumea  the  tiara, 
and  burst  upon  the  astonished  world  in  the  new 
character  of  a  reforming  pope.    His  projects  were 
of  a  most  liberal  character,  and  were  put  in  force 
with    great    energy,    despite    the    opposition    of 
Austria ;  but,  alarmed  at  the  spread  of  revolution 
in  Europe  during  1848,  he  halted  in  his  career,  just 
at  the  critical  moment  when  to  halt  was  to  be  lost. 
The   people   rose,  and   Pius   IX.   fled  to  Gaeta, 
whilst  Rome  was  proclaimed  a  republic.    He  was 
restored,  and  his  subjects  reduced  to  submission, 
by  the  arms  of  France,  Austria,  Naples,  and  Spain. 
The  Austrians  held  the  Lections  in  subjection 
to   the    poi)e*s    authority  tiU   1859;    the   French 
still  occupy  Rome  in  his  behalf.    In  July  1859,  the 
four   no^em  Legations    (the   Romagna),  taking 
advantage    of   the   withdrawal   of   the   Austrian 
troops,  quietly  threw  off  the  papal  authority,  and 
proclaimed   their  annexation    to    Sardinia,  which 
was  formally  acknowledged  by  Victor  Emmanuel 
in  March  1860.    The  pope  now  raised  a  large  body 
of   troops,    appointing  Lamoricidre,    an    eminent 
French  general,  to  command  them,  for  the  purpose 
of    resisting    any   further    encroachments    on    his 
dominions;    but  the  news  of  Garibaldi's  success 
in  Sicily  and  Naples  produced  revolt  in  the  Lega- 
tion  of  Urbino  and  m  the  Marches,  the  ])eople 
proclaiming    Victor    EmmanueU     The   Sardinians 
accordingly    marched    into    the    P.    S.,   defeated 
Lamorici^re  in  two  encounters,  and  finally  com- 
pelled him  to  retire  into  Ancona,  where,  after  a 
siege  of  seven  days,  he  was  compelled  to  surrender 
with  his  whole  army.     The  revolted  provinces  of 
Umbria,  Urbino,  and  the  Marches  were  immedi- 
ately annexed  to  Sardinia;  and  the  isolated  pro- 
vinces   of  Benevento  and  Pontecorvo  (a  part  of 
Frosinone),  which  are  situated  within  the  kingdom 
of  Naples,  shared  the  same  fate.  ,  The  pope  still 
refuses  to  recognise  the  validity  of  the  transfer  of 
his  states. 

PAPAVERA'OE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  herbaceous  or  half  shrubby,  usually  with  a 
milky  or  coloured  juice.  The  leaves  are  alternate, 
without  stipules;  tiie  flowers  on  long  one-flowered 
stalks.  The  fruit  is  pod-shaped  or  capsular;  the 
seeds  numerous.  The  order  is  distinguished  for 
narcotic  properties.  Opium  (q.  v.)  is  its  most  import- 
ant product.  The  juice  of  Celandine  (q.  v.)  is  very 
acrio.  A  numbejr  of  species  are  used  in  their  native 
countries  for  medicinal  purposes.  The  seeds  3irield 
fixed  oil,  which,  with  the  exception  of  that  obtained 
from  Argemone  MexicanOy  is  quite  bland.  See 
Poppy.  The  flowers  of  many  species  are  large  and 
shewy,  most  frequently  white  or  yellow,  sometimes 
red.  Several  kinds  of  Poppy  and  Eschscholtzia 
are  frequent  in  our  gardens.  There  are  in  all 
about  130  known  species,  natives  of  all  Quarters 
of  the  world,  and  of  tropicaJ  and  temperate  climates, 
but  tiiey  abound  most  of  all  in  Europe. 

PAPAW  {Oarica  Papaiya)^  a  South  American 
tree  of   the  natural   order  PapayacecB^^  which 

t40 


order  about  30  species  are  known — which  has  now 
been  introduced  into  many  tropical  and  subtropical 
countries.  It  crows  to  the  height  of  15—30  feet, 
with  leaves  omy  at  the  top,  where  also  the  fruit 
grows  dose  to  the^stem.  The  leaves  are  20—30 
inches  long.  The  fruit  is  of  a  ereen  colour,  very 
similar  in  appearance  to  a  small  melon,  and  with 
a  somewhat  similar  flavour.  It  is  eaten  either  raw 
or  boiled.  The  seeds  are  round  and  black,  and 
when  chewed,  have  in  a  high  degree  the  pungency 
of  cresses.  The  powdered  seeds  and  the  jiuce  of 
the  unripe  fruit  are  most  powerful  anthehnintica. 
A  constituent  of  this  juice  is  Fibrine,  otherwise 
unknown  in  tlie  vegetable  kingdom,  except  in  the 
Fungi  The  milky  juice  of  the  tree  is  very  acrid. 
The  leaves  are  used  by  negroes  instead  of  soap  to 
wash  linen.  The  juice  of  the  fruit  and  the  sap 
of  the  tree  have  the  singular  property  of  rendering 
the  toughest  meat  tender  in  a  short  time^    Even 


Papaw  Tree  {Oarica  Papaya). 

the  exhalations  from  the  tree  have  this  property ; 
and  joints  of  meat,  fowls,  &c,  are  hung  among  its 
branches  to  prepare  them  for  the  table.  It  is  a 
tree  of  extremely  rapid  growth,  bears  fruit  all  the 
year,  and  is  exceedingry  prolific.  The  frui^  is 
often  cooked  id  various  ways. — ^The  Chamburu  [C. 
digitaia)t  another  species  of  the  same  genus,  a 
native  of  Brazil,  is  remarkable  for  the  extremely 
acrid  and  poisonous  character  of  its  juice,  and  the 
disgusting  stercoraceous  odour  of  its  flowers.— In 
the  middle  and  southern  states  of  America  the  name 
P.  is  given  to  the  Uvaria  (or  Aavmina)  triloba,  a 
small  tree  of  the  natural  order  Anonaeece,  the  frait 
of  which,  a  large  oval  berry,  three  inches  long,  is 
eaten  by  negroes,  but  not  generally  relished  by 
others.    AU  parts  of  the  plant  have  a  rank  smell 

PA'PENBUBG,  a  small  town  of  Hanover,  in  the 
bailiwick  of  OsnabrUck,  on  a  canal  navu^ble  for 
sea-going  vessels,  27  miles  south-south-east  of 
Emden  on  DoUart  Bay,  by  the  Emden  and  Hanover 
Railway.  It  originated  in  a  small  colony  which 
sprung  up  here,  and  was  supported  principally  by 
peat-cutting,  an  employment  for  which  the  fena 
and  moors  of  the  vicmity^  afford  abundant  facilitiea 
The  towfL  is  cleanly  built,  after  the  Dutch  model; 
its  houses  stretch  along  the  banks  of  the  canaL  It 
possesses  130  ships,  and  carries  on  manofactures  of 


PAPER. 


oil-clotli  and  ropes.    Its  oommerce  is  considerable. 
PopiSOOO. 

PAPER.  This  well-known  fabric  is  nsnally 
composed  of  vegetable  fibres  in  a  urnnte  state  of 
difiBioD,  and  recombined  into  thin  sheets,  ^Hher  by 
Binple  drying  in  contact,  or  with*  the  addition  of 
ue  or  some  other  Adhesive  material  Probably  the 
earliest  use  of  paper  was  for  the  purpose  of  writins 
upon,  and  its  earhest  form  was  the  Papyrus  (q.  v.)  of 
the  ^yptians.  The  stems  of  the  papyrus  plant,  which 
ire  often  eidbt  or  ten  feet  long,  are  soft  and  green, 
externally  luLe  the  common  rush ;  and  the  interior 
consists  of  a  compact  cellular  tissue  or  pith.  At 
the  bottoi^  of  eacn  stem  the  portion  immersed  in 
the  mud  and  water  is  whiter  and  more  compact ; 
sod  under  the  outer  skin  a  number  of  thin  pellicles 
lie  one  above  the  other.  These  were  removed,  and 
hid  side  by  side  with  their  edges  overlapping  each 
other,  and  crosswise  upon  these  was  placed  one  or 
more  similar  layers,  until  the  sheet  was  sufficiently 
thick;  pressure  was  then  applied  for  a  time,  and 
afterwards  the  sheet  was  dried  in  the  sun.  The 
width  of  such  sheets,  of  course,  depended  upon  the 
length  of  the  portion  of  papjrms  steins  taken ;  but 
they  could  be  made  any  length  by  joining  a  number 
of  the  squares  end  to  end  by  glue  or  any  other 
adhesive  material  The  acapus,  or  roll,  usually 
consisted  of  about  20  of  them. 

Owing  to  the  fact  tiiat  the  various  layers  of  the 
papyrus  decrease  in  thickness  as  they  are  nearer  to 
the  centre  of  the  stem,  the  makers  were  enabled  to 
prodace  papers  of  different  qualities ;  and  in  the  time 
of  the  Romans  many  varieties  were  known,  which 
differed  as  to  the  quality  of  the  material,  and  the 
size  of  the  pieces  of  which  the  sheets  were  composed. 
The  finest  quality  was  made  from  the  innermost 
layer  of  membrane,  and  was  called  Hieratica,  or 
paper  of  the  priests.  This  was  made  for  the 
Egyptian  prieste,  who  interdicted  its  sale  until 
oovereil  with  sacred  writing.  In  this  state  it  was, 
hcvever,  an  article  of  trade,  and  the  Romans  found 
a  means  of  removing  the  writing,  and  sold  the 
palimpsest  sheets  in  Rome  under  the  name  of 
AuguMus  paper,  used  as  a  Latin  equivalent  for  its 
former  Greek  nsme  of  hieratica.  It  was,  however, 
sqiposed  by  many  that  it  was  named  after  the 
^peror  Augustus,  and  in  consequence  a  second 
qnality  was  <^ed  after  his  wife,  Lavinia ;  and  the 
original  name  of  the  first  quality  came  in  time  to  be 
applied  to  the  third  quality.  The  next  quality  was 
called  Amphitheatrieaf  it  is  supposed,  from  its 
baring  been  made  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Alexandrian 
amphitheatre.  This  last,  when  imported  to  Rome, 
was  partly  remanufactured  by  Q.  itemmius  Fannins 
Palsmon,  the  schoolmaster  and  paper-maker,  who, 
by  a  peculiar  process  of  his  own,  reduced  its 
thickness,  and  rendered  it  equal  to  the  first  quality, 
when  it  was  sold  under  the  name  of  FannkmcL. 
Tliere  were  other  inferior  qualities,  of  which  one 
called  EmpoTtUca  was  used  as  shop-paper. 

Fliny,  from  whom  we  get  these  very  interesting 
particulars,  tells  us  that  aU  these  kinds  were  manu- 
factured in  Egypt,  and  required  the  Nile  water  for 
their  formation.  He  says,  that  'when  it  is  in  a 
muddy  state  it  has  the  peculiar  qualities. of  glue, 
and  the  various  kinds  of  paper  are  made  on  a  table 
where  they  are  moistened  with  this  water.  The 
leaves  or  sheets  of  membrane  are  laid  upon  it 
lengthwise,  as  long  indeed  as  the  papyrus  will 
admit  of,  the  jagged  edges  being  cut  on  at  either 
end ;  after  whicn  a  cross  layer  is  placed  over :  the 
way,  in  fact,  that  hurdles  are  made.    When 


same 


this  is  done,  the  leaves  are  pressed  together,  and 
dried  in  the  sun.'  The  idea  of  the  adhesive  quahty 
9f  the  Nile  water  is  erroneous,  but  it  is  very  probable 
the  £^ptian  manufacturers  encouraged  the  error. 


It  is  obvious  the  whole  merit  consisted  in  using  the 
membranes  fresh,  whilst  their  own  natural  gum  waa 
in  proper  condition  to  make  them  adhere  together. 

In  India  and  China,  the  art  of  writing  with  a 
style  or  shaip  point  upon  dried  palm  and  other 
leaves,  and  also  some  kinds  of  bark,  is  common 
even  at  the  present  day,  especially  in  Ceylon,  where 
we  find  it  common  to  employ  the  leaves  of  the 
talipot  and  other  palms  as  paper.  Perhaps  it  was 
from  the  employment  of  these  materials,  or  it  is 
even  possible  from  watching  the  operations  of  the 
paper-making  wasps  and  other  insects,  that  the 
manufacture  of  lareer  pieces,  by  piilping  the 
materials  and  spreaoing  them  out  -to  a  greater 
extent,  was  suggested.  Whatever  was  the  true 
origin  of  the  art,  it  is  now  lost  in  the  vista  of  tima 

K  is  known  that  the  Chinese  were  acquainted 
with  the  art  of  making  paper  from  pulp  artificially 
prepared  as  early  as  the  commencement  of  the 
Christian  era ;  and  it  is  thought  that  they  used  the 
bark  of  various  trees,  the  soft  parts  of  bamboo 
stems,  and  cotton.  In  the  7th  c,  the  Arabians 
learned  the  art  of  making  it  of  cotton  from  the 
Chinese,  and  the  first  manufactory  was  established, 
about  706  a.d.,  at  Samarcand.  From  thence  it  was 
transplanted  to  Spain,  where,  under  the  Moors, 
paper  was  made  not  only  of  cotton,  but  it  is 
thought  also  of  hemp  and  flax.  The  exact  time  of 
the  introduction  of  paper  made  of  linen  rags  is 
very  uncertain  ;  but  the  best  evidence  is  offer^  by 
the  Arabian  physician  Abdollatiph,  who  writes,  in 
an  account  of  his  visit  to  Egypt  in  the  year 
1200,  '  that  the  cloth  found  in  the  catacombs,  and 
used  to  envelop  mummies,  was  made  into  garments, 
or  sold  to  the  scribes  to  make  paper  for  shopkeepers  ;' 
and  as  there  is  no  doubt  that  these  mummy-cloths 
were  linen,  it  proves  that  the  use  of  this  material  is 
of  no  mean  antiquity.  Of  the  use  of  Unen  rags  in 
Europe,  the  earliest  proof  is  in  the  celebrated  (£>cu- 
ment  found  by  Ichwandner  in  the  monastery  of 
Gross,  in  Upper  Styria,  which  purports  to  be  a  man- 
date of  Frederick  II.,  emperor  of  the  Romans,  and 
is  dated  1242.  It  is  wntten  on  paper  which  has 
been  proved  to  be  made  of  linen.  The  practice  of 
making  a  distinctive  water-mark  on  the  paper,  by 
means  of  an  impression  on  the  fine  sieve  of  threacfs 
or  wires  upon  which  the  floating  pulp  is  received 
(fig.  1),  was  also  of  ^erj  early  date,  as  MSS.  as  old 
as  the  13th  c  bear  it.  But  there  is  really  no 
satisfactory  information  respecting  the  exact  time 
or  place  of  the  introduction  of  paper-making  into 
Europe ;  by  some  it  is  supposed  that  Spain  was  the 
first  to  receive  the  art,  and  that  thence  it  spread  to 
France  and  Holland,  and  afterwards  to  England.  It 
is  quite  certain  that  England  was  a  long  time  behmd 
these  countries.  As  a  proof  of  this,  we  find  that 
the  first  patent  for  paper-making  was  taken  out  in 
1665,  by  one  Charles  Hildeyerd,  but  it  was  for  *  The 
way  and  art  of  making  blew  paper  used  by  sugar- 
bakers  and  others.'  "Die  second  was  in  1675,  by 
Eustace  Bameby,  for  '  The  art  and  skill  of  making 
all  sorts  of  white  paper  for  the  use  of  writing  and 
printing,  being  a  new  manufacture,  and  never  prac- 
tised in  any  way  in  any  of  our  kingdomes  or  domi- 
nions.' This,  then,  was  the  first  commencement  of 
the  making  of  writing  and  printing  paper ;  but  that 
it  did  not  equal  the  manufactures  of  other  coun- 
tries is  shewn  by  the  specification  of  another  patent,^ 
jtaken  out  by  John  Bnscoe  in  the  year  1685,  which 
is  thus  expressed :  'The  true  art  and  way  for  making 
English  paper  for  writing,  printing,  and  other  uses, 
horn  as  good  and  as  sertficeable  in  aU  ^t«pect$^  and' 
especially  as  white  as  any  French  or  Dutch  papers 
As  a  general  rule,  it  was  the  custom  of  })aper- 
makers  to  employ  linen  rags  for  fine  papers,  but  a> 
ereat  variety  of  other  materials  have  been  in  use 


PAPER, 


from  its  first  introduction;  for,  as  early  as  1680, 
Nathaniel  Bladen  took  out  a  patent  for  '  An  engine 
method  and  mill,  whereby  hemp,  flax,  lynnen, 
«otton,  cordage,  silke,  woollen,  and  all  sorts  of 
materials*  might  be  made  into  paper  and  paste- 
board ;  and  from  that  time  innumeraole  efforts  have 
been  made  to  prepare  other  materials  than  cotton 
and  linen  rags  for  the  manufacture  of  paper.  The 
following  is  a  summaiy  of  the  patents  which  have 
been  taKen  out  in  Britain  for  making  paper  from 
various  materials,  with  the  dates,  which  will  shew 
to  those  engaged  in  this  investigation  in  what 
directions  the  inquiry  has  been  previously  con- 
ducted. 'Hie*  arrangement  is  alphabetical,  and 
consequently  not  in  the  order  of  dates. 


MMntalik 


Aloe  Fibre, 


•       • 


A»b^ctoo,  .       •       • 
Bagging  or  Sacking,    . 


Banum  Fibre,      •       • 
Bark*  of  Tariooa  kloda, 

Bata  or  Bast,       •       • 

Bean-stalk*,  &o«,      • 
Cane  (Sugar),       •       • 

Gocoa-nnt  Fibre,      • 

Ooeoa^nttt  Kernel,      • 
Qover,      .       •       • 

Gotton,        •       •       • 

Dong,       •       •       • 

Esparto  or  Alfa,  . 
Flax,        •        •       • 


Flax,  New  Zealand,     • 

Fresh-water  Weeds, 
Fur,      . 
Graaaea,    . 


■  • 


Gntta-pereha,      • 

Hair, 

Haj,     .       •       •       • 

Heath,      .      •      • 
Heinpy  •       •       •       • 


Hops, 


•      •      • 


Haaks  of  Grain,   . 
Jute, 


•       • 


iMther, 


•      • 


•       •      • 


NuBM  of  Inrcoion,  and  nam  of  Patnita. 


1825; 
1853; 
1854: 


Berry,     18S8  ;    D'Harconrt,    1838; 

Smiin,  1838;  Haj,  1852;  Burke, 

1855. 
Maiiirre,  1853. 
Stiff.  1853;  Wheeler  and  Gb.,  1854; 

RoMiter  and   Co.,  .1854;    Smith 

and  Co.,  1855. 
Berry,  1838;   Lillr,  1864;   Jnllfon, 

1855 ;  I^uike,  1855 ;  Hook,  1857. 
K.v>p4, 1800;  Balmano.  1838  ;  Nerot, 

1846;   Coupler,  1852;    JohnMon, 

1855;  Kclk,  1855;  Lotteii,  1856; 

Kivcn,  1H56;   Broad,  1857;  Hope 

and  Co.,  1857. 
Buck  and  Tuuche,   1856:  Tbuche, 

1857. 
D'Uttrconrt,  1838;  Brooman,  1856. 
Berry,  1S38;  Cuupier,  1S52;  Jolin- 

son,   IH56;    Jnllion,  1855;    Ruok 

and  Touche,  1856 ;  Hook,  1857. 
Nowtctn,  1862;   UoU  and  Forater, 

1854. 
Diaper,  1864. 
Conpland,  1864;  Holt  and  Fraser, 

1854;  Plnnkett,  1857. 
Bladen,     1682;     WUiiama,     1833; 

Coupler,    1852;    Croa^lev,    1S54 ; 

Siblet,  1857. 
Jonia,  1805;  Zander,  1839:  Iiloyd, 

1852;  Hill,  1854. 
B^mfedge,  1856. 
BlHd^en,  1682;   Konpe,  1800;  Jnnea, 

1805;   Ball,  1817;    Berry,  1838; 

Gibbs,  1833;  De  la  Garde, 

Coupler,    18)2 ;     Collins, 

Pownal,  1852;    Goupland, 

Broad,  1857. 
Berry,  1838 ;  Gibbs,  1683  and  1857 } 

GiUmon,  1854. 
Archer,  1855. 
Williaina,  1833. 
Stiff,  1833  :  Evana,  1864 ;  Cllft,  1854; 

Coupland,    1864;     Jeyes,     1854; 

CroKaley,    1854;    Jackson,    1854; 

Juhnaon,    1855 ;     Fraser,    1855 ; 

Gilhce,  1853;    H'llt  and  Fraser, 

1854 ;  Pariret,  18^6. 
Hancock,  1846. 
WiIllHm^  1833. 
Koop9,1800;  Ca8telaln,l854;  Pariaet, 

1856. 
Crojwley,  1854. 
Bluden,  1682 ;  Hooper,  1790 ;  Koona, 

D'OO ;   De  la  Garde,  1825 ;  Glbb<«, 

1832 ;  Ooupier,  1852 ;  Collins,  1853 ; 

Bargnano,  1853;   Jackson,  1854; 

11  !iii,  1864 ;    Broad,  1857 ;   Bull, 

1817. 
De   1h  Garde,    1826;    D'Harconrt, 

1838 ;  Balmano,  1888 ;  H'Ouaran, 

1889;    Sheldon,   1843;    Barling, 

1854;    Crn»Fley,  1854;   Holt  and 

Frnncr,  1854 ;  Taylor,  1864;  Broad, 

1857 ;  Plunkett,  1857. 
Wilkinson,  1852. 
Calvert,  1846 ;  Nerot,  1846 ;  Gonpier; 

1852;  Hclin,  1854;  Jackaon,  1854; 

Smith  and  HoUing worth,  1856. 
Hooper,  1790  ;  Trappes,  1854 ;  Oeka, 

1856 ;  Van  den  Hoat,  1866 ;  Uch- 

ten^tadt,  1867. 
Balmano,    1838  ;     Warner,   1853 ; 

Vivien,    1853;     Johnaon,    1865; 

M'>11,  1855;    Book  and  Touehe, 

1857. 


HatailaU. 


Vamat  of  Invviuon,  and  DaftN  of  fiMBto. 


Matae,  Husk,  and  Stoma, 

tfanilln  Hemp  or  Plan-) 
tain  Fibre,         •        J 
Uoaa,         .        , 

Netaea, 

Old  Writing  Paper,      . 

Pea  Stalk, 

Peat  or  Tarf,        • 


Boota  of  various  kinds. 

Sawdust.      «       • 
Sea-iteeoa^       •    .  • 

SUk,     .       .       •       ^ 

Straw,      •       •       • 


Tan  (Spent  Bark), 


Thistle-down, 
Thistles,    . 

Tobaceo-stalka, 
Wood,  . 


Wool,        •       .       » 
Wraek  Graaa  or  Zoatera, 


D'Haroourt,  1838;    Balmano^  163S; 
Buck  and  Touehe,  1857. 

Kewton,  1852. 

Neobltt,     1824  ;     BeUford,    1854 ; 

Johnson,  1855. 
Jonea,  1805;   De   la  Garde,  1825; 

CUft,  1854. 
Knops,  1800. 
D'Harcourt,  1888. 
Ley,   1852;    Clarke,    1858;    LiTlf. 

raande,    1853;     Cro*»ley,    1854; 

Hemming,  1857;  Weetorman,1851 
Bulraano,  1838;    De    la   Bertoebe, 

1855;   Johnson,    18S6;   Ackland, 

1854 ;  Barlina,  1856 ;  Dnba«,  1S57. 
Wilkinson,  1852 ;  Johnson,  1855. 
Martenoli  de  Martonoi,  1855 ;  Archer, 

1865. 
Bladen,  1682;  Boll,  1617;  Wmiama 

1838. 
Koopa,  1800 ;  Lambert,  1M4 ;  Zindn, 

1839;  Couuier,  1862;  Stiff,  18SS{ 

Poole.  1853;  Ilelin,  1854;  Frsxer, 

1S66 ;  Chanehard,  1866 ;  Castelain, 

1854 ;  Broad,  1857 ;  Wheeler,  1857. 
Croesley,  1854;   Jeyen,  1854;  Holt 

and  Forster,  1854;  Horton,  1855; 

Bosfiiter  and  Biahop,  1854. 
Bellfurd,  1864. 
Koopa,  1800;  LoM  B«rridale,  1654; 

LiUe.  1854. 
Adeock,  1864. 
Koopa,     1801 ;     Deagrand,    1838 ; 

Brooman,  1853;  Swindells,  1854; 

Newton,    1852;    Johnaon,   1855; 

Kelk,  1855;  Martin,  1855;  Prede* 

▼al,    1855;    De    Frontur,    1^; 

Chanehard,  1866;   Amyot,  1S5S; 

Newton   (Vorlter),  1857;  PaiMt, 

1857;  Coupler,  1852. 
Bladen,     1682:     WiUiams,    1833 ; 

Dickenson.  1807 ;  Groaaley,  1854. 
Spooner,  1867. 


But  whatever  the  material  employed,  the  process 
for  nearly  all  is  the  same.  The  rags,  bark,  fibres, 
or  other  substance,  have  to  be  reduced  with  water 
into  a  fine  smooth  pulp.  This,  in  the  early  stages  of 
the  manufacture,  was  accomplished  by  macerating 
and  boiling  the  material,  until,  in  the  case  of  bark, 
fibres,  or  other  raw  material,  the  fibres  could  be 
drawn  out  from  the  cellulose  matter,  after  which  it 
was  beaten  with  mallets,  or  witii  pestles  in  mortan, 
or  stampers  moved  by  some  power.  Water  is  gene^ 
ally  used,  but  in  HoUapd  wmd-mills  do  this  work. 
The  beating  is  continued  until  the  material  is 
reduced  to  a  very  smooth  pulp.  The  pah»ing,  in  our 
machine  paper-mills,  is  much  more  rapidly  accom- 
plished hy  boiling  the  linen  or  cotton  ra^,  or  other 
material,  in  a  s^ng  lye  of  caustic  afilLaU.  This 
effectually  cleans  the  rags,  and  other  vegetable  fibres 


og^5)oD::^|rv^ 


Fig.L 

are  softened  and  separated  in  a  remarkable  maimer 
by  it ;  they  are  then  put  into  a  machine  called  the 
washmg-machine  (fig.   1),  which  washes  out  diit 


oucluiie  (figs.  1,  2,  ud  3; 

otiully  kboat  10  feet  in 

ud  24   feet  in  depth. 

lixit    two-thirds    of    its    lengtn,   is    a    part: 

alnyi    cast    with    it,   called    the    mid-EeBthi 

lli^  1  and  2),  to  support  the  axle  at  driTing-duft,  b 


Fig.  2. 

(Rks.  I  and  2).  This  turns  the  cylinder  e  (fig.  1), 
vhich  has  k  large  Dumber  of  t«eth  or  ridges  running 
■cross  it,  which  grip  and  tear  the  Fags,  or  other 
materifls,  as  they  are  drawn  under  it  by  the  current 
formed  by  its  revolutions.  In  order  to  facilitate 
this,  a  peculi&r  form  is  given  to  the  bottom  of  the 

ein  which  the  cylinder  works,  as  seen  in  fig.  3. 
rise,  a  (6g.  3],  is  called  the  back.fall,  and  the 


Kg.! 

materiole  are  drawn  op  to,  and  through  the  asrrow 
■par«  at  6,  by  the  current ;  then,  as  they  pass  over 
the  ridged  surface,  c,  they  come  in  contact  with  the 
n<l^!eil  surface  of  the  cylinder,  and  are  thus  rinlently 
ground  and  drawn  through,  the  stream  carrying 
them  round  and  round  until  they  are  thoroughly 
washed  and  partly  pulped  ;  or,  as  it  is  technically 
called,  broim  in.  The  washing. mocliine  is  Bupplie<l 
with  a  continued  Sow  of  clean  water,  and  the  soiled 
wat^  aa  regolarly  escapes  through  a  fine  gauze 
screen,  in  the  ends  of  the  cylinders,  ia  which  is  an 
iD){eDious  arrangement  for  raising  it  and  carrying  it 
away  through  the  axis,  which  is  hollow.  The  con- 
teats  of  the  washing-machine  are  then  allowed  to 
flow  out  through  a  large  valve,  opening  downwards 
into  the  diaining-cbest.  Here  the  water  is  drained 
away,  and  the  tlvf  is  then  placed  in  the  blenching 
Tata,  which  ore  maAe  of  stone,  and  each  calculated 
to  contain  a  hundredweight  of  stuff,  which  is  here 
submitted  to  the  action  of  a  strong  sulution  of 
chloride  of  lime  tor  about  twenty-four  hours,  and 
treqnently  aptated  ;  after  which  it  is  transferred 
to  a  hydnuihc  pnsm,  and  pressed  so  aa  to  remove  the 
greater  portion  of  the  liquid  and  chloride  uf  lime.  It 
is  then  ptaoed  ia  another  wsahing-eogiae,  and  for 


an  hour  is  submitted  to  the  same  process  as  in  tha 
first;  by  which  all  vestiges  of  the  bleaching  mate- 
rials are  removed,  and  the  stuff  so  much  mora 
broken  down  as  to  be  called  haff-iiuff.  From  this 
engine  it  is  let  out  by  a  valve,  and  Gnda  its  way  into 
the  bcalitig-engiae,  which  is  placed  at  a  lower 
level  so  as  to  receive  it  Here  the  arrangement  ia 
nearly  the  same  as  in  the  washing  and  intermediata 
engines  ;  but  the  ridgea  on  the  bars  below  the  cyliit' 
der,  and  on  Che  cylinder  itself,  are  much  sharper,  and 
the  diainte^tion  of  the  tibrea  ia  carried  on  with 
n-eat  rapidity  until  they  are  quite  separated;  and 
ue  flow  of  the  water  in  a  rapid  current,  as  it  passes 
the  cyhnder,  draws  them  out  and  arranges  them  it 
the  water  in  much  the  some  way  as  wool  or  cotton  ia 
laid  on  the  carding- cylinders  of  a  carding-machine. 
This  operation  takes  about  five  hours,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  the  materials  have  been  worked  up 
with  the  water  into  an  almost  impalpable  pulp. 
This  is  then  let  out  into  the  pulp  vat,  where  it 
ia  kept  continually  aeitatad  by  a  wooden  wheel 
revolving  in  it,  called  a  hog,  and  from  thia  the 
band-workman  or  machine  ia  supplied. 

We  will  now  suppose  the  pulp  formed  and  ready 
for   use   in   the   vat,   and  will   first   describe  the 


all  countries,  a 

paper-making  countries.    The  workman. o 


n  all 


ment     called 

ifd,wbichcon.   1 

I  of  a  sheet 
of  very  flne  net- 
work, attached  to 
a  fraine,  as  in  tig. 
4  In  Euro])e, 
this  network  waa 
always  made  of 
very  fine  wire;  but 
in    India.   China, 

and   Japan   it   is  fig.  4. 

usually    made   of 

fine  fibres  of  bamboo,  which  the  workmen  of  these 
countries  split  and  weave  with  remarkable  skilL 
There  are  usually  two  kinds  of  moulds  employed, 
n  lig.  4,  the  wires  are  woven  across  each 
other,  formtng  a  very  fine  gauze,  and  paper  made 
with  them  ia  Known  as  move.  In  the  other,  there 
are  several  cross-bars  in  the  frame,  and  straight 
wires  are  laid  from  side  to  side,  and  about  tour  or 
five  to  each  half  sheet  are  laid  across  them  length, 
wise,  to  keep  them  in  position  ;  the  transverse  wiree 
are  about  twenty  to  the  inch  ;  the  longitudinal  onea 
are  a  little  more  than  an  inch  apart  Paper  made 
iin  such  moulds 
ia  called  laid,  and  t 
is  easily  known  \ 
by  the  impression 
of  the  wires  upon 
it.  Whichever 
kind  of  mould  is 

plement  called 
the  decLle  <fig.  6) 
is  required  It 
is  a  thin  frame, 
which       exactly 

the  frame  of  the  mould,  and  the  workman  SnI 
phices  the  deekle  on  the  mould,  and  then  ^\m 
them  into  the  pulp ;  the  deckle  forms  a  ridge  which 
retains  just  enough  of  the  liquid  pulp  for  the 
sheet  of  paper.  The  water  of  the  pulp  speedily 
drains  through  the  wire  gauze,  and   after  i'   ' 


P5g.  R 


inolini 


r 


PAPER. 


face  of  the  sheet  of  pulp  to  a  piece  of  felt  or 
flannel  cloth  stretched  on  a  board,  called  the 
couch^  and  the  sheet  thus  pressed,  leaves  the  mould, 
and  is  left  on  the  couch.  Every  successive  sheet 
is  similarly  treated,  and  they  are  piled  one  on 
anothex,  with  a  aheet  of  felt  between  each,  until 
from  four  to  eifht  quires,  or  a  posU  as  it  is  called, 
is  formed.  Eacm  post  is  put  in  a  press,  and  under 
pressure  parts  with  nearly  all  the  moisture  in 
the  sheets  of  paper.  The  felts  are  then  removed, 
and  after  sevenJ  pressings,  and  other  minor  opera- 
tions, the  paper  is  hung  on  hair  ropes,  called  trwbloj 
in  the  drymg-loft;  and  when  dried,  resembles 
blotting-paper,  and  cannot  be  written  upon.  This 
is  remedied  by  dipping  it  in  a  weak  solution  of  hot 
size,  sometimes  tinged  with  colour,  after  which  it  is 
pressed,  dried,  folded,  and  made  up  into  quires.  Hot 
pressing  and  glazine  are  done  by  passing  the  sheets 
throu^  hot  and  polished  iron  rollers. 

In  Britain  very  little  paper  is  now  made  by 
hand,  the  wonderful  paper-machine  having  entirely 
chanfited  the  character  of  the  manufacture.  It  is 
usually  stated  that  Louis  Robert,  a  Frenchman, 
invented  the  paper-machine,  and  that  it  was 
brought  to  this  country  by  Bidot  of  Paris  in  an 
imperfect  state,  but  received  improvements  from 
Fourdrinier.  This  ingenious  manufacturer  certainly 
did  very  much  to  make  the  paper-machine  useful 
and  perfect,  but  it  must  not  be  overlooked  that 
Bramah  took  out  a  previous  patent  in  1805,  rather 
more  than  a  year  before  Fourdrinier,  for  very  similar 
improvements  to  those  described  in  Fourdrinier' s 
specification.  The  object  of  all  was  to  cause  an 
equal  and  well-regulated  supply  of  the  pulp  to  flow 
upon  an  endless  wire-gauze  apron,  which  would 
revolve  and  carry  on  the  paper  until  it  is  received 
on  an  endless  sheet  of  lelt,  passing  around  and 
between  large  couching  cylinders.  These  machines 
have  now  been  brought  to  such  perfection,  that 
piper  can  be  made  in  one  continuous  web  of  any 
length;  and  before  leaving  the  machine,  is  dried, 
calendered,  hot  pressed,  and  cut  into  sheets.  Dif- 
ferent engineers  have  varied  the  construction  of  the 
l)aper-machine,  but  the  general  principles  of  all  are 
the  same.  We  therefore  select  for  illustration  the 
machine  which  was  exhibited  by  Mr  George  Ber- 
tram of  Edinburgh,  and  which  was  universally 
acknowledged  to  be  by  far  the  most  complete  and 
perfect  wmch  was  presented  in  the  International 
Exhibition  of  1862. 

Fig.  6  is  a  side  view  of  the  machine,  and  fig.  7  a 
vertical  one.  The  principle  of  the  machine  is  very 
simple ;  it  contains  a  pulp  vat,  A  (lies.  6  and  7)» 
with  a  hog  or  wheel  inside  to  agitate  the  pulp,  and 
an  arrangement  for  pouring  the  pulp  over  the 
wire-gauze  mould,  B,  B,  B,  B,  which  instead  of 
being  in  single  squares,  as  in  the  hand-process, 
is  an  endless  sheet  moving  round  two  rollers,  a,  b, 
which  keep  it  stretched  out  and  revolving  when 
in  operation.  Under  the  part  which  receives 
the  pulp  there  is  a  series  of  small  brass  rollers,  d 
(fig.  6),  these,  beins  nearly  close  together,  keep  it 
perfectly  level,  which  is  a  most  necessary  condition ; 
oesides  which,  there  is  a  shallow  trough,  ee  (fig.  6), 
called  the  save  ail,  which  catches  and  retains  the 
water,  which  always  escapes  with  some  pulp  in 
suspension ;  and  an  arrangement  of  suction  boxes 
and  tubes, /,/,/(fig.  6),  woAed  by  air-pumps,  wMch 
draw  much  of  the  water  out  as  the  pulp  passes 
over  them.  The  pulp  is  kept  from  runnmg  over 
the  sides  by  straps  called  the  deckU»y  which  are 
also  endless  bandiB,  usually  of  vulcanised  India- 
rubber,  carried  round  moving  rollers,  so  that  they 
travel  with  the  wire-gauze,  and  therefore  o£fer  no 
resistance  to  it.  In  addition  to  aXi  this,  tiie  frame- 
work on  which  the  surface  of  the  wire-gauze  rests 
SM 


'■^'i 


'is 


m 


m 


has  a  shogging  motion, 
or  side-shajce,  which 
has  an  important 
effect  in  working  the 
fibres  together  before 
the  pulp  finally  settles 
down.  When  it  reaches 
the  couching  -  rcUU^ 
which  press  out  most 
of  the  remaining  mois- 
ture, and  carry  it 
forward  to  the  first 
and  second  series  of 
press-rolls  by  means  ^q 
of  an  endless  web  of 
felt  which  passes 
round  them,  the  speed 
of  these  rollers  and 
the  travelling  sheet  of 
felt,  CO  (figs.  6  and  7), 
is  nicely  calculated,  so 
as  to  prevent  a  strain 
upon  the  still  very 
tender  web  of  paper. 
Sometimes  the  upper 
rollers  of  these  two 
series  are  filled  with 
steam,  in  order  to 
commence  drying  the 
web.  The  paper  is 
now  trusted  to  itself, 
and  passes  on,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  arrows, 
from  the  second  press- 
rolls  to  the  first  set  of 
drying  cylinders,  DB 
(figs.  6  and  7),  where 
it  again  meets  with  a 
felt  sheet,  which  keeps 
it  in  close  contact  with 
the  drying  cylinders,  .^ 
which  are  of  large  size,  ^| 
and  filled  with  steam. 
Around  these  it  passes, 
drying  as  it  goes;  is 
then  received  between 
the  two  amoothing-rolU, 
or  damp  calenders, 
which  press  both  sur- 
faces, and  remove  the 
marks  of  the  wire  and 
felt,  which  are  until 
then  visible  on  the 
paper.  This  is  neces- 
sarily done  before  the 
drying  is  quite  com- 
pleted;  ana  from  the 
smoothing  -  rolls  it 
passes  to  the  second 
series  of  drying  cylin- 
ders, £  (figs.  6  and  7), 
where  the  drying  is 
finished,  and  thence 
to  the  calenders,  which 
are  polished  rollers  of 
hard  cast-iron,  so 
adjusted  as  to  give  a 
considerable  pressure 
to  the  paper,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  glossi- 
ness of  surface.  For 
"writing  -  papers,  the  rj 
paper  passes  through 
a  shallow  trough  of 
size  after  leaving  the 
drying  cylinders,  and 


«a 


y 


CALLEHDEM 


n 


a 


kSMOOTHIWS 
ROLLSi 


:t>^. 


'knPREIt 

ROLLA* 


l*IPRE88 
ROLLS. 


couchirq 
rolls: 


n»«l 


then  pi—w  over  another  leriei  of  skeleton  cjiluiden 
with  fans  moving  iiuide,  by  which  it  ia  again  drit^ 
without  heat,  and  afterwards  passes  throagh  th* 
calenders.  Printing  and  other  papers  are  usually 
sized  by  mixing  the  size  in  the  pulp,  in  which  stue 
the  colourins  materials — sach  as  ultramarine  for  the 
blue  tint  of  foolscap — are  also  introduced.  Still 
following  the  paper  web  in  the  drawing  (Gg.  C)t  it  i* 
Men  to  jiaas  fcma  the  calenders  to  another  machine, 
F ;  this  slits  the  web  into  widths,  which  are  again 
oroes  cut  into  sbeets,  the  size  of  which  is  regulated 
at  wilL  The  water-mark  is  impressed  on  machine- 
made  paper  by  means  of  a  fine  light-wire  cylinder 
with  a  wire-woven  pattern  ;  this  is  placed  over  tha 
wire-gauze  sheet  upon  which  the  pulp  is  spread, 
but  near  the  other  end  of  it,  so  that  the  light 


jnst  when  it  ceases  U  ... 
through  ita  course.  There  are  many  other  ii 
esting  points  about  the  paper-machine,  but  their 
introdnction  here  would  rather  tend  to  confuse  tha 
reader.  Its  productive  power  is^  very  great ;  it 
movea  at  a  rate  of  from  30  to  70' feet  per  n:~" '- 


ipresding  pulp,  couching,  drying,  and  calendering  aa 

"    "  "      '  of  pdp  flowing  in  at  ons 

passing  out  finished  paper 


o  that  the  stream  ol 


it  goes,  8> 

at  the  other.  It  has  been  computed  that  an  ordi- 
nary machine,  making  webs  of  [laper  &i  incbes  wide, 
will  turn  out  four  miles  a  day,  and  that  the  l^tal 
production  of  all  the  mills  in  Britain  is  not  less  than 
6,000,000  of  yards,  or  3400  milea  daily. 

For  very  obvious  reasons,  the  manufacture  of 
paper  has  been  localised  on  the  banks  of  streams 
that  afford  an  abundant  supply  o£  pure  water  for 
washing  and  pulpins.  Kent  is  celebrated  for  its 
paper-mills  and  for  the  fiuti  quality  of  ita  paper,  ami 
is  the  chief  county  in  this  respect.  Next  follow 
Hertfordshire  (where  it  was  tirst  commenced  in 
England  in  1490  bv  John  Tate  of  Stevensge,  ol 
whom  it  is  said  in  a  book  printed  by  Caiton, 

Which  late  hatbe  in  England  doo  make  thya  paper 

thjnne, 
That  DOW  in  our  Znglyssh  thyi  books  is  printed  inne ; 

and  the  same  John  Tate  is  mentioned  in  Henry 
Vn.'a  Household  Book,  under  datee  May  25,  149B 
and  1499, '  for  a  rewarde  eevsn  at  the  paper -mytne,' 
and  '  peven  in  rewarde  to  Tate  of  the  mylne,  6«.  8d.'), 
Buckinghamshire,  Oifordabire,  and  lADcashir& 
It  was  introduced  into  Scotland  in  the  year  1696, 
when  a  company  was  formed  for  can-ying  it  on 
under  'Articles'  signed  at  a  general  meeting  held 
in  Edinburgh,  which  articles  are  now  in  the  Library 
of  the  British  Museum,  It  baa  become  a  very 
important  branch  of  manufacture ;  and  not  only  is 
paper  of  a  very  fine  quality  made  from  rags  and  the 
new  material  Esparto,  Al^  or  Spanish  Grass  (the 
Lygrum  Sparteum  of  botanists),  but  also  the  munu- 
factum  of  paper- machines  is  carried  on  mi'st  suo- 
ossifully  both  for  foreign  and  home  use.  Both  of 
these  manufactures  are  carried  on  in  the  imrno. 
diate  neigbbourhood  of  EdiuburgL  Since  the  intro- 
duction of  the  penny  postage,  penny  pa[>en,  and 
other  economical  measures,  especially  the  abolition 
of  the  eicise-duty,  an  enormous  impetus  has  been 


>   this   branch  of  c 


nufocture, 


and  considerable  difficulty  has  been  found 

aying  the  makers  with  raw  material :  this  difliculcy 
Ls  been  much  increaaed  by  the  export  duties  laid 
by  other  countries  upon  the  export  of  rags.  Tha 
greatest  relief  has  been  experienced  by  improved 
methoda  for  preparing  paper  pulp  from  straw,  and 
from  the  introduction  in  the  Esparto,  which  yielJa 
half  ita  weight  of  paper.  Of  this  material  our 
imports  have  liseo  to  S0,000  tons  per  annum,  which 
■     "1,000  tons  of  paper.    The  imports  ol 


PAPERBOOK— PAPER-HANGINGS. 


rags,  notwithstanding  the  foreign  impediments,  have 
been  also  very  large  during  the  last  eight  years. 
They  are  as  follows:  1856,  10,287  tons;  1857, 
12,206  tons;  1858, 11,394  tons;  1859,  14,261  tons; 
1860,  16,145  tons ;  1861,  20,846  tons ;  1862,  23,943 
tons;  and  1863,  45,448  tons.  Judging  from  ^ood 
data,  this  manufacture  has  more  than  doubled  since 
the  abolition  of  the  paper-duty,  at  which  time  it 
was  very  nearly  100,000  tons — a  quantity  so  vast, 
that  it  will  remove  all  surprise  at  the  difficulty  of 
supplying  the  raw  materials. 

The  following  are  the  principal  varieties  of  ordi- 
narv  paper,  and  the  sizes  of  the  sheets  given  in 
incnes: 

1.  WrittTig  and  Printing  Papers. — Pot  (so  named 
from  its  original  water-mark,  a  tankard),  12^  by 
16;  Double  Pot,  16  by  25.  Foolscap,  164  ^Y  ^Hi 
Sheet-and-third  Do,,  224  by  13J ;  Sheet-and-fialf  Do., 
224  l>7  13i;  DoubU  Do.,  27  by  17.  Poat  (so  called 
from  its  use  in  letter- writine ;  one  of  its  original 
water-marks  was  a  postman^  horn),  18}  by  15} ; 
Large  Do.,  20}  by  164 ;  Medium  Do.,  18  by  224  ; 
Double  Do.,  30^  by  19.  Copy,  20  by  I64.  Double. 
Crown,  20  by  30.  Demy,  20  by  15 ;  Printing  Do., 
22^  by  17} ;  Medium  Do.,  22  by  17*  ;  Medium 
Printing  Do.,  23  by  I84.  I^oyal,  24  by  19 ;  PHtUing 
Do.,  25  by  20 ;  Super-royal,  27  by  19 ;  Super-royal 
Piinting,  21  by  27.  Imperial,  30  by  22.  Atlae,  34 
by  26.  Columbier,  344  by  234.  Elephant,  28  by 
23 ;  DouUe  Do.,  26}  by  40.  Antiquarian,  53  by  31 : 
this  is  generally,  if  not  always,  hand-made. 

These  sizes  are  somewhat  lessened  by  ploughing 
and  iinishing  off  the  edges  previous  to  sale. 

2.  Coarse  Papers  for  wrapping  and  other  pur- 
poses.— Kent-cap,  21  by  18;  Ba/ij-cup,  19^  by  24; 
Bation-cap,  21  by  16;  Imperial-cap,  224  by  29. 
DoubU  2-lb.,  17  by  24 ;  DoubU  ^-Ib.,  21  by  31 ; 
DoubU  6-lb.,  19  by  28.  Cartridge,  Casing,  and 
MiildU-hand,  &c.,  21  by  16.  Lumlter-hand,  lOJ  by 
224  ;  Royalrhand,  20  by  25 ;  DoubU  Small-hand,  19 
by  29. 

Pur{)le  papers  of  a  soft  texture,  unsized,  are  used 
in  v^Tj  larjQre  quantities  by  sugar-refiners,  of  the 
follo\\ing  sizes:  Copy-loaf,  16}  by  21};  Powder- 
loaf,  18  by  26 ;  DoubU-loqf,  164  by  23 ;  SingU-loaf, 
214  by  27 ;  Lump,  23  by  33 ;  Hambro',  16}  by  23 ; 
TiUer,  29  by  35 ;  Prussian,  or  DoubU  Lump,  32  by 
42. 

Blotting  and  Filtering  Paper.— This  is  unsized 
paper,  made  of  good  quality,  and  usually  coloured 
pink  or  red,  and  of  the  same  size  as  demy. 

Besides  these,  which  are  well-known  trade  defi- 
nitions, there  are  very  many  others,  amounting,  if  we 
include  paste  and  mill  boards,  to  at  least  twelve  or 
fifteen  hundred,  so  that  even  paper-manufacturers 
require  the  aid  of  a  treatise  upon  the  subject  of  the 
sizes,  qualities,  &c,  and  such  a  treatise  is  in  common 
use. 

Even  as  regards  materials,  varieties  are  endless. 
Tn  an  old  German  book  by  Jacob  Christian  Schftfi^ers, 
ptiblished  at  Regensburg  in  1772,  there  are  no  less 
than  eighty-one  samples  of  different  kinds  of  paper 
bound  up  and  forming  part  of  the  book,  and 
innumerable  others  have  been  made  since. 

Rice  paper  is  a  beautiful  material  imported  from 
China,  about  which  numberless  errors  have  been 
MTitten.  It  is  now  known  to  be  formed  of  thin 
slices  of  the  pith  of  the  plant  called  Aralia 
papyrifmu  This  pith  can  be  obtained  from  the 
stems  in  beautiful  cylinders,  from  one  to  two  inches 
in  diameter,  and  several  inches  in  length.  The 
Chinese  workmen  apply  the  blade  of  a  sharp, 
straight  knife  to  these  cylinders  of  pith,  and,  turning 
them  round  dexterously,  pare  them  from  the  cir- 
cumference to  the  centre,  making  a  rolled  layer  of 
equal  thickness  throughout.    This  is  umolled,  and 


weights  are  placed  upon  it  until  it  is  rendered  pei^ 
fecuy  smootn  and  flat.    Sometimes  a  nnmher  are 

i'oined  together  to  increase  the  size  of  the  sheeta 
i  will  be  seen  that  this  more  nearly  resem>)le8  the 
ancient  papyrus  than  modern  paper ;  but  it  is  more 
beautiful  tnan  the  former,  being  a  very  pure  pearly 
white,  and  admirablj^  adapted  to  the  peculiar  style 
of  paiutine  of  the  Chinese. 

The  ordinary  papers  of  the  Chinese,  Japanese, 
and  East  Indians  have  much  resemblance  to  each 
other,  which  arises  from  the  manufacture  and 
material  being  similar;  the  bark  of  the  pajier 
mulberry  (Broussonetia  papyrifera)  bei£^  chiefly 
used.  The  Chinese  and  Japanese  are  the  most 
skilful  paper-makers  in  the  world,  and  some  of  the 
East  Indian  papers  surpass  the  European  maath 
factures  completely. 

Some  useful  kinds  of  paper  are  the  result  of 
manipulations  subsequent  to  the  paper-maker's 
work.     Thus : 

Lithographic  Paper  is  prepared  from  good  print- 
ing-paper by  laying  on  one  side  of  the  sheets  a  pre* 
paration  consisting  of  six  parts  of  starch,  one  of 
alum,  and  two  of  gum-arabic  dissolved  in  warm 
water,  and  applied  whilst  hot  with  a  proper  bmah. 
Generally  a  little  gamboge  is  added,  to  give  it  a 
slight  yellow  colour. 

Copying  Paper,  for  manifold- writers,  is  made  by 
applying  a  composition  of  lard  and  black-lead  to 
one  side  or  both  of  sheets  of  writing-paper ;  and  after 
leaving  it  on  for  a  day  or  so,  it  is  carefully  and 
smoothly  8crai)ed  off  ana  wiped  with  a  soft  cloth. 

Tracing  Paper  is  good  printing-paper  rendered 
transparent  by  brushing  it  over  with  a  mixture  of 
Canada  balsam  and  ou  of  turpentine,  or  nut  oil 
and  turpentine.  In  either  case  it  must  be  carefully 
dried  before  using. 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  coloared  papers. 
In  one,  the  colour  is  introduced  into  the  pulp,  and 
is  consequently  in  the  body  of  the  paper;  in  tha 
other,  the  colours  are  mixed  with  size,  and  applied 
to  the  surface.  There  have  been  many  ingenioos 
and  tasteful  inventions  for  decorating  the  surface  of 

Eaper,  such  as  by  giving  it  a  marbled  aod  even  a 
eautiful  iridescent  appearance,  but  they  are  too 
numerous  for  the  limits  of  this  article. 

Paper  is  subject  to  much  adulteration.  China- 
clay  and  gypsum  are  generally  used  for  the  whits 
sorts,  and  the  heavy  ferruginous  ochres  for  the 
coarse  and  brown  kinds. 

PAPER-BOOK,  in  English  Law,  is  the  name 

g'ven  to  the  pleading  on  both  sides  in  an  action  al 
w,  when  the  issue  is  one,  not  of  fact,  bat  of  law. 

PAPER-HANGINGS.  This  name  is  applied  to 
the  webs  of  paper,  papiers  peints  of  the  French, 
usually  decorated,  with  which  interior  -walls  are 
often  covered  Previous  to  the  invention  of  the 
paper-machine,  sheets  of  paper  of  the  size  called 
Elephant,  22  by  32  inches,  were  pasted  together,  to 
make  12  yard  lengths,  before  the  pattern  was 
imprinted ;  but  this  is  now  rendered  iinneoessary  by 
the  facility  of  making  webs  of  any  length.  Upon  the 
paper  it  is  usual  first  to  spread  a  ground-colour, 
with  proper  brushes,  taking  care  to  produce  a 
perfectly  smooth  snrfaca  The  colours  employ«d 
are  opaque,  and  are  mixed  with  size,  and  sometimes 
also  with  starch,  and  most  of  the  ordinary  pigmenta 
are  used  In  the  early  stages  of  the  art,  it  was  usual 
to  have  the  patterns  stencilled  (see  Stenchxino)  on 
the  fiTound-colour.  The  steucilling  jlates  were 
usually  pieces  of  pasteboard,  one  &iiff  reqaired 
for  every  differently-coloured  porticn  of  tne  pattern. 
Afterwards,  wooden  blocks  -^  ire  adopted,  similar 
to  those  used  in  calico-printing  made  of  |)ear  or 
poplar  wood,  generally  the  width  of  the  paper, 


PAPER  MULBERRY— PAPIAS. 


forming,    indeed,    huge    woodcuts,    on   which   the 
pattern    is  in  high  reliel      As  many  blocks  are 
required  as  there  are  colours  in  the  pattern,  each 
bearing  only  so  much  of  the  pattern  as  is  repre- 
sented by  the  colour  to  which  it  is  assigned.     Of 
course,  the  whole  beauty  of  the  work  depends  upon 
the  nice  adjustment  of  one  portion  of  the  pattern  to 
another;  and  this  is  determined  by  guide-pins  in 
the  blocks,  which  are  so  managed  as  not  to  distigure 
the  surface  with  their  points.    The  pattern-block, 
being  coated  with   its  particular  colour  from  the 
coloiu*-tub,  is  laid  on  the  paper,  which  is  stretched 
out  for  the  purpose  on  a  table,  and  a  lever  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  it  with  sufficient  pressure  to  make  the 
whole  of  the  block  bear  equally  upon  the  paper. 
When  one  block  has  been  printed  the  whole  length 
of  the  paper  by  a  succession  of  impressions,  the 
piece  is  taken  to  the  drying-room,  and  dried,  previous 
to  receiving  the  next  colour ;  and  it  often  nappens 
tlutt  the  same  operations   have  to  be  repeated  a 
dozen  different  times  before  the  pattern  is  com- 
pleted.   This  process  is  now  being  rapidly  super- 
seded by  the  cylinder  printing-uiacnines,  which  are 
of  the  same  kind  as  are  used  in  printing  textile 
fabrics.    In  these  machines,  the  pattern  is  engraved 
on  a  series  of  copper  cylinders,  and  each  part  or 
colour  has  a  separate  cylinder,  and  an  arrangement 
for  keeping  it  constantly  supplied  with  colour  when 
working.    The  cylinders  are  so  arranged  as,  by  the 
sum  of  their  revolutions,  to  make  the  pattern  com- 
plete ;  so  that  as  the  web  of  paper  passes  the  tirst, 
it  receives  the  colour  for  one  portion  of  the  pattern, 
and  reaches  the  second  in  exact  time  to  have  the 
next  colour  applied  in  the  right  places.  lu  this  way 
the  entire  piece  only  occupies  a  few  seconds  in 
receiving  the  complete  decoration. 

The  polished  or  glazed  pajiers  have  the  ground 

prepared  with  gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris,  and  the 

surface  dusted  with   finely-powdered   steatite,   or 

French  chalk.     When  perfectly  dry,  this  is  rubbed 

hard  with  a  bumishing-brush,  until  the  whole  is 

evenly  polished.      This  is    generally   done  before 

the  i^attem  is  printed,  but  m  some  cases  pattern 

and  ground  are  both   polished.      In  making  the 

fiotk-paperSy    the   printing    is    done   in   the   same 

way  as  in  the    block-pnnting,    only,    instead    of 

coloured  material,  a  composition  called  encaustic  is 

printed  on.     It  consists  of  linseed-oil,  boiled  with 

litharge,  and  ground  up  with  white-lead ;  sufficient 

hthaige  is  used  to  make  it  dry  quickly,  as  it  is 

very  adhesive.      The  fiock  is  prepared  from  the 

shearings  of  woollen  oloths  from  the  cloth-mills, 

by  washing  and  dyeing  the  shearings  to  the  various 

ooloors,  then  stove-drying  and  grinding  them  in  a 

peculiar  miU,  which,  in  their   brittle   state,  after 

leaving  the  stove,  breaks  them  short.     After  this 

they  are  sifted,  to  obtain  various  degrees  of  fineness. 

By  nice   management,   the  prepared    flock    is  so 

sprinkled  over  the  whole  of  the  printed  surface  as 

to  coat  the  encaustic,  and  adhere  evenly  and  firmly 

to  it.      The  same  adhesive   material  is  used  for 

printing  in  sold  and  other  metals.      The  pattern 

being  printed  with   the   encaustic,  ^Id  or  other 

met:3lic  leaf  is  applied,  and  when  it  is  properly 

fixed,   the  loose  metal  lb   brushed   away  with   a 

hare's-foot  or  other  soft  brush.     Some  of  the  finest 

French  papers  have  much  of  the  i>attem  actually 

painted  in  by  hand,  a  process  wuich,   of  course, 

Knders  them  very  costly. 

PAPER  MULBERRY.    See  Mulbsrrt. 

PAPER  NAUTILUa    See  Argonaut. 

PAPHIiAGCNIA,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  extending  along  the  southern  shores  of  the 
Black  Sea,  from  the  Huys  on  the  east,  to  the  Parthe- 
nius  on  the  west  (which  separates  it  from  Bithynia), 


and  inland  on  the  south  to  Galatia.  Its  liauts,  how- 
ever, were  somewhat  different  at  different  timea 
The  Paphlagonian  mountains  were  covered  with 
forests,  and  uie  inhabitants  were  famous  as  huntera 
Croesus  made  P.  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Lydia, 
and  Cyrus  united  it  to  Persia;  it  subsequenily 
became  part  of  the  empire  of  Alexander  the  Great, 
and  afterwards  of  the  kingdom  of  Pontus,  was 
included  in  the  Roman  province  of  Galatia,  and  in 
the  4th  c.  of  the  Christian  era  was  made  a  separate 
province  by  Constantino.  Its  capital  was  Sinope. 
The  Paphlagonians  are  supposed  to  have  been  of 
Syrian,  or  at  least  of  Semitic  origin,  like  the  Cappa- 
docians.  They  were  proverbially  rude,  coarse,  and 
deficient  in  understandinir,  but  this  probably  refen 
only  to  the  country-people  in  the  interior. 

PATHOS,  anciently  the  name  of  two  cities  in  the 
isle  of  Cyprus.  The  older  city,  sometimes  called 
PcUaipaphos  (now  Kukhs  or  Konuklia)^  was  situated 
in  the  western  part  of  the  island,  about  14  miles 
from  the  coast.  It  was  probably  founded  by  the 
Phoenicians,  and  was  famous,  even  before  Homer's 
time,  for  a  temple  of  Venus,  who  was  said  to  have 
here  risen  from  the  sea  close  by,  whence  her  epithet 
Aphrodite,  *  foam-sprung,'  and  who  was  designated 
the  Paphian  goddess.  This  was  her  chief  residence, 
and  hither  crowds  of  pilgrims  used  to  come  in 
ancient  times. — The  other  Paphos,  called  Neopaphog 
(now  Baffa),  was  on  the  sea-coast,  about  seven  or 
eight  mues  north-west  of  the  older  city,  and  was 
the  i)lace  in  which  the  apostle  Paul  proclaimed  the 
gospel  before  the  proconsul  Sergius. 

PA'PIAS,.  Bishop  of  Hierapolis  in  Phrygia,  was  a 
Christian  writer,  who  flourished  in  the  2d  century.  ' 
According  to  IrenaBus,  he  was  a  disciple  of  toe 
apostle  John  ;  but  £usebius,  who  quotes  {Historia 
Lcdesiastica,  chap.  39)  the  words  of  Irenseus,  imme* 
diately  subjoins  a  passage  from  P.  himself,  in  which 
the  latter  aistinctly  states  that  he  did  not  receive 
his  doctrines  from  any  of  the  apostles,  but  from  the 
*  living  voice*  of  such  followers  of  theirs  as  'are 
still  surviving.*  He  was,  however,  an  'associate' 
of  Polycarp,  a  bishop  in  the  same  province  of  pro- 
consular Asia ;  and  as  the  latter  was  a  disciple  of 
the  apostle  John,  it  is  probable  that  Irenseus — a 
somewhat  hasty  writer — inferred  that  his  companion 
must  have  been  the  same.  The  Poached  or  Alex- 
andrian Chronicle  states  that  he  suffered  martyrdom 
at  Pergamus,  163  A.D.  Eusebius  describes  P.  as 
'well  skilled  in  all  manner  of  learning,  and  well 
acquainted  with  the  Scriptures ;'  but  a  little  further 
on,  he  speaks  of  him  as  a  man  '  of  limited  under- 
standing' {smikrds  6n  tdn  noHin),  and  a  very  crediUous 
chronicler  of '  unwritten  tradition,*  who  had  collected 
'certain  strange  parables  of  ^r  Lord  and  of  his 
doctrine,  and  some  other  matters  rather  too/abulou-tt,* 
The  work  in  which  these  were  contained  was 
entitled  Logidn  Kuriakdn,  ExegSseds  BibUa  E\  (Five 
Books  of  Commentaries  on  the  Sayings  of  our  Lord). 
It  is  now  lost,  but  certain  fragments  of  it  have  been 
preserved  by  Irensus,  Eusebius,  Maximus  Confessor, 
and  other  writers.  These  fragments  are  extremely 
interesting,  because  of  the  light  which  they  throw 
on  the  origin  of  the  New  Testament  Scriptures,  and 
their  impo^nce  may  be  estimated  from  the  fact, 
that  they  contain  the  earliest  information  which 
we  possess  on  the  subject.  It  is  P.  who  is  oui 
authority  for  the  statement,  that  the  evangelist 
Matthew  drew  up  a  collection  of  our  Lord's  sayings 
and  doings  {ta  logia)  in  the  Hebrew  (probably  Syro- 
Chaldaic  or  Aramaic)  dialect,  and  that  every  one 
translated  it  as  he  was  able.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  this  is  a  perplexing  statement,  suggesting 
as  it  does  the  delicate  question  :  '  If  Papias  is  correct, 
who  wrote  our  present  Matthew,  which  is  in  Greek, 

247 


PAPIERMACHfi-PAPIN. 


and  not  in  Hebrew  T*  (For  a  consideration  of  this 
point,  see  Matthew.)  P.  also  tells  us,  either  on  the 
authority  of  John  the  Pre8b3rter,  or  more  probably 
on  that  of  one  of  his  followers,  that  the  evangelist 
Mark  was  the  interpreter  (Hermeneutes)  of  reter, 
and  wrote  'whatsoever  he  [Peter]  recorded,  with 
^at  accuracy.*  But  the  passage  is  far  from 
implying  that  Mark  was  a  mere  amanuensis  of 
Peter,  as  some  have  asserted,  but  only,  as  Valeains 
has  iQiewn,  that  Mark  listened  attentively  to  Peter's 
preaching,  culled  from  it  such  things  as  most  strictly 
concemed  Christ,  and  so  drew  up  nis  gosoeL  P.,  it 
remains  to  be  said,  was  an  extreme  miilennariau. 
See  Millennium. 

PAPIER-MACHE  (Fr.  mashed  or  pulped  paper). 
This  manufacture  has  certainly  been  m  use  for 
more  than  a  century  in  Europe;  but  it  is  not 
improbable  that  it  was  first  suggested  by  some  of 
the  beautiful  productions  of  Sinde  and  other  parts 
of  India,  where  it  is  employed  in  making  boxes, 
trays,  &c.,  as  well  as  in  China  and  Japan,  its  first 
application,  as  far  as  we  know,  was  to  the  manu- 
facture of  snuffboxes  by  a  German  named  Martin, 
in  1740,  who  learned  it  of  a  Frenchman  named 
Lefcvre;  but  the  French  say  that  he  learned  the 
irt  in  England.  Properly  speaking,  papier-mftch6 
is  paper-pulD  moulded  into  snape,  and  it  has  been 
used,  not  only  to  make  small  articles,  such  as  boxes, 
trays,  &&,  but  in  the  interior  decoration  of  houses 
for  cornices,  ceilings,  &c.  The  ceilinOT  in  Chester- 
field House,  and  some  other  fine  Elizabethan  struc- 
tures, are  made  of  this  material,  which  at  one  time, 
owing  to  a  combination  of  the  stucco-workers  to 
raise  the  price  of  their  labour,  took  the  place 
almost  entirely  of  stucco  in  house  ornamentation. 
At  present,  a  combination  of  both  stucco  and 
paper  is  similarlv  employed  under  the  name  of 
Carton-pierre.  From  the  extension  of  the  appli- 
cations of  papier-mitch6  to  the  manufacture  of  a 
number  of  light  and  useful  articles,  modifications 
have  taken  place  in  its  composition,  and  it  is  now 
of  three  kinds — Isfc,  the  true  kind,  made  of  paper- 
pulp  ;  2d,  sheets  of  pa))er  pasted  together  after  the 
manner  of  pasteboard,  but  submitted  to  far  greater 
nressure;  and  3d,  sheets  of  thick  millboard  cast 
from  the  pulp  are  also  heavily  pressed.  The  term 
papier-m&ch4  is  in  trade  held  to  apply  rather  to  the 
articles  made  of  the  pulp  than  to  the  pulp  itself ; 
and  a  vast  manufacture  has  sprung  up  during  the 
present  -century,  particularly  in  Birmingham,  in 
which  a  great  variety  of  articles  of  use  and  ornament 
are  made  of  this  materiaL  They  are  coated  with 
successive  layers  of  asphalt  varnish,  which  is  acted 
upon  by  heat  in  ovens  until  its  volatile  parts  are 
dissipated,  and  it  becomes  hard,  and  capable  of 
receiving  a  high  polish.  Mother-of-pearl  is  much 
used  in  their  decoration,  for  which  purpose,  when 
several  layers  of  the  varnish  still  remain  to  be 
applied,  thin  flakes  of  the  shell  of  the  form  of  the 
pattern  are  placed  on  the  varnish,  and  are  covered 
oy  tile  succeeding  layers,  giving  rise  to  elevations 
where  they  are  hidden  by  the  coats  of  varnish. 
The  surface  is  then  ground  down  smooth  and 
polished,  and  the  grinding  down  brings  to  light  the 
pieces  of  mother-of-pearl  shell,  which  thus  present 
the  appearance  of  imaid  patterns.  The^  fine  surface 
which  can  be  given  to  the  asphalt  varnish,  also 
permits  of  burnished  mlding  and  other  decorative 
applications  with  excellent  euect 

PAPITiIO.    See  Butterfly. 

PAPILIONA'CE^,  a  suborder  of  the  natural 
order  of  plants  generally  caUed  LeguminoscB  (a.  v.). 
— The  plants  of  this  suoorder  are  the  only  plants 
known  which  have  flowers  of  the  peculiar  structure 
called  papUionaceauSf  and  of  which  the  Pea  and 

MA 


Bean  afford  familiar  examples.  The  name  is  derived 
from  Lat.  papilio^  a  butterfly.  Papilionaceous  flowers 
have  five  petals,  imbricated  in  estivation  (bud),  one 
of  which,  <^ed  the  vexUlum^  or  standard,  is  superior, 
turned  next  to  the  axis,  and  in  estivation  folded 
over  the  rest;  two,  called  the  alcEy  or  vnngs,  are 
lateral ;  and  two  are  inferior,  which  are  often 
united  by  their  lower  margins,  forming  the  eartno, 
or  ked.  The  number  of  the  P.  is  very  great — about 
4800  species  being  known.  They  are  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  world^  abounding  in  the  tropics.  Many 
have  superb  and  beautiful  flowers  ;  many  are  plants 
of  beautiful  form  and  foliage,  trees,  shrubs,  or  herba- 
ceous plants ;  many  possess  vsduable  medicinal 
properties;  and  many  are  of  great  importance  as 
furnishing  food  for  man  and  for  domestic  animals, 
others  as  furnishing  dyes,  fibre^  timber,  ftc  See 
Broom,  Laburnum,  Clover,  Bean,  Pea,  Lucerne, 
Liquorice,  Indioo,  Sandal-wood,  &c. 

PAPIXLiE.  This  term  is  applied  by  anatomists 
to  minute,  elongated,  conical  processes,  projecting 
from  the  surface  of  the  true  skin  into  the  epidemus, 
highly  vascular  and  nervous  in  their  character,  and 
taking  an  active  part  in  the  sense  of  touch.  Their 
form  and  structure  are  described  in  the  article 
Skin.  The  mucous  membrane  of  the  ton^e  also 
contains  three  varieties  of  jpapillse,  which  are 
described  in  the  artide  Taste,  Organ  and  Sense  of. 

PAPIN,  Denis,  a  celebrated  French  ph3rsicist, 
was  born  at  Blois,  22d  August  1647,  ana  studied 
medicine  in  Paris,  where,  after  receiving  hia  degree, 
he  practised  for  some  time  as  a  physician.  He  now 
became  acquainted  with  Huyghens— an  incident 
which  strengthened  in  him  an  original  predilection 
for  physical  science ;  and  from  this  time,  he  devoted 
himself  almost  exclusively  to  his  favourite  study. 
Before  P.'s  time,  the  intense  force  which  can  be 

generated  in  water,  ain  &c.,  under  the  action  of 
eat,  was  well  known,  but  he  was  one  of  the  first  to 
indicate  the  principal  features  of  a  machine  by 
which  this  property  could  be  made  of  practical 
utility.  He  soon  acquired  a  wide  reputation ;  and 
on  visiting  England,  was  received  with  open  aims 
by  the  philosophers  of  that  country,  and  became  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society  in  1681.  While  in 
England,  P.  and  Boyle  (q.  v.)  together  reiieated'tiieir 
experiments  on  the  properties  of  air,  &c. ;  but  in 
1687,  P.  was  called  to  the  chair  of  Mathematics  in 
the  university  of  Marburg  in  Hesse-Oassel,  the 
duties  of  which  office  he  discharged  with  seal  and 
success  for  many  years.  He  died  at  Marburg 
about  1714.  The  French  Academy  of  Sciences, 
withholding  from  P.  the  honour  of  'associate,' 
enrolled  him  among  its  'correspondents* — ^a  pro* 
ceeding  on  the  part  of  the  Academy  which  has, 
with  reason,  excited  the  astonishment  of  F.  Araga 
To  P.  undoubtedly  belongs  the  high  honour  of 
having  first  applied  steam  to  produce  motion  by 
raising  a  piston ;  he  combined  with  this  the  simplest 
means  of  producing  a  vacuum  beneath  the  rairod 
piston — viz.,  by  condensation  of  aqueous  vapour; 
he  is  also  the  inventor  of  the  'safety-valve,*  an 
essentia  part  of  his  'Digester*  (^.  v.).  By  this 
latter  machine,  P.  shewed  that  liqmds  in  a  vacuom 
can  be  put  in  a  state  of  ebullition  at  a  much  lower 
temperature  than  when  freely  exjKNied  to  tlie  aac 
P.'s  sagacity  led  him  to  many  other  discoveries ;  he 
discovered  the  principle  of  action  of  the  siphon, 
improved  the  pneumatic  machine  of  Otto  de 
Guericke  (q.  v.),  and  took  part  against  Leibnitz  in 
the  discussion  concerning  '  living  *  and  '  dead  *  forces. 
Unfortunately  for  science,  P.'s  numerous  writings 
have  not  yet  been  collected,  but  many  of  them  wul 
be  foimd  in  the  PhUosophiecd  Traruaction^^  Acta 
JUrudUonan,  and  the  Becueil  de  Diver^iea  FUoet,    Hs 


PAPINIANUS-PAPPU& 


pabliBhed  two  works — one  being  an  explanation  of 
the  construction  and  uses  of  ms  *  digester*  (Lond. 
1681),  afterwards  (1682)  translated  into  French,  and 
his  experiments  entitled  NouveUeB  Experiences  du 
Vide  (Fans,  1674).  It  was  not  till  neany  a  century 
after  that  the  great  value  of  P.*8  discoireries  was 
perceived. 

PAPINIA'KUS,  JBmhiub  Paullub,  the  most 
eelebrated  of  Roman  jurists,  was  born  towards  the 
middle  of  the  2d  a ;  and  durins  the  reign  of 
the  Emperor  Severos  (q.  v.),  whom  ne  suoceeaed  as 
AdvoofUus  Fieci,  and  mose  second  wife  is  said  to 
have  been  P.*8  relatiye,  he  held  the  office  of  Libel- 
hrum  liagiUier^  and  afterwards  that  of  Prc^eelue 
Ftxdorio,  After  the  death  of  Severus,  his  son  and 
successor,  Caracalla,  dismiBsed  P.  from  his  office,  and 
soon  afterwurds  caused  him  to  be  put  to  death  on 
various  pretexts,  the  real  reason,  however,  ai)pear- 
ing  to  be  that  the  emperor  was  afraid  the  influence 
of  a  man  so  able  and  upright  would  be  dangerous  to 
his  DOwer.  P.'s  works  consist  chiefly  of  37  books 
of  QuiBstionest  19  of  Reaponea^  2  of  Definiiioneay 
two  works,  De  AdulteriiSt  and  a  Greek  fragment ; 
and  from  these  works  there  are  in  all  595  excerpts 
in  the  Digest  (q.  v.).  The  pupils  of  P.  include  the 
most  famous  names  in  Roman  jurisprudence,  such 
as  Ulpian,  Paullus,  Pomponius,  Alricaous,  Flor- 
entinua,  and  Modestinus,  but  the  master  stands 
superior  to  them  alL  The  high  reputation  he 
enjoyed  among  his  contemporaries  and  successors 
may  be  gathered  from  the  epithets  Prudentiseimus, 
ConeuUie^imuSj  Digertiesimus,  bestowed  upon  him 
by  various  emperors,  and  from  the  first  book  of 
the  Codex  Theodosii,  De  Beeponste  Prudentumj  in 
which,  after  declaring  the  works  of  P.,  Paullus, 
Caiua,  Ulpian,  Modestmus,  and  four  others,  to  be 
authority  for  a  judge's  decision,  it  is  declared  that 
should  these  jurists  be  ec^ually  divided  in  opinion, 
that  opinion  which  was  maintained  by  P.  was  to  be 
considered  right ;  while  his  commentotor,  the  cele- 
brated Cujacius  (q.  v>),  goes  so  far  as  to  declare  *  that 
Papiniiuius  was  the  first  of  all  lawyers  who  have 
been,  or  are  to  be,*  and  that  *  no  one  ever  will  equal 
him.'  His  h^h  reputation  as  a  jurist  was  much 
enhanced  by  the  strong  moral  feelins  and  stern 
unbending  honesty  which  were  equally  cnaracteristic 
of  him,  and  which  have  stamped  his  works  with  an 
ineffaceable  impress.  P.*s  works  were  studied  both 
before  and  after  Justinian's  time  by  Roman  legal 
students  of  the  third  year,  who  were  for  this  reason 
denominated  Papinianistse.  The  fragments  of  P.'s 
works  which  now  remain  are  somewhat  obscure,  and 
the  excerpts  from  them  in  the  Digest  are  in  general 
•0  brief,  that  the  aid  of  a  commentator  is  required. 

PAPIST  (Lat  papista,  an  adherent  of  the  pope) 
is  a  name  applied,  generally  with  some  admixture  of 
contempt,  to  members  of  the  Roman  Gl^urch.  Of 
itself,  it  implies  nothing  more  than  that  they  are 
adherents  of  the  pope;  but  in  its  popular  use  it 
includes  aU  the  distinctive  doctrines  of  Roman 
Catholics,  and  especially  those  which  are  supposed 
to  be  peculiariy  cnerished  by  the  supporters  of  the 
papal  authority.  It  is  therefore  in  man^  cases  held 
to  be  synon^ous  with  the  profession  of  the 
extremest  opinions  permitted  in  the  Church  of 
Rome,  and  even  those  which  are  popularly  regarded 
aa  0aperstitiou&  Understood  literaJly,  no  consistent 
Roman  Catholic  would  disclaim  it ;  but  in  the 
impated  signification  explained  above,  it  is  held  to 
be  offensive. 

PAPPENHBIM,  GoTTFRiKD  Hbinkich,  Count 
voy,  an  imperial  general  of  great  note  in  the 
Thirty  Years*  War,  was  bom  at  Pappenheim,  in 
Middle  Franconia,  Bavaria,  29th  May  1594,  of  a 
▼eiy  ancient  Swabian  family,  in  which  the  dignity 


of  Marshal  of  the  Empire  became  hereditary  abottf 
the  13th  or  14th  c.,  and  many  of  whose  membem 
had  greatly  distinguished  themselves  in  the  wars 
of  the  middle  ages.  When  about  20  years  of  age 
P.  went  over  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  and 
thenceforth  signalised  himself  by  his  fiery  2ea] 
in  its  cause.  After  serving  under  the  kmg  ot 
Poland  in  his  wars  with  the  Russians  and  Turka» 
P.  joined  the  army  of  the  Catholic  League,  and 
in  the  battle  of  Prague  (1620)  stayed  the  fli^t  of 
the  Austrian  cavalry,  and  by  a  well-timed  and 
furious  charge  turned  the  tide  of  battle  against  the 
Bohemians.  In  1623,  he  received  from  the  emperor 
the  command  of  a  cavalry  regiment  of  the  famous 
* Pappenheimer  Dragoons;'  and  in  1625,  became 
genend  of  the  Spanish  horse  in  Lombardy ;  but  in 
1626  re-entered  tne  Austrian  service,  and  after  sup- 
pressing a  dangerous  revolt  of  the  peasants  of  Upper 
Austria,  in  which  40,000  of  the  peasants  perisnedy 
he  joined  the  army  which  was  opposed  to  the  Pro- 
testant league,  and,  in  association  with  Tilly,  carried 
on  many  campaigns  against  the  Danes,  Swedes,  and 
Saxons.  It  was  P.  who  urged  and  induced  TiUy 
to  take  Magdeburg  by  assault,  and  himself  led  and 
directed  the  attack.  Moreover,  it  is  he,  rather  than 
Tilly,  who  was  to  blame  for  the  ferocious  massacres 
which  followed.  His  reckless  bravery  involved 
Tilly,  against  his  will,  in  the  disastrous  battle  of 
Breitenreld;  but  to  some  extent  he  retrieved  his 
character  by  his  strenuous  efforts  to  remedy  the  loss, 
and  protect  the  retreat  of  the  army.  After  Tilly's 
death,  he  was  associated  with  Wallenstein,  who 
detached  him  with  eight  regiments  to  protect 
Cologne,  but  on  hearing  of  the  advance  of  Gustavus, 
sent  an  urgent  order  for  his  return.  P.  arrived  at 
Ltitzen  at  the  moment  when  Wallenstein's  army 
was  on  the  point  of  being  completely  routed,  and  at 
the  head  of  his  cuirassiers,  charged  the  left  wing  of 
the  Swedes,  throwing  it  into  confusion,  and  almost 
changing  the  fortune  of  the  battle  by  his  extra- 
ordinary bravery.  He  was  mortally  wounded  in 
the  last  charge,  and  died  a  few  hours  afterwards  at 
Leipzig,  November  7, 1632,  with  a  smile  on  his  counte- 
nance, after  learning  that  Gustavus  Adolphus  had 
died  before  him.     *  God  be  praised ! '  he  said ;  *  I  can 


;o  in  peace,  now  that  that  mortal  enemy  of  the 
'atholic  faith  has  had  to  die  before  me.' 


PA'PPUS,  in  Botany,  an  appendage  of  the  fruit 
of  plants  belonging  to  certam  natural  orders,  ol 
which  the  ff^^ 
natural  order  Vom- 
posiicB  is  the  chief. 
It  consists  either  of 
simple  (figs.  1  and  4) 
or  feathery  (Hgs.  2 
and  5)  hairs,  sessile  or 
stalked,  arising  from 
the  summit  of  the 
fruit,  and  is  nro- 
duced  by  a  develop- 
ment of  the  tube 
and  limb  of  the  per- 
sistent calyx.  Its 
object  appears  to  be 
to  waft  the  ripened 

seed  to  the  new  situation  in  which  it  is  to  grow. 
ThisUe'down  is  the  pappus  of  the  thistl&  —The  pappus 
is  sometimes  represented  by  mere  teeth  or  scales. 

PAPPUS  of  Alexandria,  one  of  the  later  Greek 
geometers,  of  whose  history  nothing  is  known ;  he 
is  said  by  Suidas  to  have  lived  durinff  the  reign 
of  Theodoeius  the  Great,  emperor  of  the  East 
(379^395).  Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  he 
lived  two  centuries  earlier,  but  the  former  is  much 
the  more  probable  opinion.    The  chief  work  of  P« 


Pappus: 

1  sDd  9,  aemile ;  3,  acale-Uke; 
4  snd  5,  tuUked. 


PAPPUS-PAPUA. 


IB  his  Maihematicai  CoUeetionSy  of  which  the  last  eiz, 
out  of  eight  books,  are  extant.  The  CoUeeiioru,  as 
their  name  implies,  are  an  assemblage  into  one  book 
of  scattered  problems  and  theorems,  the  work  of 
Ai)olloniu8,  Archimedes,  Euclid,  Theodosius,  &c.,  to 
which  he  has  joined  his  own  discoveries.  The 
first  two  books  are  supposed  (on  insufficient 
grounds)  to  have  treated  of  arithmetic  and  arith- 
metical problems,  but  only  a  small  fra^ent  of  the 
second  book  is  extant :  the  third  book  u  a  collection 
of  problems,  mostly  of  solid  geometry :  the  fourth 
treats  of  curves  other  than  the  circle,  according  to 
the  method  of  pure  geometry:  the  fifth  contains 
problems  of  maxima  and  minima :  the  sixth  treats 
of  the  geometry  of  the  sphere  :  the  seventh,  which 
IS  by  far  the  most  important  to  modem  geometers, 
as  it  is  almost  the  sole  authority  we  possess  on  the 
subject  of  the  history  and  methods  of  the  Greek 
geometrical  analysis,  treats  principally  of  analysis ; 
it  also  contains  the  proposition  now  known  as 
•  Guldinus'  Theorem,*  which  was  plagiarised  from 
P.  by  Father  Guldin:  the  eighth  and  last  book 
treats  of  machines.  P.  was  the  author  of  several 
other  works  which  are  lost,  excepting  only  a  frag- 
ment of  his  Commentary  on  Four  Books  o/Ptolem^s 
Syntcucis,  P.,  as  an  independent  investigator,  enjoys 
a  high  reputation,  and  is  considered  by  Bes  Cartes 
as  one  of  the  most  excellent  geometers  of  antiquity. 
Some  of  his  problems  have  been  looked  upon 
with  high  interest  by  all  succeeding  geometers.  The 
Mathemalical  Collections  have  been  published  in 
whole  or  part,  at  various  periods,  but  the  only  com- 
plete editions  are  the  two  Latin  versions,  the  first 
by  Commandine  (Pisa,  1588),  and  the  second  by 
Manolessius  (Bologna,  1660),  and  the  Greek  edition 
of  H.  J.  £isenmann  (Paris,  1824).  The  portion  of 
the  Greek  text  of  the  2d  book,  which  was  wanting 
in  Commandine*8  MS.,  was  published  (1688)  in 
London  by  Dr  Wallis. 

PAPUA,  or  NEW  GUINEA,  if  we  except 
Australia,  the  largest  island  on  our  globe,  lies  in  the 
Australian  Archipelago,  in  0*  30'— 10'  4'  S.  lat., 
and  131'— 15r  30'  E.  long.,  and  is  about  1200 
miles  in  length  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  on 
the  north-west  to  South-East  Ca})e.  It  is  bounded 
on  the  S.  by  Torres  Strait,  W.  by  the  Moluccas 
Sea,  N.  and  N.K  by  the  Pacific  Ocean.  In  outline 
P.  is  very  irregular,  the  western  part  being  nearly 
insulated  by  Geelvink  Bay,  entering  from  the  north, 
and  the  Gulf  of  M'Clure  from  the  west,  whilst  in 
the  south  it  ends  in  a  long  and  narrow  peninsula 
of  loft;^  mountains.  A  line  passing  through  the 
island  in  141**  E.  long,  is  over  300  miles ;  at  the 
head  of  Geelvink  Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  M^Clure, 
not  more  than  twenty.  It  is  indented  by  numerous 
gulfs  and  bays,  besides  the  two  already  mentioned. 
Geelvink  Bay  is  2C0  miles  broad  at  its  mouth,  and 
trends  inland  200  miles  to  within  a  short  distance  of 
the  Bay  of  Lakahia,  on  the  south-west  coast.  It 
receives  the  waters  of  many  rivers,  and  is  studded 
with  islands,  of  which  Jobi  is  the  largest,  being 
66  miles  in  length  from  east  to  west,  lofty,  weU 
wooded,  and  abounding  in  all  sorts  of  tropical  fruits 
and  birds. 

The  principal  capes  are,  South-East  Cape,  at  the 
extreme  east  of  the  island;  King  William's  Cape, 
Gape  Kigny,  Cape  Bonpland,  Cape  Duperre;  Cape 
D*Urville,  on  the  north ;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  on 
the  north-west;  and  Cape  Van  den  Bosch,  on  the 
south-west. 

Chief  riven  are  the  Ambemon  or  Bochussen, 
vhich  has  its  source  in  the  mountains  of 
the  interior,  and  flowing  towards  the  north-west, 
faUs,  by  many  mouths,  through  an  extensive 
alluvial  delta,  into  Geelvink  Bay;  Aird's  River, 
which  flows  into  the  Great  Bight ;  the  Oeta-Nata, 


which,  by  three  channels,  enters  the  sea  in  4**  3(K  S. 
hit.,  and  136**  SO'  E.  long.;  the  Karoefa,  to  the 
north  of  Cape  Van  den  Bosch,  which  euters  Kamrao 
Bay  on  the  south-west  side,  in  3"  48*  &  lat,  and 
133**  28'  E  long,  and  is  half  a  nule  wide. 

The  islai^d  is  mountainous,  except  certain  tracts  of 
swampy  land  which  have  been  formed  by  the  river 
deposits.  The  southern  peninsula  is  a  mountain 
range  with  peaks  far  surpassing  those  of  Australia 
in  iQtitude,  Mount  Owen  Stanley  being  13,205  feet ; 
Obree,  10,200;  Yule  Mountain,  9700;  and  many 
others  of  the  same  ran^e  approaching  similar  elev»- 
tions.  Passing  in  a  hne  towards  tiie  north-west, 
the  chain  appears  at  different  distances  from  the 
north  coast,  rises  to  the  west  of  Humboldt*s  Bay 
into  the  Cyclops,  the  highest  peak  of  whicb  is 
7000  feet,  leaves  its  impess  on  Geelvink  Bay,  in 
the  lofty  island  of  Jobi,  and  further  to  the  -west 
shoots  up  in  the  Arfak  and  Amberbakin  ranges, 
mountains  of  upwards  of  9000  feet  in  height.  The 
south-west  coast  is  chiefly  composed  of  lofty  lime- 
stone hills,  rising  in  terraces  towards  the  interior 
till  they  attain  the  snow-line,  G«nofa,  to  the  north 
of  Kaimani  Bay,  being  5000,  the  Charles  Xionis 
8852,  and  the  Snow  Mountains  15,400  feet  abovie 
the  sea-leveL 

Along  the  south-west  shore  are  many  coral  banks, 
and  the  moimtains  are  chiefly  comix»ed  of  white 
limestone,  sometimes  approacmng  to  crystallisation. 
At  Argoeni  Bay,  and  other  parts  of  the  interior, 
they  are  of  a  brownish-gray  sandstone.  In  the 
island  of  Lakahia,  the  Netherlands  Scientific  Con^ 
mission,  in  1858,  found  blue  clay  mixed  -with 
kidneys  of  ironstone,  several  oroppings  out  of  ooal, 
and  also  sandstone.  Nothing,  however,  is  accurately 
known  either  of  the  miner^  or  vegetable  wealth  of 
the  interior,  the  hostile  and  retiring  nature  of  the 
mountaineers  having  hitherto  closed  it  to  the 
naturalist  On  the  north  coast,  near  Humboldt's 
Bay,  the  earth  and  clay  are  of  a  brownish-red  colour, 
with  blocks  of  quartz  here  and  there  imbedded  in 
it,  the  mountains  being  schistose,  with  the  cr3rstalB 
of  mica  very  small  and  compact  It  has  been  said 
that  P.  produces  gold,  but  it  is  as  yet  unknown,  and 
the  natives  possess  no  ornaments  or  tools,  excojvt  of 
wood,  stone,  and  bone,  but  what  are  brought  to 
them  from  Ceram. 

P.  is  everywhere  clothed  with  the  most  lurmriant 
vegetation,  cocoa-nut,  betel,  sago,  banana,  bread- 
fruit, orange,  lemon,  and  other  fruit  trees  lin'tog  the 
shores ;  while  in  the  interior  are  abundance  •)€  fine 
timber  trees,  as  the  iron-wood,  ebony,  canary  -'wood, 
the  wild  nutmes,  and  the  masooi,  the  fragrant  bark 
of  which  is  a  leading  article  of  export  £ri*in  the 
south-west  coast  In  the  districts  of  the  Ari/dc:  and 
Amberbakin  Mountains  the  sugar-cane,  tobacco, 
and  rice  are  cultivated.  The  flower-garlanded  and 
fruit-bearing  forests  are  filled  with  multitud««a  ot 
the  most  beautiful  birds,  of  which  are  various  Iciyidg 
of  birds  of  paradise,  t^e  crown-pigeon,  parrots, 
lories,  &a  Fish,  of  which  upwaros  of  250  aorta 
have  been  enumerated,  are  plentiful,  and  are  either  « 
speared  or  shot  with  the  arrow,  except  at  Sum* 
boldt's  Bay,  where  they  are  caught  with  nets  made 
from  vegetable  fibres,  with  large  shells  attached  as 
sinkers.  The  larger  animals  are  unknown,  but  ivild 
swine,  kangaroos,  the  koesi-koesi  (a  kind  of  ^nrood* 
cat),  are  plentiful,  as  also  a  small  kind  of  duineati- 
cated  dog  used  in  hunting. 

The  exports  are  masooi  bark,  trepang  or  bdcb't-de- 
mer,  tortoise-shell,  pearls,  nutmegs,  biros  of  parndise. 
crown-pigeons,  ebony,  resin,  slaves,  &c.,  whicax  ai« 
brought  to  the  islands  of  Sirotta,  Namatotte,  and 
Adi,  on  the  south-west  coast,  where  tltey  az« 
bartered,  to  the  traders  from  Ceram,  for  h.KGhets, 
rice,  large  beads,  printed  cottons,  knives,  eartihi 


PAPUA. 


iron  pans,  copper,  tobacco,  sago,  and  other  necessary 
articles.  The  produce  is  carrittd  to  Singapore  and 
the  Arroo  Isknds. 

Except  in  the  swampy  districts,  the  climate  is  not 
unhealtny,  though  the  temperature  varies  greatly, 
the  thermometer  sometimes  indicating  95**  F.  by 
day,  and  falling  to  75"  by  ni^ht.  On  the  south-west 
coast,  the  east  monsoon  or  rainy  season  begins  about 
the  middle  of  April,  and  ends  in  September;  the  drv 
season  is  from  September  to  April ;  and  on  the  north 
ooast  they  are  just  reversed. 

The  limestone  rocks  on  the  south-western  shore 
have  many  natural  caverns,  which  serve  as  reposi- 
tories for  the  bones  of  the  dead;  and  within  the 
Bight  of  Lakahia  is  a  fine  mountain-c;irt  bay,  which 
the  Scientific  Commission,  appointed  by  the  Nether- 
lands government  in  1858,  called,  after  their  steam- 
ship, Etna  Bay,  at  the  extremity  of  which  is  a 
splendid  waterfall,  300  feet  in  height  and  50  in 
breadth,  which,  seen  in  contrast  with  the  brisht 
green  foliage,  appears  like  a  broad  silver  ribbon 
thrown  over  the  forest  trees. 

P.  is  surrounded  by  countless  islands,  some  of 

which  are  of  considerable  size.    Towards  the  south 

is  the  liouisiade  Archipelago,  stretching  over  several 

decrees  of  longitude,  out  of  which  Aignan  rises  to 

the  heiffht  of  3000  feet,  and  South-East  Island  to 

2500,    ISear  the  Great  Bight  is  Prince  Frederik 

Hendrik  Island,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 

the  Princess  Marianne  Strait.     Namatotte,  a  lofty 

island  in  Speelman's  Bay,  in  3^  50'  S.  lat,  and  133** 

56'  EL  long.,  having  good  anchorage  on  the  west  side, 

and  one  of  the  chief  trading-places  on  the  coast ; 

Aidoena,  at  the  entrance  of  Triton's  Bay,  in  134"  20' 

£.  long. ;  and  Adi,  or  Wessels,  to  the  south-east  of 

Cskpe  Van  den  Bosch,  are  the  principal  islands  on 

the  south-west  coast.     On  the  north,  at  the  mouth 

of   Geelvink   Bav,    lie   the   Schouten   Islands,    in 

135»_137«  5ff  K  long.,  Mafor,  Jobi,  and  many  of 

less  importance.    Salawatti  is  a  large  and  populous 

island,  to  the  west  of  P.,  and  further  west  is  Batanta, 

separated  from  Salawatti  by  Pitt's  Strait;  west  and 

auoth  is  the  large  island  of  Misool,  or  Waigamme, 

in  !•  45'-2'  3'  S.  lat,  and  120"  30'— 130"  31'  R 

long.,  having  an  area  of  780  square  miles,  and  a 

large  population.    It  is  highly  probable  that  at  no 

very  distant  geological  period  the  Arroo,  Misool, 

Waigion,  Jobi,  and  other  islands,  formed  part  of 

the  mainland  of  P.,  banks  and  soundings,  reaped  by 

the  100-fathom  line,  connecting  them  with  it.    Only 

in  the  trackless  wilds  of  P.  and  the  adjacent  islands 

are  found  the  birds  of  paradise,  with  their  marvellous 

development  of  plumage  and  incomparable  beauty. 

Mr  A.K.  Wallace,  who  recently  visited  these  re^ons 

as  a  naturalist,  states  that  the  coast  districts  oi  the 

northern  part  of  P.  contain  Paradisea  papuana  and 

P,   regia  pretty  generally  distributed;   while    P, 

magnificck,  P.  albOt  &nd  Sericulua  aureus  are  scarce 

and  locaL    The  central  mountains  of  the  northern 

peninsula  are  alone  inhabited  by  Lophorina  saperha^ 

Parolia    sexaetaoea,    Astrapia    nigra,    Epimachus 

vuignuSt  and  Craspedophora  magnifica^  the  unique 

XHphyiUxlea    WUsoni  and  ParadiaaUa  oarunculcUa 

ptobably  also  existing  there.     The  Arroo  Islands 

contain  P.  apoda  and  P,  regia;  Misool  has  P. 

papuanOt  P.  regia,  and  P,  magnijica ;  Waigion,  P. 

rubra :   Salawatti  has  P.  rtgia^  P,  magnifica^  JSp, 

ailniM,  and  Sericulua  aureuaj  Jobi,  P,  papuana^  and 

other  apecies.    The  Key  Islauds,  Ceram,  &C.,  which 

are  separated  by  deep  aea,  have  no  PamdisecB. 

The  population  of  r,  and  the  immediately  adjacent 
jri^Tj^T  is  supposed  to  be  about  800,000 ;  the  part 
claimed  by  the  Netherlands,  as  having  formerly 
been  tributaiy  to  the  sultans  of  Tidore,  stretching 
from  Cape  Bonpland,  on  the  east  of  Humboldt's  Bay, 
in  l^O**  47'  K  long.,  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 


further  west  and  south-west  to  141"  R  long.,  with 
the  islands  on  the  coast,  is  estimated  to  have 
220,000.  The  natives  of  the  interior  never  acknow- 
ledged the  supremacv  of  the  sultans  of  Tidore,  but 
the  coasts  ana  islands  are  governed  by  rajahs  and 
other  chiefs  appointed  by  tnem  to  certain  districts 
or  kingdoms.  This  power  is  still  exercised  bv  the 
sultan  of  Tidore,  subject  to  the  approval  of  the 
Netherlands'  resident  at  Temate. 

According  to  the  system  of  Bory  de  St  Vincent^ 
the  natives  of  P.  are  a  race  sprung  from  Neptunians 
and  Oceanians,    in   character,   features,   and  hair, 
standing  between  the  Malays  and  Negroes.     Dr 
Latham  places  them  under  the  sub-class,  Oceanio 
Mongolidsd.      See    Etunolooy.      Those   who   live 
on  the  coast  and  islands  are  called  Papuans,  prob- 
ably from  the  Malay  word  Papoewah  or  Poewah- 
Poewah,    which    signifies    curly    or    woolly;    the 
inhabitants  of  the  mterior,  Alfoers.     The  Papuans 
are  of  middle  stature  and  well  made,  have  regular 
features,  inteU  {^ent  black  eyes,  small  white  teeth, 
curly  haor,  thi  ,£  lips,  and  large  mouth ;  the  nose  is 
sharp,  but  flat  beneath,  the  nostrils  large,  and  the 
skin  dark  brown.     Around  Humboldt  s  Bay  the 
men  stain  their  hair  with  the  red  earth  which  is 
abundant  in  that  locality.    Generally,  the  men  are 
better-looking  than  the  women,  but  neither  are 
repulsively  ugly,  as  has  been  repeatedly  said.    The 
Papuans  of  the  coast  are  dividea  into  small  distinct 
tribes,  frequentiy  at  war  with  each   other,  when 
they  plant  the  paths  to  their  villages  with  pointed 
pieces  qf  bamboo  or  Nipa  palm,  called  randjoes, 
which  run  into  the  feet  of  a  party  approaching  to 
the  attack,  and  make  wounds  which  are  difficult  to 
cure.    The  men  build  the  houses,  hollow  the  trunks 
of  trees  into  canoes,  hunt  and  iish ;  while  the  women 
do  all   the  heaviest  work,   cultivating  the  fields, 
making  mats,  pots,  and  cutting  wood.     Their  food 
consists  of  maize,  sago,  rice,  fidi,  birds,  the  flesh  ol 
wild  pigs  and  fruits. 

The  Alfoers  of  the  interior  do  not  differ  much  in 
appearance  from  the  Papuans,  but,  lower  sunk  in 
the  savage  life,  are  independent  nomades,  warlike^ 
aud  said  to  be  in  some  districts  cannibals.  They 
are  called  by  the  coast-people  Woeka,  or  moun- 
taineers, and  bring  down  from  their  forest  retreats 
the  fragrant  Masooi  bark,  nutmegs,  birds  of  Paradise, 
and  crown -pigeons  to  the  coast,  bartering  them 
for  other  articles.  The  natives  of  the  Arfak  and 
Amberbakin  ranges  are  more  settled  in  their  habits, 
and  also  cultivate  the  sugar-cane  and  tobacco  as 
articles  of  commerce,  but  never  build  their  houses  at 
a  lower  level  than  1000  feet  from  the  base  of  the 
mountains.  The  people  of  the  south-west  coast  are 
perfectiy  hooest,  open-hearted,  and  trustworthy. 
They  have  no  religious  worship,  though  some  idea  of 
a  Supreme  Being,  called  ^uwre,  according  to  whose 
will  they  live,  act,  and  die,  but  to  whom  no  reverence 
is  offered.  They  reckon  time  by  the  arrival  and 
departure  of  the  Ceram  traders,  or  the  beginning  and 
ending  of  the  dry  and  rainy  seasons,  and  number 
only  up  to  ten.  Their  dead  are  buried,  and  after  a 
year  or  more,  the  bones  taken  up,  and  placed  in  the 
family  tomb,  erected  near  the  house,  or  selected 
from  the  natural  caverns  in  the  limestone  rocks.  The 
women  cover  the  lower  part  of  the  body ;  the  men  go 
all  but  naked,  have  their  hair  plaited  or  frizzled  out^ 
and  ornamented  with  shells  and  feathers.  Marriages 
are  contracted  early,  and  are  only  dissolved  by  death, 
and  the  women  are  chaste  and  modest.  At  Doreh, 
on  the  north  coast,  the  bridegroom  leads  the  bride 
home,  when  her  father  or  nearest  male  relative 
divides  a  roasted  banana  between  them,  which  thgr^ 
eat  together  with  joined  hands,  and  the  marriage  u 
completed.  They  have  no  religion,  but  bdieve 
that  the  soul  of  the  £ather  at  death  returns  to  the 


PAPULA  AND  TAPULAR  DISEASES-PAPYRL 


■OB,  and  of  the  mother  to  the  danghter.  The  Papa- 
sna  of  Humboldt^s  Bay  are  further  advanced  than 
tiioee  of  any  other  part  of  the  island,  carve  wood, 
make  fishing-nets,  hmld  good  houses  above  the  water 
of  the  bay,  and  connect  them  with  the  mainland  by 
bridges  ;  each  village  has  also  an  octaconal  temple, 
ornamented  within  and  without  with  figures  of 
animals  and  obscene  representations,  though  nothing 
is  known  of  their  religion.  The  largest  t^ple,  that 
of  Tobaddi,  received  in  1858  the  present  of  a 
Ketherlands  flag,  which  is  flying  from  its  spire,  the 
natives  little  suspecting  it  to  be  a  sign  of  asserted 
forei^  supremacy.  They  are  brave  and  open 
enemies,  but  bold  and  notorious  thieves. 

All  attempts  of  the  sultans  of  Tidore  to  introduce 
the  Mohammedan  religion  in  P.  have  failed. .  On  the 
island  of  Massanama,  to  the  east  of  Doreh  harbour, 
the  Protestant  missionaries  Ottow  and  Oieszler  have 
been  settled  since  1855,  and  are  well  treated  by  the 
natives.  These  have  formed  a  pretty  complete 
vocabulary  of  the  Myfore  laniruage  of  that  district, 
which  has  no  resemblance  to  tiiat  of  the  south-west 
ooast. 

P.  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  commanders 
Antonio  d'Abreu  and  Francisco  Scrram  in  1511,  in 
port  visited  by  the  Dutch  under  Schouten  in  1615  ; 
and  in  1828  the  Netherlands  built  a  fort,  called  Du 
Bus,  in  Triton's  Bay,  S''  42'  S.  lat,  and  133*'  61'  5"  E. 
long.,  which  after  a  few  years  was  abandoned,  on 
account  of  the  deadly  climate  of  the  district.  In 
1845,  Captain  Blackwood,  in  H.M.B.  Fly,  surveyed  a 

S>rtion  of  the  Great  Bight  Captain  Stanley,  in  the 
(Mle8imkt>^  and  Lieutenant  Yule  of  the  JararrMe, 
surveyed  the  Louisiade  in  1848.  Most  important 
knowledge  regarding  the  south-west  and  north  coasts 
np  to  HI"*  K  lon^.  has  been  obtained  through  the 
Scientific  Commission  sent  by  the  Netherlands 
government  in  1858;  but  much  of  the  coast,  and 
almost  the  whole  of  the  interior,  are  still  a  tena 
incognita^ 

See  G  W.  Earl,  The  Natwe  Races  of  ike  Indian 
Archipelago  (Lond.  1853);  De  Zuid-Weat  hut  van 
I^.  Guinea,  door  J,  Modera  (Haarlem,  1830); 
N,  Guinea  onderzocht  en  bescfireven,  door  eene  Neder- 
landsche  CommvtHe  (Amsterdam,  1862) ;  Narrative 
of  Search  after  Birds  of  Paradise,  by  A.  R.  Wallace, 
F.Z.S.,  in  Proceedings  of  the  Zoological  Society  of 
London  for  1862 ;  and  De  Papoewa*s  van  de  Ged- 
vinkibaai,  by  A.  Goudswaard  (Schiedam,  1863). 

PA'PULiB     AND     PAPULAR     DISEASEa 

Papulae,  or  pimples,  constitute  one  of  the  eight  orders 
of  Bateman  and  WiUan's  classification  of  cutaneous 
diseases.  They  occur  as  little  elevations  of  the  cuticle, 
of  a  red  colour,  containing  neither  pus  nor  any  other 
fluid,  and  ending  usually  in  a  scurf.  They  are 
generally  supposed  to  denote  inflammation  of  the 
papillsB  of  the  skin ;  but  Erasmus  Wilson  believes 
that  they  represent  an  inflammatory  condition  of  the 
secretory  orifices,  whether  sudoriferous  or  sebaceous. 
The  diseases  regarded  as  papular  are  Strophulus, 
Lichen,  and  Pnirigo ;  but  there  are  other  aiseases 
in  which  the  fir^t  external  symptom  is  a  papular 
eruption,  as,  for  example,  small-pox,  in  which  the 
papula  speedily  develo[>s  itself  into  a  pustule. 

PAPT'RI.  Rolls  made  of  the  paper  of  the 
papjrrus  plant  are  commonly  known  as  papyri, 
oorresponoing  to  the  Greek  hlblia,  TLcse  rolls 
are  of  a  very  remote  antiquity,  some  of  the  still 
remaininflr  Egyptian  papyri  oeing  certainl v  as  old  as 
the  6th  dynasty,  ana  others  as  old  as  the  12th,  or 
from  about  2000  B.a  This  is  owino;  to  their  mode 
of  preservation,  and  to  the  peculiarly  dry  character 
of  Egypt.  These  rolls  have  oeen  found  deposited  in 
different  ways,  those  of  a  religious  nature  being 
placed  upon  the  bodies  of  mummies,  at  the  feet, 
arms,  or  even  in  the  hands,  sometimes^  indeed, 

252 


packed  or   lai.l   between  the  bandages,   or  even 
spread  over  the  whole  bandages,  like  a  shroud.     At 
the  time  of  the  19th  and  20th  dynasties  (1320—12(10 
B.G.),  they  were  often  deposited  in  hollow  wooden 
figures  of  the  god  Ptah  Socharis  Osiris,  or  of  the  god 
Osiris,    which    were    placed    near   the    mummies. 
Papyri  of  a  civil  nature  were  deposited  in  jars  or 
boxes,  which  were  placed  near  the  mummies,  or 
have  been  found  in  the  remains  of  ancient  libraries. 
The  foUowinc;  are  the  principal  kinds  of  E^gyptiaa 
papyri :   L   Hieroglyphical  papyri,  always   ;icoom- 
pamed  by  pictures  or  vignettes,  and  consisting  o! 
three  classes :  1.  Solar  litanies  or  texts,  and  pictures 
relating  to  and  describing  the  sun*s  passage  through 
the  hours  of  the  night,  when  that  luminary  was 
supposed  to  enter  the  Gigyptian  Hades  or  HelL    2L 
Books  of  the  empyreal  gate,  or  heaven,  with  vign- 
ettes of  deities,  and  other  representations  referring 
to  the  genesis  of  the  cosmos  or  universe.    3.  The 
so-called  Ritual,  consisting  of  a  series  of  sacred  or 
hermetic  books,  some  of  a  very  remote  antiquity, 
accompanied  with  rubrical  titles  and  directions  as 
to  their  efficacy  and  employment,  and  comprising 
various    formulas    ordered   to   be   placed  on   the 
coffins,  amulets,  and  other  furniture  of  the  dead,  for 
the  better  preservation  of  the  souls  of  the  dead  auid 
of  the  mummies  in  the  future  state.    In  this  book, 
chapters  giving  an  account  of  the  future  judgment, 
of  the  makfienu,  or  boat  of  the  dead,  of  the  Sysian 
Fields,  and  of  the  Halls  throi^  which  the  dead 
had  to  pass,  are  also  found.    The  work  was  con- 
sidered oy  the  Eg3n>tians  themselves  mystic  and 
Earte  were  supposed  to  be  written  by  the  god  Thoth 
imself.     A  copv  more  or  less  complete,  according 
to  the  wealth  of  the  deceased,  was  deposited  witn 
all  the  principal  mummies ;   and  from   the  blank 
spaces  left  for  the  name,  which  were  afterwards 
tilled  up,  it  is  evident  the^  were  kept  ready  made. 
— IL  Hieratic  papyri,  written  in  the  hieratic  or 
cursive  Egyptian  hand^  comprising  a  more  extensive 
literature  than  the  hieroglyphic  papyri.    This  hand- 
writing being  used  for  civil  as  well  as  religioiis 
purposes,  the  papyri  found  in  it  differ  considerably 
from  one  another,  and  comprise  rituals  of  the  class 
already  mentioned,  principally  in  use   about   the 
26th  dynasty,  or  the  6th  c.  b.  a,  but  found  also  on 
some   few   papjTi  of    a  remote  period ;   a   bo^k 
call^  the  Lamentations  of  Isis ;  magical  l^apyri, 
containing  directions  for  the  preparation  of  charms 
and    ammets,  and  the    adjuration   of    deities  for 
their  protection ;  civil  documents,  consisting  of  the 
examination    of    persons    charged    with   criminal 
offences,  the  most  remarkable  of  which  are  that  of  aa 
offender  charged  with  the  practice  of  magic  in  the 
19th  dynasty,  another  of  a  criminal  charged  with 
robbing  the  ro^al  storehouses,  plunder  of  pubho 
property,  violation  of  women,  and  other  crimes,  in 
the  reign  of  Sethos  I.,  and  the  proces-verbal  of  an 
offender  charged  with  violating  the  sepulchres  of 
the  kinffs  in  the  reign  of  Rameses  Ia.     B^des 
these,  there  are  several  letters  of  various  scribes 
upon  subjects  connected  with  the  administration  of 
the  country  and  private  affairs ;  laudatory  poems  of 
I^yptian  monarchs,  one  describing  the  campaign 
ofKameses  1 1,  against  the  Khita  or  Hittites ;  his- 
torical documents,  the  joumejrs  of  official  persona 
in  foreign  parte ;  works  of  fiction,  one  written  by  a 
scribe  for  a  young  prince,  containing  the  adven- 
tures of  two  brothers,  the  death  of  the  younger, 
owing  to  the  false  accusation  of  the  wife  of  the 
elder,  his  revival,  and  transformation  into  a  bull 
and  a  Persea  tree.     Prophecies  or  denunoiatiooi^ 
and  works  on  planto  and  medical  subjects,  books 
of  proverbs,  liste  of  kings,  historical  accounts— all 
occur  amongst  these  documente. — IIL  The  last  class 
of  Egyptian  papyri,  those  written  in  the  demotio 


PAPYRI-PAPYRUS. 


or  mchoriU  dinracter,  conant  of  rituals,  contr&cta 
for  tbe  Uile  of  mummies  and  lands,  aecuuDts  and 
ktt«n.  and  miaceUoneoiu  documents.  These  papyri 
IK  often  bilianial,  Bometimes  accompanied  with 
Wratic  or  Greek  versiona.  Many  of  these  papyri 
haie  been  traoalated  by  M.  d«  Rouee,  Chabaa, 
Hath,  Goodwin,  Birch,  and  others.  Many  Greek 
paprn  have  been  fouod  belousing  to  tbff  archives 
•A  ibe  Serapeion,  refening  to  the  adminiittatioa  of 
tint  temple,  the  oretiona  of  Hypereidea,  and  some 
rt  the  books  of  Homer.  At  all  timiia  ia  the  histoir 
d  Egypt,  libraries  of  papyri  seem  to  have  existed, 
ud,  under  tbe  Ptolemies,  are  said  to  have  contained 
m  DMDT  as  700,000  roUo. 

Another  claaa  of  ancient  papyri,  those  of  Pompeii 
tad  Herculoneam,  are  of  conaiderable  interest,  as 
ihewing  Che  condition  and  orrangemeot  of  a  Roman 
library.  The  papyri  of  Hcrciitaoeiun  are  from  S^  to 
IS]  inches  wide,  and  are  rolled  np  in  a  cylindrical 
roll  (roJunien),  upon  a  stick  or  imier  roll  [badlliu, 
■tnitiiau),  having  a  «tud  at  the  end  (rornu).  They 
had  their  titles  written  on  a  strip  (lomm),  in  red 
lettera,  and  the  writing  was  either  on  blind  lines,  or 
die  OD  lines  ruled  with  lead.  About  1300  papyri 
Tore  discuvered  at  Herculanenm,  in  1753,  in  the 
libraiy  of  a  small  house,  charred  to  a  cinder,  and 
■>nie  of  these,  by  the  greatest  skill  and  care,  have 
been  unrolled  by  a  very  laborious  process  at  Naples. 
Unfortunately,  they  have  not  answered  the  literary 
eipectatiana  fonned  of  them,  consistiDg  of  the 
Torks  of  philosophers  of  the  Epicurean  school, 
which  the  proprietor  of  the  library  seems  to  have 
collected.  Soma  of  the  papyri  were  in  Latin,  and 
more  difBcnlt  to  ddtdU.  Many  of  them  have  been 
nahlished.  They  are  only  written  on  one  dde. 
when  a  small  number  were  required,  they  were 
^aced  in  a  cylindrical  bronze  chest  (eiala),  packed 
tightly  in  a  perpendicular  position,  and  were  taken 
mt  single,  and  read  by  unrolling  from  one  end. 
These  papyri  were  of  various  prices ;  idd  ones,  like 
eld  books,  beins  of  immense  ratue,  but  those  con- 
taining the  works  of  contemporary  authors  were 
not  dearer,  perhapa,  than  modern  books.  Many 
extensive  pnvate  and  public  libraries  existed  in 
GitAx  and  Rome,  but  all  have  perished  except 
those  exhumed  from  Ueroulaneum. 

Wilkinson,  Han.  aad  CuiL  iii.  62, 147. 188,  v.  482; 
MabiUon,  De  Be  lAplom.  L  c.  S,  p.  38;  Winckelmanu, 
iLBd.iL;  Chabag,  Pap.  iTHatTU  (Chalon,  1860) ; 
Papj/rus  Hieraliqua  (8vo,  Chaloo,  1863);  Birdi, 
iKtiwtucL  to  studs  oJ  Hieroglyph)  (12tno,  Lond. 
1857)  ;  CamWdse  Et»ay»  (1858),  p.  227  ;  De  Roug6, 
Brt.  Contrmp.  ixvii.  p^  389  ;  Heath,  Exodut  Papyri 
(Land.  1855). 

PAPT'BUB,  •  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
eider  CyptraetiE,  of  which  there  are  seTeral  Sjiecies, 
tlie  moat  important  being  the  Eovftuk  P.  or 
Papj/rus  of  the  ancients  (P.  aMiipiorum,  Cyperua 
papynu  of  liniueua) ;  a  kind  of  sedge,  8  to  10  feet 
liigh ;  with  a  very  strong,  woody,  aromatic,  oreep- 
ing  root ;  long,  sharp-keeled  leaves ;  and  naked, 
leafless,  trianguhu',  soft,  and  cellular  stems,  as  thick 
as  a  man's  arm  at  tbe  lower  part,  and  at  their  upper 
eitnimity  bearing  a  compound  umbel  of  extremely 
munerooB  drooping  spikelets,  with  a  general  invo. 
Incre  of  8  long  Miform  leaves,  each  spikelet  con. 
taining  6 — 13  Uurets.  By  die  ancient  Egyptians 
it  was  called  papa,  fran]  which  the  Greek  papyma 
is  derired,  althoui^  it  was  also  called  by  them 
fylfiot  or  delUu.  The  Hebrews  called  it  gomi,  a 
TiTd  resembling  the  Coptic  gom,  at  volume ;  its 
oiUem  Anbio  name  is  Serdi.  So  rare  it  the  plant 
ID  the  prevent  day  in  Egypt,  that  it  ia  supposed  to 
hare  been  introdnced  either  from  Syria  or  Abyssinia ; 
It  haa  been  seen  till  lately  in  the  vicinity  of  the 


and  as  it  formerly  was  considered  the  emblem  at 
Northern  Ikypt,  or  the  Delta,  and  only  grown  thera 
if  introduce^  it  must  have  come  from  some  country 


Papyrus  (P.  aMiquorum], 

lying  to  the  north  of  Ei^ypL  It  has  been  fonnd  ill 
modern  times  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jaffa,  on  tbe 
banke  of  the  Anapus,  in  the  pools  of  tbe  Liane,  near 
Syracuse,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  tbe  Lake  Thrasyme- 
Doo.  It  is  represented  on  tbe  oldest  Egyptian  monu- 
ments, and  OS  reaching  the  heii^bt  of  about  ten  feet. 
It  was  grown  in  pools  of  still  water,  growing  ten  feet 
above  the  water,  and  two  beneath  it,  and  restricted  to 
the  districts  of  Saia  and  Sebennytoa.  The  P.  was 
used  for  many  purposes  both  ornamental  and  useful, 
snob  OS  crowns  for  the  head,  sandals,  boxes,  boats, 
and  cordage,  but  princiiially  for  a  kind  of  paper 
called  by  at  name.  Its  pith  was  boiled  and  eaten, 
and  its  root  dried  for  fuel  The  papyrus  or  paper 
of  the  Egjiptians  was  of  the  greateet  reputation  in 
antiquity,  and  it  appears  on  the  earliest  monnmenla 
in  the  shape  of  long  rectangular  sheets,  which  were 
rolled  np  at  one  end,  and  on  which  the  scribe  wrote 
with  a  reed  called  koA,  with  red  or  black  ink  mads 
of  an  animal  carbon.  The  process  of  making  paper 
from  the  papyrus  is  described  in  trie  article  Papeb. 
When  newly  prep^i'^d,  it  was  white  or  brownish  white 
and  lissom ;  but  lu  the  process  of  time,  those  papyri 
which  have  reached  the  preeent  day  have  become 
of  a  light  or  dark  brawn  colour,  uid  exceedingly 
brittle,  breaking  to  the  touch.  While  papyrus  was 
commonly  used  in  Egypt  for  tbe  purposes  of  writing, 
and  was,  in  fact,  the  paper  of  the  period,  although 
mentioned  by  early  Greek  authors,  it  does  not  appear 
to  have  come  into  general  use  among  the  Greeks  till 
after  the  time  of  ^exander  the  Great,  when  it  waa 
extensively  exported  from  the  Egyptian  porta  under 
the  Ptolemies.  Fragments,  indeed,  have  been  found 
to  have  been  used  by  the  Greets  centuries  before. 
It  was,  however,  always  an  expensive  article  to  tba 
Greeks,  and  a  sheet  cost  more  than  the  value  of  ft 
dollar.  Among  the  Romans,  it  does  not  appear  to 
have  been  in  use  at  an  early  period,  although  tha 
Sibylline  books  are  said  to  have  been  written  on  it, 
and  it  waa  cultivated  in  Calabria,  Apulia,  and  the 
marshes  of  the  Tiber.  Rut  the  staple  was  no  donbt 
imported  from  Alexandria,  and  i 
by  tbe  Roman  monnfactoren.  i 


PAK-PARABOLA. 


Alexandrian  manufactory,  that  Hadrian,  in  his  yisit 
to  that  city,  was  stmck  by  its  extent;  and  htter 
in  the  emnire,  an  E^ryptian  usurper  (Firmns,  272 
A.D.)  is  saia  to  have  boasted  that  he  could  sapport 
an  army  off  his  materials.  It  continaed  to  be 
employed  in  the  Eastern  and  Western  Empire  till 
the  12th  c,  and  was  used  amongst  the  Arabs  in  the 
8th ;  but  after  that  period,  it  was  <}uite  superseded 
by  parchment  At  the  later  periods,  it  was  no 
longer  employed  in  the  shape  of  rolls,  but  cut  up 
into  square  pages,  and  bound  like  modem  books. 

As  a  matter  of  scientific  interest,  experiments  on 
the  manufacture  of  paper  from  the  r,  have  been 
made  in  recent  times  by  Landolina,  SeyffiButh,  and 
others.— Another  species  of  P.  (P.  corywbosus  ot 
p.  Pangord)  is  much  used  in  India  for  making 
mats.    See  Indian  Oiusb  Matting. 

PAR,  or  PARR,  a  small  fish,  also  called 
Brandlinq  and  Finoerlinq  in  different  parts  of 
Britain,  inhabiting  rivers  and  streams,  and  at 
one  time  believ^  to  be  a  distinct  species  of  the 
genus  Salmo,  but  now  almost  universally  regarded 
as  the  young  of  the  salmon.  The  question  will  be 
noticed  in  the  article  Salmon.  It  may  here,  how- 
ever, be  mentioned,  that  it  is  difficult  to  discriminate 
the  young  of  different  species  of  this  genus.  The 
par  rises  with  extraordinary  readiness  to  the  arti- 
ficial fly ;  and  until  it  began  to  receive  protection 
as  the  fry  of  the  salmon,  vast  numbers  were  killed 
both  by  youthful  and  adult  anglers. 

PARA',  or  BELE'M,  a  thriving  city  and  seaport 
tfi  Brazil,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same  name, 
stands  on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Para,  80 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Lat  V  28'  S.,  long.  48'' 
23'  W.  The  harbour  is  formed  by  an  abrupt  curve 
or  inlet  of  the  channel  of  the  river,  which  is  here 
20  miles  broad.  Vessels  of  the  largest  size  are 
admitted ;  the  anchorage  is  roomy,  safe,  and  easy 
of  access.  The  streets  are  paved  and  macadamised ; 
the  houses,  like  those  of  most  Brazilian  towns,  have 
whitened  walls  and  red-tiled  roofs.  Among  the 
principal  bnildincs  are  the  palace  of  the  president, 
the  cathedral,  and  the  churches,  all  ample  in  size, 
and  imposing  in  structure^  There  are  also  numerous 
public  squares,  a  college,  and  a  beautiful  botanic 
garden.  The  citv  is  supplied  with  water  by  water- 
carts  that  perambulate  the  streets.  The  *  Amazon 
Navigation  Ck>mpany,*  a  Brazilian  association,  has 
erected  large  workshops,  coal  depOts,  and  wluirfs ; 
and  steam-navigation  is  rapidly  extending.  In  1859 
>-1860,  228  vessels,  of  63,347  tons,  entered  and 
cleared  the  port  In  1857 — 1858,  the  exports 
amounted  to  £.?99,333;  in  1859^1860,  to  £665,196. 
The  imports  in  1857—1858  amounted  to  £414,967 ; 
in  1859—1860,  to  £529,86a  The  imports  were 
principally  cotton  manufactures,  wheat  and  flour, 
outlery  and  hardware,  wool,  gold  and  silver  wares, 
coins,  and  wine.  The  exports  were  coffee,  sugar, 
raw  cotton,  hides,  tobacco,  diamonds,  cocoa,  and 
india-rubber.  Pop.  28,000.  P.  is  the  mart  through 
which  passes  the  whole  commerce  of  the  Amazon 
and  its  affluents.  The  city  was  the  seat  of  revo- 
lution during  the  whole  of  the  year  1835,  when 
a  great  number  of  lives  were  lost  and  houses 
destroyed,  and  grass  grew  in  streets  that  previously 
had  been  the  centre  of  business.  It  is  only  since 
1848  that  the  city  can  be  said  to  have  fairly 
entered  upon  the  path  of  orderly  commercial  pro- 
gress ;  and  since  that  period,  its  advance  has  been 
capid. 

PARA',  an  important  province  of  the  empire  of 
Brazil,  in  the  extreme  north  of  the  oounti^,  is 
bounded  on  ihe  N.  by  Guiana  and  the  Atlantic,  on 
the  K  by  Maranhao  and  Goyaz,  on  the  S.  by  Matto 
Grosso,  and  on  the  W.  by  Amazonas.    Area^  532,000 


square  miles ;  pop.  (in  1856).  207,400.  ItHs  by  far 
the  largest  province  of  Brazil — having  an  area  more 
than  twice  the  extent  of  Austria — ^Ls  watered  by 
the  Amazon  and  its  great  affluents  the  Tapajos, 
Xingu,  and  Tocantins ;  and  forms  a  portion  of  a 
district — the  Amazon  Valley — ^which  has  been  des- 
cribed by  the  most  thorough  explorer  of  this  region 
as  unequalled  for  richness  of  vegetable  production 
and  fertility  of  soiL  The  surface  of  the  country 
is  level,  and  consists  of  fi;reat  plains,  intersected  by 
rivers,  and  covered  with  primeval  forests,  and  in 
some  cases  with  rich  pasture.  The  climate,  though 
warm,  is  not  unhealthy.  The  precious  metals,  with 
diamonds,  iron,  and  coal,  are  found,  but  are  not 
worked.  The  timber  is  valuable,  and  the  chief  crora 
raised  upon  the  very  limited  area  as  yet  brought 
under  cultivation  are  coffee,  rioe,  millet,  and  cotton. 

PARA',  the  name  of  the  south  arm  of  the  Amazon^ 
forming  an  outlet  for  that  river  into  the  Atlantic, 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  island  of  Marajo  (q.  v.)^ 
It  is  200  miles  in  len^h,  is  20  miles  broad  opposite 
the  city  of  Para,  and  is  40  miles  broad  at  its  mouth. 
Its  most  important  aflluent,  and  the  source  whenoe 
it  draws,  perhaps,  the  great  mass  of  its  volume  of 
waters,  is  the  Tocantins.  Formerly,  the  name  Para, 
which  is  said  to  signify  'father  of  waters,*  was 
applied  in  a  general  way  to  the  river  Amazon.  At 
t£e  time  of  the  spring-tides,  the  bore  rushes  up  the 
river  with  enormous  force,  forming  a  wave  15  feet 
high. 

PARA',  a  coin  of  copper,  silver,  or  mixed  metal, 
thoueh  most  ^nerally  of  copper,  in  use  in  Turkey 
and  Egypt ;  it  is  the  4()bh  part  of  a  piastre,  is  divided 
into  3  aspers,  and  varies  much  in  value,  owing  to  the 
debased  and  complicated  condition  of  the  Turkish 
coinage.  Pieces  of  5  paras  are  also  in  use.  The 
para  is  equal  to  about  ^gth  of  a  penny  sterling  in 
Turkey,  and  ^th  of  a  penny  sterling  in  Egypt^ 
See  Piastre. 

PARA  GRASS.    See  Pussaba. 

PA'RABLE   (Gr.  paraboU,  a  comparison)    waa 
originally  the  name  given  by  the  Greek  rhetoricians 
to  an  illustration  avowedly  introduced  as  such.     In 
Hellenistio  and   New  Testament  Greek,    it  came 
to    signify    an    independent    fictitious   narratiTe, 
employed  for  the  illustration  of  a  moral  rule   or 
principle,    lliis  kind  of  illustration  is  of   £as;teni 
origin,  and  admirable  examples  are  to  be  found  In 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  particularly  in  the 
discourses  of  our  Lord.      It  is  no  leas  interesting 
than  curious  to  learn  that  many  of  Christ's  parables, 
or  at  least  much  of  his  parabolic  imagery,  are  to  be 
found  in  the  writings  of  Hillel,  Sharomai,  and  other 
great  rabbis,  as,  for  exainple,  the  parables  of    the 
Pearl  of  Great  Price,  the  Labourers,  the  Lost  Piece 
of   Money,  the   Wise    and   Foolish   Virgins,    &c 
Among  modem  writers,  the  German  divine  Krank- 
macher  (^.  v.)  has  greatly  distinguished  him^olf  in^ 
this  species  of  composition.     The  parable  differs 
from  the  Fable  (q.  v.)  in  the  probability  or  veri- 
similitude of  the  story  itself,  and  agrees  with  it  in 
the  essential  requisites  of  simplicity  and  brevity.    In 
the  course  of  time,  the  word  parable  came  to  Lose 
its  significance  of  figurative  speech,  and  to   mean 
speech  generally.    From  the  parabola  of  the  Liatin 
Vulgate,    came    the    medieval    Latin    paraboiare, 
whence  the  modem  French  parler  and  parole.      An 
excellent  work  on  the  parables  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment— ^probably  the  best  in  the  English  language — 
is  that  oy  Archbishop  Trench. 

PARABOLA,  one  of  the  conic  sections,  is 
produced  by  a  plane  not  passing  through,  the 
vertex,  which  cuts  the  cone  in  a  direction  pi^rallel 
to  that  of  a  plane  touching  the  convex  surfaoe  of 
the  cone.    A  little  consideration  will  ahevr    that 


PARABOLANI— PARACELSUS. 


A  section  so  produced  cannot  be  a  closed  curve,  but 
its  two  branches,  though  continually  widening  out 
from  each  other,  do  not  diverge  so  rapidly  as  in 
the  Hyperbola  (q.  v.).  The  nearer  the  cutting  plane 
is  to  that  which  touches  the  cone,  ^e  less  do  the 
two  branches  diveT;ee;  and  when  the  two  planes 
coincide,  the  branches  also  coincide,  fonning  a 
straight  line,  which  is  therefore  the  limit  of  the 
parabola.  It  may  otherwise  be  considered  as  a 
curve,  every  point  of  which  is  equally  distant  from 
a  fixed  straight  line  and  a  given  point ;  the  fixed 
straight  line  is  called  the  directrix^  and  the  given 
point  the  foeus.    Thus  (see  fig.)  PAF  is  a  parabola, 

any    point    P    in 
which    is    equally 
distant    from    the 
focus    S    and    the 
^  directrix     CB,     or 
PS  =  PD.   If,  from 
8,  a  perpendicular, 
SE,   be   drawn   to 
the   directrix,   and 
produced        back- 
wards, this  line,  AO, 
is  the  axia  or  prin- 
cipal   diameter    of 
the   parabola,   and 
the  curve  is  sym- 
metrical   on    both 
sides  of  it    As  A 
is  a  point  in  the 
parab^a,  AS  »  AE, 
or  the  vertex  of  a 
parabola  bisects  the 
perpendienlar   from    the    focus  to   the   directrix. 
All  lines   in   a   parabola  which   are   parallel    to 
the   axis  cat    the  curve  in  only  one  point,  and 
are  called  diariuters.    All  lines,  such  as  FF,  which 
cut  the  curve  in  two  points,  are  ordinates,  and 
the    diameter    to    which    they   are    ordinates,    is 
that    one    which    bisects   them;    the    portion    of 
this   diameter  which  is  intercepted  between  the 
ordinAte    and    the   curve,    is    tbe    corresponding 
abscissa.     From  the  property  of  the  parabola  that 
PS  ss  PD,  the  equation  to  the  curve  mav  be  at 
once  deduced ;  for  PS  =  PD  =  EN,  therefore  PS' 
(which  =  PN»  +  NS«)  «  EN*;  hence  PN*  «  EN' 
-  NS*  =  (ES  -»-  SN)«  -  NS»  =  ES'  -I-  2ES  .  SN  = 
{smce  £S  =  2AS)  4AS<  +  4AS .  SN  »  4AS  (AS  +  SN) 
SB  4AS .  AN ;  and  calling  PN,  the  semiordinate,  y; 
AN,  the  abscissa,  x;  and  AS,  a;  the  equation  to  the 
parabola  becomes  ^  =  4ax,  where  a  (the  distance 
of  the  vertex  from  the  focus)  remains  the  same  for 
all  points  in  the  same  curve.      It  is  evident  from 
the    equation,   as  well    as    from   the  geometrical 
derivation  of  the  parabola,  that  it  must  have  two, 
and  only  two  branches,  and  that  the  further  it  is 
extended  the  nearer  its  brandies  approach  to  the 
condition  of  straight   lines    parallel  to   the  axis, 
tiioagh  they  never  actually  become  sa    The  para- 
bola nas  no  asymptotes,  hke  tlie  hyperbola,  but  it 
poeaesses  many  properties  which  are  common  to  it 
with  that  curve   and   the  ellipse.      In  fact,  the 
parabola  is  nothing  more  than  an  ellipse,  whose 
major  axis  is  infijutely  long. 

If  parallel  nyn  ot  light  or  heat  fall  upon  the 
coocave  surface  of  a  paraboloidal  (see  Paraboloid) 
mirror,  they  are  reflected  to  the  focus,  and  con- 
versely, if  a  light  be  placed  in  the  focus  of  a 
paraboloidal  re&ctor,  its  rays  will  be  reflected  in 
parallel  directions,  and  would  appear  equally  bright 
at  all  distances  did  light  move  without  deviation, 
and  unabsorbed.  Also,  if  a  body  be  projected  in  a 
direction  not  vertical,  but  inclined  to  the  direction 
of  gravity,  it  would,  if  undisturbed  by  the  resisting 
force    of  the   atmoeohere    describe   accurately   a 


parabola  whose  axis  is  vertical,  and  whose  vertex  is 
the  highest  point  reached  by  tibie  body  (see  Pbo- 

JECTILES). 

The  term  parabola  is  used  in  analysis  in  a  general 
sense,  to  denote  that  class  of  curves  in  which  sums 
power  of  the  ordinate  is  proportional  to  a  lower 

Sower  of  the  abscissa.  Thus,  the  curve  we  have  just 
escribed,  and  which  is  distinguished  as  the  comnum 
or  Apollonian  parabola,  has  the  square  of  its  ordinate 
proportional  to  its  abscissa ;  the  cubical  parabola  has 
the  cube  of  its  ordinate  proportional  to  its  abscissa ; 
and  the  aemi-cubiccU  parabola  has  the  cube  of  its 
ordinate  proportional  to  the  square  of  its  abscissa. 

PARABOLA'NI    (6r.  parabolos,    a    desperate 
person),  a  class  of  functionaries  in  the  early  church, 
oy  some  writers  reckoned  as  members  of  the  clergy, 
and  iacludod  in  the  ranks  of  the  minor  orders,  but 
more  probably  religious  associations,  whose  duty  it 
was  to  assist  the  clergy,  especially  in  the  more 
laborious  and  the  menial  offices  of  religion  or  of 
charity.    The  etymology  of  the  name  is  somewhat 
ciuious,  being  derived  or  applied  from  that  of  thoee 
desperate  adventurers  of  the  arena  who  hired  them- 
selves for  the  wild-beast  fights  of  the  amphitheatre. 
The  chief  duty  of  the  paiabolani  was  the  tending  of 
the  sick,  wheuier  in  ordinary  diseases  or  in  times  of 
pestilence.    By  some,  the  association  is  believed  to 
have    originated  at  Alexandria,  and    perhaps   tD 
have  been  T)eculiar  to  that  church ;  but  although 
the  parabolani  were   certainly  very  numerous  at 
Alexandria,  amounting  to  some  500  or  600,  it  is 
beyond  all  question  that  they  were  also  enrolled  in 
other  churches.    We  lind  them  at  Ephesus,  at  the 
time  of  the  council  in  449.    They  held' the  same 
place  in  regard  of  ministrations  to  the  living,  that 
the  Fosaores  of  Rome  or  the  Kopiatai  of  the  Greeks 
did  in  relation  to  the  burial  of  the  dead.    The 
parabolani  are  made  the  subject  of  formal  legislation 
by  Theodosius  the  younger.     At  first  they  were 
subject  to  the  PrsBtectus  Augustalis,  but  a  later 
decree  placed  them  directly  under  the  authority  of 
the  bishop. 

The  name  parabolani  must  not  be  confounded 
with  the  epithet  parabolariusj  which  the  pagans 
applied  to  the  Christian  martyrs,  from  the  reckless- 
ness with  which  they  gave  their  lives  for  tiieir 
faith. 

PARA'BOLOID,  a  solid  figure  traced  out  by  a 
Parabola  (q.  v.)  revolving  round  its  principal  axis. 
Sections  of  this  solid  parallel  to  the  principal  axis 
are  parabolas,  and  those  perpendicular  to  it,  circles. 
The  term  'paraboloidal,'  for  which  *  parabolic'  is 
frequently  out  improperly  substituteo,  is  applied 
either  to  bodies  having  the  form  of  a  paraboloid,  or 
to  concave  surfaces  wnich  seem  to  have  taken  their 
peculiar  hollow  shape  from  the  impress  of  a  para- 
Doloidal  body. 

PARACELSUS.  About  the  end  of  the  Iffth  a 
there  lived  in  the  small  town  of  Marien-Einsedeln, 
near  Zurich  in  Switzerland,  WiUiam  Bombast  von 
Hohenheim,  a  physician  and  chemist;  he  was 
married  to  the  lady-superintendent  of  the  hospital 
attached  to  the  convent  of  Einsedeln  ;  they  had  an 
only  son,  Philip  Aureolus  Theophrastus,  bom,  it  is 
thought,  about  1493.  The  name  Paracelsus,  by 
whicn  he  is  now  known,  is  a  rude  rendering  into 
Greek  and  Latin  of  his  patronymic.  It  seemi 
doubtful  if  he  ever  attended  any  regular  school,  but 
he  received  from  his  father  the  rudiments  of  Latin, 
and  whatever  else  he  could  teach.  He  soon  took  to 
roaming,  and  even  pursued  his  travels  into  Asia  and 
Africa.  How  he  maintained  himself  during  his 
pilgrimage  is  unknown ;  probably  by  necromancy 
and  quack  cures — ^that  is,  proclaiming  he  had  certain 
specifics,  and  bargaining  for  the  amount  he  was  to 


PARACHUTE— PARADOX. 


receive  if  he  performed  a  care.  He  was  a  diligent 
cliemist,  investigating  the  processes  of  the  prepara- 
tion  of  metals,  and  making  experiments  as  to  their 
medicinal  virtues ;  also  to  discover  the  philosopher's 
Btona  As  a  chemist  he  lived  with  Sigisihund 
Fagger,  one  of  a  family  celebrated  for  its  patronaffe 
of  art  and  science.  His  cures,  real  or  pretended, 
became  noised  abroad,  and  he  was  called  to  prescribe 
for  all  the  great  men  of  his  da^.  When  he  was 
thirty-three,  he  boasted  of  having  cured  thirteen 
princes,  whose  cases  had  been  declared  hopeless. 
He  was  then  at  his  zenith,  and  at  the  recommenda- 
tion of  Ecolampadius  was  appointed  professor  of 
physic  and  surgery  at  BaseL  He  commenced  his 
academic  career  by  publicly  burning  Galen's  works, 
exclaiming  Galen  dia  not  know  as  much  as  his  shoe- 
latcheta  '  Readins  never  made  a  physician,'  he  said ; 
'  countries  are  the  leaves  of  nature's  code  of  laws — 
patients  his  only  books.'  His  class-room  at  first 
was  full  to  overtlowing,  but  was  soon  deserted,  and 
he  fell  into  habits  of  excessive  intemperance  ;  indeed 
his  secretary  asserts  he  was  drunk  every  day;  never 
nndressed,  and  went  to  bed  with  his  famous  sword 
bv  his  side,  which  he  would  draw,  and  flourish 
about  the  room.  The  reason  of  his  departure  from 
Basel  was,  that  a  certain  dignitary,  suffering  from 
gout,  in  his  agony  sent  for  ParMseLsus,  and  promised  to 
cive  him  100  florins  if  he  cured  him.  Paracelsus  gave 
him  three  laudanum  pills ;  the  canon  felt  comfort- 
able, and  the  doctor  claimed  his  fee,  but  the  church- 
man refused  to  pay.  Paracelsus  took  him  into 
court,  but  the  juoge  decided  against  the  professor, 
who  lost  his  temper,  and  abused  the  legal  functionary 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  matter  was  taken  up 
bv  the  town  council,  and  ended  in  the  expulsion 
of  Paracelsus.  He  recommenced  his  wanaerings. 
Wherever  he  went  he  excited  the  regular  faculty 
to  a  state  of  violent  hatred,  not  wholly  undeserved. 
At  Salzburg  he  had  given  offence  in  the  usual  way, 
and  the  result  was,  'he  was  pitched  out  of  the 
window  at  an  inn  by  the  doctor  s  servants,  and  had 
his  neck  broken  by  the  falL'  This  took  place  in 
1541. 

That  a  man  whose  life  was  such  an  incoherent 
medlev  should  exert  an  influence  for  centuries* 
after  ms  death,  may  well  be  a  matter  of  surprise, 
but  he  and  the  age  were  fitted  for  each  other.  He 
struck  the  weak  point  of  the  prevailing  system  of 
medicine ;  he  appealed  to  the  public  as  to  whether 
it  were  not  a  false  system  that  could  only  lead  to 
failure,  and  he  proposed  a  sjrstem  of  his  own,  which, 
though  shrouded  in  absurdity  and  obscurity,  inaugur- 
ated a  new  era  of  medicine.  The  prominent  idea 
of  his  system  is,  that  disease  does  not  depend  upon 
an  excess  or  deficiency  of  bile,  phlegm,  or  blood,  out 
that  it  LB 'an  actual  existence,  a  blight  upon  thd 
body  subject  to  its  own  laws,  and  to  &  opposed  by 
some  specific  m^cine.  See  the  works  of  Para- 
celsus; also  of  Schulz  (1831);  Lessing  (1839); 
Rademacher  (1848) ;  and  Russell  {HUtory  and 
Heroes  of  Medicine^  1861). 

PAltAGHUTE  (Fr.  chute,  a  fall),  a  machine 
invented  for  the  purpose  of  retarding  the  velocity 
of  descent  of  any  body  through  the  air,  and  employed 
by  aeronauts  as  a  means  of  descending  from  balloons. 
It  is  a  gigantic  umbrella,  strongly  miMle,  and  having 
the  outer  extremities  of  the  rods,  on  which  the  canvas 
is  stretched,  firmlv  connected  by  ropes  or  stays  t6 
the  lower  part  of  the  handle.  The  handle  of  the 
parachute  is  a  hoUow  iron  tube,  through  which 
passes  a  rope  connecting  the  balloon  above  with  the 
car  (in  which  are  the  atlronauts  and  their  apparatus) 
beneath,  but  so  fastened,  that  when  the  balloon  is 
out  loose,  the  car  and  parachute  still  remain  con- 
nected. When  the  balloon  ascends,  the  parachute 
ooUapses  like  an  umbraUa;  bat  when  the  balloon 


rope  is  severed,  and  the  car  begins  to  descend,  the 
parachute  is  extended  by  the  action  of  the  air,  and 
prevents  the  car  from  acquiring  a  dangerous  velocity 
of  descent ;  the  final  velocity  in  those  cases  where 
the  machine  is  of  a  size  proportioned  to  the  weight 
it  has  to  support,  beine  no  more  than  would  be 
acquired  by  a  person  leaping  from  a  heij^ht  of 
between  two  and  three  feet^  But  the  slightest 
derangement  of  the  parachute's  equilibrium,  such  as 
might  be  caused  by  a  breath  of  wind,  or  the 
smallest  deviation  from  perfect  symmetry  in  the 
parachute  itself,  immediately  produces  an  oscillatory 
motion  of  the  car,  having  the  apex  of  the  parachute 
as  a  centre,  and  tiie  oscmations  becoming  gradually 
greater  and  more  rapid,  the  occupants  of  the  car 
are  in  most  cases  either  pitched  out,  or  are  along 
with  it  dashed  on  the  ground  with  frightful  foroa 
This  defect  in  the  parachute  has  been  attempted  to 
be  remedied  in  various  ways,  but  hitherto  without 
success.  The  first  successful  experiment  with  the 
parachute  was  made  by  Blanchard  at  Strasburg  in 
1787«  and  the  experiment  has  been  often  repeated 
by  Gamerin  and  others;  Yvry  frequently,  however, 
with  fotal  results. 

The  parachute  was  employed  by  Captain  Boxer, 
RN.,  as  an  essential  part  of  his  patent  light-ball, 
for  discovering  the  movements  of  an  enemy  at 
night,  and  was  so  arranged  as  to  open  up  when  the 
lignted  ball  had  attained  its  greatest  elevation,  so 
as  to  keep  it  for  a  considerate  period  almost  soi^ 
pended  in  the  air. 

PARA'DE  (from  parar^  signified  in  its  original 
sense  a  prepared  ground,  and  was  applied  to  the 
courtyara  of  a  castle,  or  to  any  enclosed  and  level 
plain.  From  the  practice  of  reviewing  troops  at 
such  a  spot,  the  review  itself  has  acquir^  the  name 
of  parade.  In  its  modem  military  acceptation,  a 
parade  is  the  turning  out  of  the  garrison,  or  of  a 
regiment  in  full  equipment,  for  inspection  or  evolu- 
tions before  some  superior  officer.  It  is  the  boast 
of  British  troops  that  their  line  and  discipline  are 
as  perfect  under  an  enemy's  fire  as  on  Uie  pvada 
ground. 

PA'RADISB.    See  Eden. 

PARADISE,  TiBD  ov.    See  Bird  or  Paradis* 

PARADOS — another  name  for  Traverse — is  an 
intercepting  mound,  erected  in  various  parts  of  a 
fortification  for  the  purpose  of  prot^ting  tbs 
defenders  from  a  rear  or  ncochet-fize.    See  Fobti- 

FICATION. 

PA'RADOX  (Gr.  para^  beside,  or  beyond,  and 
doxcL^  an  opinion),  a  term  applied  to  whatever  is  con- 
trary to  the  received  belief.  Cicero,  in  his  book  on 
paradoxes,  states  that  the  Stoics  called  by  this  name 
all  those  unusual  opinions  which  contradict  the 
notions  of  the  vulgar.  It  follows  from  this  that  a 
paradox  is  not  necessarily  an  opinioii  contrary  to  truth. 
There  have  been  bold  and  nappy  paradoxes  whoae 
fortune  it  has  been  to  overthrow  accredited  errors, 
and  in  the  course  of  time  to  become  universally 
accepted  as  truths.  It  is,  perhaps,  even  one  of  the 
prerogatives  of  genius  to  brmg  such  into  the  world, 
and  uiereby  to  alter  the  character  of  an  art,  a 
science,  or  a  le^lation ;  but  this,  the  highest  form 
of  paradox,  which  is  only  another  name  fur  origin- 
ality of  thought,  or  for  noveltv  of  scientific  dia- 
oov^,  is  rare.  The  paradox  which  springs  from  a 
passion  for  distinction,  and  which,  in  its  efforts  to 
achieve  it,  despises  good  sense  and  the  lessons  of 
experience,  is  far  more  frequent.  It  may  not  be  at 
bottom  a  positive  error  in  thought,  but  it  is  so 
exaggerated  in  expression,  that  if  taken  literally  it 
actually^  does  mislead.  Tlus  is  the  besetting  sin  of 
the  bnlliant  and  epigrammatic  olaaa   of   writei% 


PARAFFIN— PARAGUAY. 


ftband&nt  examples  of  which  are  to  be  found  in 
modem  French  literature. 

PA'RAFFIN  is  the  name  given  to  Reveral  oloeely* 
ftliied  subetanoes,  which  are  compose.!  of  mixtures 
of  poiymeric  hydrocarbons,  of  the  oiefiaub  g-x^  series 
(that  is  to  say.  of  tiie  formula  OgnH,n)»  Aud  are 
obtained  from  the  dry  distillation  of  wood,  peat,  bitu- 
miaous  coal,  wax,  fto.  P.  is  particularly  abundant 
in  beech  tar,  but  according  to  llcichenbach,  to  whom 
its  name  (which  is  formea  from  parum  affinis,  *  little 
allied,^  in  consequence  of  its  resisting  the  action  of 
the  strongest  acids  and  alkalies)  is  due,  and  who 
may  be  regarded  as  its  discoverer ;  it  is  also  found 
in  the  tar  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  substances. 
At  ordinary  temperatures  paraffin  is  a  hard,  white, 
crystalline  substance,  devoid  of  taste  or  odour,  and 
reaembling  spermaceti,  both  to  the  touch  and  in 
appearance.  The  paraffin  obtained  from  wood  fuses 
at  about  111%  but  the  varieties  obtained  from  other 
sabstanoes  have  considerably  higher  boiling-points. 
When  carefully  heated,  it  sublimes  unchanged  at  a 
little  below  70(f .  It  dissolves  freely  in  hot  olive  oil, 
m  oil  of  turpentine,  in  benzol,  and  m  ether,  but  it  is 
only  alifhtly  soluble  in  boiling  alcohol,  and  is  quite 
inaolubfo  in  water.  It  does  not  bum  readily  in 
the  air,  unless  with  the  addition  of  a  wick,  when  it 
evoWes  so  brilliant  and  smokeless  a  flame  that  it 
has  been  applied  to  the  manufacture  of  candles, 
which  rival  those  made  of  the  finest  wax.  The 
main  supply  of  the  paraffin  of  commerce  is  obtained 
in  this  country  from  the  Boghead  cannel-coaL  See 
Naphtha.  A  bituminous  shale  near  Bonn  supplies 
mach  of  the  continental  demand. 

PABAFFIK  OIL  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
oily  matter  which  is  given  off  in  larse  quantity  in 
the  distillation  of  Bo^ead  canned  com.  By  rectiii- 
ostion  it  may  be  separated  into  three  portions,  one 
of  which  remains  hquid  at  very  low  temperatures, 
boils  at  about  420°,  and  is  much  used  under  a 
variety  of  names  for  illuminating  purposes,  while  a 
mixture  of  the  two  less  volatile  portions  (which 
may  be  regarded  as  composed  of  paraffin  dissolved 
in  a  mixture  of  hydrocarbons  of  nearly  the  same 
composition  as  paraffin)  is  largely  employed  for  the 
purpose  of  lubricating  machinery,  for  which  it  is 
admirably  adapted  by  its  power  of  resisting  the 
oxidising  action  of  the  atmosphere,  and  by  its  very 
alow  evaporation.    See  Naphtha. 

PARAGUAT',  an  independent  republic  of  South 
America.  Ab  represented  in  most  maps,  it  is  con- 
iined  to  the  peninsula,  between  the  rivers  Paraguay 
and  Parana,  as  far  north  as  about  the  parallel  of 
2r  30';  but  by  recent  treaties  with  neighbourina 
states,  it  now  embraces  an  extensive  region  called 
the  Ohaco,  west  of  the  Paraguay,  and  as  far  south 
as  the  river  Vermejo,  and  west  as  the  meridian  of 
61*  20',  and  a  tract  Iving  between  the  Parana  and 
the  Uragoay.  The  whole  area,  according  to  official 
statistics  is,  in  round  numbers,  348,000  square  miles, 
of  which  131, (XM)  square  miles  are  comprised  between 
the  rivers  Paraguay  and  Parana,  196,000  square 
miles  are  on  the  west  of  the  Paraguay,  and  upwards 
of  21,000  BQ2]|Ai^  miles  are  between  the  Parana  and 
Trai^uay.  The  peninsula  between  the  rivers  is  still 
the  imiiortant  part  of  Paraguay.  A  mountain-chain 
called  Sierra  Anambahy,  which  traverses  it  in  the 
general  direction  of  from  north  to  south,  and  bifur- 
cates to  the  east  and  west  towards  the  southern 
extremity,  under  the  name  of  Sierra  Maracajn, 
divides  the  tributaries  of  the  Parana  from  those 
of  the  Paraguay,  none  of  which  are  very  consider- 
able, aJthough  they  are  liable  to  frequent  and 
destructive  overflows.  As  regards  its  physical  char- 
acter, the  northern  portion  of  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous, and  in  part,  especially  towards  the  east, 


occupied  by  native  tribes,  and  little  known.  Tht 
southern  portion  is  one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  o| 
South  America,  consisting  of  hills  and  gentle  slopes 
richly  wooded,  of  wide  savannahs,  which  afford  excel 
lent  pasture-ground,  and  of  rich  alluvial  plaios,  som( 
of  which,  indeed,  are  marshy,  or  covered  with  shallow 
pools  of  water  (only  one  lake,  that  of  Ypao,  deserving 
special  notice),  but  a  large  proportion  are  of  extra- ' 
ordinary  fertility  and  highly  cultivated.  The  banks 
of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay  are  occasionally 
belted  with  forest ;  but,  in  general,  the  low  landbs 
are  destitute  of  trees.  The  climate,  for  a  tropical 
country,  is  temperate,  the  temperature  occasionally 
rising  to  100*  in  summer,  but  in  winter  being  usually 
about  45°.  In  geological  structure,  the  southern 
part  belongs  generally  to  the  tertiary  formation ;  the 
north  and  east  presenting  mrey  wacke  rocks  in  some 
districts.  The  natural  prouuctions  are  very  varied, 
although  they  do  not  include  the  precious  metals  or 
other  minerals  common  in  Son'-.h  America.  Much 
valuable  timber  is  found  in  the  forests,  and  the 
wooded  districts  situated  upon  the  rivers  possess  a 
ready  means  of  transport  Among  the  trees  are 
several  species  of  dye-wood,  several  trees  which 
yield  valuable  juices,  as  the  India-rubber  and  its 
cognate  trees;  and  an  especially  valuable  shrub, 
called  the  MdtS  (q.  v.),  or  Paraguay  tea- tree,  which 
forms  one  of  the  chief  articles  of  commerce,  being 
in  general  use  throughout  La  Plata,  Chili,  Peru, 
and  other  parts  of  South  America.  The  tree 
grows  wild  m  the  north-eastern  districts,  and  the 
gathering  of  its  leaves  gives  employment  in  the 
season  to  a  large  number  of  the  native  population. 
Many  trees  also  yield  valuable  gums.  Wax  and 
honey  are  collected  in  abundance,  as  is  also  cochi- 
neal, and  the  medicinal  plants  are  very  numerous. 
The  chief  cultivated  crops  are  maize,  rice,  coffee, 
cocoa,  indigo,  mandioc,  tobacco,  sugar-cane,  ana 
cotton.  One-half  of  the  land  is  national  property, 
consisting  paitly  of  the  lands  formerly  held  by 
the  Jesuit  missions,  or  by  other  religious  corpora- 
tions, partly  of  lands  never  assigned  to  individuals, 
partly  of  lands  confiscated  in  the  course  of  the 
revolutionary  ordeal  through  which  the  country 
has  been  passing.  The  national  estates  have,  for 
the  most  part,  been  let  out  in  small  tenements, 
at  moderate  rents,  the  condition  of  the  tenure 
being  that  they  shall  be  properly  cultivated. 
Under  the  dictator  Francia,  agriculture  made  con- 
siderable progress,  but  nevertheless  it  is  still  far 
from  the  standard  of  European  progress.  Only 
about  30,000  square  miles  of  the  whole  territory 
is  in  cultivation.  The  breed  of  cattle  and  of 
horses  also  has  been  much  improved,  and  the 
stock  increased,  as  well  in  the  public  farm  estab- 
lishments instituted  by  the  dictator  as  in  those  of 
private  individuals.  There  are  few  manufactiues 
— sugar,  rum,  cotton,  and  woollen  cloths  and  leather 
being  the  only  industrial  production^.  Indeed  the 
commerce  of  the  country  is  chiefly  in  the  bauds 
of  the  government,  which  holds  a  monopoly  of  the 
export  of  P.  tea,  and  in  great  part  of  the  timber 
trade.  In  1859  the  imports  amounted  to  £36,800,  and 
the  exports  to  £32,000.  In  the  same  year  412  vessels, . 
of  16,650  tons,  entered  and  cleared  at  the  river- 
ports.  The  population  in  1857  amounted  to  1,337,431, 
consisting  of  whites  of  Spanish  descent,  native* 
Indians,  negroes,  and  a  mixture  of  these  several 
races.  The  established  religion  is  the  Roman  Catho- 
lic, the  ecclesiastical  head  of  which  is  the  Bishop  of 
Assuncion.  Education  is  very  widely  diffused ;  and^ 
it  is  said  that  there  are  but  few  of  the  people  who- 
are  not  able  to  read  and  write. 

The  history  of  P.  is  highly  interesting.  It  was 
discovered  by  Sebastian  Cabot  in  1526,  but  the  first 
colony  was  settled  in  1535  by  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  who 

»7 


PARAGUAY— PARALLAX. 


founded  the  city  of  Assnncion,  and  established  P.  as 
a  province  of  the  viceroyalty  of  Peru.  The  warlike 
native  tribe  of  the  Guaranis,  however,  a  people  who 
possessed  a  certain  degree  of  civilisation,  and  pro- 
fessed a  dualistio  religion,  long  successfully  resisted 
the  Spanish  arms,  and  refused  to  receive  either  the 
.  religion  or  the  social  usages  of  the  invaders.  In  the 
latter  half  of  the  16th  c,  the  Jesuit  missionaries 
were  sent  to  the  aid  of  the  first  preachers  of  Chris- 
tianity in  P. ;  but  for  a  long  time  they  were  almost 
entirely  unsuccessful,  the  effect  of  their  preaching 
beinc  in  a  great  degree  marred  by  the  proffigate  and 
cruel  conduct  of  the  Spanish  adventurers,  who 
formed  the  staple  of  the  early  colonial  population. 
In  the  17th  c.  the  home  government  consented  to 
place  in  their  hands  the  entire  administration, 
civil  as  well  as  religious,  of  the  province;  which, 
from  its  not  possessing  any  of  the  precious  metals, 
was  of  little  value  as  a  source  of  revenue ;  and  in 
order  to  guard  the  natives  a^iust  the  evil  influ- 
ences of  uie  bad  example  of  ISuropean  Christians, 
fave  to  the  Jesuits  the  right  to  exclude  all  other 
luropeans  from  the  colony.  From  this  time  for- 
ward the  progress  of  civilisation  as  well  as  of  Chris- 
tianity was  rapid.  The  legislation,  the  adminis- 
tration, and  the  social  organisation  of  the  settle- 
ment were  shaped  according  to  the  model  of  a 
primitive  Christian  community,  or  rather  of  many 
communities  under  one  administration ;  and  the 
accounts  which  have  been  preserved  of  its  condition, 
appear  to  present  a  realisation  of  the  ideal  of  a 
Cfhristian  Utopia.  On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits 
from  P.  in  1763,  the  history  of  which  is  involved  in 
much  controversy,  the  province  was  again  made 
subject  to  the  Spanish  viceroys.  For  a  time  the 
fniits  of  the  older  civilisation  maintained  them- 
selves ;  but  as  the  ancient  organisation  fell  to  the 
ground,  much  of  the  work  of  so  many  ^ears  was 
undone ;  the  communities  lapsed  into  disoi^anisa- 
tion,  and  by  degrees  much  of  the  old  barbarism 
returned.  In  1776,  P.  was  transferred  to  the 
newly-formed  viceroyalty  of  Rio  de  La  Plata; 
and  in  1810  it  joined  with  the  other  states  in 
declaring  its  independence  of  the  mother  kingdom 
of  Spain,  which,  owing  to  its  isolated  position,  it  w{(s 
the  earliest  of  them  all  to  establish  completely.  In 
1814,  Dr  Francia  (q.  v.),  originally  a  lawyer,  and  the 
secretary  of  the  first  revolutionary  jnn^  was  pro- 
claimed dictator  for  three  years ;  and  in  1817,  his 
term  of  the  office  was  made  perpetual.  He  con- 
tinued to  hold  it  till  hiB  death  in  18i0 ;  and 
although  many  of  his  measures  tended  to  improve 
the  condition  of  the  country,  and  to  develop  its 
internal  resoiurces,  yet  his  rule  wsis  arbitrary  and 
despotic  in  the  highest  degree ;  and  his  attempt  to 
isolate  the  territory  from  commercial  intercourse 
with  the  rest  of  the  w(»rld,  was  attended  with  a 
complete  stagnation  of  commerce  and  the  enterprise 
to  which  it  leads.  On  his  death,  the  government 
was  vested  in  consuls,  and  in  1844  a  new  constitu- 
tion was  proclaimed,  the  head  of  which  is  a  presi- 
dent, Don  Carlos  Antonio  Lopez,  elected  in  that 
year  for  ten  years,  re-electecl  in  1854  for  three 
years,  and  again  in  1857  for  seven  ^ears  further. 
Under  Lopez,  the  restrictions  on  foreign  commerce 
have  been  gradually  removed,  and  m  1852  com- 
.mercial  treaties  were  signed  with  the  Argentine 
Republic,  and  with  the  United  States,  Great  Britain, 
France,  and  Sardinia. 

The  republic  is  divided  into  25  departments.  The 
central  department,  in  which  the  capital,  Assuncion, 
is  situatea,  contained,  in  1857,  398,628,  or  nearly 
one-third  of  the  whole  inhabitants ;  and  the  capital 
itsell  48,000.  The  inhabitants  of  the  towns  consist 
chiefly  of  whites,  or  of  half-breeds  (m««^uo9),  who 
closely  resemble  whites;  the  language  commonly 


spoken  being  Spanish.  The  native  popnlation  of 
the  provinces  are  chiefly  Guaranis,  among  whom 
are  scattered  some  remnants  of  other  tribes,  almost 
all,  however,  now  speaking  the  Guarani  language. 

PARAGUAY,  an  important  river  of  South 
America,  an  affluent  of  the  Parana  (q.  v.),  rises  in 
the  Brazilian  province  of  Mate  Grosso,  on  a  plateau 
of  red  sandstone,  in  lal  13°  30'  S.,  long,  about  55* 
50'  W.,  9535  feet  above  sea-leveL  The  sources  of 
the  river  are  a  number  of  deep  lakes,  and  eight 
miles  from  its  source,  the  stream  already  has  con- 
siderable volume.  Pursuing  a  south-west  coniw, 
and  after  flowing  throu^  a  level  country  covered 
with  thick  forests,  the  r.  is  joined  from  the  west 
by  the  Jauni,  in  lat  16**  30'  S.  It  then  continues  to 
flow  south  through  the  Marsh  of  Xarayea,  which, 
during  the  season  when  the  stream  naes,  is  an 
expansive  waste  of  waters,  stretching  far  on  each 
sioie  of  the  stream,  and  extending  from  north  to  south 
oyer  about  200  miles.  The  nver  still  pursues  a 
cfrcuitous  but  generally  southward  course,  forming 
from  20*  to  22*  S.  the  boimdary-line  between  BrazU 
and  Bolivia,  thence  flowing  soutii-south-west  throueh 
the  territories  of  Paraguay  to  its  junction  with  t£e 
Parana,  in  lat  27"*  17'  S.*  a  few  miles  above  the  town 
of  Corrientes.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Cuyaba, 
Tacoary,  Mondego,  and  Apa  on  the  left,  and  the 
Jauru,  "Pilcomayo,  and  Vermejo  on  the  right.  Except 
in  the  marshy  districts,  the  country  on  Doth  banks 
of  the  river  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  abounds  in 
excellent  timber.  The  entire  length  of  the  river  is 
estimated  at  1800  miles  :  it  is  on  an  average  about 
half  a  mile  in  width,  ana  is  navigable  for  steamers 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyaba,  100  miles  abore  the 
town  of  Corumba.  The  waters  of  the  P.,  which  are 
quite  free  from  obstructions,  were  declared  open  to 
all  nations  in  1852 ;  and  since  1858  the  great  water 
system,  of  which  this  river  forms  such  an  important 
part,  is  regularly  traversed  by  steamers  which  ply 
between  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  and 
Cuyaba,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name,  one  of  the 
head  waters  of  the  Paraguay. 

PARAGUAY  TEA.    See  MAt& 

PARAHI'BA,  one  of  the  most  eastern  maritime 
provinces  of  Brazil,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Rio 
Grande  do  Norte,  on  the  S.  by  Pemambnoo,  on  the 
W.  by  Ceara,  and  on  the  E  by  the  Atlantic  Area, 
21,700  square  miles ;  pop.  209,300.  It  is  traversed 
by  a  river  of  the  same  name,  by  a  number  of  smaller 
streams,  and  by  mountainous  ridges,  between  which 
are  valleys,  the  soils  of  which  are,  for  the  most 
part,  dry  and  sandy.  Cotton  of  excellent  quality, 
mandioc,  and  tobacco  are  grown ;  and  cotton,  sugar, 
and  timber  are  exported.    Capital,  Parahiba  (q.  v.). 

PARAHIBA,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the 
province,  and  situated  on  the  river  of  the  same 
name,  about  10  miles  from  the  sea.  Besides  the 
cathedral,  it  contains  a  number  of  reli^ona  houses, 
two  colleges,  and  other  educational  institutions.  In 
1859—1860,  152  vessels  of  51,363  tons  entered  and 
cleared  the  port     Pop.  10,000. 

PA'RALL AX  is  the  apparent  displacement  of  an 
object  caused  by  a  change  of  place  m  the  observer. 
When  an  object  at  M  is  looked  at  from    P,  it 


ng.L 

appears  in  line  with  some  object,  S ;  hut  after  th# 
observer  has  moved  to  E,  M  has  apparently  i«tio- 


PABALLAX--PABALLEL  FOBCE& 


graded  to  a  position  in  line  with  8' ;  this  ap]>arent 
retrogression  is  denominated  parallax.  The  angle 
PME  is  called  the  *  angle  of  parallax,'  or  the  '  paral- 
lactic angle,'  and  is  the  measure  of  the  amount  of 
pandlaz.  To  astronomers,  the  determination  of  the 
parallax  of  the  heavenly  bodies  lb  of  the  utmost 
importanoe,  for  two  reasons — lirst,  from  the  neces- 
sity of  referring  all  observations  to  the  earth's 
centre,  i  ei,  so  modifying  them  as  to  make  it  appear 
as  if  they  had  been  actually  made  at  the  earth's 
centre ;  and  secondly,  because  parallax  is  our  only 
means  of  determining  the  magnitude  and  distance  of 
the  heavenly  bodies.  The  geocerUrie  or  daily  paral- 
lax—as the  apparent  displacement  of  a  heavenly 
body,  due  to  I'to  beine  observed  from  a  point  on 
the  surface  of  the  eart£  instead  of  from  its  centre, 
is  oJIed — is  determined  as  follows  :  Let  P  and  P'  be 
two  stations  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  (Ag.  2),  £  its 


Kntre,  M  the  object  to  be  observed,  and  Z  and  Z' 
the  zeniths  respectively  of  the  observers  at  P  and  P' 
^ints  which,  if  possible,  should  be  on  the  same 
meridian  exactly) ;  then  at  P  and  F  let  the  zaiith 
di9taHeeSy  ZPM  and  Z'FM,  be  observed  simul- 
taneously, and  since  the  latitudes  of  P  and  P',  and 
consequently  their  difference  of  latitude,  or  the  angle 
PEP,  KB  known,  from  these  three  the  anj^le  PMP' 
(the  sum  of  the  parallaxes  at  P  and  F)  is  at  once 
found  ;  and  then,  by  a  trigonometrical  process, 
the  separate  angles  or  parallaxes  PME  and  FME. 
\Mien  the  paraUax  of  M,  as  observed  from  P,  is 
known,  its  distance  from  E,  the  centre  of  the  earth, 
can  be  at  once  found.  When  the  heavenly  body  is 
on  the  horizoQ,  as  at  0,  its  parallax  is  at  a  maxi- 
mum, and  is  known  as  the  hiynzontal  parallax.  The 
geocentric  parallax  is  of  use  only  in  determining 
the  distances  of  those  heavenly  bodies  at  which 
the  earth'^  radius  subtends  a  considerable  an^le; 
and  as  the  moon  and  Mara  (when  in  opposition) 
are  the  only  snch  bodies,  the  parallax  of  tne  other 
celestial  booies  must  be  determined  in  a  different 
manner.  The  parallax  of  the  sun  is  found  by 
observation  of  the  Transit  (q.  v.)  of  Venus  across 
his  disk,  a  much  more  accurate  method  than  that 
above  described.  The  parallaxes  of  the  other 
planets  are  easily  determined  from  that  of  Mara. 

In  the  case  of  the  fixed  stars,  at  which  the  earth's 
radius  subtends  an  infinitesimal  an^le,  it  becomes 
necessary  to  make  use  of  a  much  mrger  base-line 
ttian  the  earth*s  radius,  and  as  the  largest  we  can 
employ  is  the  radius  of  the  earth's  orbit,  it  accord- 
ingly is  made  use  of,  and  the  displacement  of  a 
star,  when  observed  from  a  point  in  the  earth's 
orbit  instead  of  from  its  centre,  the  sun,  is  called 
the  anwicd  or  helhcerUrie  parallax.  Here  the  base- 
line instead,  as  in  the  former  case,  of  being  4000 
miles,  is  about  92,000,000  miles,  and  the  two 
<tbservation8  necessary  to  determine  the  parallactic 
Angle  are  made  from  two  points  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  earth's  orbit,  at  an  interval  as  nearly  as 
possible  oi  half  a  year.     Yet,  notwithstanding  the 


enormous  length  of  the  base-line,  it  bears  so  small  a 
proportion  to  the  distances  of  the  stars,  that  only 
m  three  or  four  cases  have  they  been  foimd  to 
exhibit  any  parallactic  motion  whatever,  and  in 
no  case  does  the  angle  of  parallax  amount  to  1" 
(see  Stabs).  The  geocentric  horizontal  parallax  of 
the  moon  is  about '57'  4'''2  ;  that  of  the  sun,  about 
8"'6 ;  and  of  the  double  star,  61  Cygni,  the  helio- 
centric parallax  has  been  determined  by  Bessel  to 
be  *348",  equivalent  to  about  15  millionths  of  a 
second  of  geocentric  horizontal  parallax.  Parallax 
affects  every  observation  of  angular  measurement 
in  tlie  heavens,  and  all  observations  must  be 
corrected  for  parallax,  or,  in  astronomical  phrase, 
referred  to  the  earth's  centre  before  they  can  be 
made  use  of  in  calculation.  The  position  of  a  body, 
when  noted  from  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is  called 
its  apparent  position ;  and  when  referred  to  the 
centi^,  its  real  position. 

PA'RALLEL  FORCES  are  those  forces  which 
act  upon  a  bodv  in  directions  parallel  to  each  other. 
Every  body,  beinz  an  assemblage  of  separate 
particles,  each  of  which  is  acted  on  by  ffravity,  may 
thus  be  considered  as  impressed  upon  oy  a  system 
of  parallel  forces.  The  following  demonstration 
will  exhibit  the  mode  in  ^  _ 

which  the  amount  and 
position  of  the  resiUtant 
force  are  found :  Let  P  and 
Q  be  two  parallel  forces 
acting  at  the  points  A  and 
B  respectively,  either  in 
the  same  (fie.  I)  or  in  oj^po- 
site  (^g.  2)  curections ;  join 
AB,  and  in  this  line,  at 
the  points  A  and  B,  apply 
the  equal  and  opposite 
forces  S  and  S,  which  coun- 
terbalance each  other,  and 
therefore  do  not  affect  the  system.  Find  M  and  N 
(see  Composition  and  Rksolution  of  FoRcts),  the 
resultants  of  P  and  S,  and  Q  and  S  respectively,  and 
produce  their  directions  tUl  they  meet  in  D,  at 
which  point  let  the  resultants  be  resolved  parallel 
to  their  original  directions ;  then  there  are  two 
equal  forces,  S  and  S,  acting  parallel  to  AB,  bnt 
in  opposite  directions,  and  thus,  as  they  counter- 
balance each  other,  they  may  be  removed.  There 
then  remain  two  forces,  P  and  Q,  acting  at  D,  in 
the  line  DC,  parallel  to  their  original  directions, 
and  their  sum  (fig.  1)  or  difference  (fig.  2),  repre- 
sented by  R,  is  accordingly  the  resultant  of  the 


original  forces  at  A  and  B.  To  find  the  pod- 
tion  of  C,  the  point  in  AB,  or  AB  produced, 
through  which  the  resultant  passes,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  use  of  the  well-known  property 
denominated  the  Triangle  of  Forces  (q.  v.),  accord- 
ing to  which  the  three  forces  S,  M,  and  P  are  pro- 
portional to  the  lengths  of  AC,  AD,  DC,  the  sides 
of  the  triangle  ADO ;  then  S  :  P  :  :  AC  :  CD,  simi- 
Urly  Q  :  S  :  :  DC  :  CB,  therefore  Q  :  P  : :  AG  :  BC, 


PARALLELEPIPED-^PARALYSIS. 


und  Q  1  P  or  R  :  P  ! :  AC  ±  BC  or  AB  :  BC, 
Iroin  wLich  proportions  we  derive  the  principle  of 

th«i  lever,  P  X  AC  =  Q  X  BC,  and  also  that  R  X 

p 
BC  =  P  X  AB,  whence  BC  =  ^  x  AB,and  the  point 

O  is  found.  The  failing  case  of  this  proposition  is 
when  P  and  Q  acting  in  opposite  parallel  direc- 
tions at  different  points  are  eqaal,  m  which  case 
the  resultant  R  =  Q-P=Q-Q  =  0.  InaU 
other  cases  there  is  a  progressive  motion,  such  as 
would  be  caused  by  the  action  of  a  single  force 
R(  =  Q  ±  P)  acting  at  the  point  C  in  the  direction 
CR ;  but  in  the  failing  case,  since  R  =s  0,  there 
is  no  progressive  motion,  but  a  rotatoiy  movement 


Pig.  3. 

round  the  centre  of  AB.  See  Cotjple.  It 
is  of  no  consequence  whether  A  and  B  be  the 
true  points  of  application  of  the  forces  P  and  Q, 
provided  their  directions  when  produced  pass 
through  these  points,  and  the  point  of  application 
of  the  resultant  need  not  be  in  the  line  joining  the 
points  of  application  of  the  component  forces,  but 
its  direction  must  when  produced  pass  through  C. 
If  there  be  more  than  two  parallel  forces,  the 
resultant  of  the  whole  is  found  by  compounding  the 
resultant  of  the  first  two  with  the  third  in  the  way 
^ven  above,  thus  obtaining  a  new  resultant,  which 
IS  similarly  combined  with  the  fourth  force ;  and  so 
on  till  the  final  resultant  is  found.  The  centre 
of  gravity  is  only  a  special  name  for  the  point 
of  application  of  the  final  resultant  of  a  number  of 
parallel  forces. 

PARALLELEPrPBD  (Gr.),  frequently,  but  im- 
pro^rly  written  ParaUelopiped^  is  a  solid  figure 
naving  six  faces,  the  faces  being  invariably  paral- 
lelograms, and  any  two  opposite  uu^es  equal,  similar, 
and  parallel.  It  the  races  are  all  squares,  and 
consequently  equal,  the  parallelepiped  becomes  a 
cube.  The  volume  of  a  parallelepiped  is  found  by 
multiplying  the  area  of  one  face  by  its  distance  from 
the  opposite  one. 

PARALLE'LOGRAM,  in  Mathematics,  is  a 
q^uadrilateral  rectilineal  figure  which  has  its  opposite 
sides  parallel ;  the  opposite  sides  are  therefore  equal, 
and  so  are  the  opposite  angles.  If  one  angle  of  a 
parallelogram  be  a  right  angle,  all  its  angles  are 
right  angles,  and  the  figure  is  then  called  a  rect- 
angular paraUelogram,  or  shortly,  a  rectangle;  and 
if  at  the  same  time  all  the  sides  are  equal,  the 
figure  is  a  square^  otherwise  it  is  an  oblong.  If  the 
angles  are  not  right  angles,  but  all  the  sides  are 
equid,  it  is  called  a  rhombus;  and  if  the  opposite 
sides  only  are  equal,  a  rhomboid.  The  two  lines 
which  connect  the  opposite  comers  of  a  parallelogram 
are  called  its  diagonals^  each  bisects  the  parallelo- 
fp-am,  and  they  bisect  each  other ;  the  sum  of  their 
squares  also  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares  of 
the  sides  of  the  parallelogram. 
160 


All  parallelograms  which  have  equal  bases  and 
equal  altitudes  are  equal  in  area,  whether  they  be 
similar  in  shape  or  not,  and  the  area  of  a  parallelo- 
gram is  found  by  multiplying  its  base  by  the  height 

PARALLELOGRAM     OF    FORCES.       See 

Composition  of  Forces. 

PARALLELS,  in  Military  language,  are  trenches 
cut  in  the  ground  before  a  fortress,  rou;ThIy 
parallel  to  its  defences,  for  the  purpose  of  gi^nog 
cover  to  the  besiegers  from  the  guns  of  the 
place.  The  parallels  are  usually  three,  \i;ith  zig- 
zag trenches  leading  from  one  to  another.  The 
old  rule  used  to  be  to  dig  the  first  at  600  yards 
distance,  but  the  improvements  in  artillery  have 
rendered  a  greater  distance  necessary;  and  at 
Sebastopol,  the  allies  made  their  first  trench  2000 
yards  from  the  walls.  The  third  trench  is  very 
near  to  the  besieged  works,  and  from  it  saps 
and  ziezag  approaches  are  directed  to  the  covert- 
way.— The  Dearing  of  parallels  in  the  general 
conduct  of  a  Sirgb  will  be  found  described  under 
that  head. 

PARALLELS  or  CIRCLES  OP  LATITUDB 

are  circles  drawn  round  the  surface  of  the  earth 
parallel  to  the  equator.  They  may  be  supposed  to 
be  the-  ini^ersections  with  the  earth's  surface  of 
planes  which  cut  the  earth  at  right  angles  to  its 
axis.  The  greatest  of  these  circles  is  the  equator, 
which  has  the  centre  of  the  earth  for  its  centre,  the 
radius  for  its  radius,  and  is  equally  -distant  at  all 
points  from  each  pole.  It  is  evident  that  of  the 
others,  those  next  the  equator  are  greater  than 
those  more  remote,  and  that  they  become  less  and 
less  till  at  the  poles  they  vanish  altogether.  The 
radius  of  any  one  circle  is  evidently  equal  to  the 
earth's  radius  multiplied  into  the  cosine  of  its 
latitude  or  distance  from  the  equator.  The  rotary 
velocity  of  the  earth's  surface,  which  is  at«oa( 
17|  miles  per  minute  at  the  equator,  is  only  S| 
miles  in  lat.  60",  in  lat.  824"*  (the  most  northeriy 
point  yet  reached)  is  only  2^  miles ;  and  in  lat  894* 
(within  35  miles  of  the  pole)  is  not  more  than  267 
yards  per  minute. 

The  most  important  parallels  of  latitude  are  the 
Tropics  of  Cancer  (23"  28'  K  lat)  and  Capricorn 
(23'  28'  S.  lat),  and  the  Arctic  (66**  32^  N.  lat)  and 
Antarctic  Circles  (66"*  32'  S.  lat). 

PARA'LYSIS  (Gr.,  a  loosing  or  relaxing),  or 
PALSY,  is  a  loss,  more  or  less  complete,  of  the 
power  of  motion ;  but  by  some  writers  the  term  is 
employed  to  express  also  loss  of  sensation.  When 
the  uj)per  and  lower  extremities  on  both  sides, 
and  more  or  less  of  the  trunk,  are  involved,  the 
affection  is  termed  Oeneral  Paralysis,  Very  fre- 
quently only  one-half  of  the  body  laterally  is 
affected,  the  other  side  remaining  sound;  to  this 
condition  the  term  Hemiplegia  is  given.  When  the 
palsy  is  confined  to  all  the  parts  below  an  imaginary 
transverse  line  drawn  through  the  body,  or  to  the 
two  lower  extremities,  the  condition  is  termed  Para- 
ple/fia.  When  one  part  of  the  body,  as  a  limb,  one 
side  of  the  face,  &c.,  is  exclusively  attacked,  the 
affection  is  known  as  local  palsy.  In  some  cases  the 
loss  of  sensation  and  the  power  of  motion  in  the 
paralysed  part  is  entire,  while  in  others  it  is  not  so. 
In  the  former  the  paralysis  is  said  to  be  compute, 
in  the  latter,  partial  In  most  cases,  bat  not 
invariably,  sensibility  and  motion  are  simultauieonsly 
lost  or  impaired.  When  motion  is  lost,  but  sensation 
remains  unimpaired,  the  affection  has  received  the 
name  of  akinesia  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  kiniM,  motion  K 
More  rarely,  there  is  a  loss  of  sensibility  while  the 
power  of  motion  is  retained;  and  to  such  cases 
the  term  ancestkesia  (Gr.  a,  not,  and  aisthcsts, 
sensation)  is  applied.     Thitf  affection,  ooonxa  most 


PARALYSIS. 


{reqnently  in  the  organs  of  sense ;  as  in  the  tongne, 
for  example,  in  which  the  sense  of  taste  may  be 
lost,  without  any  defect  of  movement. 

P&nJysis  is  m  most  cases  a  mere  symptom  of 
disease    existing  in    some  other  pari;  than   that 
ap]iarently  affected ;  as,  for  example,  in  the  brain 
or  spinal  cord,  or  in  the  conducting  nerves  between 
either  of   these   organs    and   the    palsied    organ 
Sometimes,  however,  it  is  a  purely  local  affection, 
depending  upon  a  morbid  condition  of  the  terminal 
extremities  of   the   nerves.     The  varieties  in  the 
condition    of   the    brain   and    spinal  cord    which 
occasion    paralysis    are    somewhat  numerous;    as, 
for  example,  congestion,   hemorrhagic  and   serous 
evasion,    softening,    fatty    degeneration,    fibrinous 
exudation,  suppuration,  hydatids,    various   morbid 
growths,  depressed  bone  from    external  violence, 
&C.    It  is  highly  probable,  also,  that  pals^  may 
sometimes    result   from    mere  functionsd   disorder 
of  the  nervous  centres — a  view  which  is  confirmed 
by  the  fact  that  a  poH  mortem  examination  of  a 
patient  who  has  suffered  from  this  affection  some- 
times fails  to  detect  any  apparent  lesion.     Paralysis 
may  originate  in  a  nervous  trunk,  if  it  is  compressed 
by  a  tumour,  or  otherwise  mechanically  affected,  or 
if  it  is  the  seat  of  morbid  action  tending  in  any  way 
i'y  disorganise  it ;  or  it  may  be  due  to  an  abnormal 
c  >n(lition  of  the  terminations  of  the  nerves,  which 
may  be  rendered   unfit  for  receiving  impressions 
either  from  the  external  world  or  from  the  Drain  by 
proioni^ed  disuse,  bv  continuous  or  severe  pressure, 
by  exposure  to  cold,  by  disorganisation  of  their 
own  tissue,  or  by  the  depressing  action  of  various 
metaUie  poisons,  especially  lead. 

We  shaU  brieiiy  notice  the  symptoms  and  causes 

•f  the  moet  imiK>rtant  forms  of  paralysis,  before 

offering  any  remarks  on  the  general  principles  of 

treatment.       Hemiplegia    (Gr.    hemiy    half,    plesso, 

I  strike)  affects  one  lateral  half  of  the  body,  and 

is  that  form  of  palsy  to  which  the  term  paralytic 

stroke  is  commonly  applied.     The  parts  generally 

affected  are  the  upper  and  lower  extremities,  the 

moacles   of  mastication,  and   the  muscles  of  the 

tongue  on  one  side.     In  a  well-marked  case  the 

patient    when    seised    falls    to    the    ground,    all 

iiower  of  motion  in  the  affected  arm  and  leg  being 

lost    The   pdsy  of  the  face  which   accompanies 

hemiplegia  is  usually  quite  distinct  from  the  affec* 

tion  known  as  fo/ctal  palsy,  which  is  au  affection 

of  the  facial  nerve  or  portio  dura.     See  Nervous 

SrsTKaf.     It  is  the  motor  branches  of  the  fifth  or 

trifacial  ner^^e  going  to  the  muscles  of  mastication 

which  are  generally  involved  in  hemiplegia,  and 

oons«^uently  the  cheek  is  flaccid  and  hangs  down, 

and  the  angle  of  the  mouth  is  depressed  on  the 

affected  side.     The  tongue  when  protruded  points 

towards    the    paralysed  side,   and    there   is   often 

imperfect  articulation,  in  consequence  of  the  lesion 

commonly  affecting  the  hypoglossal  nerve.    Hemi- 

degia  may  arise  from  lesions  of  various  kinds,  as, 

for  example,  (1)  from  hemorrhage,  or  some  other 

morbid  change  in  the  brain,  in  which  case  the  palsy 

is  on  the  aide  of  the  body  opposite  to  the  lesion,  in 

coQsequencse  of  the  decussation  or  crossing  over  of 

nervoufl  fibres  from  one  side  to  the  other  tmtt  occurs 

at  the  upper  part  of  the  Spinal  Cord  (q.  v.) ;  (2)  from 

spinal  disease  below  the  point  of  decussation  just 

iiotioed ;    in  this    case   the  palsy,  and  the  lesion 

causing  it,  are  on  the  same  side  of  tiie  body.    It  is 

vlso  aometunes  associated  with  hysteria,  epilepsy, 

and  chorea,  but  in  these  cases  it  usually  disappears 

u  a  few  hoars. 

Paraplegia  (Or.)  is  usually  confined  to  the  two 
lower  extremities,  but  the  muscles  of  the  lower  part 
of  the  trunk  and  ^f  the  bladder  and  rectum  are 
sometimes  affected.    There  are  at  least  two  distinct 


forms  of  paraplegia,  viz.  (1)  Paraplegia  dependent  o]» 
primary  disease  of  the  spinal  oora  or  its  membranes 
and  especially  on  MyeutiB  (q.  v.) ;  and  (2)  Reflex 
Paraplegia,  i.  e.,  paraplegia  consequent  on  disease  of 
the  kidneys,  bladder,  urethra,  prostate,  womb,  ftc. 
These  two  forms  of  paraplegia  differ  in  manv  of 
their  phenomena,  and  the  most  important  of  these 
points  of  difference  have  been  arranged  in  a  tabular 
form  by  Dr  Brown  Sequard  in  nis  Lectures  oa 
Paralysis  of  the  Louder  Extremities,  to  which  we 
must  refer  lor  the  best  information  on  this  form  of 
palsy.  Paraplegia  usually  comes  on  slowly,  with  a 
^adital  increase  of  its  symptoms.  The  reflex  form 
IS,  of  course,  by  far  the  most  favourable,  as  it  usually 
abates  soontaneoualy  on  the  subsidence  of  the 
primary  disease. 

Facial  Palsy,  although  locally  affecting  only  a 
small  part  of  the  body,  is  a  disorder  of  sufficient 
importance  to  require  a  deflnite  notice.  In  this 
affection  there  is  a  more  or  less  perfect  loss  of  power 
over  all  the  muscles  supplied  by  the  portio  dura,  or 
facial  nerve.  The  following  ^phic  account  of  the 
appearance  of  the  patieift  is  condensed  from  Dr 
Watson's  Lectures  an  the  Pr€u:tice  of  Physic  From 
one-half  of  the  countenance  all  power  of  expression 
is  gone ;  the  features  are  blank,  still,  and  unmean- 
ing ;  the  eyelids  apart  and  motionless.  The  other 
hiuf  retains  its  natural  cast,  except  that,  in  some 
cases,  the  angle  of  the  mouth  on  that  side  seems 
drawn  a  little  awry,  in  consequence  of  the  want  of 
counterpoise  from  the  corresponding  muscular  fibres 
of  the  palsied  side.  The  patient  cannot  laugh  or 
weep,  or  frown,  or  express  any  feeling  or  emotion 
with  one  side  of  his  face,  while  the  features  of  the 
other  may  be  in  full  play,  nor  can  he  spit  or  whistle 
proi)erly.  One-half  of  the  aspect,  with  its  unwink- 
ing eye,  its  fixed  and  solemn  stare,  might  be  that  of 
a  dead  person ;  the  other  half  is  alive  and  merry. 
To  those  who  do  not  comprehend  the  possible 
extent  of  the  misfortune,  the  whimsical  appearance 
of  the  patient  is  a  matter  of  mirth  and  laughter ; 
while,  on  the  other  hand,  his  friends  imagine  that 
he  has  had  a  stroke,  and  that  he  is  in  a  very 
dangerous  state.  The  nerve  may  be  unable  to  dis- 
charge its  duties  in  consequence  of  disease  within 
the  cavity  of  the  skull,  and  m  that  case  there  is  very 
serious  danger ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  nervous  function  is  interrupted  in  that  part  of 
'  the  portio  dura  which  lies  encased  in  the  temporal  ' 
bone,  or  in  the  more  exposed  part  which  issues  in 
front  of  the  ear ;  and  hence  this  form  of  palsy  is 
generally  unattended  with  any  danger  to  me.  It 
may  arise  from  various  causes.  Sometimes  it  is  the 
consequence  of  mechanical  violence,  sometimes  c^f  . 
tumours  pressing  on  it  in  the  region  of  the  parotid 
gland,  and  it  very  freouently  arises  from  the  mere 
exposure  of  the  side  of  the  face  for  some  time  to  a 
stream  of  cold  air. 

It  yet  renuiins  to  notice  certain  kinds  of 
paralysis  which  differ  either  in  their  characters, 
o*  in  their  causes,  from  those  which  have  been 
already  described — viz..  Shaking  Palsy,  or  Par- 
alysis Agitansi  and  the  palsies  induced  by  vari- 
ous poisons.  Sfuiking  Palsy  has  been  defined  as 
'involuntary  tremulous  motion,  with  lessened 
muscular  power  in  parts  not  in  action,  and  even 
when  sup[N>rted;  with  a  propensity  to  bend  the 
trunk  forwards,  and  to  pass  from  a  walking  to  a 
running  pace ;  the  senses  and  intellect  beins 
uninjured,  It  is  chiefly  an  affection  of  old  age,  and 
often  goes  no  further  than  to  cause  an  unceiising 
nodding  and  wagging  of  the  head  in  all  directions. 
Somewhat  analogous  to  this  form  of  palsy  is  that 
peculiar  kind  of  trembling  which  is  often  noticed  in 
persons  who  are  much  exposed  to  the  vapour  of 
mereury ;  Mercurial  Tremor,  as  it  is  termed  by  the 


PARALYSIS—PAEAMARIBO. 


physic  ians,  tfnd  The  Trembles^  as  the  patient  usually 
calls  it.  It  consists  in  a  convulsive  agitation  of  the 
voluntary  muscles,  especially  when  an  attempt  is 
made  to  cause  them  to  act  under  the  influence  of 
the  will ;  a  patient  with  this  a£fection  walks  with 
uncertain  steps,  his  limbs  trembling  and  dancing  as 
if  they  had  been  hung  upon  wires.  When  sitting 
down  he  exhibits  litue  or  no  indication  of  his' 
disease,  but  on  nsins  he  cannot  hold  his  legs  steady, 
nor  direct  them  with  precision ;  and  in  severe  cases 
he  falls  to  the  ground  if  not  supported.  The  arms 
are  similarly  agitated,  and  the  tongue  is  usually  so 
tremulous  as  to  render  the  articulation  hurried  and 
unnatural.  The  disease  is  especiallv  conunon  in 
artisans  employed  in  the  gilaing  of  metals,  and 

Earticularly  of  silver,  by  means  of  heat ;  it  is  also 
'equent  among  the  workers  of  quicksilver  mines, 
in  which  the  crude  metal  is  purified  by  heat.  The 
time  required  for  the  production  of  the  disease 
varies  extremely  in  different  cases  (according  to  Dr 
Watson,  from  two  years  to  five-and-twenty).  The 
duration  of  the  complaint  is  considerable ;  it  may 
last  two  or  three  months,  or  longer,  but  it  is  seldom 
fatal. 

The  palsy  arising  from  the  absorption  of  lead  has 
been  already  notic^  in  tiie  article  LEAD-poisoNiNa. 

A  specific  form  of  paralysis  of  the  lower  extrem- 
ities, consequent  on  the  use  of  flour  from  the  beans 
of  the  Lathi/ru8  aaiivus^  is  common  in  certain  parts 
of  India  and  in  Thibet.  The  ripe  bean  is  an  ordi- 
nary article  of  food  when  made  mto  flour,  but  it  is 
generally  used  with  wheat  or  barley  flour;  it  is 
only  when  it  exceeds  one-twelfth  part  that  it  is  at 
all  injurious,  and  when  it  exceeds  one- third  that 
the  paralysis  sets  in.  Other  species  of  Lathyrus 
have  been  known  occasionally  to  induce  similar 
symptoms  in  European  countries. 

We  shall  enter  into  no  details  regarding  the  treat- 
ment of  hemiplegia  and  paraplegia,  as  we  mana^- 
mcnt  of  these  serious  anections  ^ould  be  exclu- 
sively restricted  to  the  physician.  When  a  patient 
has  an  attack  of  hemiplegia  (or  a  paral^ic  strdtoe) 
all  thnt  flhould  be  done  before  the  physician  arrives 
is  to  place  him  in  a  horizontal  position,  with  the 
liead  slightly  raised,  and  to  remove  any  impediments 
presented  by  the  dress  to  the  free  circulation  of  the 
blood.  Should  the  physician  not  arrive  in  an  hour 
or  two,  it  may  be  expedient  to  give  the  patient  a 
sharp  purge  (half  a  scruple  of  calomel,  followed  in  a 
few  nours  by  a  black  draught,  if  he  can  swallow ; 
and  two  drops  of  croton  oil,  mixed  with  a  little 
melted  butter,  and  placed  on  the  back  of  his  tongue, 
if  the  power  of  deglutition  is  lost),  and  without 
waiting  for  its  action,  to  administer  an  injection  (or 
clyster)  consisting  of  half  an  ounce  of  oil  of  turpen- 
tine suspended  (by  rubbing  it  with  the  yolk  of  an 
egg)  in  naif  a  pint  of  thin  gruel ;  and  cold  lotions 
may  be  applied  to  the  head,  especially  if  its  surface 
be  hot.  The  question  of  blood-letting— the  uni- 
versal treatment  a  quarter  of  a  century  ago— must 
be  left  solely  to  the  physician.  It  should,  however, 
be  generally  known,  that  if  the  patient  be  cold  and 
colla]»sed ;  if  the  heart's  action  be  feeble  and  inter- 
mittent ;  if  there  be  an  anffimic  state ;  if  the  patient 
bo  of  advanced  age ;  if  there  is  evidence  of  extensive 
disease  of  the  heart  or  arterial  system ;  or  lastly,  if 
there  is  reason,  from  the  symptoms,  to  beli'^ve  that 
a  large  amount  of  hemorrhage  has  already  taken 
place  in  the  brain ;  these  singly,  and  a  fortiori 
conjointly,  are  reasons  why  blood  should  not  be 
abstracted. 

Faciid  palsy,  unless  the  seat  of  the  disease  be 
within  the  cavity  of  the  cranium,  will  usually  yield 
in  the  course  of  a  few  weeks  to  cupping  and 
blistering  behind  the  ear  of  the  affected  side, 
purgatiT68,  and  small  doses  of  corrosiye  sublimate 


(one-twelfth  of  a  grain  three  times  a  day,  combined 
vdth  a  little  of  the  comix)und  tincture  of  bark), 
which  must  be  stopped  as  soon  as  the  gums  are 
at  all  aflected.  Exposure  to  cold  air  must  be 
carefully  avoided  during  treatments 

Little  or  nothing  can  be  done  to  cure  ParalifsU 
Agitans,  In  the  treatment  of  Mercurial  TremoTj 
the  first  step  is  to  remove  the  patient  from  the 
further  operation  of  the  poison,  while  the  second 
is  to  remove  the  poison  already  absorbed  into  the 
system,  which  is  effected  by  the  administration 
of  iodide  of  potassium.  This  salt  combines  wiUi 
the  metallic  poison  in  the  system,  and  forms  a 
soluble  salt  (a  double  iodide  of  mercury  and  potas- 
sium), which  is  eliminated  through  we  kioneya. 
Good  food  and  tonics  (steel  or  qumia,  or  the  two 
combined)  should  be  at  the  same  time  freely  given. 

The  writer  of  this  article  has  no  personal  know- 
ledge of  the  treatment  that  should  be  recommended 
in  the  paralysis  produced  by  the  use  of  Lathynu 
sativust  out  cases  are  reported  which  seem  to  have 
been  benefited  by  good  diet,  tonics,  strychnia^  and 
the  application  of  blisters  to  the  loins. 

PARAMAOEtlBO,  the  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana, 
is  situated  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river  Sari- 
nam,  about  10  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  5*  45*  K. 
lat.,  and  55"  15'  W.  long.  It  forms  a  rectangle  of 
nearly  a  mile  and  a  half  in  leneth  by  three-quarters 
in  breadth.  The  streets  are  broad,  covered  with 
shell-sand,  and  planted  on  both  sides  with  orange 
lemon,  tamarind,  and  other  treea  Near  the  river, 
the  houses,  which  are  chiefly  of  wood,  stand  some- 
what closely  together,  but  in  the  remoter  parts 
each  is  surrounded  by  its  own  garden.  The  rooms 
are  wainscoted  with  the  choicest  woods,  and 
el^;antly  furnished. 

In  approaching  P.  from  the  sea.  Fort  Zeelandia  is 
first  reached;  uien  the  Bureau  of  Finance  and 
Court  of  Justice  on  the  Government  Plain,  which  ji 
surrounded  by  stately  cabbage-pabns ;  the  gov«^ 
nor^s  house,  with  shady  double  avenue  of  tamarind- 
trees;  and  lastly,  the  business  streets  stretching 
along  the  river  side.  There  are  a  Dutch  Reformed 
a  Lutheran,  Moravian,  two  Roman  Catholic  churches, 
and  two  synagogues.  Fort  Zeelandia  has  a  large 
and  beautiful  barrack,  with  several  roomy  houses 
for  the  officers.  P.  has  a  neat,  pleasant,  and  pictur- 
esque appearance,  the  white  painted  hoases,  with 
bright-green  doors  and  windows,  peeping  out  from 
the  shMly  trees,  and  the  river  being  thronged  with 
the  tent-boats  and  canoes  which  are  constantly 
arriving  and  departing. 

On  1st  January  1861,  the  population  amotmted  to 
17,830,  of  whom  5073  were  slaves.  The  27  schools 
were  attended  by  1020  boys  and  843  girls.  By 
royal  decree  of  6th  February  1851,  the  flogging 
of  slaves  in  the  Netherlands  West  Indies  w.%b 
forbidden,  except  through  officers  appointed  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  nuniber  of  lashes  was  limited. 
This  check,  however,  was  frequently  evaded,  and 
the  greatest  barbarities  practised,  so  Uiat  the  feeling 
in  favour  of  emancipation  increased  in  the  Nether* 
lands,  and  a  bill  was  passed,  8th  August  1862,  for 
emancipating  the  slaves  on  the  1st  July  1863L 

P.  being  l£e  only  port,  except  Nickerie  Point,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Oorentyn,  enjoys  a  conaiderahk 
export  and  import  trade.  In  18(30  the  total  arrivals 
in  Dutch  Guiana  were  219  ships,  of  which  50  m  ^re 
Netherlands,  31  United  States,  and  138  of  otlier 
nations ;  the  outward  bound  numbered  217.  About 
a  fourth  part  of  the  shipping  cleared  at  Nickerie, 
which  is  the  most  productive  portion  of  the  colony ; 
one  estate,  the  Nursery,  producing  (in  1860)  sugar, 
1,500,000  lbs. ;  molasses,  75,985  ffdlxam ;  and  mm, 
37,000  gallons. 

The  climate  of  Dutch  Qniaiia  is  not  partumlaily 


PARAMATTA— PARAPET. 


iiealthy.  In  1849,  the  biHbs  bv  dayes  were  2*82 
per  cent,  ihe  deaths  3'49 ;  while  in  Oiira9ao,  the 
births  amouated  to  3*86,  the  deaths  to  2*77  per  cent, 
wad  at  Bonaire,  to  3*22  and  1*21  respectivdy.  The 
sUtiBtica  for  1860  were  more  favourable  for  Surinam, 
the  births  among  whites  being  10  in  excess  of 
the  deaths,  and  of  the  slaves  399.  Elephantiasis 
Arabom  and  Lepra  are  fearfully  prevalent  among 
the  black  population  of  P.  and  neighbourhood. 

The  maximum  fall  of  rain  is  in  May,  the 
minimum  in  September  and  October.  By  obser- 
?ations  made  at  five  different  points,  during  eijj^ht 
saccessive  years,  it  was  found  that  the  quantity 
TAfies  much,  being  smallest  at  Nickerie,  in  the  west^ 
bdJ  largest  at  Montbyou  in  the  east  of  the  colony. 
The  averagies  of  the  eight  years,  from  1847  to 
1854,  were,  Nickerie,  66*70  inches;  Groningen,  on 
tiie  liver  Saramacca^  90*50;  Paramaribo,  99*85; 
Gelderland,  on  the  river  Surinam,  108*25;  and 
Montbyou,  127*75.  In  Georgetown,  British  Guiana^ 
the  average  fidl  is  100*50  inches. 

The  ocmat  of  Dutch  Guiana  is  an  alluvial  deposit 
formed  by  the  rivers  and  equatorial  stream  which 
flows  eastwards.  Further  inland,  the  soil  is  dilu- 
vial loam,  bearing  the  finest  timber  trees ;  and  south 
of  this  Une  are  extensive  savannahs  of  white  sand, 
stretching  towards  the  hills  and  mountains  of  the 
interior,  which  are  chiefly  of  gneiss  and  granita 

In  1860,  the  letters  received  from  foreign  coun- 
tries amounted  to  13,764,  the  newspapers  to  17,250 ; 
despatched,  23,144  letters  and  5435  newspapers. 

PARAM A'TTA  is  a  light  worsted  twiUed  fabric 
for  female  dress.  It  was  invented  at  Bradford,  in 
Yorkshire,  and  has  become  an  im{)ortant  manu- 
facture of  that  place.  The  weft  consists  of  combed 
merino  wool,  and  the  warp  of  cotton.  It  resembles 
in  texture  the  Coburg  and  Orleans  cloths. 

PARAMATTA,  a  pleasantly  situated  town  of 
New  South  Wales,  stands  near  the  west  extremity 
of  Port  Jackson,  on  a  small  river  of  the  same  name,  and 
is  15  miles  by  land  west-north-west  of  Sydney,  with 
vhich  it  is  connected  both  by  steamer  and  railway. 
The  houses  are  mostly  detached,  and  the  streets  are 
wide  and  regular,  the  principal  one  being  about  a 
mile  in  length.  The  institutions  comprise  churches, 
lehools,  an  orphan  and  a  lunatic  asylum,  and  a 
prison.  There  was  formerly  an  observatory  here ; 
tmt  it  was  removed  to  Sydney  in  1858.  *  Colonial 
tweeds,'  '  Paramatta  dotlis,'  and  salt  are  manufac- 
tured.    Pop.  5577. 

The  town  of  P.,  formerly  called  Rosehill,  is,  with 
the  exception  of  Sydney,  the  oldest  in  the  colony. 
The  first  grain  raised  in  the  colony  was  grown  here, 
and  the  first  grants  of  land  made. 

PARA'METER,  or  LATUS  RECTUM,  a  term 
used  in  conic  sections,  denotes,  in  the  case  of 
the  parabola,  a  third  proportional  to  the  abscissa 
of  any  diameter  and  its  corresponding  ordinate ;  in 
the  ellipse  and  hyperbola,  a  third  proportional  to  a 
diameter  and  its  conjugate.  The  parameter  of  any 
diameter  is,  in  the  case  of  the  parabola,  the  same  as 
tlie  doable  ordinate  of  that  diameter  which  passes 
through  the  focus,  and  is  four  times  as  long  as  the 
distance  between  the  diameter's  vertex  and  the 
directrix.  The  term  parameter  was  also  at  one  time 
oaed  to  denote  any  straight  line  about  a  curve, 
npon  which  its  form  could  be  made  to  depend,  or  any 
constant  in  its  equation,  the  value  of  which  deter- 
mined ih»  individual  curve;  but  its  employment 
in  this  sense  is  now  discontinued,  except  m  the 
theory  of  homogeneous  differential  equations,  where 
tiie  constants,  »>r  the  purpose  of  aiding  the  solu- 
twm,  are  supposed  to  vary;  and  the  method  is 
conaeqaently  denominated  the  *  Variation  of  the 
Pacameten.     In  the  application  of  this  method  to 


determine  the  orbital  motions  of  the  planets,  ths 
*  seven  necessary  data'  (see  Orbit)  were  called 
parameters,  but  for  this  the  term  *  elements'  is  now 
substituted. 

PARANA',  a  province  in  the  south  of  Brazil,  iM 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  province  of  Suo  Paulo 
on  the  E.  by  the  Atlantic,  S.E.  by  Santa  Catharina, 
S.  by  Bio  Grande  do  Sid,  W.  by  Uruguay  and 
Paraguay.  Area  stated  at  115,000  square  miles. 
Pop.  72,000,  one-sixth  of  whom  are  slaves.  The 
capital  is  Curitiba,  and  previously  to  1852  this 
province  formed  a  territory  called  the  Comarca 
of  Curitiba,  included  in  the  province  of  Sao  Paulo. 
It  fully  commenced  its  provincial  career  in  1853. 
The  sea  coast  is  indented  by  several  bays,  but 
the  ohief  and  almost  the  only  port  as  yet  is 
ParanaguiL  A  line  of  mountains  nms  parallel  to 
the  coast  at  a  distance  of  about  80  miles  inland, 
and  throws  out  spnrs  and  branches  westward.  The 
streams  flowing  east  from  this  water-shed,  though 
numerous,  are  inconsiderable ;  while  the  rivers 
flowing  westward,  into  the  Parana  (q.  v.)»  which 
forms  the  western  boimdary  of  the  province,  are  all 
about  or  upwards  of  400  miles  in  length.  The 
principal  are  the  Paranapanema,  Ivay,  Piquery,  and 
Yguassu.  The  climate  is  unusually  healthy ;  the  soil 
is  fertile  ;  and  agriculture,  rearing  cattle  and  swine, 
and  gathering  indU  or  Paraguay  tea  are  the  chief 
employments. 

The  port  of  Paranagna,  situated  in  a  picturesque 
district,  on  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  is  about 
400  miles  south-west  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  town 
is  clean  and  pretty,  and  contains  about  3000 
inhabitants.  MdtS  to  the  value  of  1,000,000  dollara 
is  exported  annually  from  this  town. 

PARANA,  an  important  river  of  Brazil,  rises  in 
the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  about  100  miles 
north-west  of  Kio  de  Janeiro.  It  flows  west  for 
upwards  of  500  miles,  through  the  provinces  of 
Minas  Geraes  and  Sao  Paulo.  In  the  latter  it  is 
joined  by  the  Pamahiba,  after  which  its  course 
alters,  and  it  flows  south-south-west  to  Candelaria^ 
Passing  this  town,  it  flows  west  for  200  miles  to  its 
confluence  with  the  Paraguay  (q.  v.),  and  then  bend- 
ing southward,  passes  Santa  re,  below  which  its 
channel  frequently  divides  and  encloses  numerous 
islands.  Atter  passing  Santa  Fe,  it  rolls  onward 
in  a  south-east  direction,  and  unites  with  the 
Uruguay  in  forming  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Entire 
length  about  2400  miles.  It  draws  a  number 
of  considerable  tributaries  from  the  province  of 
Parana  (q.  v.) ;  and  of  the  others,  the  chief  are  the 
Paraguay,  Uruguay,  Pardo,  Tiete,  and  Pamahiba. 
For  vessels  drawing  74  feet  it  is  navigable  to 
Corrientes,  upwards  of  ^  miles  from  its  mouth. 

PA'RAPET  (ItaL  para-petto,  from  parart,  to 
protect,  and  petto,  the  breast),  a  wall  raised  higher 
than    tiie    gutter    of    a   roof   for   protection;    in 


Ornamented  Gothic  Parapek 

military  works,  for  defence  against  missiles  from 
without  (see  Fobtification)  ;  in  domestic  buildings, 
churches,  &c.,  to  prevent  accident  by  falling  from 
the  roof.  Parapets  are  of  very  ancient  date.  The 
Israelites  were  commanded  to  build  *a  battlement' 
round  their  flat  roofs.  In  classic  architecture, 
balustrades  were  used  as  parapets.  In  Gothic 
architecture,  parapets  of  all  kinds  are  used.      In 

S63 


PARAPH-PA  aASinC  DISEASES. 


early  work  they  are  generally  plain,  but  in  later 
buildings  they  are  pierced  aud  ornamented  with 
tracery,  which  ia  frequently  of  elaborate  desi^, 
especiallv  in  French  Flamboyant  work.  Shields 
%nd  little  arcades  are  also  used  as  ornaments  to 
k)arapets;  aud  the  battlements  of  castles  are  imi- 
tated in  the  parapets  of  religious  and  domestic 
niildings. 

PA'RAPH  (Gr.  parcL^  and  hapto,  to  touch),  au 
addition  to  the  subscription  of  a  name  formed  by  a 
flourish  of  the  pen,  which,  during  the  middle  ages, 
constituted  some  sort  of  provision  against  foi*ger^. 
Its  use  is  not  altogether  ej^nct  in  diplomacy,  and  m 
Spain  the  paraph  is  still  a  usual  part  of  a  signature. 

PARAPHERNA'LIA  (Gr.  para,  beside,  or 
beyond ;  pkemey  dower)  is  a  term  borrowed  from 
the  Roman  law  to  denote  certain  articles  of  personal 
adornment  and  apparel  belonging  to  a  married 
woman.  According  to  the  ususJ  rule  in  the  law  of 
England,  all  the  personal  property  of  a  womaii 
becomes  the  property  of  her  husband  when  the 
marriage  tiUces  place,  unless  there  is  a  marriace 
Settlement ;  but  there  is  an  exception  as  re^rds  the 
trinkets  and  dress  of  the  wife  su  far  as  suitable  to 
her  rank  in  life,  and  which  she  continues  to  use 
during  the  marriage.  In  such  a  case  the  property 
in  these  articles  does  not  vest  absolutely  in  the 
husband.  He  cannot  bequeath  them  by  his  will  to 
a  third  person,  but  if  he  gave  them  to  the  wife,  he 
may  pawn,  or  seU,  or  give  them  awav,  and  they  can 
be  seized  in  execution  to  pay  his  debts,  except  so 
far  as  they  constitute  necessary  clothing.  And  if 
he  were  to  die  insolvent,  they  may,  except  that  part 
which  is  necessary  clothing,  be  taken  by  the 
husband's  creditors.  If  the  paraphernalia  were 
civen,  not  by  the  husband  but  by  a  third  party 
Before  or  during  marriage,  then  they  are  presumed 
to  be  ^ven  for  the  wife's  separate  use,  and  the 
husband  or  his  creditors  cannot  in  any  way  inter- 
fere with  them.  In  the  law  of  Scotland,  the  para- 
phernalia of  a  married  woman  include  not  merely 
personal  clothing  and  trinkets,  but  articles  of  furni- 
ture, such  as  a  chest  of  drawers.  The  husband 
there  can  neither  pawn,  nor  pledge,  nor  give  awav 
the  paraphernalia,  nor  can  his  creditors  attach 
them  either  during  his  life  or  after  his  death. 

PA'R APHBASE  (Gr.  para,  beside,  and  phrazein, 
to  speak)  is  the  name  given  to  a  verbal  expan- 
sion of  the  meaning  either  of  a  whole  book,  or 
of  a  separate  passage  in  it.  A  paraphrase  conse- 
quently differs  from  Metaphrase,  or  strictly  literal 
translation,  in  this,  that  it  aims  to  make  the  sense  of 
the  text  clearer  by  a  lucid  circumlocution,  without 
actually  passintr  into  commentary.  The  versified 
passages  of  Scripture,  forming  part  of  the  Psalmody 
of  the  Scottish  Church,  are  popularly  known  as  *  the 
Paraphrases.* 

PARAPLE'GIA.    See  Paralysis. 

PARAS'ARA  is  the  name  of  several  celebrated 

peK(bnages  of  ancient  India,  met  with  in  the  MakA- 

hhdrata    (q.  v.),   the    Purdnfas    (q.  v.),   aud   other 

works.    Of  one  personage  of  this  name,  the  MahA- 

bhdrata  |%lates  that  he  was  the  son  of  S'akti,  who 

was  the'  son   of  the  patriarch  Vasisht'ha.     King 

Kalmftshap&da  once  meeting  with  S'akti  in  a  narrow 

path  in  a  thicket,  desired  him  to  stand  out  of  tiie 

way.   The  sage  refused ;  on  which  the  R&ja  beat  him 

with  his  whip,  and  S'akti  cursed  him  to  become  a 

Rl^shasa,  or  demon.    The  R&ja,  in  this  transforma-. 

tion,  killed  and  ate  S'akti,  together  with  the  other 

sons  of  Vasisht'ha.     S'akti,  however,  had  left  his 

wife,  Adris'yantt,  pregnant,  and  she  gave  birth  to 

Tuigfartk,  who  was  brought  up  by  his  grandfather. 

When  he  grew  up,  and  was  informed  of  his  father's 
2M  ' 


death,  he  instituted  a  sacrifice  for  the  destruction  of 
all  the  R&kshasas,  but  was  dissuaded  from  its  com- 

{)letion  by  Vasisht'ha  and  other  sages.  The  same 
egend  is  referred  to  by  the  Vishn'u-Purdn'a,  where 
P.  is  introduced  as  relating,  himself,  part  of  this 
story,  and  adding,  that  the  saint  Pulastya,  one 
of  the  mind-bom  sons  of  Brahm&,  in  rewuxl  of  the 
clemency  he  had  shewn  even  towards  such  beings 
as  the  H&kshasas,  bestowed  on  him  the  boon  of 
becoming  the  author  of  a  compendium,  or  rather 
the  compiler,  of  the  Purdn'as,  and  of  the  Viskn'u- 
Purdn'a  in  luurticnlar.  'This  tradition,'  iVofessor 
Wilson  observes  (  Vishn'u-Purdn'a,  ed.  Hall,  voL  L  p. 
10), '  is  incompatible  with  the  general  attribution  of 
all  the  Purdii'aa  to  Vyftsa;'  but  it  may  pohaps 
point  to  a  later  recension  when,  to  the  native  mind, 
VyAsa  would  still  remain  the  reputed  author  of 
the  older  Purdn'as,  although,  of  course,  even  this 
assumption  has  little  claim  to  historical  truth. — A 
P.,  probably  different  from  the  one  named,  is  the 
author  of  a  celebrated  code  of  laws;  he  is  men- 
tioned by  Y&jnavalkya  in  his  standard  work,  and 
often  quoted  by  the  commentaries. — A  probably 
third  P.  is  the  reputed  author  of  a  Tantra  {q.  v.); 
and  a  fourth,  the  author  of  an  astronomical  work. 
— Par^'aras  (in  the  plural)  designates  the  whole 
family  to  which  the  different  Parfi^'aras  belong. 

PA'RASITE  (Gr.  from  jE>am,  beside;  sUos^  food; 
one  who  eats  with  another ;  hence  one  who  eats  at 
the  expense  of  another),  a  common  character  in 
the  Greek  comedies  ;  a  low  fellow,  who  is  ready  to 
submit  to  any  indignity,  that  he  may  be  permitted 
to  partake  of  a  banquet,  and  who  lives  as  much  as 
possible  at  the  expense  of  others. 

PARASI'TIO  ANIMALS  are  numerous.  Some 
of  them  are  Entozoa,  and  some  are  £pizo&.  See 
these  heads.  They  belong  to  different  classes,  and 
even  to  different  divisions  of  the  animal  king- 
dom ;  all,  however,  are  invertebrate.  Many  are  of 
the  division  Articuktta,  and  many  of  the  division 
Ifadiata.  Besides  toamis  of  various  kinds,  there 
are  among  parasites  not  a  few  crustaceans,  as  the 
Lernaeans,  ftc.,  and  not  a  few  insects,  as  the  Louse. 
These  insects  constitute  the  order  Paraaita  or  Ano- 
plura.  The  characters  of  the  order  are  noticed  in  tiie 
article  Louse.  It  remains,  however,  to  be  added, 
that  the  order  is  divided  into  two  sections — in  the 
first  of  which,  Pediculidea,  the  mouth  is  small  and 
quite  suctorial ;  whilst  in  the  second,  Ninrvdea,  it 
is  furnished  with  mandibles  and  hooked  nuaxilltt. 
The  species  of  the  first  section  are  found  only  on  man 
and  mammals ;  those  of  the  second  section,  almost 
exclusively  on  birds,  although  one  infests  tiie  dog. 
The  Ninnidea  shew  much  greater  activi^  than  tiie 
PediciUidea,  When  a  bird  cues,  the  bird-bee  oongre- 
gate  near  the  beak,  and  seem  disquieted,  apparently 
anxious  to  chance  their  abode.  Some  of  the 
cirrhapods  which  live  in  the  skin  of  large  marine 
animals,  as  whales,  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as 
parasitic  animals,  but  rather  bear  to  them  a 
relation  such  as  Epiphytes  do  to  parasitical  plants, 
not  deriving  their  food  from  the  animal  on  which 
they  live.  Tape-worms,  ascarides,  and  other  intes- 
tinal worms,  do  not  directly  draw  sustenance  from 
the  animal  in  which  they  live,  by  extracting  its 
juices,  but  they  live  at  its  expense,  by  consuming 
its  food,  after  the  food  has  undergone,  in  great  part, 
the  process  of  digestion. 

PARASITIO  DISEASES  constitute  one  of  the 
recognised  orders  of  disease  in  Dr  Parr's  cla88i6ca- 
tion.  See  Nosolooy.  In  these  diseases,  certain 
morbid  conditions  are  induced  by  the  presence  of 
animals  or  vegetables  which  have  found  a  place  of 
subsistence  within  some  tissue  or  organ,  or  upon 
some  surface  of  the  body  of  man  or  of  other  animaVk 


PAEASrnC  DISEASES-PARASinO  PLANTa 


Even  plants  ue  not  exempt  from  diaorden  of  tiiu 
Oktiire  ()ee  Pirabitic  Pi^nts).  The  forms  of  ani- 
iimI  life  giving  rise  to  paramtic  diBeases  are  described 
in  the  articles  Abcaridk,  Ckttoidea,  Entozoa, 
Epizoa,  Gnt.iRA-woKM,  Itch-Iksbct,  Louse,  NbmA'  . 
reuflA,  StRONOVLCH,  TATBWORldB,  TEicmHA,  &c  ' 
With  the  vegetable  structurea  irbich  give  rise  to 
■pecial  diseases  we  are  less  accurately  acquainted, 
in  cnniequeDce  of  the  limited  knowledge  of  cryp- 
togamic  botany  ptnaeued  by  maoy  writers  who 
hare  recorded  their  exiierience  of  these  cases. 
These  parasites  a>e  either  fungi  or  alga,  and  are 
oomposed  of  simple  sponilea,  germ^  or  cells,  or  of 
celia  arraoged  in  rows  or  groups,  which  are  so 
minut«  as  to  require  the  microscope  for  their  recoe- 
nitioo.  Fungi  are  the  most  numerous  of  all 
pla&ta  in  regard  to  genera  and  species,  and  their 
growth  is  associated  with  serious  injury  both  to 
btijitibI  and  vegetable  life.  It  is  not,  however, 
always  easy  to  determine  whether  they  are  the 
direct  cause  of  disease,  or  whether  the  diseased 
tissue  has  merely  afforded  a  suitable  nidus  for  their 
development.  '  It  is  certain,'  says  Dr  Aitken,  who 
has  entered  more  fully  into  this  subject  than  any 
other 'English  writer  ou  the  practice  of  medicine. 
'  that  wherever  the  normal  chemical  processes  of 
nutrition  are  impaired,  and  the  incessant  changes 
between  solids  acd  Uuicls  slacken,  then,  if  the  part 


part,  «im{:>oeed  of  epithelium  or  cuticle,  acid  mucus 
•r  exudation.  Acidity,  however,  though  favourable 
to  their  growth,  is  not  indispensable,  since  some  of 
the  vegetable  parasites  grow  upon  alkaline  or 
DCDtrai  cTonnd,  as  on  ulcerations  of  the  trachea, 
Cf  in  Suid  in  the  ventricles  of  the  brain.  Certain 
atmospheric  conditions  seem  favourable  to  the  occur- 
rence of  these  vegetable  parasites.  For  example, 
Tiiua  toRiuinns  may  be  quite  absent  for  years  in 
places  such  as  workhouses,  where  it  commonly 
exists,  and  then  for  several  months  every  second 
or  thiitl  cbildin  the  place  gets  the  disease. 
There  is  undoubted    "' 


_  _...    .B  from  the  obeervo- 

tiona   and  experiments  of  Devergie,  Von  B&rens- 
nrung,  and  others,  that  " '-  " 


^,  sa  parasitic  diseases 

te  transmitted  by  contagion  from  horses,  oxen,  and 
other  animals  to  man  ;  while  conversely,  Ur  Fox 
mentiona  an  instance  of  a  whit«  cat  which  con- 
tracted the  mangt  from  Tinea  lontaratu  (ringworm 
of  the  scalpl,  which  affected  the  children  of  the 
faniily  to  which  it  belonged— the  fungus  of  the 
mange  in  the  cat  being  the  same  fungus  as  that  of 
Tiuta  in  the  human  subject,  viz..  the  Tritophylon 
(Gr.  trie  (trie-),  of  a  hair,  and  phyton,  a  pUnt). 

The  principal  vegetable  parasites  associated  in 
man  with  special  morbid  states  are  arranged  by 
Aitken  (The  Science  and  Practice  o/Maiicine,  1863, 
2d  edit  voL  iL  p.  177}  as  follows  ;  1.  The  Trico- 
pAi/toa  loniuraiu,  which  is  present  in  the  three 
varieties  of  Tinea  tondan—fiz.,  T.  drcinnlus  (ring- 
worm of  the  body),  T.  fcnwuraM  (ringworm  of  the 
■c^f  ],  and  T.  lyooiil  menti  (ringworm  of  the  beanl). 
2.  TliB  Trieophglon  iporuloida,  which,  together  with 
the  above,  is  present  in  the  disease  known  as  Plica 
Poioniea.  3.  The  A  choritm  SrMnieinii  and  Puccinia 
favi.  which  ore  present  in  T.  favota,  known  aUo  as 
Fartu  (q.  v.),  and  Porrigo  mxiviala  (the  honeycomb 
riiiKwonn).  4.  The  Mierotponm  mentagraphyla, 
srUch  is  present  in  ifenlagra.  6.  The  MiainpoToa 
^rfuT,  which  occurs  in  Fityriasig  veriicotor.  6.  The 
iiicrotpomn  AtidQuim,  which  is  present  in  Purrigo 
detxdvan*.  7.  The  Mycdoma  or  Chionyphe  Carteri, 
which  gives  rise  to  the  disease  known  as  the 
*  fungus  foot  o£  India,"  Ac.  S.  The  Oidium  albiatm 
of  diphtheria  and  aphtha.  9.  The  Cryptor——  "-^ 
wirii*,  or  T«a»t  Plant,  occnrriog  in  the 


itCar- 


eontenta  of  tiie  stomach,  if  there  is  saccharins 
fermentatioo.  10,  The  Sarcina  Ooodtetii,  or  Xeri- 
apadia  iKntricaH  (of  Robin),  found  in  vomited 
matters  and  in  the  urine.  There  are  strong  grounds, 
based  partly  on  botanical  and  partly  on  clinical 
observation,  for  believing  that  tbe  various  fungi 
already  described  are  mere  varieties  of  two  or  more 
species  in  various  phases  of  development 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  a  brief  notice 
of  the  most  dangerous  of  all  the  parasitic  diseases — 
the  Funguii  Fool  or  Fungous  Dineaie  of  India.  It 
occurs  in  many  parts  of  India,  and  the  north-east 
shores  of  the  Persian  Oulf.  It  is  a  disease  which 
occurs  amons  natives  only,  so  far  as  has  been  yet 
observed,  and  is  undoubtedly  due  to  the  presence  of 
a  fungus  which  eats  its  way  into  the  bones  of  the 
foot  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  tibia  and  £bula,  pene. 
tratiug  by  numerous  fistulous  canals  through  the 
tissue  of  the  entire  foot,  and  tending;  to  cause  death 
by  exhaustion,  unless  amputation  is  performed  in 
due  time.  Dr  Csrter  has  described  three  forms  of 
this  disease,  in  which  both  tbe  symptoms  and  the 
fungoid  material  differ  considerably  from  each  other. 
A  few  remarks  on  the  first  of  these  forms  will  suffice 
as  an  illustration  of  parasitic  disease.  In  this  form, 
the  bones  of  the  foot  and  the  lower  ends  of  the  leg- 
bones  are  perforated  in  every  direction  with  roundish 
ties,  varying  in  size  from  that  of  a  pea  to  that 
I  pistol- bullet,  the  cavities  being  filled  with  the 
fungoid  matter.  The  surrounding  muscles,  and 
subsequently  the  tendinous  and  fatty  structures,  ore 
converted  into  a  gelatiniform  mass,  in  consequence 
of  which  the  foot  presents  a  peculiar  turgid  appear- 
ance.    Tbe  stnieture  of  the  ^obular  fungoid  masses 

shewn  in  the  accompanying  figure,  which  was 


drawn  by  Dr  H.  J.  Carter  from  s  specimen 
which  he  examined  immediately  after  amputation. 
Examined  under  the  microscope,  the  fungoid  mass 
is  found  to  consist  of  short,  headed,  tawny  threads 
or  filaments,  arising  from  a  common  centre,  and 
having  at  tbeir  tips  larce  spore-Uke  cells.  For 
further  information  regardinK  this  remarkable  form 
of  disease,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr  Carter's 
paper  in  the  fifth  volume  (new  series)  of  tbe 
Tranaadiont  of  Oi£  Mtiiicai  and  Phyaical  Society  of 
SoiiJ>ay,  and  'to  the  Rev.  M.  J.  Berkeley's  account 
of  his  examination  of  tbe  fungus,  in  the  second 
volume  of  The  IiUelleclval  Obtemei;  p.  248. 

Further  notice  of  the  parasitic  diseases  of  the 
skin  wiU  be  found  in  the  articles  FrryBiiBia  (var. 

Vergitahr),  RlNOWOHM,  SciLD-HKAD,  Ac 

PARASITIC  PLANTS  are  plants  which  grow 
on  other  plants,  and  derive  subsistence  from  their 
juices ;  t&e  plants  which  live  parasitically  on 
animal  tissues  being  generally  called  EntopbytM 
(q.  v.),  although  the  distinction  between  these  txnaa 
is  not  always  pi«eerved.     Eiiiphyles  (q.v.)  differ 


PARASOL-PARCHMENT. 


from  parasitical  plants  in  not  subsistiDg  on  the 
juicei  of  the  plant  which  8ui)port6  them,  but  merel v 
on  decayed  portions  of  its  bark,  &c.,  or  drawing  all 
their  nounsnment  from  the  air.  Parasitical  plants 
are  numerous  and  very  various;  the  greater  number, 
however,  and  the  most  important,  bemg  small  fungi, 
as  Rust,  Brand,  Bunt,  Smut,  &c.,  the  minute  spores 
of  which  are  supposed,  in  some  cases,  to  circulate 
through  the  juices  of  the  plants  which  they  attack. 
Concerning  some  minute  fungi,  as  the  Mildews,  it  is 
doubted  if  they  are  truly  parasitical,  or  if  their 
attacks  are  not  always  preceded  bv  some  measure 
of  decay.  But  among  parasitic  plants  are  not  a 
few  phanerogamous  plants,  some  of  which  have 
sreen  leaves;  and  some  are  even  shrubby,  as  the 
Mistletoe,  Loranthus,  &c. ;  whilst  the  greater  number 
have  brown  scales  instead  of  leaves,  as  Dodder, 
Broom-rape,  Lathrsea,  Ac,  and  the  whole  of  that 
remarkable  order  or  class  of  plants  called  Hhk- 
anthea  or  Bhizogcfis,  of  which  the  genus  JRafflegia  is 
distinguished  above  all  other  plants  for  the  magni- 
tude of  its  flowers.  Some  parasitic  plants,  as  the 
species  of  Dodder,  begin  their  existence  by  inde- 
pendent growth  from  the  groimd ;  but  when  they 
nave  found  suitable  plants  to  take  nold  of  and  prey 
on,  the  connection  with  the  ground  ceases.  Not  a 
few,  as  Broom-rape  and  Lathnea,  are  root-parasites, 
attaching  themselves  only  to  the  roots  of  other 
plants,  generally  of  trees  or  shrubs ;  whilst  there 
are  some,  as  the  Eyebright  (Euphrasia  qficincUis), 
Yellow  Ilattle  {Bhinanthus  crista  galli),  Cow- wheat 
{Mtlampyrum  arvense),  &c.,  which  are  parasitical 
'  only  occasionally  and  partially,  preying  on  the  roots 
of  other  herbaceous  plants  in  their  vicmity.  These 
last  are  chiefly  common  on  neglected  grass  lands, 
and  are  generally  to  be  regarded  as  injurious  weeds. 
Koot-parasites  generally  attach  themselves  by  means 
of  little  tubercles,  which  gradually  bury  themselves 
under  the  bark. 

PA'RASOL  (from  the  Ital.  parare,  to  parry  or 
keep  ofi",  and  sole^  the  sun),  a  small  umbrella  used 
by  ladies  to  shade  themselves  from  the  sun. 

PA'RBUCKLE  is  a  mode  of  drawing  np  or 
lowering  down  an  inclined  plane  any  cylindrical 
object,  as  a  barrel  or  a  heavy  gun,  without  the  aid 
of  a  crane  or  tackla  It  consists  in  passing  a  stout 
rope  round  a  post  or  some  suitable  ooject  at  the  top 
cl  the  incline,  and  then  doubling  the  ends  under 


Parbuckle. 

and  over  the  object  to  be  moved.  This  converts 
the  cask  or  gun  into  a  pulley  in  its  own  behalf,  and 
limits  the  pressure  at  each  end  of  the  rope  to  one- 
fourth  tbe  weight  of  the  object  moved,  as  felt  on 
the  incline.  By  hauling  in  the  ends  equally,  the 
cask  ascends,  or  vice  versd, 

PA'RC^  (from  the  root  pars,  a  part),  the  name 

S'ven  by  the  Romans  to  the  goddesses  of  Fate  or 
estiny,  who  assigned  to  every  one  his  *  part '  or 
lot  l^e  Greek  name,  Maira,  has  the  same  mean- 
ing (from  maroSf  a  share).     They  are  only  once 


mentioned  by  Homer,  who  in  every  other  instanot 
sneaks  of  Fate  (Moira)  in  the  singular,  and  whose 
Fate  was  not  a  deity  but  a  mere  personification, 
the  destinies  of  men  being  made  by  him  to  depend 
upon  the  will  of  the  gods ;  whilst,  according  to  the 
later  Greeks  and  the  Romans,  the  gods  themselves 
were  subject  to  the  control  of  the  P.  or  Moira. 
Hesiod,  however,  who  is  almost  contemporary  witii 
Homer,  speaks  of  three  Fates,  whom  he  caUs 
daughters  of  Night— ^otho,  the  spinner  of  the 
thr^ul  of  life ;  I^hesis,  who  determines  the  lot  of 
Hfe;  and  Atropos,  the  inevitable.  They  were  usually 
represented  as  young  women  of  serious  aspect; 
Clotho  with  a  spinole,  Lachesis  pointing  with  a 
staff  to  the  horoscope  of  man  on  a  globe,  and  Atropos 
with  a  pair  of  scales,  or  sun-dial,  or  an  instrument 
to  cut  the  thread  of  life.  In  the  oldest  representa- 
tions of  them,  however,  they  appear  as  matrons, 
with  staffs  or  sceptres.  They  nad  places  conse- 
crated to  them  throughout  all  Greece,  at  Cktrinth, 
Sparta,  Thebes,  Olympia,  ko, 

PARCELS,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
technical  word  describing  the  piece  of  land  or 
premises  included  in  a  conveyance. 

PA'RCENER.    See  Coparcekxb. 

PA'RCHIM,  a  town  of  the  srand-duchy  of 
Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  stands  on  the  Elide,  which 
is  here  divided  into  two  arms,  23  miles  south-east 
of  Schwerin.  It  is  very  old,  is  irregularly  boilt, 
surrounded  by  beautiful  gardens,  and  has  a  gym- 
nasium and  two  churches.  Pop.  6672,  who  are 
employed  in  agriculture,  in  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco,  cloth,  father,  and  brandy,  and  in  weaving. 

PA'RCHMENT,  one  of  the  oldest  inventions  of 
writing  materials,  was  known  at  least  as  early  as 
500  years  B.a  Herodotus  speaks  of  books  written 
upon  skins  in  his  time.  Pliny,  without  good  grounds, 
places  the  invention  as  late  as  196  b.  a,  stating 
that  it  was  made  at  Pergamos  (hence  the  name 
PergamenOf  corrupted  into  Eng.  parchment)  in 
the  reign  of  Eiunenius  II.,  in  consequence  of 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt  having  prohibited  the  export- 
ation of  papyrus.  Possibly  the  Pergamian  inven- 
tion was  an  improvement  in  the  preparation 
of  skins  which  had  certainly  been  used  centuries 
before.  The  manufacture  rose  to  great  importance 
in  Rome  about  a  century  b.  c,  and  soon  became  the 
chief  material  for  writing  on ;  and  its  use  sx)read  all 
over  Europe,  and  retained  its  pre-eminence  until 
the  invention  of  paper  from  rags,  which  from  its 
great  durability  proved  a  fortunate  circumstance  for 
aterature. 

There  are  several  kinds  of  parchment,  prepared 
from  the  skins  of  different  animals,  according  to 
their  intended  uses.  The  ordinary  writing  parchment 
is  made  from  those  of  the  sheep  and  of  the  she-goat ; 
the  finer  kind,  known  as  vellum^  is  made  from  those 
of  very  yoium  calves,  kids,  and  lambs ;  the  thick 
common   kinoiB,    for  drums,   tambourines,   battle- 
dores, &C.,  from  those  of  old  he-goate  and  Bhe-goata» 
and  in  Northern  Europe  from  wolves ;  and  a  peculiar  • 
kind  is  made  from  asses  skins,  the  surface  of  which 
is  enamelled.    It  is  used  for  tablets,  as  blacklead 
writing  can  be  readily  removed  from  it  by  moistures 
The  method  of  making  parchment  is  at  first  the 
same  as  in  dressing  skins  for  leather.    The  skins 
are  limed  in  the  hme-pit  until  the  hair  is  easily 
removed.      They  are   tnen   stretehed  tightly  and 
equally,  and  the  flesh  side  is  dressed  as  in  currying 
until  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  is  obtained.     It  is 
next  ground  by  rubbing  over  it  a  flat  piece  of 
pumice-stone,  previouslv   dressing   the  ^erh    side 
only  with  powdered  chalk,  and  slaked  lime  sprinkled 
over  it     It  is  next  allowed  to  dry,  still  tightly 
stretched  on  the  frame.    The  drying  process  is  am 


PARCHMENT  -PA  BELLA. 


impoitMit  one,  and  most  be  rather  alowly  carried 
on.  for  which  purpose  it  must  be  in  the  shade. 
Sometimes  these  operations  have  to  be  repeated 
several  times,  in  order  to  insure  an  excellent  (quality, 
and  much  depends  upon  the  skill  with  which  the 
pumice-stone  is  used,  and  also  upon  the  fineness  of 
the  pumice  itseli  When  quite  dried,  the  lime  and 
chalk  are  removed  by  rubbing  with  a  sofi  lamb- 
skin with  the  wool  on. 

PARCHMENT,  Vegftablr.  This  remark- 
able substance  was  made  known  by  Mr  W.  K 
Oaine  in  1854,  and  again  by  the  Rev.  J.  Barlow  in 
1S57.  It  resembles  animal  ^rchment  so  closely, 
that  it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  the  difference.  It 
is  made  from  the  water-leal,  or  unsized  paper,  by 
immersing  it  only  for  a  few  seconds  in  a  bath  of 
oil  of  vitriol,  diluted  with  one-half  its  volume  of 
water.  The  exactness  of  this  dilution  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  the  success  of  the  results. 
The  dilute  acid  must  not  be  used  immediately  after 
mixing,  but  must  besuffered  to  cool  to  the  ordinary 
temperature;  without  attention  to  these  apparently 
trifling  points,  the  operator  will  not  succeed 

The  alteration  which  takes  place  in  the  paper  is  of 
a  very  remarkable  kind.  No  chemical  change  is 
effected,  nor  is  the  weight  increased ,  but  it  appears 
that  a  molecular  change  takes  place,  and  the 
material  is  placed  in  a  transition  state  between  the 
cellulose  of  woody  iibre  and  dextrin. 

Vegetable  parchment  has  become  a  regular  article 
of  trade,  and  legal  and  other  documents  are  engrossed 
npon  it.  In  some  respects  it  is  preferable  to  the  old 
kind,  for  insects  attack  it  less.  It  is  admirably 
adapted  for  engineers'  plans,  as  it  can  be  made  so 
thin  as  to  be  used  for  tracing  paper,  and  it  will 
bear  exposure  to  wet  without  injury.  Messrs  De  la 
Rue  are  entitled  to  the  credit  of  giving  practical 
effect  to  the  invention. 

PARE,  Ambroise,  a  renowned  French  surgoon, 
and  the  father  of  modem  surgery,  was  born  a^.out 
the  beginning  of  the  16th  c,  at  Laval,  department 
of    Mayenne,    Franca      His    father,    who   was    a 
trunk-maker,  was  unable  to  afford  him  a  literary 
education,  and  apprenticed  him  to  a  barber  and 
•argeoo.    P.,  after  a  brief  term  of  service,  acquired 
sncn   a  fondness   for  surgery  and  anatomy,  that, 
abandoning    his    master,    he    went    to    Paris    to 
prosecute    his    studies.      His    means    for    doing 
ao  were  veiy  limited ;   he  could  afford  to  obtain 
instmction  irom  only  the  more  obscure  teachers ; 
few  books  were  witnin  his  reach,  yet  by  dint  of 
perseverance  and  the  exercise  of  a  rare  discrimi- 
oation,  combined  with  the  valuable  practice  in  the 
Hdtel  de  Dieu  of  Paris,  he  laid  a  solid  founda' .  >n 
for  future  eminence.    In  1536,  P.  was  received  as 
a  mafftf^r  barber-surgeon,  and  ioined  in  this  capacity 
the  army  of  Marshal  Ken6  de  Monte-Jean,  which 
was  on  the  point  of  starting  for  Italy.     During  this 
campaign   he  improved  the  mode  of  treatment  of 
gon-ahot  wounds,  which  had  up  to  this  time  been 
of    the   most  barbarous    kind — namely,  cauterisa- 
tion with  boiling  oil.     His  reputation  as  well  as 
bis  skill  were  greatly  heightened  during  this  cam- 
paign, and  as  lie  himseli  says :  *  If  four  persons 
-were  seriously  wounded  I  had  always  to  attend 
three  of  them  ;  and  if  it  were  a  case  of  broken  arm 
or  leg,  fractured  skull,  or  fracture  with  dislocation,  I 
was  mvariably  summoned.'    In  15.39,  he  returned  to 
Paris,  whither  his  hi^h  renown  had  preceded  him, 
and   was  received  with  distinction  by  the  Royal 
CoU^^  of  Chirurgery,  of  which  he  was  subsequently 
appointed  president.      On  the  war  being  renewed, 
he    was  agam  attached  to  the    army,  under  the 
Vicomte  de  Rohan,  afterwards  under  Antoine  de 
Bourbon,  poke  oi  Veod&mai     It  was  during  this 


campaign  that  he  cured  Francois,  the  second  Duke 
of  Guise,  of  the  wound  which  conferred  upon  him 
the  sobriquet  of  Balafr6^  and  that  he  substituted 
ligature  of 'the  arteries  for    cauterisation  with  a 
red-hot  iron  after  amputation.       The  idea  of  this 
mode  of  repressing  hemorrhage  had  long  been  in 
existence,  but  he  was  the  first  to  shew  that  it  could 
safely  be  applied  to  practice.   Many  other  important 
improvements  in  surgery  were  introduced  oy  him 
at  this  time.     In  September  1552  he  was  api)ointed 
surgeon  to  King  Henry 'II.,  and  in  the  following 
year  was  taken  prisoner  at  Hesdin ;  he  was  however 
released,  in  consideration  of  his  having;  cured  Colonel 
de   Vaudeville,  after  rejecting  the  brilliant  offers 
made  him  by  the  Duke  of  Savoy  to  remain  in  his 
service.   Returning  to  Paris,  honours  were  showered 
upon  him;  and  though  he  was  ignorant  of  Latin, 
the  conditio  sine  qud  non  of  a  liberal  education  at 
that  time,  no  hesitation  was  shewn  in  conferring 
upon  him  learned  titles  and  degi-ees.     He  attended 
Francis  IL  on  his  death-bed,  and  continued  to  hold 
the  office  of  kind's  surgeon  to  his  successors,  Charles 
IX.  and  Henry  IIL    The  former  of  these  monarchs^ 
whose  life  had  been  ^nively  threatened  by  an  injury 
inflicted  by  his  physician  rortail,  and  who  had  been 
preserved  by  P.,  testified  for  him  the  greatest  esteem, 
and  saved  him  during  the  massacre  of  St  Bartho- 
lomew by  locking  him  up  in   his  own  chamber. 
During  the  latter  part  of  P.'s  life,  he  was  much 
employed  in  the  publication  of  his  various  writings, 
and    suffered    considerable    annoyance    from,  the 
envious  spirit  displayed  towards  him  by  his  profes- 
sional brethren,  who  showered  obloquy  upon  him 
for  having,  as  they  said,  *dishonouml  science  by 
writing  in  the  vulgar  tongue.'     P.   died  at  Paris, 
Deceinoer  22,  1590.    His  writings  have  exercised  a 
great  influence   on  the  practice  of  surgery  in  all 
countries  to  which  they  have  penetrated,  and  are 
held  of  the  highest  authority  on  the  subject  of 
gun-shot  wounds.     The  first  complete  edition  of 
them  appeared    at  Lyon  in    1562,  and    the   last, 
edited  by  M.  Malgnigne,  at  Paris   (1840—1841,  3 
vols.).     Besides   these   are   8   Latin  editions,  and 
more   than   15  translations    into   English,   Dutch, 
German,  &c    As  an  instance  of  his  great  popularity 
in  the  army,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  the  soldiers 
of  the  garrison  of  Metz,  of  their  own  accord,  gave 
him  a  triumphal  reception  on  his  entering  that 
town. 

PAREGCRIC,  or  PAREGORIC  ELIXIR  (from 
the  Gr.  parigoricoa^  soothing),  the  Compound 
Tincture  of  UampJuyr  of  the  London,  and  the 
CampHoraled  Tincture  of  Opium  of  the  Britidi 
Pharmacopoeia,  consists  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of 
opium,  benzoic  acid,  camphor,  and  oil  of  anise,  every 
fluid  ounce  containing  two  grains  each  of  opium 
and  benzoic  acid,  and  a  grain  and  a  half  of  camphor. 
This  preparation  is  much  used  both  by  the  pro- 
fession and  the  pubUc.  In  doses  of  from  one  to 
three  drachms,  it  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  the 
chronic  winter-cough  of  old  people,  the  opium 
diminishing  the  bronchial  secretion  and  the  sensi- 
bility of  the  pulmonary  mucous  membrane,  while 
the  benzoic  acid  and  oil  of  amse  act  as  stimulating 
expectorants.  It  has  also  been  found  useful  in 
chronic  rheumatism. 

PAREI'RA-BRA'VA.    See  Cissampelo& 

PARE'LLA  (Fr.  parelle  or  pereUe)^  a  name  often 
given  to  some  of  those  crustaceous  lichens  which 
are  used  to  produce  Archil,  Cudbear,  and  Litmus ; 
but  which  more  strictly  belongs  to  one  species, 
Lecanora  parella,  resembling  the  Cudbear  Lichen, 
but  with  somewhat  plaited  warty  crust,  and  shields 
{apotltecia)  having  a  concave  disk  of  the  same  colour 
as  the  thick  tumid  even  border.    Like  the  Cudbear 

MI 


PAEENCHYMA-PARENT  AND  CHILD. 


Lichea~to  wbich  it  is  far  saperior  in  the  quality  of 
the  dye-stuff  obtained  from  it — it  grows  on  rocks 
in  mountainous  districts  both  in  Britain  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  being  particularly  abundant 
in  Auvei^gne  and  other  parts  of  France. 

PARITNGHYMA.    See  Osllulab  Tjsbum, 

PARENT  AND  CHILD.  The  legal  relation 
between  parent  and  child  is  one  of  the  mcidents  or 
consequences  of  the  relation  of  husband  and  wife, 
and  flows  out  of  the  contract  of  marriage.  The 
legal  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  natural  rela- 
tion, for  two  persons  may  be  by  the  law  of  nature 
1)arent  and  cnild,  while  they  are  not  legally  or 
egitimately  so.  Hence  a  radical  distinction  exists 
between  natural  or  Dlegitimate  and  legitimate 
children,  and  their  legal  rights  as  against  their 
parents  respectively  are  very  different.  Legitimate 
children  are  the  cnildren  of  two  parents  who  are 
recognised  as  married  according  to  the  laws  of  the 
country  in  which  they  are  domiciled  at  the  time  of 
the  birth ;  and  according  to  the  law  of  England,  if 
a  child  is  illegitimate  at  the  time  of  the  birth, 
nothing  thai  can  hapjien  afterwards  wiU  ever  make 
it  legitimate,  the  maxim  being  *once  illegitimate 
always  illegitimate' — a  maxim  which,  as  will  be 
stated,  has  some  exceptions  in  Scotland.  In  treating 
of  the  laws  affecting  the  mutual  relation  of  parent 
and  child,  the  laws  of  England  and  Ireland,  which 
differ  from  the  law  of  ScotUnd  in  material  respects, 
will  first  be  stated. 

1.  Aa  to  LeffitimcUe  Children — ^These  laws  relate 
first  to  the  liability  of  the  parent  to  maintain  the 
child,  and  the  rights  of  the  cnild  in  the  event  of  the 
parentis  death.  As  regards  the  maintenance  of  the 
child,  it  is  somewh  it  singular  that,  according  to  the 
law  of  England,  there  is  no  duty  whatever  on  the 
parent  to  support  the  child,  and  conseauently  no 
mode  of  enforcing  such  maintenance.  Ihe  law  of 
nature  was  probably  considered  sufficient  to  supplv 
the  motives  which  urge  a  parent  to  support  the  child, 
but  the  municipal  law  of  England  has  not  made 
this  duty  compulsory.  This  defect  was  to  some 
extent  remedied  when  what  is  called  the  Poor- Law 
was  created  by  statute  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth, 
by  which  law  parents  and  children  are  compellable 
to  a  certain  small  extent,  but  only  when  having  the 
pecuniary  means  to  do  so,  to  support  each  other,  or 
rather  to  help  the  parish  authorities  to  do  so.  But 
apart  from  the  Poor-Law  statutes,  there  is  no  legal 
Obligation  on  the  parent  to  support  the  child,  nor 
on  the  child  to  support  the  parent.  Hence  it  follows, 
that  if  the  child  is  found  m  a  destitute  state,  and 
is  taken  up,  fed,  clothed,  and  saved  from  starvation 
by  a  stranger,  such  stranger  cannot  sue  the  parent 
for  the  expense,  or  any  part  of  it,  however  necessary 
to  the  child's  existence.  In  order  to  make  the  father 
liable  for  maintenance,  there  must  in  all  cases  be 
made  out  against  him  some  contract,  express  or 
implied,  by  which  he  undertook  to  pay  for  such 
expense ;  in  other  words,  the  mere  rolationship 
between  the  part)  nt  and  child  is  not  of  itself  a  ground 
of  liability.  l>iit  when  the  child  is  living  m  the 
father's  house,  it  is  always  held  by  a  jury  or 
court  that  slight  evidence  is  sufficient  of,  at 
least,  an  implied  promise  by  the  father  to  pay  for 
such  expenses.  Ais,  for  example,  if  the  c^iild  orders 
clothes  or  provisions,  and  the  father  see  these  in  use 
or  in  process  of  consumption,  it  will  be  taken  that 
be  assented  to  and  adopted  the  contract,  and  so  will 
be  bound  to  pay  for  them.  So"  if  a  parent  put  a 
child  to  a  boarding-school,  very  slight  evidence  of 
a  contract  will  be  held  sufiiciont  to  fix  him  with 
liability.  Nevertheless,  in  sttictness  of  law,  it  is  as 
necessary  to  prove  a  contract  or  agreement  on  the 
part  of  tne  parent  to  pay  for  these  expenses  as  it  is 

96c 


to  fix  him  with  liability  in  respect  of  any  other 
matter.  When  it  is  said  that  a  parent  is  not  com- 
pellable  by  the  common  law  to  maintain  his  child, 
it  must,  at  the  same  time,  be  observed  that  if  a 
child  is  put  under  the  care  and  dominion  of  an 
adult  person,  and  the  latter  wilfully  neglect  or  refuse 
to  feed  or  maintain  such  child,  whereby  the  child 
dies  or  is  injured,  such  adult  will  incur  the  penalties 
of  misdemeanour ;  but  this  offence  does  not  result 
from  the  relation^ip  of  parent  and  duld,  and  may 
arise  between  an  adult  and  child  in  any  circum- 
stances, as  where  a  child  is  an  apprentice  or  aervani 
The  change  as  to  the  liability  of  parents  to  main- 
tain their  children  created  by  the  Poor-Laws  amounts 
merely  to  thiS|  that  if  a  person  is  chargeable  to  the 

Sarish,  which  means  that  such  person  is  utterly 
estitute,  and  if  the  overseers  or  guardians  are 
bound  to  support  him  or  her,  then  the  parish 
authorities  may  reimburse  themselves  this  out- 
lay, or  part  of  it,  by  obtaining  from  justices  of  the 
peace  an  order  commanding  the  parent  or  child  of 
such  pauper  to  pay  a  certain  sum  per  week  towards 
the  relief.  This  is,  however,  only  competent  when 
the  relative  is  able  to  pay  such  sum,  and  in  all 
cases  the  sum  is  of  necessity  very  smilL  Not  only 
parents,  but  grand- parents,  are  liable  under  the 
Foor-Law  Act  to  the  extent  mentioned.  Another 
provision  in  the  Poor-Law  andj)ther  kindred  acts  is, 
that  if  a  parent  runs  away  and  deserts  his  children, 
leaving  them  destitute  and  a  burden  on  the  parish, 
the  overseers  are  entitled  to  seize  and  sell  his  goods, 
if  any,  for  the  benefit  and  maintenance  of  such 
children  ;  and  if  the  parent,  so  deserting  the  chil- 
dren, is  able  by  work  or  other  means  to  support 
them,  such  parent  may  be  committed  to  prison  as 
a  rogue  and  vagaboncL  Not  only,  therefore,  is  a 
parent  during  Ufe  not  bound  to  maintain  his  or  her 
child  (with  the  al)ove  exceptions),  but  also  after  the 
parent's  death  the  executors  or  other  represen- 
tatives of  the  parent,  though  in  possession  of  funds, 
are  not  bouncL  It  is  true  that  if  the  parent  die 
intestate,  both  the  real  and  personal  property  wiH 
go  to  the  children ;  but  the  parent  is  entitled,  if  he 
choose,  to  disinherit  the  children,  and  give  away  all 
his  property  to  strangers,  provided  he  execute  his 
will  in  due  form,  which  he  may  competently  do  on 
death-bed  if  in  possession  of  his  faculties. 

Another  important  point  of  law,  affecting  the 
mutual  relation  of  parent  and  child,  is  the  right  of  the 
parent  to  the  custody  of  the  child.  At  common  law 
it  is  the  father  who  has  the  right  to  the  custody 
of  the  child  until  majority  at  least,  as  against 
third  parties,  and  no  court  will  deprive  him  of  such 
custody  except  on  strong  grounds.  Whenever  the 
child  is  entitled  to  pro|)erty,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
so  far  controls  his  parental  right,  that  if  the  father 
is  shewn  to  act  with  cruelty,  or  to  be  guilty  of 
immorality,  a  guardian  will  be  appointed.  A  court 
of  common  law  also  has  often  to  decide  in  cases  of 
children  brought  before  it  by  habeas  corpus,  when 
parties  have  had  the  custody  against  the  father  ■ 
wiU.  In  such  cases,  if  the  child  is  under  fourteen, 
called  the  age  of  nurture,  and  the  fother  is  not  shewn 
to  be  cruel  or  immoral,  the  court  wiU  order  the 
child  to  be  deUvered  up  to  him ;  but  if  the  child  is 
above  fourteen,  or,  as  some  say,  above  sixteen,  the 
court  will  allow  the  child  to  choose  where  to  go. 
So  the  father  is  entitled  by  his  wiU  to  appoint  a 
guardian  to  his  children  whUe  they  are  under  age. 
The  mother  had,  at  common  law,  no  right  as  against 
the  father  to  the  custody  of  the  children,  however 
young ;  but  under  Talfourd's  Act  (2  and  3  Vict^  54), 
she  is  entitled  to  the  custody  of  the  chUd  -while 
under  seven  years  of  age,  or  rather  she  is  entitled 
to  apply  to  the  Court  of  Chancery  for  leave  to  keep 
the  childi-en  whUe  under  that  age,  provided  alie  la 


PARENT  AND  CHILD. 


not  acting  immorally,  or  is  otherwise  nnobjection- 
able  in  point  of  character.  In  all  such  applications 
the  court  has  a  discretion  to  grant  or  refuse  her 
the  favour,  and  is  guided  by  information  as  to  the 
mother's  character.  In  case  of  divorce  or  judicial 
■eparation,  the  Court  of  Divorce  has  power  to  direct 
who  is  to  have  the  custody  of  the  children. 

2.    IlUgUimaU  Children. — It    has    been    already 
stated  that,  at  common  law,  the  parent  of  a  le^ti- 
mate  child  is  not  bound  to  maintain  it,  and  this  is 
equally  true  of  an  ill^timate  child — i.  e.,  a  child 
bom  not  in  wedlock.    In  strictness  of  law,  an  ille- 
gitimate child  has  no  father,  which  means  practi- 
cally that  in  case  of  the  death  of  the  father  without 
makins  a  will,  the  law  will  not  treat  such  child  as 
entitled  to  the  ordinary  legal  rights  of  a  legitimate 
child — i.  e.,  to  a  share  of  the  father's  property.    The 
child  is  not  legally  related  to  the  father  in  this 
flense.    With  reeard  to  the  mother,  she  also  is  not 
lK)und  to  maintain  her  child  according  to  the  com- 
mon law;  but  the  Poor- Law  Acts  have  made  an 
important  qualification  of  her  rights  and  duties. 
As  between  the  father  and  mother  of  the  child,  the 
law  is  this :  The  father  is  not  bound  even  by  the 
Poor-Laws  to  maintain  the  child,  and  the  parish 
officers  cannot  now  institute  any  proceeding  what- 
ever against  him  for  this  purpose ;  but  the  mother 
can,  to  a  certain  extent,  enforce  against  him  not  the 
entire  maintenance  of  the  child,  but  a  contribution 
towards  such  maintenance.     It  is  entirely  discre- 
tionary on    the    mother   to   take  any  proceeding 
against  the  father,  but  if  she  chooses  she  can  do  so ; 
and  the  first  step  is  to  go  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace*  and  obtain  a  summons  of  amiiation.    The 
lather  is  thus  cited  before  the  magistrate,  and  if  the 
mother  swears  that  he  ia  the  father  of  the  child, 
and  is  corroborated  in  some  material  part  of  this 
statement  by  a  third  party,  the  magistrate  may 
make    an   order  against   the    father  to    pay   the 
expenses  of  lying-in,  and  a  weekly  sum  not  exceed- 
inj^  half-a-crown  till  the  child  attains  the  age  of 
thirteen.    The  mother  may  make  this  application 
either  a  few  months  before  the  birth,  or  within 
twelve  months  after  the  birth  ;  and  even  after  that 
time,   provided  she    can  prove  that  the  putative 
father  paid  her  some  money  on  account  of  the  child 
within  such  twelve  month&     The  putative  father, 
in  these  cases,  is  a  competent  witness  on  his  own 
behalL    The  utmost,  therefore,  that  the  father  can 
be  made  to  contribute  towards  the  child's  main- 
tenance IB  only  a  portion  of  the  whole,  the  chief 
borden  being  thrown  on  the  mother,  who  is  assumed 
to  be  the  more  blameable  ^arty.    Though  she  is  not 
bound  by  the  common  law  to  maintain  her  child, 
yet  the  Poor-Laws  make  her  liable  to  maintain  the 
child  till  it  attains  sixteen ;   and  not  only  is  she 
bound,  but  any  man  who  marries  her  is  aUo  by 
statute  bound  to  support  all  her  illegitimate  (and 
also   legitimate)  chil<h«n  till  they  attain  sixt<^en. 
The  result  is,  that  illegitimate  children  under  sixteen 
are  better  provided  for  by  the  present  state  of  the 
law  than  l^;itimate  children,  inasmuch  as  the  mother 
is  positively  bound  to  support  her  ille^timate  child, 
though  not  bound  to  support  her  legitimate  child. 
Aa  regards  the  custody  of  illegitimate  children,  the 
mother  is  the  party  exclusively  entitled,  for  the 
father  is  not  deemed,  in  point  of  law,  to  be  related 
to  such  child.    Yet  if  the  father  has,  in  point  of 
fact,  obtained  the  custody  of  such  child,  and  the 
child  is  taken  away  by  fraud,  the  courts  will  restore 
the   child  to   his   custody,  so  as  to  put  him  in 
the  same  position  as  be/ore.    Though  illegitimate 
children  wul  not  succeed  to  the  father's  property  in 
the   event  of  his  dying  without  a  will,  there  is 
notJiing  to  prevent  him  making  his  will  in  their 
Ikvoor,  piovided  he  expressly  name  and  identify 


them,  and  not  leave  it  to  them  by  the  description 
of  *his  children,'  which  in  point  of  law  they  are 
notb 

Scotland. — The  law  of  parent  and  child  in  Scot- 
land di£fer8  materially  horn  the  law  of  England  and 
Ireland.      In   Scotland,   a  child   may  be  bom  a 
bastard,  and  ;^et  if  the  parents  afterwards  marrv, 
this  will  legitimise  the  child,  and  give  the  child 
the  right  to  succeed  to  the  father's  property.     A 
difficulty  sometimes  arises  where,  before  the  father 
and  mother  of  a  bastard  marry,  the  father  has  had 
a  Intimate  family  by  another  woman,  in  which  case 
it  is  held  that  the  bastard,  though  oldest  in  point 
of  age,  does  not  take  precedence  of  the  legitimate 
chiloren.     The  law  of  Scotland  also  differs  from 
that  of  England  as  regards  the  obligation  of  parent 
and  child  to  maintain  each  other.    There  is  a  legal 
obligation  on  both  parties  to  maintain  each  other  if 
able  to  do  so,  and  either  may  sue  the  other  for  ali- 
ment at  common  law ;  but  this  obligation  extends 
only  to  what  may  be  called  subsistence  money,  and 
does  not  vanr  according  to  the  rank  of  the  party. 
Thus  an  earl  is  bound  to  pay  no  more  for  the  aU- 
ment  of  his  son  than  any  other  father.     As  regards 
all  maintenance  beyond  mere  subsistence,  the  law 
does  not  materially  differ  from  that  of  England,  and 
a  contract  must  be  proved  against  the  father  before 
he  can  be  held  liable  to  pay.    The  le^al  liability  as 
between  parent  and  child  is  qualified  m  this  way  by 
the  common  law,  that  if  a  person  has  both  a  father 
and  a  child  living  and  able  to  support  him,  then  the 
child  is  primarify  liable,  and  nejct  the  grandchild, 
after  whom  comes  the  father,  and  next  the  grand- 
father.    Not  only  are  parent  and  child  liable  to 
support  each  other  while  the  party  supporting  is 
alive,  but  if  he  die,  his  executors  are  also  liable; 
and  this  liability  is  not   limited  by  the  age   of 
majority,  but  continues  during  the  life  of  the  partv 
supported.    Such  being  the  common  law  of  Scotland, 
it  was  scarcely  necessary,  as  in  England,  for  the 
Poor-Law  to  supply  any  defect ;  but  the  Scotch  Poor- 
Law  supplements  the  common  law,  by  imposing  a 
penalty  on  a  father  or  mother  (though  not  vice 
versA)  who  neglects  to  support  a  chil(L    Another 
advantage  which  a  Scotch  child  has  over  an  English 
child  is,  that  the  father  cannot  disinherit  it— at 
least  so  far  as  concerns  his  movable  property ;  and 
even  in  case  of  heritable  property,  the  rights  of 
the  child  are  so  far  protected,  that  unless  the  father 
makes  awav  with  his  heritable  property  sixty  days 
before  his  death,  or  at  least  when  he  is  in  a  sound 
state  of  health,  he  cannot  do  so  on  his  death-bed, 
and  when  seized  with  his  last  illness,  to  the  preju- 
dice of  his  heir-at-law.     This  is  called  the  Law 
of  Death-bed  (q.  v.) ;   but  as  regards  the  father's 
movable  property,  ne  cannot  by  any  will  he  can  make 
at  any  time  of  his  life  deprive  the  children  of  one« 
third,  or,  if  their  mother  is  dead,  of  one-half  of  such 
property.     This  is  called  the  children's  right  to 
Legitim  (q.  v.),  a  right  which  they  can  vindicate, 
whatever  may  be  their  age  when  the  father  dies. 
With  reg[ard  to  the  custody  of  children  in  Scotland, 
the  rule  is,  that  the  father  is  entitled  to  the  custody 
as  between  him  and  the  mother ;  but  the  Court  of 
Session  has  power  to  regulate  the  custodv  in  case 
the  children  are  entitled  to  property,  and  tne  father 
is  of  an  immoral  or  cruel  character ;  and  the  court 
will  also  interfere  to  allow  to  the  mother  access  to 
the  children  at  certain  times  and  seasons.    Another 
important  difiierenoe  between  a  Scotch  and  English 
chud  is  this,  that  whereas  in  England  the  father  or 
guardian,  or  the  Court  of  Chancery,  has  power  to 
control  the  custody  of  the  person  of  the  child  to 
a  certain  extent,  until  the  child  attains  the  age  of 
21,  in  Scotland  such  power  entirely  ceases  when 
the  child  attains  the  age  of  14  or  12,  according  as 


PAEENTHBSIS-PARIS. 


frdch  cliild  is  male  or  female.  At  the  age  of  14,  a 
boy,  and  at  12,  a  girl,  in  Scotland,  is  entire  master 
or  mistress  of  his  or  her  movements,  and  can  live 
where  he  or  she  pleases,  regardless  of  any  parent  or 
court  They  can  marry  at  that  age  at  their  own 
uncontrolled  discretion,  and  act  in  all  respects  with 
the  same  freedom  as  adults.  As  regards  the  dis- 
position of  their  property  there  are  some  restrictions, 
but  as  regards  the  diajxysal  of  their  persons  there 
are  none,  after  the  ages  of  14  and  12  respectively. 

2.  Illegitimate  Chudren. — ^The  law  of  Scotland  as 
to  illegitimate  children  also  differs  in  some  respects 
from  that  of  England.  Both  the  father  and  mother 
of  a  bastard  are  boiind  by  law  to  support  such 
child,  and  the  obligation  transmits  to  the  personrJ 
representatives  of  the  father  or  mother.  Moreover, 
by  the  Poor- Law  statute  both  are  liable  to  a  penalty 
for  neglectiue  to  support  the  child.  The  mother  of 
illegitimate  cnildren  is  entitled  to  their  custody  till 
the  age  of  ten,  if  daught^^  and  if  sons,  till  the  age 
of  seven ;  but  the  limit  is  not  clearly  defined.  If 
the  father  support  the  child  after  the  above  age,  he 
is  entitled  to  the  custody.  The  mother  does  not 
apply  to  a  magistrate  for  a  summons  of  affiliation  in 
order  to  fix  the  paternity ;  but  she  may  bring  an 
action  of  filiation  and  aliment,  in  which  the  question 
of  paternity  is  settled.  The  father  may  be  judicially 
examined,  and  is  a  competent  witness;  and  it  is 
usual  for  the  court  to  decree  an  aliment,  varyins 
from  >£4  per  annum  against  labourers,  up  to  £10 
against  persons  in  better  circumstances.  In  Scot- 
land, as  in  England,  the  father  of  a  bastard  child 
is  not  deemed  related,  in  point  of  law,  to  such 
child ;  and  if  he  desires  to  provide  for  such  child, 
it  must  be  done  by  deed  or  will,  in  which  the  child 
is  identified,  and  not  merely  described  under  the 
general  designation  of  '  child,  which  he  is  not 

PARE'NTHESIS,  a  term  originally  Greek,  and 
signifying  insertAon  or  intercalation^  is  in  composition 
a  clause,  or  part  of  a  sentence  or  argument,  not 
absolutely  essential  to  the  sense,  but  ^nerally 
serving  either  for  explanation  or  confirmation, 
sometimes  chiefly  for  nietorical  efifect.  A  paren- 
thesis is  usually  included  between  the  marks  (  ), 
instead  of  which  the  dash  ( — )  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  parenthesis  is  frequently  but 
impro})erly  employed. 

PA'RIAHDOG.    SeeCiTB. 

PA'RIAN.    See  Potteky. 

PARIAN  CHRONICLE.  See  Abundel 
Mabbles. 

PA'RI  AS  is  the  name  given  to  the  lowest  class  of 
the  population  of  India — to  that  class  which,  not 
belonging  to  any  of  the  castes  of  the  Brahminical 
system,  is  shunned  even  by  the  lowest  Hindu  pro- 
fessing the  Brahminical  religion,  as  touching  a  Paria 
would  render  him  impure.  The  P.  seem  to  belong 
to  a  negro  race,  as  appears  from  their  short  woolly 
hair,  flat  nose,  and  thick  lips ;  they  are,  besides,  of 
short  stature,  and  their  propensities  are  of  the 
coarsest  kind.  Despised  by  the  Hindus,  and  iU  used 
by  the  conquerors  of  India,  they  have,  in  some 
parts  of  India,  ^^raduallv  sunk  so  low  that,  to  judffe 
from  the  descnption  which  is  given  of  their  mode 
of  living  by  difl^rent  writers,  it  is  scarcely  possible 
to  imagine  a  more  degraded  position  than  th^  which 
is  occupied  by  these  miserable  beinga 

PA'RID^  AND  PARU8.     See  Tet. 

PARING  AND  BURNING  consists  in  cutting 
off  'the  surface  of  the  soil  in  thin  slices,  which  are 
then  dried  and  burned.  This  is  the  most  effectual 
way  of  reclaiming  peat  and  other  waste  land,  the 
suiface  of  which  is  matted  with  coarse  plants, 
difficult  of  decay.    It  is  also  applied  advantageously 

2i0 


to  cold  clay  soils,  apt  to  produce  rank  weeds  and 
cc  .rse  grasses,  which  are  to  be  broken  in  after  lying 
for  some  time  in  grass.  The  ashes  of  the  plants, 
consisting  of  potash  and  other  salts,  act  as  a  power- 
ful manure ;  while  the  day  being  reduced  to  the 
state  of  brick-dust,  both  improves  the  textore  of 
the  soil,  and  acts  as  an  absorbent  for  retaistng 
moisture  and  nutritive  gases,  and  giving  them  out 
to  the  roote  of  growing  plants.  On  thin  light  soils 
the  operation  is  rarely  advisable,  for  much  of  the 
scanty  volatile  vegetable  matter  is  dissipated ;  how* 
ever  if  care  is  token  to  make  the  turfe  merely 
smoulder  without  flame,  so  that  the  plants  an 
rather  charred  than  burned,  it  is  doubtful  whether 
more  dissipation  takes  place  than  if  the  plants  were 
ploughed  down,  and  allowed  slowly  to  decay.  The 
plot  to  be  reclaimed  should,  if  necessary,  be  dried  by 
stone  or  tile  drains ;  and  all  large  stones  grubbed 
up,  and  cartM  or  conveyed  off  upon  sledges.  The 
paring  is  to  be  done,  if  possible,  in  the  months  of 
April  and  May,  in  order  to  have  the  most  favourable 
part  of  the  year  for  drying  the  parings  well  before 
burning.  There  are  ploughs  specially  made  for  paring, 
with  a  very  flat  share ;  but  the  best  method  is  to 
employ  the  breast-plough  or  paring-spade,  as  the 
surface  is  in  most  cases  very  irregular,  and  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  slices  very  thin.  The  parings 
should  be  burned  directly  they  are  sufficiently  dry,  as, 
after  lying  a  month  or  six  weeks,  they  begin  to  unite 
with  tne  ground,  and  imbibe  moisture  from  the  young 
grass  vegetating  beneath  them.  Sometimes  they  can 
be  burned  as  tney  lie,  without  being  collected  into 
heaps  ;  and  in  this  way,  the  fire,  in  consuming  the 
lingy  side,  which  is  undermost,  chars  the  surface  of 
the  soil  at  the  same  time.  If  burned  in  heaps,  the 
heaps  should  be  very  small,  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
black  ash,  instead  of  the  hard  lumps  of  red  ash 
produced  by  large  fires.  The  weeds  or  refuse 
or^nic  matters  are  thus  only  charred,  instead  of 
being  entirely  burned  away;  whilst  the  mineral 
matters  are  left  in  a  sohible  stote  instead  of  being 
reduced,  as  is  too  apt  to  be  the  case  wh^  the 
operation  is  carelessly  conducted,  into  an  insoluble 
semi-vitriQed  slag.  To  attain  these  desirable 
results  a  smouldering  tire  must  be  maintained,  by 
keeping  the  outside  layer  of  sods  so  close  as  to 
prevent  the  fire  from  kindling  into  flame.  The 
ashes  should  be  spread,  care  being  token  to  dear 
the  bottoms  of  the  heaps  well  out,  so  that  the  first 
crop  may  be  free  from  patohes.  The  cost  of  thus 
panng;  burning,  and  spreading  is  about  £1  per  acre. 

PA'RIS,  a  genus  of  plante  of  the  small  endogenous 
or  dictyogenous  natural  order  Ih'iUiaoefef  of  which 
one  species,  P,  quadrifolkUf  called  Herb  Paris,  is . 
not  uncommon  in  moist  shsuly  woods  in  some  parts 
of  Britain.  It  is  rarely  more  than  a  foot  nigh, 
with  one  whorl  of  generally  four  leaves,  and  a 
solitary  flower  on  the  top  of  the  stem,  followed  by 
a  berry.  The  berry  is  reputed  narcotic  and  poison- 
ous,  but  its  juice  has  been  employed  to  cure 
inflammation  of  the  eyes.  The  root  has  been  used 
as  an  emetic. 

PARIS,  also  called  Albxander,  was,  according 
to  Homer,  the  second  son  of  Priam  and  Hecabe, 
sovereigns  of  Troy.  His  mother  dreamed  daring 
her  pregnancy  that  she  gave  birth  to  a  firebrand, 
which  set  the  whole  city  on  fire,  a  dream  interpreted 
by  ./Esacus  or  Cassandra  to  8igni^^  that  P.  ahould 
originate  a  war  which  should  end  in  the  destruction 
of  his  native  city.  To  prevent  ito  realisation,  Priam 
caused  the  infant  to  be  exposed  upon  Mount  Ida 
by  a  shepherd  named  Agelaus,  who  found  him, 
five  dasns  after,  alive  and  well,  a  she-bear  having 
given  him  suck.  Agelaus  brought  him  up  as  his 
own  son,  and  he  be<»me  a  shepherd  on  Mount  Ida» 


PARIS. 


disttDgaisliing  bimself  by  his  valour  in  protecting 
the  other  shepherds  from  their  enemies — ^whence 
his  name,  Alexander,  'the  defender  of  men.*  An 
accident  havinc;  revealed  his  parentage,  old  Priam 
became  reconciled  to  his  son,  who  married  (Enone, 
daughter  of  the  river-god  Cebren.  But  his  mother^s 
dream  was  to  come  true  for  all  that.  He  was 
appealed  to,  as  umpire,  in  a  strife  which  had  arisen 
among  the  three  goddesses,  Hera  (Juno),  Athene 
(Minerva),  and  Aphrodite  (Venus),  as  to  which 
of  them  was  the  most  beautiful,  the  goddess  £ris 
(Strife)  having  revengefully  flung  amonff  them,  at 
a  feast  to  which  she  had  not  been  invited,  a  golden 
apple  (of  discord)  inscribed  To  the  Mast  Beauti/uL 
Each  of  the  three  endeavoured  to  bribe  him.  Hera 
promised  him  dominion  over  Asia  and  wealth ; 
Athene,  military  renown  and  wisdom;  Aphrodite, 
the  fairest  of  women  for  his  wife — to  wit,  Helene, 
the  wife  of  the  Lacedemonian  king,  Menelaus. 
P.  decided  in  favour  of  Aphrodite,  hence  the 
•nimoeity  which  the  other  two  goddesses  displayed 
against  the  Trojans  in  the  war  that  followed,  r.  now 
procee<led  to  seek  Helene,  whom  he  carried  away 
from  Lacedffimon  in  her  husband's  absence.  *  The  rape 
of  Helen'  is  the  legendary  cause  of  the  Trojan  war, 
on  account  of  which  P.  incurred  the  hatred  of  his 
eonntrymen.  He  deceitfully  slew  Achilles  in  the 
temple  of  Apollo.  He  was  himself  wounded  by  a 
poisoned  arrow,  and  went  to  Mount  Ida  to  be  cured 
by  CEnone,  who  possessed  ereat  powers  of  healing ; 
but  she  avenged  herself  K)r  his  unfaithfulness  to 
her  by  refusing  to  assist  him,  and  he  returned  to 
Troj,  and  di^  He  was  often  represented  in 
ancient  works  of  art  generally  as  a  beardless 
youth,  of  somewhat  effenunate  beauty. 

PARIS  (the  ancient  Lvtetia  Farisiorum),  the 
metropolis  of  France,  is  situated  in  48'*  5(y  N.  lat, 
and  2"  20'  K  long.,  in  the  valley  of  the  Seine,  about 
110  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  population  of  the 
city  is  1,700,000,  and  its  circumference  is  upwards 
of  25  miles.  It  lies  in  a  hollow,  about  200  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  is  surrounded  by 
low  hills,  which  in  their  highest  ranges  to  the 
north  only  attain  an  elevation  of  ^0  or  300 
feet,  as  at  Montmartre  and  Belleville.  These 
hilU,  which  are  separated  by  narrow  valleys  or 
plateaax,  as  those  of  St  Denis  to  the  north,  Ivry 
to  the  east,  Montrouge  to  the  south,  and  Grenelle 
to  the  south-west,  are  encircled  at  a  distance  of 
from  two  to  five  miles  by  an  outer  ranse  of 
heights,  including  Villejuif,  Meudon,  St  Cloud, 
ana  Mont-Val^rien,  the  highest  point  in  the  imme- 
diate vicinity  of  the  city.  The  southern  parts  of 
the  city  are  built  over  beds  of  limestone  rich  in 
fossils,  which  have  been  so  extensively  quarried  as 
to  have  become  a  mere  network  of  vast  caverns, 
which  in  some  cases  scarcely  afford  sufficient  sup- 
port to  the  houses  above.  These  quarries  were 
liist  converted  in  17S4  into  catacombs,  in  which 
are  deposited  the  bones  of  the  dead,  collected  from 
the  ancient  cemeteries  of  Paris.  The  Seine,  which 
enters  Paris  in  the  south-east  at  Bercy,  and  leaves 
it  at  Passy  in  the  west,  divides  the  city  into  two 
parts,  and  forms  the  two  islands  of  La  Cit6  and 
St  LouiB,  which  are  both  covered  with  buildings ; 
the  former,  the  nucleus  of  ancient  P.,  containing 
the  cathedx^l  of  N6tre-Dame,  the  Palais  de  Justice, 
and  the  S^t  Chapelle ;  and  the  latter  the  HOtel 
I^ambert  and  the  Cnurch  of  St  Louis. 

The  earliest  notice  of  P.  occurs  in  Julius  Cieear's 
CfommerUaries,  in  which  it  is  described  under  the 
name  of  Lntetini,  as  a  collection  of  mud  huts,  com- 
posing the  chief  settlement  of  the  Parisii,  a  Gallic 
tribe,  conquered  by  the  Bomans.  The  ruins  of 
the  Palatium  Thermarum  (Palais  des  Thermes), 
aacribed  to  Constantine  Ghlorus,  is  the  only  evidence 


of  the  presence  of  the  early  Roman  settlers  in 
ancient  Lutetia,  which  began  in  the  4th  c.  to  be 
known  as  Parisia.  In  the  6th  c  it  was  chosen  by 
Clovis  as  the  seat  of  government ;  and  after  having 
fallen  into  decay  under  the  Carlovingian  kings,  in 
whose  time  it  suffered  severely  from  frequent 
invasions  of  the  Northmen,  it  was  formally  recog- 
nised in  the  10th  c.  as  the  capital  of  the  FrankiSi 
monarchy,  being  esx)ecially  favoured  by  Hugh 
Capet,  who  granted  it  a  municipal  government,  and 
by  his  encouragement  of  learning  laid  the  foimda- 
tion  of  the  reputation  of  the  P.  schools.  From  this 
period,  P.  continued  rapidly  to  increase,  imtil  it 
nad  doubled  in  size  and  population  within  two 
centuries.  In  the  middle  a^^es,  P.  was  divided  into 
three  distinct  parts — La  Cit^  on  the  island ;  the 
Ville,  on  the  right  bank ;  and  the  Quartier  Latin, 
or  University,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Louis 
XI.  did  much  to  enlarge  the  city,  and  to  efface  the 
disastrous  results  of  its  hostile  occupation  by  the 
English  during  the  wars  under  Henry  V.  and 
Henry  VL  of  England,  but  its  progress  was  again 
checked  during  the  wars  of  the  last  of  the  Valois, 
when  the  city  had  to  sustain  several  sieges.  On 
the  accession  of  Henry  IV.  of  Navarre,  in  1589,  a* 
new  era  was  opened  to  Paris.  The  improve- 
ments commenced  under  his  reign  were  conti- 
nued under  the  minority  of  his  son,  Louis  XIIL ; 
and  on  the  accession  of  Louis  XIV.,  the  completion 
of  several  bridges,  roads,  and  quays,  and  the 
erection  of  various  public  and  private  palaces,  had 

Sut  a  new  face  on  the  old  city.  To  the  Grand 
[onarque,  P.  owed  a  still  greater  debt,  for  in 
addition  tK>  the  opening  of  80  new  streets,  and  the 
conversion  of  the  old  ramparts  into  public  walks,  or 
boulevards,  he  organised  a  regular  system  of  police, 
established  drainage  and  sewerage  works,  founded 
hospitals,  alms-houses,  public  schools,  scientitic 
societies,  dramatic  institutions,  and  learned  estab- 
lishments of  various  kinds,  and  thus  gave  to  P.  the 
indisputable  right  of  being  regarded  as  the  focus 
of  European  dviUsation,  learning,  and  elegance. 
The  terrible  days  of  the  Kevolution  caused  a 
temporary  reaction ;  the  Parisian  mob  of  that 
period  of  anarchy  were  more  intent  on  destroying 
nistorical  records  of  the  nast  than  in  erecting 
monuments  for  the  f utura  It  needed  all  the  genius 
of  Napoleon  to  obliterate  the  damage  done  to  the 
French  metropolis  during  the  reign  of  the  people. 
With  a  strong  hand  he  arrested  the  further  aemoli* 
tion  of  the  old  city,  and  with  extraordinary  rapidity 
P.  was  remodelled  on  a  new  and  grander  scale.  New 
quays,  bridges,  markets,  streets,  squares,  and  public 
gardens  were  created.  All  the  treasures  of  arts 
and  science  which  his  conquests  in  other  lands 
placed  in  his  power  were  appropriated  and  applied 
to  the  embellishment  of  the  capital,  in  the  restora- 
tion  of  which  he  spent  more  than  £4,000,000 
sterling  in  twelve  years.  The  downfall  of  the 
emperor  arrested  all  further  progress,  and  deprived 
P.  of  many  of  her  ill-gotten  treasures. 

Under  Louis  XVIII.  and  Charles  X.  little  was 
done  towards  the  improvement  of  Paris.  Renova- 
tion of  various  Borto  commenced  under  Louis- 
Philippe;  but  as  lately  as  1834,  much  of  the  old 
style  of  things  remained ;  the  gutters  ran  down  the 
middle  of  the  streets,  there  was  little  underground 
drainage  from  the  houses,  oil-lamps  were  suspended 
on  cords  over  the  middle  of  the  tnoroughfares,  and, 
except  in  one  or  two  streets,  there  were  no  side- 
pavements.  Old  fantastic  costumes  were  also  still 
seen,  and  the  harness  employed  for  carriage  horses 
was  still  chiefly  of  rope.  The  introduction  of  a 
copious  supply  of  water  to  public  fountains,  of  gas- 
lighting,  ana  a  better  kind  of  street  paving,  are  due 
to  the  reign  of  Louis-PhiUppe.     It  was  reserved, 

871 


PABIS. 


however,  for  Napoleon  III.  to  render  P.  a  thoroughly 
modem  city,  tinder  his  rule,  P.  may  be  said  to 
hay^  been  almos^i  rebuilt.  Streets  are  widened  and 
beautified,  and  new  and  spacious  thoroughfares  are 
opened  up  through  old  and  densely-built  districts ; 
in  which,  and  mmierous  other  undertakings,  the 
emperor  has  set  an  example  for  the  whole  of  Eiirope. 
In  the  present  day,  chiefly  through  his  policy,  P. 
excels  in  comfort  and  beauty  all  the  cities  in  the 
world,  and  has  accordingly  become  a  centre  of 
universal  attraction. 

Before  going  into  details,  it  is  proper  to  mention 
that  P.  is  a  city  built  of  a  light- coloured  kind  of 
limestone,  easily  wrought  and  carved  ornamentally. 
With  this  material,  the  houses  are  reared  in 
huge  blocks,  rising  to  a  height  of  six  or  seven 
stories ;  each  floor  constituting  a  distinct  dwell- 
ing;  access  to  all  the  floors  in  a  tenement  beine 
gamed  by  a  common  stair,  which  is  usually  placed 
under  the  charge  of  a  porter  at  the  entrance.  Very 
frequently,  the  tenements  suiround  an  open  quaa- 
rangle,  to  which  there  is  a  spacious  entry,  the 
^te  of  which  is  kept  by  a  porter  for  the  whole 
inhabitants  of  the  several  stairs.  In  these  respects, 
therefore,  P.  differs  entirely  from  London*;  for 
instead  of  extending  rows  of  small  brick  buildings 
of  a  temporary  kind  over  vast  spaces,  the  plan  con- 
sists of  piling  durable  houses  on  the  top  of  each 
other,  and  confining  the  population  to  a  compara- 
tively limited  area.  Whether  this  device,  which  is 
adapted  to  the  gregarious  character  of  the  French, 
could  be  successfiUly  applied  in  London,  remains 
uncertain. 

Of  the  bridges  (about  30  in  number)  which  now 
span  the  river,  8  have  been  constructed  since 
1852,  and  several  of  the  others  rebuilt  or  repaired 
during  the  reign  of  the  presept  emperor.  The 
most  celebrated  and  ancient  are  the  I^ont  Ndtre- 
Dame,  erected  in  1500,  and  the  Pont-Neuf,  begun 
in  1578,  completed  by  Henri  IV.  in  1604,  and 
thoroughly  renovated  in  1852.  This  bridge,  which 
crosses  the  Seine  at  the  north  of  the  Ile-de- 
Ia-Cit6,  is  built  on  12  arches,  and  abuts  near  the 
middle  on  a  small  peninsula,  jutting  out  into  the 
riveT,  and  planted  with  trees,  which  form  a  back- 
ground to  the  statue  of  Henri  IV.  on  horseback, 
which  stands  in  the  central  open  space  on  the 
bridge.  Among  the  other  bridges,  the  handsomest 
are,  the  Pont  de  la  Concorde,  160  yards  long,  built 
in  1787—1790;  the  Pont  du  Carrousel,  with  its 
colossal  allegorical  figures  at  each  end ;  Pont 
d'Austerlitz  and  Pont  d'J6na,  both  of  the  time  of 
the  First  Empire ;  and  the  Pont  des  Invalides, 
Pont  de  TAlma,  and  Pont  de  Solf6rino— all  hand- 
some structures,  adorned  with  military  and  naval 
trophies,  commemorative  of  events  and  victories 
connected  with  the  present  dynasty.  These  bridges 
all  communicate  directlv  with  the  spacious  quays, 
planted  with  trees,  which  line  both,  banks  of 
the  Seine,  and  which,  together  with  the  Boule- 
vards, give  special .  characteristic  beauty  to  the 
city.  Although  the  most  ancient  quays — ^as  those 
des  Augustins  and  de  la  M^gisserie— date  from  the 
14th  c.,  the  greater  part  of  these  magnificent  em- 
bankments, measuring  12  miles  in  extent,  is  due  to 
the  first  Napoleon  and  the  present  emperor.  The 
Boulevards,  of  which  there  are  22,  and  which  extend 
in  a  semicircular  Une  on  the  right  side  of  the  Seine, 
between  the  nucleus  of  the  city  and  its  surrounding 
quarters,  present  the  most  striking  feature  of  Paris 
hfe.  In  all  the  better  parts  of  the  city  they  are 
lined  with  trees,  seats,  and  little  towers  called 
Veapaaienneay  covered  with  advertisements.  Res- 
taurants, cafis,  shops,  and  various  places  of  amuse- 
ment succeed  one  another  for  miles,  their  character 
varying  from  the  height  of  luxury  and  elegance  in 
S7S 


the  western  Boulevard  des  Italiens,  to  the  homely 
simplicity  of  the  eastern  Boulevards  Beaumarchais 
and  St  Denis,  where,  however,  the  old  character  of 
squalor  and  villany,  for  which    the    streets  and 
inhabitants    were    noted,  has    nearly  disappeared 
under  the    thorough   renovations   of   the   present 
rei^.    The  Porte  St  Martin  and  Porte  St  Dems, 
which  were  erected  by  Louis  XIV.  to  commemorate 
his  victories  in  the  Low  Countries,  and  are  adorned 
with    bas-reliefs     representing    events    of    these 
campaigns,  mark  the  ancient  limits  of  the  most 
turbulent  quarters  of  the  Paris  of  the  past,  while  the 
Arc  de  Tfitoile,  begim  by  Napoleon  in  1806,  and 
completed  in  1836  at  a  cost  of  more  than  £400,000, 
may  be  said  to  form  the  extreme  western  boundary 
of  the  aristocratic  quarters.   This  arch,  which  bouniu 
the  Champs-Elys6e8,  and  has  the  reputation  of  being 
the  largest  in  the  world,  has  a  totiad  height  of  152 
feet  ana  a  breadth  of  137.    It  is  profusely  adorned 
with  bas-  and  alto-reliefs,  representing  the  career 
and  victories  of  Napoleon ;  and  from  its  position, 
at  the  end  of  the  noble  avenue  of  the  Champs- 
Eljrs^es,    forms   a    grand   terminal   vista    to  the 
Tuileries.     P.  has  1300  streets,  many  of  which,  in 
the  central  parts,  are  narrow  and  crooked,  without 
side-pavements,  and  often  dark  from  the   height 
of   the   houses,  which  have  from  four  to  seven 
stones.    This  is  especially  the  case  in  the  eastern 
quarters  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seine,  where  there 
are  labyrinths  of  dirty,  winding  streets.    In  accord- 
ance with  the  plan  of  the  improvements  designed 
during  the  present  reign,  wide,  long  streets  are, 
however,  everywhere  gradually  penetrating  through 
the   intricate  network  of  narrow  passages  whidi, 
until  recently,  were  to  be  met  with  in  the  north  and 
east  parts  of  the  city,  and  thus  opening  direct  com- 
munication between  the  centre  and  extremities  of 
Paris.     The  finest  streets  are  the  Rue  de  Kivoli, 
two  miles  in  length.  Rue  de  la  Paix,  Rue  du  Fan- 
boiu*g  St  Honor§,  Rue  Royale,  &c.  Among  the  pubhc 
squares,  or  places,  of  which  there  are  upwards  of  100, 
the  most  noteworthy  is  the  Place  de  la  Concorde, 
one  of  the  finest  squares  in  Europe,  which  connects 
the  Gardens  of  the  Tuileries  with  the  Ohampe- 
Elys^es,  and  embraces  a  magnificent  view  of  some 
of  the  finest  buildings  and  gaidens  of  Paris.     In  the 
centre  is  the  famous  obelisk  of  Luxor,  covered  over 
its  entire  height  of  73  feet  with  hieroglyphics.     On 
the  site  of  Siis   obelisk   stood  the  revolutionary 
guillotine,  at  which  perished  Louis  XVL,   Mane 
Antoinette,  Philippe  Egalit6,  Dan  ton,  Robespierre, 
and  a  host^  of  other  victims.    Of  the  other  squares, 
the  following  are  some  of  the  most  handsome  :  the 
Place    du   Carrousel,  between    the  Tuileries    and 
Louvre;  Place  Venddme,  with  Napoleon^s  Oolamn 
of  Victory  ;  Place  de  la  Bastille,  where  once  stood 
that  famous  prison   and  fortress;   Place   Royale^ 
with  its   two    fountains    and  a   statue  of    Louis 
XIIL  ;  Place  de  VHdtel  de  Ville,  formerly  Plac©  de 
la  Gr^ve,  for  many  ages  the  scene  of  public  ex<Mni- 
tions,  and  the  spot  at  which  some  of  the  bloodiest 
deeds  of  the  Revolution  were  |)erpetrated. 

Among  the  parish  churches  of  P.  (upwards  of 
60  in  number),  the  grandest  and  most  interesting, 
in  an  historical  point  of  view,  is  the  cathedral 
of  Ndtre-Dame,  which  stands  on  a  site  succes- 
sively occupied  by  a  pagan  temple  and  a  Christian 
basihca  of  the  time  of  the  Merovinnan  kings. 
The  present  building  was  construct^  between 
the  12th  and  15th  centuries,  and  in  its  present 
state  of  restored  magnificence  it  may  rank  as 
one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  Gothic  art^h*- 
tecture.  It  is  of  a  regular  cruciform  shape,  'with 
an  octagonal  east  end,  two  flanking  towers  -with 
flying  buttresses,  and  a  new  central  spire,  remark- 
able, like  every  other  part,  for  its  delicate  and 


PABia 

«Ub(mte  tracery.     It  i^  390  feet  lonjyr,  102   feet   juTemle  crimiDalB,  and  Clichy  for  debtors.     TIm 

high,  with  transeptB  144  ic^t  wide.    Although  most   number  of  the  institutioDS  of  benevolence  is  enor- 

of  the  painted  windows  are  modem,  the  grand    mous ;  and  according  to  statistical  tables,  from  6000 

iote-windowB«  which  give  a  characteH<)tio  beauty ,  to  12,000  uersons  are  wholly  maintain^  by  their 

to  the  whole  building,  are  of  ancient  date.    8t  Ger- :  means,  while  90,000  receive  partial  aid.   The  charity 

main-des-PrCs,  which  is  probably  the  most  anoient   of  P.  is  administered  by  the  department  of  Assist- 

charch  in  P.,  was  completed  in  1 163 ;  St  Etieunc '  anoe  Publique,  whose  revenues   are  obtained  by 

du  Mont  and  St  Germain  TAuzerrois,  both  ancient, '  a  tax  on  the  receipts  of  theatres  and  other  placet 

are  interesting— the  former  for  its  picturesque  and    of  amusement,  on  burials,  and  on  the  Monts  de 

Qoaint  decorations,  and  for  contaimng  the  tomb  of   Pi6t^    or   government  pawning-otfices,    of   which 

St  Genevieve,  the  patron  saint  of  P. ;    and  the    there  are  25.    The  largest  of  the  numerous  hospices 

Utter  forits  rich  decorations  and  the  frescoed  portal,    or   alms-houses   Ib    I^  Salp^tri^re,   probably    tiie 

restored  at  the  wish  of  Mar^^ret  of  Valois.    The    largest    asylum    in    the    world,    extending    over 

Ssinte  Chapelle,  built  by  St  Xouis  in  1245 — 1248,    78    acres    of    land,    and    appropriated    solely    to 

for  the  reoeption  of  the  various  relics  which  he  had    old    women,    1300    of    its    4500    inmates    being 

brought  from  the  Holy  Land,  is  one  of  the  most   insane  patients ;  Bicdtre,  with  nearly  3600  beds, 

remarkable  buildings  in  Paris.    Surmounted  by  an    receives    only    men.       The    Hospice   des    Enfans 

elaborately-carved  golden  spire,  114  feet  high,  and    Trouvte,  or  Foundling  Hospital,  provides  for  the 

blazing  with  a  star^bespangled  azure  ceiling,  and    infants  brought  to  it  till  they  reach  the  age  of 

walls  glittering  with  golden  flears-de-lis,  and  pro-  {  maturity,  and  only  demands  payment  in  the  event 

fasely  decorated  in  all  parts  with  brilliantly-coloured    of  a  child  being  reclaimed.    The  Creches,  or  publio 

materials,  it  oorresponds  well  with  the  purpose  for   nurseries,  first  established  in  1844,  of  which  there 

which  it  was  often  employed,  as  the  scene  of  royal ,  are  now  18,  reoeive  the  infants  of  poor  women  for 

christenings,  marriages,  and  ooronations.     During  '  the  day  at  the  cost  of  20  centimes.    Besides  institn- 

the  Revolution  it  was  put  to  yarious  ignoble  uses  ;   tions  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb,  convalescents, 

and   ita    present   beauty  is   entirely  due  to   the   sick  children,  &c.,  P.  has  17  general  and  special 

n^storations,  recently  completed  at  a  cost  of  £50,000.  \  hospitals.    Of  these  the  oldest  and  most  noted  is 

Among  modem  churches,   we   may  instance   the  '.  the  Hdtel  Dieu,  receiving  annually  13,000  patients  ; 

Madeleine,  built  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  temple, '  La  Charity,  La  Piti6,  the   recently-founded  Lari- 

and   gorgeous   with    gildings,    frescoes,    carvings, ;  boisidre,    I'fidpital    Clinique,   and    others    equally 

marbles,  and   statues ;  the  Pantheon,  which  was    worthy   of   notice,  contributing  by  the  excellent 

begun  as  a  church,  but  converted  by  the  Constituent   medical  staff  attached  to  each  to  the  high  repute 

Auembly  of  republican  France  into  a  temple,  dedi-    of  P.  as  a  school  of  medicin&    P.  has  one  university, 

cated  to  the  great  men  of  the  nation — it  nas  been    which  waa  founded  in  1253  bv  Robert  Sorbonne ; 

restored  to  the  church  by  the  present  emperor,  and   its  head-quarters  are  at  the  Sorbonne,  where  degrees 

dedicated  to  St  Genevieve ;  Ndtre-Dame  de  Lorette,    are  granted  in  the  faculties   of    sciences,  letters, 

erected  in  1823,  a  flagrant  specimen  of  the  mere-    and  theology,  and  where  gratuitous  public  lectures, 

trieiotts  taste  of  the  &y;  and  St  Vincent  de  Paul, '  delivered  by  11  professors,  are  attended  by  nearly 

completed  in  1844^  somewhat  less  gaudy  and  more    2000  students ;  it  has  a  library  of  80,000  volumes, 

imposing  in  style ;  &c    Among  the  few  Protestant   schools  of  medicine  and  law,  and  museums,  &c. 

churches,  TOratoire   is  the  Iturgest  and  the  best    There  are  five  lyceunis,  several  municipal  colleges, 

known.  |  419  free  public  elementary  schools,  eiving  educa- 

Of    the    many    palaces    and    publio    buildings    tion  to  41,800  boys  and  27,000  girui;   an  Ecole 

with  which  P.  abounds,  the  following   are  some '  Polytechnique,    trade    and    norm^    schools,    an 

of   the  most  noted :   the  Tuileries  with   its    fine '  Academy    of    the    Fine   Arts,    Conservatoire    of 

Gardens;  the  Louvre,  with  its  noble  galleries  of   Music,  &c.     The  Jardin  des  Plantes,  a  school  of 

paintings  and  sculpture ;  the  Palais  Koyal  (q.  v.) ;  |  natural    history,    enjoys    a    world-wide    renown. 

the  Laxembooig,  with  its  picturesque  gardens,  where  I  (The  Institute  of  France  is  noticed  in  a  separate 

tiie  senate  now  hold  their  meeting  and  where  the    article.)     The  Observatory,  founded  in  1G67,  has 

works  of  modem  artists  are  exhibited,  built  in  1620   a  magnificent  set  of  instruments  and   a  library 

for  the  Kegent  Marie  de  Medici,  in  imitation  of  the    of  40,000  volumes,     llie  principal  of  the  publio 

palaces  of  her  native  city  Florence ;  the  palace  of   libraries    are   I'lmp^riale  (see    Libraries),  which 

the  Corx>a  Leeislatif,  known  as  Palais-Bouroon ;  the    originated   in  a  small  collection  of    books  placed 

Elys^    Kapoieon,  the   residence   of    the    present  [  by  Louis  XL  in  the  Louvre  ;  St  GeneW^ve,  founded 

emperor    when    Prudent  of   the   Republic;    the ,  in    1610,  containing   110,000   volumes;    Hdtel  de 

Hdtel  de  Ville,  or  municipal  palace,  a  handsome  !  Ville,  with  45,000  vdumes.  The  Hdtel  des  Archives, 

building  repaired  and  enlarged  in  1S37,  containing  !  in  which  the  national  records  are  deposited,  contains 

Diai^iiicent  suites  of  apartments  for  the  celebration    a  unique  collection  of  valuable  curiosities,  including 

of  civic  and  other  public  festivals;  the  Palais  de    a  deed  of  gift  by  Childebert  L,  in  528,  of  two 

Justice,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river,  of  which  some   villages  to  the  church  of  Paris  ;   the  state  seals 

parts  date  from  the  14th  c,  a^d  others  are  modem,    of  France  during  1300  jean,  &c     No  city  on  this 

and  the  seat  of  some  of  the  courts  of  law,  as  the    side    of   the  A^  is   richer  than   P.  in   fine-art 

Court  of  Cassation,  the  Im|>erial  Court,  the  Tribunals  '  collections,  and  among  these  the  15  museums  at 

of  the  First  Appeal  and  of  PoUce.    Within  the  pre-  |  the  Louvre  stand  pre-eminent,  and  would  require 

cincts  of  this  palace  are  the  Saint  Chapelle,  and  tiie  ;  volumes  for  their  illustration.    The  Hdtel  Cluny,  in 

noted  old  prison  of  the  Conciergerie,  in  which  Marie  ,  addition  to  its  being  in  itself  a  most  interesting 

Antoinette,  Danton,  and  Kob^pierre  were  suoces-  '  monument  of  medieval  art,  contains  curious  relics  <»' 

sively  confined,  and  where  the  present  emperor  was  ,  the  arts  and  usages  of  the  French  people,  from  the^ 

for  a  time  kept  in  custody  after  his  enterprise  at    earliest  ages  of  their    history  to  the  renaissance 

Boulogne.     Tne  Conciergerie,  in  which  prisoners   period.    The  Mint  deserves  notice  for  the  perfection' 

are  lodged  pending  their  trial,  constitutes  one  of  the    of   its  machinery,  the  ingenuity  of  the  processes 

eight  prisons  of  P.,  of  which  the  principal  is  La '  employed  in  coining,  and  the  museum  attached  to< 

Force.       The   Nouveau   Bicdtre    is    designed    for  \  the    establishment.      The    Gobelins,    or    tapestry 

convicts    sentenced   to   penal    servitude    for   life ;    manufactory,  may  be  included  under  the  fine  arts,. 

8t  Pelagie  receives  political  offenders,  St  Lazare  is    as  the  productions  of  its  looms  are  all  manual,  and 

exclosively    lor    females,    the    Madelonnettes   for    demana  great  artistic  skiU,  the  larger  specimens 

390  ^* 


PARIS-PARIS  BASIN. 


requirine  from  eight  to  ten  years  for  their  comple- 
tion. The  tapestries  are  retained  by  the  goyem- 
ment  for  the  decoration  of  palaces  at  home,  or  are 
presented  to  foreign  sovereigns.  The  Bourse  or 
Exchange,  built  in  180S,  and  the  Bank  of  France, 
once  a  private  palace,  are  both  fine  buildings.  ^  P. 
abounds  in  theatres  and  places  of  amusement  suited 
to  the  tastes  and  means  of  every  class.  The  leading 
houses,  as  t^e  Op4ra,  Th6&tre  Frangais,  chiefly 
devoted  to  classical  French  drama,  Odion,  Th6&tre 
Italien,  &c.,  receive  a  subvention  from  government, 
and  all  are  under  strict  police  supervision.  Cheap 
concerts,  equestrian  performances,  and  public  balls, 
held  in  the  open  air  in  summer,  supply  a  constant 
round  of  gaiety  to  the  burgher  and  working-classes 
at  a  moderate  cost,  and  form  a  characteristic  feature 
of  P.  life ;  while  in  addition  to  the  noble  wardens 
of  the  various  imperial  palaces,  the  most  densely- 
crowded  parts  of  the  city  have  public  gardens,  shaded 
by  trees,  and  adorned  with  fountains  and  statues, 
which  afford  the  means  of  health  and  recreation 
to  the  poor. 

Vast  improvements,  as  already  stated,  have  been 
made  in  tne  city  from  185.3  to  the  present  time 
(1864).  Within  these  recent  years,  the  Boulevard 
de  S^bastopol — opening  up  the  most  populous  and 
most  unhealthy  district  of  P.,  a  district  formerly 
the  hotbed  of  disturbance— has  been  erected  at  the 
cost  of  about  £3,000,000.  Several  central  markets 
have  also  been  constructed;  the  Bue  Rivoli  has 
been  prolonged,  and  a  boulevard  in  commemoration 
of  the  visit  of  Queen  Victoria  has  been  erected 
between  the  H6tel  de  Ville  and  the  Place  du 
OhAtelet.  A  convention  between  the  state  and  the 
city  of  P.,  ratified  28th  May  1858,  guarantees  that 
within  ten  years  from  that  date  9  n'^w  boulevards 
and  10  new  streets  shall  be  erected,  old  streets 

1'oined  and  levelled,  and  4  new  avenues  formed. 
horn  the  1st  October  1862  to  30th  September  1863, 
2943  new  buildings  had  been  erected  in  Paris. 
While  the  sums  spent  in  the  improvement  and 
ornamentation  of  the  city  have' largely  increased, 
the  municipal  revenues  have  also  been  rapidly 
enlarged  within  recent  years. 

P.  nas  three  large  and  twelve  lesser  cemeteries, 
of  which  the  principal  one  is  P^re-la-Chaise,  extend- 
ing over  200  acres,  and  filled  in  eveiy  part  with 
monuments  erected  to  the  memory  of  the  countless 
number  of  celebrated  persons  who  have  been  buried 
here.  The  Morgue  is  a  building  in  which  the  bodies 
of  unknown  persons  who  have  met  with  a  violent 
death  are  placed,  and  which,  if  not  claimed  within 
three  days,  are  buried  at  the  public  expense 

P.  was  surrounded  under  Louis- Philippe  with 
fortifications,  extending  30  miles  round,  ana  costing 
£5,500,000  sterling,  and  in  addition  to  these,  16 
detached  forts  have  been  erected  at  definite 
distances  from  one  another.  The  50,000  men 
usually  garrisoned  within  and  around  P.  are 
quartered  in  30  barracks,  within  the  line  of  fortifi- 
cations. Besides  these  troops,  the  city  has  a 
national  guard,  numbering  about  40,000  men,  in 
which  all  citizens  between  25  and  50  are  liable  to 
be  called  into  service.  The  Arsenal  is  situated 
near  the  site  of  the  old  Bastille.  The  Champ-de- 
Mars  is  a  vast  sandy  plain,  near  the  Quai  d'Orsay, 
on  which  reviews  and  other  military  displays  and 
national  festivals  are  held.  Close  to  it  stands  the 
Ecole  Militaire,  founded  in  1752,  and  now  used  as 
a  military  training-school  for  infantry  and  cavalry, 
of  which  it  can  acconmiodate  10,000  men,  with 
space  for  800  horses.  The  H6tel  des  Invalides, 
founded  in  1670,  for  disabled  soldiers,  is  an  admir- 
able institution,  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river.  It  can  receive  8000  men,  but  the  mmiber  of 
the  inmates  la  generally  much  less,  and  consists 


both  of  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers;  all 
soldiers  who  have  been  seriously  wounded,  or  who 
have  served  30  years,  being  entitled  to  admission. 
The  library,  museum,  and  chapel  are  full  of  objects 
of  interest,  and  every  part  of  the  building  is  filled 
with  mementoes  of  the  wars  and  victories  of  France. 
The  crypt  of  the  church  contains  the  sarcophagus, 
hewn  from  a  huge  block  of  Russian  granite,  in  which 
lie  the  remains  of  Napoleon,  deposited  here  in  1840. 
P.    ia    divided   into  20    arrondissements.     The 
prefect  of  the  Seine  is  the  chief  of  the  municipal 
government,  aided  by  a  council  of  36   membere, 
appointed,  as  he  is  himself,  by  the  government 
The  civic  revenues  amount  for  the  present  year 
(1864)  t6  151,408,942  francs,  or  £6,002,931,  more 
than  one-half  of  which  is  drawn  from  the  octroi 
or  city  dues.     Each  arrondissement  has  a  maire 
and    two    assistant    councillors.      The   prefect  of 
police    is    at    the    head    of   the    civic    ^^rd  or 
gensdarmes,   of   4400    men ;    the    fire-bngade,  of 
1800   men ;    and    the    sergente    de  ville,    or   city 
police,  numbering  3570  men,  who  are  armed  with 
a  sword.    According  to  statistical  reports,  there  are 
60,000  persons  belonging  to  the  cnminal  class,  of 
whom  one  third  are  w6men,  at  large  in  P.,  but 
known  to  the  police.    The  cleaning,  sewerage,  and 
water  supplies  of  P.  are  under  the  charge  of  the 
prefect,     xhe  dirt  and  sewerage  are  conveyed  to 
large  reservoirs,  known  as  the  Voirie  de  Bondy, 
where,  after  three  years'  interval,  they  are  sold  for 
manure,  while  numerous  scavengers  are  employed 
in  sweeping  the  great  thoroughmres  several  times 
daily,  luthough    the    less    frequented  or  humbler 
streets  are  stul  much  n^lected.    P.  is  now  abim- 
dantlv  supplied  with  pure  and  wholesome  water; 
the  arainage  is  also  being  improved — since  185i 
the  length  of  vaulted  sewers  has  been  doubled,  and 
now  amounts  to  upwards  of  250  miles.     The  same 
may  be  said  in  regard  to  the  paving  of  the  city,  and 
the  street-lighting  is  now  adequately  effected  by 
means  of  some  15,000  gas-lights.      In  1818  public 
slaughter-houses,  or  abattoirs,  were  established  at 
different  suburbs,  where  alone  animals  are  allowed 
to    be    slaughtered.       Laree    cattle-markets    are 
held  near   me   licensed  AoaUoirs  (q.  v.).     There 
are  in  the  heart  of  the  city  niuneroas  hailet,  or 
wholesale,  and  march^,  or  retail  markets.     The 
principal  of  these  is  the  Halles  Centrales,  near  the 
Church  of  St  Eustache,  now  in  process  of  comple- 
tion, and  covering  nearly  20  acres.    According  to 
strictly-enforced  police  regulations,  no  carcases  or 
pieces  of  meat  are  allowed  to  be  carried  openly 
about  and  ostentatiously  exhibited,  as  is  the  very 
offensive  practice  about  Newgate  Street,  in  London; 
neither  are  butchers  allowea  to  shew  themselves  in 
the  dress  of  the  abattoirs.   Among  the  older  markets, 
the  Halle  aux  Vins,  in  which  500,000  casks  of  wine 
can  be  stowed,  and  the  March6  aux  Fleura,  are 
perhaps   the    most   interesting ;    the    latter   pre* 
senting  on  a  simimer^s   morning  one  of  the  most 
charming  sights   of.  Paris.     On  the  whole  P.,  as 
now  constituted  and  regulated,  offers  an  important 
subject  of  study  to  the  social  economist,  and  all 
generally  who  are  interested  in  the  arrangement  of 
great  cities. 

PARIS  BASIN,  the  collective  name  of  the  beds 
of  Eocene  a^,  which  rest  in  a  hollow  of  the  chalk 
in  the  distnct  around  Paris,  where  they  occupy  an 
oblong  area  measuring  180  miles  in  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south,  and  90  miles  in  breadth  fn^m 
east  to  west.  The  different  sections  into  which  the 
series  has  been  divided  are  given  under  Eocene  (q.  t.). 
The  beds  are  chiefly  remarkable  for  the  rich  harvest 
of  organic  remains  which  they  supplied  to  Ouvier, 
and  which  led  to  the  foundation  of  the  modem 
science  of  Paleontology.     The  strata  Lorn  whick 


PARIS,  MATTHEW— PARISH. 


these  were  jirincipally  obtained  oonsist  of  a  Beries 
of  white  ana  green  marls  with  subordinate  beds  of 
gypsum ;  they  are  largely  developed  at  Montmartre, 
where  the  gypsum  has  been  extensively  quarried  for 
the  manufacture  of  plaster  of  Paris.  The  fossils 
eonsist  of  land  and  fluviatile  shells,  fresh- water  tish 
and  crocodiles,  and  the  bones  of  birds  and  quad- 
mpeds,  besidea  a  few  land-plants,  amonf  which  are 
tome  palms.  The  mammals,  at  which  about  50 
ipecies  have  been  described,  belong  to  the  order 
Pachydermata.  The  Paris  Basin  has  for  some  time 
almost  ceased  to  supply  the  remains  of  vertebrate 
animals. 

PARIS,  Matthew,  the  best  Latin  chronicler  of 
the  13th   c.,  was  bom  about  1195,  and  in  1217 
entered  the  Benedictine  monastery  of  St  Albans. 
After  the  departure  of  Roeer  of  Wendover,  in  1235, 
P.  was  chosen  to  succeed  him  as  annalist  of  the 
monastery.       He    discharged    his    functions    with 
veracity  and  boldness,  in  consequence  of  which  he 
greatly  displeased  some  of  his  contemporaries.    The 
principal  external  incident  of  his  life  was  his  voyage 
to  Norway,  whither  he  was  invited  by  King  Hakon, 
to  repair  the  financial  disorders  in  the  Benedictine 
monastery  of  Holm.     P.  landed  at  Bergen,  10th 
July  1248,  was  courteously  received  by  the  Nor- 
we^an  monarch,  and  settled  the  business  about 
which  he  came  in  a  satisfactory  manner.     After 
his  return  to  England,  he  stood  high  in  the  favour 
of  Henry  III.,  wno  used  to  converse  with  him  in 
the  most  familiar  manner,  and  from  whose  lips  he 
deiired  not  a  little  of  the  information  that  makes 
his  Chronicle  so  valnable.    He  had  also  a  wide  circle 
of  influential  friends  and  acc^uaintances  among  the 
clersy,  from  whom  he  obtained  materials  for  his 
work    His  death  occurred  in  1259.     P.  had  a  ^p-eat 
repntation  in  his  day  for  his  virtues  and  abilities. 
He  was  considered  a  universal  scholar,  and  is  said 
by  his  laudatory  biographers  to  have  been  versed 
in  mathematics,  poetry,  oratory,  divinity,  history, 
painting;  and  arcnitecture.     One  thing  about  him 
long  kept  his  memory  green  in  the  hearts  of  his 
crmntrymen — ^he  was  a  patriotic  Englishman,  and 
though  a  sincere  Catholic  (like  aU  good  men  of  his 
a^),  yet  he  loved  his  country  better  than  the  pope, 
and  wrote  so  fiercely  against  the   encroachments 
of  the  court  of  Kome  in  ecclesiastical  matters,  that 
his   Chronicle    became,    in    after    times,   a    great 
favonrite  with  the  Reformers.     P.*s  principal  work 
is  his    Hiatoria  Afajor,  which    begins    with    the 
Xorman  Conquest,  and  extends  to  ^tne  year  of  the 
author's    death.      It  was    continued    by  William 
Bishanger,  also  a  monk  of  St  Albans,  till  the  death 
of  Henry  III.  in  1272.     The  first  edition  was  pub- 
lished at  London  by  Archbishop  Parker,  in  1571, 
and  was  reproduced  at  Zttrich  in  1606 ;  later  and 
more  complete   editions  are  those  of    London  in 
1640—1641,  and  in  1684.    The  only  portion  of  the 
Uiftoria  Major,  however,  which  is  properly  the 
vork  of  P.,  IS  that  extending  from  1235  to  1259 ; 
the  previous  part  being  nearfy  a  transcription  from 
the    FloreM  Jiistoriarum^  attributed  to   Roger  of 
Wendover,  whence  some  critics  have  supposd  that 
P.  is  really  the  author  of  that  work  too.    But  this 
opinion  is  strenuously  contested  by  the  most  recent 
editor  of  the  Fhrea  ffietoriarunij  the  Rev.  H.  0. 
Coxe  (4  vols.  1841—1842).      Translations  both  of 
P.'s  Chronicle  and  that  of  Roger  of  Wendover  have 
been  published  by  Bohn  in  his  Antiquarian  Library. 
The  British  Museum,  and  the  library  of  Corpus 
Christi  College  at  Cambridge,  contain  manuscript 
ibridsmenta  of  the  ffistoria  Major,  made  by  r. 
Vimsdf,    and    entitle    Chronica    Majora    Sande 
AUtani ;   a    second  abridgment  is   known    as  the 
H'fUoria  Minor.    Other  works  of  P.*s  are  Duorum 
Ofanim  Merdamm  JReffum    Vita;    Viginti   tr'nim 


Abbatum,  8.  Albani  Vita;  and  Addilatnenkt,  being 
explanatory  additions  to  his  Historia  Major, 

PA'RISH  (Gr.  paroikia,  habitation,  from  para, 
near,  and  oikeomat,  I  dwell;  Lat.   parockia),  the 
district  assigned  to  a  particular  church,  where  the 
inhabitants  of  the   district  may  attend  at  public 
worship,   and    receive   the    sacramentol    or   other 
ministrations  of  the  clergy.    The  name  originally 
seems  to  have  been  interchangeable  with  dtacemB, 
'diocese,'  and  to  have  been  applied  to  the  district 
subject  to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  a  bishop ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  at  a  later  period,  dicecesis  was 
sometimes  used  to  signify  a   parochial  church  or 
district.      The   distribution  into  parishes  appears 
to  be  comparatively  modem.      Originally,  all  the 
clergy  were  (in  the  opinion  of  the   Episcopalian 
churches)  but  coadjutors  of  the  bishop,  and  served  in 
his  church,  at  which  all  the  faithful  assembled.     At 
Alexandria,  and  afterwards  at  Rome,  a  number  of 
minor  churches  were  opened  (called  at  Rome  iituU), 
which  were  served  by  clergy,  originally  not  perma- 
nently attached  to  them,  but  sent  from  the  pnncipal 
or  bishop's  church,  but  in  progress  of  time  fixed 
permanently  in  the  charge.    This,  however,  was  not 
common ;  and  we  find  churches,  with  clergy  per- 
manently attached,  much  earlier  in  rural  districts 
than  in  cities.    The  institution  does  not  appear  to 
have  become  general  till  the  9th  or  10th  century. 
In  England,  the  first  legislation  on  the  subject  occurs 
in  the  laws  of  Edgar,  about  970.     The  })arochial 
division  of  districts  seems  in  great  measure  to  have 
followed  the  civil  distribution  into  manors,  or  other 
feudal  divisions  of  territoir ;  and  it  is  probable  that 
it  is  to  the  same  state  of  things  we  owe  the  practice 
of  lay  patronage,  the  priest  officiating  in  a  manorial 
church  being  chosen,  with  the  bishop's  consent,  by 
the  lord  of  the  manor.      The  parochial  revenue, 
however,   by  no  means  followed  the  same  rules 
which    now  prevaiL      At    first,    all    ecclesiastical 
income,  from  whatever  district,  was  carried  into  a 
common  fund,  which  was  placed  at  the  disposal  of 
the  bishops  and  was   generally  divided  into  four 
parts— for  the  bishop,  for  the  clergy,  for  the  poor, 
and  for  the  church.     By  degrees,  nowever,  begin- 
ning first  with  the  rural  parishes,  and  ultimately 
extending  to    those   of  the    cities,    the   parochial 
revenues  were  placed  at  the  disposal  of  the  parish 
dei^    (subject    to    the    same    general   threefold 
division,    for  the   clergy,  for    the   poor,  and   for 
the    chiurch)  ;    and    in    some    places    an    abusive 
claim,  which  was  early  reprobated,  arose  upon  the 
part  of  the  lord  of  the  manor  to  a  portion  of  the 
revenue.    Properly,  a  parish  has  but  one  church; 
but  when  the  district  is  extensive,  one  or  more 
minor  {auccurml)  churches,  sometimes  called  *  chapels 
of  ease,'  are  permitted. 

In  tiie  law  of  England,  a  parish  is  an  import- 
ant subdivision  of  the  country,  for  purposes  of 
local  self-government,  most  of  the  locu  rates  and 
taxes  being  confined  within  that  area,  and  to  a 
certain  extent  self-imposed  b^  the  parties  who  pay 
them.  The  origin  of  the  division  of  England  into 
parishes  is  not  very  clearly  ascertained  by  the 
authorities.  Some  have  asserted  that  the  division 
had  an  ecclesiastical  origin,  and  that  a  parish  was 
merely  a  district  sufficient  for  one  priest  to  attend 
ta  But  others  have  asserted  that  parishes  had  a 
civil  origin  long  anterior  to  ecclesiastical  distinc- 
tions, advantage  being  merely  taken  to  ingraft  these 
on  so  convenient  an  existing  subdivision  of  the 
country ;  and  that  a  parish  was  a  subdivison  of  the 
ancient  hundred,  known  as  a  vill  or  town,  and 
through  its  machinery  the  public  taxes  were 
anciently  collected.  Hobart  fixes  the  dato  of  the 
mstitution  of  civil  parishes  in  1179,  and  his 
account    has    been    generally    followed.      Much 

S7t 


PARISH. 


difficulty  haa  occasionally  arisen  in  fixing  the  bound- 
aries of  parishes.  Blackstone  says  the  boundaries 
of  parishes  were  originally  ascertained  by  those 
of  manoTB,  and  that  it  very  seldom  happened 
that  a  manor  extended  itself  over  more  parishes 
than  one,  though  there  were  often  many  manors 
in  one  parish.  Nevertheless,  the  boundaries  of 
parishes  are  often  intermixed,  which  Blackstone 
accounts  for  by  the  practice  of  the  lords  of  adjoin- 
ing  manors  obliging  their  tenants  to  appropriate 
their  tithes  towards  the  officiating  minister  of  the 
church,  which  was  built  for  the  whole.  Even  in 
the  present  day,  tiiese  boundaries  often  give  rise  to 
litigation,  and  the  courts  have  always  decided  the 
question  according  to  the  proof  of  custom.  This 
custom  is  chiefly  established  b^  the  ancient  practice 
of  perambulating  the  parish  in  Rogation-week  in 
each  year.  See  Perambulatiok.  There  are  some 
places  as  to  which  it  is  imoertain  whether  they  are 
])arishes  or  not,  and  hence  it  has  been  usual  to  call 
them  reputed  parishes.  There  are  also  places 
called  extra-parochial  places,  which  do  not  belong 
to  any  parish,  such  as  forest  and  abbey  lands.  In 
these  cases,  the  persons  inhabiting  were  not  subject 
to  the  usual  parochial  rates  and  taxes,  and  other 
incidents  of  parochial  hfe.  But  in  1857,  a  statute 
was  iiassed  which  put  extra-parochial  places  upon  a 
similar  footing  to  parishes,  by  giving  power  to 
justices,  and  in  some  cases  to  the  Poor-law  Board,  to 
annex  them  to  adjoining  parishes,  after  which  they 
are  dealt  with  in  much  the  same  way  as  other 
places.  One  of  the  chief  characteristics  of  a  parish 
18,  that  there  is  a  parish  church,  and  an  incumbent 
and  churchwardens  attached  to  it,  and  by  this 
machineiy  the  spiritual  wants  of  the  parishioners 
are  attended  to.  These  several  parish  churches,  and 
the  endowments  connected  therewith,  belong  in  a 
certain  sense  to  the  nation,  and  the  incumbents  are 
members  of  the  Established  Church  of  England,  and 
Amenable  to  the  discipline  of  the  bishops  and  the 
spiritual  oourts.  The  private  patronage,  or  right  of 
presenting  a  clergyman  to  an  incumbency,  is  tech- 
nicallv  called  an  advowson,  and  is  generally  held  by 
an  individual  as  a  saleable  property,  having  a  market 
value.  The  patron  has  an  absolute  ri^ht  (quite 
irrespective  of  the  wishes  of  the  parishioners)  to 
present  a  clerk  or  onlained  priest  ot  the  church  of 
England  to  a  vacant  benehce,  and  it  is  for  the 
bishop  to  see  to  his  qualifications.  The  bishop  is 
the  sole  judge  of  these  qiialifications,  and  if  he 
approves  of  tiiem,  tiie  derk  or  priest  is  instituted 
and  inducted  into  the  benefice,  which  ceremony 
completes  his  legal  title  to  the  fruits  of  the  benefice. 
The  incumbents  of  parish  churches  are  called  rec- 
tors, or  vicars,  or  perpetual  curates,  the  distinction 
being  chieflv  foimded  on  the  state  of  the  tithes. 
When  the  oenefice  is  full,  then  the  freehold  of 
the  church  vests  in  the  rector  or  parson,  and  so 
does  the  churchyard ;  but  he  holds  these  only  as  a 
trustee  for  the  use  of  the  parishioners.  There  are 
certain  duties  which  the  incumbent  of  the  parish 
church  is  bound  by  law  to  perform  for  the  benefit 
of  the  parishioners.  He  is  bound,  as  a  general 
rule,  to  reside  in  the  parish,  so  as  to  be  r^uly  to 
administer  the  rites  of  the  church  to  theuL  See 
Non-residence.  The  first  duty  of  the  incumbent 
is  to  perform  public  worship  in  the  parish  church 
every  Simday,  according  to  the  form  prescribed 
bv  we  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  whicn  is  part 
or  the  statute-law  of  England.  He  must  adhere 
strictly  to  the  forms  and  ceremonies,  and  even 
to  the  dress  prescribed  by  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer  and  Canons.  The  incumbent  is  also  bound 
to  baptise  the  children  of  all  the  parishioners,  and 
to  a^inister  the  rite  of  the  Lord's  Supper  to 
the  pariahionen  not  leas  than  three  times  each 


year.     The  incumbent  is  also  bound  to  allow  the 
parishioners   to  be   buried   in  the  churchyard  of 
the  parish,  if  there  is  accommodation,  and  to  read 
the  burial-service  at  each  interment.     He  is  also 
bound  to  marry  the  parishioners  on  their  tendering 
themselves,  and  comj>lying  with  the  marriage  acts, 
within  the    pariah  church    and  during  canonical 
hours,  and  it  is  said  he  is  liable  to  an  action  of 
damages  if  he  refuse;      In  respect  of  burials  and 
marriages,  certain  fees  are  frequently  payable  b^ 
custom ;  but  unless  such  a  custom  exists,  no  fee  m 
exigible  for  performance  of  these  duties.    In  many 
cases,  where  one  church  had  become  insufficient  for 
the  increased  population,  the  old  parish  has  been 
subdivided  under  the  Church  Building  Acts,  the 
first  of  which  was  passed  in   1818,  into  two  or 
more  ecclesiastical  districts  or  parishes,  for  each  of 
which  a  new  church  was  built,  and  an  incumlient 
appointed.       The    incumbents    in    these    ecclesi- 
astical parishes  have  generally  l>een  provided  for 
by  the   incumbent    of   the   mother-parish    or  by 
voluntary  benefactors,  and  bv  the  aid  of  pew-rents. 
But  these  ecclesiastical  parishes,  so  far  as  the  poor 
and  other  secular  purposes  are  concerned,  make  no 
change  on  the  old  law.    Another  incident  of  the 
parish  church  is,  that  there  must  be  ohiun^wardens 
appointed  annually,  who  are  accordingly  leading 
parochial  officers,  and  whose  dutyr  is  partly  eccle- 
siastical and  partly  civil.    Their  civil  antiea  consist 
chiefly  in  this,  that  they  must  join  the  overseers  in 
many  of  the  duties  arising  out  of  the  management 
of  the    poor,    and    incidental    duties  imposed  by 
statute.    But  their  primary  duty  is  to  attend  to  the 
repair  and  good  order  of  the  fabric  of  the  church. 
The  common  law  requires  that  there  should  be  two 
churchwardens,    one    of    whom    is   appointed   by 
the  incumbent,  and  the  other  is  chosen   by  the 
parishioners  in  vestry  assembled,   but  sometimes 
this  rule  is  varied  by  a  local  cnstouL     This  appoint- 
ment and  election  take  place  in  Easter- week  of  each 
^ear.     In  electing  the  people's  churchwarden,  there 
IS  often  much  local  excitement,  and  it  is  common  to 
poll  the  parish,  all  those  who  pay  poor-rates  being 
entitled    to  vote,  the    number   of    votes  varying 
according  to  the  rent,  but  no  x)er8on  having  mors 
than  six  votes.      See  Cuurchwabdens  ;   Church 
Rate& 

The  next  most  important  business  connected  with 
the  parish  is  that  which  concerns  the  poor,  the 
leading  principle  being,  that  each  parish  is  ooand  to 
pay  the  expense  of  relieving  its  own  pocnr.  See 
Overseers;  Guardian;  Poor. 

Another  important  feature  of  the  pariah  is,  that 
all  the  highwavs  within  the  parish  must  be  kept 
in  repair  by  the  parish,  i.e.,  by  the  inhabitants 
who  are  rated  to  the  \yooT.    For  this  purpose,  the 
inhabitants  of  each  parish,  in  vestry  assembled, 
appoint  each  year  a  surveyor  of  highways,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  see  that  the  highways  are  kept  in  good 
repair ;  and  he  is  authorised,  by  the  General  High- 
way Act,  to  levy  a  rate  on  all  the  property  within 
the  parish.    The  office  of  a  surveyor  of  highways  is, 
like  those  of  churchwarden,  overseer,  and  guardian, 
a  compulsory  and  gratuitous  office.     When  a  high- 
way  is  out  of  repair,  the  mode  of  enforcing  the  repair 
is  b^  summoning  the  surveyor  of  highways  before 
justices,  to  shew  cause  why  he  has  not  repaired  the 
road ;  and  if  the  facts  are  not  disputed,  the  justices 
either  tine  him,  or  order  an  indictment  to  be  laid 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  pariah.    This  indict- 
ment is  tried,  and  the  expense  of  it  is  defrayed  out 
of  the  highway-rate,  which  is  subsequently  made. 
The  highways  of  each  parish  being  thus  exclusively 
under  the  control  of  the  ratepayers  and  their  officers, 
it  happened  that  great  inequality  prevailed  in  the 
standaid  of  repairs  which  each  parish  set  up  for 


PARISH— PARISH  SCHOOL. 


itself.  This  led  to  the  late  Highway  District  Act, 
25  and  26  Vict.  c.  61,  the  object  of  which  is 
to  enable  the  justices  of  the  peace  of  the  dis- 
trict to  combine  several  parishes  into  one  district, 
•nd  thus  secure  more  uniformity  in  the  repairs  of 
the  highways.  A  way- warden  is  now  appointed 
to  represent  each  parish  at  the  Highway  Board, 
instead  of  the  old  highway  surveyor;  but  the 
expenses  of  maintaining  the  highways  is  still 
ultimately  paid  by  the  parish  in  which  they  are 
situated,  the  only  change  being,  that  the  expenses 
are  ordered  to  be  incurred  by  the  Highway  Board, 
instead  of  the  parochial  officer. 

The  above  duties  in  reference  to  the  parish 
chnrch,  the  poor,  and  the  highways,  are  the  leading 
duties  attaching  to  the  parish  as  a  parish ;  but 
over  and  above  these,  many  miscellaneous  duties 
have  been  imposed  on  the  parish  officers,  particularly 
on  the  overseers  and  churchwardens,  which  will 
be  found  specified  under  the  head  of  OvBRSEEits. 
In  nearly  all  cases  where  the  parish,  as  a  parish,  is 
required  to  act,  the  mode  in  which  it  does  so  is  by 
tbe  machinery  of  a  vestry.  A  vestry  is  a  meeting 
of  all  the  inhabitant  householders  rated  to  the 
poor.  It  is  called  by  the  churchwardens,  and  all 
questions  are  put  to  the  vote.  Any  ratepayer 
wbn  thinks  the  majority  of  those  present  do  not 
represent  the  majority  of  the  whole  ]>arishioners, 
is  entitled  to  demand  a  polL  At  these  meetings, 
peat  excitement  often  prevails,  especially  in  meet- 
ings respecting  church-rates.  Wherever  a  parish 
improvement  is  found  to  be  desirable,  the  vestry 
may  meet  and  decide  whether  it  is  to  be  pro- 
ceetied  with,  in  which  case  they  have  powers  of 
rating  themselves  for  the  expense.  Such  is  the  case 
as  to  the  establishment  of  baths  and  wash-houses, 
watching,  and  lighting.  Returns  are  made  of  all 
Mrish  and  local  rates  to  parliament  every  year. 
The  parish  property,  except  the  goods  of  the  parish 
church,  which  are  vested  in  the  churchwardens,  is 
vested  in  the  overseers,  who  hold  and  manage  the 
nme,  requiring  the  consent  of  the  Poor-law  Board 
in  order  to  sell  it.  Of  late,  a  statute  has  authorised 
benefactors  to  dedicate  greens  or  playgrounds  to  the 
inhabitants  of  iKurishes,  through  the  intervention  of 
trustees. 

In  Scotland,  the  division  into  parishes  has  existed 
from  the  most  ancient  times,  and  is  recognised  for 
certain  civil  purposes  relative  to  taxation  and  other- 
wise, as  well  as  for  purposes  purely  ecclesiastical. 
The  Court  of  Session,  acting  as  the  Commission  of 
Teinds,  may  unite  two  or  more  parishes  into  one ; 
or  luay  divide  a  parish,  or  disjoin  part  of  it,  with 
consent  of  the  heritors  (or  landholders)  of  a  major 
part  of  the  valuation  ;  or  apart  from  their  consent, 
if  it  be  shewn  that  there  is  within  the  disjoined  part 
a  sufficient  place  of  worship,  and  if  the  Titulars  of 
Teinds  (q.  v.),  or  others  woo  have  to  pay  no  less 
than  three-fourths  of  the  additional  stijiend,  do  not 
object  By  Act  7  and  8  Vict  c.  44,  any  district  where 
there  is  an  endowed  church  may  be  erected  into  a 
parish  quoad  itact-a,  for  such  purposes  as  are  purely 
ecclesiasticaL  £ndowed  Gaelic  congregations  in  the 
large  towns  of  the  Lowlands  may  similarly  be 
erected  into  parishes  quocui  mora. 

The  principal  application  of  the  parochial  division 
for  civd  purposes  relates  to  the  administration  of 
the  poor-Liw.  Under  the  old  system  the  adminis- 
trators of  the  poor-law  were  the  kirk-session  in 
«ounty  parishes,  and  the  magistrates,  or  certain 
managers  selected  by  them,  in  burghal  parishes. 
The  Act  8  and  9  Vict  c.  83,  which  remodelled  the 
poor-law  of  Scotland,  retained  the  old  administrative 
Dody  so  long  as  there  was  no  assessment ;  but,  on  a 
parish  beia^  assessed,  substituted  for  it  a  new  one, 
memmamtmg    m    rursl    parishes    of  the    owners    of 


heritable  projperty  of  £20  yearljr  value,  of  th* 
magistrates  of  any  royal  burgh  within  the  bounds,  ot 
the  kirk-session,  a  certain  number  of  members  chosen 
by  the  persons  assessed  ;  and  in  burghal  parishes  of 
members,  not  exceeding  30,  chosen  by  the  persons 
assessed,  four  members  named  by  the  magistrates, 
and  not  above  four  by  the  kirk-session  or  sessions. 
The  Board  of  Supervision  may  unite  two  or  more 
parishes  into  a  combination  for  poor-law  purposes. 
There  is  not  the  same  extensive  machinery  for 
parochial  self-government  that  exists  in  England. 
The  burden  of  supporting  the  fabric  of  the  church 
falls  on  the  heritors,  and  there  are  no  church- 
wardena  Highways  are  not  repairable  by  the 
parish,  and  there  are  no  elections  of  surveyors  or 
way-wardens.  The  meeting  of  the  inhabitants  in 
vestry,  which  so  often  takes  place  in  England,  is 
unknown  in  Scotland,  and  hence  the  rate))ayers  do 
not  interest  themselves  so  much  in  local  affairs. 
Many  of  the  duties  which  in  England  are  discharged 
by  parochial  officers,  are  in  Scotland  discharged  by 
the  sheriff-clerk,  a  countv-officer.  In  Scotland, 
there  exists  in  every  parish  a  Parish  School  (q.  v.), 
which  is  unknown  in  England,  except  as  a  voluntary 
institution. 

PARISH  CLERK,  in  England,  is  an  officer  of 
the  parish  of  some  importance,  his  duty  being  to 
lead  the  responses  during  the  reading  of  the  service 
ia  the  parish  church.  He  is  a])pointed  by  the 
parson,  unless  some  other  custom  of  a  peculiar  kind 
exists  in  the  parish.  He  must  be  20  years  of  age, 
and  has  his  office  for  life,  but  is  removable  by  tlio 
parson  for  sufficient  cause.  By  the  statute  7  and  S 
Vict  c  59,  a  person  in  holy  orders  may  be  elected 
a  parish  clerk.  Under  some  of  the  Church  Building 
Acts  governing  the  new  churches  built  in  populous 
parishes,  he  is  annually  appointed  by  the  minister. 
The  salary  of  the  parish  clerk  is  paid  out  of  the 
church-rate. 

PARISH  SCHOOL.  In  England,  there  is  no 
such  thing  as  a  parish  school — that  is,  a  school 
existing  for  the  benefit  of  the  oarishioners,  endowed 
by  the  state,  or  suoportea  by  taxes  on  the 
parishioners.  Every  school  beyond  charity  8chof»ls 
is  more  or  less  voluntary  in  its  character,  and 
endowed,  if  at  all,  by  private  benefactors.  lu 
Scotland,  however,  it  is  essential  that  in  every 
parish  there  shall  be  a  parish  school,  for  a  statute 
of  1696  made  it  compulsory  on  the  heritors — i.  e., 
the  chief  proprietors — to  provide  a  school-house,  and 
to  fix  a  salary  for  the  teacher.  If  the  heritf»rs 
neglected  to  supply  a  school-house,  the  presbytery 
was  empowered  to  order  one  at  the  expense  of 
the  heritors.  The  schoolmaster's  salary  was 
fixed  according  to  a  certain  proportion,  half  of 
the  rate  or  cess  being  paid  by  the  landlord,  and 
half  by  the  tenant  Li  1803,  a  statute  pass«  d 
to  regulate  the  salaries,  and  to  give  a  ri^ht  to  tlie 
schoolmaster  to  have  a  house  and  garden.  The 
modem  statute  now  regulating  the  office  is  24  and 
25  Vict  c.  107.  The  salary  is  fixed  to  be  from 
£35  to  £70  per  annum,  to  be  varied  and  fixed  ])y 
the  heritors  and  minister  of  the  parish,  in  the  cat^e 
of  future  vacancies.  The  qualification  of  the  school- 
master consists  in  passing  an  examination  conducted 
by  the  examiners  of  parochial  schoolmasters,  who 
are  professors  of  the  universities,  who  make  regu- 
lations as  to  the  time  and  mode  of  examiuati'ii. 
For  this  purpose,  Scotland  is  divided  into  four 
districts,  each  in  connection  with  one  of  the  Scotch 
universities.  When  examined,  the  person  obtains  a 
certificate  of  fitness  from  these  examiners.  The 
schoolmaster  is  not  now  required,  previous  to  beiug 
admitted  to  lus  office,  to  sign  the  Confession  of 
Faith,  or  the  formula  of  the  Onurch  of  Scotland,  or 

271 


PARK-PARKER. 


to  profess  that  he  will  submit  to  the  government 
and  discipline  thereof.  But  he  is  required  merely  to 
make  a  declaration  that  he  will  not,  in  his  said  office, 
endeavour  directly  or  indirectly  to  teach  or  inculcate 
opipions  opposed  to  the  divine  authority  of  the 
Holy  Sciiptures,  or  to  the  doctrines  contained  in 
the  Shorter  Catechism,  agreed  upon  by  the  Assem- 
bly of  Divines  at  Westminster,  and  approved  bv 
the  General  Assembly  of  the  Church  oi  Scotland, 
and  that  he  will  not  exercise  the  functions  of  his 
office  to  the  prejudice  or  subversion  of  the  Church 
of  Scotland  as  by  law  established.  In  case  of  nus- 
conduct,  the  Presbytery  may  complain  to  the 
Secretary  of  State,  who  will  institute  a  commission 
tii  inquire  and  report,  and  to  censure,  suspend,  or 
deprive  such  schoolmaster  accordingly.  Formerly, 
the  Presbytery  of  the  Established  Cnurch  had  jur- 
isdiction to  prosecute  and  try  the  schoolmaster  for 
immoral  conduct,  or  cruel  or  improper  treatment 
of  the  scholars,  but  now  the  sheriff  of  the  county  is 
the  sole  judge  of  the  charge,  full  opportunity  being 

fiven  to  the  schoolmaster  to  prepare  his  defence, 
n  case  of  sentence  of  suspension,  the  salary  is  to 
cease  to  be  payable.  The  schoolmaster's  house  is 
now  to  consist  of  at  least  four  apartments;  and 
the  heritors  and  minister  may  permit  or  require 
him  to  resign,  and  allow  him  a  retiring  allowance. 
With  these  improvements,  it  needs  to  be  added, 
that  the  svstem  of  parish  schools  has  fallen  greatly 
short  of  the  general  requirements  of  the  country — 
what  was  weU  adapted  to  a  state  of  things  at  the 
Revolution,  when  there  was  a  meagrely-scattered 
I>opulation,  being  out  of  date  when  the  population  is 
about  three  times  greater.  The  deficiencv  is  chiefly 
felt  where  populous  manufacturing  villages  and 
towns  have  sprung  up  in  rural  districts.  On  this 
account,  the  much-boasted  parochial  school  system 
of  Scotland  is  in  various  quarters  far  behind 
the  requirements  of  modem  society,  and  but  for 
denominational  and  other  schools,  vast  numbers  of 
children  would  be  left  without  the  rudiments  of 
education. 

PAI^K  (Fr.  parc)^  a  term  still  employed  in  some 
parts  of  Britain,  in  its  original  sense,  to  denote  a 
tield  or  enclosure,  but  more  genef^Uy  applied  to  the 
enclosed  grounds  around  a  mausion,  designated  in 
Scotland  by  another  term  of  French  origin,  policy. 
The  park,  in  this  sense,  includes  not  only  the  lawn, 
but  all  that  is  devoted  to  the  growth  of  timber, 
pasturage  for  deer,  sheep,  cattle,  &c,  in  connection 
with  the  mansion,  wherever  pleasure- walks  or  drives 
extend,  or  the  purpose  of  enjoyment  prevails  over 
that  of  economical  use.  Public  parka  are  those  in  the 
vicinity  of  towns  and  cities,  open  to  the  public,  and 
intended  for  their  benefit.  An  increase  of  public 
parks  is  a  pleasing  feature  of  the  present  age,  and 
not  a  few  towns  enjoy  parks  recently  bestowed  by 
wealthy  persons  somehow  connected  with  them. 

PARK,  MiTNOO,  a  celebrated  African  traveller, 
was  the  son  of  a  Scottish  farmer,  and  was  bom  10th 
September  1771  at  Fowlshiels  near  Selkirk.  He 
studied  medicine  in  Edinburgh,  and  afterwards 
wont  to  London,  where  he  obtained  the  situation 
of  assistant-surgeon  in  a  vessel  bound  for  the 
East  Indies.  When  he  returned  in  1793,  the 
African  Attaoeiation  of  London  had  received  in- 
telligence of  the  death  of  Major  Houghton,  who 
had  undertaken  a  journey  to  Africa  at  their 
expense.  P.  offered  himself  for  a  similar  under- 
taking, was  accepted,  and  sailed  from  England 
22d  May  179d.  He  spent  some  months  at  the 
English  factory  of  Pisania  on  the  Gambia  in  making 
preparations  for  his  further  travels,  and  in  learning 
the  Maudingo  language.  Leaving  Pisania  on  the 
2d  of  December,  he  travelled  eastward ;  but  when 
379  * 


he  had  nearly  reached  the  place  where  Houghton 
lost  his  life,  he  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Moorish 
king,  who  imprisoned  him,  and  treated  him    so 
roughly,  that  P.  seized  an  opportunity  of  escaping 
(1st  July  1796).     In  the  third  week  of  his  flight, 
he  reached  the  Niger,  the  great  object  of  his  search, 
at  Sego  (in  the  kingdom  ofBambarra),  and  followed 
its  course  downwiud  as  far  as  Silla;  but  meeting 
with  hindrances  that  comi)elled  him  to  retrace  his 
steps,  he  pursued  his  way  westwards  along  its  banks 
to   Banmiakoe,  and  then  crossed  a  mountainous 
country  till  he  came  to  Kamalia,  in  the  kingdom  of 
Mandingo  (14th  September),  where  he  was  taken 
ill,  and  lay  for  seven  months.    A  slave-trader  at 
last  conveyed  him  again  to  the  English  factory  on 
the  Gambia,  where  he  arrived  10th  June  1797,  after 
an  absence  of  nineteen  months.  '  He  published  an 
account  of  his  travels  after  his  return  to  Britain, 
under  the  title  of  Travels  in  the  Interior  of  Africa 
(Lond.   1799),  a  work  which  at  once  acquired  a 
high   popularity.      He    now  married  and   settled 
as   a    surgeon    at    Peebles,    where,    however,    he 
did  not  acquire  an  extensive  practice ;  so  that,  in 
1805,  he  undertook  another  journey  to  Africa,  at 
the  expense  of  the  government.    Wnen  he  started 
from  Pisania,  he  had  a  company  of  45,  of  whom  36 
were  European  soldiers ;  but  when  he  reached  the 
Niger  in  August,  his  attendants  were  reduced  to 
seven,  so  fatiu  13  the  rainy  season  in  those  regions 
to  Europeans.     From  Sansanding  on  the  Ni^er,  in 
the    kingdom    of    Bambarra,    he    sent    back    his 
journals  and  letters  in  November  1805  to  Gambia; 
and    built   a  boat,  in  which   he   embarked    with 
four  European  companions,  and  reached  the  king- 
dom of  Hoiissa,  where  he  and  they  are  believed 
to  have  been  murdered  by  the  natives,  or  drowned 
as    they   attempted    to    sail   through    a    narrow 
channel   of  the  river.      The   fragments  of   infor- 
mation and  other  evidence  picked  up  among  the 
natives  by  Glapperton  and  Lander  (q.  v.),  strongly 
confirm  this  view  of  the  fate  of  P.  and  his  com- 
panions.   An  account  of  P.'s  second  journey  was 
published    at    London   in    1815.      P.'s    narratives 
are  of   no  inconsiderable  value,  particularly  for 
the  Ught  which  they  throw  noon  the  social  and 
domestic  life  of  the  negroes,  ana  on  the  botany  and 
meteorology  of  the  regions  through  which  he  passed ; 
but  he  was  unfortunately  cut  off  before  ne  had 
determined  the  grand  object  of  his  explorations — 
the  discovery  of  the  course  of  the  Niger. 

PARK  OF  ARTILLERY  is  the  whole  tndn  of 
great  guns  with  equipment,  ammunition,  horses,  and 
gunners  for  an  army  in  the.  field.  It  is  placed  in  a 
situation  whence  rapid  access  can  be  had  to  the 
line  of  the  army  in  any  part ;  and  at  the  same  time 
where  the  divisions  of  the  force  can  easily  mass  for 
its  protection.  The  horses  of  the  park  are  picketed 
in  lines  in  its  rear. 

PA'RKA,  the  name  given  by  Fleming  to  a  fossil 
from  the  Old  Red  Sandstone,  about  which  there 
has  been  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  The 
quarrymen  call  them  'berries,'  from  their  resem- 
blance to  a  compressed  raspberry.  They  were 
compared  by  Fleming  to  the  panicles  of  a  Juncus, 
or  the  globose  head  of  a  Sparganium.  Lyell  thinks 
they  resemble  the  egg-cases  of  a  Natica,  while 
Mantell  suggested  that  they  were  the  e^gs  of  a 
batrachian.  The  opinion  now  ntost  generally  enter* 
tained  is  that  they  are  the  eggs  *f  the  Pterygotus. 

PARKER,  a  family  of  distinction  in  the  annals 
of  the  British  navy.  The  founder  \i  the  family 
was  Sir  Hugh  Pariur,  an  a!  »erman  of  London,  who 
received  a  baronetcy  in  168  i. — His  grand-nephew, 
Sir  Hyde  Parker,  commanded  t\ie  British  fleet  in 
the  action  off  the  JDogger  Bank,  oth  August  1781« 


PAREEB. 

^  -'  ,  .  , 

in  which  three  Dutch  ships  were  destroyed,  and  the  studious  clerk  continued  his  pursuit  of  classical  and 

rest  of  the  Dutch  fleet  comj^elled  to  retreat  into  ecclesiastical  literature,  and  at  the  same  time  set 

harbour.    In  1783,  he  was  appointed  to  the  command  himself  to   correct  the  prevailing  decay  of  moral* 

of  the  British  fleet  in  the  East  Indies ;  but  the  ship  and  learning  in  the  church,  by  founding  a  school  in 

in  which  he  sailed  thither  was  lost,  with^  all  on  the  locality  for  the  purpose  of  instructing  the  youth 


hoard. — His  second  son,  Sir  Hydb  Parker,  distin- 

Siished  himself  in  the  American  war;  blockaded 
e  Dutch  harbours  with  a  small  squadron  in  1782 ; 
commanded  the  British  fleet  in  the  West  Indies 


in  the  study  of  grammar  and  himianity.  Here,  too, 
he  appears  for  the  first  time  to  have  definitely 
sidea  with  the  reforming  2)arty  in  the  church  and 
state,  the  sermons  which  he  preached  containing 


in  1795 ;  and  in  1801  was  appointed  to  the  chief  >  bold  attacks  on  different  Catholic  tenets  and  prac 

command  of  the  fleet  which  was  sent  to  the  Baltic  !  tices.    In  1538,  P.  took  the  degree  of  D.D. ;  and  in 

to   act   against  the  armed  coalition  of  the  three    1544,  after  some  minor  changes,  became  master  of 

northern  states  of  Russia,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.    Bene't  College,  Cambridge,  which  he  ruled  admir- 

He  had  no  share  in  the  battle  of  Copenhagen,  in    ably.      Three  years    later,  he    married    Margaret 

which  Nelson  engaged  contrary  to  his  orders;  but '  Harlstone,  the  daughter  of  a  Norfolkshire  geutle> 

by  hia  appearance  before  Carlscrona,  he  compelled   man.    It  was  probably  about  this  time  that  he  drew 

the  neutrality  of  Sweden ;  and  he  was  on  the  point    up  his  defence  of  the  marriage  of  priests,  entitled 

of  sailing  for  Cronstadt,  when  the  news  of  Paul's   De  Conjugio  Sacerdoturfu    In   1552,  he  was  pre- 

death  put  an  end  to  hostilities.— His  kinsman.  Sir   sented  by  King  Edward  VI.  to  the  canonry  and 

WiLJJAM  Parker,  was  also  a  British  admiral  of   prebend  of  Coviugham,  in  the  church  of  Lincoln. 

high  repute  for  his  skill  and  bravery,  and  contri-    On  the  accession  of  Queen  Mary,  he  refused  to  con- 

buted  to  some  of  the  great  victories  of  the  close  of   form  to  the  re-establisbed  order  of  things,  and  was 

last  century. — Sir  Peter  Parker,  who  was  bom  in    (like  many  others  of  the  new  school  of  divines) 

1716,  and  oied  in  1811,  with  the  rank  of  admiral  of  ,  deprived  of  his  preferments,  and  even  obliged  to 

the  fleet,  served  with  distinction  during  the  Seven    conceal  himself.    It  does  not  appear,  however,  that 

Years*  and  the  American  wars ;  and  in  1782  brought    he  was  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  emissaries  of 

the    French  admiral,  De    Grasse,    a   prisoner    to   Mary ;  for  he  was  no  fanatic  or  iconoclast,  but,  on 

England,  for  which  he  received  a  baronetcy. — Sir    the  contrary,  though  sincerely  attached  to  the  com- 

William  Parker,  bom  in  1780,  commanded  the    mon  Protestant  doctrines,  very  unwilling  to  disturb 

frigate  Amazon  in  1806,  and  took,  after  a  hard  battle,   the  framework  of  the  church.     P.  spent  at  least 

the  French  frigate  La  Belle  Poule^  belonging  to  the    some    portion    of    his   compulsory  seclusion    from 

sqnadron  of  Admiral  Linois ;  and  in  1809  captured    public  life  in  the  enlargement  of  his  De  Conjvgio 

the  citadel  of  Ferrol     In  1841,  he  succeeded  to    Sacerdotum,  and  in  translatmg    the   Psalms    into 

Admiral  Elliot  in  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the    English  metre.    The  death  of  Mary,  and  the  acces- 

Chinese  seas  during  the  first  Chinese  war.     He  took    sion  of  Elizabeth,   called  him  from  that  learned 

}K>8se88ion  of  Chusan,  Ningpo,  and  Shapu;  forced   retirement  of  which  he  seems  to  have  been  sin- 

the  entrance  of  the  Yang-tse-kiang ;   and  arrived    cerely  fond.     Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  now  Lord-keeper 

under  the  walls  of  Nankmg,  where  the  treaty  of   of  the  Great  Seal,  and  Sir  William  Cecil,  Secre- 

peace  was  agreed  upon.     For  these  services,  he   tary  of  State,  both  old  Cambridge  friends,  knew 

received  a  baronetcy  in  1844    He  was  afterwards   what  a  solid  and  sure  judgment,  what  a  moderate 

appointed  to  the  command  of  the  fleet  in  the  Medi-    and  equable  q^irit,  and  al>ov^  all,  what  a  thorough 

terranean,  and  exerted  himself,  although  in  vain,  to    faculty  for  business,  ecclesiastical  and  secular,  I*. 

mediate  between  the  Neapolitan  government  and    had,  and  by  their  recommendation  he  was  appointed, 

the  insurgent  Sicilians.    In  autumn  1849,  he  sailed   by  the    c^ueen,    archbishop  of  Canterbury.      The 

to  the  Dardanelles,  at  the  request  of  Sir  Stratford    consecration  took  place  in  Lambeth  chapel,  Decem- 

Canning  (now  Lord  Stratford  de  Reddiffe),  to  support   ber  17,  1559. 

the  Porte  against  the  threatening  demands  of  Austria  '  The  subsequent  history  of  Archbishop  Parker,* 
and  Russia  concerning  jpoliticsd  fugitives ;  and  in  it  has  been  ji^tly  remarked, '  is  that  of  the  Church 
January  1850  he  comi>elled  the  Greek  government,  of  England.*  The  difficulties  that  beset  him  were 
by  a  blockade  of  their  ports,  to  comply  with  the  very  great.  Elizabeth  herself  was  much  addicted  to 
demands  of  Britain.  Named  in  1851  Admiral  of  ■  various  'popish'  practices,  such  as  the  idolatrous 
the  Blue,  he  resigned  the  command  of  the  Medi- ,  use  of  images,  and  was  strongly,  we  might  even 
terranean  fleet  to  Admiral  Dnndas,  was  created  say,  violently,  in  favour  of  the  celibacy  of  the 
Admiral  of  the  White  in  1853,  Admiral  of  the  Red  ,  clergy.  She  went  so  far  as  to  insult  P.'s  wife  on 
in  1858,  and  Rear-admiral  of  the  United  Kingdom  '  one  occasion.  But  his  greatest  anxiety  was  in 
in  1862.  I  regard  to  the  spirit  of  sectarian  dissension  within 

PARKER,  Matthsw,  the  second  Protestant  ^l*®  bosom  of  the  church  itself.  Already  the 
Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  was  bom  at  Norwich, '  germs  of  puritaniam  were  beginning  to  spring  up, 
August  e,  1604,  studied  at  Corpus  Christi  College,    a»d  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  their  growth  was 


Cambridge,  and  was  ordained  a  priest  in  1527.  At 
the  university,  he  was  a  distinguished  student, 
especially  of  the  Scriptures  and  of  the  history  of  the 
church,  even  to  antiquarian  minuteness;  yet,  in 
ipite  of  his  strong  leaning  to  the  past,  he  was  from 
an  early  period  favourably  disposed  towards  the 
doctrines  of  the  Reformation,  and  lived  in  close 
intimacy  with  some  of  the  more  ardent  reformers. 
In  1533,  he  w^as  appointed  chaplain  to  Queen  Anne 
Boleyn,  who  thought  very  highly  of  him,  and 
not  long  before  her  death,  exhorted  her  daughter 
ISizabeUi  to  avail  herself  of  P.'s  wise  and  pious 
oonnseL  In  1535,  he  obtained  the  deanery  of  the 
monastic  college  of  Stoke-Clare  in  i^uSolk^Boman 
CathoUdsmy  it  must  not  be  forgotten,  being  still 
the  professed  religion  of  the  land,  for  Henry  had  not 
yet  formally  broken  vdth  the  pope — and  here  the 


fostered  by  the  despotic  caprices  of  the  queen. 
P.  himself  was  manifestly  convinced  that  ii  ever 
Protestantism  was  to  be  firmly  established  in 
the  land  at  all,  some  definite  ecclesiastical  forma 
and  methods  must  be  sanctioned,  to  secure  the 
triumph  of  order  over  anarchy,  and  so  he  vigorously 
set  about  the  repression  of  what  he  thought  a 
mutinous  individualism  incompatible  with  a  catholic 
spirit  That  he  always  acted  wisely  or  well,  cannot 
be  affirmed ;  he  was  forced,  by  virtue  of  his  very 
attitude,  into  intolerant  and  inquisitorial  courses, 
and  as  he  grew  older,  he  grew  harsher,  the  con- 
servative  spirit  increasing  with  his  years.  To 
forbid  *  prophesjrin^,'  or  meetings  for  religious  dis- 
course, was  something  very  like  persecution,  though 
probably  enough  something  very  like  treason  to 
the  church  was  talked  in  meae  pious  conventicles 

S79 


PARKER-PARLIAMENT. 


Fuller  (who  must  have  lus  pun,  however  bad)  says 
of  him  :  *  He  was  a  Parker  indeed,  careful  to  keep 
the  fences.'  Yet  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it 
18  to  P.  we  owe  the  Bishops'  Bibls^  undertaken 
lit  his  request,  carried  on  under  his  inspection, 
«nd  pubUuied  at  his  expense  in  1568.  He  had  also 
Uie  principal  share  in  drawing  up  the  Book  of  Com- 
Twn  Profytr^  for  which  his  skill  in  ancient  liturgies 
'peculiarly  fitted  him,  and  which  strikingly  bears 
iie  impress  of  his  broad,  moderate,  and  unsectarian 
intellect.  It  was  under  his  presidency,  too,  that 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles  were  finally  reviewed  and 
subscribed  by  the  clergy  (1562).  r.  died  May  17, 
1576. 

Among  other  literaiy  performances,  P.  published 
an  old  Saxon  Homily  on  the  Scuram/enty  by  /Rlfric  of 
St  Albans,  to  prove  that  Transubstantiation  was  not 
the  doctrine  of  the  ancient  Enfflish  church ;  edited 
the  histories  of  Matthew  of  Westminster  and 
Matthew  Paris  (q.  v.) ;  and  superintended  the  pub- 
lication of  a  most  valuable  work,  De  AntujuitaJte 
BritanniccB  Ecdesioi,  probably  printed  at  Lambeth 
in  1572,  where  the  archbishop,  we  are  told,  had  an 
establishment  of  printers,  engravers,  and  illumin- 
ators. He  also  founded  the  *  Society  of  Anti(|naries,' 
and  was  its  first  president ;  endowed  the  university 
of  Cambridge,  and  particularly  his  own  college, 
with  many  fellowships  and  scholarships,  and  with 
a  magnificent  collection  of  MSS.  relating  to  the 
civil  and  ecclesiastical  condition  of  England,  and 
belonging  to  nine  different  centuries  (from  the  8th 
to  the  16th).  Of  this  collection.  Fuller  said  that 
it  was  *  the  sun  of  English  antiquity  before  it  was 
eclipsed  by  that  of  Sir  Robert  Cotton.' 

PARKER,  Theodore,  an  American  clergyman 
and  scholar,  was  bom  at  Lexington,  Massachusetts, 
Au^st  24,  1810.  His  grandfather  was  captain  of  a 
militia  company  at  the  battle  of  Lexington,  his 
father  a  farmer  and  mechanic,  and  his  own  boyhood 
was  spent  at  the  district  school,  on  the  fann,  and 
in  the  workshop.  At  the  age  of  17*  he  taught  a 
school,  and  earned  money  to  enter  Harvard  College 
in  1830.  During  his  collegiate  course,  he  sup- 
ported himself  by  teaching  private  classes  and 
schools,  and  studied  metaphysics,  theology,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Syriac^  Arabic,  Danish,  Swedish,  German, 
Prench,  Spanish,  and  modern  Greek.  Entering 
the  divinity  class,  at  the  end  of  his  collegiate 
course,  he  commenced  to  preach  in  1836,  was  an 
editor  of  the  Scriptural  Interpreter,  and  settled 
as  Unitarian  minister  at  West  Roxbury  in  1837. 
The  naturaUstic  or  rationalistic  views  which 
separated  him  from  the  more  conservative  portion 
of  the  Unitarians,  first  attracted  wide  notice,  in 
consequence  of  an  ordination  sermon,  in  1841,  on 
The  Transient  and  Permanent  in  Christianity.  The 
contest  which  arose  on  the  anti-8U])ernaturali8m 
of  this  discourse,  led  him  to  further  develop  his 
theological  views  in  five  lectures,  delivered  in 
Boston,  and  published  (1841)  under  the  title  of  A 
Discourse  of  Matters  Pertaining  to  Beligion,  which 
was  followed  by  Sermons  for  the  Times,  Failing 
health  induced  him  to  make  an  extended  tour  in 
Europe.  In  1845,  he  returned  to  Boston,  preached 
to  large  audiences  at  the  Melodeon,  and  wrote  for 
the  Diaif  Christian  Register,  Christian  Examiner, 
and  Massachusetts  Quarterly.  He  became  also 
a  popular  lecturer,  and  was  active  and  earnest  in 
opposition  to  slavery,  the  Mexican  war,  and  the 
Fugitive  Slave  Law,  for  resisting  which,  by  more 
th^  words,  he  was  indicted.  In  the  midst  of  his 
work,  he  was  attacked,  in  1859,  with  bleeding  from 
the  lungs,  and  made  a  voyage  to  Mexico,  where 
he  wrote  lus  Experience  as  a  Minister,  whence  he 
sailed  to  Italy,  where  he  died  at  Florence,  May  10, 
I860.  His  works,  consisting  chiefly  of  miscellaiiies, 
S80 


lectures  and  sermons,  have  been  collected  and  pub- 
lished in  America  and  England,  in  which  his  peculiar 
views  in  theology  and  politics  are  sustained  with 
firreat  force  of  logic  and  feUcity  of  illustration.  His 
Earning  was  as  remarkable  asnis  energy  and  philan> 
thropy.  His  libraiy  of  1 3,000  volumes  he  bequeathed 
to  the  Boston  Free  Library.  Few  men  of  his  time 
exerted  a  more  powerfid  influence. 

PARKHURST,  John,  an  English  biblical 
scholar,  the  second  son  of  John  Par^nrst,  Esq.  of 
Catesby,  in  Northamptonshire,  was  bom  in  Jane 
f728,  educated  at  Rugby  and  at  Clare  Hall,  Cam* 
bridge,  where  he  took  lus  degree  of  M.A.  in  1752, 
and  in  1753  published  A  Serious  and  Friendly 
Address  to  the  Rev.  John  Wesley,  in  Rdation  to  a 
Principal  Doctrine  advanced  and  maintcaned  by 
him  and  his  Assistants.  The  doctrine  assailed  in 
P.'s  pamphlet  was  the  favourite  Weslejran  doctrine 
of  'Assurance.'  In  1762  appeared  ms  principal 
work — indeed  the  only  thing  that  has  preserved  his 
name — A  Hebrew  and  English  Lexicon,  without 
Points,  adapted  to  the  Use  of  Learners.  P.  kept 
mending  this  Hebrew  lexicon  all  his  life.  It  was 
a  very  creditable  performance  for  its  time,  and  long 
continued  to  be  the  standard  work  on  the  subject 
among  bibUcal  students  in  this  country ;  but  it  is 
disfigured  by  its  fanciful  etymologies,  partly  the 
result  of  his  having  (like  many  other  divmes  of  his 
time)  adopted  the  irrational  and  presumptuous 
theories  of  Hutchinson  (q.  v.),  and  is  now  entirely 
superseded  bv  the  works  of  Gesenius,  Ewald,  and 
other  critical  scholars.  P.  also  wrote  a  treatise 
(1787)  against  Dr  Priestley,  to  prove  the  divinity 
and  pre-existence  of  Jesus  Christ.  He  died  at 
Epsom,  in  Surrey,  March  21, 1797. 

PARKINSO'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  Leguminoace,  suborder  CcBsalpiniecB. — 
P.  aculeata  is  a  West  Indian  shrub  or  small  tree, 
which,  when  in  flower,  is  one  of  the  most  splendid 
objects  in  the  vegetable  kingdouL  It  has  pinnated 
leaves,  with  winged  leaf-stolk,  and  large  yellow 
flowers  spotted  with  red.  It  is  fumiuied  with 
strong  spines,  and  is  often  used  for  hedges,  whence 
it  is  called  the  Barbadoes  Flower  Fence.  It  is 
now  common  in  India.  The  bark  yields  a  beauti- 
ful white  fibre,  which,  however,  is  not  very  strong ; 
but  it  has  been  suggested  that  it  might  be  found 
suitable  for  paper-mcuung. 

PA'vRLEY,  in  Military  Language,  is  an  oral  con- 
ference with  the  enemy.  It  takes  place  under  a  flag 
of  truce,  and  usually  at  some  spot — for  the  time 
neutral — ^between  the  lines  of  the  two  armie& 

PA'RLIAMENT  (Fr.  parlement,  from  parkr,  to 
talk),  the  supreme  legislature  of  the  tJnited  Kingdom 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  word  was  first 
applied,  according  to  Blackstone,  to  general  assem- 
hues  of  the  states  under  Louis  VII.  in  France  about 
the  middle  of  the  12th  a ;  but  in  that  country  it 
came  eventually  to  be  the  designation  of  a  l>ody 
which  performed  certain  administrative  functions, 
but  whose  principal  duties  were  those  of  a  court  ai 
justice. 

The  origin  of  the  Parliament  of  England  has  been 
traced  to  the  Saxon  great  councils  of  the  nation, 
called  *  Wittena-gemote,'  or  meeting  of  wise  men. 
These  had,  however,  little  in  common  with  the 

Sarliaments  of  a  later  date :  among  other  points  of 
ifference,  they  had  a  right  to  assemble  when  they 
pleased  without  royal  warrant.  BWren  under  the 
Norman  kin^  the  Great  Council  formed  a  iudicial 
and  ministerial  as  well  as  a  legislative  body,  and 
it  was  only  gradually  that  the  judicial  functions 
were  transferred  to  courts  of  justice,  and  the 
ministerial  to  the  privy  council — a  remnant  of  tiie 
judicial  powers  of  parliament  being  still  pres»Tved 


FAKLIAMEKT. 


in  the  appellate  jurisdiction  of  the  House  of  Lorda 
Under  tne  Norman  kings,  the  council  of  the  sove- 
teign  consisted  of  the  tenants-in-chief  of  the  crovn, 
who  held  their  lands  pet  baroniam,  lay  and  ecdes- 
iastia  It  was  the  principle  of  the  feudal  system 
that  every  tenant  anoulcT  attend  the  court  of  his 
immediate  superior ;  and  he  who  held  per  baroniam, 
having  no  superior  but  the  crown,  was  bound  to 
attend  his  sovereign  in  the  Great  Council  or  Parlia- 
ment. In  the  charter  of  King  John,  we  for  the 
first  time  trace  the  germ  of  a  distinction  between 
the  peerage  and  the  lesser  nobility,  the  archbishops, 
Inahope,  abbots,  earls,  and  ^ater  barons  being 
required  to  attend  by  a  writ  Mdressed  to  each,  and 
jlie  other  tenants-in-chief  by  a  general  summons  by 
the  Bherifi&  and  bailiffs.  Baronial  tenure  origin- 
ally made  a  man  a  baron  or  lord  of  parliaments 
When  the  offices  or  titles  of  Earl,  Marquis,  or 
Duke  were  bestowed  on  a  baron,  they  were  con- 
ferred by  royal  writ  or  patent)  and  at  length  barony 
came  also  to  be  conferred  by  writ  instead  of  by 
tenure.  During  the  13th  c.,  the  smaller  barons  were 
allowed,  instead  of  personally  attending  the  national 
council,  to  appear  by  representatives ;  out  the  prin- 
ciple of  representation  seems  first  to  have  been 
re»luced  to  a  system  when  permission  was  also 
given  to  the  municipalities,  wnich,  as  corporations, 
were  chief  tenants  of  the  crown,  to  appear  by  repre- 
sentatives. It  is  not  quite  clear  when  the  division 
d  parliament  into  two  Houses  took  place ;  but  when 
tiie  representatives  of  the  minor  barons  were  joined 
by  those  of  the  municipalities,  the  term  Coxnmons 
was  applied  to  both.  The  Lower  House  was  early 
allowed  to  deal  exclusively  with  questions  of  supply ; 
and  seems,  in  the  reign  of  Eicnard  XL,  to  have 
established  the  risht  to  assign  the  supplies  to  their 
proper  uses.  As  we  Commons  became  more  power- 
ful, they  came  to  insist  on  the  crown  redressing 
their  gnevanoes  before  they  would  vote  the  supplies. 
The  inJuence  of  parliament*was  on  the  increase 
during  the  Tudor  period,  while  the  reign  of  the 
Stewarte  was  characterised  by  a  struggle  lor  supre- 
macy between  the  parliament  and  the  crown,  each 
striving  to  acquire  the  control  of  the  military  force 
of  the  country.  The  powers  of  tiie  different  estates 
came  to  be  more  sharply  defined  at  the  Aevolution 
of  1688.  Nineteen  years  later,  on  the  Union  with 
Scotland,  the  Parliament  of  England  was  merged 
into  that  of  Great  Britain. 

In  its  early  history,  prior  to  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, the  Parliament  of  Scotland  had  probably 
not  been  very  unlike  that  of  England  ;  it  assembled 
without  warrant,  and  consisted  of  bishops,  earls, 
prion,  abbots,  and  barons.  At  the  dose  of  the  13th  a, 
the  constitutional  histoiy  of  Scotland  diverges  from 
that  of  England.  The  addition  of  the  burshs  to  the 
national  council  seems  to  date  from  the  beginning 
of  the  14th  c.,  but  it  was  not  till  much  later  that 
the  lesser  barons  began  to  be  exempted  from  attend- 
ance. The  first  act  excusing  them  belongs  to  the 
reign  of  James  L,  and  auows  them  to  choose 
r^resentatives  called  Speakers,  two  for  each  county, 
excepting  some  small  counties,  which  were  to  have 
but  one,  the  expenses  of  the  representatives  being 
defrayed  by  the  constituency.  The  Scottish  Par- 
liament was  never,  like  the  English,  divided  into 
two  Houses ;  all  sat  in  one  hall,  and  though  it  con- 
sisted of  three  estates,  a  general  nnmericarmajority 
€l  members  was  considered  sufficient  to  carry  a 
measure.  The  greater  part  of  the  business  was 
transacted  by  the  Lords  of  the  Articles,  a  committee 
named  by  the  jnriiament  at  the  beginning  of  each 
session,  to  consider  what  measures  should  m  passed ; 
and  whatever  they  reconmiended  was  generally 
passed  without  discussion.  It  was  never  hSid  indis- 
psasable  that  the  parliament  should  be  summoned 


by  the  crown,  and  it  has  even  been  thought  that 
the  royal  assent  to  the  measures  carried  was  not 
absolutely  essential  The  parliament  which  carried 
the  Beformation  had  no  royal  sanction.  The  Union 
was  adjusted  by  commissioners  for  each  countxy 
selected  by  the  crown,  and  passed  first,  after  strong 
and  protiacted  opposition,  m  Scotland,  and  after- 
wards more  easily  m  England. 

By  the  act  of  union  with  Ireland  in  1800  (Act 
39  and  40  Geo.  III.  c  67),  the  Irish  Parliament  was 
united  with  that  of  Great  Britain  as  the  Parliament 
of  the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
The  Parliament  of  Ireland  had  been  originally 
formed  on  the  model  of  that  of  England  about  ttm 
close  of  the  13th  c,  but  it  was  merely  the  veiv 
small  portion  of  Ireland  occupied  by  &e  Engh'sn 
settlers  that  was  represented,  which,  as  late  as  the 
time  of  Henry  YIL,  hardly  extended  bevond  the 
counties  of  Dublin,  Louth,  Kildare,  and  Meath, 
and  constituted  what  was  called  the  Pale.  It  was 
only  for  the  last  few  years  of  its  existence  that  the 
Irish  Parliament  was  a  supreme  legislature;  the 
English  Parliament  having,  down  to  1783,  had 
power  to  legislate  for  Ireland.  By  one  of  the 
provisions  of  Poyning's  Act,  passed  in  1495^  no 
legislative  proposals  could  be  made  to  the  Irish 
Parliament  until  they  had  received  the  sanction  of 
the  king  and  council  in  England.  Act  23  Geo.  III. 
c.  28  gave  the  Irish  Parliament  exclusive  authority 
to  legislate  for  Ireland,  and  the  abuse  of  this  power 
so  obstructed  the  machinery  of  government,  as  to 
render  the  Union  of  1800  matter  of  necessity. 

The  power  of  parliament  is,  according  to  Sir 
Edward  Coke,  so  transcendent  and  absolute,  that 
it  cannot  be  confined  either  for  persons  or  causes 
within  any  bounds.  All  remedies  which  transcend 
the  ordinary  courts  of  law  are  within  its  reach.  It 
can  alter  the  succession  to  the  throne,  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  kingdom,  and  the  constitution  of  parlia- 
ment itself.  It  has  its  own  law,  to  be  learned  from 
the  roUs  and  records  of  parliament,  and  by  prece- 
dente  and  experience.  One  of  the  most  thoroughly 
estebliahed  maxims  of  this  law  is,  that  whatever 
question  arises  concerning  either  House  of  Parlia- 
ment ought  to  be  discussed  and  adjudged  there, 
and  not  elsewhere.  The  House  of  Lords  will  not 
allow  the  Commons  to  interfere  in  a  question 
regarding  an  election  of  a  Scotch  or  Irish  peer ; 
the  Commons  will  not  allow  the  Lords  to  judge  of 
the  validity  of  the  election  of  a  member  of  their 
House,  nor  will  either  House  permit  courte  of  law 
to  examine  such  cases.  The  authority  of  parlia- 
ment extends  to  British  colonies  and  foreign  pos- 
sessions. In  the  ordinaiy  course  of  government, 
however,  parliament  does  not  make  laws  for  the 
colonies.  For  some  the  Queen  in  Council  legislates ; 
others  have  legislatures  of  their  own,  which  pro- 
pound laws  for  their  internal  government,  subject 
to  the  approbation  of  the  Qneen  in  Council;  but 
these  may  be  repealed  and  amended  by  parliament. 

The  constituent  « parts  of  parliament  are  the 
sovereign,  the  House  of  Lords,  and  the  House  of 
Commons.  In  the  sovereign  is  vested  the  whole 
executive  power ;  the  crown  is  also  the  fountain  of 
justice,  from  whence  the  whole  judicial  authority 
flows.  To  the  crown  is  entrusted  the  permanent 
duty  of  government,  to  be  fulfilled  in  accordance 
with  the  law  of  the  realm,  and  by  the  advice  of 
ministers  responsible  to  parliament  The  sovereign 
is  also  invested  with  the  character  of  the  represen- 
tetion  of  the  majesty  of  the  state.  The  sovereign's 
share  in  the  legislature  includes  the  summoning, 
proroguing,  and  dissolving  of  parliament.  Parlia- 
ment can  only  assemble  dv  act  of  the  sovereign ; 
in  but  two  instances  have  the  Lords  and  Commons 
mi  it  of  their  own  authority— viz.,  previously  to  tha 

S81 


PARLIAMENT. 


Reetoratiotft  of  Charles  II.,  and  at  the  Conventioxi 
Parliament  summoned  at  the  Revolution  of  1688; 
and  in  both  instances  it  was  considered  necessary 
afterwards  to  pass  an  act  declaring  the  parliament 
to  be  a  legal  one.  Though  the  queen  may  deter- 
mine the  period  for  assembling  parliament,  her  pre- 
rogative is  restrained  within  certain  limits.  She  is 
bound  by  statute  (16  Ghas.  II.  c.  1 ;  and  6  and  7  WilL 
and  Mary  c.  2)  to  issue  writs  within  three  years 
after  the  determination  of  a  parliament;  and  the 
practice  of  voting  money  for  the  public  service  by 
annual  enactments,  renders  it  oompulsoiy  for  the 
sovereign  to  meet  parliament  every  year.  Act  43 
Gea  IIL  o.  90  provides  that  the  sovereign  shall 
assemble  parliament  within  fourteen  days,  whenever 
the  militia  shall  be  drawn  out  and  embodied  in  case 
of  apprehended  invasion  and  rebellion ;  and  a  similar 
proviso  is  inserted  in  Act  15  and  16  Vict  o.  60,  in 
case  the  present  militia  force  should  be  raised  to 
120,000  men,  and  embodied.  The  royal  assent  is 
necessary  before  any  measure  can  pass  into  law. 
The  crown,  as  the  executive  power,  is  charged  with 
the  management  of  the  revenues  of  the  state,  and 
with  all  payments  for  the  public  service ;  it  is  there- 
fore the  crown  that  makes  known  to  the  Commons 
the  pecuniary  necessities  of  the  government,  without 
which  no  supplies  can  be  granted.  The  sovereign's 
prerogative  also  includes  the  sending  and  receiving 
of  ambassadors,  entering  into  treaty  with  foreign 
powers,  and  declaringwar  or  peace.  All  the  kings 
and  queens  since  the  Revolution  have  taken  an  oath 
at  their  coronation  *  to  govern  according  to  the 
statutes  in  parliament  agr^d  on,  and  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  same.'  The  sovereign  is  further 
bound  to  an  adherence  to  the  Protestant  faith,  and 
the  maintenance  of  the  Protestant  religion  as  estab- 
lished by  law.  By  the  Bill  of  Rights  (1  Wia 
and  Mary  c.  2,  s.  6),  and  the  Act  of  Settlement  (12 
and  13  WilL  IIL  c  2,  s.  2)  a  person  professing 
the  popish  reli^on,  or  marrying  a  papist,  is  incap- 
able of  inheriting  the  crown,  and  the  people  are 
absolved  from  their  allegiance.  This  exclusion  is 
further  confirmed  by  the  Act  of  Union  with  Scot- 
land ;  and  in  addition  to  the  coronation  oath,  every 
king  or  queen  is  required  to  take  the  declaration 
against  the  doctrines  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
prescribed  by  30  Chas.  II.  c.  2,  either  on  the 
throne  in  the  House  of  Lords  in  the  presence  of 
both  Houses,  at  the  tirst  meeting  of  the  first  parlia- 
ment after  the  accession,  or  at  the  coronation,  which- 
ever event  shall  first  happen.  The  sovereign  is 
bound  by  similar  sanctions  to  maintain  the  Pro- 
testant religion  and  Presbyterian  church  government 
in  Scotland. 

The  province  of  the  Houses  of  Parliament  is  to 
l^slate  with  the  crown,  to  provide  supplies,  to 
exercise  a  supervision  over  the  ministers  of  the 
crown  and  all  other  functionaries,  and  to  advise 
the  sovereign  on  matters  of  public  moment.  The 
I7pper  House,  from  its  hereditary  and  aristocratic 
character,  is  a  check  on  the  popular  branch  of  the 
leffisture  and  on  hasty  legislation. 

Tlie  House  of  Lords  may  originate  legislative 
measures  of  all  kinds,  except  money-bills.  Acts  of 
grace  and  all  bills  affecting  the  rights  of  the  peers 
necessarily  originate  in  this  House.  In  its  judicial 
capacity,  it  forms  a  court  for  the  trial  of  causes  on 
appeal  from  the  Court  of  Chancery,  on  writs  of 
error  to  review  judgments  in  the  Queen's  Bench, 
and  on  appeal  from  we  Court  of  Session.  It  has  a 
judicature  in  claims  of  peerage  and  offices  of  honour 
under  reference  from  tne  crown.  Since  the  union 
with  Scotland  and  Ireland,  it  has  had  the  power  of 
deciding  controverted  elections  of  representative 
peers.  It  tries  such  offenders  as  are  impeached  by 
the  House  <k  Commons,  and  mamben  of  its  own 


body  on  indictment  found  by  a  grand  jury.    The 
House  of  Lords    is    composed    of    lords  spiritual 
and  temporaL     According  to  a  declaration  of  the 
House  in  1672,  the  lords  spiritual  are  only  lords  of 
parliament  and  not  peers,  a  distinction  which  seems 
not  to  have  been  known  in  ancient  times.    They 
consiit  of  2  archbishops  and  24  bishops  for  England, 
who  are  said  to  have  seats  in  virtue  of  their  tem* 
poral  baronies;  and  4  Irish  bishops,  who  represent 
the  clergy  of  Ireland,  according  to  a  rotation  estab- 
Ushed  at  the  Union  of  1800.    The  Bishop  of  Sodor 
and  Man  has  no  seat  in  |>arliament,  and  on  Man- 
chester being  made  a  see  in  1847,  it  was  ananged 
that  one  other  bishop  should  be  in  the  same  posi- 
tion, according  to  a  rotation    not    including   the 
bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester,  so  ss 
not  to  increase  the  number  of  the  lords  spiritual 
The  lords    temporal   consist  of — 1.  The    peers  of 
England,   of  Great   Britain,    and    of   the  United 
Kingdom,  of  whom  there  are  at  present  23  dukes 
(3  of  whom  are  royal  dukes),  19  marquises,  110 
earls,  22  viscounts,  and  209  barona    Tne  number 
of   the  peers  of   the    United  Kingdom    may   be 
increased  without  limit  by  new  creations  at  the 
pleasure  of  the  sovereign.    2.  Sixteen  representa- 
tives chosen  from  their  own  body  by  the  peers  ol 
Scotland  for  each  parliament.    As  no  provision  wss 
made  at  the  Union  for  any  subs^uent  creation  of 
Scottish  peers,   the  peerage  of    Scotland  consistB 
exclusively  of   the  descendants  of  peers  existing 
before  the  Union.    By  order  of  the  H(ouse  of  Lords, 
an  authentic  list  of  the  Scottish  peers  was  entered 
on  the  roll  of  peers  on  12th  February  1708,  to  which 
all  claims  since  established  have  been  added ;  and  in 
order  to  prevent  the  assumption  of  dormant  and 
extinct  peerages  by  persons  not  having  right  to 
them,  statute  10  and  11  Vict.  c.  52,  provides  that  no 
title  standing  in  the  roll,  in  right  of  which  no  vote 
has  been  given  since  1800,  shall  be  called  over  at  an 
election  without  an  order  of  the  House  of  Lords. 
A  representative  peer  ceases  to  be  one  of  the  repre- 
sentatives on  being  created  a  peer  of  the  United 
Kingdom.    3.  Twenty-eight  representatives  of  the 
Irisn  peerage,  elected  for  life.     For  an  account  of 
the  different  degrees  of  the  peerage,  and  of  those 
privileges    of    the    peers    that    are    unconnected 
with  their  position  as  members  of  parliament,  see 
Nobility.    All  peerages  are  now  hereditary.     life 
peerages  were  in  early  times  not  unknown  to  tha 
constitution ;  but  in  1856,  her  Majesty  having  created 
Sir  James  Parke,  Baron  Wensleydale  for  and  during 
the  term  of  his  natural  life,  the  House  of  Lords,  on 
the  report  of  a  Committee  of  Privileges,  decided  that 
the  grantee  could  not  sit  or  vote  in  parliament. 
Lord  Wensleydale  therefore  did  not  offer  to  take  the 
oaths,  and  was  soon  afterwards  created  a  hereditary 
baron.    The  lords  are  entitled  to  have  tha  attend- 
ance in  their  House  of  the  judges  of  the  Courts  oi 
Queen's  Bench  and  Common  Pleas,  and  such  of  the 
Barons  of  Exchequer  as  are  of  the  degree  of  the 
coif,  or  have  been  made  serjeants-at-law  ;  as  also 
of  the  Queen's  Counsel  being  Serjeants.    The  votes  I 
of  spiritual  and  temporal  lords  are  intermixed,  and 
the  joint  majority  aetermine  eveiy  question  ;  bat 
they  sit    apart    on    separate    benches — ^thc    place 
assigned  to  the  lords  spiritual  being  the  upper  part 
of  the  House  on  the  right  hand  of  the  throne.     A 
lord  may,  by  license  &>m  the  sovereign,  appoint 
another  lord  as  his  proxy  to  vote  for  him  in  hia 
absence;  but  a  lord  spiritual  can  onlv  be  proxy 
for  a  lord  spiritual,  and  a  lord  temporal  for  a  lord 
temporal,  and  no  member  of  the  House  can  hold 
more  than  two  proxies  at  the  same  time.     Pr<>xiea 
cannot  vote  in  judicial  questions.    Peerages  aii  lost 
by  attainder  for  high  treason.    Neither  &e  iar^ue  of 
the  body  of  the  person  attainted,  nor,  on  thdr  failim^ 


PARLIAMENT. 


the  desoendants  of  the  person  first  called  to  the 
dignity,  will  be  admitted  to  it  without  a  remoyal  of 
the  attainder.  But  where  the  attainted  person  is 
tenant  in  tail-male  with  a  remainder  in  tail-male  to 
another,  the  dignity  becomes  vested  in  the  remainder 
man  on  failure  of  the  issue  of  the  person  attainted. 
A  peerage,  whether  by  patent  or  writ,  is  forfeited 
by  attainder  for  high  treason ;  attainder  for  felony 
forfeits  a  peerage  by  writ,  not  one  by  patent.  An 
attainted  peerage  cannot  be  restored  by  the  crown, 
only  by  an  act  of  parliament. 

The  House  of  Commons,  besides  its  general  power 
to  introduce  le^slative  measures,  has  the  sole  right 
to  orig|inate  buLs  levyinf^  taxes,  or  afifecting  the 
public  income  and  expenditure,  and  to  examine  into 
the  validity  of  elections  to  its  own  body.  The 
question  whether  it  has  any  control  over  the  rights 
of  electors  was  the  subject  of  a  memorable  contest 
between  the  Lords  and  Commons  in  1704^  ^^  the 
cases  of  Ashby  and  White,  and  of  the  '  Aylesbury 
men'  (HaUeUa  Preoedentt,  voL  iiL),  a  contest  ended 
by  the  queen  proro^ng  parliament.  When  inquir- 
ing into  the  conflicting  claims  of  candidates  for  seats 
in  parliament,  the  Commons  have  an  undoubted 
power  to  determine  whether  electors  have  the  right 
to  vote.  The  House  of  Commons  has  the  right  to 
expel  or  commit  to  prison  its  own  membera,  and 
to  commit  other  persons  who  offend  by  breach  of 
its  privileffes,  contempt  of  its  authority,  disobedience 
of  its  orders,  or  invasion  of  its  rights;  but  this 
power  is  limited  to  the  duration  of  the  session. 
£xpuIsion  does  not,  however,  create  any  disability 
to  serve  again  in  parliament :  a  resolution  passed 
in  1769,  to  exclude  Mr  Wilkes,  duly  elected  for 
Middlesex,  on  the  ground  of  his  having  been  pre- 
viously expelled  for  a  seditious  libel,  was  proved  to 
be  ille^  and  expunged  from  the  Journals  of  the 
House  in  1782.  The  House  of  Commons  has  also 
the  power  of  impeaching  offenders,  who,  however, 
are  tried  at  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lords. 

The  number  of  members  of  the  House  of  Commons 
has  varied  greatly  at  different  times.  In  the  reign 
of  £dward  I.,  it  seems  to  have  been  275  ;  in  that  of 
Edward  IIL,  250;  and  of  Henry  VL,  300.  In  the 
reign  of  Henry  VIIL,  27  members  were  added  for 
Walea,  and  4  for  the  county  and  city  of  Chester ;  4 
were  added  for  the  county  and  city  of  Durham  in 
the  reim  of  Charles  IL  Between  the  reign  of 
Henry  VlIL  and  that  of  Charles  IL,  180  new 
members  were  added  by  the  granting  of  royal 
charters  to  boroughs  which  had  not  previously 
returned  representatives.  Forty-five  members  were 
assigned  as  ner  proportion  to  Scotland  at  the  Union, 
and  100  to  Ireland,  making  the  whole  number  of 
members  of  the  Parliament  of  the  United  Kingdom 
658 — a  nnmbor  which  was  retained  unaltered  amid 
the  chimges  effected  by  the  reform  of  1832.  Two 
towns  in  ESngland,  Sudbury  and  St  Albans,  have 
since  been  disfranchised  for  bribery,  and  the  4 
Tacant  seats  bestowed,  two  on  Yorkshire,  one  on 
Lancashire,  and  the  third  on  the  new  borough  of 
Birkenhead.  The  Reform  Acts,  2  Will  IV.  c.  45 
lor  England,  2  and  3  WilL  IV.  o.  65  (amended 
by  4  and  5  WilL  IV.  a  SS,  and  5  and  6  WiU. 
iV.  c  78)  for  Scotland,  and  2  and  3  WilL  IV. 
c.  88  for  Ireland,  remodelled  the  whole  electoral 
systeni  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Fift^-six  boroughs 
in  Eo^^and  and  Wales  were  entirely  disfran- 
chised ;  30  which  had  previously  returned  two 
meoaben  were  restricted  to  one;  while  42  new 
boroughs  were  created,  of  which  22  were  each  to 
xetom  two  members,  and  20  a  single  member. 
Several  small  burghs  in  Wales  were  united  to 
elect  one  member.  Four  members  were  assi^ed 
to  the  city  of  London,  2  to  each  of  the  universities 
fli  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  and  one  to  133  cities 


and  boroughs.  Of  counties,  one,  Lancaster,  has 
5  members;  25  counties  and  the  West  Kiding  of 
York,  4 ;  7  counties  have  3  members  each ;  9 
counties,  and  the  East  Hiding  and  North  Kidiuff 
of  York,  2  members;  and  10  counties  have  I 
member  each.  The  Scotch  Keform  Act  increased 
the  number  of  members  for  Scotland  from  45 
to  53,  30  being  county  and  23  burgh  meml)ers, 
some  of  the  latter  representing  several  combined 
burghs.  By  the  Irish  licform  Act  the  number  of 
members  for  Ireland  was  increased  from  100  to  105, 
64  representing  counties,  34  cities  and  boroughs, 
and  2  the  Umversity  of  Dublin.  At  present,  the 
number  of  members  of  the  House  ia  658,  who  are 
thus  distributed : 

CoaotlM.     Borouglu.      Uolvrnitiet.       TotnL 

England  and  Wales,      162  334  4  600 

Scotland,         .       •       30  23  53 

Ireland,      •       •  64  39  S  105 


256 


896 


6d8 


In  England,  the  former  county  franchise  had 
been  founded  exclusively  on  the  holding  of  free- 
hold property  for  life  of  the  clear  yearly  value 
of  408,,  without  re8|i€ct  to  occupancy;  and 
persons  so  qualified  at  the  passing  of  the  B^form 
Act  retain  their  franchise  so  long  as  they  con- 
tinue seized  of  the  same  freehold  The  neces- 
sary qualification  is  now  either — 1.  A  freehold 
of  inheritance  of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  40& 
2.  A  freehold  for  life  of  the  same  value,  if  in  the 
bond  fide  occupancy  of  the  party  claiming  to  vote, 
or  acquired  i>y  marriage,  marriage-settlement, 
devise,  or  promotion  to  any  benefice  or  office.  If 
the  freeholder  for  life  is  not  in  actual  occupancy, 
or  shall  have  acquired  his  estate  otherwise  than  m 
the  mode  above  mentioned,  his  freehold  must  be 
of  the  clear  yearly  value  of  £10.  3.  Property  not 
freehold,  of  inheritance  or  for  life,  of  the  clear 
annual  value  of  £10.  4.  Leasehold  of  the  clear 
yearly  value  of  £10,  if  the  term  was  originally  not 
less  than  60  years ;  and  of  the  clear  y ear^  value  of 
£50,  if  the  term  was  originally  not  less  than  20 
years.  5.  Occupancy  of  lands  or  tenements  for 
which  the  tenant  pays  a  yearly  rent  of  £50.  In 
boroughs,  the  old  qualification  varied  much  accord- 
ing  to  local  usage.  Non-residence  was  generally 
no  disqualification.  Freemen  and  burge&ses,  and 
livexymen  in  London  possessed  the  franchise. 
Freeholders  to  the  extent  of  40«.  had  votes  in 
such  towns  as  foi*med  counties  in  themselves ; 
elsewhere,  leaseholders,  copyholders,  and  burgage 
tenants  were  admitted.  By  the  remodelled  system, 
the  franchise  is  based  chiefly  on  inhabitancy 
of  premises  of  the  yearly  value  of  £10,  former 
franchises  possessed  by  freeholders  and  burgage 
tenants  being  to  a  certain  extent  retained,  with  a 
qualification  of  six  months'  previous  residence.  If 
a  person  have  property  which  woidd  qualify  him 
as  a  borough  elector,  he  cannot,  instead  of  becoming 
a  borough  elector,  choose  in  resi)ect  of  that  pro- 
perty to  qualify  as  a  county  elector.  In  Scot- 
land, the  old  county  qualification  consisted  in 
being  infeft  in  lands  or  superiorities  holding 
directly  of  the  crown  of  40*.  old  extent  (see 
Valuation),  or  £400  Scots  valued  rent ;  and 
persons  in  possession  of  this  franchise  before  1831 
continued  to  retain  it.  The  reformed  county  con- 
stituency consists  of  proprietors  of  lands  and 
other  heritable  subjects  of  the  yearly  value  of 
£10,  tenants  whetiier  in  occupancy  or  not,  under  a 
long  lease  where  the  tenant's  mterest  is  £10  yearly, 
or  under  a  19  years'  lease,  where  his  interest  is  £50 
(sub-tenants  must  be  in  occupancy);  and  tenants 
in  occupancy,  paying  a  yearly  rent  of  £60,  or  who 
have  paid  a  grassum  of  £300.  The  Scottish  burghal 
franchise  was,  by  the  old  system,  vested  in  the 

S8S 


PARLIAMENT. 


meiaben  of  the  town-council  and  their  delegates. 
A  £10  qualification,  either  as  occupant  or  as  pro- 
prietor, was  substituted  by  the  Reform  Act, 
lesidence  within  seven  miles  of  the  borough  being 
wade  necessary  in  the  case  of  proprietors.  By  the 
Irish  Reform  Act,  various  classes  of  freeholders 
were  invested  with  the  county  franchise,  to  whom 
were  added,  by  13  and  14  Vict  a  69,  occupiers  of 
land  rated  for  the  poor-rate  at  a  net  annual  value  of 
£12,  and  persons  entitled  to  estates  in  fee,  or  in 
tail,  or  for  life,  of  the  rated  value  of  £5.  The  Irish 
borough  qualification  introduced  by  the  Reform 
Act  was  nearly  the  same  as  the  English,  but  the 
above-mentioned  statute  of  Victoria  has  added  to 
the  constituency  the  occupiers  of  lands  and 
premises  rated  at  £8.  Certain  disqualifications 
exist  from  exercising  the  franchise  on  the  grounds 
of  infamy,  alienage,  conviction  of  felony,  and  the 
holding  of  government  offices.  Peers  cannot  vote. 
In  the  universities  of  Cambridge  and  Oxford,  the 
constituency  consists  of  the  doctors  and  masters  of 
arts;  and  in  Dul)lin,  of  the  fellows,  scholars,  and 
graduates  of  Trinity  College. 

The  several  Reform  Acts  introduced  a  system  of 
r^stratiou  of  voters  for  the  three  divisions  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  England,  Usts  of  voters  are 
prepared  by  the  overseers  of  each  parish,  and  on 
certain  days  courts  are  held  by  barristers  appointed 
by  the  chief  justice  and  the  senior  judee  of  each 
summer  circuit  to  revise  these  lists,  when  claims 
may  be  made  for  persons  omitted,  and  objections 
offered  to  names  standing  on  the  list.  If  an  objec- 
tion be  sustained,  the  name  is  struck  off  the  list, 
there  being  an  appeal  from  the  decision  of  the 
revising  barrister  to  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas. 
In  Scotland,  a  register  of  persons  entitled  to  vote 
is  made  up  annually  in  counties  and  boroughs  in 
terms  of  the  Registration  of  Voters  (Scotland)  Act, 
24  and  25  Vict.  c.  23,  which  register  is  printed,  and 
may  be  had  for  a  small  price  from  the  officers 
charged  with  making  up  the  rolL  By  this  arrange- 
ment, persons  eligible  as  voters  are  put  on  the  roll 
without  trouble  to  themselves,  and,  m  point  of  fact, 
without  their  consent  Enrolment,  however,  may 
be  challenged,  in  which  case  objections  are  heard 
and  determined  by  the  sheriffs.  The  r^stration 
system  of  Ireland  introduced  by  the  Reform  Act 
resembles  that  of  England ;  and  by  16  and  1-7  Vict 
c.  68,  provision  is  made  for  the  annual  revision  of 
the  list  of  voters  for  the  city  of  Dublin. 

A  property  qualification,  of  £600  a  year  in 
candidates  for  counties,  and  £300  in  candidates  for 
boroughs,  which,  had  previously  existed  in  England 
and  Ireland,  was  left  untouched  in  1831,  but  has 
been  abolished  by  21  and  22  Vict  c.  26.  Scotch  peers, 
though  not  representative  peers,  are  disqualified 
from  sitting  in  the  House  of  Commons.  Irish  peers 
may  represent  any  constituency  in  Great  Britain, 
but  not  in  Ireland.  A  disqualification  is  also 
attached  to  judges  (except  the  Master  of  the  Rolls), 
clergvmen  of  ue  Lstablished  Church  of  any  of 
the  tnree  kingdoms,  Roman  CathoLc  priests,  revenue 
officers,  persoiid  Convicted  of  treason  and  felony, 
and  aliens  even  when  naturalised,  unless  the  ri^ht 
have  been  conceded  in  express  terms.  Sheriffs 
cannot  sit  for  their  own  counties,  and  government 
contractors  are  disqnalified  by  22  Gea  III.  c.  45, 
and  41  G^.  IIL  c.  52,  a  disqualification  which  does 
not  extend  to  contractors  for  government  loans. 
A  member  becoming  bankrupt  is  mcapadtated  from 
Bitting  or  voting. 

When  a  new  parliament  has  to  be  assembled,  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  by  order  of  the  sovereign,  directs 
the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  prepare  and  issue,  under 
the  Great  Seal,  writs  to  the  sheriffiB  of  counties,  both 
lor  the  counties  and  the  boroughs.    A  BheriJSl  on 

m 


receiving  the  writ  for  a  county,  appoints  a  day  for 
the  election,  and  on  the  day  fixed  proclaims  the 
writ  If  no  more  candidates  are  then  proposed  than 
are  to  be  elected,  he  declares  them  duly  elected ; 
if  there  is  opposition,  a  show  of  hands  is  asked, 
and  the  sheriff  declares  who  has  the  majority.  If 
a  poll  is  demanded  by  the  opposite  party,  the 
election  is  adjourned.  Each  county  is  divided  into 
districts,  with  a  polling-place  in  each,  at  which  the 
electors  vote;  and  at  the  termination  of  the  poll, 
the  return  is  transmitted  to  the  sheriff,  who  pro- 
claims the  successful  candidata  In  borough 
elections  in  England  and  Ireland,  the  sheriflE^  on 
receiving  the  writ,  issues  his  precept  to  the  return- 
ing officer  of  the  municipality,  who  superintends 
the  election ;  in  Scotland,  the  sheriff  himself  super- 
intends the  borough  as  well  as  the  county  elections. 
The  names  of  the  persons  elected  both  m  counties 
and  boroughs  are  returned  by  the  sheriff  to  the 
Clerk  of  the  Crown.  Vacancies  occurring  after  a 
general  election  are  supplied  by  new  wnta  issued 
by  authority  of  the  Housa  When  it  is  determined 
that  a  writ  should  be  amended,  the  Clerk  of  the 
Crown  is  ordered  to  attend  the  House,  and  amend 
it  accordingly. 

A  member  of  the  House  of  Commons  cannot,  ill 
theory,  resign  his  seat ;  but  on  the  acceptance  of  any 
office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  his  election  is,  by 
an  act  of  Queen  Anne,  declared  void,  and  a  new 
writ  issues,  he  being,  however,  eligible  for  re- 
election. See  CHiLTRKtr  Hundrbi>&  The  resigna- 
tion of  office  is  held  not  to  be  complete  until  the 
appointment  of  a  successor ;  and  on  the  resumption 
of  office,  the  seat  is  held  not  to  have  been  vacated. 
A  first  commission  in  the  army  or  navy  vacates  a 
seat ;  subsequent  commissions  do  not  do  so. 

Prwilfge. — Both  Houses  of  Parliament  possess 
extensive  privileges  for  the  maintenance  of  their 
authority  and  the  protection  of  individual  members. 
Some  of  these  privileges  have  well-defined  limits; 
others  are  so  vague  in  their  extent  as  oocasionally 
to  lead  to  conflicts  between  parliament  and  the 
courts  of  law.  The  privilege  of  speech  is  claimed 
of  tiie  sovereign  by  the  S[^aker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  at  the  opening  of  every  new  parliament 
At  the  same  time,  any  member  using  offensive 
expressions  may  be  called  to  the  bar  to  receive  a 
reprimand  from  the  Speaker ;  or,  if  the  offence  be 
grave,  may  be  committed  for  contempt,  in  which 
case  he  is  sent  either  to  the  Tower  or  to  Newgate. 
Persons  not  members  of  the  House  may  also  be 
committed  for  breach  of  privilege,  and  no  one  com- 
mitted for  contempt  can  be  admitted  to  bail,  nor 
can  the  cause  of  commitment  be  inquired  into  by 
the  courts  of  law.  The  publication  of  the  debates 
of  either  House  has  repeatedlv  been  declared  a 
breach  of  privilege ;  but  for  a  long  time  back  this 
privilege  has  been  practically  waiv^  except  where 
the  re^rts  are  false  and  perverted.  Publication  of 
the  evidence  before  a  select  committee  previously  to 
its  being  reported  is  punished  as  a  breach  of  privi- 
lege. Libellous  reflections  on  the  character  and 
proceedings  of  parliament  or  of  members  of  the 
House  come  unaer  the  same  category,  as  also  does 
assaulting  or  threatening  a  member.  Wilful  dis- 
obedience to  the  orders  of  the  House  is  punishable 
as  a  breach  of  privilege;  but  if  orders  be  given 
bejrond  the  jurisdiction  of  the  House,  their  entorce- 
ment  may  be  questioned  in  a  court  of  law.  The 
offer  of  a  bribe  to,  or  its  aeceptanoe  by  a  member  is 
a  breach  of  privilege ;  so  also  is  any  interference 
with  the  officers  of  the  House  in  the  execution  ol 
their  duty,  or  tampering  with  witnesses  who  are  to 
be  examined  before  the  House  or  a  committee  of  the 
House.  Members  of  both  Houses  are  free  from 
aireet  or  imprisonment  in  oivd  matters,  a  privilege 


PAKLIAMENT. 


which  18  pennanent  m  the  case  of  peers,  extend- 
ing also  to  peeresses,  whether  by  creation  or 
marriiige  (though  the  latter  lose  it  by  subsequently 
marrying  a  commoner),  and  to  peers  and  peeresses 
of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  whether  representative  or 
not.  It  continues  in  the  case  of  members  of  the 
House  of  Commons  during  the  sitting  of  parliament, 
for  40  days  after  each  prorogation,  for  40  days  prior 
to  the  day  to  which  parliament  is  prorogued,  and 
for  a  reasonable  time  after  a  dissolution.  Wit- 
nesses summoned  to  attend  before  parliament  or 
parliamentary  committees,  and  other  persons  in 
attendance  on  the  business  of  parliament,  are  also 
protected  from  arrest.  Protection  is  not  claimable 
from  arrest  for  any  indictable  offence.  Counsel  are 
protected  for  any  statements  that  they  may  make 
professionally. 

Meeting  of  a  New  Parliament — On  the  day 
appointed  for  the  meeting  of  a  new  parliament,  the 
members  of  the  two  Mouses  assemble  in  their 
respective  chambers.  In  the  Lords,  the  Lord  Chan- 
cellor acquaints  the  House  that  'her  Majesty,  not 
thinking  it  fit  to  be  personally  present  here  this 
day,  had  been  pleased  to  cause  a  Commission  to  be 
issued  under  the  Great  Seal,  in  order  to  the  opening 
and  holding  of  the  parliament.'  The  Lords  Com- 
missioners, oeing  in  their  robes,  and  seated  between 
the  throne  and  woolsack,  then  command  the  Gentle- 
man Usher  of  the  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Commons 
know  that  the  'Lords  Commissioners  desire  their 
immediate  attendance  in  this  House  to  hear  the 
Commission  read.*  Meantime,  in  the  Lower  House, 
the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  in  Chancery  has  delivered 
to  the  Clerk  of  the  House  a  list  of  the  members 
returned  to  serve;  and  on  receiving  the  message 
from  Black  Rod,  the  Commons  go  up  to  the  House 
of  Xx>rd8.  The  commission  Imving  been  read  in 
presence  of  the  members  of  both  Houses,  the  Lord 
Chancellor  opens  the  parliament  by  stating  'that 
her  Majesty  will,  as  soon  as  the  members  of  both 
Houses  shall  be  sworn,  declare  the  causes  of  her 
calling  this  parliament ;  and  it  being  necessary  that 
a  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Commons  should  first  be 
chosen,  that  you,  gentlemen  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, repair  to  the  place  where  you  are  to  sit,  and 
there  proceed  to  the  appointment  of  some  proper 
person  as  your  Speaker,  and  that  you  present  such 
person  whom  you  shall  so  choose  here  to-morrow 
at  o'clock,  for  her  Majesty's  royal  approbation.' 
Hie  Commons  immediately  withdraw,  and,  returning 
to  their  own  House,  proceed  to  elect  a  Speaker. 

Till  a  Speaker  be  elected,  the  clerk  acts  as  Speaker, 
standing  and  pointing  to  members  as  they  rise  to 
speak,  and  then  sitting  down.  If  only  one  candi- 
date be  proposed  for  the  office,  the  motion^  after 
being  seconded,  is  supported  by  an  influential 
member,  generally  the  leader  of  the  House  of 
Conmions ;  and  the  member  proposed,  having 
expressed  his  sense  of  the  honour  meant  to  be 
conferred  on  him,  is  called  by  the  House  to  the 
chair,  to  which  he  is  led  by  his  propose  and 
seconder.  If  another  member  be  proposed  and 
seconded,  a  debate  ensues;  and  at  its  close,  the 
derit  puts  the  question,  that   the   member   first 

groposed  'do  tase  the  chair  of  the  House  as 
peaker.'  If  the  House  divide,  he  directs  one' 
party  to  go  into  the  right  lobby,  and  the  other  into 
the  left,  and  appoints  two  tellers  for  each.  If  the 
majority  be  in  mvour  of  the  member  first  proposed, 
he  is  led  to  the  chair;  if  not,  a  similar  question 
being  put  regarding  the  other  member  and  answered 
in  the  affirmative,  he  is  conducted  to  the  chair. 
The  Speaker-elect  expresses  his  thanks  for  the 
honour  conferred  on  nim,  and  takes  his  seat ;  on 
which,  the  mace  is  laid  on  the  table,  where  it  is 
always  placed  during  the  sitting  of  the  House  with 


the  Speaker  in  the  chair.  He  is  then  congratulated 
by  some  leading  member,  and  the  House  adjourns. 
The  next  day,  the  Speaker-elect,  on  the  arrival  of 
Black  Rod,  proceeds  with  the  Commons  to  the 
House  of  Lords,  where  his  election  is  approved  by 
the  Lord  Chancellor.  He  then  lays  claim,  on  behaU 
of  the  Commons,  to  their  ancient  rights  and  privi- 
leges, which,  being  confirmed,  he  retires  with  the 
Commons  from  the  bar.  Nearly  the  same  forms 
are  observed  on  the  election  of  a  new  Speaker,  when 
a  vacancy  occurs  by  death  or  resignation  in  the 
course  of  the  session. 

The  members  of  both  Houses  then  take  the  oath 
prescribed  by  law,  a  proceeding  which  occupies 
several  days.  See  Oath;  Abjuration.  In  the 
Upper  House,  the  Lord  Chancellor  first  takes 
the  oath  singly  at  the  table.  The  Clerk  of  the 
Crown  delivers  a  certificate  of  the  return  of  the 
Scottish  representative  peers,  and  Garter  King- 
at-arms  the  roll  of  the  lords  temporal,  after 
which  the  lords  present  take  and  subscribe  the 
oath.  Peers  who  have  been  newly  created  by 
letters-patent  present  their  patents  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  are  introduced  in  their  robes  between 
two  other  peers  of  their  own  dignity,  preceded 
by  Black  Rod  and  Garter,  and  conducted  to 
their  places.  The  same  ceremony  is  observed  in 
the  case  of  peers  who  have  received  a  writ  of 
sununons — a  formality  necessary  when  a  member  of 
the  Lower  House  succeeds  to  a  peerage ;  otherwise, 
his  seat  does  not  become  vacant.  A  bishop  is  intro- 
duced by  two  other  bishops,  without  the  formalities 
observed  with  temporal  lords.  Representative 
bishops  of  Ireland  take  their  seats  without  any 
particular  ceremony.  Peers  by  descent  have  a 
right  to  take    their   seats  without    introduction; 

Eeers  by  special  limitation  in  remainder  have  to 
e  introduced.  In  the  Commons,  the  Speaker  first 
subscribes  the  oath,  standing  on  the  upper  «tep  of 
the  chair,  and  is  followed  by  the  other  members. 
Members  on  taking  the  oath  are  introduced  by  the 
Clerk  of  the  House  to  the  Speaker.  Members 
returned  on  new  writs  in  the  course  of  the  session, 
after  taking  the  oath,  are  introduced  between  two 
members.  They  must  bring  a  certificate  of  their 
return  from  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown.  The  oaths  are 
required  to  be  taken  in  a  full  House,  with  the 
Speaker  in  the  chair — in  the  Conunons,  between  the 
hours  of  nine  and  four.  The  presence  of  a  Commis- 
sion constitutes  a  full  House.  In  the  Upi)er  Howie, 
the  oaths  may,  by  6  and  7  Vict.  c.  6,  be  taken  till 
5  o'clock.  On  the  demise  of  the  crown,  the  oaths 
must  be  taken  anew  in  both  Houses. 

When  the  greater  part  of  the  iiiembers  of  both 
Houses  have  been  sworn,  the  causes  of  calling  the 
parliament  are  declared  by  the  sovereign  either  in 
person  or  by  commission.  In  the  former  case,  the 
Queen  proceeds  in  state  to  the  House  of  Lords,  and 
commands  Black  Rod  to  let  the  Conmions  know 
*■  that  it  is  her  Majesty's  pleasure  that  they  attend 
her  immediately  in  this  House.'  Black  Rod  proceeds 
to  the  House  of  Commons,  and  formally  commands 
their  attendance,  on  which  the  Speaker  uid  the 
Commons  go  up  to  the  bar  of  the  House  of  Lordj, 
and  the  queen  reads  her  speech,  which  is  delivered 
to  her  by  tiie  Lord  Chancellor  kneeling  on  one  knee. 
When  parliament  is  opened  by  commission,  the 
sovereign  not  being  personally  present,  the  Lord 
Chancier  reads  the  royal  speecn  to  both  Houses. 
Immediately  after  the  royal  speech  is  read,  the 
House  is  adjourned  during  pleasure ;  but  both 
Houses  are  resumed  in  the  a&moon,  for  the  pui^ose 
of  voting  an  address  in  answer  to  the  speech  from 
the  throne.  In  each  House,  it  is  common  to 
begin  business  by  reading  some  bill  pro  former  in 
order  to  assert  the  right  of  deliberating  without 

286 


PARLIAMENT. 


reference  to  the  immediate  cause  of  mimmoiu.  The 
royal  speech  is  then  read,  and  an  address  moved  in 
answer  to  it.  Two  members  in  each  House  are 
chosen  by  ti^e  ministry  to  move  and  second  the 
address.  The  preparation  of  the  address  is  referred 
to  a  select  committee;  it  is  twice  read,  mav  be 
amended,  and  when  finally  agreed  on,  it  is  ordered 
to  be  presented  to  her  Majesty. 

Adjournment^  ProrogaUon^  and  Di89ohUkm. — 
Adjournment  of  parliament  is  but  the  continuance 
of  the  session  from  one  day  to  another.  Either 
House  may  adjourn  separately  on  its  own  autho- 
rity, with  this  restriction,  introduced  by  Act  39  and 
40  Qeo.  III.  a  14,  that  the  sovereign,  with  advice  of 
the  priv^  council,  may  issue  a  proclamation  appoint- 
ing parliament  to  meet  within  not  less  than  14  days, 
notwithstanding  an  adjournment  beyond  that  period. 
On  reassembling,  the  House  can  again  take  up  busi- 
ness which  was  left  unfinished.  A  prorogation 
differs  from  an  adjournment  in  this  respect,  tiiat  it 
not  merely  suspends  all  business,  but  quashes  aU 
proceedings  pending  at  the  time,  except  impeach- 
ments by  the  Commons,  and  Appeals  and  Writs  of 
Error  in  the  Lords.  William  III.  prorogued  parlia- 
ment from  21st  October  to  23d  October  1689,  in 
order  to  renew  the  Bill  of  Bights,  regarding  which 
a  difference  had  arisen  between  the  two  Houses 
tiiat  was  fatal  to  its  progress.  It  being  a  rule  that 
a  bill  of  the  same  substance  cannot  be  introduced 
twice  in  the  same  session,  a  prorogation  has  some- 
times been  resorted  to,  to  enable  a  second  bill  to  be 
brought  in.  Parliament  can  only  be  prorogued,  as 
alres^y  mentioned,  b^  the  sovereign;  the  royal 
authority  is  signified  either  by  the  Lord  Chancellor, 
or  by  writ  under  the  great  seal,  or  by  a  com- 
mission from  the  crown.  When  parliament  stands 
prorogued  to  a  certain  day,  tne  sovereign  is 
empowered  by  37  Geo.  III.  c.  127  to  issue  a  pro- 
clamation, giving  notice  that  parliament  is  to  meet 
on  some  other  day,  not  less  than  14  days  distant,  to 
which  day  parliament  then  stands  prorogued.  At 
the  beginning  of  a  new  parliament,  when  it  is  not 
intended  that  it  should  meet  for  the  despatch  of 
business,  it  is  usually  prorogued  by  a  writ  of  proro- 
gation read  by  the  Lord  Chancellor  in  the  House  of 
lx)rd8.  A  proclamation  is  issued  prior  to  the  proro- 
gation ;  and  when  it  is  intended  that  parliament 
iwall  meet  on  the  da^  to  which  it  is  prorogued  for 
the  despatch  of  business,  the  proclamation  states 
that  parliament  will  then  '  assemble  and  be  holden 
for  the  despatch  of  divers  urgent  and  important 
affaira' 

Parliament  comes  to  an  end  by  Dissolution,  which 
is  its  civil  death.  This  dissolution  may  be  by  the 
will  of  the  sovereign,  expressed  in  person  or  by  her 
representatives.  Having  been  first  prorogued,  it  is 
dissolved  by  a  royal  proclamation  under  the  great 
seal,  and  by  the  same  instrument  it  is  declared  that 
the  chancellor  of  Great  Britain  and  chancellor  of 
Ireland  have  been  respectively  ordered  to  issue  out 
writs  for  calling  a  new  parliament  These  writs  are 
immediatelv  issued,  and  the  period  to  be  fixed  by 
the  crown  for  the  assembling  of  the  new  parliament, 
formerly  40  days,  was  by  7  and  8  William  IV, 
reduced  to  35  days.  At  common  law,  parliament  is 
ipso  facto  dissolved  by  the  demise  of  the  crown ;  but, 
bv  Act  6  Anne,  c.  7,  it  is  continued  for  six  months 
after  the  demise,  unless  sooner  dissolved  by  the  suc- 
cessor. The  same  act  requires  parliament  to  assemble 
immediately  on  the  demise  of  the  crown,  notwith- 
standing adjournment  or  prorogation ;  and  it  is  pro- 
vided that  in  case  no  parliament  is  in  being  at  that 
time,  the  last  preceding  parliament  shall  meet  and 
be  a  parliament  By  Act  37  Geo.  III.  o.  127,  a  par- 
liament so  revived  continues  in  existence  only  for  six 
months,  if  not  sooner  dissolved.    Were  the  power  of  | 


dissolving  the  parliament  not  vested  in  the  execu- 
tive, there  would  be  a  danger  of  its  becoming 
permanent,  and  encroaching  on  the  royal  authority, 
so  as  to  destroy  the  balance  of  the  constitution. 
An  example  of  this  danger  is  shewn  in  the  Long 
Parliament,  to  which  Charles  L  conceded  that  it 
should  not  be  dissolved  till  such  time  as  it  dissolved 
itself.  If  the  Houses  of  Parliament  encroach  on  the 
executive,  or  act  factiously  or  injudiciously,  the 
crown  may,  by  a  dissolution,  bring  their  proceedings 
to  an  end,  and  appeal  to  the  people  by  sending  the 
members  of  the  Mouse  of  Commons  to  give  an 
account  of  their  conduct  to  their  oonstitutents. 
There  was  originally  no  limit  to  the  duration  of  a 

rirliament  except  the  will  of  the  sovereign.  By 
Will  and  Mary,  c.  2,  the  continuance  of  a  parlia- 
ment was  limitea  to  three  years,  a  term  afterwards 
extended  by  1  Gea  I.  o.  38,  to  seven  years.  The 
same  act  of  William  and  Mary  enacts  that  parlia- 
ment shall  assemble  once  in  three  years  at  the  least; 
but  the  practice  of  granting  the  Mutiny  Act  and  the 
Budget  for  a  year  only,  nulkes  it  necessary  tJ^t  it 
shomd  assemble  annually. 

Conduct  of  BudncMs. — ^Each   House  is   presided 
over  by  its  Speaker.    The  Sfteaker  of  the  House  of 
Commons  does  not  take  part  in  a  debate,  offer  his 
opinion,  or  vote  on  ordinary  occasions ;  but,  in  case 
of  equality,  he  has  a  casting  vote :  his  duty  is  to 
decide  all  questions  which  relate  to  order,  putting 
the  matter  at  issue  in  a  substantive  form  for  the 
decision  of  the  House,  if  his  own  decision  is  not 
assented  to.    He  explains  any  doubts  that  may  arise 
on  bills.    He  determines  the  precedence  of  members 
rising  to  address  the  House.   He  examines  witnesses 
at  the  bar.    At  the  close  of  the  session,  he  addresses 
the  sovereign  on  presenting  the  money-bills  p&ssed 
during  the  session  for  the  royal  assent.     He  nomi- 
nates the  tellers  on  a  division,  and  makes  known 
the  votes  to  the  House.    He  may  commit  members 
to  custody  during  the  pleasure  of  the  House,  a  con- 
finement which  terminates  with  the  close  of  the 
session.    When  a  vacancy  occurs  by  death,  he  signs 
the  warrant  to  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown  to  make  out 
the  writ  for  the  election  of  a  new  member.  He  audits 
the  accounts  of  the  receiver  of  fees*  and  directs  the 
printing  of  the  votes  and  proceedings  of  the  House. 
The  Lord  Chancellor,  or  Lord  Keeper  of  the  Great 
Seal,  is  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of  Lords ;  in  his 
absence,  the  Chairman  of  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  takes  the  chair.    The  Speaker  is  not,  as 
in  the  Lower  House,  chai^ged  with  the  maintenance 
^of  order,  or  the  decision  who  is  to  be  heard,  which 
rest  with  the  House  itself.    The  Chairman  of  the 
Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  of  the  House  of 
Commons  as  Deputy-speaker,  performs  the  Speaker^s 
duties  in  his  absence.   The  chief  officers  of  the  House 
of  Lords  are  the  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments,  who  takes 
minutes  of  the  proceedings  of  the  House ;  the  Gentle- 
man Usher  of  the  Black  Rod,  who,  with  his  deputy, 
the  Yeoman  Usher,  is  sent  to  desire  the  attenoance 
of  the  Commons,  executes  orders  for  committal,  and 
assists  in  various  ceremonies ;  the  derk-asaistant ; 
and  the  Ser;^eant-at-arms,  who  attends  the  Lord 
Chancellor  with  the  mace,  and  executes  the  orders 
of  the  House  for  the  attachment  of  delinqnents. 
The  chief  officers  of  the  Commons  are  the  Clerk  of 
the  House,  the  Sergeant-at-arms,  the  Clerk-aaaiatant^ 
and  Second  Clerk-assistant 

Each  House  has  its  Standing  Orden,  or  regula- 
tions, adopted  at  different  periods,  relating  partly 
to  internal  order,  partly  to  certain  preUminariei 
required  in  the  introduction  of  bills  and  promul- 
gation of  statutea  A  standing  order  enduTee  til! 
repealed  (or  'vacated,*  as  it  is  called  in  the  Upper 
House) ;  but  each  House  is  also  in  the  mactioe  of 
agreeing  to  certain  orders  or  resolutions  ot  anisertaiB 


PARLIAMENT. 


duration  declaratory  of  its  practice,  wUch  are  con- 
aidered  leas  formally  binding  than  standing  orders. 

The  House  of  Lords  usuuly  meets  at  5  p.m.  ;  the 
Commons  at  a  quarter  before  4,  except  on  Wednes- 
days and  some  other  days  specially  appointed,  when 
the  hours  of  sitting  are  from  12  to  6.  In  the  Lords, 
the  Chancellor,  as  Speaker,  sits  on  the  woolsack. 
A  standing  order,  which  is  never  enforced,  requires 
the  Lords  to  take  place  according  to  precedence. 
Practically,  the  bishops  sit  together  on  the  right 
band  of  the  throne;  the  memTOrs  of  the  adminis- 
tration on  the  front  bench  on  the  rieht  hand  of  the 
woolsack  adjoining  the  bisLops,  and  the  peers  who 
usually  Tote  with  them  occupy  the  other  benches 
on  that  side.  The  peers  in  opposition  are  ranged 
on  the  opposite  side,  and  those  considered  pouti- 
caUy  neutnd  occupy  the  cross  benches  between  the 
table  and  the  bar.  In  the  House  of  Commons,  the 
inint  bench  on  the  right  hand  of  the  chair  is 
reserved  for  the  ministry,  and  called  the  Treasury 
Bench,  the  front  bench  on  the  opposite  side  being 
occupied  by  the  leaders  of  the  opposition.  By 
ancient  custom  and  orders  of  both  Houses,  rarely 
enforced,  strangers  are  excluded  while  the  Houses 
axe  sitting. 

Prayers  are  read  before  business  is  begun — ^in  the 
House  of  Lords  by  a  bishop;  in  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  chaplain.  Every  member  is  bound 
to  attend  the  House — in  the  Lower  House,  person- 
ally ;  in  the  Upper  personally,  or  by  proxy ;  but 
in  ordinary  circumstances,  una  obligation  is  not 
enforced.  The  House  of  Lords  may  proceed  to 
business  when  three  peers  are  present ;  in  the 
Commons,  forty  members  are  required  to  constitute 
a  House  for  the  despatch  of  business.  The  Speaker 
counts  the  House  at  four ;  and  if  that  number  be 
not  then  present,  or  if  it  be  noticed,  or  appear  on  a 
division,  that  fewer  than  forty  members  arepresent, 
the  House  is  adjourned.  A  call  of  the  House  is 
an  expedient  to  secure  attendance  on  important 
occasions ;  when  it  is  made,  members  absent  without 
leave  may  be  ordered  to  be  taken  into  custody. 
When  matters  of  great  interest  are  to  be  debated  m 
the  Upper  House,  the  Lords  are  *  summoned.' 

To  make  a  motion,  or,  more  properly,  to  move 
the  HouMy  is  to  propose  a  question,  and  notices  of 
motions  shoidd  be  given  on  a  previous  day.  The 
Commons  are  in  the  practice  of  setting  apart  Mon- 
days, Wednesdays,  Phorsdays,  and  Fnda^  for 
considering  orders  of  the  day^  or  matters  which  the 
House  had  already  agreed  to  consider  on  a  particular 
day,  and  to  reserve  Tuesdays  for  motions.  Govern- 
ment orders  take  precedence  of  others  on  all  order 
days  except  Wednesdays,  which  are  generally 
reserved  for  the  orders  of  independent  members. 
Kotices  of  motions  are  by  a  standing  order  not 
allowed  to  be  given  for  anjr  period  beyond  the  four 
days  next  following  on  wlucn  motions  are  entitled 
to  precedence.  Questions  of  privilege  may  be  consi- 
dered without  previous  notices,  and  take  precedence 
both  of  other  motions  and  orders  of  the  day.  A 
motion  may  be  accompanied  by  a  speech,  and  must 
in  the  Lower  House  oe  seconded,  otherwise  there 
is  no  question  before  the  House.  In  purely  formal 
motions  this  role  is  not  observed,  and  an  order  of  the 
day  may  be  moved  without  a  seconder.  A  seconder 
B  not  required  in  the  House  of  Lords.  A  motion 
in  the  Commons  must  be  reduced  to  writing  by  the 
mover,  and  delivered  to  the  Speaker,  who,  when  it 
haa  been  seconded,  puts  it  to  the  House  ;  it  caniiot 
then  be  withdrawn  without  leave  of  the  House.  In 
the  Lords,  when  a  motion  has  been  made,  a  question 
im  proposed  *  that  the  motion  be  agreed  to.*  When 
an  amendment  is  proposed  to  a  question,  the  origi- 
nal motion  cannot  be  withdrawn  till  the  amend- 
ment   has    been  either  withdrawn  or   negatived. 


An  amendment  is  properly  such  an  alteration  on 
a  motion  by  striking  out  or  adding  words,  or  both, 
as  may  enable  memoers  to  vote  for  it  who  would 
not  have  done  so  otherwise. 

A  question  mav  be  evaded  or  superseded  in  four 
ways :  1.  By  adjournment.  Any  member  in  pos- 
session of  the  House  may  move  '  that  the  House  do 
now  adjourn.'  The  House  may  also  be  adjourned, 
even  while  a  member  is  speaking,  on  its  being 
noticed  that  there  are  fewer  than  forty  members 
present.  The  motion,  'that  the  debate  be  now 
adjourned,'  does  not  supersede  the  question,  but 
merely  defers  the  decision  of  the  House.  2.  By 
a  motion,  that  the  orders  of  the  day  be  now  read^ 
which  may  be  put  and  carried  on  days  on  which 
notices  of  motion  have  precedence.  3.  By  what  is 
called  moving  the  pt'evious  question.  The  act  of 
the  Speaker  m  putting  the  question  is  intercepted 
by  a  motion, '  that  the  question  be  now  put.'  The 
mover  and  seconder  of  tnis  motion  vote  against  it ; 
and  if  it  be  resolved  in  the  negative,  the  Speaker  is 
prevented  from  putting  the  main  question,  which, 
however,  may  be  brought  forward  on  another  day. 
4.  By  an  amendment  substituting  words  of  an 
entirely  different  import  for  those  of  the  motion, 
so  that  the  sense  of  the  House  \b  taken  on  a  totally 
different  question. 

When  the  question  is  put  by  the  Speaker  in  the 
Lords;  the  respective  parties  exclaim  'content'  or 
*  non-content ;  in  the  Commons,  the  expression 
used  is  'aye'  or  'no.'  The  Speaker  signifies  his 
opinion  which  party  have  the  majority,  and  H  the 
Mouse  acquiesce,  the  question  is  said  to  be  resolved 
in  the  affirmative  or  negative ;  when  his  decision 
is  disputed,  the  niunben  must  be  counted  by  a 
division.  Both  Houses  now  divide  by  the  content 
or  ayes  going  into  the  right  lobby,  and  the  non- 
contents  or  noes  into  the  left,  each  being  counted 
by  tellers  appointed  by  the  Speaker.  In  the  House  of 
Commons,  two  clerks  with  printed  lists  of  the  mem- 
bers put  a  mark  to  the  name  of  each  as  he  re-enters 
the  House,  so  as  to  secure  accuracy  in  the  division- 
lists.  The  Speaker  of  the  Commons,  who  does  not 
otherwise  vote  or  take  part  in  a  debate,  has  a 
casting-vote  in  case  of  equality.  In  the  House  of 
Lords,  the  Speaker  is,  on  the  other  hand,  not  dis- 
qualified from  taking  part  in  a  debate;  he  votes 
on  divisions,  but  has  no  casting  vote ;  and  on  an 
equality,  the  non-contents  prevail.  The  system  of 
pairing  coromonlv  practised,  though  never  directly 
recognised  by  the  House,  enables  members  on 
opposite  sides  to  absent  themselves  for  a  time  agreed 
on,  each  neutralising  the  votes  of  the  other.  A 
member  of  the  Upper  House  may,  with  leave  of 
the  House,  by  a  protest  enter  his  dissent  from  a  vote 
of  the  House,  and  its  grounds.  £very  protest  is 
entered  on  the  Journals  of  the  House,  together  with 
the  names  of  all  the  lords  who  concur  in  it. 

No  question  or  bill  is  allowed  to  be  offered  in 
either  House  substantially  the  same  with  one  on 
which  the  jud^ent  of  that  House  has  already 
been  expressed  m  the  current  session.  A  resolution 
of  the  House,  however,  may  be  rescinded,  and  an 
order  discharged;  and  by  13  and  14  Vict  a  21,  it 
ia  provided  that  every  act  may  be  altered,  amended, 
or  repealed  in  the  same  session  of  parliament. 

In  debate,  a  member  of  the  Commons  addresses 
the  Speaker;  a  member  of  the  Upper  House  the 
lords  generally,  in  both  cases  standing  and  uncovered. 
No  member  may  speak  except  when  there  is  a 
question  before  the  House,  or  with  the  view  to 
propose  a  motion  or  amendment,  the  only  admitted 
exceptions  being  in  putting  questions  to  ministers 
of  the  crown,  or  to  members  concerned  in  some 
business  which  is  before  the  House,  and  in 
explaining   personal  matters.     A  member  is  not 


PABLIAMENT. 


allowed  to  speak  twice  to  the  eame  question  except 
in  explanation^  and  the  proposer,  in  some  cases,  in 
reply — a  restriction  whicn  aoes  not  appW  in  com- 
mittee. By  the  rules  adopted  by  botn  Houses  for 
preserving  order  in  debate,  no  allusion  is  allowed 
to  debat^  of  the  same  session  on  a  question  not 
under  discussion,  or  to  debates  in  the  otner  House  of 
Parliament.  All  reflections  on  any  determination 
of  the  House  are  prohibited,  except  when  made 
with  a  view  of  moving  that  the  determination  be 
rescinded ;  so  is  the  mention  by  a  member  of  her 
Majesty's  name  either  irreverently,  or  to  influence 
the  debate,  and  the  use  of  offensive  and  insulting 
words  against  parliament  or  either  House,  or  a 
member  of  the  House  in  which  he  is  speaking.  No 
member  is  allowed  to  refer  to  another  by  name, 
or  otherwise  than  by  the  rank  or  office  which  lie 
enjoys,  or  place  which  he  represents.  The  Speaker 
naming  a  member  to  the  House,  is  an  old  estab- 
lished form  of  censure,  which  was  last  used  when 
Mr  Feargua  O'Connor  stniok  the  member  beside 
him. 

Messages. — ^It  ia  often  found  necessary  for  the 
Houses  to  communicate  with  each  other  regarding 
matters  occurring  in  the  course  of  business.  Mes- 
sages from  the  Lords  were  formerly  sent  by  Masters 
in  Chancery  or  judges,  while  the  Commons  sent  a 
deputation  of  their  own  members.  According  to  a 
new  arrangement  adopted  in  1855,  one  of  ther  clerks 
of  either  House  may  be  the  bearer  of  a  message. 

CommiUeea, — Parliamentary  committees  are  either 
'  of  the  whole  House,'  or  *  selects'  A  committee  of 
the  whole  House  is  the  House  itself,  with  a  chair- 
man instead  of  the  Speaker  presiding.  The  chair  is 
taken  in  the  Lords  by  the  chairman  of  committees 
appointed  at  the  beginning  of  each  session,  in  the 
Commons  by  the  chairman  of  the  Committee  of 
Ways  and  Means.  Matters  relating  to  religion, 
trade,  the  imposition  of  taxes,  or  the  granting  of 
public  money,  are  generally  considered  in  committee 
Defore  legislation,  as  also  are  the  provisions  of  any 
public  buL  Proceedings  are  conducted  nearly  as 
when  the  House  is  sitting,  the  Lords  being  addressed 
in  the  Um>er  House,  and  in  the  Lower  the  diair- 
man,  who  has  the  same  powers  to  maintain  order  as 
the  Speaker,  and  a  casting  vote  in  case  of  equality. 
In  committees  of  the  Commons,  as  in  the  House 
itself,  a  quorum  of  forty  members  is  required ;  but 
if  that  number  are  not  present,  the  Speaker  must 
resume  the  chair  to  adjourn  the  House.  A  motion 
in  committee  need  not  be  seconded,  and  there  is  a 
more  unlimited  power  of  debate  than  in  the  House, 
members  being  at  liberty  to  speak  any  number  of 
times  on  the  same  question.  A  motion  for  *the 
previous  question'  is  not  allowed.  When  the  busi- 
ness of  the  committee  is  not  concluded  on  the  day 
of  sitting,  the  House  is  resumed,  and  the  chairman 
moves  *  tnat  the  House  be  again  put  into  committee 
on  a  future  day,'  in  the  Lords,  and  in  the  Commons 
reports  progress,  and  asks  leave  to  sit  again. 

Select  committees  are  composed  of  a  limited 
number  of  members  appointed  to  inquire  into  any 
matter,  and  report  In  the  Commons,  it  is  usual  to 
give  select  committees  power  to  send  for  persons, 
papers,  and  records ;  in  the  Lords,  they  may,  with- 
out any  special  authority,  summon  vritnessea  In 
neither  House  can  a  committee  enforce  the  attend- 
ance of  a  witness ;  this  must  be  done,  when  neces- 
sary, by  the  House  itselL  The  Commons  have 
certain  standing  orders  for  insuring  the  efficiency 
of  committees,  and  impartiality  in  their  appoint- 
ment. No  committee  is  to  consist  of  more  tlum 
fifteen.  Members  moving  for  a  committee  must 
ascertain  whether  the  members  whom  they  propose 
to  name  will  attend.  lists  of  the  members  serving 
on  each  committee  are  to  be  aflixed  in  the  committee 


clerk's  office  and  the  lobby.  To  every  qnestioii 
asked  of  a  witness,  the  name  of  the  member  who 
asks  it  is  to  be  prefixed  in  the  minutes  of  evidence 
laid  before  the  House ;  and  the  names  of  the  mem< 
bers  present  at  each  sitting,  and,  in  the  event  of  a 
division,  the  question  proposed,  the  name  of  the 
proposer,  and  the  votes  of  each  member,  are  to  be 
entered  on  the  minutes,  and  reported  to  the  House. 
In  the  Lords  there  are  no  special  rules  regarding 
the  appointment  and  constitution  of  committees; 
but  resolutions  containing  arrangements  similar 
to  those  of  the  Commons  regarding  questions  to 
witnesses,  minutes  of  proceedings,  and  divisions, 
have  been  adopted  since  1852.  Select  committees 
have  the  power  of  adjournment  from  time  to 
time,  and  sometimes  from  place  to  place.  By  an 
anomaly  not  easily  explained,  the  Commons  nave 
always  been  considered  not  to  have  the  power 
of  administering  oaths;  a  power  of  examining  on 
oath  has,  however,  by  statute  been  granted  to 
election  committees,  and  committees  on  private 
biUs.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  witnesses  had  for- 
merly to  be  sworn  at  the  bar  of  the  House ;  but 
the  oath  may,  in  terms  of  a  recent  act  (21  and  22 
Vict.  c.  78),  be  administered  by  any  committee  of 
the  House.  Except  where  leave  of  absence  hat 
been  obtained,  no  member  can  excuse  himself  from 
serving  on  committees  to  which  he  may  have  been 
appointed,  or  for  not  attending  when  his  attendance 
has  been  made  compulsory  by  order  of  the  House. 
In  committees  on  private  bills  in  the  Commons,  the 
chairman  has  a  deliberative  as  well  as  a  casting 
vote. 

Bills, — The  principal  business  which  occupies  both 
Houses  is  the  passing  of  biUs.  In  early  times, 
laws  were  enact^  in  the  form  of  petitions  from  the 
Commons,  which  were  entered  on  the  Rolls  of 
Parliament,  with  the  king's  answers  subjoined ;  anii 
at  the  close  of  the  session,  these  imperfect  records 
were  drawn  up  in  the  form  of  a  statute,  which  was 
entered  on  the  Statute  Rolls.  It  was  found  that,  on 
undergoing  this  process,  the  acts  passed  by  the 
parliament  were  often  both  added  to  and  mutilated, 
and  much  of  the  legislative  power  practically  came 
into  the  hands  of  uie  judges.  Bills  in  the  form 
of  complete  statutes  were  lirst  introduced  in  the 
reign  of  Henry  VL  Bills  are  either  public  or 
private;  the  former  affect  the  geperal  interests  <rf 
the  community,  the  latter  relate  to  local  matters. 
Public  bills  are  introduced  directly  by  members; 
private  bUls  by  petitions  from  the  parties  interested, 
presented  by  members.  Bills  may  originate  in  either 
House ;  but  tiie  exclusive  right  of  the  Commons  to 
deal  with  all  legislation  regarding  taxes  or  supplies, 
makes  it  necessary  and  expedient  that  by  far  the 
greater  part  of  both  public  and  private  biUs,  except 
such  as  are  of  a  purely  personal  nature,  should 
originate  in  the  Lower  House.  Bills  regarding 
restitution  of  honours  originate  in  the  House  of 
Lords.  One  description  of  act  alone  originates  with 
the  crown — an  act  of  grace  or  pardon.  It  is  read 
only  once  in  each  House,  and  cannot  be  amended, 
but  must  be  accepted  in  the  form  in  which  it  ia 
received  from  the  crown,  or  rejected. 

Public  Billa, — In  the  House  of  Lords,  any  member 
may  present  a  bilL  In  the  Commons,  any  member 
may  move  for  leave  to  bring  in  a  bill,  except  it  be 
for  imposing  a  tax,  when  an  order  of  the  House  is 
required.  When  the  motion  is  seconded,  and  leave 
given,  the  mover  and  seconder  are  ordered  to 
prepare  and  brinja;  in  the  bill.  Such  bills,  however, 
as  relate  to  religion,  trade,  grants  of  public  money, 
or  taxation,  are  required  to  be  introduced  by  the 
House  itself,  on  the  report  of  a  committee  of  the 
whole  House.  A  bill  is  drawn  out  on  paper,  with 
blanks  or  italics  where  any  part  is  doubtful,  cr 


PARLIAMENT. 


whexe  BnsM  have  to  be  in^ierted.    It  is  read  a  first 
time,  and  a  day  fixed  for  a  tkicond  reading,  allowing 
a  sufficient  interval  to  let  it  be  printed  and  circu' 
lated.    When  ready,  which  is  often  as  soon  as  the 
motion  for  leave  to  hnaa  it   in  has  bccu  agreed 
to^   it  is  presented   at   tiie   bar   by  one   ol   the 
members  who  were  ordered  to  prepare  and  bring 
it  in,  and  afterwards,  on  an  intimation  from  the 
Speaker,  broueht  np  to  the  table.     The  question 
IB  put,  *  That  tne  bill  be  now  read  a  first  time,'  which 
18   rarely  objected  to;  and  in  the  Commons  can 
only  be  opposed  by  a  division.    The  short  title  of 
tbe  bill,  as  entered  in  the  orders  of  the  day  and 
endorsed  on  the  bill,  is  then  read  aloud,  which 
IB  aocoanted  sufficient  compliance  with  the  order 
of  tlie  House.    A  day  is  then  appointed  for  con- 
Bideiing  the  Question,  '  that  the  bill  be  read  a 
■eoond  time,'  auowing  a  sufficient  interval  to  elapse 
to  let  it  be  printed  and  circulated.     At  the  second 
reading,  the  member  in  charge  of  the  bill  moves 
'  that  the  bill  be  now  read  a  second  time.'    This 
is  the  usual  time  for  opposing  a  bill  whose  seneral 
principle   is   disapproved.     This   is   done    oy  an 
amendment  to  the  question,  bv  leaving  out  the 
word  *now/  and  adding  *this  day  three  months,' 
*thia  day  six  months,'  or  some  other  time  beyond 
the   probable  duration  of   the  session.      Counsel 
are    sometimes   allowed  to  plead    at   the   second 
reading  or  other  stages.    If  the  bill  be  approved 
on  the  second  reading,  it  is  committed,  either  to  a 
select  committee,  or  to  a  committee  of  the  whole 
House,  to  consider  its  provisions  in  detaiL    When 
the  proceedings  in  committee  are  terminated,  the 
bill  18   reported  to  the  House  with  amendments, 
which  may  be  agreed  to,  amended,  or  disagreed  ta 
It  is  then  ordered  to  be  read  a  third  time,  when 
the  entire  measure  is  reviewed.    No  amendments, 
except  what  are  verbal,  can  then  be  made,  and  the 
question  is  put  to  the  House,  *That  this  bill  do 
now  pass.'    The  title  of  the  biU  is  last  settled.    The 
bill,  whwn  passed  by  the  Commons,  is  sent  to  the 
Ixnda,  where  it  goes  through  the  same  forms:   if 
rejected,  no  further  notice  is  taken  of  it ;  if  passed, 
a  message  is  sent  to  the  Commons  that  the  bill  is 
agreed  to.     If  amendments  have  been  made,  they 
are  sent  down  along  with  the  bill  to  be  discussed  by 
the  Commons;  and  if  they  are  not  agreed  to,  a 
conference  is  demanded  by  the  Commons,  to  offer 
reasons  for  disagreeing  to  the    amendments.      A 
conference  ia  a  mode  of  communicating  on  important 
matters  between  the  Houses,  in  which  each  House 
is  brought  into  direct  contact  with  the  other  by 
a  deputotion  of  its  own  members — ^the  time  and 
place  of  meeting  being  always  fixed  by  the  Lords. 
A  conference  is  conducted,  for  both  Houses,  by 
managers,  who,  on  the  part  of  the  House  desiring 
the  conference  (in  the  case  supposed,  the  Commons), 
consist  of  the  members  who  have  drawn  up  the 
reasons,  with  others  sometimes  added.    If  the  Lords 
be  not  satisfied  with  the  reasons  offered,  a  stcond 
conference  is  desired,  after  which  what  is  called  a 
'free  conference'  may  be  demanded,  in  which  the 
managers  have  more  discretion  vested  in  them  to 
advance  what  arguments  they  please.      No    free 
conference  has  been  held  since  1746.  By  resolutions 
of  both  Houses,  agreed  to  in  1851,  reasons  for  dis* 
agreement  from  amendments  may  be  communicated 
by  messages  without  a  conference,  unless  the  other 
House  should  desire  a  conference;  and  since  that 
time,  there  has  been  but  one  instance  of  a  conference 
where  a  message  would  have  been  available     If  the 
Commons  eventually  agree  to  the  amendments,  the 
bill  is  sent  back  to  the  Lords ;  if  not,  it  is  dropped. 
The    same  forms  are  gone   through  when  a  bill 
originates  in  the    House  of    Lords.     The  official 
record  of  the  assent  of  one  House  to  the  bills  passed, 
331 


or  amendments  made  by  the  other,  is  an  endorse* 
ment  on  the  bill  in  Norman  French.  Thus,  when 
a  bill  is  passed  by  the  Commons,  the  Clerk  of  the 
House  writes  on  the  top  of  it,  *Soit  baill6  au\ 
seiffnieurs.'  When  the  Lords  make  amendment  to 
a  bill,  it  is  returned  with  the  endorsement,  '  A 
ceste  bille  avesque  des  amendments  les  seignieurs 
sent  assentus.'  When  it  is  sent  back  with  these 
amendments  agreed  to,  the  Clerk  of  the  House  of 
Commons  writes, '  A  ces  amendments  les  Communes 
sont  assentus.'  When  both  Houses  have  agreed 
to  a  bill,  it  is  deposited  in  the  House  of  Lords,  to 
await  the  royal  assent,  anless  it  be  a  money-bill^ 
which  is  sent  back  to  the  Commons. 

Private  BiUs,- In  private  biJls,  the  functions  of 
parliament  partake  of  the  judicial  as  well  as  the 
legislative  character,  and  the  difficulties  in  recon- 
ciling the  interests  of  the  public  and  of  individuals, 
often  give  rise  to  inquiries  too  extensive  for  the 
House  to  undertake,  which  therefore  delegates  them 
to  committees.    The  standing  orders  require  certain 
notices  to  be  given  to  parties  interested  by  personal 
service,  and  to  the  public  by  advertisement.    The 
practice  in  both  Houses  now  is  for  all  petitions  for 
private  bills  to  be  referred  to  four  '  examiners,'  two 
from  the  Lords  and  two  from  the  Commons,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  examine  whether  certain  notices  and 
other  forms  required  by  the  standing  orders   of 
the  House  have  been  complied  with.    It  the  report 
be  favourable,  leave  is  given  to  bring  in  the  bill ;  if 
unfavourable,  it  is  referred  to  a  committee,  called 
the   Committee  on    Standing   Orders,  who  report 
on  the  propriety  of  relaxing  the  stending  orders 
in  this   individual  case — should  they  report  un- 
favourably, it  is  still  in  the  power  of  the  House  to 
relax  the  standing   orders,   though  this  is  rarely 
done.    Three  days  must  elapse  between  the  first  and 
second  reading.    At  the  second  reading,  the  principle 
is  considered,  as  in  the  case  of  public  bills ;  and  if 
the  bill  be  carried,  it  is  referred,  if  not  a  railway, 
canal,  or  divoree  bill,  to  the  *  Committee  of  Selec- 
tion,* consisting  of  the  chairman  of  the  Standing 
Orders  Committee,  and  five  other  members  nomin- 
ated at  the  beginning  of  the  session,  whose  functions 
are  to  classify  the  buls,  to  nominate  the  Committees 
on  them,  and  to  arran^  their  time  of  sitting.    A 
railway  or  canal  bill  is  referred  to  the  *€reneral 
Committee  of  Railway  and  Canal  Bills.'    This  com- 
mittee forms  biUs  of  this  class  into  groups^  and 
appointe  the  chairman  of  the  committee  which  is- 
to  sit  on  each  bill  from  its  own  body,  the  remaining 
members,  four  in  number,  being  chosen  from  the 
Committee  of  Selection.    Before  the  sitting  of  the 
committee,  every  private  bill,  whether  opposed  or 
unopposed,  must  be  examined  by  the  chairman  of 
the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  and  his  counciL 
It  is  also  laid  before  the  chairman  of  the  Lords' 
Committee  and  his  council,  and  effect  is  given  to 
their    observations,    a    proceeding    which    greatly 
facilitates  the  after-pregress  of  the  bill  in  the  House 
of  Lords.    The  Board  of  Trade,  the  Secretary  of 
State  for  the  Home  Department,  the  Lords  Com- 
missioners of  the  Admiralty,  and  the  Commissioners- 
of  Woods  and  Forests,  also  exereise  a  sui)ervision 
over  private  bills  of  various  kinds,  by  wnich  the- 
respective  rights  of  their  departmente  may  be  sup- 
posed to  be  encroached  on.    In  the  House  of  Lords,, 
estate  biUs  are  referred  to  the  judges.    Every  bill,, 
at  ^6  first  reading,  is  referred  to  the  Examiners,, 
before  whom  com{£ance  with  such  standing  orders. 
as  have  not  been  previouslv  inquired  into  must  be 
proved,    ^e  Standing  Orders  Committee  of  the 
Lords  is  now  assimilated  in  functions  to  that  of  the 
Commons.    The  bill  is  returned  to  the  Commons; 
either  with  amendments,  or  with  a  message  that  it 
is  agreed  to  without  amendments.      In  case    of 

S89 


PARLIAMENT. 


diflagreemeiit  between  the  Houses,  the  same  forma 
are  observed  as  in  public  bills. 

In    recent  times,    the    necessity    for   obtaining 
private  acts  has  been,  in  many  cases,  obviated  by 
general  laws  adapted  to  different  classes  of  objects, 
of  which  parties  are  enabled  to  avail  themselves, 
instead  of  applying  to  parliament  for  special  powers. 
JRoycU  Assent. — A  bill  becomes  a  statute  or  act  of 
parliament  on  receiving  the  royal  assent^  which  is 
given  in  the  House  of  Lords,  the  Commons  being 
also  present  at  the  bar.     It  is  civen  m  either  <3 
two  ways :  by  letters-patent  under  the  Great  Seal, 
signed   by  the  sovereign's  own    hand,  and  com- 
municatee! to  the  two  Houses  by  commissioners ;  or 
by  the  sovereign  present  in  person  in  the  House  of 
Lords.    When  the  royal  assent  is  given  by  commis- 
sion, three   or  more  of  the  Lords  Commissioners 
command  Black  Rod  to  signify  to  the  Commons 
that  their  attendance  is  desired,  on  which  the  Com- 
mons, with  the  Speaker,  immediately  come  to  the 
bar.     The  commission  is  then  read  at  length ;  and 
the  titles  of  all  the  bills  being  read  by  the  Clerk  of 
the  Crown,  the  royal  assent  to  each  is  signified  by 
the  Clerk  of  the  Parliaments  in  Norman-French,  and 
80  entered  on  the  Lords'  Journals.    In  assenting  to 
a   public  bill,  the  words  used  are :  '  Le  roy  [la 
reyne]    le   veult;'   to    a  private    bill:  'Soit    fait 
comme  il  est  desir6  ;*  and  to  a  bill  of  supply  (which 
is  presented  by  the  Speaker,  and  receives  the  royal 
assent  before  all  other  bills) :  *  Le  roy  remercie  ses 
bons  sujets,  accepte  leur  benevolence,  et  ainsi  le 
veult.'    In  the  case  of  an  act  of  grace,  which  has 
ori;^nated  with  the  crown,  there  was,  tUl  lately,  no 
further   expression  of  the  royal  assent ;    but  the 
Clerk  of  the  Parliaments,  having  read  its  title,  said  : 
'  Les  pr6lats,  seigneurs,  et  communes,  en  ce  present 
parliament  assembles,  au  nom  de  tous  vos  auctres 
sujets,  remercient  tr^-humblement  vostre  Majest6, 
et  prient  &  Dieu  vous  donner  en  sant^  bonne  vie  et 
longue : '    the   royal    assent,    however,    has    been 
latterly  given  to  acts  of  grace  in  the  usual  form. 
The  refusal  of  the  royal  assent  is  announced  by  the 
words,  'Le  roy  s'avisera.*     But  the  necessity  for 
such  refusal  is  generally  removed  by  the  observance 
of  the  constitutional  principle,  that  the  queen  has 
no  will  but  that  of  her  ministers,  who  only  continue 
in  ofEce  so  long  as  they  have  the   confidence  of 
parliament.    The  last  instance  in  which  the  royal 
assent  was  refused  was  by  Queen  Anne  in  1707, 
re^rding  a  bill  for  settling  the  militia  in  Scotland. 

The  royal  assent  is  seldom  given  in  person,  except 
at  the  close  of  a  session,  when  the  queen  attends  to 
prorogue  parliament,  and  then  signifies  her  assent 
to  sncn  bills  as  have  been  passed  smce  the  last  com- 
mission was  issued ;  but  bills  providing  for  the 
honour  and  dignity  of  the  crown,  and  bills  for 
settling  the  civil  lists,  have  generally  been  assented 
'to  by  the  sovereign  in  person,  immediately  after 
they  have  passed  both  houses.  When  the  royal 
.assent  is  given  in  person,  the  Clerk  of  the  Crown 
reads  the  titles  of  tne  bills ;  and  the  Clerk  of  the 
Parliaments,  who  has  previously  received  her 
Majesty's  commands  in  the  robing  room,  makes  an 
•  obeisance  to  the  throne,  and  signifies  her  Majesty's 
assent,  as  already  described,  the  queen  giving  a 
gentle  inclination. 

Supplies. — ^Prior  to  1688,  in  addition  to  parlia- 
mentery  taxation,  imposts  were  sometimes  levied 
by  an  exercise  of  the  royal  prerogative.  Since  the 
Revolution,  no  taxes  have  been  raised  otherwise 
than  by  parliamentary  authority.  The  Commons 
have  the  exclusive  right  to  impose  taxes  and  vote 
money  for  the  public  service.  The  Lords  cannot 
even  make  an  alteration  in  a  bill  of  supply,  except 
to  correct  a  clerical  error.  The  Lords  are  not  even 
entitled  to  insert  in  a  bill  any  pecuniary  penalties, 
290 


or  to  alter  the  amount  or  application  of  any  penalty 
imposed  by  the  Commons ;  a  rule  whose  rigid 
assertion  has  been  found  to  be  attended  with  ao 
much  inconvenience  that  there  has  latterly  beea 
a  disposition  to  relax  it.  If  a  bill  containing 
provisions  which  make  a  pecuniary  charge  on  the 
public  originate  in  the  Lords,  any  such  provisions  are 
struck  out  in  the  bill  as  sent  to  the  (Emmons.  In 
the  Commons,  these  provisions  are  printed  in 
red  ink,  and  supposed  to  be  blank,  and  may  be 
agreed  to  in  committee.  But  though  the  Commons 
has  the  exclusive  right  to  grant  supplies,  a  sraot 
requires  the  ultimate  assent  of  the  queen  uia  the 
House  of  Lords. 

The  public  revenue  of  the  crown  is  derived  ia 
part  from  permanent  charges  on  the  consolidated 
fund,  and  in  part  from  actual  grants  for  spedfio 
public  services,  which  require  the  yearly  sanction 
of  parliament.    On  the  opening  of  parliament,  the 
queen  demands  from  the  Commons  the  annual  pro- 
vision for  the  public  services,  and  directs  estimates 
to  be  laid  before  them.    On  agreeing  to  tiie  address 
in  answer  to  the  royal  speech,  the  Commons  order 
the   speech   to   be    taken    into  consideration  on 
another  day.    On  the  arrival  of  that  day,  a  motion 
is  made :  *  That  a  supply  be  granted  to  her  Majesty,' 
and  the  House  resolves  into  a  committee  to  consider 
that  motion.     On  the  day  appointed,  the  committee 
sits  and  agrees  that  a  supply  be  granted,  which,  being 
reported,  is  agreed  to  oy  the  House.     The  House 
then  appoints  another  day  on  which  it  resolves  itself 
into  a  *■  Committee  of  Supply.'     The  estimates  far 
the  army,  navy,  and  ordnance  departments,  are  first 
laid  before  the  committee ;  then  the  estimates  for 
civil  services,  known  as  the  miscellaneous  estimates. 
The  first  business  of  the  Committee  of  Supply  is  to 
elect  a  chairman,  who  is  known  as  the  Qiairmaii 
of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means,  over  which 
he  also  presides.    When  the  first  report  of  the  Com- 
mittee of  Supply  has  been  received  and  a^eed  to,  a 
day  is  appointed  for  the  House  to  resolve  itself  into 
a  '  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means.'    This  committee 
is  not  appointed  tUl  a  sum   has  been  voted  by 
the  House,  nor  is  it  afterwards  allowed  to  vote 
in  excess  of  the  expenditure  voted  by  the  Committee 
of  Supply.     It  is  the  function  of  the  Committee  of 
Supply  to  consider  what  specific  grants  are  to  be 
voted,  and  of  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  to 
4etermine  how  the  funds  shall  be  raised  which  are 
voted    by  the    Committee    of   Supply.     Without 
special   parliamentary  authority,  the  consolidated 
fund  could  not  be  applied  to  meet  the  supplies 
voted  for  the  service  of  the  year  ;  but  to  make  it  so 
available,  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  votes 
general  grants  from  time  to  time  out  of  the  con- 
solidatea  fund  *  towards  making  |FOod  the  supply 
granted  to  her  Majesty ;'  and  buls  are  founded 
on  the  resolutions  of  the  committee,  by  which  the 
treasury  receives  authority  to  issue  the  requisite 
amount  from  the  consolidated  fund  for  the  service 
of  the  year.    It  belong  to  the  Committee  of  Ways 
and  Means  to  determine  what  sums  shall  be  raised 
by  exchequer  bills  in  anticipation  of  the  annual 
revenue,  to  make  up  the  supply  granted  to    her 
Majesty.      When  the    Committee  of  Supply  has 
determmed  the  number  of  men  that  shall  be  main- 
tained during  the  year  for  the  army  and  sea-service, 
and    its    resolutions   have    becm    agreed    to,    the 
Mutiny  BUI  and  Marine  Mutiny  Bui  are  brought 
in,  providing  respectively  for  the  discipline  of  the 
troops  and  marines  when  on  shore.     Apart  from 
this  annual  sanction,  the  maintenance  of  a  standing 
army  in  time  of  peace  would  be  illegal,  and  the 
army  and  marines  would  be  relieved  from  all  maj> 
tial  discipline^    The  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means 
receives  the  annual  financial    statement  from  the 


PARLIAMENT. 


Chancellor  of  tbe  Exchequer,  popularly  called  the 
Budget  That  minister  gives  a  general  view  of  the 
reaources  of  the  country,  and  of  the  financial  policy 
of  the  povemment,  and  presents  a  probable  esti- 
mate of  inoome  and  expenditure  for  the  twelve 
months  ending  on  the  12th  of  April  of  the  following 
year.  He  states  what  taxes  he  intends  to  reduce, 
and  wliat  new  ones  he  means  to  impose,  and  ends  by 
proposing  resohitions  fpr  the  adoption  of  the  com- 
mittee, i^ich,  when  reported  to  the  House,  form  the 
groundwork  of  bills  for  accomplishing  the  financial 
objects  proposed.  The  charges  for  collecting  the 
revenue,  have,  since  1854,  been  brought  under  the 
supervision  of  the  House*  of  Commons ;  and  esti- 
mates are  Voted  for  the  revenue  departments.  A 
new  tax  cannot  be  proposed  except  by  a  minister  of 
the  crown.  The  resolutions  of  Committees  of 
Supply  and  of  Ways  and  Means  are  reported  on  a 
day  appointed  by  the  House,  and  read  a  first  time 
without  a  question,  and  a  second  time  on  a  question 
put  from  the  chair,  and  are  agreed  to  by  the  House, 
or  may  be  disagreed  to,  amended,  postponed,  or 
recommitted.  When  the  Committee  of  Supply  is 
closed,  the  Committee  of  Ways  and  Means  autho- 
rises the  application  of  money  from  the  consolidated 
fond,  the  surplus  of  ways  and  means,  and  sums  in 
the  Exchequer,  to  meet  the  grant  and  services  of  the 
year,  and  the  resolutions  of  the  committee  are 
carried  into  effect  by  the  Consolidated  Fund  Bill,  or 
as  it  is  often  called,  the  Appropriation  BUL  By  a 
standing  order  of  April  3,  1S62,  a  standing  Com- 
mittee of  Public  Accounts  is  api)ointed  at  the 
beginning  of  each  session  to  examine  into  the  appro- 
priation of  the  sums  granted  by  parliament  to  meet 
the  public  expenditure.  Taxes  of  a  permanent  and 
general  character  ai*e  not  now  considered  in  the 
Uommittee  of  Ways  and  Means. 

Petitions. — Among  the  duties  of  parliament  is 
the  receiving  of  petitions.  A  petition  must  be 
presented  by  a  member  of  the  Iiouse  to  which  it 
is  addressed.  Petitions  from  the  corporation  of 
London  are,  however,  presented  to  the  House  of 
Commons  by  the  sheriffs  at  the  bar,  or  by  one 
sheriff^  if  the  other  be  a  member  of  the  House,  or 
unavoidably  absent.  In  1840,  a  petition  was 
allowed  to  be  presented  by  the  Lord  Mayor  and 
Aldermen,  when  the  sheriffs  were  in  custody  of  the 
serjeant-at-arms.  The  Lord  Mayor  of  Dublin  has 
been  allowed  to  present  a  ^tition  at  the  bar  of  the 
House,  and  the  same  privilege  would  probably  be 
conceded  to  the  Lord  Provost  of  Edinbur^'h.  Peti- 
tions which  violate  any  of  the  rules  of  the  H'  use,  are 
not  brought  up,  but  returned  to  the  petitioners ;  and 
if  an  irregularity  be  discovered  after  a  petition  is 
brought  up,  its  presentation  is  not  recorded  in  the 
votes.  In  the  House  of  Lords,  when  a  petition  is 
laid  on  the  table,  an  entry  is  made  in  the  Lords' 
minutes,  and  afterwards  in  the  Journals  of  the 
House,  which,  however,  does  not  describe  its  nature 
and  substance.  A  petition  may,  on  presentation,  be 
made  a  subject  of  debate,  but  unless  this  is  done, 
there  remains  no  public  record  of  its  ira})ort,  or  of 
the  parties  by  whom  it  was  signed.  In  the  House 
of  Commons,  according  to  standing  orders  adopted 
in  1842,  the  member  presentino;  a  petition  is  to  con- 
fine himself  to  a  statement  of  who  the  petitioners 
are,  the  number  of  signatures,  the  material  allega- 
tions  of  the  petition  and  its  prater.  In  case  of 
urgency,  or  where  questions  of  privilege  are  involved, 
the  matter  of  the  petition  may  be  discussed ;  but  in 
ordinary  cases  no  achate  is  allowed,  and  it  is  referred 
to  the  Committee  on  Public  Petitions,  and  if  relating 
to  a  subject  with^  regard  to  which  the  member 
presenting  it  has  given  notice  of  a  motion,  it  may  be 
ordered  to  be  printed  vrith  the  votes.  The  reports 
ol  the  Committee  on  Public  Petitions  are  prmted 


twice  a  week,  and  point  out  the  name,  the  subjecii 
and  the  number  of  signatures  of  each  petition,  and 
the  total  number  of  signatures,  and  petitions  relating 
to  each  subject;  an(^  in  some  cases,  the  petition 
itself  is  printed  at  full  length  in  the  appendix. 

Communications  with  the  Crown. — Besides  at  the 
opening  and  proromiing  of  parliament,  and  giving  of 
the  royal  assent,  there  are  other  occasions  on  which 
the  crown  communicates  with  parliament  by  a 
message^  under  the  sign-manual,  to  either  House 
singly,  or  both  Houses  separately.  Messages  are 
brought  by  a  member  of  the  House,  being  a  minister 
of  the  crown,  or  one  of  the  royal  household,  and 
may  relate  to  important  public  events,  the  pre- 
rogatives or  property  of  the  crown,  provision  for  the 
royal  family,  &c.  An  address  is  the  mode  in  which 
the  resolutions  of  parliament  aro  communicated  to 
the  crown.  Addresses  may  be  joint,  of  both  HouseSi 
or  separate,  of  either  Housa 

Returns. — Each  House  has  the  power  of  ordering 
returns  from  all  those  public  departments  which  are 
connected  with  the  ro  venue,  under  control  of  the 
Treasury,  or  rogulated  by  statute;  but  returns  of 
matters  connected  with  the  exeroise  of  royal  pre- 
rogative, as  from  public  departments  subject  to  her 
Majesty*8  secretaries  of  state,  are  obtained  by  means 
of  addresses  to  the  crown.  A  return  is  not  allowed 
to  be  ordered  in  one  House  regarding  the  proceedings 
of  the  other ;  when  such  return  is  wished,  it  is  usual 
to  make  an  arrangement  b^  which  it  is  moved  in 
the  House  to  whose  proceedmgs  it  relates,  and  after 
it  has  been  presented,  a  message  is  sent  to  request 
that  it  may  be  communicated.  Returns  cannot  be 
moved  from  private  associations,  or  persons  not 
exercising  public  'functions ;  and  the  papers  and 
correspondence  sought  from  government  depart- 
ments must  be  of  an  official,  not  a  private  or  confi- 
dential description.  This  rule  was,  under  8x>ecial 
ciroumstances,  departed  from  in  1858,  in  regard  to 
the  opinion  of  the  law-officers  of  the  crown  in  the 
case  of  the  Cagliari.  Accounts  and  papers  presented 
are  ordered  to  lie  on  the  table,  and  when  necessary, 
ordered  to  be  printed,  or  in  the  Commons  referred 
to  the  Printing  Committee  appointed  at  the  beginning 
of  each  session. 

Election  Committees.  —  The  trial  of  election 
petitions  is  one  of  the  duties  of  the  House  of 
Commons.  Until  1770  all  questions  regarding  con- 
troverted elections  were  decided  by  the  whole 
House;  the  Grenville  Act  of  that  year  introduced 
the  practice  of  appointing  committees  for  their  triaL 
The  Act  11  and  12  Vict.  c.  98,  now  regulates  the 
trial  of  controverted  elections.  An  election  petition 
is  defined  to  be  a  complaint,  either  (1)  of  an  undue 
election ;  (2)  that  no  return  has  been  made  accord- 
ing to  tiie  requisition  of  the  writ ;  or  (3)  of  the 
special  mattera  contained  in  the  return.  It  must 
TO  signed  by  some  person  who  voted,  or  had  a  right 
to  vote  at  the  election,  or  by  some  person  who 
claims  to  be  returned,  or  alleges  himself  to  have 
been  a  candidate.  The  petition  must  be  lodged 
within  fourteen  days  after  the  return  objected  ta 
Becognisances  must  be  entered  into,  according  to  a 
form  prescribed,  by  sureties  to  the  extent  of  £1000, 
in  portions  not  less  than  £250  for  each  individual- 
surety — the  petitioner  having  it  in  his  option  to  pay 
the  money,  or  part  of  it,  into  the  bank  instead  of 
finding  security.  Six  members  selected  from  those 
who  are  not  themselves  parties  in  controverted 
dections,  are  appointed  at  the  beginning  of  every 
session  by  the  Speaker's  warrant  as  the  'General 
Committee  of  Elections.*  To  this  committee  all 
election-petitions  are  referred ;  and  it  is  their  duty 
to  choose  the  sdect  committee  which  is  to  try  each 
petition.  From  a  list  of  the  members  of  the  House, 
who  are  not  excused  or  disqualified  from  acting  on 

291 


PARLIAMENT. 


election  committes,  they  select  six,  eight,  ten,  or 
twelve  members  who  are  called  the  chairmen's  panel, 
and  are  liable  throughout  the  session  to  serve  as 
chairmen  of  select  committees,  but  are  exempted 
from  serving  on  select  committees  in  any  other 
capacity.  Tae  remaining  members  on  the  list  are 
then  divided  into  five  panels,  which  being  ranged  in 
order  by  lot,  are  to  take  their  torn  successively  in 
furnishing  members  for  election  committees.  Each 
select  committee  consists  of  four  members,  chosen 
by  the  general  committee  from  the  panel  in  service, 
and  a  chairman  appointed  by  the  chairmen's  panel. 
The  members  are  sworn  at  the  table  by  the  clerk, 
*  well  and  truly  to  try  the  matter  of  the  petition, 
and  a  true  judgment  to  give,  according  to  the 
cvidenca'  Evidence  may  be  taken  on  oath,  and  it 
is  enacted  by  the  Corrupt  Practices  Act,  186.3,  that 
no  witness  is  excused  from  answering  a  question  on 
tlie  ground  that  his  answer  may  criminate  himself  ; 
but  a  witness,  making  an  answer  which  tends  to 
criminate  him,  may  demand  a  certificate  which  shall 
be  a  protection  to  him  from  prosecution  for  such 
answer.  The  decision  lies  with  the  majority  of  the 
committee,  the  chairman  having  both  a  deliberative 
and  a  casting  vote.  The  committee  are  required  to 
determine  whether  the  sitting  member,  or  any  other 
person,  be  duly  returned,  or  whether  the  election 
i)c  void,  or  whether  a  new  writ  ought  to  issue ;  and 
their  determination  is  final,  and  is  carried  into 
execution  by  the  House.  They  may  also  make  a 
special  report  on  some  other  point,  which  is  not 
finaL  The  most  frequent  subjects  of  special  reports 
are  bribery,  treating,  and  the  use  of  imdue  influence, 
matters  regarding  which  various  acts  have  been 
passed,  the  most  important  being  17  and  18  Vict  a 
102  (1854),  21  and  22  Vict.  c.  87  (1858),  and  26  Vict. 
c.  29  (1863),  three  statutes  known  as  the  *  Corrupt 
Practices  Prevention  Acts.*  It  was  formerly 
required  to  prove  agency,  before  evidence  was 
allowed  to  be  given  of  the  facts  on  which  a  charge 
of  bribery  rested,  but  Act  4  and  6  Vict.  o.  57,  dw- 

fensed  with  this  necessity.  By  the  Corrupt 
ractices  Prevention  Act,  186.3,  when  an  election 
petition  complains  of  bribery,  treating,  or  undue 
mfluence,  the  committee  is  requirea  to  report 
whether  they  had  been  extensively  practised.  The 
candidate  declared  by  an  election  committee  guilty 
of  bribery,  treating,  or  undue  influence  by  himself 
or  his  agents,  is  declared  by  the  Comipt  Practices 
Act,  1854,  to  be  incapable  of  representing  the  same 
constituency  in  the  then  existing  parliament.  The 
new  law  of  evidence  affords  further  facilities  for  the 
detection  of  bribery,  in  so  far  as  it  allows  the 
personal  examination  of  the  sitting  members  and 
candidates. 

By  the  Act  of  1854,  the  offering  of  money,  office, 
employment,  &a,  to  a  voter  to  induce  him  to  vote 
or  abstain  from  voting,  or  the  offering  of  a  similar 
consideration  to  any  x>erson  to  induce  him  to  pro- 
cure the  return  of  a  candidate  or  the  vote  of  an 
elector,  the  acceptance  of  such  consideration,  and 
the  payment  of  money  in  the  knowledge  that  it  is 
to  be  expended  in  bribery,  or  the  repayment  of 
money  which  has  been  spent  in  bribery,  are  all 
declared  to  be  acts  of  bribery  punishable  by  fine  and 
imprisonment,  as  well  as  by  the  forieiture  of  £100 
with  costs  to  any  person  who  will  sue  for  the  same. 
Any  voter  mho  agrees  to  receive  money,  office,  or 
employment  for  voting  or  abstaining  from  voting, 
and  any  person  who,  after  an  .el^Hdon,  receives 
money  or  other  consideration  on  account  of  any 
person  havinc  voted  or  refrained  from  voting,  is 
also  gnilty  <2  bribery,  and  liable  to  forfeit  £10 
with  costs  to  any  one  who  will  sue  for  the  same. 
Treating,  which  is  defined  as  the  providing  of 
meat,  drink,  or  otibyer  entertainment  to  any  person 


in  order  to  be  elected,  or  in  consideration  for  any 
person  voting  or  abstaining  from  voting,  involves 
a  penalty  of  £50  similar^  recoverable,  as  also 
does  undue  influence,  or  interference  by  intimi- 
dation, abduction,  or  otherwise,  with  the  freedooL 
of  electors.  Persons  guilty  of  any  of  these  offences 
are,  by  th6  provisions  of  tne  same  acts,  to  be  struck, 
off  the  register,  and  their  names  inserted  in  a  separ- 
ate 'list  of  persons  disqualified  for  bribery,  treat- 
ment, and  undue  influence,*  which  is  to  be  appended 
to  the  register  of  voters.  Cockades  are  prohibited* 
as  is  the  furnishing  of  refreshment  on  tiie  day  of 
election  to  a  voter  in  consideration  of  his  being 
about  to  vote.  By  the  Corrupt  Practices  Act,  18oC 
it  is  however  declared  lawful  to  provide  a  convey- 
ance for  a  voter,  though  not  to  pay  him  a  sum  of 
money  for  travelling  expenses.  By  the  Act  of  1863ly 
no  payment  is  allowed  to  be  made  on  behalf  of  a 
candidate  except  through  his  authorised  agent,  and 
all  claims  against  a  candidate  in  resped>  of  aa 
election  must  be  settled  within  a  month,  otherwise 
the  right  to  recover  them  is  barred.  A  detailed 
account  of  election  expenses  with  vouchers  is  required 
to  be  delivered  within  two  months  of  the  election 
to  the  returning  officers,  by  whom  it  is  published  in 
a  local  newspa|>er,  and  the  vouchers  are  to  be  open 
for  a  month  to  the  inspection  of  voters. 

Act  15  and  16  Vict,  c  57  enacts  that  upon  the 
joint  address  of  both  Houses  of  Parliament  repre- 
senting to  her  Majestv  that  a  committee  of  the 
House  of  Commons  has  reported  that  corrupt 
practices  have  prevailed  extensively  at  any  election, 
her  Majesty  may  appoint  commissioners  to  make 
inquiry.  The  Corrupt  Practices  Prevention  Act, 
1863,  provides  that  when  an  election  committee  has 
reported  that  certain  persons  named  have  been 
guilty  of  bribeiy  or  treating,  and  their  report  is 
confirmed  by  a  commission  of  inquiry,  such  report, 
with  the  evidence  taken  by  the  commission,  is  to  be 
laid  before  the  attorney-general  with  the  view  of 
instituting  a  prosecution.     ^  ^^ 

ImpeaainienL — In  the  reign  of  Heniy  Vlll.,  an 
act  of  attainder  was  the  usual  mode  of  proceeding 
against  state  offences.  A  bill  of  attainder  some- 
times followed  a  regular  trial  and  conviction,  as  in 
the  case  of  Empson  and  Dudley,  but  was  sometimes 
passed  without  trial,  examination  of  witnesses,  or 
hearing  the  accused  party,  as  in  the  attainder  ol 
Fisher  and  Sir  Thomas  More.  The  practice  of 
impeachment  of  extraordinary  offenders  before  the 
Lords  by  the  Commons,  which  had  been  frequent 
during  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  was  revived  in 
the  reign  of  James  L  This  proceeding  is  not  like 
bills  of  attainder  or  pains  and  penalties,  the  making 
of  a  new  law  pro  re  nata,  but  a  carrying  out  of  the 
already  known  and  established  law.  The  great 
representative  inquest  of  the  nation  first  find  the 
crime,  and  then  as  prosecutors  support  the  charge 
before  the  highest  court  of  criminal  jurisdiction. 
It  has  always  been  allowed  that  a  peer  may  be 
impeached  for  any  crime  whether  cognizable  by  the 
ordinary  courts  or  not.  The  right  of  the  Commons 
to  impeach  a  commoner  of  a  capital  offence,  which 
was  at  one  time  doubted,  has  been  solemnly  affirmed 
by  the  House  of  Lords.  The  trial  is  conducted 
by  managers  for  the  Commons.  Witnesses  are 
summoned  by  the  Lords  at  the  desire  of  the 
Commons,  and  Westminster  Hall  has  usually  been 
the  place  of  trial,  the  Lord  High  Steward  pre- 
siding. The  managers  make  their  charges  and 
adduce  evidence;  the  accused  answers,  and  may 
defend  himself  by  counsel ;  and  the  managers  have 
a  right  to  reply.  In  giving  judgment,  the  question 
is  put  by  the  Lord  Hi{;h  Steward  to  each  peer, 
beginning  with  the  jumor  baron,  on  each  article 
separately,  whether  the  aocused  be  guilty.     The 


PARLIAMENTARY  CHURCH— PARMA. 


answer  is,  'Guiltv,  on  my  honour,*  or  •  Not  Guilty, 
OQ  my  honour/  the  Lord  High  Steward  giving  his 
opinion  the  last,  and  the  numbers  being  cast  up, 
the  accused  is  acquainted  with  the  result.  Impeach- 
ments have  not  been  common  in  later  times;  the 
latest  memorable  cases  are  those  of  Warren  Haa^gs 
in  1788.  and  Loid  Melville  in  1805. 

Trial  of  P<wa— Peers  are,  in  all  cases,  tried  by 
their  peers  for  treason,  mispriaion  of  treason,  felony, 
sr  misprision  of  felony.  During  the  sitting  of 
Mrliamenti  the  trial  proceeds  before  the  House  of 
Lords,  or  more  properly  before  the  Court  of  Parlia- 
ment presided  over  by  the  Lord  High  Steward. 
When  parliament  is  not  sitting,  the  trial  takes 
place  before  the  Court  of  the  Lord  High  Steward — a 
tribunal  whose  constitution  was  at  one  time  very 
objectionable,  that  officer  beins  allowed  to  summon 
what  peers  he  pleased,  only  with  the  proviso  that 
the  number  should  amount  in  all  to  23.  Act  7 
WUL  IIL  c  3  requires  that  all  the  peers  who  have 
•  right  to  sit  and  vote  in  parliament  be  summoned. 
Peers  of  Scotland  and  Ireland  are,  in  terms  of  the 
Acta  of  Union,  tried  in  the  same  way.  By  4  and  5 
Victb  a  22,  a  peer  is  liable  on  conviction  to  the 
tame  punishment  as  any  other  of  the  lieges. 

The  annual  expenses  of  parliament  are  about 
£158,369,  of  which  £72,684  is  expended  in  printing, 
md  the  remainder  in  salaries  and  emoluments, 
including  £5000  salary  to  the  Speaker  of  the  House 
of  Commona  See  T.  Erskine  May's  Laws,  Pritnleges, 
FroceedingSi  and  Utage  of  PaniamenL  5th  edition, 
186a 

PARLIAME'NTARY  CHURCH  is  a  church 
trected  under  the  authority  of  an  act  of  parliament. 
[n  England  such  a  church  is  generally  .called  a 
district  church ;  and  the  acts  of  parliament  author- 
ising such  churches,  are  known  as  the  Church 
BuiMing  Acts.  See  Parish.  In  Scotland  similar 
churches  are  called  Quoad  Sacra  (q.  y.)  churches. 

PA'RMA,  a  former  sovereignty  of  Upper  Italy, 
liaving  the  rank  of  a  duchy,  and  bounaed  on  the 
N.  by  Lombardy  and  Venice,  E.  by  Modena,  S.  by 
Genoa  and  Tuscany,  and  W.  by  Piedmont,  consisted 
of  the  duchies  of  Parma  and  Piacenza,  which  were 
subdivided  into  5  districts,  and  contained  in  all 
2268  English  square  miles,  with  a  population  (1861) 
of  469,4&.  The  Apennines,  which  cross  the  southern 
division  of  the  duchies,  send  off  spurs  northwards, 
and  give  to  the  noithem  part  of  the  country  the 
character  of  a  plain,  gently  undulating,  but  sloping 
uniformly  to  the  Po,  which  is  the  recipient  of  all 
the  rivers  of  the  country.  The  highest  peaks  of 
the  Apennines  in  P.  are,  Monte  Alpe  di  Succisio, 
about  7000  feet;  and  Monte  Parma  and  Monte 
Orsajo,  both  more  than  5250.  The  mountain-range 
is  richly  dad  with  oak  and  chestnut  forests.  The 
plain,  which  is  very  fertile,  produces  rich  crops  of 
ffrain  (including  rice),  leguminous  plants,  fruits  of  all 
Kinds,  olives,  and  grapes ;  while  marble,  alabaster, 
nit,  and  petroleum  are  the  chief  minerad  products. 
Kext  to  agriculture,  the  production  and  manufacture 
of  silk,  the  rearing  of  cattle  and  poultry,  cheese- 
making,  and  the  extraction  of  the  mineral  products 
afford  the  chief  employment.  Silk  and  cheese  are 
the  chief  exports.  The  cheese,  however,  known  as 
Parmesan,  is  not  made  here,  but  in  the  nei^bour- 
hood  of  Lodi  (q.  ▼.). 

The  form  oi  government  was  monarchical,  and 
the  Roman  Catholic  religion  the  only  one  tolerated, 
though  a  few  Jews  are  foimd  here  and  there  through 
fhe  country.  The  condition  of  education,  thoush 
improved  of  late,  is  still  very  defective.  Tne 
aOministrative  power  was  in  the  hands  of  a  council 
«f  state,  which  was  divided  into  two  sections — one 
fin  internal  administration,  which  acted  as  a  court 


of  final  appeal  in  matters  of  justice,  the  other  fo> 
finance  and  military  and  foreign  affairs.  The 
revenue  of  P.  in  1859  was  estimated  at  1 1,666,6 18 
liras  (£458,085),  and  the  expenditure  at  11,273,883 
liras  (£446,490).  The  total  debt,  funded  and 
redeemable,  amounted  to  15,558,218  liras  (£616,167). 
The  army  (1859)  before  the  annexation,  according 
to  the  statistics  of  1863,  consisted  of  3290  soldiers ; 
the  duke  had  also  the  occasional  loan  of  an 
Austrian  regiment,  and  the  fortress  of  Piacenza 
was  garrisoned  by  the  troops  of  that  power. 

History, — P.  and  Piacenza  belonged  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  Cisalpine  Gaul,  and 
after  its  fall  came  under  the  rule  of  the  Lombards, 
to  whose  rule  succeeded  that  of  the  kings  of  Italy 
and  the  German  emperors.  In  the  12th  and  follow- 
ing centuries,  they  joined  the  other  territories  of 
Northern  Italy  which  were  strugshng  for  liberty  and 
independence,  and  consequentlybecame  involved  in 
the  Gnelph  and  Ghibelline  contests.  Weakened  by 
these  strifes,  they  fell  under  the  domination  of  the 
powerful  houses  of  Este,  Visconti,  and  Sforza ;  but  in 
1499  they  passed  under  the  yoke  of  the  French 
monarch,  Louis  XIL,  from  whom  they  were  soon 
recovered  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  and  handed 
over  to  Pope  Leo  X.  in  1613.  They  continued 
under  the  sovereignty  of  the  popes  till  1543,  when 
they  were  alienated  by  Pope  raul  III.,  and  with 
the  surrounding  territory  were  erected  into  a  duchy 
for  his  natural  son  Pier-Luigi  Famese,  the  grand- 
father of  Alessandro  Famese,  the  celebrated  regent 
of  the  Low  Countries.  On  the  extinction  of  the 
male  line  of  Famese,  in  1731,  bv  the  death  of  the 
eighth  duke,  Antonio,  his  niece  Elizabeth,  the  queen 
of  Philip  V.  of  Spain,  obtained  the  duchies  for  her 
son  Don  Carlos,  who,  however,  exchanged  them  in 
1735  with  Austria  for  the  throne  of  the  Two 
Sicilies.  In  1748  they  were  restored  along  with 
Guastalla  to  Sixain,  and  became  a  duchy  K>r  the 
Infante  Don  Pnilip,  with  a  reversion  to  Austria  in 
case  of  the  failure  of  his  male  descendants,  or  of  any 
of  them  ascending  the  Spanish  or  Neapolitan  throne. 
Philip  was  succeeded  in  1765  by  his  son  Ferdinand, 
who  was  an  able  and  enlightened  ruler,  and  expelled 
the  Jesuite  in  1768.  He  died  in  1802,  and  his 
dominions  were  immediately  taken  possession  of  by 
the  French,  and  were  incorporated  with  France 
under  the  designation  of  the  department  of  Taro  i& 
1805.  In  1814,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  P.,  Piacen2a, 
and  Guastalla  were  presented  as  a  sovereign  duchy  to 
the  ex-empress  Maria  Louisa,  a  proceeding  strongly 
opposed  by  the  kin^  of  Spain,  who  demanded  them 
for  his  sister,  Mana  Louisa,  the  widow  of  Louis, 
king  of  Etruria,  the  son  of  Duke  Ferdinand. 
However,  in  1817,  it  was  settled  that  Maria  Louisa 
of  Austria  should  possess  the  duchies,  and  that  on 
her  death  they  shoidd  descend  to  Ferdinand 
Charles,  Duke  of  Lucca,  the  son  of  Maria  Louisa  of 
Spain,  and  the  rightful  heir;  and  on  failure  of  his 
heirs,  P.  should  revert  to  Austria,  and  Piacenza  to 
Sardinia.  The  empress  governed  very  much  after 
the  Austrian  fashion,  but  with  gentleness,  thou^xh 
liberal  sentiments  were  looked  upon  by  her  with 
little  favour.  On  her  death,  in  1847,  the  Duke  of 
Lucca  succeeded  as  Charles  IL,  and  certain  exchanges 
of  territory,  previously  settled  by  the  great  powers* 
took  place  with  Tuscany  and  Modena — ^the  chief  oi 
which  being  the  transfer  of  Guastalla  to  Modena 
in  exchange  for  the  districto  of  Villa-franca,  Tres* 
chietto,  Castevoli,  and  Melazzo,  all  in  Massa-CarrariL 
resulting  in  a  loss  to  P.  of  about  77  English  square 
miles  of  territory,  and  a  gain  of  193  English  square 
miles.  This  transfer  was  not  made  without  great 
discontent  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants.  The 
duke's  rule  was  severe  and  tyrannical^  and  on  an 
address   being  presented  to  him    with  a  view  of 


PARMA— PARMIGIAKO. 


obtaining  «  reform  of  certain  abuses,  and  a  more 
liberal  political  constitution,  similar  to  what 
Tuscany  had  (February  1848)    obtained  from  its 

f'and-duke,  he  threw  himself  into  the  arms  of 
ustria,  and  consented  to  the  occupation  of  his 
territory  by  Austrian  troops.  In  March  1848  a 
revolution  broke  out,  and  the  duke  was  compelled 
to  grant  the  popular  demands,  but  he  almost  imme- 
diately after  retired  from  the  country.  P.  joined 
with  Sardinia  in  the  war  of  1848 — 1849  against 
Austria,  but  on  the  triumph  of  the  latter  power 
was  compelled  to  receive  Charles  IIL  (his  father, 
Charles  II.,  having  resigned  his  throne,  March 
1849)  as  its  ruler.  The  new  duke  recalled  the 
constitution  which  his  father  had  been  compelled 
to  grant,  and  punished  with  ^eat  severity  the 
active  agents  of  the  revolutionary  movements 
in  his  dominions.  His  arbitrary  measures  were 
effectively  seconded  by  his  chief  minister,  an 
Englishman  named  Ward,  who  shared  the  public 
obloquy  with  his  master.  After  Charles  IIL's 
assassination  in  March  1854,  his  widow  Louise- 
Marie-Therese  do  Bourbon,  daughter  of  the  last 
Duke  of  Berry  (q.  v.),  assumed  the  government  for 
the  behoof  of  her  son  Robert  I.,  and  made  some 
attempts  at  political  reform  ;  but  owing  to  the 
excited  state  of  the  people  they  were  little  effec- 
tive, and  she  and  her  son  were  compelled  to  leave 
the  country  in  1859,  on  the  outbreak  of  a  new 
war  between  Sardinia  and  Austria.  In  March  18th 
of  the  following  year  the  country  was  annexed  to 
Sardinia,  and  now  forms  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy,  constituting  the  two  provinces  of  Parma 
(area  1251  English  square  miles,  pop.  258,502)  and 
Piacenza  (area  965  English  sc^uare  miles,  pop. 
210,933),'  a  few  of  the  outlying  districts,  amounting 
to  about  150  square  miles,  being  incorporated  with 
other  provinces. — Official  Statistics  of  Ike  Kingdom  of 
Italy  (Turin,  1861) ;  Budget  ofOie  ^Emilias;  Report 
of  the  Marquis  Pepoli  to  tJie  Minister  of  Finances 
(Turin,  1860) ;  idem.  Report  qf  General  Tozze  to  the 
Minister  of  War  (1863). 

PARMA,  the  chief  town  of  the  province  of  the 
same  name  in  Italy,  and  formerly  the  capital  of  the 
duchy  of  Parma,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the 
liver  Parma,  12  miles  south  from  the  Po,  75  miles 
south-east  from  Milan,  and  about  the  same  distance 
east-north-east  from  Grenoa^  with  a  population  (1863) 
of  47,428. 

The  town  is  of  a  drcnlar  form,  and  is  sur- 
rounded  by  walls  and  ditches  flanked  by  bas* 
tions ;  the  streets  are  straight  and  wide,  and  meet 
at  right  angles,  the  chief  of  them,  a  part  of  the 
Roman  Via  Emilia,  crossing  the  city  from  east  to 
west,  and  dividing  it  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 
P.  is  celebrated  for  its  churches,  10  in  number,  the 
chief  of  which  are  the  Ihiomo,  or  Cathedral  (conse- 
crated 1106  A.D.),  built  chiefly  in  the  Lombfud 
style,  having  the  interior  adorned  with  manii- 
fioent  frescoes  by  Correggio,  and  paintings  by  otner 
Artists,  and  surmounted  by  a  beautiful  dome ;  the 
Battisterio,  or  Baptistery,  one  of  the  most  splendid 
in  Italy,  begun  in  1196  and  completed  in  1281 ;  the 
church  of  the  Madonna  delta  Steccata^  containing 
the  famous  painting  of  *  Moses  breaking  the  Tables 
of  the  Law'  by  Parmigianino.  The  other  cele- 
brated buildings  are,  the  Farnese  Palace,  a 
gloomy  and  Ufconstructed  edifice ;  the  Farnese 
Theatre,  built  (1618—1628)  of  wood,  and  now  in  a 
most  dilapidated  condition.  P.  has  also  a  library 
containing  140,000  volumes,  mostly  well  selecteo, 
and  many  of  them  rare  and  valuable  works ;  a 
museum  of  antiquities ;  a  botanic  garden ;  a  theatre 
{Teairo  Nuovo) ;  an  academy  of  fine  arts,  founded  in 
1752,  possessing  a  collection  of  600  pictures,  many 
of  wmch  are  exceedingly  valuable.     The  pictures 


most  highly  esteemed  are  the  '  Madonnas '  of  Cor- 
reggio  and  Francia,  the  'St  Jerome'  of  Correggio, 
and  the  'Jesus  (jrlorified'  of  Raphael 

The  manufactures  of  P.  are  stockinf:«,  porcelain, 
sugar,  wax-candles,  and  vessels  of  crystal,  tXao  silk, 
cotton,  and  fustian  stuffs.  The  chief  exports  are 
cheese  and  silk  goods;  and  in  June  there  is  an 
annual  silk  fair. 

PARMA,  BattTjES  of.  An  indecisive  engage- 
ment took  place  here  Jnne  29,  1734,  between  die 
confederated  armies  of  England,  France,  and  Spain, 
and  the  Austrians ;  and  on  June  19,  1799,  the 
French  nnder  Macdonald  were  routed  by  the 
Russians  under  Sawarof,  with  a  loss  of  10,000  men 
and  4  generals. 

PARME'LXA,  a  genus  of  Lichens,  with  a  leafy 
horizontal  thallus  which  is  lobed  and  cut  ;  and 
orbicular  shields  {apothecia)  fixed  by  a  central  point, 
concave,  and  bordered  by  the  inflexed  th^us.  The 
species  are  numerous,  and  manjr  arc  found  in 
Britain.  Some  of  them  are  occasionally  employed 
in  dyeing.  Various  chemical  principles  have  been 
discovered  in  lichens  of  this  genus,  as  Usnine  or 
Usnic  Acid  (also  found  in  species  of  the  genus 
Usnea\  and  Parietin.  Valuable  medicinal  properties 
— ^tonic  and  febrifugal — ^have  been  a<3crib^  to  P. 
parietina,  the  Common  Yellow  Wall  lichen,  or 
Common  Yellow  Wall  Moss  of  the  herb  sho^ie,  a 
bright  yellow  species  with  deep  orange  shields, 
plentiful  on  walls  and  trees  in  !^ritain  and  most 
parts  of  Europe. 

•PARME'NIDfiS,  a  Greek  philosopher  of  Elea, 
in  Lower  Italy,  and  in  the  opinion  of  the  ancients 
the  greatest  member  of  the  Eleatic  school,  flourished 
about  the  middle  of  the  5th  c.  b.c.  Nothing  is 
known  with  certainty  regarding  his  life,  but  he  is 
said  to  have  visited  Athens  in  his  old  age,  and  to 
have  conversed  with  Socrates,  then  quite  a  yonth. 
The  story,  though  it  rests  on  the  authority  of  Plato, 
has  a  suspicious  air,  and  seems  as  if  it  were  intended 
to  account  for  the  influence  which  the  philosophy 
of  P.  undoubtedly  exercised  on  that  of  Scxrates  and 
Plato  themselves.  P.,  like  Xenophanes  of  Colo> 
phon,  sometimes  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  Eleatics^ 
expounded  his  philosophy  in  verse — his  only  work 
being  a  didactic  poem  On  Nature.  The  leadins 
design  of  this  poem  is  to  demonstrate  the  reality  of 
Absolute  Being,  the  non-existenoe  of  which  P. 
declares  to  be  inconceivable,  but  the  nature  of 
which,  on  the  other  hand,  he  admits  to  be  eqnally 
inconceivable,  inasmuch  as  it  is  dissociated  from 
every  limitation  under  which  man  tliinks.  P.  is 
not  a  theologist  in  speculation,  seeking  rather  to 
identify  his  '  Absolute  Being '  with  '  Thought '  than 
with  a  *  Deity.'  Only  fragments  of  his  poem  remain, 
which  have  been  separately  edited  by  Fiillebom 
(ZUllichau,  1795) ;  another  collection  is  that  by 
Brandis,  in  his  Commentatvones  Eleatico!  (Altona, 
1815)  ;  but  the  best  is  to  be  found  in  Karsten's 
Philosophorum  Grcecorum  veterum  ReliquicB  (Am- 
stelod,  1835). 

PARMIGIANO,  GiROLAMO  Francesco  Majoa 
Mazzola,  called  Parmigiano  or  Parmigianino,  bom 
at  Parma  in  1503,  an  able  jminter  <^  the  Lombard 
school,  and  the  most  distinguished  of  those  who 
followed  the  style  of  Corregeio.  His  pictures 
attracted  much  attention  whenne  was  liUle  mora 
than  fourteen  years  of  age.  In  1523  he  went  to 
Home  to  follow  out  his  studies,  and  ^^aa  soon 
favourably  noticed  and  employed  by  Clement  V£L 
He  was  in  that  city  when  it  was  stormed  by  the 
imperialists  under  Bourbon  in  1527,  and,  it  is  said, 
was  calmly  at  work  on  his  picture  of  '  Th»  Vis v>n 
of  St  Jerome'  (now  in  uie  National  tWlery, 
London)  when  soldiers,  bent  on  pillage,  bui«t  iuto 


PARNAHIBA— PAKOS. 


his  sfcadio.  He  was,  howeyer,  protected  by  their 
leader.  After  this  event  he  left  jRome  for  Bologna, 
where  he  painted  various  important  works,  and 
letomed  to  Parma  in  1531.  Having  engaged  to 
execute  several  extensive  frescoes  in  the  church 
of  S.  Maria  Steccata,  after  repeated  delays,  he  was 
thrown  into  prison  for  breach  of  contract,  and  on 
being  released,  in  place  of  carrying  out  his  under- 
taking, he  fled  to  Casal  Ma^ore,  in  the  territory 
of  Cremona,  where  he  diea  soon  afterwards  in 
1640.  Yasari,  in  his  notice  of  P.,  attributes  his 
nusfortunes  and  premature  death  to  his  passion  for 
alchemy ;  but  this  oft-repeated  story  has  been 
disproved  by  the  researches  of  late  biographers. 
He  executed  several  etchings,  and  some  wood-cuts 
are  attributed  to  him. 

PARNAHITBA,  or  PARANAHYBA,  a  river  of 
Brazil,  rises  in  the  Sierra  dos  Coroados,  between  the 
provinces  of  Goyas  and  Piauhi,  about  ir  S.  It 
flows  north-east  and  north,  and  enters  the  Atlantic 
in  long,  about  4r  40'  W.  by  five  mouths,  which 
enclose  a  delta  about  30  miles  wide  along  the  shore. 
These  mouths,  however,  are  only  from  two  to  four 
fathoms  deep.  It  drains  the  province  of  Piauhi, 
and  forms  the  boundary-line  between  it  and  the 
province  of  Maranhao.  Total  length  estimated  at 
750  miles. — A  chief  tributary  of  the  Parana  also 
bears  the  name  of  Pamahiba. 

PARNA'SSUS,  a  mountain  greatly  celebrated 
among  the  ancients,  and  regarded  by  the  Greeks 
as  the  central  point  of  their  country.  It  was  in 
Phocis.  It  has  three  steep  peaks,  almost  always 
covered  with  snow,  and  seen  from  a  great  distance, 
the  highest  being  fully  8000  feet  above  the  level 
of  the  sea ;  but  as  only  two  of  them  are  visible  from 
Delphi,  it  was  customary  among  the  Greeks  to 
speak  of  the  two-peaked  Parnassus.  On  its  southern 
slope  lay  Delphi  (q.  v.),  the  seat  of  the  famous 
oracle,  and  the  fountain  of  Castalia  (q.  v.).  The 
highest  peak  was  the  scene  of  the  orgies  of  the 
worship  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) ;  idl  the  rest  of  the 
mountain  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses, 
whence  poets  were  said  to  *  climb  Parnassus,'  a 
phrase  still  thus  employed. 

PARO'CHIAL  BOARD,  in  Scotland,  is  the 
board  in  each  parish  which  manages  the  relief  of 
the  poor.  In  England,  the  same  duty  is  performed 
by  overseers,  and  m  some  cases  by  guardians  of  the 
poor. 

PAROCHIAL  RELIEF  is  the  relief  given  to 
paupers  by  the  parish  authorities.    See  Poor. 

PA'RODY  (Gr.  paroL,  beside,  and  ode^  a  song), 
the  name  given  to  a  burlesque  imitation  of  a 
serious  poem.  Its  peculiarity  is  that  it  pre- 
serves the  form,  and  as  far  as  possible  the  words 
of  the  original,  and  thereby  differs  from  a  Travesty, 
which  is  a  looser  and  less  literal  kind  of  burlesque. 
The  invention  of  parodies  is  commonly  ascribed  to 
the  Greeks  (from  whom,  at  least,  we  have  derived 
the  name) ;  the  first  ^rodist,  according  to  Aristotle, 
being  Hegemon  of  Thasos,  who  flourished  during 
the  Peloponnesian  war ;  according  to  others,  Hip- 
pooax.  From  the  fragments  that  are  extant  of 
ancient  parody,  we  imer  that  Homer  was  the 
favourite  subject  of  comic  imitation.  Thus  Hip- 
pooax,  in  his  picture  of  a  glutton,  ludicrously 
insinuates  a  comparison  between  the  feats  of  his 
hero  in  eating  and  those  of  Achilles  in  fighting,  by 
eommencing  as  follows : 

Sng,  O  celestial  goddess,  Eorymedon,  foremost  of 

gluttons. 
Whose  stomach  devours  like  Charybdis,  eater  nn- 

maiched  among  mortals. 

Tbs  Bairaehomyofnachia  (Battle  of  the  Frogs  and 


Mice),  erroneously  j»cribed  to  Homer,  is  also  • 
happy  and  harmless  specimen  of  the  parody,  which, 
however,  soon  began  to  exchange  its  jocose  and 
inoffensive  raillery  for  a  biting  and  sarcastic  banter, 
of  which  numerous  specimens  may  be  seen  in  the 
comedies  of  Aristophanes;  while  the  philosopher 
Timon  of  Phiius  invented,  under  the  name  of  /siUotf 
a  new  species  of  satirical  parody.  Among  the 
Romans  we  first  meet  with  tliiB  form  of  literature 
in  the  period  of  the  decline.  All  the  power  of 
Nero  could  not  prevent  his  verses  from  being 
parodied  by  Persius.  Among  modern  nations  the 
French — as  might  naturally  be  expected  from  their 
character — have  been  most  addicted  to  this  literary 
mimicry.  Comeiile  parodied  Chapeltdn  in  his 
Old,  and  Racine  parodied  ComeiUe.  The  pot' 
pourris  of  D^angiers  are  considered  by  his  country- 
men models  of  uiis  ungracious  kind  of  literature. 
Schiller's  famous  poem  of  the  Bell  has  been  often 
parodied  by  German  wits.  In  England,  perhaps 
the  best  compositions  of  this  nature  are  the 
Bejected  Addresses  of  the  brothers  James  and 
Horace  Smith.  Many  will  remember,  in  particular, 
the  parody  on  Scott's  'Battle  of  Flodden'  in 
Mamdon,  ending — 

*od  rot  'em 
Were  the  last  words  of  Higginbotham. 

Barham's  Ingoldshy  Legends  contains  a  felicitous 
parody  on  Wolfe's  Line^  on  Hie  Burial  of  Sir  John 
Moore,    We  quote  the  first  stanza  as  a  8i)ecimen : 

Not  a  sou  had  he  got,  not  a  guinea  or  note. 
And  he  looked  most  confoundedly  flurried 

As  he  bolted  away  without  paying  his  shot, 
And  his  landlady  after  him  nurried. 

Thackeray's  Miscellanies  also  contain  some  very 
clever  and  satirical  prose  parodies  upon  certain  of 
his  brother  novelists. 

The  historical  development  of  the  parody  has 
been  treated  by  Moser  in  Daub's  and  Creuzer's 
Studien  (6th  voL).  See  also  Moser's  Parodiarum 
Exempla  (Ulm.  1819),  and  Weland's  De  Prcecipuis 
Parodiarum  Ilomericarum  ScriptorUbus  (Gott.  1833). 

PARO'LE  (literally,  a  word)  is  the  declaration 
made  on  honour  by  an  ofiicer,  in  a  case  in  which 
there  is  no  more  than  his  sense  of  honour  to  restrain 
him  from  breaking  his  word.  Thus  a  prisoner  of 
war  may  be  released  from  acttud  prison  on  his 
parole  that  he  will  not  go  beyond  certain  designated 
limits ;  or  he  may  even  be  allowed  to  return  to  his 
own  country  on  his  parole  not  to  fight  again,  during 
the  existing  war,  against  his  captora  To  break 
parole  is  accounted  infamous  in  all  civilised  nations, 
and  an  ofiicer  who  has  so  far  forgotten  his  position 
as  a  gentleman  ceases  to  have  any  claim  to  the 
treatment  of  an  honourable  man,  nor  can  he  expect 
quarter  Aould  he  again  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
enemy  he  has  deceiveid. 

PAROLE  EVIDENCE,  in  Law,  means  such 
evidence  as  is  given  by  witnesses  by  word  of  mouth 
at  a  trial  or  hearing  of  a  cause.  Parole  Agreement^ 
in  English  Law,  means  any  agreement  ma^e  either 
by  word  of  mouth  or  by  writing  not  under  seal  If 
the  agreement  is  made  by  writing  imder  seal,  it  is 
called  a  deed,  or  indenture,  or  covenant,  according 
to  the  nature  of  its  contents. 

PAROPAMISA'N  MOUNTAINS.     See 

AjrOHANIOTAK. 

PA'ROS,  one  of  the  larger  islands  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  is  situated  west  of  Naxos,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  channel  from  four  to  six  miles 
wide.  Greatest  length,  15  miles ;  greatest  breadth, 
9  miles;  area,  about  77  square  miles;  pop.  7200. 
The  surface  is  hilly,  the  soenery  picturesque,  and 

235 


PABOTID  OLAND-PARBAKEET. 


tba  soil  natunlly  fertile,  bat  imperfactly  cultiTateiL 
The  uUnd  is  especiklly  productive  in  cotton,  wtuc, 
Boney,  partridges,  end  wild  pigeom,  Near  the 
■udiUe  of  the  iolimd,  the  moimtsm  Capreeso 
(Bmcieot  Marpeaaa),  aboandi  in  the  famous  Parian 
Burble,  nhich  was  used  by  numy  of  the  greatest 
toulptcva  of  antiquity.    Porekhia,  on  the  west  cout, 

I  tna  priuciual  toHii,  and  Nauaa,  on  the  nortli 

MSt,  ia  the  ohief  port. 

In  Kncieut  timea,  P.,  whioh  ii  said  to  have  been 
•olooised  hy  Cretaiii,  attained  great  maritime  pros- 
perity,  and  became  wealthy  and  poverfuL  It  aub- 
luitted  to  the   Persians ;  and  after  the  battle   of 


after  died.  After  the  defeat  of  Xerxet.  P.  come 
tmder  the  mpremacy  of  Athma,  and  ahared  th« 
bte  of  the  other  Cydodea.  Archilochtu,  the 
toTentor  of  Iambic  verae,  wm  born  here. 

PAROTID  GLAND.    See  Sixivart  Oumw. 

FAHQUETRY,  a  kind  of  vood  moaaic  used 
only  for  floorlnK.  The  art  of  making  iulud  wood 
floora  has  until  lately  much  declined  in  this  ooantry, 
but  OQ  the  continent  it  has  been  much  in  lue,  and 
has  been  carried  to  great  perfection.  Parquetry 
floora  are  uiually  of  ouc.  but  other  and  more  oma- 
meDtal  woods  have  also  been  much  used  for  giving 
*anety  and  beauty  to  the  pattern.  In  the  more 
•laborate  kinds  of  parqaetry,  veoeers  are  used,  but 
It  ia  much  more  generally  composed'  of  blocks  of 
wood  squared  at  the  sides,  and  laid  down  so  as  to 
combine  and  form  a  geometric  pnttem.  Of  lat«,  the 
taste  for  this  work  has  revived  in  Britain,  and  it  is 
beginning  to  be  extensively  employed  in  the  better 
elasa  of  buildings. 

PARR,  Samdbl,  LL.D.,  a  once  notable  scholar, 
«FU  born  January  15,  1747,  at  Harrow-on -the- Hill. 
fie  entered  Emmanuel  College,  Cambridge,  in  1765; 
l>nt  the  death  of  his  father,  two  years  afterwards, 
neceaaitated  his  doing  something  for  himself,  and  ha 
was,  in  consequence,  mduced  to  accept  an  aasiatant- 
mastcrshipat  Harrow,  where  he  remained  five  years. 
The  head-mastership  then  becoming  vacant,  P. 
^mlied  for  it,  but  was  rejected,  whereupon  he  left, 
uu  started  OS  an  independent  schoolmaster.  In  1777, 
he  was  appointed  Master  of  Colchester  School,  where 
he  was  ordained  prieet,  and  obtained  the  curacies 
•f  Bythe  and  Trinity  Church.  Next  year,  he 
became  Master  of  Norwich  School ;  but  in  1786, 
settled  at  Hatton  in  Warwickshire,  where  he  spent 
the  rest  of  his  life.  In  1787,  be  published  an  edition 
of  Bellenden,  to  whioh  he  prenxed  his  celebrated 
pc«fac«,  which  is  as  remarkable  for  its  nnoom- 
promiBing  advocacy  of  Whig  principles  as  for  the 
•crupolons  Ciceronianism  of  its  Latinily,  He  died 
March  6,1825. 

It  is  almost  impoMdble  to  nndentand  the  rejnita- 
iion  which  P.  once  had.  None  of  his  volummoos 
writings  justify  it.  That  he  was  in  some  reepecta 
an  accomplished,  and  even  a  great  scholar,  is 
undoubted  for  he  could  write  Latin  of  Ciceronian 
purity  and  finish ;  but  it  is  equally  undoubted  that 
he  never  did  an3rthing  with  his  boasted  scholarship. 
P.  has  left  the  world  absolutely  nothing  to  keep  it 
in  remembrsoce  of  him,  yet  his  complete  works 
(edited  by  Dt  J.  Johnstone  in  lS28)~eicluaive  of 
his  contnbotioDS  to  periodicals — form  eight  cnor- 
BLoos  tomes,  and  contain  S734  octavo  pages,  many  of 
them  printed  in  small  type.  They  relate  to  matters 
historical,  critical,  and  metaphysical,  but  in  oU  of 
them  '  the  thread  of  Parr's  verbosity  ia  finer  than 


talker.  Bold,  dogmatic,  arrogant,  with  a  memoiT 
profoundly  and  ininately  retentive,  and  with  a 
genuine  gift  of  ephemeral  epigram,  he  seemed,  at 
the  tables  of  statesmen,  and  wits,  ond  divince,  to  be 
a  man  of  tremendous  talent,  capable  of  any  literary 
feat;  hat  the  learning  and  the  repartee  have  left 


PAHRA.    SeejAOAiiA. 

PARRAKEET,  or  PARROQUET.  a  name  very 

commonly  given  to  many  of  the  smaller  speciea  of 
the  parrot  family ;  generally  (o  species  having  long 
tails,  and  natives  of  the  ^t  Indies,  Africa,  and 
Australia,  not  so  frequently  to  American  species; 
although  it  is  sometunee  also  appUed  to  some  ot 
these,  mdiSereutly  with  the  name  Parrot— One  of 
the  most  beautiful  groups  of  the  PsiUacidix,  combin- 
ing gracefulness  of  form  with  splendour  of  ptiiEnafi^ 
is  that  to  which  the  Ai.iiAin>BiNA  P.  or  Rind  P. 
{Pataomu  Aleoindril  belongs.  It  is  about  the 
size  of  a  common  pigeon,  green,  with  a  red  collai^ 
whence  its  name  Ring  P.,  and  ia  a  native  of  tbe 


East  Indies.  It  It  said  to  hav«  be«a  bmn^t  to 
Europe  by  some  of  the  members  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  expedition  to  India,  and  to  have  been  the 
first  of  the  parrot  tribe  known  to  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  by  whom  it  was  highly  prized,  as  it  still  is, 
not  only  for  its  beanty,  but  for  its  docility  and  ila 
power  of  imitatiEig  human  speech.  Like  many 
of  its  tribe,  it  is  gregariona,  and  immeoae  flocks 
make  their  abode  in  some  of  the  cocoa-nut  groves  «( 
the  western  jiorts  of  Ceylon,  filling  the  air  with  the 
most  deafening  screams.  'The  Ring  P,  has  many 
congeners,  natives  chiefly  of  the  East  Indies,  exhibit 
ing  much  variety  of  splendid  plnmoge.  — ijomewhat 
like  them  in  length  and  form  of  toil,  bat  with  longel 
and  stronger  legs,  is  the  Orocitd  P.,  or  Orovhd 
Pabrot  {Ptzophonu  /ormoiiu),  ol  Australia,  a  bid 


PAKKHASIUS-PARROT. 


Toy  common  in  all  the  southern  parts  of  New 
Hofiand  and  in  Van  Diemen's  Land,  inhabitinff 
teruhs  OT  groond  covered  with  very  low  underwood 
Its  habits  are  very  unlike  those  of  parrots  in  general; 
it  runs  along  the  ground,  and  even  seeks  to  escape 
from  enemies  by  running,  unwillingly  takes  wing, 
and  then  only  for  a  short  low  flight  It  makes  no 
nest,  but  lavs  its  eggs  in  a  hole  m'  the  ground.  It 
is  a  small  bird,  not  much  more  than  12  inches  in 
entire  length,  one  half  of  which  is  occupied  by  the 
tail ;  its  colour,  dark  green  above,  yellowish  below, 
less  brilliant  than  in  many  of  the  parrot  tribe,  but 
finely  marked  and  mottled.  Its  nesh  has  a  very 
strong  gcune  flavour.  There  are  numerous  other 
Australian  species,  distributed  in  several  genera, 
some  of  which,  although  less  exclusively  than  that 
iiist  noticed,  live  and  seek  their  food  on  the  ground. 
Some  of  them  exhibit  the  greatest  splendour  of 
^nmage.  The  only  one  we  shall  notice  is  the 
Zbbra  p.  {MHopsittaoiB  undtdcUua),  a  very  beauti- 
tal  little  species,  which  has  often  been  brought  to 
England,  and  has  sometimes  bred  in  it.  &  the 
vast  inhuid  plains  of  Australia,  this  P.  is  to  be  seen 
in  flocks  of  many  hundreds  feeding  on  the  seeds  of 
tiie  grasses,  which  afford  food  also  to  many  other 
smau  species. 

PARRHA'SrCrS,  one  of  tlie  greatest  painters  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  the  son  of  Evenor,  himself  an 
artist,  and  was  bom  at  Ephesus  in  the  5th  c 
B.a  He  practised  his  profession,  however,  at 
Athens,  the  inhabitants  of  .which  held  him  in  high 
estimation,  and  conferred  on  him  the  rights  of 
eitizenshipk  He  was  already  celebrated  in  the  time 
of  Socrates,  with  whom,  according  to  Xenophou,  he 
Add  a  conversation  {Mem,  3,  10),  and  was  also  a 
younger  contemporary  of  Zenxis.  The  date  of  his 
death  is  unknown.  Seneca,  who  lived  several 
hundred  years  after,  tells  a  monstrous  story  about 
him.  He  says  that  when  P.  was  paiotme  his 
'  Prometheus  V inctus,'  he  got  hold  oi  one  of  the 
prisoners  taken  at  the  capture  of  Olynthns  by 
Philip  of  Maoedon  (347  B.a),  and  crucified  him  in 
his  studio  that  he  might  copy  from,  life  the  expres- 
sion of  agony.  Fortunatdv  for  P.'s  memory,  the 
anecdote  is  almost  certainly  untrue,  as  it  would 
require  us  to  suppose  that  he  was  still  alive  and 
painting  when  upwards  of  100  years  old.  P.  appears 
to  have  surpassed  all  his  predecessors  in  punty  of 
design,  accunu^  of  drawing,  force  of  expression,  and 
what  is  techmcally  called  'finish.'  According  to 
Pliny,  he  was  the  first  who  established  a  true  pro- 
portion between  the  different  parts  of  a  picture,  and 
delineated  with  elegance  and  precision  all  the 
minntisB  of  the  features,  even  to  those  evanescent 
motions  that  betray  the  most  delicate  sentiments  of 
the  souL  He  painted  the  extremities,  such  as  the 
bands  and  fingers,  in  so  exquisite  a  style,  that  the 
intermediate  parts  seemed  relatively — ^but  only 
relatively — inferior.  Quinctilian  caUs  him  the 
legislator  of  his  art,  because  his  canon  of  proportion 
for  gods  and  h»x>es  was  followed  by  all  contem- 
porary and  subsequent  painters.  Among  his  works 
were  an  apparently  symbolical  picture  of  the 
Athenian  Demos  (* People'),  a  *Tneseus,'  'Naval 
Commander  in  full  Armour,'  'Ulysses  feigning 
Madness,* '  Castor  and  Pollux,'  *  Bacchus  and  Virtue/ 
a '  Meleager,  Hercules,  and  Perseus  *  on  one  canvas, 
a  'Cretan  Nurse ^with  a  Child  in  her  Arms,'  a 
'Priest  officiating *with  a  Child  bearing  Incense,' 
'Two  Young  Children,'  an  '  AchUles,'  an  *  Agamem* 
BOD,'  &C.  But  his  subjects  were  not  always  of  a 
pure  or  lofty  character.  His  'Archigallus  (high- 
priest  of  Cybele)  and  his  *  Meleager  and  Atalanta ' 
were  most  Ucentious  representations,  and  gave  such 
pleasure  to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  a  man  of 
■nboonded  sensuality,  that  he  kept  them  in  his 


bedroom,  and  valued  the  second  in  particular  t^ 
more  than  a  million  sesterces. 

P.  was  of  an  excessively  proud  and  arrogant  dis- 
position. He  called  himself  the  prince  of  painters, 
and  claimed  to  be  descended  from  Ap^o ;  he 
also  painted  himself  as  the  god  Mercury,  and  then 
exposed  lus  own  portrait  for  the  adoration  of  the 
crowd.  His  vanity  was  equal  to  his  pride,  and 
shewed  itself  even  in  his  apparel,  which  was  of  the 
kind  called  '  gorgeous.'    He  generally  dressed  in  a 

Ole  robe  with  a  golden  fringe,  sported  a  gold* 
ed  cane,  and  wore   boots  tied  with   golden 
olaspsL 

PA'BBICIDE  (Lat.  paricida)  is  rather  a  popular 
than  a  legal  term.  In  the  Homan  law  it  compre- 
hended every  one  who  murdered  a  near  relative; 
but  in  English  the  term  is  usually  confined  to  the 
murderer  of  one's  father,  or  of  one  who  is  in  loco 
parentis.  The  parricide  does  not,  in  any  respect, 
differ  in  Britain  from  the  murderer  of  a  stranger; 
in  both  cases,  the  punishment  is  death  by  hanging. 
In  the  Boman  law,  a  parricide  was  punished  m 
a  much  more  severe  manner,  being  sewed  up  in 
a  leather  sack,  along  with  a  live  cock,  vijper,  dog^ 
and  ape,  and  cast  into  the  sea  to  take  his  fate  wi£ 
these  companions. 

PA'BBOT  {PsiUaeus),  a  Linnsean  genus  of  birds, 
now  the  family  PstUaddoi^  of  the  order  Scansores,  or 
Climbers  (<j.  v.),  comprehending  a  vast  number  of 
species,  natives  of  almost  all  tropical  and  subtropical 
regions ;  a  few  species  extending  further  north  and 
south,  in  America,  in  New  Z^Iand,  and  in  Van 
Piemen's  Land,  even  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Lake 
Michigan  in  North  America,  and  to  Terra  del  Fuego 
in  South  America.  They  are  mostly  birds  of 
splendid  plumage ;  they  vary  very  much  in  size,  from 
the  Great  Macaw,  more  than  three  feet  in  length, 
tail  included,  to  the  little  Love-birds,  not  larger  wan 
sparrows.  They  are  mostly  gregarious,  and  are 
often  seen  in  vast  flocks,  generally  inhabiting  forests, 
and  making  their  nests  m  trees,  feeding  chiefly  on 
fruits  and  seeds,  partly  also  on  leaves  and  buds ; 
but  some  of  them  dwelling  in  open  plains,  feeding 
on  the  seeds  of  grasses  and  other  plants  of  humble 
growth,  bulbs  ana  succulent  parts  of  v^etables,  and 
uving  mostly  on  the  ground.  The  voices  of  the  P. 
tribe  are  generally  harsh  and  discordant,  although 
some  of  the  smaller  kinds  have  not  unpleasant 
voices ;  but  many  of  the  larger  have  a  remarkable 
power  of  imitating  human  speech,  and  in  domestica- 
tion become  capable  of  articulating  not  only  words 
but  sentences.  They  exhibit  a  greater  degree  of 
intelligence  than  is  usual  in  birds,  with  a  monkey-like 
restlessness  and  love  of  trick ;  and  although  docile 
and  affectionate,  are  generally  of  capricious  irritable 
temper.  They  have  a  short,  stout,  hard  beak, 
rounded  on  all  sides,  and  enveloped  at  the  base  in  a 
membrane  in  which  the  nostrils  are  pierced ;  the 
upper  mandible  generally  much  longer  than  the 
lower,  much  curved,  and  sharp  pointed.  The 
tongue  is  almost  always  very  large,  thick,  round, 
and  fleshy ;  the  muscles  which  move  the  mandibles 
are  more  numerous  and  powerful  than  in  most  other 
bird&  ^cy  niake  use  of  the  powerful  hooked  bill 
as  well  as  of  the  feet  in  climbing  trees ;  and  employ 
their  feet  as  hands  for  holding  their  food,  and 
bi-inging  it  up  to  the  mouth.  Their  feet  differ  from 
those  TO  all  the  other  climbers,  in  being  covered 
with  smal)  tubercle-like  scales  instead  of  plates. 
Some  have  short  and  some  have  long  tails.  Most 
of  them  hvve  short  wings.  Their  intestines  are 
very  long  and  slender,  and  without  coeca. 

Aie  PsittaddoB  are  easily  distinguished  from  all 
other  birds ;  but  their  division  into  distinct  sub- 
ordinate groups   has    not   been   found   so    easy. 


PAEKOT-FISH— PARRY. 


Whilst  t^  Bame  F.  popularl;  include*  All,  except 
th&t  it  i£  Beldom  ^ven  to  some  of  tlie  amalleat 
apecie&i  lome  ore  known  b;  tha  naines  Macaw, 
Cockstiio,  PuT&keet,  Lory,  Love-bird,  ftc.  See 
tbeee  heada.  But  gome  of  these  names  are  very 
vagnely  applied.  And  although  tha  P.  family  is 
re^irded  as  consisting  of  a  miniber  of  very  natural 

Cups,  the  characters  and  limits  of  tbe«e  gronps 
'e  not  yet  been  very  well  defined. 
The  name  P.,  in  its  moat  restricted  sense,  is 
sometimes  applied  only  to  those  siKcies  which  have 
the  uPT>er  mandible  very  distinctly  toothed,  tlie  lowec 
nmildible  longer  than  it  is  high  ;  and  the  tail  short, 
and  square  or  rounded ;  but  this  i;se  is  rather 
ornithological  than  popidar,  the  most  restricted 
popolor  nee  equally  including  long-tailed  species, 
such  as  the  Caroline  P.,  nbicu  are  oniithologtcally 
ranked  with  the  macaws. — The  CaROI.INB  P. 
{Conunig  (7arDiinen»i»)  ia  the  species  of  which  tha 
northern  range  extends  far  beyond  all  others  of  its 
tribe  to  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan;  although  by 
the  increase  of  cultivation,  and  the  war  waged 
against  these  birds  for  their  depi^ations  on  orchards 
and  eom-ricks,  their  numbers  have  been  greatly 
diminished  in  regions  where  they  were  once  plenti- 
ful    Its  whole  length  is  about  14  inches,  of  which 


with  orange,  the  wing  priniaries  almost  black.  It 
U  gregarious,  prefers  to  rooet  iu  tha  holes  of  hollow 
trees,  and  in  such  situations  also  the  females  lay 
their  ^gs.  It  seems  to  love  salt,  frequenting  gait 
iicij^like  pigeons.  It  is  easily  tamed,  hut  does  not 
acquire  the  power  of  articulation, — Of  the  short- 
tailed  parrots,  one  of  the  beat  known  is  the  Gray  P. 
{Peiltacug  erytkaais],  a  West  African  species,  about 
the  size  of  a  small  pigeon,  of  an  ash-gray  colour, 
with  a  crimson  tail.  It  is  famous  for  its  dncilitj, 
its  power  of  articnlation  and  of  imitating  noises  of 
(,11  kinds,  its  loqaaciby,  and  its  mischievousuess.  It 
ia  very  oftea  brought  to  Europe,  and  often  lives  to 
ft  great  age  in  eonlinement  Individuals  have  bpen 
known  to  attain  the  age  of  nearly  100  years.— Tha 
Greek  FARiiivra  {Ckrysotii),  natives  of  the  tropical 
parts  of  South  America,  are  also  among  the  short- 
toiled  parrots  most  frequently  seen  ia  Britain. 

PABEOT-PI8H  {Searue),  a  genus  of  fishes  of 
the  family  Labrida  (q.  v)  or  Gydo-Labrida,  of 
oblona  and  massive  form,  with  urge  scales,  and 
remarkable   lot  the  structnie  of  their  jaws  and 


Parrot-flsh  (Scams  haridi. 

teeth,  the  Jaws  being  divided  into  halves  by  a 
median  sature,  the  teeth  incorporated  with  the 
bone  in  crowded  quineuQcial  order,  the  surface  even 
and  polished  in  some  species  and  rough  in  others, 
tile  oldest  teeth  forming  the  trenchant  border  of 
the  jaw,  and  being  succeeded  by  others  as  they  aro 
worn  away,  whilst  new  ones  ore  formed  bebind. 


The  species  are  numerous.  Some  of  them  feed  on 
fuel,  and  some  on  corals,  the  younger  hranchca  of 

which  they  crush,  so  that  tha  animal  port  affords 
them  naurishment,  whilst  the  calcareous  part  in 
rejected.  They  are  fishes  generally  of  brilliant 
colours,  some  of  them  of  wonderful  splendour,  and 
have  received  (he  name  parrot-flsh  partly  on  thia 
account,  and  partly  on  account  of  a  tancied  resem- 
blance in  their  jaws  to  a  parrot's  bill.  Uoet  of  them 
are  natives  of  tropical  seas.  One  species  is  found  in 
the  Mediterranean  (S.  Cretieui),  tha  Scarat  of  tha 
ancients,  of  which  many  wonderful  stories  wers 
told,  oa  to  its  love,  its  wisdom,  its  ruminating,  il> 
emitting  of  sounds,  Ac,  and  whinh  waa  ecteemed 
the  most  savoury  and  delicate  of  all  fishes.  It  is 
stiU  held  in  high  esteem  for  the  table.  The  Oreeka 
cook  it  with  B  sauce  mode  of  its  own  liver  and 
intestines. 

PARRY,  Sib  William  Edwabd,  commonly 
known  as  Sir  Edward  Parry,  b  celebrated  Engliah 
navigator,  was  bom  at  Bath,  19th  December  179a 
His  lather,  who  was  a  physician  of  some  eminence, 
destined  him  for  the  medical  profession  ;  but  acting 
on  the  advice  of  a  friend,  entered  him  as  a  firet- 
class  volnntoer  on  board  llie  Ville-dt-Parit,  the 
flagship  of  the  Channel  fleet,  in  ISOa  Aft«p 
several  years'  service,  he  received  his  commission  •• 
lieutenant,  January  6,  1810,  Though  thus  early 
engaged  in  active  service,  his  education  had  not 
been  neglected ;  he  had  attained  at  school  to 
considerable  eminence  in  classical  knowledge; 
and  fur  the  first  five  years  after  entering  the 
navy,  he  had  jiarticularly  studied  French  and 
laathematics  under  the  chaplain's  superintendence, 
after  which  he  constantly  employed  bia  leisure 
time  in  nautical  and  astronomical  studies.  In 
February  ISLO,  he  was  sent  to  tha  AnAic  regiooa 
in  command  of  a  shiu,  for  the  tiurpose  of  protecting 
the  British  whale  flsherieB  and  improving  the  admir- 
i^ty  charts  of  those  regions;  but  ia  IS13,  he  was 
recalled  and  despatched  to  join  the  fleet  then 
blockading  the  coast  of  the  United  States.  He 
remained,  on  the  North  American  station  till  the 

Sing  of  1S17.  and  during  this  time  ha  wrote  and 
tributed  MS.  cO)>iGa  of  a  work  entitled  SauHoal 
Aitronomy  by  Niyhi,  in  which  rule*  were  givea 
for  determining  accumtely  the  altitude  of  the  pola 
by  observations  of  the  fixed  stars.  This  work  he 
subsequently  published  in  London.  Having  returned 
to  England  too  late  to  take  part  in  the  African 
exploring  expedition,  he  was.  at  his  urgent  request, 
backed  by  the  recummendations  of  Mr  Barrow,  secre- 
tary to  the  Admiralty,  aiipointed  to  the  cDmniand 
of  the  A  lexandrr,  under  the  orders  of  Ca{itaia  John 
Ross  in  the  laabHla,  and  despatobed  in  search  of 
tha  'North-West  Passage'  (q.  v.)  in  April  18I& 
The  expedition  returned  to  hjigland.  having  made 
no  imi>ortant  discoveries.  The  admiralty  were  dis- 
satisfied with  the  report  of  Captain  Kosb  :  and  F.'a 
opinion,  though  only  communicated  to  his  private 
friends,  having  become  known  to  them,  he  wai 
again  sent  out  (May  1819).  and  this  tune  com-  ' 
menced  that  career  of  discovery  (see  North- W^rr 
FAasAOK)  which  has  immortalised  him  as  the 
greatest  of  all  Arctic  explorers.  P.  on  his  return 
to  Britain  wu  hailed  with  the  utmost  enthusi- 
asm, and  was  made  commander  (4th  November 
1820)  and  a  member  of  the  Eoyal  &>ciety.  Ha 
subsequently  made  a  second  and  a  third  voyrge  to 
the  same  regions,  but  eCTected  nothing  further 
of  importance.  P.  now  devoted  himself  to  tha 
discharge  of  his  duties  as  hydrographer,  but  aiioli 
labours  were  too  monotonous  for  one  of  hia  tem- 
perament, and  he  accordingly  prepared  a  plaa 
of  an  expedition  fur  reaching  tha  north  pole,  which 
being  sunmitted  to  the  admiralty  and  aiijiroved  ef 


PAPSEES. 


by  them,  bis  old  ship  tbe  Heda  was  fitted  out  for  a 
polar  expedition,  and  P.  set  sail  in  her,  accompanied 
by  lieutenant  J.  G.  Ross,  4th  April  1827.  See 
PoiAB  VoYAOESL  The  Journals  oi  these  voyages 
irere  published  by  order  of  the  admiralty. 

P.'s  career  as  an  explorer  was  now  closed,  and 
he  again  retiumed  to  his  duties  as  hydrographer, 
but  his  health  now  gave  way  under  this  s^entary 
mode  of  life,  and  he  exchanged  his  office  for  that  of 
commissioner  to  the  A^cultural  Company  of 
Australia,  for  which  country  he  sailed  20th  July 
1829.  He  returned  to  England  in  November  1834 
and  filled  in  succession  various  ffoverzmient  appoint- 
ments up  till  December  1846,  when  he  retired  from 
active  service,  receiving  a  sinecure  office.  On  4th 
June  1852  he  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  Bear- 
admiral  of  the  White,  and  in  the  following  year 
was  appointed  lieutenant-governor  of  Greenwich 
Hospital — an  office  which  he  held  till  his  death,  7th 
July  1855,  at  Ems  in  Germany,  whither  he  had 
gone  for  the  benefit  of  his  health.  A  complete 
edition  of  his  voyages  was  published  in  1833  (Lond. 
5  vols.).  His  life  nas  been  written  by  his  son,  the 
Kev.  Edward  Parry,  M.A.  of  BiJliol  College, 
Oxfoid,  1857). 

PA'BSEES  (People  of  Pars  or  Pars,  L  e.,  ancient 
Persia)  is  the  name  of  the  small  remnant  of  the 
followers  of  the  ancient  Persian  religion,  as  reformed 
by  Zerdusht,  or  Zoroaster,  as  he  is  commonly  called. 
Thev  are  also  known  under  the  denomination  of 
Guebres,  under  which  head  some  account  will  be 
found  respecting  their  recent  history  and  present 
numbers.  The  pre-ZOroastrian  phase  or  phases  of 
their  primeval  religion  will  probaoly  for  ever  remain 
shrouded  in  deep  obscurity ;  so  much,  however,  is 
fully  established  oy  recent  investigations,  that  ttas, 
and  what  afterwards  became  the  Brahmanic  reli- 
gion, were  ori^nally  identical ;  that  in  consequence 
of  certain  social  and  political  conflicts  between  the 
Iranians  and  the  Aryans,  who  afterwards  peopled 
Hindustan  Proper,  an  undying  feud  arose,  in  the 
course  of  which  the  former  forswore  even  the 
hitherto  common  faith,  and  established  a  counter 
faith  (Ahura),  a  principial  dogma  of  which  was  the 
transformation  of  the  ancient,  now  hostile,  gods 
into  demons,  and  the  branding  of  the  entire  Deva 
religion  as  the  source  of  all  mischief  and  wickednesa 
Zeranaht,  the  prophet,  whose  era  is  given  very 
differently  by  ancient  writers  and  by  modem  inves* 

Stars,  placed  variously  between  500  or  600  B.a 
th)  and  1200  B.a  (Haus),  had,  like  all  prophets 
and  reformers,  many  predecessors,  chiefly  among 
the  Soehyantos  or  Pire-priests  ( Atharvans) ;  yet  to 
him  belongs  the  decisive  act  of  separating  for  ever 
the  contending;  parties,  and  of  establishing  a  new 
community  with  a  new  faith — the  Mazdayasna 
or  Parsee  religion  proper,  which  absorbed  the  old 
Ahura  religion  of  the  fire-priests.  Beferring  for  a 
soDimary  of  what  is  known  and  speculated  about 
tb»  person  of  the  great  reformer  to  the  article  under 
his  name,  we  shall  here  confine  ourselves  to  pointing 
out,  as  the  characteristics  of  his  leading  doctrines, 
that  the  principle  of  his  theology  was  as  pure  a  Mono- 
theism as  ever  the  followers  of  the  JeHovistic  faith 
were  enjoined.  He  taught  the  existence  of  but  one 
deity,  the  Ahura,  who  is  called  Mazdad  (see 
Obmuzd),  the  creator  of  all  things,  to  whom  sJl 
good  thmgs,  spiritual  and  worldly,  belong.  The 
principle  of  his  speculative  philosophy  is  dualism, 
L  CL,  the  8U1  ipoeition  of  two  primeval  causes  of  the 
real  and  intellectual  world;  the  Vohu  Mand,  the 
Good  Mind  or  Beality  (Gaya),  and  the  Akem  Man6, 
or  the  Naught  Mind,  or  Kon-reality  (Ajy&iti) ;  while 
the  princime  of  his  moral  philosophy  is  the  triad  of 
Thon^^  Word,  and  Deed.  Not  long,  however,  did 
the  purs  idea  of  MoBotheiam  prevail.   The  two  sides 


of  Ahura  Mazdad's  being  were  taken  to  be  two 
distinct  personages — God  and    Devil — and    they 
each  took  their  due  places  in  the  Parsee  pantheon 
in  the  course  of  time : — chiefly  througn  the  mfluenca 
of  the  sect  of  the  Zendiks,  or  followers  of  the  Zend, 
L  e..  Interpretation.     According  to  Zerdusht,  ^hen 
are  two  intellects,  as  there  are  two  lives — one  mentot 
and  one  bodily;  and,  again,  there  must  be  distin* 
guished  an  eatihly  and  a  future  life.   The  immortality 
of  souls  was  taught  long  before  the  Semites  had 
adopted  this  belief.    There  are  two  abodes  for  the 
departed — Heaven  (Gard-Dem&na,  the  House  of  the 
Angels'  Hymns,  Yazna,  xxviil  10  ;  xxxiv.  2 ;  cf.  Is. 
vi,  Bevelat.,  ^c.)    and   Hell  (Dr&jd-Demdna,  the 
residence  of  devils  and  the  priests  of  the  Deva 
religion).    Between  the  two  there  is  the  Bridge  of 
the  Gatherer  or  Judge,  which  the  souls  of  the  pious 
alone  can  pass.  There  will  be  a  general  resurrection, 
which  is  to  precede  tbe  last  judgment,  to  foretell 
which  Sosiosh  (Soskyans),  the  son   of    Zerdusht, 
spiritually  begotten  (by  later  priests  divided  into 
three  persons),  will  be  sent  by  Ahuramazdao.     The 
world,  which  by  that  time  will  be  utterly  steeped 
in  wretchedness,  darkness,  and  sin,  will  then  be 
renewed ;  death,  the  archfiend  of  creation,  will  be 
slain,  and  life  will  be  everlasting  and  holy.    These 
are  the  outlines  of  the  Zoroastrian  creed,  as  it 
flourished  up  to  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great^ 
throughout  ancient  Irania,  including  Upper  Tibet, 
Cabulistan,    Sogdiana,    Bactriana,    Media,    Persis, 
&c ;  and  it  is  curious  to  speculate  on  the  conse- 
quences which  might  have  followed  Marathon  and 
Salamis  had  the  Persians  been  victorious.     The 
religion    of    Ormuzd    would    have    dethroned   the 
Olympians,  as  it  dethroned  the  gods  of  the  Assyrians 
and  Babylonians ;  and  it  would  certainly  have  left  its 
traces  upon  the  whole  civilised  world  unto  this  dav 
in  a  much  more  direct  and  palpable  shape  than  it 
now  does.    From  the  death  of  Alexander,  however, 
it  gradually  lost  groimd,  and  rapidly  declined  under 
his  successors,  until,  in  the  time  of  Alexander  Seve- 
rus,  Ardshir  *Arianos*  (ci  Mirkhond  ap.  de  Sacy, 
Mimoires  sur  div.  Aut  de  la  Perae,  &c.,  p.  59),  the 
son  of  Babegan,  called  by  the  Greeks  ana  Bomans 
Artaxerxes  or  Artoxares,  who  claimed  descent  from 
the  ancient  royal  lineage  of  Persia,  took  the  field 
a^nst  Aitabanus,  and  slew  him  (225),  thus  put- 
ting an  end  to  the  four  hundred  years'  rule  of  the 
Paithians,  and  founded  the  Sassanide  dynasty.  This 
he  efiected  in  conjunction  with  the  national  Per- 
sians, who  hated  the  *  semi-Greek*  dynasty  of  the 
ArsacidiB,  their  leaning  to  the  foreign,  and  contempt 
for  the  Zend  religion,  and  finally  for  their  power- 
lessness  against  the  spreading  conquests    of    the 
Bomans.    The  first  act  of  the  new  king  was  the 
general  and  complete  restoration  of  the  partly  lost, 
partly   forgotteu    books    of    Zerdusht,    which    he 
effected,  it  is  related,  chiefly  through  the  inspi- 
ration of  a  Magian  Sage,  chosen  out   of  40,000 
Magians.    The  sacred  volumes  were  translated  out 
of  Sie  original  Zend  into  the  vernacular,  and  dis- 
seminated  among   the  people  at  large,  and   fire 
temples  were  reared   throughout  the  length  and 
the  oreadth  of  the  land.    The  Magi  or  priests  were 
all-powerful,  and  their  hatred  was  directed  prin- 
cipally against  the  Greeks.    'Far  too  long,'  wrote 
Ardshir,  the   king,  to  all  the  provinces    of   the 
Persian  empire, '  for  more  than  five  hundred  years, 
has  the  poison  of  Aristotle  spread.'    The  fanaticism 
of  the  priests  often  also  found  vent  against  Chris- 
tians and  Jews.  The  latter  have  left  us  some  account 
of  the  tyranny  and  oppression  to  which  they  as 
unbelievers  were  exposea — such  as  the  prohibition 
of  fire  and  light  in  their  houses  on  Persian  fast- 
days,  of  the  slaughter  of  animals,  the  baths  of 
purification,  and  the  burial  of  the  dead  according 


PAKSEES. 


to  the  Jewish  rites— prohibitions  only  to  be  bought 
off  by  heavy  bribes.  In  return,  the  Magi  were 
cordially  hated  by  the  Jews,  and  remain  branded  in 
their  writings  by  the  title  of  demons  of  hell 
UCidushin^  72  a.).  To  accept  the  instruction  of  a 
Magian  is  pronounced  by  a  Jewish  sage  to  be  an 
offence  worthy  of  death  {Skabb.  75  a.;  156  b.). 
This  mutual  animosity  does  not,  however,  appear  to 
have  lone  continued,  since  in  subsequent  times  we 
frequentfy  find  Jewish  sages  (Samuel  the  Arian,  &c.) 
on  terms  of  friendship  and  confidence  with  the  later 
Bassanide  kings  (cf.  Hoed  Katan,  26  a.  ^).  From 
the  period  of  its  re-establishment,  the  Zoroastrian 
religion  flourished  iminterruptedly  for  about  400 
years,  till,  in  651  a.d.,  at  the  great  battle  of 
Kahavand  (near  Ecbatana),  the  Persian  army, 
under  Yezdezird,  was  routed  by  the  Calif  Omar. 
The  subsequent  fate  of  those  that  remained  faithful 
to  the  creed  of  their  fathers  has  been  described,  as 
we  said  before,  under  Guebks.  At  present,  some 
remnants  inhabit  Yezd  and  Kirm&n,  on  the  ancient 
soil  of  their  race  ;  others,  who  preferred  emigration 
to  the  endless  tribulations  inflicted  upon  them  by 
the  conquering  race,  found  a  resting-place  along  the 
western  coast  of  India,  chiefly  at  Bombay,  Surat, 
Kaw;sari,  Achmed&b&d,  and  the  vicinity,  where 
they  now  live  under  English  rule,  and  are  recog- 
nised as  one  of  the  most  respectable  and  thriving 
sections  of  the  community,  being  for  the  most  part 
merchants  and  landed  proprietors.  The^  bear, 
equally  with  their  poorer  brethren  in  Persia,  with 
wnom  they  have  of  late  renewed  some  slight  inter- 
course for  religious  and  other  purposes — such  as 
their  Riv&yets  or  correspondences  on  im|K>rtant  and 
obscure  doctrinal  points — the  very  highest  charac- 
ter for  honesty,  industry,  and  peacemlness,  while 
their  benevolence,  intelligence,  and  magnificence 
outvies  that  of  most  of  their  European  fellow- 
subjects.  Their  general  appearance  is  to  a  certain 
degree  prepossessing,  and  many  of  their  women 
are  strikingly  beautifuL  In  all  civil  matters  they 
are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  country  they 
inhabit ;  and  its  language  is  also  theirs,  except  in 
the  ritual  of  their  region,  when  the  holy  language 
of  Zend  ib  used  by  the  priests,  who,  as  a  rule,  have 
no  more  knowledge  of  it  than  the  laity. 

We  have  spoken  of  the  leading  fundamental  doc- 
trines as  laid  down  by  their  prophet.  Itespecting  the 
practical  side  of  their  religion,  we  cannot  here  enter 
into  a  detailed  description  of  their  very  copious 
rituals,  which  have  partly  found  their  way  into  other 
creeds.  Sufiice  it  to  mention  the  following  few 
points.  They  do  not  eat  anything  cooked  by  a 
person  of  another  religion ;  they  also  object  to  beef, 
pork,  especially  to  ham.  Marriages  can  only  be 
contracted  with  persons  of  their  own  caste  and  creed. 
Polygamj^,  except  after  nine  ^ears  of  steriUty  and 
divorce,  is  forbidden.  Formcation  and  adultery 
are  punishable  with  death.  Their  dead  are  not 
buried,  but  exposed  on  an  iron  grating  in  the 
Dokhma,  or  Tower  of  Silence,  to  the  fowls  of  the 
air,  to  the  dew,  and  to  the  sun,  until  tiie  fle^  has 
disappeared,  ami  the  bleaching  bones  fall  through 
into  a  pit  beneath,  from  which  they  are  afterwards 
removed  to  a  subterranean  cavern. 

Ahuramazdao  being  the  origii^r  of  light,  his 
symbol  is  the  sun,  with  the  moon  and  tlio  planets, 
and  in  default  of  them  tiie  fire,  and  the  behever  is 
enjoined  to  face  a  luminous  object  during  his 
prayers.  Hence,  also,  the  temples  and  altars 
must  for  ever  be  fed  with  the  holy  fire,  brought 
down,  according  to  tradition,  from  heaven,  and  the 
sullying .  of  whose  flame  is  punishable  with  death. 
The  priests  themselves  approach  it  only  with  a 
half-mask  (Penom)  over  the  face,  lest  their  breath 
should  defile  it^  and  never*  touch  it  with  their 

aoo 


hands,  but  with  holy  instruments.  The  fires  are 
of  five  kinds ;  but  however  great  the  awe  felt  by 
Parsees  with  respect  to  fire  and  light  (they  are  the 
only  eastern  nation  who  abstain  from  smoking), 
yet  they  never  consider  these,  as  we  said  before, 
as  anything  but  emblems  of  Divinity.  There  are 
also  five  kinds  of  '  Sacrifice,'  which  term,  however, ' 
is  rather  to  be  understood  in  the  sense  of  a  sacred 
action.  These  are — the  slaughtering  of  animals  for 
public  or  private  solemnities ;  prayer ;  the  Damns 
sacrament,  which,  with  its  consecrated  bread  and 
wine  in  honour  of  the  primeval  founder  of  the  law, 
Horn  or  Heomoh  (the  Sanscr.  Soma),  and  Dahman, 
the  personified  blessing,  bears  a  striking  outward 
resemblance  to  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord  s  Supper ; 
the  sacrifice  of  Expiation,  consisting  either  in  fla- 
gellation, or  in  gifts  to  the  priest ;  and,  lastly,  the 
sacrifice  for  the  souls  of  the  dead.  The  purification 
of  physical  and  moral  impurities  is  effected,  in  the 
first  place,  by  cleansing  with  holy  water  (Nirang), 
earth,  &c. ;  next^  by  prayers  (of  which  sixteen,  at 
least,  are  to  be  recited  every  day)  and  the  recitation 
of  the  divine  word ;  but  other  self-castigations, 
fasting,  cehbacy,  &c.,  are  considered  hateful  to  the 
Divinity.  The  ethical  code  may  be  summed  up  in 
the  three  words — purity  of  thought,  of  word,  and 
of  deed :  a  reli^on  *  that  is  for  all,  and  not  for  any 
particular  nation,'  as  the  Zoroastrians  say.  It 
need  hardly  be  added,  that  sn^ierstitions  of  all 
kinds  have,  in  the  course  of  the  tribulations  of 
ages,  and  the  intimacy  with  neighbouring  countries, 
greatly  defiled  the  original  purity  of  this  creed,  and 
that  its  forms  now  vary  much  among  the  different 
communities  of  the  present  tim& 

Something  like  a  very  serious  schism,  however, 
has  lately  broken  out  in  the  Parsee  commun- 
ities, and  the  modem  terms  of  Conservative  and 
Liberal,  or  rather  bigot  and  infidel,  are  almost  as 
freely  used  with  them  as  in  Europe.  The  sum 
and  substance  of  these  innovations,  stoutly  advo- 
cated by  one  side,  and  as  stoutly  resisted  by  the 
other,  is  the  desire  to  abolish  the  purification  by 
the  Nir^ng — a  filthy  substance  in  itself — ^to  reduce 
the  lai^e  number  of  obligatory  prayers,  to  stop 
early  betrothal  and  marriage,  to  suppress  the  extra* 
vagance  in  funenils  ana  weddings,  to  educate 
women,  and  to  admit  them  into  society.  Two 
counter  alliances  or  societies,  the  'Guides  of  the 
Worshippers  of  God*  and  *the  True  Guides'  respec- 
tively, are  trying  to  carry  out  at  this  moment^  by 
means  of  meetings,  speeches,  tracts,  &c.,  the  objects 
of  their  different  parties. 

The  literature  of  the  Parsees  will  be  found  noticed 
under  Persian  LAKouAaE  and  Liter aturb,  and 
Zend-Avesta.  Besides  the  latter,  which  is  written 
in  ancient  Zend,  and  ite  Gnjarati  translation 
and  commentaries,  there  are  to  be  mentioned,  as 
works  specially  treating  of  religious  matters,  the 
Zardushl-Nameh,  or  Legendary  History  of  Zer- 
dusht ;  the  Sadder^  or  Summary  of  Parsee  Doc- 
trines ;  the  Dabisfan,  or  School  of  Manners ;  the 
Deaatir^  or  Sacred  Writings,  &c.  All  these  have 
been  translated  into  Bkiglish  and  other  European 
languages. 

On  the  influence  Parsism  has  had  upon  Judaism 
and  ite  later  doctrines  and  ceremonial,  and,  through 
it,  upon  Christianity  and  Mohammedanism — which 
besides  drew  from  it  directlv — we  cannot  dwell  hers 
at  any  length.  So  much,  however,  may  be  stated, 
that  the  most  cursory  reading  of  the  sxtcred  Parsee 
books  will  shew,  in  a  variety  of  points,  their  direct 
influence  upon  the  three  Semitic  creeds.  Of  works 
treating  on  the  subject  of  this  article,  we  mention 
princijpaUy,  Hyde,  Vet  Rd.  Pen.  HisL  (Oxon.  1760, 
4to);  Ousely,  Travels  in  the  East  (Lond.  1819); 
AnquetU  da   Perron,  JBxpoeition   d^   U^xges  dm 


PARSLEY-PARSONSTOWN. 


Parm»  ;  Hhode,  DUheH  Sage  deraUen  Baktrier^  Meder 
H,  Ptraer,  &c.  (Frftalc-a-M.,  1820,  8vo);  Dosabhoy 
Framjee,  The  Paraees,  &c  (LoncL  1858) ;  Dadabhai 
Kaotoji,  The  Mannen  and  Cwitoma  of  the  Paraeea ; 
and  The  Parme  Religion  (Liyeipoo],  1861,  8vo) ;  and 
lastiy.  Hang's  Essaye  on  the  Parsee  Heligion  (Bom- 
bay, 1862),  and  Spin's  Urdu  (BerL  1863). 

PA'BSLET  (Petroedinum),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  UmbelUfercB,  The  species  are 
Minaal  or  biennial,  branchiog,  smooUi,  Herbaceous 
plants,  with  Tariously  pinnated  leaves. — Common^ 
P.  {P.  miivum)t  which  has  tripinnate  shining  leaves,^ 
one  of  our  best  known  culinary  plants,  is  a  native 
of  the  south  oi  Europe,  growing  chiefly  on  rocks 
and  old  walls,  and  naturalised  in  some  parts  of 
England.  The  cultivation  of  P.  is  extremely  simple, 
and  an  annual  sowing  is  generally  made,  although 
when  cut  over  and  prevented  from  flowering,  the 
plant  lives  for  several  years.  A  variety  with  curled 
leaflets  is  generally  preferred  to  the  common  kind 
with  plain  leaflets,  as  finer  and  more  beautiful, 
being  often  used  as  a  samish ;  it  is  also  safer,  as 
the  poisonous  Fool's  P.  (q.  v.)  is  sometimes  gathered 
by  mistake  instead  of  the  other. — Hamburo  P. 
is  a  variety  with  a  larse  white  carrot-like  root, 
eoltivated  for  the  sake  of  its  root,  and  much  in  the 
same  way  as  the  carrot  or  parsnip^  To  ]>roduce 
Luge  roots  and  of  delicate  flavour,  a  very  nch  soil 
is  required.  The  foliage  of  P.  is  not  merely  of  use 
for  flavouring  soups,  £c.,  but  is  nutritious,  at  the 
same  time  that  it  is  stimulating,  a  quality  which  it 
seems  to  derive  from  an  essential  oil  present  in 
every  part  of  the  plants  P.  contains  also  a  peculiar 
gelatinous  substance  called  Apiine.  The  oruised 
baves  of  P.  are  sometimes  employed  as  a  stimulating 
poultice.  The  seeds  are  a  deadly  poison  to  many 
oirds,  and  when  powdered*  they  are  sometimes  used 
for  killing  lice. 

PAllSKIP  (Poseinooa),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  UmbdHferoe^hAYing  compound  umbels 
with  neither  general  nor  partial  involucres ;  yellow 
flowers  with  roundish,  involute,  sharp-pointed 
petals ;  calyx  almost  without  teeth ;  fruit  aorsally 
compressed  and  flat,  with  a  broad  border,  the  ridges 
very  fine.  The  species  are  annxuil,  biennial,  or 
perennial  herbaceous  plants,  with  carrot-like,  often 
fleshy  roots,  and  pinnate  leaves. — The  Common  P. 
(P.  saUva)  is  a  native  of  England,  although  not  of 
Scotland,  and  is  abundant  in  some  district^  particu- 
larly in  chalky  and  gravelly  soils.  It  is  also  found 
in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  the  north  of  Asi& 
It  is  a  biennial,  with  angular  furrowed  stem,  2 — 3 
feet  high,  pinnate  leaves  with  ovate  leaflets,  rather 
shining,  cut  and  serrated,  and  a  three-lobed  terminal 
leaflet  The  root  of  the  wild  plant  is  white, 
aromatic  mucilaginous,  sweet,  but  with  some 
awridnesii ;  and  injurious  efiects  have  followed  from 
its  nae.  Cultivation  has  greatlv  modified  the 
qualities  both  of  the  root  and  foliage,  rendering 
tnem  much  more  bland.  The  P.  has  long  been 
cultivated  for  the  sake  of  its  root,  which  in  culti- 
vation has  greatly  increased  in  size,  and  become 
more  fleshy.  The  flavour  is  disliked  by  some,  as 
well  as  the  too  great  sweetness,  but  highly  relished 
by  others ;  and  the  root  of  the  P.  is  more  nutritious 
than  that  of  the  carrot,  llie  produce  is  also,  on 
many  soils,  of  larger  quantity;  and  although  the 
P.  delights  in  a  very  open  rich  soil,  it  will  succeed 
in  clayey  soils  far  too  stiff  for  the  carrot.  It  is 
rather  remarkable  that  it  has  not  been  extensively 
cultivated  as  a  field-crop,  and  for  the  feeding  of 
catUe,  except  in  the  Channel  Islands  and  in 
limited  districts  of  continental  Eurojpe ;  more 
particularly  as  cattle  are  very  fond  of  it,  and  not 
only  the  flesh  of  cattle  fed  on  it  is  of  excellent 
qiuuity,  bat  the  butter  of  dairy-cows  fed  on  parsnips 


in  winter  is  far  superior  to  that  produced  by  ahnosl 
any  other  kind  of  winter-feeding.  The  mode  of 
cultivation  of  the  P.  scarcely  differs  from  that  of 
the  carrot.  There  are  several  varieties  in  cultivatioa 
A  very  large  variety,  cultivated  in  the  Channel 
Islands  on  deep  sandy  soils,  has  roots  sometimes 
three  or  four  feet  long ;  but  this  is  fully  twice  the 
ordinary  length,  and  there  is  a  smaller  turnip-rooted 
variety  sometimes  cultivated  in  j^ardens  where  the 
soil  is  very  shallow.  The  P.  is  used  chiefly  in 
winter,  whether  for  the  table  or  for  feeding  cattle. 
It  is  improved  rather  than  injured  by  frost ;  but  is 
apt  to  oecome  nistyt  if  allowed  to  remain  too 
long  in  the  ground ;  and  exhibits  acrid  quidities 
aft^  it  has  begun  to  grow  again  in  spring.  The 
root  of  the  P.  is  much  used  in  the  north  of  Ireland 
for  making^  a  fermented  liouor,  with  yeast  and  hops ; 
and  both  in  England  and  Ireland,  for  making  P. 
vrine,  which  has  some  resemblance  to  Malmsey 
wine. — Another  species,  the  Cut-lkaved  P.  or 
Sekakitl  (P.  8ekakul)t  having  pinnatitid  cut  leaflets, 
a  native  of  India^  Syria,  and  Egypt,  is  cultivated  in 
the  Levant,  and  is  very  similar  m  its  uses  to  the 
common  parsnip. 

PARSON,  in  English  Ecclesiastical  Law,  means 
the  incumbent  of  a  benefice  in  a  parish.  He  is  called 
parson  (Lat.  perrnna)  because  he  represents  the 
church  for  several  purposes.  He  requires  to  be  a 
member  of  the  EstaDlisned  Church  of  England,  and 
to  be  duly  admitted  to  holv  orders,  presented., 
instituted,  and  inducted;  and  requires  to  be  23 
vears  of  age.  When  he  is  inducted,  and  not  before, 
he  is  said  to  be  in  full  and  complete  possession  ot 
the  incumbency.  The  theory  is,  that  the  freehold 
of  the  parish  church  is  vested  in  him,  and  as  the 
legal  owner,  he  has  various  rights  of  control  over  the 
chanceL  He  is  also  the  owner  of  the  churchyard, 
and  as  such  is  entitled  to  the  grass.  As  owner  of 
the  body  of  the  church,  he  has  a  right  to  control  of 
the  church  bells,  and  is  entitled  to  prevent  the 
churchwardens  from  ringing  them  agamst  his  wilL 
The  distinction  between  a  parson  and  vicar  is,  that 
the  parson  has  generally  the  whole  right  to  the 
ecclesiastical  dues  in  the  parish,  whereas  the  vicar 
has  an  appropriator  over  him,  who  is  the  real  owner 
of  the  dues  and  tithes,  and  the  vicar  has  only  an 
inferior  portion.  The  duty  of  the  parson  is  to 
perform  divine  service  in  the  parish  cnurch  under 
the  control  of  the  bishop,  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments to  parishioners,  to  read  the  burial-service  on 
request  ox  the  panshioners,  to  marry  them  in  the 
parish  church  when  they  tender  themselves.  He  is 
bound  to  reside  in  the  pansh,  and  is  subject  to 
penalties  and  forfeiture,  if  he  wituout  cause  absent 
nimsdf  from  the  ]>.«riBh.  He  is  subject  to  the  Clergy 
Discipline  Act,  in  case  of  misconducts 

PAOtSONSTOWN  (anciently  called  Btrb),  a 
considerable  inland  town  on  the  river  Brosna,  in 
King's  County,  Ireland,  69  miles  west-south- 
west from  Dublin,  with  which  city  it  is  connected 
by  a  branch-line  issuing  from  the  Great  Southern 
and  Western  Bailway  at  Ballybrophy.  Pop.  in 
1861,  5220;  of  whom  4154  were  Roman  Catholics, 
866  Protestants  of  Established  Church,  and  ttik  rasl 
I^testants  of  other  denominations.  Birr  had  its 
ori^  at  an  early  period  in  a  monastery  founded  by 
St  Brendan,  and  was  the  scene  of  many  importaiA 
events,  both  in  the  Irish  and  in  the  post-Invasion 
periods^  The  castle,  which  was  anciently  the  seat 
of  tiie  O'Carrols,  was  granted  by  Henry  IL  to 
Philip  de  Worcester;  but  it  frequently  changed 
masters,  and  even  alternated  between  Knglish  and 
Irish  hands.  By  James  L,  it  was  granted  to  Law* 
rence  Parsons,  ancestor  of  the  present  proprietor 

the  Earl  of  Bosse ;  but  through  the  entire  period  of 

Mi 


pARSWANiTHA-PARTICIPLR 


the  ciyil  wars,  its  possession  was  constantly  disputed, 
antil  after  1690,  when  the  Parsons  family  was  tinally 
established  in  possession  of  the  castle  and  adjoin- 
ing lands.  About  this  time,  Birr  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  but  the  privile^  was  a 
temporary  one.  The  castle  has  been  rebmlt^  The 
modem  P.  is  one  of  the  handsomest  and  best  built 
and  appointed  inland  towns  in  Ireland,  with  two 
handsome  churches,  and  several  meeting-houses,  a 
nunnery,  a  handsome  pillar  with  a  statue  of  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  a  town-hall,  a  library,  literary 
institute,  a  model  and  other  schools.  But  the 
great  attractions  of  P.  are  the  castle,  the  observatozy, 
and  the  laboratory  of  the  Earl  of  Rosse  (q.  v.).  Jr. 
is  an  important  corn-market,  a  considerable  centre 
of  inland  commerce ;  but  with  the  exception  of  a 
distillery  and  brewery,  it  is  almost  entirely  without 
manufactures.  It  is  a  large  military  station,  and  is 
also  the  seat  of  a  Union  workhouse. 

PARS'WANATHA,  the  twenty-third  of  the 
deified  saints  of  the  Jaiuas,  in  the  present  era.  He 
and  Mahavira,  the  twenty-fouHh,  are  held  in  highest 
esteem,  especially  in  Hindustan.  In  a  suburb  of 
Benares,  called  B^lupura,  there  is  a  temple  honoured 
as  the  birthplace  of  P2lrs'wan&tha.    See  Jaina& 

PART,  in  Music.  When  a  piece  of  music  consists 
of  several  series  of  sounds  performed  simultaneously, 
each  series  is  called  a  part 

PARTERRFj,  in  gardens  laid  out  in  the  old 
French  style,  the  open  part  in  front  of  the  house, 
in  which  flower-beds  and  closely-cut  lawn  were 
intermingled  according  to  a  regular  plan. 

PA'RTHENOGE'NESIS  (from  theGr.  partheno^, 
a  virgin,  and  genesis,  the  act  of  production)  is  a  term 
invented  by  Professor  Owen  to  indicate  propagation 
hy  self-splitting  or  self-dividing,  by  budding  from 
without  or  within,  and  by  any  mode  save  by  the  act 
of  impregnation ;  the  parthenogenetic  individuals 
being  sexless  or  virgin  females.  See  the  article 
Generations,  Alternation  of.  For  many  remark- 
able facts  in  relation  to  partheno&^enesis  in  insects, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Professor  Owen's  eighteenth 
lecture.  On  the  Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology 
of  Invertebrate  AnimaU ;  and  to  Siebold,  On 
Parthenogenesis,  translated  by  Dallas. 

PA'RTHBNON,  the  temple  of  Minerva  at 
Athens;  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of  the  Greek 
temples,  and  usually  regarded  as  the  most  perfect 
specimen  of  Greek  architecture.  Many  of  the 
sculptures  have  been  brought  to  England,  and  are 
now  in  the  British  Museum.    See  Grecian  Arohi- 

TECTURE. 

PARTHENOPB'AN  REPUBLIC  (from  Parth- 
enope,  the  oldest  name  of  the  city  of  Naples)  was 
the  name  given  to  the  state  into  which  the  kingdom 
of  Naples  was  transformed  by  the  Frendi  Republi- 
cans, 23d  January  1799,  and  which  only  lasted  till 
the  following  June,  when  the  invading  aimy  was 
forced  to  retreat. 

PA'RTHIA,  anciently  a  country  of  Western  Asia, 
lying  at  the  south-east  end  of  the  Caspian  Sea, 
from  which  it  was  separated  by  a  narrow  strip,  known 
as  Hyrcania,  now  forms  the  northern  portion  of  the 
province  of  Khorassan,  and  is  an  almost  wholly 
mountainous  region.  Its  rivers  are  merely  mountain 
torrents,  which  are  supplied  by  the  melting  snow  on 
the  Elburz  range  during  winter  and  spring,  but  are 
mostly  dry  in  summer  and  autumn. 

The  original  inhabitants  are  believed  to  have  been 

of  Scythian  race,  as  shewn  by  their  language  as  well 

as  by  their  manners,  and  to  belong  to  the  great 

Indo-G«rmamo  family.      If  this  be  the  case,  as  is 

very  probable,  the  term  Parthian,  from  tts  analogy 
ios 


I  to  the  Scythian  word  parthe,  banished,  seems  to 
,  indicate  that  they  were  a  tribe  who  had  been  driven 
i  to  P.  out  of  Scythia  (l  e..  Central  Asia).  The 
Parthians,  during  the  time  of  the  Roman  Republic, 
were  distinguished  by  primitive  simplicity  of  life 
and  extreme  bravery,  though  at  the  same  time  mach 
given  to  bacchanalian  and  voluptuous  pleasures. 
They  neglected  agriculture  and  commerce,  devoting 
their  wnole  time  to  predatory  expeditions  and 
warfara  They  fought  on  horseback,  and  after  a 
.peculiar  fashion.  Being  armed  solely  with  bows 
and  arrows,  they  were  rendered  defenceless  after  the 
first  discharge ;  and,  to  gain  time  for  guljustinff 
a  second  arrow  to  the  bow,  turned  their  horses,  ana 
retired,  as  if  in  full  flight,  but  an  enemy  incautiously 

SuTsuing,  was  immediately  assailed  bv  a  second 
ight  of  arrows  ;  a  second  pretended  flight  followed, 
and  the  conflict  was  thus  carried  on  till  the  Parthi- 
ans gained  the  victory,  or  exhausted  their  quivers. 
They  generally  dischai^ed  their  arrows  backwards, 
holding  the  bow  behind  the  shoulder;  a  mode  of 
attack  more  dangerous  to  a  pursuing  enemy 
than  to  one  in  order  of  battle.  The  Parthians 
first  appear  in  history  as  subject  to  the  great 
Persian  Empire.  After  the  death  of  Alexander 
the  Great,  P.  formed  part  of  the  Syrian  kin^om, 
but  revolted  under  Antiochus  II.,  and  constituted 
itself  into  an  independent  kingdom  under  tke 
Arsaddos  (see  Arsaceb),  250  B.a,  a  race  of  kings  who 
exercised  the  most  completely  despotic  authority 
ever  known,  treating  their  subjects  as  if  the  vilest 
of  slaves;  yet  so  accustomed  did  the  Parthians 
become  to  this  odious  rule,  that  some  of  the  later 
monarchs,  who  had  received  a  Roman  education, 
and  after  their  accession  treated  their  subjects  with 
ordinary  justice  and  humanity,  were  completely 
despised.  The  capital  of  the  Parthian  monarchy 
was  Hecatompylos  (*  the  city  of  the  hundred  ^tes '), 
now  Damgan.  The  Pai'thian  dominion  rapidly  ex- 
tended to  the  Euphrates  on  the  west  and  the  Indus 
on  the  east,  and  became  a  most  powerful  and 
flourishing  empire ;  Seleucia,  Ctesiphon — the  capital 
of  the  Persian  emperors  of  the  Sassanidss — and  other 
celebrated  cities  date  their  rise  from  this  period, 
and  soon  eclipsed,  in  size  and  splendour,  the  ancient 
Hecatompylos.  In  spite  of  repeated  attacks  on  tho 
part  of  the  Romans,  the  Parthians  maintained  their 
independence  (see  Crassus,  Sobena)  ;  and  though 
Trajan,  in  115— 116  A.D.,  seized  certain  portions  of 
the  country,  the  Romans  were  soon  compelled  to 
abandon  them.  In  214  A.i>.,  during  the  reign  of 
Artabanus  IV.,  the  last  of  the  Arsacids,  a  revolt, 
headed  by  Ardshir,  son  of  Babe^an,  broke  out  in 
Persia,  and  the  Parthian  monarcm,  beaten  in  three 
engagements,  lost  his  throne  and  Ufe,  while  the 
victor  substituted  the  Persian  dynasty  of  the  Sas- 
SAinDJB  (q.  V.)  for  that  of  the  Arsacidss.  Some 
scions  of  the  Parthian  royal  family  continued  for 
several  centuries  to  rule  over  the  mountainous  dis- 
trict of  Armenia,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Romans,  and  made  frequent  descents  upon  Assyria 
and  Babylonia ;  but  their  history  is  obscure  and  of 
little  importance. 

PARTIAL  LOSS,  in  the  law  of  Marine  Insur- 
ance, is  a  loss  which  is  not  total ;  and  therefore  the 
insurer  is  not  entitled  to  abandon  or  give  up  the 
remains  of  the  ship  or  cargo,  and  claim  the  entire 
insurance  money ;  out  he  is  bound  to  keep  his  ship 
or  goods,  and  cJaim  only  in  proportion  to  his  actual 
loss  or  damage. 

PA'RTICIPLE  (Lat  parddpium,  part-taking, 
the  name  of  a  class  of  words  which  have  the  mean- 
ing of  a  verb  with  the  form  of  an  adjective.  The 
name  is  said  to  have  been  given  from  their  partaking 
of  the  nature  both  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjeciivsk 


PARTICK— PARTNERSHIP. 


Some  erammariana  make  the  participle  a  distinct 
part  ot  speech,  but  it  is  more  commonly  classed  as  a 
part  of  the  conju^tion  of  the  verb.  There  are  in 
English  two  pajrticiples,  one  in  ing,  usually  called 
the  present,  but  properly  the  imperfect,  because  it 
expresses  continued,  unlinished  action,  e.g.,  Umngt 
tarUmg;  and  the  other  expressing  past  action,  and 
ending  either  in  ^  {t)  or  in  en,  e.  g.,  loved,  written. 
In  Ang.'Sax.  and  Old  Eng.,  the  imperfect  parti- 
ciple ended  in  and,  e.  g.,  Juiband  (having),  corre- 
sponding to  the  modem  Ger.  haJbend,  6r.  echont{oB)j 
Lat.  h(£enl{\%).  In  the  sentence,  '  He  is  toriting  a 
letter,'  writing  is  the  imperfect  participle  ;  in  '  the 
wriiing  of  the  letter  occupies  him,'  or  *  writing  is 
a  difficult  art,*  it  is  a  substantive,  and  had  a  different 
origin.  In  the  latter  case,  -ing  corresponds  to  the 
Ang.-Sax.  termination  -ung^  used  in  forming*  sub- 
stantives from  a  large  class  of  verbs ;  thus,  Ang.-Sax. 
haigung  (hallowing)  is  equivalent  in  meaning  and 
in  etymologv  to  I^t.  conHcraUo  ;  similarly,  modem 
Ger.  VernSktang^  annihilation,  from  vemichten,  to 
annihilate.  Such  a  phrase  as,  '  while  the  letter  is 
"Writing,'  seems  to  be  a  shortened  form  of  the  now 
antiquated,  *is  a- writing,'  which  was  originally, 
'is  in  writing.'  Althou^  this  mode  of  expression 
is  liable  in  some  cases  to  ambiguity,  it  is  terser  and 
more  idiomatic  than  the  circumlocution  of,  '  is  being 
written,'  which  is  often  substituted  for  it.  The 
Terbal  substantive  in  -ing  is  often  exactly  equivalent 
to  the  infinitive;  thus,  *  standing  long  in  one 
position  is  painful'  =  *to  stand,*  &c.  It  has  this 
advantage,  that  while  it  can  be  construed  as  a  noun 
(e.  g.,  with  a  possessive  case),  it  can  retain  at  the 
same  time  the  usual  adjuncts  of  a  verb ;  as,  'What 
are  we  to  infer  from  the  king's  dismissing  his 
minister  ?'  The  use  of  this  form  contributes  not  a 
little  to  the  peouUar  brevity  and  strength  of  the 
English  language. 

PATRTICK,  a  town  of  Scotland,  in  the  county 
of  Lanark,  prettily  situated,  chiefly  on  a  rising  groimd 
on  the  Kelvin,  immediately  above  its  junction  with 
the  Clyde,  and  about  three  miles  west-north-west 
of  the  Cross  of  Glasgow,  of  which  city  it  now  forms 
a  suburb.  Nine-tenths  of  the  workmen  of  P.  are 
enjgaged  in  ship-building,  and  there  are  numerous 
ship-building  yards,  flour-mills,  cotton  factories,  and 
bleach- fields.  A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabitants 
are  engaged  in  business  in  Glasgow,  and  for  their 
aooomm<^ation  extensive  ranges  of  handsome  villas 
have  been   built  here.      Pop.    1851,  3131;    1861, 

818a 

PARTI'NICO,  Sala  di,  a  post-town  of  Sicily,  in 
the  province  of  Palermo,  and  19  miles  south-west  of 
the  city  of  that  name,  at  the  foot  of  a  grand  preci- 
pice of  red  limestone.  The  plain  in  the  vicinity  is 
of  surpassing  fertility;  com,  wine,  oil,  fruit,  and 
•umach  are  produced  in  rich  abundance ;  and  Unen 
and  woollen  goods  are  manufactured.  Pop.  15,658. 
Scattered  vestiges  of  ancient  habitations  are  still  to 
be  seen  on  the  summit  of  the  height  above  the 
town,  and  are  said  to  be  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Parthemcum  mentioned  in  the  Itinerary  of  Anton- 
inus and  there  only. 

PARTISAN  is  a  name  for  a  halberd  or  pike,  or 
for  a  marshal's  baton.  The  name  is  also  given  to 
the  leader  of  a  detached  body  of  light  troops,  who 
make  war  by  harassing  the  enemy,  rather  than 
coming  to  direct  fighting,  by  cutting  off  stn^glers, 
interrupting  his  supplies,  and  comusing  him  by 
rapid  strategy.  The  action  of  such  a  corps  is 
known  as  Partisan  toar/are, 

PARTITION,  a  thin  interior  waU  dividing  one 
apartment  from  another.  It  is  usually  of  brick- 
work, 4|  or  9  inches  thick,  or  of  timber  with 
sfeaDdards  about  44  inches  thick  covered  with  lath 


and  plaster.  Wooden  partitions  are  used  when 
there  is  no  sufficient  support  for  brick.  When  these 
have  to  carry  joists  or  any  other  weight,  they  ought 
to  be  constructed  in  the  form  of  a  truss  (q.  v.). 

PARTITION,  or  PARTITURA,  in  Music    Sea 

SCORB. 

PARTITION  LINES,  in  Heraldry,  lines 
dividing  the  shield  in  directions  corresponding  to 
the  ordinaries.  According  to  the  direction  of  the 
partition  lines,  a  shield  is  said  to  be  party  or  parted 
per  fess,  per  pale,  per  bend,  per  cheveron,  per  saltire ; 


Partition  Lines  in  Heraldiy. 

a  shield  divided  by  lines  in  the  direction  of  a  orofl8» 
is  said  to  be  quartered ;  and  a  shield  parted  at 
once  per  cross  and  per  saltire,  is  said  to  Gironn6 
(q.  V.)  of  eight.  The  partition  lines  are  not  always 
plain ;  they  may  be  engrailed,  invected,  embattled, 
wavy,  nebuly,  indented,  dancett6  or  raguly— forms 
which  will  be  found  explained  under  separate 
articles. 

PA'RTNERSHIP,  in  the  law  of  England,  is  the 
union  of  two  or  more  individuals  actmg  under  a 
contract,  whereby  they  mutually  contribute  their 
proi)erty  or  labour  for  the  purpose  of  making  profits 
jointly.  When  a  partnership  is  confined  to  a 
particular  transaction  or  speciilation,  it  is  usually 
called  a  joint-adventure,  and  the  parties  are  joint- 
adventurers.  The  usual  criterion  by  which  a  partner- 
ship is  ascertained  to  exist,  as  distinguished  from 
other  arrangements,  is  that  there  is  a  community 
of  profit ;  it  is  not  essential  that  both  should  suffer 
losses  equally  or  proportionably,  for  one  partner 
may  stipulate  that  he  shall  not  be  liable  to  loss. 
This  stipulation  is  binding  between  the  partners, 
but  of  course  is  insufficient  to  prevent  the  partners 
from  being  all  liable  to  third  parties.  So  one  part- 
ner may  contribute  all  the  capital  or  all  the  labour. 
A  dormant  partner  is  one  whose  name  does  not 
generally  appear  to  the  world  as  a  partner,  but  who 
nevertheless  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  partner, 
with  equal  rights  and  liabilities  to  the  rest.  In 
order  to  constitute  that  kind  of  community  of  profit 
which  is  the  chief  ingredient  in  a  partnership,  it  is 
necessary  that  the  partner  share  in  the  profits  as  a 
partner ;  for  in  many  cases,  clerks,  servants,  or 
agents  receive  a  commission  or  remuneration  pro- 
portioned to  profits,  and  yet  are  not  partners,  for 
this  is  merely  one  mode  of  ascertaining  the  salary 
which  they  are  to  receive.  In  all  such  cases,  there- 
fore, the  distinction  as  to  whether  there  is  a  partner- 
ship or  not  turns  on  the  consideration  whether  the 
alleged  partner  receives  a  share  of  the  profits,  as 
such,  or  merely  receives  a  salary  proportioned  to 
profits,  without  having  a  specific  interest  in  the  firm. 
The  contract  of  partnersnip  may  be  entered  into 
either  by  word  of  mouth  or  in  writing.  If  no 
specified  term  be  i^eed  upon,  it  is  a  partnership  at 
will,  and  may  be  cussolved  by  either  of  the  parties 
at  pleasure.  Sometimes,  also,  the  Court  of  Chancery 
will  interfere  to  dissolve  the  partnership  before  the 

BOS 


PAKTNERSHIP— PARTRIDGE. 


time  appointed ;  but  this  only  happens  when  some 
unforeseen  and  argent  reason  exists,  as  that  one 
of  the  partners  has  become  a  lanatic,  or  has  proved 
grossly  dishonest,  or  the  object  of  the  partnership 
cannot  be  carried  out.  Mere  differences  of  opinion 
on  minor  matters  are  no  ground  for  seekms  a 
dissolution.  The  partners  may  make  any  kind  of 
arrangement  between  themselves  that  they  think 

E roper ;  but  if  these  are  unusual  and  speciu  stipu* 
ttions,  there  is  no  certainty  of  securing  the  same 
being  adhered  to,  without  a  formal  deed  or  indenture 
of  piwtnership  being  executed.   Thus,  it  is  common  to 
stipulate  as  to  the  capital  each  is  to  contribute,  and 
as  to  the  proportion  of  profits  he  is  to  receive,  as  to 
what  is  to  be  done  in  case  of  the  death  of  a  partner, 
Ac.    Unless  a  stipulation  is  made  to  the  contrary, 
the  rule  is,  that  the  death  of  one  of  the  partners 
dissolves  tiie  partnership.    So  does  his  bankruptcy. 
It  is  also  a  rule  that  no  new  partner  can  be  intro- 
duced without  the  consent  of  the  rest.    There  is 
also  a  peculiarity  in  the  law  of  England  as  to  the 
form  of  remedy — ^the  rule  being,  that  partners  cannot 
sue  each  other  in  a  court  of  law  in  respect  of 
partnership  transactions,  but  the  only  remeay  is  by 
a  bill  in  Ghancerv.    As  against  third  parties,  what- 
ever  may  be   the   secret    arrangements    between 
themselves,  the  rule  is,  that  any  partner  can  bind 
the  firm  in  all  matters  which  are  within  the  scope 
of  the  partnership,  each  beins  bv  the  nature  of  the 
contract  made  the  agent  of  afl  tne  rest  for  business 
purposes.    Thus,  any  one  may  accept  a  bill  in  the 
name  of  the  firm,  provided  such  be  one  of  the  modes 
of  doing  business.    It  is,  however,  to  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  the  firm  is  only  bound  by  one  of  the 
partners  in  those  matters  which  are  strictly  within 
the  proper  business  of  the  firm,  which  is  an  import- 
ant qujQification  of  the  general  power.    Within  the 
above  limits,  each  partner  can  bind  the  rest  of  his 
copartners,  however  Imprudent  or  foolish  may  be 
his  act,  for  it  is  one  of  the  implied  conditions,  that 
all  have  full  confidence  in  each  other.    It  follows 
from  this  principle,  that  the  firm  is  liable  for  the 
dealings  of  each  partner  on  its  behalf  within  the 
scope  of  the  partnership,  that  each  is  liable  to  the 
full  extent  for  all  the  debts  of  the  firm ;  in  short, 
each  is  liable  to  his  last  shilling  for  the  solvency 
of  the  firm.    Hence,  it  is  often  of  importance  for 
a  partner,  on  leaving  the  firm,  to  know  how  to 
terminate  this  liability.    The  rule  is,  that  as  regards 
all  strangers,  a  notice  in  the  Oazette  is  ffood  notice  : 
but  as  l^tween  the  firm  and  those  who  have  had 
dealings  with  it,  the  Oaxette  notice  is  of  no  use, 
unless  it  can  be  proved  that  the  paity  had  actual 
notice  given  to  him — and  hence  a  circular  notice 
sent  to  customers  announcing  the  fact  of  retirement, 
is  the  only  course  efiectuaL 

The  practice  of  individuals  entering  into  large 
associations,  now  called  joint-stock  companies, 
which  were  originally  only  extended  partnerships, 
has  led  to  a  separate  code  as  to  these  being  framed 
for  the  United  Kingdom.  See  Joint-stock  Com- 
PANIBS.  The  practice  of  limiting  the  liability  of 
partners  or  shareholders  in  joint-stock  com])anies 
had  of  late  years  led  to  the  belief,  that  a  similar 
restriction  might  weU  be  extended  to  ordinary 
partnerships,  and  accordingly  a  bUl  was  introduced 
into  parliament  in  1864  to  enable  this  to  be  done. 
By  that  bill— which,  however,  did  not  extend  to 
Scotland — any  person  may  phvce  a  specific  sum  of 
money  in  a  firm,  and  become  a  partner,  with  liability 
limited  to  such  sum.  Such  limited  partner,  however, 
is  to  refrain  from  all  participation  m  the  conduct  of 
the  business,  otherwise  he  will  become  a  general 
partner.  Nor  is  his  name  to  appear  in  the  title  of 
the  firm.  But  for  his  own  security  and  satisfaction,  he 
is  entitled  to  examine  the  books,  so  as  to  ascertain 


the  profits.  In  this  kind  of  partnership,  oertaib 
particulars  are  to  be  registered  with  the  registrar 
of  joint-stock  companies,  such  as  the  name  and 
place  of  business  of  each  partner,  describing  whether 
ne  be  a  general  or  limitea  partner,  tiie  nature  of  the 
business,  and  the  place  of  carrying  it  on,  the  name 
of  the  firm,  the  amount  lent  by  each  limited  partner, 
and  the  time  at  which  it  is  to  be  repaid.  This  kind 
of  partnership  maj  be  renewed  from  time  to  time 
on  fresh  registration.  Any  clerk  or  servant  noay 
be  allowed  to  share  profits  without  incurring  the 
liability  of  partner.  The  register-books  of  this 
class  of  partnerships  are  to  be  open  to  the  registrar. 
These  partnerships  may  sue  in  the  name  of  tibe 
firm.  This  step  may  be  considered  at  present  in  the 
light  of  an  experiment,  but  it  is  expected  to  take 
firm  ^t  in  modem  business,  as  it  enables  capitalists 
and  traders  to  unite  on  a  more  rational  basis,  and 
combine  their  several  interests  and  capacities  much, 
more  effectually  than  could  be  done  heretofore. 

In  Scotland,  the  law  of  partnership,  though  in  its 
essential  features  the  same  with  the  law  of  England, 
diflCers  in  one  or  two  particulars.  The  partnership 
is  treated  as  a  distinct  person  in  law,  the  partners 
being  only  its  sureties  or  cautioners  ;  and  the  con- 
sequence of  this  is,  that  in  actions  by  or  against  the 
firm,  the  individual  partners  need  not  be  named, 
though  in  practice  one  or  two  of  them  generally  are 
named.  Each  partner  may  also  sue  the  firm  as  if  it 
were  a  distinct  person ;  and  the  firm  may  be  made 
bankrupt  without  any  of  the  partners  being  seonee- 
trated.  See  Paterson's  Comp^  of  E,  S  S.  LaWf 
p.  214. 

PA'RTRIBGE  {Perdix),  a  ^us  of  gaUinaoeons 
birds,  pf  the  family  TetraonidcB,  having  a  short, 
strong  bill,  naked  at  the  base ;  the  upper  mandible 
convex,  bent  down  at  the  tip ;  the  vnngn  and  tail 
short,  the  tarsi  as  well  as  the  toes  naked,  the  tarn 
not  spurred. — The  Common  P.,  or  Qrat  P.  (P. 
cinerea),  is  the  most  plentiful  of  aU  game-birds  in 
Britain,  and  becomes  mcreasingly  plentiful  as  culti- 
vation is  extended,  whilst  the  range  of  the  moorf owl 
is  restricted.  It  is  not  found  in  the  Outer  Hebrides. 
On  the  continent  of  Europe,  it  is  abundant  in  almost 
all  districts  suitable  to  its  habits,  from  Scandinavia 
to  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  found  also  in  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  west  of  Asia.  It 
varies  considerably  in  size ;  those  found  in  rich  low- 
lands being  generally  the  largest,  and  about  124 
inches  in  entire  lensth ;  whilst  those  which  inhabit 
poorer  and  more  upland  districts  are  rather  smaller. 
The  female  is  rather  smaller  than  the  male.  The 
upper  parts  of  both  are  ash-gray,  finelv  varied  with 
brown  and  black ;  the  male  has  a  deep  chestnut 
crescent-shaped  spot  on  the  breast,  which  is  almost 
or  altogether  wanting  in  the  female.  The  male  hae 
also  the  throat  and  sides  of  the  face  bright  rust- 
colour,  of  which  there  is  less  in  the  female.  A 
variety  called  the  Mountain  P.  has  the  plumage 
brown.  The  P.  is  seldom  found  far  horn  cultivated 
land.  It  feeds  on  grain  and  other  seeds,  insects  and 
their  larvie  and  pupae,  and  the  pupie  of  ants  are 
very  generally  the  f okmI  sought  at  first  for  the  young. 
It  pairs  early  in  spring,  at  which  time  fierce  conflicts 
take  place  among  the  males.  The  nest  is  usually  on 
the  ground,  among  brushwood  and  long  grass,  or  in 
fields  of  dover  or  com,  and  generally  contains  from 
twelve  to  twenty  ^gg^  The  young  run  as  soon  ae 
they  are  hatcheo.  %th  parents  shew  a  very  scrong 
attachment  to  their  youno,  and  great  courage  in 
repelling  assailants;  they  nave  also  reoourse,  like 
many  other  birds,  to  stratagem,  to  draw  off  the 
most  powerful  and  dangerous  enemies,  such  as  dogs, 
in  another  direction,  fluttering  close  before  them  aa 
if  broken- winged,  whilst  the  orood  escape.  Until 
the  end  of  autumn,  the  parent  birds  and  their  brood 


PARTRIDGE  BERRY— PASCAL. 


keep  together  in  a  eovey :  late  in  the  season,  several 
coTeys  often  unite  into  a  pick,  when  it  heoomes 
much  more  difficult  for  the  sportsman  to  approach 
them.  The  flight  of  the  P.  is  strong  and  rapid  for 
a  short  distance,  but  it  does  not  seem  to  b?  ca][>able 
of  a  long-sustained  flight.  The  eggs  of  partiidj^ 
are  often  hatched,  and  the  young  birds  reared,  by 
the  domestic  hen,  the  chief  requisite  being  a  plentiful 
sopply  of  ants  when  the  birds  are  very  young. 
Paitndces  thus  reared  become  very  tame,  but  thev 
■eldom  Dreed  in  the  aviary. — The  Rkd-leogbd  r. 
{P.  ru/tts,  or  Caccabia  tyfua^  the  genus  or  sub-eenus 
Caeeabia  being  distinguished  by  a  rudimentary  blunt 
qMir  on  the  tarsi)  is  a  native  of  the  south  of  Europe 
and  of  the  Channel  Islands,  and  is  now  also  plentitul 
in  some  |»arts  of  England,  particularly  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk,  mto  which  it  has  been  introduced.  It  is 
rather  larger  than  the  Common  P.,  stronger  on  the 
wing,  and  less  easily  approcu^ed  by  the  sportsman, 
whiSt  it  is  also  less  esteemed  for  the  taole.  The 
upper  parts  are  of  a  reddish-ash  colour ;  the  throat 
and  cheeks  white,  bounded  by  a  collar  of  black, 
which  expands  in  black  spots  on  the  breast ;  and 
the  sides  exhibit  bars  of  black.  The  plumage  is 
smooth. — Two  other  species,  nearly  allied  to  this, 
are  found  in  some  of  the  southern  i)art8  of  Europe. 
India  has  a  number  of  species.  The  habits  of  all 
the  species  much  resemble  those  of  the  Common 
Partndge. — The  name  P.  is  sometimes  extended  so 
as  to  include  the  species  of  Ortyx  (see  Viroikian 
Quail),  and  in  South  America  is  sometimes  given 
to  the  Tinamous. 

PARTRIDGE  BERRY.    See  Gaultheria. 

PARTRIDGE  PIGEON  (Oeophaps),  an  Austra- 
lian genus  of  ColumbidcBy  approaching  more  than 
most  of  the  pigeons,  in  character  and  habits,  to 
the  true  gallmaceous  birds,  and  particularly  to 
partridges.  Their  plumage  is  beautiful,  and  gener- 
ally with  a  bronze  tinge  and  lustre  on  the  wings, 
wMch  causes  them  to  be  sometimes  called  Bronze- 
wings.  There  are  several  species.  Thev  live 
mostly  on  the  ground,  and  rise  with  a  whirring 
noise,  like  the  pheasant^  when  disturbed.  They  are 
highly  esteemed  for  the  table. — Oeotrygon  Tnontana, 
a  species  of  another  genus  of  Colurribulce^  bears  the 
name  of  Partridge  Dove  in  the  West  Indies.  It 
also  seeks  its  food  chiefly  on  the  ground,  although 
it  affects  well- wooded  districts. 

PARTRIDGES,  in  Artillery,  were  very  large 
bombards  formerly  in  use  at  sieges  and  in  defensive 
works.     They  are  mentioned  in  rVoissart. 

PARTRIDGE-WOOD,  a  very  pretty  hard-wood 
from  the  West  Indies  and  Brazil ;  it  is  usually  of  a 
reddish  colour,  in  various  shade  from  light  to  dark, 
the  shades  being  mingled  in  thin  streaks;  but  in 
some  choice  sorts  they  are  curled  upon  one  another 
so  as  to  resemble  the  feathers  of  the  partridge, 
whence  its  name.  One  variety  occurs  in  which  the 
eolonrs  are  remarkably  bright,  and  it  is  consequently 
called  Pheasant-wood.  In  Brazil,  this  beautiful 
wood  is  so  plentiful  that  it  is  employed  in  ship- 
building, ana  it  is  said  to  be  used  in  our  navy- 
yards  under  the  name  of  Cabbage-wood,  but  this  is 
doubtful ;  many  woods  are  known  as  partridze,  and 
several  as  cabbage  wood-  Among  the  Braziuans,  it 
is  called  '  Angelim,'  and  they  describe  four  sorts — 
AngeUm  de  pedra  (the  Stone  Angelim),  A,  vermdho 
(Red  Angelim),  A,  amargoso  (Bitter  Angelim),  and 
A.  varzea  (Cultivated  Angelim).  Its  chief  use  in 
this  countty  is  for  cabinet-work,  Tunbridge-ware, 
parasol-sticks,  fans,  and  other  small  matters  for 
which  its  beauty  recommends  it.  It  is  said  to  be 
yielded  by  the  leguminous  tree  {Andira  inermie), 
which  is  found  not  only  in  the  Brazils,  but  in  other 
parts  of  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 
332 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH  are  the  several  kinds  o^ 
classes  into  which  the  words  of  a  language  are 
divided.  There  is  nothing  in  the  outwam  form  of 
words  that  would  enable  us  to  divide  them  into 
classes.  The  distinction  lies  in  the  offices  that  the 
several  words  perform  in  a  Sentence  (q.  v.).  All 
words  performing  the  same  office  in  sentences  belone 
to  the  same  class.  The  essential  parts  of  epeech 
are  the  Noun,  Adjective,  Pronoim,  Verb,  Aaverb, 
Preposition,  Conjunction  (see  these  several  heads). 
The  Articles  (q.  v.)  are  not  distinct  parts  of  speech, 
bemg  essentiaklly  pronouns  ;  and  Interjections  (q.  v.) 
hardly  belong  to  articulate  speech.  To  name  the 
daas  or  part  of  speech  to  which  each  word  of  a 
sentence  belongs,  is  called  to  parae  it. 

PARTURI'TION.    See  Midwifery. 

PARTY,  in  Heraldry.    See  Partition  Lines. 

PARTY- WALL  is  the  wall  dividing  two  houses 
or  tenements,  and  which  is,  in  a  certain  sense,  one 
and  indivisible,  though  the  property  of  two  or  more 
parties.  The  question  as  to  who  is  the  owner  of 
any  particular  part  of  the  party- wall,  is  solved  by 
ascertaining  who  is  the  owner  of  the  soil  on  which 
it  is  built.  In  the  absence  of  evidence  to  the  con- 
trary, it  is  presumed  that  half  of  the  soil  belongs  to 
the  owner  on  "one  side,  and  the  other 'half  to  the 
owner  of  the  other  side;  and  unless  the  wall  has 
stood  twenty  years  and  upwards,  each  owner  can 
do  what  he  likes  with  his  own  half,  and  can  pare 
it  away  if  he  likes.  But  in  general,  mutual  interest 
prevents  each  party  from  resorting  to  his  strict 
legal  rights.  A  practice  exists  for  one  who  builds  a 
house  adjoining  the  wall  of  a  neighbour,  to  pay  for 
half  the  expense.  In  Scotland,  a  party  building 
close  to  the  wall  of  another's  house,  can  compel  the 
owner  of  the  first  house  to  give  him  half  of  the 
wall  or  gable,  on  paying  half  the  expense ;  while  in 
England  there  is  no  such  compulsion.  In  Scotland, 
where  the  practice  exists  of  building  houses  in  flats 
lying  each  upon  the  other,  the  law  is  not  clearly 
settfed,  and  requires  to  be  cleared  up  as  to  what  is 
the  nature  of  the  property  or  interest  which  each 

Eroprietor  of  a  flat  has  in  that  part  of  the  gable 
ounding  his  own  flat.  The  better  opinion  is,  that 
each  is  the  entire  owner  of  his  half  of  the  gable, 
the  others  having  merely  cross  servitudes ;  and 
hence  it  follows,  that  if  uie  flats  on  both  sides  of 
a  gable  belong  to  one  owner,  he  can  make  a  com- 
munication through  the  gable,  provided  he  do  not 
injure  the  chimney-flues  of  the  lower  flats,  or  the 
stability  of  the  structure. 

A  k 

PARVATI  (from  the  Sanscrit  paroata,  mountain, 
literally,  mountain-bom)  is  one  of  the  names  bv 
which  Uurgi,  the  consort  of  S'iva,  is  usually  called,, 
she  being  the  daughter  of  the  mountain  Himalaya. 

PA'RYISE,  a  porch  or  open  space  in  front  of  the 
door  of  a  church. 

PASCAGOU'LA,  a  river,  and  bay  at  its  mouth, 
in  Mississippi,  U.  S.      The  river,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  the  Leaf,  the  Chickahay,  with  numerous 
branches,  drains  the  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
state,  and  flows   into  Mississippi  Sound  through 
two  mouths  which  form  the  bay.    It  is  navigable - 
100  miles  through  a  sandy  region  of  pine-forests,, 
supplying  turpentine.    The  villages  on  the  bay  are- 
summer  resorts  from  Mobile  and  New  Orleans ;  and 
on  the  shores  at  night  are  heard  sounds  like  the- 
iEolian  harp,  supposed  to  be  caused  by  some  kind, 
of  shell-fish. 

PASCAL,  Blaise,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
philosophers  and  scholars  of  the  17th  c,  was  bom  at 
Clermont,  in  Auvergne,  France,  June  19,  1623.  His- 
father,  Etienne  Pa^»d,  was  president  of  the  Cour 
des  Aides  at  Clermont.     His  mother,  Antoinette 


PASCAL-PAS-DE-CALAIS. 


Bezon,  died  while  lie  was  little  beyond  infancy.  He 
had  two  sisters — the  elder,  Gilberte,  Madame  Perier, 
afterwards  his  biographer ;  the  yoanger,  Jacqueline, 
who  became  a  nun  of  Port  Royal,  under  the  cele- 
brated M^re  Angelique,  sister  of  Antoine  Amauld. 
From  childhood,  Blaise  gave  evidence  of  extra- 
ordinary abilities ;  and  when  he  reached  his  eighth 
year,  his  father  resigned  his  office  at  Clermont,  and 
came  to  Pans,  in  order  personally  to  direct  the  boy's 
education.  For  the  purpose  of  concentrating  all  the 
boy's  efforts  upon  languages,  his  father  kept  out  of 
his  reach  all  books  treating  the  subject  of  mathe- 
matics, for  which  he  had  early  evinced  a  decided 
taste ;  and  it  is  recorded  that  by  his  own  unaided 
speculations,  drawing  the  diagrams  with  charcoal 
upon  the  floor,  he  ma^e  some  progress  in  geometry. 
One  account  represents  him  as  having  thus 
mastered  the  m«t  thirty-two  pro{)08itionB  of 
the  first  book  of  Euclid's  Elements — a  statement 
which  carries  its  own  refutation  with  it.  Thence- 
forward, he  was  permitted  freely  to  follow  the 
the  bent  of  his  genius.  In  his  sixteenth  year,  he 
produced  a  treatise  on  Conic  Sections,  which  extorted 
the  almost  incredulous  admiration  of  Descartes. 
In  his  nineteenth  year,  he  invented  a  calculating- 
machine;  and  turning  his  attention  to  the  novel 
questions  as  to  the  nature  of  fluids,  which  Torri- 
celli's  theories  had  raised,  he  produced  two  essays, 
which,  although  not  published  till  after  his  death, 
have  established  his  reputation  as  an  experimental 
physicist.  His  father  naving  acce{)ted  an  office  at 
Kouen,  P.  was  there  brought  much  into  intercourse 
with  a  distinguished  preacher,  Abb6  Guillebert,  a 
member  of  the  Jansemsts,  but  a  man  of  great  do- 
quence,  a  great  master  of  ascetic  theolo^,  from 
whom  and  from  other  members  of  the  same  ngid  sect, 
as  well  as  from  the  writings  of  Arnauld,  St  Cyran, 
and  Nicole,  P.'s  mind  received  a  deeply  religious  turn ; 
and  his  health  having  suffered  much  from  excessive 
study,  he  gave  himseu  up  in  great  measure  to  retire- 
ment and  theological  reading,  and  to  the  practice  of 
asceticism.  The  death  of  his  father,  and  his  sister 
Jacqueline's  withdrawal  to  Port  Royal,  confirmed 
these  habits ;  and  it  is  to  this  period  that  we  owe 
his  magnificent  though  unfinisned  Pens^s,  which 
have  extorted  the  admiration  even  of  his  unbeliev- 
ing, and  therefore  imsvmpathising  critics.  Having 
fuUy  identified  himself  with  the  Jansenist  party,  he 
was  induced  (1655)  to  take  up  his  residence  at  Port 
Royal,  although  not  as  a  member  of  the  body, 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  entirely  given  up  to 
prayer  and  practices  of  mortification,  among  which 
.practices  may  be  mentioned  that  of  wearing  an  iron 
^rdle,  studded  with  shaq)  points,  which  he  forced 
:into  his  flesh  whenever  he  felt  himself  assailed  by 
sinful  thou|D;h1a.  In  the  controversy  to  which  the 
^condemnation  of  Amauld  by  the  Sorbonne  (1655) 
gave  rise,  P.  took  a  lively  interest ;  and  it  was  to 
this  controversy  that  he  contributed  the  memorable 
Lettrea  PrcvinaaleSy  published  under  the  pseudonym 
of  Louis  de  Montalt.  These  famous  Letters  (eighteen 
in  number,  not  reckoning  the  nineteenth,  which  is  a 
fragment,  and  the  twentieth,  which  is  by  Lemaistre), 
are  written,  as  if  to  a  provincial  fnend,  on  the 
absorbing  controversial  topic  of  the  day.  The  first 
three  are  devoted  to  the  vindication  of  Amauld, 
and  the  demonstration  of  the  identity  of  his  doctrine 
with  that  of  St  Augustine.  But  it  was  to  the  later 
letters  that  the  collection  owed  both  its  contem- 
porary popularity  and  its  abiding  fame.  In  these 
P.  addi^ses  himself  to  the  casuistry  and  to  the 
directorial  system  of  Amauld's  great  antagonists, 
.  the  Jesuits ;  and  in  a  strain  of  humorous  irony  which 
has  seldom  been  surpassed,  he  holds  up  to  ridicule 
their  imputed  laxity  of  principle  on  the  obligation 
of  restitution,  on  simony,  on  probable  opinions,  on 


directing  the  intention,  on  equivocation  and  mental 
reservation,  &c.     In  all  this,  he  professes  to  produce 
the  authorities  of  their  own  authors.    Of  the  extra- 
ordinary ability  displayed  in  these  celebrated  Letters, 
no  question  can  be  entertained ;  but  the  Jesuits  and 
their  friends  loudly  complain  of  their  unfairneas, 
and  represent  them  as  in  great  part  the  work  of  a 
special  pleader.    The  quotations,  with  the  exception 
of  those  from  Escobar,  were  confessedly  supplied  by 
P.'s  friends.     It  is  complained  that  many  of  the 
authors  cited  are  not  Jesuits  at  all ;  that  many  of 
the  opinions  ridiculed  and  reprobated  as  opinicms  of 
the  Jesuit  order,  had  been  in  reality  formally  repu- 
diated and  condenmed  in  the  Society ;  that  many  of 
the  extracts  are  garbled  and  distorted ;   that  it 
treats  as  though  they  had  been  designed  for  the 
pulpit  and  as  manuals  for  teaching,  works  which 
m  reality  were  but  meant   as   private   directions 
of    the    judgment   of    the    confessor;    and  that^ 
in  almost  all  cases,  statements,  facts,  and  circum- 
stances are  withheld,  which  would  modify,  if  not 
entirely    remove,    their    objectionable    tendency. 
See  Jesuits.     To   all  which  the   enemies  of  the 
Jesuits  reply  by  arguments  intended  thoroughly 
to     vindicate     Pascal.      P.    himself    entertained 
no  compunctious    feeling    for   the    production    of 
these  Letters,  but  even  at  the  approach  of  death 
declared  his  full  satisfaction  with  the  work,  such  as 
it  wa&    His  later  years  were  made  very  wretched 
by  continued,  or  at  least  frequently  recurring  hypo- 
chondria, under  the  influence  of  which  he  suffered 
from  very  painful  fantasies,  which  he  was  unable 
to  controL    His  strength  was  completely  worn  out 
by  these  and  other  infirmities,  and,  prematurely  old, 
he  died  at  the  early  age  of  thirty-nine  in  Paris,  in 
the  year  1662.    His  Pensies  sur  la  £eUgum^  et  sur 
gudque8  aulres  SujeU^  being  unfinished,  were  pub- 
lished with  suppressions  and  modifications  in  1669  ; 
but  their  full  value  was  only  learned  from  the  com- 

Slete  edition  which  was  published  at  the  instance  of 
L  Cousin  (2  vols.,  8vo,  Paris,  1844).  Of  all  his 
works,  the  Lettrea  Prcvincialea  have  been  the  most 
fre(^uently  reprinted.  They  were  translated  into 
Latin  in  the  lifetime  of  P.  by  flicole,  under  the 
pseudonym  of  a  German  professor,  *  Wilhelm  Wen- 
oroc;'  and  an  edition  in  four  languages  appeared 
at  Cologne,  in  1684 

PA'SCO,  or  CEHRO  DE  PASCO,  an  important 
mining  city  in  Peru,  in  the  department  of  Jnnin, 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  of  13,000  feet 
above  sea-level,  80  miles  north-east  of  Lima  in  a 
direct  line,  but  upwards  of  130  miles  by  the  wind- 
ing mountain  rostd.  It  consists  of  a  collection  of 
huts  spread  over  an  area  that  has  been  hollowed 
out  ana  perforated  in  all  directions  by  mines.  The 
number  of  the  inhabitants  varies  according  to  the 
state  of  the  mines;  being  sometimes  considerably 
more  than  12,000,  and  often  much  less.  The  Cerro^ 
or  'mountain  knot,'  of  Pasco  rises  in  Sacahuanata, 
16,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Coal  is  found 
in  the  vicinity. 

PAS-DE-CALAIS  (Fr.  for  Strait  of  Dover),  a 
department  in  the  north  of  France,  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  department  of  Nord  and  tiie  Strait 
of  Dover,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Strait  of  Dover 
and  the  English  Chani^eL  Area,  1,631,590  acres, 
of  which  88^300  acres  are  cultivated,  and  236,707 
in  meadows.  Pop.  (1862)  724,33&  The  surface  is 
level,  with  the  exception  of  a  rid^e  of  hills  nmning 
from  the  south-east  to  the  nor&-west,  ending  in 
Gris-nes  Cape  (q.  v.),  and  forming  the  watei^shed 
between  the  North  Sea  and  the  English  ChanneL 
The  rivers,  which  are  of  no  considerable  length,  are 
the  Scarpe  and  Lys  in  the  basin  of  the  North  Sea, 
and  the  Authie  and  Cuiche  belonging  to  the  hsvn 


PASENG— PASQUE  FLOWER. 


of^  the  English  Channel.  The  rivers  are  navigable 
within  the  department,  and  are  connected  by  canals. 
The  ooast-line  is  80  miles  in  length,  and  the  shores 
aie  in  certain  parts  low  and  sandy ;  while  for 
several  miles  on  either  side  of  Gris-nez,  cliffs 
similar  to  those  of  Dover  front  th^  sea.  The 
climate  is  mild,  but  exceedingly  inconstant.  The 
soil  is  very  fertile— all  the  usual  cereal  and  legn- 
minous  crops  are  produced  in  abundance — and 
ihe^  country  is  very  productive  both  as  regards 
agriculture  and  manufactures.  Fishing  is  actively 
carried  on,  on  the  coast,  particularly  in  the  neigh-. 
bourhood    of    Boulogne.      Coal    of   an    indifferent 

Snality  ia  raised,  the  excellent  quarries  of  the 
eparbnent  are  worked,  and  considerable  quantities 
of  turf  are  cut.  The  industrial  establishments  are 
nnmerouB  and  important,  as  iron-foundries,  glass- 
works, potteries,  tanneries,  and  numerous  bleach- 
works,  and  mills  and  factories  of  various  kinds. 
Boulogne  and  Calais  are  the  principal  harbours. 
There  are  six  arrondisseroents— Arras,  B6thune, 
St  Omer,  St  Pol,  Boulogne,  and  MontreuiL  The 
capital  is  Arras. 

PASEXG.    See  Goat. 

PA'SEWALK,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Stettin,  25  miles  west-north-west  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  on  the  Uker.  It  contains  two 
churches,  two  hospitals,  and  several  woollen-cloth 
and  leather  factories;  and  carries  on  an  active 
general  trade.    Pop.,  exclusive  of  military,  6S80. 

PASHA',  or  PACHA,  a  title  used  in  the  Ottoman 
smpire,  and  applied  to  governors  of  provinces,  or 
military  and  naval  commanders  of  high  rank.  The 
name  is  said  to  be  derived  from  two  Persian  words 
— jTO,  foot  or  support,  and  »hah^  ruler— and  signifies 
'the  support  of  the  ruler.'  The  title  was  limited 
in  the  early  period  of  the  Ottoman  empire  to  the 
princes  of  the  blood,  but  was  subsequently  extended 
to  the  grand- vizier,  the  members  of  the  divftn,  the 
•eraskier,  capitan-pasha,  the  begler-be^,  and  other 
civil  and  mihtary  authorities.  The  distmctive  badge 
of  a  pasha  is  a  horse's  tail,  waving  from  the  end  of 
a  staff,  crowned  with  a  gilt  ball ;  m  war,  this  bad^ 
is  always  carried  before  him  when  he  goes  abros^ 
and  is  at  other  times  planted  in  front  of  his  tent 
The  three  grades  of  pasnas  are  distinguished  by  the 
number  of  the  horse-tails  on  their  standards ;  those 
of  the  highest  rank  are  pashas  of  three  tails,  and 
include,  in  general,  the  highest  functionaries,  civil 
and  military.  All  piishas  of  this  class  have  the  title 
of  vizier ;  and  the  grand-vizier  is,  par  excellence^  a 
pasha  of  three  tails.  The  pashas  of  two  tails  are  the 
governors  of  provinces,  wno  generally  are  called  by 
the  simple  title  *  pasha.*  The  lowest  rank  of  pasha 
is  the  pasha  of  one  tail ;  the  sanjaks,  or  lowest  class 
of  provincial  governors,  are  of  this  rank.  The  pasha 
of  a  province  has  authority  over  the  military  force, 
the  revenue,  and  the  administration  of  justice.  His 
authority  was  formerly  absolute,  but  recently  a 
check  was  imposed  on  him  by  the  appointment  of 
local  councils.  The  pasha  is  m  his  own  person  the 
mihtary  leader  and  administrator  of  justice  for  the 
province  under  his  charge,  and  holds  office  during 
the  pleasure  of  the  sultan — a  most  precarious 
tenure,  as  the  sultan  can  at  any  moment,  in  the 
exercise  of  his  despotic  power,  exile,  imprison,  or 

5ut  him  to  death;  and  this  has  frequently  been 
one  in  cases  where  the  pasha's  power  has  excited 
the  apprehension,  or  his  wealth  the  avarice  of  his 
royal  master. 

PASKBVITCH,  Ivan  Feodorovitch,  Count  of 
Erivan,  Prince  of  Warsaw,  and  a  Russian  field- 
marshal,  was  bom  at  Poltava,  May  19,  1782.  He 
i^as  d^cended  from  a  Polish  family,  and  was  at 
mt  a  pacee  to  the  Czar  Paul,  but  entered  the  army, 


and  served  in  the  campaign  in  1805,  which  was 
ended  by  the  defeat  of  Austerlitz ;  and  then  against 
the  Turks.  He  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
campaign  of  1812,  and  several  times  defeated  the 
French  under  Eu^ne,  Nev,  and  St  Cyr;  he  was 
also  present  at  Leipzig  and  the  conflicts  under  the 
walls  of  Paris.  In  1825,  he  was  appointed  com- 
mander-in-chief against  the  Persians,  whom  he 
completely  defeat^  conquering  Persian  Armenia, 
taking  Erivan,  and  ending  the  war  by  the  peace  of 
Turkmanshai  (q.  v.),  a  peace  exceedingly  favourable 
to  Russia.  In  recom])ense  for  these  services,  he  was 
created  Count  of  Erivan,  and  received  a  grant  of 
1,000,000  rubles  (£158,600).  In  1828  and  1829,  he 
made  two  campaigns  against  the  Turks  in  Asia, 
signalised  by  tne  taking  of  Kars,  Erzerum,  and 
o&er  important  provinces,  and  terminated  by  the 
treaty  of  Adrianople  in  1829.  In  1831,  P.,  now  a 
field-marshal,  was   appointed   viceroy  of   Poland, 

Eut  an  end  to  the  revolt  within  three  months  after 
is  appointment,  and  reconstructed  the  administra- 
tion on  the  basis  of  a  complete  incorporation  with 
Russia.  Such  was  the  vigour  and  severity  of 
his  rule,  that  the  eventful  year  1848  passed  over 
without  any  attempt  at  revolution.  When  Russian 
intervention  in  Hungary  had  been  resolved  upon, 
P.,  though  now  67  yean  of  age,  marched  into  that 
country  at  the  head  of  200,(X)0  men,  and,  after  a 
junction  with  the  Austrians,  defeated  the  Hunga- 
rians in  several  battles,  and  by  mere  force  of  numbers 
crushed  out  the  last  spark  of  insurrection.  The 
50th  anniversary  of  his  military  service  was  cele- 
brated at  Warsaw,  in  1850,  with  the  utmost  rejoic- 
ings, and  on  this  occasion  the  sovereigns  of  Austria 
and  Prussia  conferred  on  him  the  rank  of  field- 
marshal  in  their  respective  armies.  In  1854,  he 
unwillingly  took  the  command  of  the  Russian 
army  on  the  Danube ;  but  fortune,  which  had 
hitherto  invariably  smiled  upon  him,  deserted  him 
at  Silistria ;  and  after  undergoing  a  succession  of 
sanguinary  repulses,  and  being  himself  ^evously 
wounded,  he  withdrew  his  army,  and  resigning  the 
command,  retired  to  Warsaw,  where  he  lell  into  a 
state  of  profound  melancholy,  and  died  January  29, 
1856. 

PA'SPALXTM,  a  genus  of  grasses,  with  spikes 
either  solitary  or  variously  grouped,  one-flowered 
spikelets,  and  awnless  palete.  The  species  are 
numerous,  natives  of  warm  climates. — P,  acrobicu- 
UUum  is  cultivated  as  a  cereal  in  India,  where  it  is 
called  Koda.  See  Millet.  It  will  grow  in  ve^ 
barren  soils,  and  delights  in  a  dry  loose  soiL  P. 
eaale  ia  cultivated  in  like  manner  in  the  west  of 
Africa,  where  it  is  called  Fundi  (q.  v.)  or  Fundungi. 
— rOther  species  are  valuable  as  fodder-grasses,  i*. 
purpureum  is  a  very  important  fodder-grass  in  the 
coast  districts  of  Peru,  during  the  dry  months  of 
February  and  March  P.  stoloni/erum,  also  a 
Peruvian  species,  has  been  introduced  into  France ; 
but  is  apt  to  be  injured  by  frosts,  and  seldom  ripens 
its  seeds  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paris. 

PASQUE  FLOWER  (PuhatUla),  a  senus  of 
plants  of  the  natural  order  RanunculacecB^  oy  many 
Dotanists  still  included  in  Anemone,  the  chief  distin- 
guishing characteristic  being  the  long  feathery  awns 
of  the  &uit.  The  siiecies  are  perennial,  silky,  her- 
baceous plants,  with  doubly  pinnatifid  or  doubly 
trifid  leaves,  and  a  simple  one-flowered  scape.  Th^ 
are  narcotic,  acrid,  and  poisonous.  The  Common  P. 
{PuUatiUa  vulgaris  or  Anemone  pulsatiUa)  is  a  native 
of  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  of  chalky  pastures  in 
several  parts  of  England.  It  has  widely  bell-shaped 
bluish-purple  flowers.  Another  species,  P.  or  A. 
pratensis,  a  native  of  the  continent  of  Europe, 
not  of  Britain,  has   smaller   and  more  perfectly 

307 


PASQUINADB-PAdSAGLIA. 


bnU'Hlutped  blackish-purple  flowere.— These  plants 
emit,  when  bruised,  a  pungent  Bmell ;  and  contain, 
as  their  principal  cooatituent,  a  peculiar  pungent 
essential  oil,  wnich,  in  combination  with  A  nsmonic 
^cid,  forma  an  acrid  and  verj  inQammable  mb- 
■lance  oiUled  Anaaoaine,  or  Ptiliatiiia  CampAor,  and 


Pasqae  Flower  (Anemone  jmUiUSla), 

u  sometimes  nsed  in  medicine.  PvlmlUla  is  • 
favourite  medicine  oE  the  homceopathista.  Eatier 
Jiill/a  are  coloured  purple  in  some  places  by  the 
pctala  of  the  pasqiie  flower. — More  acrid  than  any 
of  the  Bpeciea  juat  named  ia  PuUatitla  patent,  which 
occiuionollf  even  blisters  the  thin. 

PASQTTINA'DE,  an  anonymous  or  paeudonymona 
publication  of  small  size,  aometimea  printed,  some- 
times only  posted  up  or  circulated  in  manuscript,  and 
havina  foe  its  object  the  defamstiou  of  a  character, 
or  at  least  the  taming  of  a  person  to  ridicule.  The 
name  is  derived  from  P<uquino,  a  tailor  remark- 
sble  for  his  wit  and  sarcastic  hnmour,  who  lived  in 
Home  towards  the  close  of  the  15th  c,  and  attracted 
many  to  hia  shop  by  hia  sharp  and  lively  sayings. 
Some  time  after  his  death,  a  mutilated  &a^ent  of 
an  ancient  statue,  considered  to  represent  Menelaoa 
•uppurting  the  dead  body  of  Fatroclus,  was  dug  up 
opposite  his  shop,  and  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
Brwclii  PaJaoe,  near  the  PiaEsa  NavonL  It  was 
named  after  the  defunct  tailor,  and  thus  the  practice 
ori^nated  of  affixing  to  it  placards  oontaining 
satires  and  jesta  relative  to  the  affairs  of  tlie  day^ 
the  pope  and  the  cardinals  being  favourite  victmui 
of  the  invisible  satiriata.  It  was,  and  still  continues 
to  lie,  the  only  outlet  which  the  Roman  has  for  his 
opiniona  and  feelings.  One  or  two  may  be  quoted 
as  specimens  of  the  mordant  style  of  the  Pasquin 
statue.  '  Great  sums,'  said  the  satirist  one  day,  in  an 
epi<^m  addressed  to  Pope  Paul  HI.,  'were  formerly 
given  to  poets  for  sinaing  ;  how  much  will  yon  give 
me,  0  Paul,  to  be  silentT' — On  the  marriage  of  a 
young  Roman  colled  Cesare  to  a  girl  called  Roma, 
the  statue  gave  the  following  advice  :  '  Cave,  Ca»ar, 
ne  tua  Boma  respublica  fiat,'  Next  day  the  rival 
statue  of  Marfono,  in  the  Capitol,  repUed :  *  Qeaar 
imperat;'  to  which  Paai^nin  with  etquisite  malice 
retorted :  *  Ergo  coronabitur.' 

PA'SSAOE,  Wnr,  a  seaport  tovm  upon  the 
WMtem  ahora  of  tLe  estuary  ot  the  river  Iice,  in  the 


county   of   Cork,   Ireland,   which    hat  riten   into 

impoitance  chiefly  as  a  watering-place,  and  aa  tba 
shi|>ping-port  and  marine  sub'irb  of  the  city  ot 
Corli,  from  which  it  is  distant,  by  the  Cork  and 
Passage  Railway,  about  6  miles.  Aa  the  river 
above  P.  is  not  oavi^lile  for  aliips  above  400  or  500 
tons  burden,  ships  of  higher  tonnage  discharge  their 
cargoes  at  Passage.  It  is  also  a  ship- building 
station.  Fop.  in  1R61,  2287  l  of  whom  1879  were 
Catholics;  375,  Protestants  of  the  Established 
Church,  and  the  rest  of  other  religious  denomiua- 

tions There  is  another  small  town  of  the  same 

name,  East  Pa^saoe,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Suir, 
in  tile  county  of  Waterford,  Ireland. 

PA3SAGLIA,  Cablo,  a  Roman  Catholic  theo- 
logian of  great  eminence,  who  has  obtained  much 
notoriety  in  connection  with  the  recent  movement 
for  the  unity  of  Italy,  is  a  native  of  the  duchy  of 
Lucca,  where  he  was  born  May  2,  1S12.  flis  origin 
it  ver7  humble,  and  he  entered  extremely  young  aa 
ft  tcboUr  of  the  Jesuit  Society,  of  which  he  was 
enrolled  a  member  in  the  yeai  1827.  Having 
obtained  much  distinction  in  the  schools  of  the 
order,  and  having,  aa  is  usual  with  its  members, 
taught  for  some  time  in  the  lower  schools,  he  com- 
pleted his  theological  studies  in  the  Roman  College, 
and  was  appointed  Professor  of  Canon  Iiaw,  luid 
eventually  of  Domriatical  Theology.  His  repatatioa 
for  learning  stood  in  the  very  tlrst  rank  of  Roman 
Catholic  theology,  and  his  lectures  were  exceedingly 
admired  for  their  eloquence  and  emdition,  but  were 
considered  in  some  respects  too  diffuse  for  the 
class  of  pupils  who  frequented  his  schooL  Ihiring 
the  temporary  withdrawal  of  the  Jesuits  from  Rome 
in  1848—1861,  P.  with  some  of  bis  brethren  ca>ne 
to  England,  where  he  taught  theology  to  the  youog 
brethren  of  hit  order,  and  on  the  re-establishment  <3 
the  Jesuits  in  the  Roman  College,  he  resumed  poa- 
session  of  his  chair.    During  the  discussions  which 

Iireceded  tiie  dednition  of  the  doctrine  of  the 
mmaoulate  Conception  of  the  blessed  Yirgin  Maiy 
(q.  v.),  P.  prepared  an  elaborate  treatise  as  well  on 
the  doctnue  as  on  the  history  of  that  question, 
which  was  published  at  the  cost  of  the  Boman 
government.  Soon  afterwards,  however,  the 
dissatisfaction  which  was  felt  at  the  unsuitable 
character  and  method  of  his  lectures,  led  to 
some  remonstrance  on  the  part  of  the  authoritieB  of 
the  order,  and  ultinmtely  to  his  resignation  of  tlie 
professorship  of  theology.  Still,  however,  he  oon- 
tiniied  a  member  of  the  Society ;  and  the  pope,  who 
felt  a  warm  friendship  for  him,  established  in  the 
Roman  university  a  special  chair  of  Philieophy  tor 
him,  of  which  he  took  posBcasion,  but  which  he  did 
not  long  retain.  In  the  end  of  1853,  or  early  in 
1869.  he  left  the  Society  of  the  Jesuits,  and  soon 
aftem'ards  he  began  to  talis  an  active  part  in  the 
diacnssiuns  as  to  Uie  temporal  power  of  the  pope  ;  and 
with  a  view  to  an  accommodation  of  the  dimcultiea 
in  which  it  was  involved,  be  undertook  a  voluntary 
mission  to  Turin,  which,  however,  led  to  no  reniltii. 
Havmg  fallen  under  suapicion  in  Rome,  and  hie 
house  having  been  invaded  by  a  domiciliary  visit  of 
the  police,  he  withdrew  from  Rome,  and  settled  at 
Turiu,  where  he  established  a  journal,  entitled  II 
Nettiatore,  which  in  1664  waa  atill  in  course  ot 
publication.  He  was  elected  s  member  of  the  Turin 
parliament,  in  which  career,  however,  his  aocceii 
hitherto  has  fallen  far  short  of  his  reputation. 

P.'s  principal  works  are  the  treatise  on  the  Im> 
maculate  Conception  already  referred  to  (4  vols. 
4to) ;  a  treatise  (Latin)  on  the  Primacy  of  Sx  Peter 
(8vo,  185U) ;  a  scholastic  treatise  entitled  Comnun- 
tarita  Tlieologieut  de  Parlilione  Diviaa  VolmUatit 
(8vo,  Rome,  1861)  j  an  apology  for  the  cause  of 
Itali«n   unity,  entitled   Pro  Cantta    Ilaliea  ;  ad 


PASSAIC— FAS8EK0ER  PIGEON. 


BpiKopot  CalkoUeot  (Florence,  1861),  in  which  he 
revommenda  th«  church  to  make  peace  with  the 
nation ;  eeveral  eesayg  on  varioua  anbiects,  aad  qi 
leoeotly  >  Eeply  to  Renan'a  Vie  de  Jaiu  (lUtliu 
PASSA'IC,  a  river  of  New  Jersey,  U.  a,  ri«eJ 
Morris  County,  and  after  a  circuitous  Bouth-eaiterly 
'  ""     ■'  ■  ■      ■   -o  Newark  Bay.     It  v 


to   nameroos  factoiiea,   and   are  an  attraction  to 
tonrista. 

FA8SAHAQUODDT  BATopeniovt  oC  the  Bay 
of  Fuody,  between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick, 
North  America.  It  is  12  miles  loag  by  6  wide,  and 
ahut  in  by  a  cliuter  of  islauda  lo  aa  to  form  an 
excellent  harbour.  It  receives  the  St  Oroii,  Didee- 
qnaah,  and  other  rivers,  and  forms  the  harbour  ni  Uie 
town  of  Eastpoi 
» tides  of  25  feci 

PA'SSANT,  a  heraldic  tenn  naed  to  express  the 
attitude  of  an  animal  in  a  walking  poaitioD,  with 


bis  head  straight  before  him  (fig.  I) ;  fig.  2  tepre- 
•eata  the  attitude,  PoMoitt  gar£iat ;  fig.  3,  PoMant 
regardaaL 

PASS  A'ROWITZ,  a  well-built  towo  of  European 
Tiirkey,  in  the  province  of  Setvia,  S  miles  south  of 
the  Danube,  and  15  miles  east  of  Semendria.  Its 
■b^eta  are  wide  and  nnpaved,  its  houses  detached, 
kod  eurrouaded  with  palisades.  Pop.  5000.  The 
town  is  chiefly  noteworthy  for  the  treaty  which 
was  ai^nied  here  by  Prince  Eugene  and  the  grand 
vizier,  July  21,  1718.  By  this  treaty,  which  put  an 
Qui  to  tlie  war  undertakeu  by  the  Turks  against 
Venice  in  I7U  for  the  conquest  of  the  Morea,  a  truce 
of  25  years  was  established,  aod  the  Banat  of 
Temesvar,  the  western  portion  of  Walachia  and 
Servis,  the  town  and  territory  of  Belgrade,  and'  a 
part   of   Bosnia,   were   secured   to  the   House   of 


iFith  the  Danube,  90  miles  east-north- 
Munich.  It  consists  of  P.  Proper  (triangular  in 
shape,  and  occupying  an  eminence  on  the  tongue 
of  land  between  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Inn),  aud  the  suburbs, 
Imutsdt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Inn  j  Anger  and 
Fort  Oberhaus,  between  the  Danube  uid  the  Ilz  ; 
and  Ilzstadt,  on  the  left  bonk  of  the  Ilz.  At  the 
point  of  junction,  the  Inn  is  both  wider  and  haa  had 
a  longer  conrae  than  the  Danube,  the  former  being 
SM  leet;  whOe  the  latter  U  only  606  Eeet  wide. 
A  wooden  bridge  over  the  Inn,  resting  on  eight 
piera  of  granite,  connects  Innatadt  wiui  P.,  and 
the  Danube  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bridge  resting  on 
■even  piera,  also  o(  granite.  Fort  Oberbaus,  on  the 
kft  bank  oiF  the  Danube,  stands  on  steep,  wooded 
clib,  at  an  elevation  of  upwards  oC  400  feet,  and 
commands  the  passage  both  of  the  Inn  and  Danube, 
beaidea  which  the  town  is  further  defended  by  the 
castle  of  Niederhaus,  and  by  tan  detached  forts. 
The  appearance  of  P.,  situated  at  the  confluence 
it  two  great  rivers,  and  rising  like  an  amphitheatre 
■n  tiie  moat  beautiful  spot  of  the  Danube,  is  strik- 
ingly effective  and  picturesque.  Among  the  chief 
building*  are  the  cathedral,  the  hishop'a  palace,  the 


poat-ofBoe,  where  the  treaty  of  P.  was  signed  in 
Ifi^i;  the  Jesuits'  College,  a  large  building  now  useJ 
as  a  school ;  and  the  Church  of  St  Michaff «.  In  tb* 
Cathedral  Square  (Domplatz)  is  a  bronze  statue  ot 
King  Uaiinulian  Joseph,  of  recent  erection.  P. 
xalleriea,  collections 
A  charitable  institn. 


Pop.  ll,9t 

The  natural  advantages  of  this  site,  in  a  militarj 

Eoint  of  view,  were  appreciated  ot  an  early  period 
y  the  Romans,  who  erected  a  strong  camp  here, 
garrisoned  it  with  Batavion  troops,  and  from  this 
circoniBtance  named  it  Balava  Cattra.  P.  was  fcjna 
the  see  of  a  bishopric  founded  ia  the  Tth  c,  hut 
seciUarised  in  1803.  By  the  treaty  ot  P.;  signed 
here  in  15€2  by  the  emperor  Charles  V.  on  the 
one  side,  and  the  Protestant  princes  of  Qermany  on 
the  other,  public  recognition  of  the  Lutheran  faith 
among  the  institutions  of  the  empire  was  granted. 
The  cathedral  of  P.  and  great  part  of  the  town  were 
oonsumed  by  fire  in  1662. 

PA8SECAILLE  and    PAS3EPIED,  two   oU 

French  dances,  the  music  of  the  former  being  in  j, 
the  latter  in  j  time.  Compositions  under  these 
names,  suggestive  of  the  dances  in  question,  though 
not  meant  fur  dancing,  occur  among  the  'Suites,'  or 
collections  of  abort  pieces  for  the  harpsichord  or 
clavichord  by  Sebastian  Bach  and  HandeL 

PA'SSENGBR  PIGEON  iEdopUleg  migraionui), 
a  species  of  pigeon,  native  of  North  America,  and 
particularly  intereatine  from  the  marvellous  num- 
bers of  which  itfl  fiucks  are  often  composed.  The 
genua  to  which  it  beloogs  has,  iike  the  turtle  doves, 
"1  bill  more  slender  Qian  the  ordinary  pigeons, 
Lotched,  and  with  a  tumid  Seshy  covering  above  at 
the  base;  the  head  ie  small  in  proportion  to  the 
body,  the  legs  are  short  and  strong,  the  feet  naked, 
the  tail  either  rounded  or  wedge-shaped,  the  winga 
long  and  pointed.  The  P.  P.,  generally  known  ^ 
North  America  as  the  Wild  Pigeon,  has  a  long 
wedge-shaped  tail ;  the  whole  length  being  from 
16  to  17  inches,  of  which  tiie  tail  occupies  nearly 


Passenger  Pigeon  {SelopilUt  miirralorimi). 

OQB  hall  It  is  a  beautiful  bird,  of  very  grocefal 
form  and  tinely-coloured  plumage.  The  pluma^  of 
the  female  is  duller  than  that  of  the  male.— Ths 
P.  P.  is  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  North  America, 
from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Arctic  regions.     It 


PASSENGERS  BY  LAND  AND  SEA-PASSINGNOTES. 


is  not>  properly  speaking,  a  bird  of  passage;  its 
migratioDS  oeinjo;  apparently  altogether  consequent 
on  the  failure  oithe  supplies  of  food  in  one  locality, 
and  the  necessity  of  seeking  it  in  another,  and  not 
conucoted  with  the  breeding  season  or  the  season 
of  the  year.  Its  power  of  flight  is  very  great,  and 
it  is  supposed  to  be  able  to  sustain  a  long  flight  at 
the  rate  of  sixty  miles  an  hour.  Passenger  pi|reons 
have  been  killed  in  the  neighbourhood  ot  New 
York,  with  their  crops  full  of  nee,  which  they  must 
have  collected  in  the  fields  of  Carolina  or  Georgia 
not  many  hours  before.  It  is  not,  therefore,  yery 
wonderful  that  wanderers  of  this  species  should 
occasionally  appear  in  Britain  and  in  other  regions 
far  from  their  native  abode.  The  nest  of  the  P.  P. 
in  the  American  forests  generally  consists  of  a  few 
dry  twigs  placed  in  a  fork  of  the  branches  of  a  tree, 
and  containing  two  eggs,  sometimes  only  one  egg. 
They  breed  two  or  tluree  times  in  a  season.  In  the 
backwoods,  vast  numbers  of  pigeons  building  in 
one  breeding-place,  many  nests,  sometimes  100  or 
more,  are  often  to  be  seen  in  one  tree.  These 
ereat  breeding-places  extend  over  a  vast  tract  of 
forest,  sometimes  not  less  than  forty  miles  in 
length ;  but  in  the  more  cultivated  parts  of  the 
United  States  the  P.  P.  builds  singly  and  not  in 
communities.  The  numbers  of  biros  forming  the 
communities  of  the  western  forests  surpass  calcula- 
tion. Flocks  of  them  are  to  be  seen  flying  at  a 
great  height  in  dense  columns,  eight  or  ten  miles 
long ;  and  there  is  reason  to  suppose,  from  the 
rapidity  of  their  flight,  and  the  number  of  hours 
taken  by  a  column  in  passing  a  particular  spot,  that 
in  some  of  their  great  migrations  the  column,  a 
mile  broad,  is  more  than  150  miles  long.  Their 
roosting-places,  as  well  as  their  breeding-places,  are 
of  prodigious  magnitude.  The  graphic  descriptions 
of  vV^ilson  and  Audubon  are  too  long  to  be  quoted ; 
but  there  is  perhaps  nothing  of  the  kind  so  wonder- 
ful in  relation  to  any  species  of  bird.  The  noise  of 
wings  and  of  cooing  voices  is  as  loud  as  thunder, 
and  is  heard  at  the  distance  of  miles.  It  drowns 
the  r<^TV)rt  of  guns.  The  multitudes  which  settle 
on  trees,  break  down  great  branches  by  their 
weight,  so  that  it  is  dangerous  to  pass  beneath. 
They  crowd  together,  alighting  one  upon  another, 
till  they  form  solid  masses  like  hogsheads,  and  great 
numbers  are  killed  when  the  branches  break. 
The  inhabitants  of  the  neighbouring  country  as- 
semble, shoot  them,  knock  them  down  with  poles, 
stifle  them  by  means  of  pots  of  burning  sulphur, 
cut  down  trees  in  order  to  bring  them  in  great 
numbers  to  the  ground,  eat  them,  salt  them,  and 
bring  their  hogs  to  fatten  on  theuL  Wolves,  foxes, 
lynxes,  cougars,  bears,  racoons,  opossums,  polecats, 
eagles,  hawKS,  and  vultures  all  congregate  to  share 
the  spoiL  The  flesh  of  the  P.  P.  is  of  a  dark  colour, 
but  tolerably  pleasant  That  of  young  birds  is 
much  esteemed.  The  nestlings  are  m  general 
extremely  fat,  and  are  sometimes  melted  down  for 
the  sake  of  their  fat  alona  The  food  of  the  P.  P. 
consists  chiefly  of  beech-mast  and  acorns,  but  it 
readily  eate  almost  any  kind  of  nut,  beriy,  or 
seed. 

PASSENGERS  BY  LAND  AND  SEA.  The 
law  affecting  passengers  by  land,  in  a  carriage  or 
public  conveyance,  may  be  stated  as  follows :  The 
owners  of  the  railway  or  other  carriage  do  not  con- 
tract to  cany  the  passenger  with  perfect  safety; 
they  do  not  warrant  that  he  will  not  be  injured ; 
but  they  merely  contract  to  carry  him  without  any 
negligence  on  their  part  Hence,  in  case  of  accident, 
thou^  it  is  not  strictly  correct  in  point  of  law  to 
assume  that  the  accident  arose  from  some  negligence 
of  the  canier,  unless  tiiere  is  evidence  to  support  it, 
this  presumption  is  in  point  of  fact  always  madei 


and  it  lies  on  the  carrier  to  shew  that  it  was  from 
no  fault  or  negligence  on  his  part  that  the  accident 
happened.     As  questions  of  negligence  must  almost 
always  be  decided  by  a  jury,  and  their  prepoeaei- 
sions  are  against  admitting  the  idea  that  accidents 
arise   from    saiy  cause   except   negligence  of  the 
canier — which  is  a  wholesome  doctrine — it  seldom 
ever  hapi)ens  that  a  railway  or  public  company 
attempt  to    disjmte   their    responsibility  on  that 
ground.    The  rule  is  that  a  railway  company  is 
responsible  for  the  negligence  of  any  of  their  ser- 
vants ;  and  hence,  in  case  of  accidents,  all  passen* 
gers  injured,  and  in  case  of   death,  the  paieat, 
usband,  wife,  or  children  of  the  deceased  passenger, 
invariably  make  a  claim  of  compensation,  except 
when  the  accident  was  caused  by  the  passenger's 
own  personal  negligence.    For  while  a  earner  is 
bound  to  use  due  care  to  carry  the  passen^r  with 
safety,  it  is  equally  tnie  that  the  passenger  is  at  the 
same  time  bound  to  take  ordinary  care  of  himself, 
and  not  act  in  a  rash  or  foolish  way,  so  as  to  lead  to 
an  accident     Before  railways  and  canals  were  in 
use,  it  was  sometimes  doubted  whether  it  was  not 
the  duty  of  earners  by  coach  to  carry  all  persons 
who  presented  themselves  and  offered  to  pay  their 
fare ;  but  this  notion  is  exploded,  and  even  railway 
companies  are  not  bound  to  cany  everybody  who 
comes,  but  merely  to  give  reasonable  accommoda- 
tion to  the  ordinary  number,  otherwise  their  liability 
would  be  enormous  on  particular  occasions  where 
crowds  assemble.    Their  interest  is  usually  a  suffi- 
cient inducement   on    such  occasions    to   provide 
the  accommodation  required.    A  passenger  has  a 
right  to  carry  along  with  him  Luggage  (q.  v.). 

In  the  case  of  passengers  by  sea,  a  peculiar  code 
has  been  constructed,  owing  to  the  peculiarity  of 
their  situation.    The  fundamental  rule  of  the  com- 
mon law  is  the  same  as  on  land  carriage — that  the 
carrier  by  sea  does  not  engage  to  carry  with  absolute 
safety,  but  merely  to  omit  nothing  in  his  power, 
and  to  use  due  care.     The  legislature,  howeyer,  has 
passed  statutes  to  regulate  the  duties  of  carriers  by 
sea,  the  latest  being  18  and  19  Vict  a  119.     The 
act,  however,  only  applies   to  voyages  from  the 
United  Kingdom  to  places  out  of  Europe,  and  not 
to  the  Mediterranean  Sea.    Payment  of  the  passage 
money  must  be  made  before  commencing  the  voyage, 
and  the  owners  are  not  boimd  to  forward  steerage 
passengers  by  the  very  ship  contracted  for,  if  an 
equally  eligible  ship  be  offered,  provided,  however, 
that  families  are  not  to  be  separated.    If  the  ship  is 
disabled  on  the  voyage,  the  owners  are  bound  to 
repair  the  ship  in  six  weeks,  or  send  on  the  passen^ 
gers.      If    the   passengers  exceed  300,  a  medical 
practitioner  must  be  on  board,  and  the  proyisions 
must  be  accordinj^  to  a  certain  scale  of  diet.     The 
Emigration  Commissioners  require  to  inspect  emi- 
grant ships,  and  to  give  a  certificate  as  to  litness. 
As  to  passenger  steamers  in  this  country,  a  oertifl- 
cate  is  required  from  the  Board  of  Trade,  specifying 
the  voyage  and  number  of  passengers  allowed  to  be 
carried. 

PA'SSEKINE  BIKDS.    See  IiisisssoRES. 

PASSING-BELL,  a  bell  tolled  during  the  death 
agony  of  a  dying  peraon,  at  the  moment  of  the 
soul's  *  passing '  from  earth  to  its  eternal  abode.  Ita 
use  in  Catholic  countries  is  to  invite  the  hearers  to 
join  in  the  prayers  which  are  ordered  *for  the  dying 
in  their  hour  of  a^n^,'  and  which  the  priest  with 
his  attendante  recite  in  the  death  chamber.  See 
Bjell. 

PASSING-NOTES,  in  Musia  In  passing  from 
one  chord  to  another,  an  intenrening  note,  not 
belonging  to  either  chord,  may  be  used  to  assist  the 
progression.    Such  a  note  is  odled  a  xukvin^j-notc  ox 


PASSION  CROSS— PASSION- WEEK. 


Seated    ^    th™  P««onCro«. 

iteiM  or  degrecB  (which  have  beon  said  by  henJds 
to  represent  the  virtues  of  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity), 
is  called  a  Croaa  Calvary. 

PASSIONFLOWER  IFamiJtom],  a  genus 
plant!  almoat  exclusively  uativea  of  the  warm  parte 
of  Ameiica,  and  belonging  to  the  natural  order 
Patrijloracai ;  ftn  order  of  exogenous  plants,  of 
which  more  than  200  species  ar«  known,  mostly 
climbers,  having  teadrils  which  spring  from  the 
aiila  of  the  leaves,  herhaoeous  or  half  ehrubby, 
natives  of  tropical  and  subtropical  countries,  but 
rare  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The  leaves  of  the  Paaai- 
fionuxa  are  alternate,  simple,  and  variously  lobed. 
The  flowen  are  geaertUly  hetmaplirodite,  with  a 


PmionflowBr  (Pouiilora  eanilta). 

eoloared  calyx,  generally  of  five  aegments ;  the 
■egments  of  the  oorotla  eqnal  in  number  to  those  of 
the  talyx  or  absent,  and  several  rows  of  filamentous 
ptticeBaes  springing  from  withia  the  Cup  wljich  is 
Ictmed  by  the  consolidated  calyx  and  corolla ;  the 
•tawnens,  generally  five,  and  generaUy  united  by 
their  liiiunenta,  inserted  at  the  baw  of  the  tube  of 
the  caJjx  ;  the  ovary  free,  generally  elevated  on  a 
tong  stalk,  one-celled ;  three  thick  styles  with 
dilated  stigmas ;  ovulea  numerous.  The  fruit  is 
either  fleshy  or  capsular.  In  the  Fassionftoweta  it 
ia  fleshy.  This  genus  has  received  its  name  from 
fancifal  penona  among  the  first  Spanish  settlers  in 
^  imagining  that  they  saw  in  ita  fiowers  a 
tation  of  our  Lord's  passion ;  the  filamentous 
B  being  taken  to  reprueent  the  crovn  of 


thorns,  (he  nail-shaped  styles  the  nails  ot  the  ero*^ 
and  the  tive  anthers  the  marks  of  the  wounds.  Th* 
■peciea  are  mostly  half  Bbrubby  evergreen  climbers, 
of  rapid  growth;  and  most  of  them  have  lobed 
leaves,  with  from  two  to  seven  lobea.  The  flower* 
of  many  are'large  and  beautifui.  on  which  account 
they  are  often  cultivated  in  hothouses.  Some  ot 
the  species  are  also  cultivated  in  trojiical  countries 
for  tneir  fruit,  particidarly  those  of  which  the  fruit 
is  known  by  the  name  GranEulilla  (q.v.).  The  fruit 
of  P.  edvlit  is  also  somewhat  acid  and  of  a  pleasant 
flavour,  and  ices  flavoured  with  it  are  delicious.  Ita 
fruit  is  about  two  inches  long,  and  an  inch  and  a 
half  in  diameter,  of  a  livid  purjile  colour,  with 
orange  pulp.— The  fruit  of  some  species  ot  P.,  how- 
ever, is  not  only  uneatable,  but  fetid  ;  and  the  roots, 
leaves,  and  flowers  of  some,  aa  well  as  of  other 
Pa»g\flioma(x,  have  medicinal  properties,  narootic^ 
emmenagogue,  anthelmintic,  febcifugal,  &c.  P. 
rubra  is  called.  Dutchman's  lAudanum  in  Jamidca, 
because  a  tincture  of  the  fiowers  is  used  as  a  subati- 
tute  for  laudanum.  The  most  hardy  species  of  P.  is 
the  Blue  P.  (P.  earutei),  which  grows  well  enou^ 
in  some  ports  of  France,  and  even  in  the  south  of 
England.  Where  the  climate  is  snitable,  pasaion- 
flowers  form  an  admirable  covering  for  ftcbours  and 

PA'SSIONISTS,  a  rdigious  congr»atioD  of 
priests  of  the  Boman  Cathohc  Churoh,  the  object 
of  whnee  institute,  indicated  by  their  name,  ia 
to  preach  'Jesus  Christ  and  him  crucified.'  The 
founiler,  Paul  Francis,  Burnamcd  Paul  of  the  Crota, 
was  horn  in  16M  at  Ovada,  in  the  diocese  of 
Acqui  in  the  kingdom  of  Sardiniai  Having  com- 
menced his  career  as  a  hermit,,  he  formed  th« 
design  of  enlisting  others  in  the  missionary  lite: 
Bud  being  onlained  priest  in  ITitT,  be  associated 
himself  with  ten  others,  and  obtained  for  hia 
plan  the  approbation  of  successive  popes,  together 
with  the  convent  on  the  Cehan  Hill,  at  Kome, 
which  still  forms  the  mother-houBB  of  the  con- 
gregation. The  Bjiecial  object  of  the  institute 
was  to  instil  into  men's  minds  by  preaching,  by 
examjile,  and  by  devotional  practices,  a  sense  at 
the  mercy  and  love  of  God  as  manifested  in  the 
passion  of  Christ.  Hence  the  cross  appears  every- 
where as  their  emblem,  in  their  chureties,  in  their 
balls,  and  in  the  courta  and  public  places  of  their 
monasteries.  A  large  cruciSi,  moreover,  forms  part 
of  their  very  striking  costume.  They  go  barefooted, 
and  practise  many  other  pereoaal  austerities,  rising 
at  midnight  to  recite  the  canonical  hours  in  the 
cburoh  ;  and  their  ministerial  work  consists  chteQj 
holding  what  are  called  '  missions,'  wherever 
they   are   mvited  by  the   local   clergy,   in   whiah 

ons  on  the  passion  of  Christ,  on  sin,  and  on 

repentance,  together  with  the  hearing  of  confessions, 
hold  the  principal  places.  Paul  of  the  Cross  died 
in  1775.  For  a  tune  his  congregation  remained 
in  obscurity ;  bat  it  has  risen  into  much  notice 
within  the  last  .30  years,  new  houses  having  been 
founded  in  England,  Ireland,  Belgium,  America, 
and  Australia, 
PASSION-WEEK,  the  name  commonly  given  in 
neland  Vi  the  week  immediately  preceding  Easter, 
id  otherwise  called  Holy  Week  (q.  v.).  But  by 
the  proper  rubrical  usage,  Paasion-Week  is  that 
whieli  precedes  Holy  We^  commencing  on  Passiow 
Sunday,  the  Mth  Sunday  of  Lent.  In  the  Roman 
calendar,  the  whole  of  the  last  fortnight  of  Lent  ia 
known  by  the  name  of  Passion-tide,  and  all  the 
services  of  that  time  differ  in  many  resiwcts  Irom 
those,  not  alone  of  the  year,  but  even  of  the  rest  of 
Lent.  The  verse  Gloria  Patri  is  discontinued  both 
isB  and  in  the  Breviary,  and  all  pictures. 


PASSIVE  TITLB-PASSPOET. 


cnicifixeB,  statues,  aad  other  sacred  representations 
are  veiled  during  the  whole  of  Paasion-tide. 

PA'SSIVE  TITLE,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  is 

the  liability  of  an  heir,  or  one  who  represents  and 

Interferes  with  the  estate  of  a  deceased  person,  to 

\tay  all  the  debts  of  the  deceased.    It  was  considered 

iiat  so  great  an  opportunity  of  fraud  in  secreting 

\e  goods  of  a  deceased  person  existed,  that  the 

:ir  was  presumed  to  be  liable  for  all  the  debts 

of  the  deceased,  unless  he  took  good  care  to  give 

.np  an  inventory,  and  so  shew  what  property  there 

was.      The  barbarous  doctrine  of  holding  an  heir 

universally  liable  has  latterly  been  much  restricted ; 

but  the  explanation  is  entirdy  technicaL 

PA'SSOVEB  {Pesach,  Paaeha),  the  firet  and 
^[reatest  of  the  three  annual  feasts  {Begalim) 
instituted  by  Moses,  at  which  it  was  incumbent 
upon  every  male  Israelite  to  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It  was  celeorated  on 
the  anniversary  of  the  Exodus  from  Egypt — ^Le., 
on  the  14th  day  of  Nisan,  otherwise  called  Abib,  the 
period  of  the  first  full  moon  in  the  spring — and 
lasted  eight  da3r8.  In  commemoration  of  the 
incidents  connected  with  ^e  great  event  of  the 
tiberation  of  the  people,  it  was  ordained  that 
onleavened  bread  only  should  be  eaten  during 
this  festive  period,  whence  it  also  bore  the  name 
Chag  hamazzoth  (Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread) ;  and, 
further,  that  a  lamb  one  year  old,  and  free  from 
all  blemish,  roasted  whole,  toother  with  bitter 
herbs,  should  form  the  meal  m  every  house  on 
the  eve  of  the  feast.  Prayers  and  thanksgivings,  all 
with  a  reference  to  the  redemption  from  bondage, 
accompanied  the  repast,  at  which  the  members  of 
the  family  or  families  who  had  joined  in  the  purchase 
of  the  lamb  had  to  appear  in  traveUing  garb^  At 
a  later  period,  a  certam  number  of  cups  of  red  wine 
were  superadded  to  this  meal,  to  which,  as  its 
Special  ceremonies  and  the  order  of  its  benedictions 
were  fixed,  the  name  Seder  (arrangement)  was  given. 
The  name  P.  was  more  strictly  limited  to  the  first 
day,  in  which  the  paschal  lamb  was  entirely  con- 
sumed, the  reserving  of  any  part  of  it  to  the  next 
day  being  expressly  forbidden  (Ex.  xii  10) ;  and  the 
name  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  belonged  rather 
to  the  remaining  days,  on  which  other  animal  food 
was  eaten ;  but  the  names  were  often  used  indis- 
criminately. 

The  P.  is  generally  regarded  by  Christian  theo- 
logians as  at  once  a  sacrifice  and  a  sacrament,  and 
in  the  former  character  as  an  eminent  type  of  the 
sacrifice  of  Christ  The  death  of  Christ  at  the  very 
time  of  tiie  P.  is  regarded  as  corroborative  of  this 
view,  which  is  indeed  plainly  adopted  in  certain 
passages  of  the  New  Testament,  as  John  xix.  36, 
and  1  Cor.  v.  7i  in  which  last  place  our  Saviour  is 
designated  'Christ  our  Passover.'  The  P.  is 
regarded  as  t3rpical  of  Christ,  in  its  connection  with 
the  deliverance  of  Israel  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt, 
held  to  typify  our  salvation  from  the  bondage  of 
sin ;  in  its  being  a  sacrifice^  and  that  of  a  lamb 
without  blemish — the  perfection  of  the  paschal  lamb, 
as  of  the  other  sacrificial  victims,  being  supposed  to 
signify  the  perfection  of  the  great  sacrifice ;  and  in 
many  other  minor  particulars,  of  which  one  is  that 
refenred  to  in  John  xix.  36,  that  no  bone  of  the 
paschal  lamb  was  to  be  broken. 

The  Paschal  meal,  as  at  present  celebrated  amons 
the  Jews,  has  more  the  character  of  a  hallowed 
family-feast,  with  reference,  however,  to  the  great 
national  event.  The  ^eater  part  of  those — ^it  may 
be  added  here — who  hve  out  of  the  Holy  Land  cele- 
brate it  on  the  two  first  evenings,  as,  owing  to  the 
uncertainty  prevalent  at  one  time  with  respect  to 
the  fixing  of  the  new  moon  by  the  Sanhedrim  at 
812 


Jerusalem,  it  was  ordained  that  the  '  ExiLee'  should 
celebrate  all  their  festivals — except  the  Day  of  Atone- 
ment—on two  successive  days,  a  law  still  in  force 
among  the  orthodox.  The  regulations  of  the  '  lamb 
for  each  house,'  the  travelling  garb,  &c.,  are  abro- 
gated, but  many  further  symb<3ical  tokens  have  been 
superadded ;  reminiscences,  as  it  were,  both  of  the 
liberation  from  Egypt,  and  the  subsequent  downfall 
of  the  sanctuary  and  empire.  The  order  of  prayen 
and  songs  to  be  recited  on  these  evenings  has  also 
received  many  additions,  and  even  medieval  German 
souj^s  have  crept  in,  as  supposed  to  contain  a  sym* 
bohcal  reference  to  the  ultimate  fate  of  Israel  See 
Haggada  {ahel  PeaacK^^  Feshvaia,  Eajbtbb,  Lobi>'8 

SUPPRR. 

PA'SSPORT,  a  warrant  of  protection  and  per- 
mission to  travel,  granted  by  the  proper  authority, 
to  persons  moving  from  place  to  place.      Every 
independent  state  has  the  right  to  exclude  whona 
it  pxeases  from  its  territorv,  and  may  require  thafc 
all  strangers  entering  it   be  furnished  with   pro- 
perly auuienticated  documents,  shewing  who  they 
are,  and  for  what  purpose  they  are  visiting  the 
country.     Passports  are  sometimes  issued  hv  the 
ministers  and  consuls  of  the  country  which  the 
traveller  intends  to  visit,  which  cannot,  however, 
be  done  without  the  consent  or  connivance  of  the 
state  of  which  the  holder  of  the  instrument  is  a 
subject ;  they  properlv  proceed  from  the  authorities 
of  the  state  to  whicn  the  traveller  belongs,  and 
ought  to  bear  the  visa  or  countersignature  of  the 
minister  or  consul  of  the  country  which  he  is  about 
to  visit.      In  many  European   states   no    one  is 
allowed  to  go  abroad  without  a  passport  from  hia 
government  authorising  him  to  leave  the  country — 
a  provision  used  as  a  means  of  detaining  persona 
charged  with  crime.    In  some  states,  passports  are 
even  required  by  the  natives  to  enable  them  togo 
from  place  to  place  in  their  own  country.     The 
regulations  of  different  states  have  varied  much 
regarding  the  use  of  passports;  and  of  late  years  the 
general  tendency  has  b^n  to  relax  the  stringency 
of  the  regulations  connected  with  them.    Since  the 
facilities  of  traveUing  have  so  greatly  increased,  it 
seems  to  have  become  the  prevalent  opinion  that 
the  passport  system  tends  to  obstnict  the  free  inter- 
course that  is  desirable  between  citizens  of  different 
countries;   while  it  is  ineffectual  to  prevent   the 
entrance  of  dangerous  or  suspicious  chiu^cters,  who 
can  obtain  passports  on  false  pretences,  or  make  their 
way  in  without  them.   Within  the  United  Kingdom 
no  passports  are  required ;  but  for  a  British  8iu>ject 
traveUing  in  many  parts  of  the  continent,  they  are 
requisite.     Till  of  late  years,  the  greater  pajt  of 
British  subjects  traveUing  abroad  used  to  be  fur- 
nished with  passports  from  the  ministers  or  conenls 
of  the  countries  which  they  purposed'  to  visit ;  the 
lord  provost  of  Edinburgh  was  also  in  the  way 
of  issuing  passports  to  Scotchmen.     Of  late  years 
the  passport  most  used  by  British  subjects  is  that 
of  the  British  Secretary  of  State  for  Foreign  AiGurs, 
which  is  now  granted  to  any  British  subject  on 
appUcation  of  a  banking  company  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  on  the  recommendation  of  the  chief 
magistrate  of  any  corporate  town  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  or  of  any  magistrate  or  justice  of  the 
peace,    phvsician,    surgeon,    soUcitor,    notary,    or 
minister  oi    religion,  who  shaU  certify  that    the 
applicant  is  the  person  that  he  professes  to  be. 
If  the  applicant  be  a  naturalised  British  subject^ 
he  must  be  known  to  the  Foreign  Secretaiy,  oe 
recommended  to  him  by  some  person  known  to 
him,  and  his  certificate  of  natundisation  must  be 
forwarded  to  the  Foreign  Office.    A  Foreign  Office 
passport  must,  as  a  general  rule,  be  countersigned 
by  the  minister  or  consul  of  each  oountiy  which  tba 


PASSY— PASTILR 


holder  means  to  Tiait  The  passport  is  good  for 
life ;  the  visas  only  for  a  year.  Since  January  1861, 
Britlah  subjects  have  been  admitted  from  logland 
into  France,  and  allowed  to  travel  in  that  country 
without  passport)  on  merely  declaring  their  nation- 
ality ;  but  tnat  exemption  does  not  seem  to  apply 
when  France  is  entered  from  another  side  than  the 
ChanneL  In  Belgium,  Holland,  Norway,  Sweden, 
Italy,  and,  according  to  the  most  recent  regulations, 
also  in  Prussia,  passports  are  not  asked  for.  In 
Austria,  the  passport  has  to  be  shewn  and  counter- 
signed by  the  police  authorities  at  the  frontier; 
but  except  in  the  garrison  towns  of  Venetia,  it 
is  hajrdly  ever  asked  for  in  the  interior.  In  many 
of  the  smaller  German  states,  any  person  meaning 
to  remain  in  a  town  above  24  hours  must  send  his 
poasport  to  the  police-office,  and  obtain  a  permis- 
sion to  reside^  Till  lately,  throughout  the  greater 
part  of  Europe,  a  traveller  was  liable  to  be  called 
on  to  produce  his  passport,  not  only  at  every  frontier 
town,  but  at  every  garrison  town  through  which 
he  jpassed,  the  ceremony  of  countersignature  by  the 
police  bemff  repeated  each  time.  This  was  more 
especially  the  case  in  Italy,  where  the  visas  were 
attended  with  perpetual  delays,  annoyances,  and 
demands  on  the  traveller's  purse.  Foreign  Office 
passports  cannot  be  sent  to  British  subjects  residing 
abroad,  who  must  apply  for  a  passport  to  the  nearest 
British  mission  or  consulate. 

In  time  of  war,  passports  or  safe-conducts  are 
granted  by  the  supreme  authority  on  the  spot — i  e., 
the  officer  in  command — to  insure  safety  to  the 
holders  when  passing  from  spot  to  spot,  or  while 
occupied  in  the  performance  of  some  act  specified 
in  and  permitted  by  the  passport.  Passpoiiis  may 
be  granted  for  eoods  as  well  as  individuals ;  and,  in 
time  of  war,  the  passport  of  a  ship  is  the  formal 
voucher  of  its  neutral  character.  It  purports  to  be 
a  requisition  on  the  part  of  the  government  of  a 
state  to  allow  the  vessel  to  pass  freely  with  her 
company,  passengers,  goods,  and  merchandise, 
without  hinderancel  seizure,  or  molestation,  as  being 
owned  by  citusens  or  subjects  of  such  state. 

PASSY,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department  of 
Seine;  a  suburb  of  Paris,  and  included  within  the 
fortifications  of  that  city.    See  Pabis. 

PASTA,  GiuDiiTA  (Judith),  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  opera  singers  of  modem  times,  was 
bom  near  Milan  in  Italy  in  1798,  and  received 
her  musical  education  partly  at  Como,  under  the 
chapel-master  of  the  cathedral  there,  and  partly  in 
the  conservatoire  at  Milan.  After  181 1  she  appeared 
at  various  theatres  of  the  second  rank  in  I^orthem 
Italy,  and  obtained  a  respectable  success,  but  did 
not  give  any  jiarticular  indication  of  possessinff 
more  than  average  ability.  Her  first  great  triumph 
was  achieved  at  Verona  in  1822.  The  year  follow- 
ing she  was  engaged  at  the  Paris  Italian  Opera, 
where  her  singing  excited  great  admiration.  Flrom 
this  moment  she  laboured  incessantly  to  reach  the 
ideal  perfection  she  had  set  before  her  mind.  From 
1825  to  1830  was  the  period  of  her  most  splendid 
triumphs,  which  were  won  principally  in  tiondon 
and  Paris.  Vienna,  where  she  accepted  an  engage- 
ment in  1832,  wibiessed  the  last.  Some  time 
afterwards  she  withdrew  from  the  stage,  and 
purchased  a  viUa  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Como, 
iHdiere,  and  at  Milan,  she  has  ever  since  residcMi 
P.  in  her  best  days  had  a  magnificoit  voice,  which 
easily  passed  from  dear  shrill  soprano  notes  to  the 

Skvest  contralto  tones.  In  addition  she  had  a 
e  dramatic  energy  and  stateliness  of  manner,  that 
suited  lofty  and  imposing  characters.  Her  principal 
rdles  were  Medea,  'Desdemonti,  Semiramidej  La  Son- 
mambula  (the  opera  of  this  name  was  written  for  her 
by  Bellini),  ana  Oiulia  in  Borneo  e  OhUicu 


PASTE,  a  term  applied  to  various  compositions 
in  which  there  is  just  sufficient  moisture  to  soften 
without  hquefying  the  mass. 

Common  or  aohesive  paste  is  made  by  mixinff 
wheaten  flour  with  cold  water  in  the  proportion  <3 
about  two  pounds  to  a  gallon.  The  water  is  added 
by  d^rrees,  and  well  stirred  in,  so  as  to  prevent 
lumpiness.  About  an  ounce  of  powdered  alum  is 
sometimes  added  to  increase  its  adhesiveness,  and 
for  shoemakers  and  bookbinders  about  an  ounce 
and  a  half  of  finely-powdered  rosin  ia  substi- 
tuted for  the  alum,  which  thickens  it  much 
and  rendera  it  much  more  tenacious.  When  the 
ingredients  are  thoroughly  mixed,  they  are  boiled, 
great  care  being  taken  to  stir  them  thoroughly 
whilst  boiling  to  prevent  burning.  This  paste  is 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  more  especially 
by  paper-hangers,  bill-stickers,  bookbindera,  paste- 
board  makers,  &c.  An  adhesive  paste,  called 
Chinese  Paste,  is  made  bv  reducing  to  perfect  dry- 
ness  bullock's  blood.  It  is  then  powdered  and 
mixed  with  one  tenth  of  its  weight  of  finely- 
powdered  quicklime.  When  used,  it  is  mixed  with 
water  sufficient  to  form  a  paste,  which  is  a  strong 
cement  for  pottery,  wood,  stone,  &c. 

Fruit  Paste  is  made  by  taking  the  juice  of  any 
frait  and  dissolving  in  it  an  ounce  to  a  pint  of  gum- 
arabic,  or  gum-senegal,  which  many  prefer;  then 
evaporate  by  a  gentie  heat  until  the  li(][uid  is  as 
thick  as  syrup,  and  add  to  every  pound  of  it  a  pound 
of  finely-powdered  refined  sugar ;  continue  the  heat, 
and  stir  it  until  the  sugar  and  juice  are  thoroughly 
incorporated,  after  which  it  is  poured  out  on  a 
marble  slab  slightly  oUed.  When  cooled,  it  may  be 
formed  into  lozenges  for  use.  An  imitation  of  this 
is  made  very  generally  by  mixing  three  parts  of 
citric  acid,  twenty-four  parts  of  gum,  ana  forty- 
eight  parts  of  refined  sugar,  and  dissolving  the 
whole  in  water,  and  gen%  heating  it  to  insure 
complete  solution  and  mixture.  It  is  then  variously 
coloured  and  flavoured  with  any  of  the  frmt 
essences.  This  paste  is  often  sold  under  the  name  of 
jujubes,  which  were  formerly  lozenges  of  fruit  paste 
prepared  from  the  juice  of  the  jujube  fruity  Zizipkug 
jujuba. 

Polishing  Pastes  vary  according  to  the  materials 
upon  which  they  are  to  be  employed.  For  brass, 
tiie  best  kind  is  a  mixture  of  two  parts  of  soft 
soap  with  four  parts  of  rotten-stone  in  very  fine 
powder.  Another  sort  is  eight  parts  of  fine  rotten- 
stone  powder,  two  parts  of  oxalic  acid  powdered, 
three  parts  olive  oil,  and  enough  of  turpentine  to 
make  them  into  a  paste.  For  iron,  a  mixture  of 
emery  powder  and  lard  is  used ;  and  for  pewter  a 
mixture  of  finely-powdered  bath-brick  and  soft  soap. 
For  wood,  a  paste  called  furniture  paste  is  made  by 
adding  spirit  of  turpentine  to  beeswax  sufficient  to 
form  it  into  a  soft  paste,  which  is  rubbed  on  thinly 
with  a  brush  and  woollen  rag,  and  afterwards 
polished  with  a  dry  woollen  cloth  and  soft  brush. 

Shaving  pastes  are  very  numerous,  but  the  base 
of  all  is  soap.  The  beet  of  all  is  the  true  Naples 
soap  (see  Soap),  but  it  is  often  mixed  with  other 
ingredients  according  to  the  fancy  of  the  vendor. 
For  other  applications 'of  the  word  Paste,  see  Gcms 
(Imitation),  andMACAsoNL 

PA'STEL,  chalk  mixed  with  other-  materials  and 
various  colours,  and  formed  into  pencils  or  crayons 
(q.  v.). 

PASTEL.    See  Woad. 

PA'STILB,  PASTIL,  or  PASTILLE,  a  dimin- 
utive of  paste.  This  term  was  originally  applied  to 
lozenges  as  little  portions  of  confectionary  paste^ 
but  it  has  been  of  late  chiefly  confined  to  a  mixture 
of  odorous  materials,  as  in  the  case  of  iibe  fumigating 

3U 


PASTO— PASTORAL  POETRY. 


pattHa,  whioh  are  bnnied  either  u  incenae  or  as 

a  meani  of  difiuBing  an  agreeable  odour.  They  are 
compoaed  of  chared  powder,  with  auch  aromatic 
gunu  aa  beazoin,  labdknuin,  kc. ;  and  powders  of 
Bweet-Bcented  woods  and  barks,  ae  laadol-woad, 
cinnanioQ,  and  eapeciallj  cuacnrilU  barks.  Eeaen- 
tial  oils  ore  also  added,  and  the  whole  are  worked 
into  a  paste  with  a  little  gain-macila«e,  and 
fanned  into  small  sharp-point^  cones  about  an 
inch  and  a  half  high,  and  half  an  inch  broad  at  the 
base.  When  perfectly  dry,  they  are  oaed  by 
ligbtine  at  the  point,  and  as  they  bum  dawn  an 
agreeable  odour  is  giveii  out  with  Uie  smoke.  Very 
tasteful  vessels,  called  pastille  burners,  nsnally  of 
porcelain,  are  made  for  using  them.  Another  kind 
of  pastille,  usually  in  the  form  of  a  small  pill  corered 
with  gold  or  silver  leaf,  is  used  for  perfuming  the 
breath ;  it  is  made  of  the  same  kind  of  ingi«d)eats, 
•zcepting  the  charcoal. 

PA'STO,  a  town  of  de  United  States  of  Colombia, 
on  a  hi^h  plateau  between  two  ridges  of  the  Andes, 
143  miles  north-east  of  Quito.  Height  above  sea- 
level  upwards  of  S500  feet  It  is  in  the  direct 
route  fii>m  the  Popayan  Pass  to  Quito.  Pup.  about 
70(H). 

PASTOR,  a  genua  of  birds  of  the  Starling  family 
{Stumidre),  difi&ing  from  starlings  in  the  com- 
pressed and  slightly-curved  bill  In  habits,  as  in 
charactera,  they  are  very  nearly  allied  to  starlings. 
The  Dome  P.  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from  their 


Boss-solonied  Pastor  {Potior  re 


>"). 


being  frequently  seen  with  flocks  of  sheep.  The  only 
Enropean  species  is  the  RoSB-couktred  P.,  or  Rose- 
coloured  Ouzel  (P.  rotaii],  a  rare  visitant  of  Britain 
and  of  the  northern  p^ts  of  Europe,  and  more 
common  in  the  north  of  Africa  Syna^  and  inj^** 
than  in  any  part  of  Europe. 


jurisdiction,  to  the  laity  of  his  flock,  or  to  both. 
Of  tbe  former  class,  in  the  Chtuvh  of  Rome,  are 
the  so-called  Lenten  Mandates,  or  Instructions, 
T  issued  before  the  commencement  of  Lent,  and 
making  known  the  reipilations  enacted  for  the 
observance  of  tbe  Lenten  fast,  the  dispensations 
granted,  and  tbe  devotions  and  other  pious  works 

EreAcribed.  Such  also  are  the  letters  issued  by  a 
Lshop  on  many  of  the  chief  festivals  of  the  year. 
It  is  osnal  for  bishops,  besides  their  stated  letters,  to 
address  to  their  clergy  or  people  inatructions  suited 
to  any  particular  emergency  which  may  arise,  and 
aometunes  to  take  occasion  from  tbe  issuing  of  the 
(tated  pastoral  tetter  to  offer  instruction  on  some 
topic  of  importance  which  may  engage  public  atten- 
tton    at   tha   time,  on   some  prevuent   abuse    or 


scandal,  or  some  ajiprehended  danger  to  the  faith 
or  to  morals.  To  this  class  belong  many  of  the 
remains  of  tbe  early  fathers,  especially  in  the 
Western  Church.  In  some  countries  the  govern- 
ment, as  formerly  in  Austria,  claimed  a  right 
to  exercise  a  censorship  over  the  pastoral  letten  to 
be  issued  by  the  bishops.  This  right,  however,  is 
regarded  by  churchmen  aa  a  usurpation,  and 
oluiough  submitted  to,  is  admitted  only  under 
protest    See  Pi^otmu  REamu.  FesROMAHiaM. 

PASTORAL  POETRY  is  that  kind  of  poetry 
which  professes  to  delineate  tha  scenery,  sentiment, 
and  incidents  of  shepherd-lifa.  It  is  highly  probable 
that  tha  tirst  attempts  to  give  a  rhythmic  exprcsaion 
to  human  feeling  were  to  some  extent  of  this  char- 
acter. Men  were  originally  shepherds,  and  their 
festd  songa  and  hymns  would  derive  at  least 
substance  and  imagery  from  their  primitive  occnpa- 
tioDB ;  but  as  a  distinct  branch  of  poetic  art, 
pastoral  poetry  was  not  cultivated  till  a  compara- 
tively late  period ;  far  although  critics  are  fond  of 
pointing  to  the  lives  of  the  Hebrew  patriarchs,  and 
to  the  story  of  Butb,  as  specimens  of  the  antiquity 
of  tbe  pastoral  in  the  East,  yet,  as  these  profesa  to 
be  history,  and  not  fiction,  tbey  can  be  mstanced 
only  to  prove  that  the  maltriiil  for  this  kind  of 
poetry  existed  from  the  earUest  ages,  In  point  of 
fact,  it  was  only  after  innocence  and  simplicity  bad 
passed  away,  or  were  thought  to  have  passed  away, 
from  real  life,  that  men  began,  half  from  fancy,  and 
half  from  memory,  to  paint  the  manners  of  the  past 
as  artless,  and  tbe  lives  of  th«r  ancestors  aa  con- 
stantly happy.  It  was  thus  the  Brai»  Age  that 
made  the  Golden.  The  oldest  specimens  of  tha 
classic  pastoral  are  the  Idylls  of  Theocritus  (q.  v.), 
which  appeared  about  275  B.a — long  after  Greeco 
had  produced  her  masterpieces  in  epic  narrative,  in 
the  war  ode,  and  almost  all  other  kinds  of  tbe  lyric,  in 
tragedy,  comedy,  history,  philosophy,  and  rhetoric 
Theocritus  was  imitated  by  Bion  and  Moacbna, 
whose  pastorals  approximate  in  form  to  tbe  diama. 
Among  the  Latins,  the  reflned  and  courtly  Virj^ 
in  the  reign  of  Aueuatus,  wrote  his  Bucaiica  or 
Edo^itg,  on  the  model  of  his  Greek  predecessore ; 
but,  however  beautifiil  and  melodious  the  verses  of 
these  urban  writers  are,  we  cannot  suppose  for  a 
moment  that  the  rude  shepherds  and  ahcphi^rdeflse* 
of  Italy  or  Sicily  indulged  in  such  rclincd  senti- 
ments, or  spent  their  time  so  poetically  as  therB 
they  are  made  to  do.  Virgi],  we  may  rest  assured, 
is  as  far  from  giving  a  genuine  picture  of  pastoral 
life  in  his  verse,  as  any  modem  poet  who  prates  of 
Chloe  and  Phyllis. 

During  the  middle  ages,  pastoral  poetry  in  thia 
artistic,  and  therefore  conventional  sense  of  thd 
term,  was  almost  unknown  ;  but  with  the  fint 
glimpse  of  reviving  classicism,  tbe  p:i8toral  reappear*. 
Tha  earliest  specimens  are  afforded  by  Boccactao 
(q.  v.),  about  the  flrsC  modem  Italian  who  studied 
Greek.  It  is  t«  the  countrymen  of  Boccacdn 
that  we  owe  tbe  creation  of  the  pastoral  dram^ 
of  which  there  is  no  trace  in  ancient  literohn^  ' 
The  ^avola  di  Or/to  of  Politian  (q.  v.),  performed 
at  the  court  of  Mnntna  in  1483,  is  tbe  lint 
dramatic  poem  which  pretends  te  represent  the 
sentiments,  incidents,  and  forms  of  ]iastoral  life, 
CnticB  have  fonfotten  this  work  when  tbey  maka 
Tansillo  tiie  inventor  of  the  /avola  paitorale,  or 
boacartcda,  aa  account  of  ha  I  due  Pdlegrini  (1539), 
or  Agostino  Beccari,  whose  pastoral  comedy,  /t 
Sofrifoio,  was  played  at  Ferrara  in  1654.  However, 
it  is  true  that  the  extraordinary  popularity  at 
Beccari's  piece  Originated  a  crowd  of  ^rob  fiotea- 
rrrcif,  the  finest  and  most  poetical  of  which  is  the 
A  minia  oi  Tasso,  represented  at  the  court  of  Ferrara 
in  1572.   A  later,  but  hardly  lest  famous  produetiaa 


PASTORAL  STAFF— PA8T0EAL  THBOLOOT. 


■  the  PaiAvf  Fido  of  Outrisi  (q.T.),  pabtished  at 

Veoice  in  1590;  mud  in  the  Isth  c,  the  poet 
Uetaatasio  {q.  y.)  revived  for  a  moioent  the  interest 
ID  this  >;raceiiil  and  picturesque,  but  unreal  branch 
of  Lteratura.  Iq  Spain,  during  the  Srst  part  of  the 
16th  c,  it  abuoduitly  flouhsbed.  The  Grat  who 
Trote  pastoral  dialogues  wai  Juan  del  Elcioa  (cir. 
1500) ;  he  was  followed  by  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega, 
•nd  othere.  During  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Charles  V.,  one  may  Bay  that  Si>aui»h  imaginative 
literatare  waa  almost  wholi;  of  a  bucolic  character ; 
bat  iu  Spain,  as  elsewhere,  it  took  largely  the  form 
of  prose- romance  (see  Novau)  rather  than  of  poetry, 
deriving  its  inamration  from  the  Daphnit  and  Cliioe 
of  LongviB,  the  ByaantinB  romaDciBt,  not  from  the 
taneful  strains  of  the  Mantuan  swao.  England, 
however,  can  boast  of  Speosei's  S/iephenTe  Caleiuiar, 
which  ii  at  least  full  of  charming  poetry,  and  is 
appropriately  dedicated  to  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  whose 
pastoral  romance  of  Arcadia  outstrips  in  point  of 
literary  beauty  all  other  fictiuos  of  that  class.  The 
Oennans  reck-oD  Shakapeare'i  A«  You  Liie  Ii  in 
the  list  of  pastoral  dramas ;  bat  its  risbt  to  be 
to  classified  is  by  no  means  clear,  although  we  may 
ftdmit  that  it  betrays  the  influence  of  the  pastoral 
poetry  and  romance  that  had  just  ceased  to  be  the 
rage  among  the  scholarly  geninsea  of  Europe.  A 
similar  influence  is  visible  in  the  writings  of  other 
Elizabethan  dramatiflta,  aa,  for  examine,  in  the 
Faithful  SAep/ienless  of  Fletcher.  la  France, 
pastoral  poetry  is  perhaps  older  than  in  any  of  the 
western  nations.  The  comedy  of  Adam  de  Lehalle, 
■amamcd  Le  Bobbu  d'Arras  (The  Hunchback  of 
Arraa],  entitled  Le  Jta  de  Robiit  el  Slarion  (and 
vhich  exists  in  MS.  in  the  Bibliutlikjae  Impfriale), 
belongs  to  the  middle  of  the  13th  century.  During 
tiie  civil  wars  in  the  latter  half  of  the  16tb  c,  the 
pastoral  was  turned  to  political  uses.  In  the 
following  century,  it  continued  for  some  time  to  be 
popular,  or  hither,  let  us  say,  fashionable.  Even 
the  great  Richelieu  alleviated  the  cares  of  office 
with  the  composition  of  La  Grande  PaaUrralej  but 
here,  too,  the  poem  soon  gave  way  to  the  prose- 
lomance,  which  was  hardly  less  unreal,  and  far  more 
exciting. 

Perhaps  the  beat  pastoral,  ancient  or  modem, 
it  the  Oe/dk  Shepherd  of  Allan  Ramsay  (q.  v.), 
published  in  17ZS.  'It  is,'  says  Mr  ^Carrutheia 
ICbambers's  Cgdopadia  of  Erujli^  Liieraiurf, 
voL  L,  p^  601),  'a  geauiue  picture  of  Scottish 
life,  but  of  life  paiaed  in  simple  rural  employ- 
ments, apart  from  the  guilt  and  fever  of  large 
towns,  and  reflecting  o^y  the  pure  and  nnso- 
phiatieated  emotions  of  our  nature.  The  affected 
seuaibilities  and  feigned  distresses  of  the  Coryilons 
and  Delias  find  no  place  iu   Ramsay's  clear  and 


nutde  them  speak  the  language  which  be  every  day 
heard — tbe  free  idiomatic  speech  of  bis  native  vales.' 
Bit  English  contemporaries,  Poiie,  Ambrose  Fhili]is, 
Gdj,  and  others,  who  form  the  '  Augustan,'  or  Queen 
Aiuie  school  of  poets,  also  addicted  themselves  to 
the  composition  of  pastoral  poetry  ;  but  though 
there  ia  much  fine  description  in  the  verses,  they 
are,  in  general,  purely  conventional  performances,  in 
imitation  of  the  classic  poets,  who,  as  we  have  sidd, 
did  not  themselves  imitate  nature.  From  this 
censnre,  however,  moat  be  excepted  the  aiz  jiastorals 
of  Gay,  entitled  the  Shrphtria  Wedc,  which  are 
fall  of  honest  country  humour,  and  contain  charming 
pictores  of  English  country  life.  Since  the  early 
part  of  the  I8tb  c,  however,  pastoral  poetry,  strictly 
BO  called,  has  ceased  to  be  cultivated  in  England 
and  almost  everywhere  else.  In  tbs  pages  of 
WordsworUi,  who  lived   all  his  days  among  the 


Cumberland  shepherds,  we  indeed  find  mkny  exqui- 
site glimpses  of  pastoral  life,  as  it  presented  itself 
to  the  profound  and  tender  imagination  of  that  great 
poet  of  nature,  but  few  direct  delineations  of 
pastoral  manners.  Qennany  imitated  abuniiantly 
the  French  and  Italian  models  during  the  greatrai 
part  of  t^e  IStb  century.  The  lost  and  best  of  tbu 
German  series  is  tbe  £runa  and  Eiinire  of  Goethe's 
youtb.    The  general  impression  ajipears  b 


and  t 


r  reappear 


PASTORAL  STAFF,  sometimes  also,  although 
not  properly,  called  Crosier  (q.  v.)  (LaL  bacalut 
pailoraita),   one  of   the  insignia   of   the  episcopal 
of&ce,    sometimes    also   borne   by   «n  abbot.      It 
is  a  tall  staff  of  metal,  or  of  wood 
ornamented  with  metal,  having,  at 
least  in  the  Western  Cliureh,  the 
head  curved  in  the  form  of  a  shep- 
herd's crook,  as  a  symbol  of  toe 
pastoral  office.    The  head  of  f-- 

crook,  h 
im   which    ita   name   of 
derived.      In  the  Greek 
Chureh  the  staff  is  much  shorter, 
and  the  bead  is  either  a  plain  Greek 
ss  of  tbe  form  of  tbe  letter  Tan,  I 
it   is   a   double-headed   crook,  J 
iijl    sometimes   appears  in   the  I 
sbapo  of  the  upailon,  T.    It  is  diffi-  fl 
cult  to  determine  the  time  at  which   , 
the  pastoral  staff  first  came  into 
uae.      The  first  distinct  allusion  to 
it  is  in  St  Augustine's  commentary 
on  the  124tb  psalm.     Gregory  of 
Tours,   in   his  life   of   St  Martin, 
the   pastoral  staff  of  St 
Severinus,    who     was     Bishop     of 
Cologne  in  the  end  of  the  4th  cen- 
tury.     From  an   early  time,  the    F»rtoral  StalE 
pastoral  staff  was  connected  witb 
tbe  actual  possesaion  of  the  jurisdiction  which  it 
symbolises.    The  giving  of  it  was  one  of  the  cere- 
monies of  investiture;  its  withdrawal  was  part  of 
the  form  of  deprivation  ;  its  voluntary  abandonment 
accompanied  the  act  of  resignation ;  its  being  broken 
was   the   most   solemn  form  of   degradation.     So 
also  the  veiling  of  the  crook  of  an  abbot's  pastoral 
itaS^  during  the  episcopal  visitation,  signihed  the 
'*    '  -    of  hia  authority  to  Uiat  of  the 


temporary  subjectioi 


pastoral  staff  with  the  "crook  turned  inwards, 
shewed  that  his  authority  was  piu^y  domestic  The 
alone  does  not  use  a  pastoral  staff.  In  the  later 
eval  period  the  material  was  often  extremely 
costly,  and,  referring  to  tbe  relaxation  of  the  times, 
it  was  said  '  that  formerly  the  church  bad  wooden 
pastoral  staves  and  golden  bishops,  but  that  now  the 
staves  are  of  gold  and  the  bishops  of  wood.'  The 
workmanahip  was  sometimes  extremely  beautiful 
We  annex  as  a  specimen  of  the  highest  art  the 
rastoral  staff  of  William  of  Wykeham,  now  in  New 
College,  Oxford.  This  is  a  sample  of  the  Norman 
mstor^  staff.  The  Saxon  was  by  no  means  so  talL 
The  Irish  pastoral  staff  is  of  a  type  quite  peculiar, 
and  some  of  the  sculptured  specimens  preserved 
in  the  British  Uuseum,  at  tbe  Boyal  Irish  Academy, 
and  elsewhere,  are  very  interesting  as  illustrating 
the  ecolesiostiaJ  costume  of  the  period. 

PA9T0RAL  THEOLOGY.  IJiat  br»Dch  vt 
theological  science  which  regards  the  duties  and 
obligations  of  pastors  in  relation  to  the  care  of  ioolfc 
It  comprises  two  parts ;  lirst,  that  which  treats  of 


PASTRY— PASTURES. 


the  oblisations  of  the  pastors  themselveB,  and  which 
is  therefore  designed  for  the  training  and  prepara- 
tion of  the  candidates  for  the  pastond  office.  The 
other  part  of  pastoral  theology,  which  might  perhaps 
better  be  called  Popular  Theology,  oompnses  the 
objectiye  teaching  which  is  to  be  employed  in  the 
instruction  and  direction  of  the  flock  committed  to 
the  pastor's  charge.  This  branch  of  theology  has 
lon£  formed  a  leading  portion  of  the  training  of 
ea^dates  in  the  Evangelical  Churches  of  France 
and  Grermany ;  and  a  vuuable  manual  for  Catholic 
studies  has  recently  appeared  in  Vienna,  Lehrbuch 
der  Katkoliachen  Fcutoral,  von  Dr  A.  Kerschhammer, 
8vo,  Wien.  186a 

PA'STRT,  articles  of  food  in  which  the  chief  part 
consists  of  a  paste  made  of  flour.  This  would  of 
course  apply  to  bread,  but  it  has  been  limited  by 
custom  to  such  lighter  articles  as  are  made  by 
the  pastry-cook,  and  chiefly  to  those  in  which 
the  paste  is  made  to  assume  a  light  flaky  character 
by  tne  addition  of  butter,  &c,  and  by  the  mode  of 
working  it  up.  The  commonest  kind  is  made  of  a 
dough  of  flour  and  water,  into  which  butter  or 
lard  is  worked  by  hand,  in  the  proportion  of  six 
ounces  to  the  pound.  The  flnest  kind  is  usually 
termed  puff  paste,  and  considerable  skill  is  required 
to  make  it  well,  for  it  depends,  next  to  the  gocdness 
of  the  materials,  upon  lightness  of  hand  in  kneading 
the  ingredients  together.  These  ingredients  consist 
of  fine  wheaten  flour  and  butter  in  the  proportion  of 
four  ounces  of  butter  to  a  pound  of  flour,  with  cold 
water  just  sufficient  to  make  agood  stiff  elastic  dough ; 
this  is  rolled  out  with  a  rolling-pin,  and  double 
the  previous  quantity  of  butter  is  then  spread 
over  it.  It  is  then  rolled  up  and  lightly  kneaded, 
so  as  to  work  the  butter  in  thoroughly.  Coolness  is 
very  important  in  making  pastry ;  a  marble  slab  is 
therefore  most  desirable  for  making  it  upon.  The 
thinner  it  is  rolled  out  before  the  butter  is  then  spread 
the  better,  because  when  it  is  put  in  the  oven  the 
laminffi  which  have  been  formed  by  folding  or  roll- 
ing up  the  butter  with  the  dough,  separate  by  the 
disengagement  of  the  watery  vapour,  and  the  thinner 
and  ngnter  the  flakes  are  the  better  is  the  puff 

Sste.  Another  kind  is  called  short  paste;  in  this 
e  flour  is  made  warm,  and  the  butter  or  lard  used 
is  often  melted,  and  a  little  sugar  and  an  ecg  or 
two  are  added.  This,  when  bak^  has  none  ot  the 
flaky  character  of  puff  paste,  but  it  is  better  adapted 
for  meat  and  some  other  kinds  of  pies  which  require 
to  be  baked  without  a  dish.  Game  pies,  with 
elaborately-decorated  crusts,  are  made  of  tnis  pastry. 

PA'STURAGE,  in  English  Law  called  Common  of 
Pasture,  is  classed  among  rights  of  common  or  pro- 
fits d  prendre,  and  is  the  rignt  of  one  who  is  not  the 
owner  of  land  to  put  his  sheep  or  cattle  on  such 
land  to  feed  there.  In  Scotland  it  is  called  a  servi- 
tude of  pasturage.  In  both  countries  the  right  can 
be  established  by  prescription,  in  England  of  thirty 
years,  and  in  Scotland  of  forty  years.  Where  the 
parties  entitled  to  pasturage  di^[)ute  as  to  their 
respective  proi*  >rtions  of  cattle,  the  suit  to  redress 
the  matter  is  called  in  Scotland  an  action  of '  sowming 
and  rowming.' 

PA'STURES  (Lat  poMO,  to  feed)  are  fields  or 
tracts  of  land  devoted  to  the  feeding  of  ox^n,  sheep, 
and  other  herbivorous  animals,  which  eat  the  grass 
and  other  herbage  as  it  grows.  Grass  is  grown 
sometimes  in  the  rotation  with  grain  and  other 
crops,  when  it  remains  on  the  ground  for  one  or 
more  years,  is  frequently  mown  during  the  first 
summer,  and  grazed  afterwards,  but  is  agam  ploughed 
np  to  be  succeeded  usually  by  oats  or  wheat  For 
such  purposes,  rye-grass,  red,  whito,  yellow,  and 
alaike  dovers,  are  used  either  alone  or  mixed  in 


varying  proportions.  On  the  uplands  of  Gr^-at 
Britain,  wherever  from  any  cause  grain  crops  cann«it 
profitably  be  grown,  and  throughout  many  of  the 
richest  plains  and  valleys,  especially  of  England  and 
Ireland,  there  are  thousands  of  acres  of  limd  which 
have  been  under  grass  from  time  immemoriaL  Such 
permanent  pastures  are  estimated  to  occupy  fully 
14,000,000  acres  in  England,  nearly  8,000,000  in 
Scotland,  and  about  9,000,000  in  Ireland.  Some- 
times they  have  been  self-sown,  occasionally  they 
have  been  laid  down  with  care,  seldom  are  uiey  as 
highly  cultivated  and  liberally  managed  aa  tiiey 
should  be.  The  best  of  them  are  used  for  feeding 
heavy  bullocks ;  those  of  somewhat  poorer  descrip- 
tion are  often  grazed  by  dairy  stock ;  whilst  the 
down  or  upland  pastures  are  especially  profitable 
for  dieep.  It  has  now  become  a  common  practice, 
and  is  every  year  becoming  more  and  more 
general,  to  give  additional  food  of  various  kinds  to 
animals  fed  on  pastures.  Even  cattle  grazinff  on  the 
richest  pastures  are  supplied  with  linseed  cake,  &c., 
to  hasten  the  process  of  fattening,  and  to  improve 
their  quality;  roots  are  ffiven  to  sheep  when  fat- 
tening for  the  market,  and  hay  to  those  which  are 
to  be  kept  as  stock ;  whilst  when  oats  or  beans 
are  cheap,  many  sheep-farmers  find  it  advantageous 
to  give  them  even  to  the  hardy  stock  of  exposed 
hill-pastures.  All  pastures  are  much  improved  by 
thorough  drainage.  The  application  of  farmyard 
dung,  soil,  lime,  and  almost  every  sort  of  top- 
dressing  is  beneficial.  Irrigation  is  sometimes  profit- 
able, and  in  some  other  countries  is  far  more 
common  and  far  more  requisite  than  in  Britain. 
Rich  pastures  on  which  oxen  are  fed  are  injured  by 
sheep,  which  reject  the  coarsest  grass,  and  pick  out 
the  finest;  but  a  few  horses  turned  into  them 
during  the  autumn  or  winter  help  to  consume  the 
coarser  tufts.  The  coarsest  and  rankest  grass  may 
once  or  twice  a  year  be  cut  over  by  the  scythe; 
and  either  made  into  rough  hay,  or  if  left  on  the 
ground,  the  cattle,  when  it  has  partially  dried,  will 
readily  eat  it  up.  A  dressing  of  lime  and  salt 
scattered  over  the  rougher  parts  of  the  fields  in 
autumn  will  sweeten  the  herbage,  and  induce  the 
stock  to  eat  it  down  regularly.  Moss,  which  is  a 
great  pest  in  many  luistures,  may  be  got  rid  of  by 
penning  sheep,  w^  fed  with  swedes,  cake,  or  com, 
regularly  over  the  field ;  or  by  harrowing  the  surface 
in  several  different  directions  during  January  or 
February,  applying  then  a  top-dressing  of  soil  or 
dung,  and  in  March  or  April  sowing  some  clover  or 
other  seeds,  which  will  be  firmed  down  by  the  bush 
haiTow,  clod-crusher,  or  heavy  roller.  The  droppings 
of  the  cattle  ought  to  be  broken  up  and  scatter^ 
over  the  grouncL  Rich  pastures  intended  for  the 
fattening  of  cattle  ought  not  to  be  used  during 
winter,  but  allowed  to  become  luxuriant  before 
the  cattle  are  turned  upon  them  in  spring.  Very 
lean  animals,  whether  oxen  or  sheep^  cannot  with 
advantage  be  at  once  placed  on  Very  rich  pasture, 
but  must  be  gradually  fitted  for  it.  In  some  uf 
the  hiU  districte  of  Scotland,  devoted  to  sheep- 
farming,  increased  productiveness  has  resulted 
from  breaking  up  portions  of  the  pasture,  and 
after  two  or  three  crops  have  been  taken,  laying 
them  down  as  pastures  again.  All  good  pastures 
produce  a  very  mixed  herbage,  not  consisting 
merely  of  one  kind  of  grass,  but  of  several  or 
many,  with  clovers  and  other  plants.  Different 
species  of  Meadow-grass  {Pod),  Fescue  {Festuca)^ 
Foxtail  (Alopeeurus),  Oat-grass  {Avena),  CockV 
foot  {Dactylis  ghmeraia).  Rye-grass  {Lolium),  Hair- 
mss  (Aira),  Vemal-grass  {AnthcacantJium),  and 
Timothy  or  CaVs-tail  (Phleum),  are  amon4;  the 
most  common  grasses  of  British  pastures.  Ir  arrow 
(AdiilloBa  nvill^oUum)  v*  very  abundant  in  some 


PATAGONIA. 


putores,  and  is  sometimes  sown  with  grass,  clover, 
ftc.,  in  land  meant  for  permanent  nasture.  Different 
kinds  of  clover  are  adapted  to  different  soils  and 
situations.  The  presence  of  rushes  is  very  indica- 
tive of  the  want  of  drainage.  Thistles  and  docks 
are  injurious,  and  are  to  be  extirpated  as  much  as 
possible;.  Some  of  the  plants  naturally  abundant  on 
high  hill-pastures,  as  Nardus  stricta  and  Juncua 
bufamu8f  are  very  unnutritions ;  and  the  substitu- 
tion of  others  in  their  stead,  is  one  of  the  benefits 
derived  from  the  breaking  up  of  such  lands. 

PATAGO'NIA,  the  most  southern  conntiy  of 
South  America,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  and  the  Bio  Negro,  which  separates 
it  from  the  Pampas  (q.  v.) ;  on  the  N.W.  by  the 
Chilian  territories;  on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific;  on 
the  S.  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  which  separatee  it 
from  Tierra  del  Fuefi;o;  and  on  the  R  by  the 
Atlantic.  It  lies  in  Ukt  38° — 53°  S. ;  and  in  long. 
62*  40'— 75°  40^  W.  Length  upwards  of  1000 
miles,  greatest  breadth  about  480  miles ;  area  about 
350,000  square  miles ;  pop.  estimated  at  120,000. 
If  this  estimate  is  correct,  P.  must  be  one  of  the 
most  sparsely-peopled  regions  of  the  globe.  The 
coast  of  the  Atlantic  is  much  broken  by  extensive 
bays  and  mlets,  none  of  which,  however,  are  of 
mu<^  importance  or  advantage,  in  a  commercial 
point  of  view.  Along  the  western  coast,  and 
stretching  from  42°  S.  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan,  are 
numerous  islands,  with  precipitous  shores,  belonnng 
apparently  to  the  system  of  the  Cordilleras.  The 
principal  islands  are  Chilo^  the  Ohonos  Archipelago 
(q.  v.),  WelHngton  Island,  the  Archipelago  of  Mac&e 
de  Dioe,  Queen  Adelaide's  Archipelago,  and  Deso- 
lation Island.  These  islands — which,  together  with 
several  peninsulas,  form  a  coast  almost  as  rugged  as 
that  of  Norway — are  mountainous ;  but  in  none  of 
them,  except  in  Desolation  Island,  do  the  mountains 
rise  to  the  snow-line. 

Surface,  Soil,  &€* — ^The  country  of  P.  divides  itself 
into  two  regions,  very  unequal  in  size  and  very 
different  in  character.  These  are  Eastern  and 
Western  P.,  which  are  divided  by  the  great  moun- 
tain range  of  the  Andes.  Western  P.,  comprising 
this  range,  the  coast  districts,  and  the  islands,  is 
m^pged  and  mountainous.  Opposite  the  island  of 
CluIo§  are  two  active  volcanoes,  one  of  which,  Min- 
chinmavida,  is  8000  feet  hidi.  The  slope  of  the 
country  from  the  Andes  to  we  Pacific  is  so  steep, 
and  the  strip  of  shore  so  narrow,  that  the  largest 
river  of  this  district  has  its  origin  only  about  13 
miles  from  its  embouchure  on  the  coast.  In  the 
island  of  Chilo6,  in  the  north  of  Western  P.,  the 
mean  temperature  of  winter  is  about  40°,  that  of 
summer  rather  above  60° ;  while  at  Port  Famine,  in 
the  extreme  south  of  this  region,  and  800  miles 
nearer  antarctic  latitudes  than  Chilo^,  the  mean 
temperature  is  not  much  lower,  being  in  winter 
about  33°,  and  in  summer  about  50°.  This  unusually 
small  difference  in  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
extremes  of  Western  P.,  which  extends  over  about  14° 
of  lat.,  is  due  to  tiie  great  dampness  of  the  atmosphere 
all  along  the  coast.  The  prevailing  winds  of  this 
region  mow  from  the  west;  and,  heavily  surcharged 
with  tiie  moisture  they  have  drawn  from  the 
immense  wastes  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  they  strike 
against  the  Andes,  are  thoroughly  condensed  by  the 
cold  high  mountains,  and  fall  in  rains  that  are  aunost 
perpetual  from  Chilo6  to  the  Strait  of  Magellan. 
South  of  47**  S.  lat,  hardly  a  day  passes  without  a 
fall  of  rain,  snow,  or  sleet.  This  continual  dampness 
has  produced  forests  of  almost  tropical  luxuriance. 
A  kmd  of  deer  wanders  on  the  east  side  of  the 
mountains ;  pumas  and  water-fowl  are  met  with ; 
and,  alonff  tne  coast,  seals,  otters,  sea-elephants, 
fish,  and  anell-fish  are  found. 


Eastern  P.,  often  called  the  pUivM,  comprises  by 
far  the  larger  portion  of  P.,  and  extends  eastward 
from  the  Andes  to  the  Atlantic.  Ito  sui^e  has 
not  yet  been  thoroughly  explored,  and  is  described 
only  in  the  most  general  tenns.  According  to  all 
accounts  written  previously  to  the  present  year 
(1864),  Eastern  P.,  from  its  northern  to  ite  southern 
limits,  is  an  immense,  stony,  shingly  waste,  generally 
level,  but  gradually  rising  in  terraced  steppes  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Cordilleras.  The  elevation  of  the 
highest  of  these  terraces  is  about  3000  feet.  The 
surface  is  covered  with  stones  and  pebbles,  mixed 
with  earth  of  a  whitish  colour,  overlying  great 
masses  of  porphyry,  and  strewn  with  immense 
bouldera  Thorny  brushwood,  tufts  of  coarse  brown 
grass,  and,  toward  the  west,  basaltic  ridges,  break 
the  dead  level  of  the  dreary  landscape.  The  soil  is 
strongly  impregnated  with  saltpetre.  Salt  lakes  of 
every  variety  <3  extent  and  level  abound.  Many  of 
these  lakes  are  surrounded  by  a  brilliant  snow-wnito 
crust ;  the  waters  of  some  of  tiiem  are  cold  in  summer 
and  hot  in  winter,  while  in  others  the  waters  are 
poiM>nous.  Extending  along  the  south  coast  for 
several  hundred  mUes,  there  is  a  great  deposit  of 
tertiary  strata,  underlying  a  stratum  of  a  white 
pumaceons  substance^  a  tenth  part'  of  which  is 
marine  infusoria.  Sca- shells  are  scattered  every- 
where across  the  country,  and  salt  is  everywhere 
abundant,  from  which  circumstances  it  has  been 
inferred  that  this  tract  was  once  a  sea-bottom.  The 
air  of  Eastern  P.  is  generally  dry  and  hot,  deriving 
no  moisture  from  the  prevailing  west  winds,  which 
pass  over  tiieplains  arter  having  been  drained  bv 
the  Andes.  ELurricanes,  however,  cutting  and  frigid, 
sweep  over  the  plains  with  great  fury,  stripping  the 
hides  from  the  roofs  of  the  roukahs  or  huts,  and 
paralysing  the  inhabitants  with  cold  and  with  fear. 
The  above  account,  though  in  general  correct,  must 
be  supplemented  as  well  as  modified  by  a  few  facta 
as  to  the  surface  from  one  who  recently  lived  for 
three  years  in  P.  and  its  vicinity  According  to 
M.  Gumnaid,  the  country  along  the  banks  of  the 
Eio  Negro  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous,  and  is 
intersected  by  deep  ravines ;  but  it  is  not,  as  has 
hitherto  been  believed,  completely  sterile,  for,  on 
the  contrary,  the  escarped  banks  of  the  river  are 
sometimes  abundantly  fertile.  The  same  traveller 
further  estimates  that  one-third  of  the  entire  area 
of  this  country — which  has  hitherto  been  described 
as  barren — ^is  of  great  fertility,  especially  the  regions 
on  the  east  coast  and  on  the  Strait  of  Magellan  in 
the  south.  Along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes 
also,  the  great  tract  of  territory  called  Los  Serranoa 
is  astonishingly  picturesque  and  ferMle.  Here  great 
forests  abound,  to  which  the  Indians  retire  for  shelter 
from  the  freezing  winds  of  winter.  There  are  also 
deep  valleys  furrowed  by  mountain  torrents ;  and 
numerous  lakes,  the  haunts  of  wild-duck  and  other 
water-fowl  which  would  delight  the  European 
sportsman,  but  which  are  never  disturbed  by  the 
Indians,  and  are  almost  as  tame  as  barn-yard  fowls. 
Except  pasture.  Eastern  P.  has  no  productions. 
However  fertile  the  soil  in  some  places  may  be,  it 
is  nowhere  ci^tivated.  The  Indians  live  upon  the 
produce  of  the  chase  alone,  and  seem  to  desire  no 
better  sustenance.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Kio 
Negro  (q.  v.) ;  the  Chupat,  which  flows  through  a 
good  soil,  producing  excellent  pasture  and  good  fire- 
wood ;  and  the  Santa  Cruz,  which  flows  through  a 
barren  district,  in  a  valley  from  one  to  five  miles 
wide,  and  1400  feet  below  the  level  of  theplain. 
All  these  rivers  rise  in  the  Andes;  the  Chupat 
flows  east,  and  the  others  south-east  Herds 
of  horses  are  reared,  dooi  abound,  and  in  the 
more  favoured  regions,  catue  are  bred ;  pumas  and 
foxes  are  met  witii  as  well  as  condors,  hawks 


PATAGONIA. 


partridges,  and  water-fowl  in  Los  Serranos.  But  by 
far  the  most  important  animals  are  the  ^oanaco 
(wild  llama),  the  nandou  (Patagonian  ostricn),  and 
the  gama,  a  kind  of  deer. 

InhabitarUa, — ^The  Patagonians  have  been  hitherto 
described  only  in  the  most  general  terms,  and  in 
many  cases  veiy  inaccurately.  Little  was  known  of 
their  appearance,  habits,  ana  employments.  Kecent 
information,  however,  enables  us  definitively  to  class 
the  Patagonian  monster  of  the  early  voyagers  with' 
Gulliver's  giants.  The  tallest  of  the  tribes  are  com- 
posed of  men  who,  on  an  average,  are  nearly  six  feet 
in  height ;  while  in  other  tribes  the  average  height 
is  an  inch  or  two  less.  There  is  reason  to  believe, 
however,  that  instances  of  unusual  height  are  as 
rare  in  P.  as  in  Europe.  The  peculiar  costume  of 
the  Patagonians,  which  in  most  instances  consists  of 
a  long  mantle  of  hide,  drooping  with  unbroken  out- 
line ^om  their  shoulders  almost  to  the  ground,  fives 
them  the  appearance  of  extraordinary  height.  Many 
of  the  tribes  also  are  lar^^e  in  body,  while  they  have 
comparatively  short  extremities ;  and  these,  when 
seen  on  horseback,  covered  with  their  long  mantles, 
seem  almost  gigantic  in  stature.  Their  colour  is  a 
reddish  brown.  Their  shoulders  are  large,  and  well 
thrown  back ;  the  chest  is  well  expanded;  the  head 
large,  the  forehea'l  open  and  promment ;  the  mouth 
large ;  the  eyes  black,  and  generally  large ;  the  nose 
frequently  hooked,  lonz,  and  thin,  though  among 
some  tribes  it  is,  as  a  riue,  broad  at  the  nostrils ;  the 
ears  are  large,  and  elongated  by  the  heavy  ornaments 
of  their  own  manufacture  which  they  wear  in  them, 
and  which  arc  so  large  that  they  often  rest  on  the 
shoulders.  The  hair,  generally  black,  coarse,  and 
lank,  is  sometimes  rolled  together  on  the  top  of 
the  head.  Their  houses,  called  rovbhahSf  are  formed 
of  three  rows  of  stakes  driven  into  the'groand.  The 
middle  row  is  higher  than  the  others,  and  the  three 
rows  are  tied  together  with  strings  of  hide,  and  so 
kept  in  their  palace.  This  frail  framework  is  covered 
with  hides  which  reach  the  ground  on  all  sides,  and 
are  fastened  to  it  by  small  stakes  of  bone.  At  night- 
fall, guanaco  hides  are  spread  on  the  ground  witiiin 
the  tents,  and  the  men  and  women  laying  aside 
their  mantle,  their  only  garment,  and  which  some- 
times serves  as  a  blanket,  go  to  sleep  under  the  same 
roof  and  in  the  same  apartment.  Bathing  in  cold 
water  every  morning,  throughout  the  whole  year, 
is  a  custom  to  which  men,  women,  and  children 
conform ;  and  although  the  morning  bath  may  not 
free  them  from  vermm— a  national  characteristic — 
yet  it  has  the  effect  of  preventing  disease,  and  of 
enabling  them  the  more  easily  to  endure  the  severi- 
ties of  winter.  The  men,  when  out  on  the  hunt, 
shew  wonderful  courage  and  adroitness ;  when  not 
80  engaged,  they  live  in  perfect  idleness.  Tliey  are 
increoiuy  greedy  and  voracious.  They  deck  theur 
heads,  and  ornament  them  into  the  perfection  of 
ugliness,  greasing  their  hair  with  the  grease  of  the 
horse.  They  pull  out  the  hair  of  the  eyebrows 
and  beard,  and  paint  their  bodies  with  black,  red, 
and  other  colours.  The  Patagonians  are  noinads; 
some  of  the  tribes,  however,  as  the  Puelches,  are 
nomads  from  choice,  not  from  necessity,  for  their 
district  or  headquarters  is  abundantly  fertile.  The 
more  important  tribes  are  nine  in  number;  and 
each  tribe  is  led  and  governed  by  a  cacique,  whose 
power  extends  also  to  numerous  sub* tribes.  Each 
family  and  each  man,  however,  is  entirely  free,  and 
can  remain  attached  to  a  certain  tribe  or  separ- 
ate from  it  at  pleasure.  The  ^  Patagonians 
form  themselves  into  these  communities  tor  the 
purpose  of  self-defence.  Wars  are  so  frequent 
that  security  is  found  only  in  union.  The 
chiefs  are  considered  as  the  fathers,  the  leaders, 
and  the  rulers    of   the   tribe;    and  are   selected 

318 


chiefly  on  account  of  their  bravery  in  battK 
The  more  powerful  tribes  frequently  make  raids 
upon  settlements,  and  carry  on  great  numbers  of 
horses  and  cattle.  They  subsiBt  upon  the  flesh  of 
horses,  nandous,  eamas,  and  ^anacos ;  the  flesh 
they  eat  is  generaUy  raw.  Their  choice  morsels  are 
the  liver,  &e  lungs,  and  the  raw  kidneys,  which 
they  prefer  to  eat  dished  in  the  warm  blood  of  the 
animal,  or  in  curdled  milk  seasoned  with^  salt 
Roots  and  fishes  are  also  eaten,  but  raw  flesh  is  the 
staple.  They  are  hospitable  among  themselves, 
though  bitterly  hostile  to  Christians.  Their  only 
manufactures  are  mantles  of  guanaco  hide,  and 
saddles,  bridles,  stirrups,  and  lassos.  The  lassos 
and  the  articles  of  harness  are  chiefly  plaited,  and 
evince  wonderful  ingenuity  and  nicety  of  execution. 
The  mantles  are  made  for  the  most  part  by  a  tribe 
called  the  Tckeouelckes,  They  are  mainly  made  by 
women,  who  first  in  a  rude  ana  primitive  manner  tan 
the  leather,  then  put  the  hides  together,  and  sew 
them  with  the  small  sinews  of  the  animal  itsell 
Afterwards  the  men  rub  them  with  a  stone  for  the 
purpose  of  suppling  them  and  flattening  the  seams, 
and  then  ornament  them  with  capricious  designs 
in  red  and  black  paint.  The  Indians  obtain  a  tew 
cattle  and  horses  in  exchange  for  these  mantles, 
which  are  no  less  prized  by  neighbouring  tribes  than 
they  are  by  the  nispano- Americans.  Clothed  in 
one  of  them,  the  natives  expose  themselves  to  the 
most  intense  cold  without  receiving  any  injury. 

The   religion    of   the    Patagonians  is    dualistic. 
They  believe  in  two  gods  or  superior  beings — the 
God  of  Good  and  the  God  of  Evil ;  or,  in  their  own 
language.    Vita    Oudnetrou—Hie   Great   Man,  and 
ffonacouvou   or  Oualetchou — ^the  Cause   of    Evils. 
The  former  they  consider  the  creator  of  all  things, 
and  they  believe  that  he  sends  the  sun  to  them  as 
his  representative,  as  much  to  examine  what  takes 
place  among  them,  as  to  warm  their  bodies  and 
renew  the  brief  spring  verdure.  The  moon  is  another 
representative,  whose  office  it  is  to  watch  them  and 
give  them  light.    Believing  that  they  themselves 
require  a  great  deal  of  'watching,'  they  further 
believe  that  every  country  on  the  globe  has  its  own 
sun  and  moon,  or  special  watchera    They  have  no 
idols.   Their  faith  is  transmitted  from  fatiier  to  son, 
and  its  observances  are  strictly  attended  to.     They 
are  full  of  strange  sui)erstitions.     They  dread  the 
north  and  the  south,  believing  that  from  the  south 
come  evil  spirits,  who  take  possession  of  the  souls 
of  the  dying,  and  bear  them  off  to  the  north.     They 
consider  that  the  best  means  of  ensuring  a  long 
life  is  to  go  to  sleep  with  the  head  lying  either  to 
the  east  or  to  the  west.    They  also  believe  that  all 
natural  phenomena  have  their  causes  in  their  own 
conduct,  and  that  all  misfortunes  are  sent  as  punish- 
ments  due  to   moral   delinquencies.      Thus,    the 
fearful  tempests  that  sweep  over  their  plains  inspire 
them  with  the  greatest  dread.    During  the  preva- 
lence of  the  hurricane,  they  crouch  together  in  their 
huts;  fear  makes  them  inactive,  ana  they  do  not 
stir  from  their  grovelling  position  even  to  cover 
themselves    with    the    hides    which   the    tempest 
strips  from  their  huts.    The  Patagonian  never  eats 
or  drinks  without  turning  to  the  sun.  and  throw- 
ing down  before  him  a  scrap  of  meat  or  a  few 
drops  of  water,  and  using  a  form  of  invocation. 
This  form  of  invocation  is  not  fixed,  but  it  hardly 
ever  varies,  and  is  to  the  following  effect :    *  O 
Father,    Great    Man,    king   of    this    earth!     give 
me  favour,  dear  friend,  day  by  day;  good   food, 
good  drink,  good  sleep;   I  am  poor  myself,   are 
you  hungry?     Here  is  a  poor  scrap;  eat  if  mat 
wish.'    The  Patagonians  observe  two  great  reli^oos 
fdtes — one  in  summer,  in  honour  of  the  BeneToIent 
Deity ;  and  another  in  autumn,  in  honour  of  the  God 


PATAlA— PATELLA. 


^  EviL  On  the  occasion  of  these  f  dtes,  the  Indians 
assemble  on  horseback,  dressed  in  the  moet  cere- 
monions  manner,  with  their  hair  newly  greased, 
and  their  bodies  freshly  painted.  On  such  occasions, 
it  is  costomary  to  wear  whatever  vestments  they 
ma^  have  obtained  either  in  war  or  by  stealth  from 
civilised  men ;  and  a  Patagonian  chief  may  be  seen 
wearing  above  his  mantle  of  hide  the  shirt  of  the 
European,  or  casing  his  legs  in  a  pair  of  pantaloons. 
The  Pati^onians  are  much  ^ven  to  gambling  and 
to  drinking.  They  make  mtoxicating  beverages 
from  the  berries  which  they  find  in  their  woods,  and 
thev  obtain  liquor  from  the  Hispano- Americans,  in 
exchange  for  mantlea — Troia  Ana  D^Esdavage  chez 
lea  FaiagonB,  par  A.  Guinnard. 

PATALA  (from  jhU,  fall)  is,  in  Hindu  Mythology, 
the  name  of  those  inferior  regions  which  have 
seven,  or,  according  to  some,  eight  divisions,  each 
eztendinc;  downwuds  ten  thousand  yojanaa,  or 
miles.  The  soil  of  these  regions,  as  the  Vishnu* 
Purdn'a  relates,  is  severally  white,  black,  purple, 
vellow,  sandv,  stony,  and  of  gold ;  they  are  em- 
bellished with  magnificent  palaces,  in  which  dwell 
numerous  Dftnavas,  Daityas,  Yakshas,  and  great 
snake-gods,  decorated  with  brilliant  jewels,  and 
happy  in  the  enjoyment  of  delicious  viands  and 
strong  wines.  There  are  in  these  regions  beautiful 
erovea,  and  streams  and  lakes,  where  the  lotus 
uowB,  and  the  skies  are  resonant  with  the  kokila's 
8ong&  They  are,  in  short,  so  delightful,  that  the 
saint  Narada,  after  Jiis  return  from  wem  to  heaven; 
declared  among  the  celestials  that  P.  was  much 
more  deli<!htfui  than  Indra's  heaven.  Professor 
Wilson,  in  his  Vxshn'u-Purdn'a,  says  *  that  there  is 
no  verv  copious  description  of  Pftt&la  in  any  of  the 
Furdnas  ;  that  the  most  circumstantial  are  those  of 
the  Vdyu  and  Bhdgavaia  Purdn'as;  and  that  the 
MahSJbhdrata  and  these  two  Purdn'as  assign  different 
divisions  to  the  D&navas,  Daityas,  and  ^&gas. .... 
Hie  regions  of  the  P&t&la  and  their  inhabitants  are 
oftener  the  subjects  of  profane  than  of  sacred 
fiction,  in  consequence  of  the  frequent  intercourse 
between  mortal  neroes  and  the  serpent-maids.  A 
considerable  section  of  the  Vr^ihat-KcUhd  consists  of 
adventures  and  events  in  this  subterraneous  world.* 
For  inferior  regions  of  a  different  description,  see 
Nakaka. 

PATANJALI  is  the  name  of  two  celebrated 
anthoTS  of  ancient  India,  who  are  generally  looked 
upon  as  the  same  personage,  but  apparently  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  they  bear  the  same  name. 
Tlie  one  is  the  author  of  the  system  of  philosophy 
called  Yoga  (q.  v.),  the  other  the  great  critic  of 
KAtyftyana  (q.  v.)  and  Pftn'ini  (q.  v.).  Of  the  former, 
notiunff  is  known  bevond  his  work — ^for  which  see 
the  article  Yoga.  The  few  historical  facts  relating 
to  tibe  latter,  as  at  present  ascertained,  may  be 
gathered  finom  his  great  work,  the  MaMJbhdahya^  or 
*the  sreat  commentary.'  The  name  of  his  mother 
VBB  donlkl ;  his  birthplace  was  Gtonarda,  situated 
in  the  east  of  India,  and  he  resided  temporarily  in 
Cashmere,  where  his  work  was  especially  patronised. 
From  drcumstantial  evidence.  Professor  GoldstUcker 
has,  moreover,  proved  that  he  wrote  between  140 
and  120  B.  o.  {Pdn'iniy  Ms  Place  in  Sanscrit  Litera- 
ture, p.  235,  ff.).  The  MaJUHJbhAshya  of  P.  is  not 
a  foil  commentary  on  P&n'ini,  but,  with  a  few 
exceptions,  only  a  commentary  on  the  Vftrttikas,  or 
critical  remarKs  of  K&ty&yana  on  P&n'ini  'Its 
method  is  analogous  to  that  of  other  classical  com- 
mentaries: it  establishes,  usually  by  repetition, 
the  correct  reading  of  the  text,  in  explaining  every 
important  or  doubtful  word,  in  shewing  the  conneo- 
tioD  of  the  principal  parts  of  the  sentence,  and  in 
fi^\nQ  Mudi  observations  as  may  be  required  for  a 


better  understanding  of  the  author.  But  frequently 
Patan  lali  also  attaches  his  own  critical  remarks  to  the 
emendations  of  K&tyAyana,  often  in  support  of  the 
views  of  the  latter,  but  not  seldom,  too,  m  order  to 
refute  lus  criticisms,  and  to  defend  P&n'ini ;  while, 
again,  at  other  times,  he  completes  the  statement  of 
one  of  them  by  his  own  additional  rules.*  P.  being 
the  third  of  the  grammatical  triad  of  India  (see 
PIn'ini),  and  lus  work,  therefore,  having  the  advan- 
tage of  profiting  by  the  scholarship  of  his  predeces- 
sors, he  IS  looked  upon  as  a  paramount  autnority  in 
all  matters  relating  to  classical  Sanscrit  grammar ; 
and  very  justly  so,  for  as  to  learning,  ingenuity, 
and  conscientiousness,  there  is  no  grammatical 
author  of  India  who  can  be  held  superior  to  hiuL 
The  Mahdbhdshya  has  been  commented  upon  by 
Eaiyyat'a,  in  a  work  called  the  Bhdshya-Pra>» 
dtpa;  and  the  latter  has  been  annotated  by 
Nagojtbhatta,  in  a  work  called  the  Bftdshya- 
pradipodyota.  So  much  of  these  three  latter 
works  as  relates  to  the  first  chapter  of  t^ 
first  book  of  P&n'ini,  together  with  tne  V&rttikas 
connected  with  them,  has  been  edited  at  Mirzapore, 
1856,  by  the  late  Dr  J.  R.  Ballantyne,  who  also  gave 
a  valuable  literal  translation  of  the  first  torty 
pages  of  the  text. 

PATA'PSCO,  a  river  of  Maryland,  U.S.,  rises  on 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  state,  and  flows  south- 
easterly 80  miles  to  the  Chesapeake  Bay,  14  miles 
south  of  Baltimore,  to  which  city  it  is  navigable. 
Its  falls  furnish  water-power  to  numerous  factories. 

PATCHOU'LL  This  very  interesting  material 
is  the  dried  branches  of  Pogostenwn  Patchouli 
(natural  order  Lahiatcs),  which  was  first  introduced 
to  tiiis  country  as  an  article  of  merchandise  in 
1844  The  plant  is  a  native  of  Silhet,  the  Malay 
coast,  Ceylon,  Java,  the  neighbourhood  of  Bombay, 
and  probably  idso  of  China;  but  owing  to  the 
fondness  of  Asiatics  for  the  perfume  which  it 
yields,  it  is  difficult  to  say  where  it  is  native  or 
cultivated.  Every  part  of  the  plant  is  odoriferous, 
but  the  younger  portions  of  the  branches  with 
the  leaves  are  chosen;  they  are  usually  about 
a  foot  long.  The  odour  is  peculiar  and  diffi- 
cult to  detme,  but  it  has  a  slight  resemblance 
to  sandal- wood ;  it  is  very  powerful,  and  to  many 
persons  is  extremely  disagreeable.  The  odour  of 
patchouli  was  known  in  £uro{)e  before  the  material 
itself  was  introduced,  in  consequence  of  its  use  in 
Castmiere  to  scent  the  shawls  with  a  view  of 
keeping  out  moths,  which  are  averse  to  it;  hence 
the  genuine  Cashmere  shawls  were  known  by  their 
scent,  until  tiie  French  found  the  secret,  and 
imported  the  herb  for  use  in  the  same  way.  Its 
name  in  India  is  Pucha-pat,  and  it  is  there  used  as  an 
ingredient  in  fancy  tobaccoes,  and  as  a  perfume  for 
the  hair.  It  is  also  much  prized  for  keeping  insects 
from  linen  and  woollen  turtides.  The  essence  of 
patchouli  is  a  peculiar  heavy  brown  oil,  with  a 
disagreeably  powerful  odour;  it  is  obtained  by 
distSlation,  and  requires  extreme  dilution  for  per- 
fumery purposes. 

PATBXLA,  or  KNEE-CAP,  is  a  Sesamoid  Bone 
(q.  v.),  developed  in  the  single  tendon  of  the  rectus^ 
vastus  extemuSf  and  vastus  intemus  muscles — the 
greater  extensor  muscles  of  the  leg.  It  is  heart- 
shaped  in  form,  the  broad  end  being  directed 
upwards,  and  Ihe  apex  downwards.  The  anterior 
or  extemid  surface  is  convex,  perforated  by  small 
apertures  for  the  entrance  of  vessels,  and  marked 
by  rough  longitudinal  strite,  while  the  posterior  or 
internal  surface  is  smooth  and  divided  into  two 
facets  by  a  vertical  ridge,  which  corresponds  and 
fits  into  the  groove  on  the  lower  artioulatinff  surface 
of  tiie  femur  or  thigh-bone,  while  the  two  ncets  (ol 


PATELLA  AND  PATBLLID*-PATBNT. 


to  diilocataon  and  frocti 
DialocatioQ   ma;   oc 
either  iuwari^s  or  <: 
warda ;   but  it  U  most 
Irequent  in  the  outward 

(direction.  The  diaplace- 
ment  nuiy  be  caused 
either  by  meclianic&l 
violenca,  or  bj?  too 
sudden  coatraction  of 
the  eiteDHor  muBclea  in 
whose  conjoined  tendon 
it  lie* ;  and  ia  most  liable 
to  occui  in  knock-kneed, 
,  Qabby  persons.  It  may 
be  readi]y  detected 
by  the  impoaailiility  of 
bonding  the  knee,  and 
by  the  bone  being  felt 
in  ita  new  poeition,  uid, 
ezcejit  in  one  rare  variety,  the  dislocation  is  capable 
of  being  reduced  without  any  difficulty.  Jracture 
□f  the  patella  may  {like  dislocation)  be  caused  either 
by  muscular  action  or  by  mechanical  violence. 

Fracture  by  muscular  action  ia  the  more  common 
ti  the  two  forms,  and  occun  thus :  A  person  in 
danger  of  falling  forwards, 
attempta  to  recover  himself 
,  by  throwing  the  body  back- 
I  wariL?B,  and  the  violent  action 
of  the  extensors  (chiefly  the 
rfdiii)  suapa  the  patella 
across,  tlie  upper  fragment 
being  drawn  up  the  thigh, 
while  the  lower  portion  ie 
retained  in  gitu  by  that 
portion  of  the  common  ten- 
don which  is  continued  from 
the  iiatella  to  the  tubercle 
of  the  tibia,  and  whidi 
is  called  the  ligamentum 
pateUm.  The  treatment  con- 
sists in  relaiing  the  oppos- 
ing muscles  by  raising  the 
trunk,  and  slightly  elevating 
the  limb,  which  should  be 
kept  in  a  straigbt  position. 
■g^  2.  ^  consequence  of  Uie  great 

•L  fwcuf  mnuiBi  1  Mifui  ^^oulty  of  bringing  the 
(ZfcmwiiiuKle;  c,  llga-  broken  surfaces  into  exact 
mcnlDin  patella;  d,  rx-  apposition,  as  may  be  readily 
^"ni-  ™h^  at  iiw"  """^eretood  from  the  aocom- 
/,ht»d(Jflbu!a.  '■  panying  figure,  it  is  very 
difficult  to  obtain  bony 
n  of  the  part«,  and  the  case  generally  results 


PATELLA  »nd  PATELLID.«L    See  Limpw. 

PA'TEN  (Lat  patina,  a  dish),  the  plate 
employed  for  the  elements  of  bread  in  the  Eucha- 
ristio  service.  Anciently  it  was  of  considerable 
size;  and  whQe  the  practice  ot  the  Ofpestoby 
(q.  V.)  continued,  there  was  a  special  paten  for  the 
bread- offering.  In  the  Roman  CathoUc  Church,  in 
which  the  unleavened  wafer-bread  ia  used,  and  the 
communion  ia  distributed  from  a  distinct  vessel 
called  Pyx  (q.v.),  the  paten  is  a  small  circular  plate, 
always  of  the  same  material  with  the  chalice.  It 
is  often  richly  chased  or  carved,  and  studded  with 
precious  atones.    It  is  used  only  in  the  mass. 

PATENT  ia  an  exclusive  right  granted  by  the 
OTOwn  {in  letteis  patent  or  open,  whence  the  name) 
to  an  individual  to  nunufactnre  and  sell  >  chattel 


i  commerce  of  his  o 


1  invention.    The 


policy  of  the  present  law  of  patents  has  lattei-ly 
been  much  canvassed,  and  it  has  been  auggpated 
that,  instead  of  the  present  monopoly,  with  the 
drawback  of  litigation  to  which  it  umformly  gives 
rise,  the  use  oE  aU  inventions  should  be  dedicatial  to 
the  ^blic  at  once,  and  the  inventor  rewarded  by  a 
pension  from  the  atate,  according  to  the  merits  and 
utility  of  the  Invention.  The  present  law  allows 
the  inventor  to  have  a  monopoly  of  his  invention 
for  fourteen  years,  with  a  further  privilege  at  the 
end  of  that  time,  provided  he  has  not  been  suffi- 
ciently remunerated,  to  have  the  patent  renewed 
for  a  further  term  of  fourteen  years.  That  aome 
mode  of  rewarding  the  individual  whose  persever- 
ance and  ingenuity  have  enabled  him  to  discover  k 
new  invention  should  be  established,  ia  universally 
admitted,  but  whether  it  should  be  at  the  eiponsa 
of  that  part  of  the  public  who  are  purchasera,  and 
therefore  benefited  by  hit  discovery,  ot  by  the 
public  at  large  in  the  shape  of  a  pension,  is  a  matter 
still  undecided.  The  evUs  of  the  present  law  are 
that  there  is  a  great  deal  of  unccrtamty  in  the  mode 
of  ascertaining  wiiat  is  a  new  invention.  Hencet 
when  a  patent  has  been  granted,  if  it  is  of  such  A 
nature  aa  to  lead  to  competition,  infiingementa  ors 
almost  matters  of  course,  and  the  only  mode  of 
discovering  and  checking  the  infringement  is  w 
tedious,  costly,  and  ineffective,  that  inventora 
generally  pass  their  lives  in  constant  litigation, 
lighting  in  detail  a  succession  of  imitators  who  often 
have  nothing  to  lose  by  defeat,  ^d  therefore  entail 
all  the  greater  burden  on  the  legitimate  manufacturer. 
It  has  been  said  that  not  more  than  three  patents 
per  cent,  are  remunerative.  A  royal  commission 
has  latterly  been  engaged  in  inquiries  as  to  the  beat 
mode  of  remunerating  inventors,  and  improving  the 
law  in  reference  to  infringements ;  but  it  ia  doubtfnl 
how  far  the  subject  is  capable  of  being  put  on  a 
better  footing,  ao  many  dimcnltiea  being  mherent  in 
it  The  crown  seems  always  to  have  enjoyed  the 
prerogative  right  t«  grout  monopolies,  and  this  had 
been  so  greatly  perverted  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth, 
that  the  popular  damaur  led  to  a  statute  in  ths 
following  reign,  having  for  its  object  to  prevent  the 
crown  in  future  mating  any  grants  o£^  that  kind 
which  should  be  prejudicial  to  the  interests  of  bade. 
By  that  act  an  exception  was  expressly  made  in 
favonr  of  new  inventions.  At  h^t  the  judges 
construed  grants  of  monopoly  to  inventi>rs  very 
strictly ;  hut  afterwards  it  waa  seen  fbat  they  were 
for  the  benellt  of  trade,  and  were  dealt  with  more 
lilieiaUy.  An  important  modilication  of  the  law 
was  introduced  by  s  statute  of  Queen  Anne,  which 
required  every  inventor  to  describe  in  debiil  the 
latitre  of  the  invention  in  an  instrument  called  • 
ipecification.  Another  statute  of  5  and  6  Will  IV. 
:  83,  further  altered  the  law  by  allowing  parties 
who  had  a  difficulty  in  sepaiating  what  was  new 
from  what  was  old  in  their  invention  to  enter  an 
express  diacl^mer  of  that  part  which  was  not  new. 
But  the  most  important  alteration  was  made  in 
iaJi2,  bv  the  statute  of  15  and  16  Vict,  c  83,  which 
reduced  the  fees,  and  otherwise  improved  the 
ractice  attending  the  obtaining  of  patents  for  the 
inited  Kingdom.  Before  stating  shortly  the 
substance  of  this  act,  it  may  be  observed  that  there 
has  always  been  a  difficulty  in  defining  what  is  an 
invention  that  is  patentable — a  difGcitUy  which 
act  oC  parliament  can  get  rid  of,  for  it  is  inherent 
the  siibjeot-matter.  It  has  been  held  that  s 
patent  must  be  not  merely  a  discovery  of  m  new 
substance  or  article  of  food,  but  it  must  be  a 
combination  of  proceasea  producing  some  new  reaid^ 
1  old  result  by  different  means.  It  is  of  the 
ce  of  the  patent  that  it  be  entirely  new,  tbst  ii^ 


PA.TERA-PATER-NOSTER. 


that  it  aboald  not  bATe  ho^n  described  in  a  imbliahed 
book,  or  well  known  in  tiie  hnsiness  of  the  world, 
nor  pabliclv  naed  before.  Wliub  amounts  to  a 
pabbo  use  is  necessarily  difficult  of  d  'finition,  but 
the  thing  must  have  been  so  used  that  ocli»rs  may 
have  known  and  used  it  besides  the  inventor.  The 
specification  must  be  so  drawn  as  to  give  a  full 
discloBmre  of  the  secret,  and  describe  it  so  that 
an  intelligent  person  could  from  the  description 
make  or  produce  the  article  itsell 

There  is  a  patent-office  in  London,  in  Edinbur^ 
and  in  Dublin.  All  the  business  connected  with 
patents  is  now  transacted  at  the  office  in  London, 
the  Scotch  and  Lrish  offices  being  used  only  as  places 
for  inspecting  copies  of  patent^  specifications,  and 
docnmentB.  The  oommisBioners  of  patents  are  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  Master  of  the  Kolls,  Attorney  and 
SoUcitoir  General  of  Eneland  and  Ireland,  and  the 
Lord  Advocate  and  SoUcitor  General  of  Scotland. 
The  mode  in  which  an  inventor  proceeds  is,  first  to 
present  a  petition  for  a  grant  of  letters-patent, 
acoompamed  by  a  statement  in  writing  of  the 
specification,  a  copy  of  which  must  be  left  at  the 
mtent-office.  These  papers,  as  also  drawings,  must 
be  in  a  certain  prescribed  fonn.  The  ap^cation 
is  referred,  as  a  matter  of  course,  to  one  of  the  law 
officers  of  the  crown,  who  may  call  to  his  aid  a 
scientific  person  to  be  paid  by  the  applicant.  A 
provisional  patent  may  oe  applied  for  m  the  first 
ustanoe,  and  the  complete  patent  deferred  for  six 
months — an  arrangement  wnich  gives  the  benefit 
of  priority  to  the  applicant  of  time  to  prepare  and 
test  his  specification,  and  of  pa^ne  the  expenses 
more  gradually ;  but  the  effect  is  the  same  in  the 
end,  &e  patent  dating  from  the  first  application. 
After  a  patent  has  been  granted,  and  been  in 
existence  lor  three  years,  a  fee  of  £50  must  be 
paid ;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  seven  years,  a  fee  of 
£100.  The  letters-patent  extend  to  the  whole  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  practice  with  reference  to 
patents,  especially  as  to  the  drawing  of  the  speci- 
fication, is  too  minute  to  justify  an  inventor  to 
attempt  to  take  out  a  patent  without  professional 
Sid ;  and  a  class  of  persons  called  patent  agents 
(a  bnsinees  for  which  no  qualificatipns  are  at  pre- 
sent required  by  any  constituted  authority)  devote 
themselves  to  tiiis  branch  of  business.  But  great 
caution  is  required  in  selecting  those  only  who 
are  competent  and  honourable  Their  charges  are 
generally  ascertained  by  estimate  beforehand,  and 
are  usually  made  in  a  round  sum.  The  fees 
payable  to  the  law  officers  are  as  follows:  On 
leaving  petition  for  grant  of  letters-patent,  £5; 
on  notice  of  intention  to  proceed  with  applica- 
tion, £5;  on  warrant  of  law  officer  for  letters- 
patent,  £5 ;  on  sealing  of  letters-patent,  £5 ;  on 
filing  specifications,  £5;  at  or  before  expiration 
of  uiird  year,  £50;  at  or  before  expiration  of 
seventh  year,  £100. 

Besides  these  fees,  if  opposition  is  entered  to  the 
grant,  additional  fees  ara  incurred,  both  by  the 
party  applying  and  the  party  opposing. 

A  patent  obtained  in  this  country  does  not  extend 
to  the  colonies,  lyit  several  of  the  colonies  have 
machinery  for  granting  patents  for  a  like  period. 
In  the  United  States,  patents  are  also  ^nted 
for  a  term  of  14  years.  In  France,  the  term  is  5, 
10,  or  15  years,  at  the  option  of  the  applicant ;  in 
Pmstsa,  for  15  years ;  in  Knssia,  for  3, 5,  or  10  years ; 
in  Spain,  for  5,  10,  or  15  years;  in  Belgium,  for 
CO  yean ;  in  Holland,  for  5,  10,  or  15  years ;  in 
Austria,  not  more  than  15  years ;  in  Sardinia, 
15  years.  In  all  cases,  fees  are  exigible  from  the 
fiatentee. 

PA'TEBA  (Lat.),  a  round  dish,  imitations  of 
which  were  carved  by  the  Romans  in  the  panels 


of  their  ceilings,  kc     The  name  is  also  applied 


Patera. 

to    the    foliated   ornaments   used    in   the    same 
position. 

P  ATEHCULUS,  0.  Vbllbidb,  a  Koman  historian, 
descended  from  an  ancient  and  wealthy  Oampanian 
family,  is  thought  to  have  been  bom  about  19  &  c. 
He  entered  the  army  at  an  early  age,  and  from  4  to 
12  A.  D.  served  under  Tiberius  as  prefect  or  legate 
in  Germany,  Pannonia,  and  Dalmatia.  He  was  a 
ereat  favourite  with  Tiberius,  and  when  the  latter 
became  emperor,  14  a.d.,  P.  was  appointed  prsBtor. 
He  was  alive  in  30  A.  D.,  as  his  histonr  comes  down 
to  that  year;  but  it  ia  conjectured  that  in  the 
following  year  he  was  probabl  v  put  to  death  as  one 
of  the  friends  of  Sejanus,  of  whom  he  speaks  highly 
in  his  work.  P.'s  chum  to  remembrance  is  his 
Hiatoria  Bomana,  a  compendium  of  universal,  but 
more  particularly  of  Koman  history,  in  two  books. 
The  work,  as  we  have  it,  is  not  complete;  the 
be^ning,  and  a  portion  following  the  8tn  chapter, 
being  wanting.  It  seems  to  have  commenced  with 
the  ndl  of  Troy;  and  describes  only  the  most  pro- 
minent historical  incidents,  but  these,  fortunately^ 
with  considerable  fulness  of  detail  Scholars  are 
satisfied  that  it  is  the  work  of  a  man  who  is,  on  the 
whole,  impartial  and  discriminating.  The  style  is 
based  on  that  of  Sallust.  The  edUto  princeps  of 
the  Historiae  Homana  appeared  at  Basel  in  1520 ;  the 
most  valuable  is  Rhunken's,  on  account  of  its  excel- 
lent notes  (Lugd.  Bat  1789),  reprinted  by  Frotscher 
(Leipa.  1830—1839) ;  but  OreUi's  (Leips.  1835)  has 
the  least  corrux)t  text. 

PATEBE'ROS,  were  small  pieces  of  ordnance, 
now  obsolete,  worked  on  swivels ;  most  commonly 
used  on  board  i^ps,  where  they  were  moimted  on 
the  gunwide,  and  discharged  showers  of  old  nails, 
ftc,  mto  hostile  boats.  The  French  called  them 
Pierriers,  from  loading  them  with  stones. 

PATER-NO'STER  (Lat  •  Our  Father ' )  called 
also  The  Lord's  Prayto,  a  short  form  of  prayer 
surcjested  or  prescribed  by  our  Lord  to  his  disciples 
(Matt  vi.  9—13,  Luke  xL  1—4)  as  the  model 
according  to  which,  in  contrast  with  the  prayers 
of  the  Pharisees,  their  |)etitions  ought  to  be  com- 
posed. From  the  earliest  times  the  Pater-Noster 
has  been  accepted  as,  by  excellence,  the  form 
of  Christian  prayer.  It  formed  part  of  all  the 
ancient  liturgies.  So  sacred,  indeed,  was  its  use, 
that,  strange  as  the  provision  may  now  appear,  it 
was  comprehended  amona;  the  things  which  were 
reserved  from  pagans  and  catechumens  under  the 
well-known  Discipline  of  the  Secret  (q.  v.).  The 
early  fathers— Origen,  Tertullian,  Cyprian— refer  to 
it  in  terms  which  shew  that  even  then  it  was  a 
recognised  form  of  private  prayer.  It  was  solemoly 
recited  at  the  administration  of  baptism,  and  one  of 
the  privileges  of  the  baptised  was  the  use  of  the- 
Pater-Noster.  More  than  one  of  the  fatliers,  and 
v^*y  many  later  writers  of  every  form  of  Chiistian. 
belief,  have  devoted  special  treatises  to  the  expo- 
sition of  this  prayer,  which  is  regarded  as  embracing 
in  its  few  but  comprehensive  clauses  all  the  fitting 
and  legitimate  objects  of  the  praver  of  a  Christian. 
The  Catechism  of  the  Council  of  Trent  contains  a 


PATER80N— PATNA. 


»lt!tailed  expoBition  and  commentary  of  it,  and  in  all 
the  set  vices  not  only  of  the  Roman  Missal,  Breviary, 
Ritual,  Processional,  and  Ordinal,  but  in  all  the 
occasional  services  prescribed  from  time  to  time,  it 
is  invarial)ly  introducecL  In  the  Rosary  (q.  v.)  of  the 
Virgin  Mary  it  is  combined  with  the  Hail  Mary,  the 
prayer  addressed  to  the  Virgin  (whence  the  larger 
beads  of  the  *  Rosary  *  are  sometimes  called  Pater- 
Nosters)^  and  jperhaps  the  most  usual  of  all  the  formal 
shorter  devotions  among  Roman  Catholics  is  the 
recitation  a  stated  number  of  times  of  the  *  Pater,' 
with  one  or  more  'Ave  Marias,*  generally  concluding 
with  the  Doxology.  The  form  of  this  prayer  as 
commonlv  used  by  Protestants  concludes  with  the 
clause,  *for  Thine  is  the  kingdom,  and  the  power, 
and  the  glory  for  ever.  Amen.'  This  clause  is  not 
used  by  Roman  Catholics.  Of  the  two  eospels — 
^hat  of  Matthew  and  that  of  Luke — in  wnicn  the 
delivery  of  the  prayer  by  our  Lord  is  related, 
that  of  Luke  has  not  this  clause ;  and  even  in  the 
Crosnel  of  Matthew  it  is  found  only  in  the  later 
MSo.,  in  which  it  cannot  be  doubted  that  it  is 
a  modem  interpolation.  It  was  retained,  however, 
in  Luther's  German  translation,  and  in  the  Author- 
ised Version,  whence  its  use  became  common  among 
Protestants. 

PA'TBRSON,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  U.S.,  at  the 
falls  of  the  Passaic  River,  on  the  Morris  Canal,  and 
New  York  and  Erie  Railway,  17  miles  north-west 
of  New  York,  a  well-built  city,  with  8  cotton 
factories,  10  machine  factories,  extensive  paper-mills, 
and  factories  of  cotton,  duck,  flax,  hemp,  &c.,  to 
which  the  falls  of  the  Passaic  furnish  abundant 
water-power.  The  half  of  the  locomotives  made  in 
the  United  States  are  manufactured  here;  The  city 
contains  county  buildings,  an  academy,  bank,  2 
newspapers,  and  16  churches.  Pop.  in  1860, 
19,588. 

PATERSON,  William,  the  most  celebrated, 
after  John  Law  (q.  v.),  of  the  commercial  schemers 
of  the  17th  c,  was,  like  Law,  a  Scotchman,  and  is 
said  to  have  been  bom  in  the  parish  of  Tinwald, 
Dumfriesshire,  about  1660.  Ot  his  early  history 
nothing  is  known  beyond  the  fact,  established  by 
conclusive  evidence,  that  he  possessed  himself  of 
an  extensive  and  minute  knowledge  respecting  the 
institutions  and  commerce  of  foreign  countries.  His 
first  appearance  in  history  is  at  the  time  when  he 
laid  before  the  merchants  and  capitalists  of  London 
the  complete  draught  of  his  scheme  of  banking. 
The  scheme  was  lavourably,  nay  even  eagerly, 
adopted  by  them,  and  after  being  modified  so  as  to 
render  it  practically  serviceable,  became  the  basis 
of  an  institution  wnich,  in  1690,  was  incorporated 
under  the  name  of  the  *Bank  of  England.'  P., 
however,  soon  became,  for  reasons  now  unknown, 
disconnected  with  the  Bank.  His  next  project 
was  the  renowned  Darien  Scheme  (q.  v.),  which 
.received  the  royal  sanction  in  1695,  and  came  to 
ruin  in  1701.  Its  disastrous  failure  so  affected  P. 
as  to  produce  temporary  limacy,  and  after  his 
recovery  he  lived  in  returement.  Nothing  further 
is  known  concerning  him. 

PATHOLO'GIOAL   ANATOMY,  or  the 

anatomy  of  diseased  organs,  is  included  in,  but 
must  not  be  confounded  with  pathology,  as  until 
comparatively  lately  was  often  the  case.  It  is 
merely  a  section— although  a  most  important  sec- 
tion— of  pathology,  contnonting  (as  Professor  Voeel 
has  well  remarked)  *  to  practicS  medicine  the  solid 
materials  from  which  to  construct  a  basement, 
without  havins  the  power  to  erect  a  perfect 
ediLcc'  Pathological  anatomy  enables  the  surgeon 
to  decide  whether  a  suspicious  tumour  is  malig- 
nant or  of  a  comparatively  harmleas  nature,  and 

S83 


in  many  other  ways  is  of  the  greatest  import* 
anoe  to  surgery  ;  and  aHhough  at  first  siffht  it 
might  appear  to  be  of  small  importance  in  rdation 
to  Therapeutics,  this  is  not  m  reality  the  case. 
Scientific  treatment  necessarily  demands  an  accurate 
knowledge  of  the  material  clutnges  which,  lie  at  the 
foundation  of  the  various  morbia  symptoms.  Hence 
pathological  anatomy  not  onljr  forms  a  portion  of 
the  positive  basis  of  Therapeutics,  but  it  also  points 
out  the  processes  by  which  the  different  altered  parti 
may  be  gradually  restored  to  their  normal  condition. 
It  not  merely  indicates  what  requires  healini^ 
but  in  many  cases  also  the  course  that  must  be 
adopted  in  order  to  aid  the  curative  tendency  d 
nature.  It  likewise  serves  as  a  check  on  thera* 
peuticis  exposing,  in  a  most  conclusive  manner,  the 
absurdity  of  many  pretended  methods  of  cura  It 
points  out,  for  example,  that  in  a  certain  stage  of 
inflammation  of  the  limgs  (Pneumonia)  a  fibrinous 
fluid  separates  from  the  blood,  and  by  its  coagula- 
tion renders  a  portion  of  the  tissue  of  tbe  lung 
impermeable  to  air;  and  further  that  it  requires 
several  days  for  this  coagulated  matter  to  resume 
the  fluid  condition  and  to  be  removed,  H  any  one 
should  assert — and  such  assertions  have  often  been 
made — ^that  in  this  stage  of  the  disease  he  oould 
apply  a  remedy  which  would  cure  the  patient  in  a 
few  hours,  a  very  slight  knowledge  of  pathological 
anatomy  would  shew  the  folly  of  such  an  asser- 
tion. The  best  EnffUsh  works  on  this  sabject  an 
Vogel's  PathologicaT  Anatomy  of  the  Human  Bod^ 
and  Jones  and  Sieveking's  Manual  of  PcUhologicai 
Anatomy, 

PATHOXOGY  (from  the  Gr.  pathos,  disease, 
and  loffos^  a  discourse)  is  that  department  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  doctrine  of  morbid  actions 
or  diseases.  In  this  country  the  term  is  bo  far 
restricted  as  not  to  include  the  causes,  treatment^ 
&c.,  of  diseases,  but  the  most  eminent  French  and 
German  writers  regard  it  as  equivalent  to  *the 
Theory  and  Practice  of  Medicine,'  and  consider  it 
as  treating  not  only  of  the  classification,  causes, 
symptoms,  and  physical  signs  of  diseases,  but  as  also 
including  their  seat,  the  phenomena  which  precede 
and  follow  them,  their  progress,  their  duration,  their 
modes  of  termination,  the  different  forms  in  which 
they  occur,  their  complications,  the  changes  to  which 
they  give  rise  in  the  solids  and  fluids  of  the  body, 
and  l£eir  treatment. 

PA'TMOS,  a  bare  and  rocky  island  in  the  J^ean 
Sea,  about  45  miles  in  circiunference.  It  belongs 
to  the  group  called  the  Sporades,  lies  to  the  south 
of  Samos,  and  is  now  called  Patino,  but  in  the 
middle  ages  PalmoMf  although  there  is  now  only 
one  paim-tree  in  the  whole  island.  It  is  celebrated 
as  the  place  to  which  the  apostle  John  was  exiled, 
and  where  he  saw  the  visions  recorded  in  the  Book 
of  Revelation.  On  the  top  of  a  moimtain  stands 
the  famous  monastery  of  'John  the  Divine,'  half 
way  up  to  which  a  cave  is  pointed  out  to  the  tra- 
veller in  which,  according  to  tradition,  the  aposUe 
received  his  revelations.  See  Boss's  ReUen  a^f 
den  OriecftMchen  Jnaeln  dea  Agdiscken  Meeres^  and 
Gu6rin'8  DeaaripUon  de  Pile  dt  Taimos,  &c.  (Paris, 
1856). 

PATNA,  or  more  correctly,  PATTANA  (L  e.,  the 
town),  an  important  trading  town  of  Hindustan, 
capital  of  a  Bntish  district  of  the  same  name,  stands 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  10  miles  east 
of  Dinapur,  and  377  miles  by  hmd,  and  464  miles 
by  water,  north-west  of  Calcutta.  The  city  propo*, 
forming  a  quadrangle,  extends  a  mile  and  a  nail 
alouff  the  nver-side,  and  is  half  that  extoit  in 
breadth.  P.  is  generally  supposed,  however,  to 
include  the  suburosi  which  stretch  on  emdh  aide 


PATOIS-PATRIA  POTESTAa 


of  it,  on  the  Boath  bank  of  the  Ganges.  The 
European  quarter  is  on  the  west  of  the  town  proper ; 
bnt  the  houses  are  neither  numerous  nor  of  imposing 
appearance.  In  this  quarter  is  a  large  school,  in 
which  the  English  language  and  literature  form 
important  branches  of  study.  P.  is  not  a  pleasant 
place  of  residence ;  its  streets  are  covered  with  mud 
and  slime  in  winter,  and  its  air  is  thickly  impreg- 
nated with  choking  dust  in  summer.  Its  tempera- 
ture rises  unusually  high  during  the  hot  season, 
being  increased  by  the  heat  reflected  and  radiated 
from  a  bare  tract  of  sand  on  a  neighbouring  island 
in  the  Ganges.    Pop.  about  284,00a 

P.,  under  the  former  name  of  PadmavaU,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  capital  of  Bahar,  419 
years  B.  a  Here,  at  an  early  period,  the  English 
established  factories,  and  traded  in  opium,  rice,  &c. 
In  1763,  disputes  about  transit-duties  arose  between 
the  Company *8  servants  and  the  native  government. 
A  war  ensued,  the  result  of  which  was  that  the 
British  drove  out  the  native  forces,  and  took 
possession  of  the  districts 

PATOIS  (of  uncertain  derivation),  the  French 
term  applied  to  comipt  dialects  of  a  language 
spoken  by  the  uneducated.    See  Dialect. 

PATON,  Joseph  Noel,  R.S.A.,  one  of  the  most 
distinguished  living  Scottish  artists,  was  bom  in 
Dunfermline  in  18*23.  It  is  understood  that  in 
early  life  he  employed  himself  in  making  designs  for 
the  damask  manufacturers  of  his  native  pla^  and 
for  the  muslin  and  lace  embroiderers  of  Paisley.  He, 
however,  soon  turned  his  attention  to  the  walk  of 
art  proper,  and  his  cartoon  sketch,  *  I'he  Spirit  of 
Beligion,'  gained  one  of  the  three  premiums  at  the 
Westminster  Hall  competition  in  1845.  Two  years 
thereafter,  his  oil-picture  of  *  Christ  bearing  the 
Cross,*  and  his  *  lieconciliation  of  Oberon  and 
Titania,*  jointly  gained  the  prize  of  £300.  He  sub- 
sequently executed  a  companion-picture  to  the 
'  Beconciliation,'  entitled  the  *  Quarrel  of  Oberon 
and  Titania ; '  and  both  now  adorn  the  Royal  Scottish 
Academy's  gsdleries  in  Edinburgh.  These  pictures 
made  the  artistes  reputation.  Although  somewhat 
hard  and  dry  in  colour,  and  without  any  retiring 
and  shadowy  depth,  they  are  full  of  brilliant  fancy ; 
and  the  multitudes  of  ligures,  and  the  variety  of 
fairy  incident,  affect  the  S{>ectator  much  in  the  way 
that  the  constant  sparkle  of  Congreve  or  Sheridan 
affects  Uie  reader.  He  has  since  painted  much  more 
simply  and  powerfully.  *  Dante  Meditating  the 
Episode  of  Francesca,*  was  exhibited  in  Edinburgh 
in  1852;  and  the  *  Dead  Lady,*  a  work  of  great  and 
aolenui  pathos,  in  1S54  In  1855,  his  great  picture, 
•The  Pursuit  of  Pleasure,*  was  exhibited  in  that 
city,  where  it  was  much  criticised  and  much  admired. 
He  has  since  x>Ai>^ted  *Home  from  the  Crimea,'  a 
replica  of  which  is  in  the  possession  of  Her  Majesty; 
and  '  In  Memoriam,*  a  scene  from  the  Indian 
mutinies  ;  and  for  the  Association  for  the  Promotion 
of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Scotland,  a  series  of  picture- 
illustrations  of  the  *  Dowie  Dens  o*  Yarrow.*  The 
three  works  referred  to  have  been  engraved,  and 
are  deservedly  popular.  His  last  picture  of 
importance,  *  Luther  at  Erfurt,*  was  exhibited  in 
I>iDdon  in  1862,  and  subsequently  in  Edinburgh. 
He  has  not  eontined  himself  to  painting  alone,  in 
conjtinctioQ  with  his  brother,  ne  illustrated  Pro- 
fesDor  Aytoun's  Lays  of  the  Scottish  Cavalitrs^ 
published  Christmas  1863;  and  for  the  London 
Art  Union,  1864,  he  executed  twenty  illustrations 
of  ihe  Ancient  Mariner. 

P.  has  worked  with  the  pen  as  well  as  with  the 
brash  and  pencil  In  1861  appeared  his  volume  of 
poetry,  entitled  Poeme  bv  a  Painter^  full  of  grace, 
oielady.  and  eloquence. 


PATO'NCE,  Cross,    in  Heraldry  (Lat  patens, 
exiMtnding),  a  cross  with  its  termina- 
tions expanding  like  early  vegetation 
or  an  opening  blossom. 

PA'TOS,  Laoo  des.    See  Sui^  Rio 
Grand  do. 

PATRAS  (ancient  Patrm,  Turk. 
Baiiabadra)t  a  fortified  seaport,  and 
the  most  important  trading  town  in  Patonoa 
the  west  of  Greece,  in  the  government 
of  Achaia  and  Elis,  stands  on  the  eastern  shore  of  the 
gulf  of  the  same  name,  12  miles  south- south- west 
of  Lepanto.  It  is  overlooked  by  the  strong  citadel 
--on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Acropolis — crowning  a 
ridge,  on  the  southern  slopes  of  which  the  ancient 
city,  as  well  as  the  modern  one  before  the  revo- 
lution, was  built  The  P.  of  to-day  stands  on  a 
level  space  close  to  the  sea.  Hie  plain  of  P.  is 
exceedingly  valuable  for  the  currants  grown," 
and  which  are  the  most  important  export  of  the 
town.  Its  harbour,  though  protected  by  a  mole,  is 
unsafe,  and  exposed  to  heavy  seas.  Earthquakes 
frequently  occur,  and  most  of  the  houses  are  on 
that  account  only  of  one  story.  Capotes,  made 
of  mixed  wool  and  goat's  hair,  are  manufactured ; 
and  besides  currants,  silk,  cotton,  wool,  and  hides 
are  exported.  P.  is  a  thriving  town,  and  has 
almost  entirely  recovered  from  the  injury  it  sus- 
tained during  the  Greek  revolution.  Pop.  about 
20,00(). 

PatrcB  is  the  only  one  of  the  'twelve  cities'  of 
Achaia  which  still  exists  as  a  town ;  but  most  of 
its  relics  have  been  swept  away  by  earthquake  and 
revolution. 

PATRIA  POTE'STAS  is  the  term  used  to 
express  the  power  which  the  civil  law  gave  to  the 
Roman  father  over  his  children,  and  which  has  been 
the  foundation  of  the  greatly  modified  paternal 
authority  recognised  in  modern  systems  of  juris- 
pnulence.  The  right  of  a  parent  to  control  his 
child  not  come  to  years  of  discretion  is  a  part  of 
natural  law,  but  the  more  extensive  patria  potesfas 
of  the  Romans  was  probably  a  relic  of  those  early 
times  in  which  families,  or  tribes  considered  as 
families,  led  a  wandering  pastoral  life  in  dread  of 
each  other,  under  the  guidance  of  a  chief,  whom  it 
was  necessary  to  invest  with  an  almost  unlimited 
authority. 

By  the  Roman  law,  the  patria  potestas  was 
acquired  naturally,  by  the  birth  of  a  child  in 
wedlock,  or  civilly,  by  legitimation  or  adoption.  An 
unemancipated  son  or  daughter,  a  grandchild  by  a 
son,  or  any  other  descendant  by  males,  was  viewed 
as  a  part  of  the  parent's  property.  In  early  times  a 
father  had  the  power  of  life  and  death  over  his 
children :  by  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables  he 
could  sell  them  as  slaves,  or  could  transfer  them  to 
another  family  by  adoption.  Under  the  republic, 
the  desiK>tic  authority  exercised  by  fathers  over 
their  offspring  was  practically  limited  to  a  consider- 
able extent  by  the  censors,  and  several  emperors 
issued  constitutions  to  restrain  the  cruelties  often 
perpetrated  by  fathers  towards  their  children.  Fii*st 
the  right  of  sale,  and  then  that  of  life  and  death  was 
taken  away.  Alexander  Severus  restricted  the 
right  of  the  father  to  moderate  chastisement,  and 
Constantine  declared  that  the  father  who  should 
kill  his  son  was  to  be  held  guilty  of  murder.  By 
the  early  Roman  law,  the  son,  being  in  his  father  s 
power,  could  not  acquire  property  for  himself ;  his 
acquisitions  all  belonged  to  his  father ;  hence  he  was 
incapable  of  making  a  testament.  There  were,  how- 
ever, particularly  in  later  times,  modes  by  which  he 
could  acquire  peculiutriy  or  property  which  should 

be  independent  of  his  father.    A  father  might  give 

82S 


PATRIA  POTESTAS— PATRIARCH. 


his  son  property  to  trade  on,  which  wonlil  be  his  own ; 
and  latterly  a  son  acquired  for  himself  whatever  he 
gained  in  military  service,  or  by  the  dischai^ge  of 
certain,  civil  functions.  In  all  matters  belonging  to 
the  jus  pubUcum  a  son  was  independent  of  his 
father;  he  could  vote  at  the  elections,  hold  the 
most  important  offices  of  state,  or  command  the 
array.  He  could  also  be  a  tutor,  tutory  being 
considered  a  munua  publicum.  In  later  times,  a  son 
promoted  to  the  consular  dignity  ceased  to  be  under 
the  restraints  of  paternal  control,  but,  unlike  an 
emancipated  son,  he  retained  his  rishts  of  succession. 
Lawful  children  were  entitled  to  aliment  firom  their 
parents  ;  an  obligation  attached  m  the  first  instance 
to  the  father  and  mother,  and,  failing  them,  to  the 
grandfather.  UntU  the  time  of  Justinian,  illegitimate 
children  had  only  a  claim  for  support  against  their 
mother ;  that  emperor  gave  them  a  right  to  demand 
uliment  from  their  father. 

In  no  modem  system  has  the  paternal  power  been 
carried  so  far  as  under  the  Roman  law.  According 
to  the  French  *Code  Civile,'  a  child  is  under  the 
authority  of  his  parents  till  majority  or  emanci- 
pation; up  to  tnat  time  he  cannot  quit  the 
paternal  residence  without  leave  of  his  father,  except 
for  enrolment  in  the  army  at  18  years  of  age. 
Majority  is  attained  at  the  age  of  21,  but  a  minor  is 
emancipated  by  marriage.  At  15,  a  minor  may 
be  emancipated  by  his  father,  or,  if  his  father 
be  dead,  by  his  mother,  by  a  simple  declaration 
before  a  magistrate.  The  father  possesses  somewhat 
extensive  powers  of  chastisement.  He  may  obtain 
a  warrant  to  arrest  his  child  under  16,  and  detain 
him  in  prison  for  a  month ;  and  an  order  may 
be  obtained  for  the  incarceration  for  six  months 
of  a  child  above  16,  on  cause  shewn  to  the  satisfaction 
of  the  magistrate.  Parents  are  entitled  to  ^he 
usufruct  of  their  children's  property  till  the  age 
of  18  or  emancipation,  subject  to  tiiie  burdens  of 
maintenance  and  education ;  but  this  right  does  not 
extend  to  proi)erty  acquired  by  the  industry  of  the 
children,  or  bequeathed  by  a  stranger  under  the 
condition  of  an  exclusion  of  parental  mterferenoe. 

By  the  law  of  England,  a  father  is  guardian  to  his 
lawful  children  in  minority,  thouc^h  this  right  ceases 
to  some  extent  at  14  He  has  the  power  of 
moderate  chastisement.  As  guardian,  he  receives 
the  rents  of  any  real  estate  which  the  child  may 
possess,  which  he  must  account  for  when  majority 
IS  attained.  The  paternal  power  never  extends 
beyond  majority,  and,  to  some  efifect,  marriage  acts 
as  an  emancipation.  A  father  may  by  deed  appoint 
a  guardian  to  such  of  his  children  as  are  uimiarried 
at  his  death  till  they  attain  majority. 

In  ScoUand  a  father  has  a  general  control  over  the 
persons  of  his  children  during  pupilarity ;  that  is, 
till  the  age  of  14  in  the  case  of  sons,  and  12 
in  the  case  of  daughters.  He  may  fix  their  place  of 
residence,  direct  tueir  education,  and  inflict  reason- 
able chastisement.  The  limits  of  the  patria  poiestas 
as  regards  children  who  have  attained  puberty,  but 
are  under  21  years  of  age,  are  not  verv  exactly 
defined;  but  it  seems  to  be  nnderstooa  that  in 
ordinary  circumstances  minors  are  not  entitled 
to  choose  their  own  place  of  residence  in  defiance  of 
paternal  authority.  The  father  is  administrator-in- 
faw,  and  tutor  and  curator  of  his  children,  unless  in 
the  case  of  an  estate  left  by  a  stranger  and  traced 
under  separate  management.  This  suardianahip 
ceases  on  majority,  or  on  the  marriage  of  a  daughter. 

PA'TKIARCH  (Or.  patriarcheSy  the  head  of  a 
tribe)  ia  the  name  ffiven  to  the  heads  of  the 
families  in  the  antediluvian  period  of  Scripture 
history,  and  is  still  more  familiar  as  the  designation 
in  Jewish  history  of  the  three  progenitors  of  the 
Jewish  people,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.    In  the 

334 


later  history  of  the  Jews,  too,  after  the  destruction 
of  Jerusalem,  the  name  was  used  to  designate  the 
heads  of  the  Sanhedrim,  one  of  whom,  the  patriarch 
of  the  west,  resided   at  Tiberias,  in  Galilee,  and 
the  other,  the  patriarch  of  the  Eastern  Jews,  at 
Babylon.  ^  The    most   familiar  use   of   the  word, 
however,  is  in  the  history  of  the  Christian  church. 
It  is  the  name  given  to  the  bishops  of  certain  great 
Metropolitan  (q.  v.)  Sees,  who  not  only  held  rank 
bejrond   other  metropolitans,  but  also    enjoyed  a 
jurisdiction  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  metro- 
politan in  his  own  province  over  all  the  m<<Topolitans 
themselves  (with  their  provinces)  includes!  m  their 
district,  which  was  called  a  'Patbiab.chkTE,    The 
name  patriarch  originally  seems  to  have  h  «en  given 
commonly  to  bishops,  or  at  least  was    oertainlj 
given  in  a  less  special  sense  than  what  it  cn  entually 
assumed ;  nor  can  the  date  at  which  tiie  titie  first 
assumed  its  now  received  use  be  exactly  determined. 
It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  name  and  the  office 
were  both  recognised  before  the  Council  of  Nice,  at 
which  time,  as  we  learn  from  the  sixth  canon,  the 
patriarchal  sees,  acknowledged  by  'ancient  custom,* 
were  three  in  number,  Rome,  Antioch,  and  Alexan- 
dria.   After  the  translation  of  the  seat  of  empire  to 
Byzantium,    thenceforward    called   Constantinople, 
that  see,  originally  subject  to  the  metropolitan  of 
Heradea,  obtained,  first  metropolitan,  and  aftei^ 
wards  patriarchal  rank  ;  and  eventually  established 
a  precedency  over  the  patriarchs  of  Antioch  and 
Alexandria,    being    second  only  to    Rome.      The 
contests    between    the    patriarchs   of   Rome    and 
Constantinople  were  among  the  chief  causes  of  the 
Greek  Schism  (q.  v.).    To  these  four  patriarchates 
was  added  a  fifth,  in  the  year  451,  that  of  Jerusalem, 
which  was  formed  out  of  the  ancient  patriarchate 
of  Antioch.     The  limits  of  these  five  patriarchates 
can  only  be  loosely  assi^ed.     The  authority  of  a 
patriarch  was,  in  the  mam,  that  <^  a  metropolitan, 
out  extended  over  the  metropolitans  tiiemselves.  He 
had  a  right  to  consecrate  the  metropolitans,  and  to 
preside  over  the  councils  of  his  patriarchate.     After 
the  Greek  Schism,  and  particularly  after  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  Latin  Kingdom  of  Jerusalem,  Latin 
prelates  were  appointed  with  the  title  and  rank  of 

Eatriarch  in  the  four  great  Eastern  sees.  It  was 
oped  that  the  union  of  the  churches,  effected  at 
the  Council  of  Florence,  would  have  put  an  end  to 
the  contest  thus  created;  but  that  union  proved 
transitory,  and  the  double  series  of  patriarcns  has 
been  continued  to  the  present  day.  The  Nestorian 
and  Eutychian  sections  of  the  Eastern  Churches, 
too,  have  each  their  own  patriarch,  and  the  head  of 
that  portion  of  the  former,  which  in  the  16th  c.  was 
reconciled  with  the  Roman  see,  althoui^h  known  by 
the  title  of  CaUtolicoSf  has  the  rank  and  authority  of 
patriarch.  After  the  separation  of  the  Russian 
Church  from  that  of  Constantinople,  the  name  and 
authority  of  the  metropolitan  in  the  end  was  trans- 
formed into  that  of  patriarch.  But  the  office  was 
suppressed  by  Peter  the  Great 

Besides  these,  which  are  called  the  Greater 
Patriarchates,  there  have  been  others  in  the  Western 
Church  ki)own  by  the  name  of  Minor  Patriarchates. 
Of  these  the  most  ancient  were  those  of  Aqnileia 
and  Grade.  The  latter  was  transferred  to  Venice  in 
1451 ;  the  former  was  suppressed  by  Benedict  XIV. 
France  also  had  a  patriarch  of  Bouiges ;  Spain,  for 
her  colonifd  missions,  a  patriarch  of  the  Indies  ;  and 
Portugal  a  patriarch  of  Lisbon.  These  titles, 
however,  are  little  more  than  honorary. 

In  the  non-united  Greek  Church,  the  ancient 
system  of  the  three  patriarchates  of  Constantinople, 
Antioch,  and  Jerusalem  is  nominally  maintained, 
and  the  authority  of  the  patriarchs  is  recopiised  by 
their  own  communion.    But  the  juri%diction-Um^ 


PATRIARCHAL  CROSS— PATRICK,  ST,  ORDER  OF. 


of  the  patmrch.  of  .Constantmople,  who  is  acknow- 
ledged as  the  head,  have  been  much  modified.  The 
Russo- Greek  Chnrch  withdrew  from  him  partially 
in  the  17th,  and  finally  in  the  18th  century.  That 
of  Greece  proper  has  been  practically  separated 
since  the  independence  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece ; 
and  some  years  since  it  formally  declared  its  inde- 
pendence.  The  patriarchs  of  Jerusalem  and  Antioch 
AATe  few  followers  of  their  own  rite. 

PATRIARCHAL  CROSS,  a  cross  which,  Uke 
the  patriarchal  crosier,  has  its  upright 
part  crossel  by  two  horizontal  bars, 
the  upper  shorter  than  the  lower.  A 
cross  itatriarchal  fimbriated  or  waa  a 
badge  of  the  Knights  Templars. 

PATRI'CIAN  (Lai  patridus,  from 
Patriarchal  pO'^^y  father),  a  name  given  to  the 
Cross.  members  of  Roman  genteB^  of  whom  the 
populus  Ratnanus  consisted,  and  to  their 
descendants  by  blood  and  adoption.  PcUres  and 
patridi  were  in  the  early  days  of  Rome  synonym- 
ons,  they  were  so  named  from  the  pa6rocinium 
which  they  exercised  over  the  whole  state,  and  all 
classes  of  whom  it  was  composed.  Niebuhr's 
researches  have  established  that,  until  the  plebs 
became  a  distinct  order,  the  patricians  were  the 
entire  citizens  or  populus  of  Rome ;  a  select  number 
of  them  were  senators;  and  the  original  inhabitants, 
seduced  to  a  condition  of  servitude,  were  known  by 
the  name  of  dientes  or  plebs.  The  amalgamation 
of  the  three  tribes  of  Ramnes,  Tities,  and  Luceres, 
gave  rise  to  a  distinction  between  paired  majorum 
genlium  and  patrea  minorum  gentium — the  latter 
term  being  applied  to  families  recently  elevated 
to  an  eauality  with  the  old  patrician  class.  On  the 
establiuunent  of  the  plebeians  as  a  distinct  order, 
sharing  certain  rights  with  the  patricians,  the 
patriciate  became  an  aristocracy  of  birth,  in  the 
exclusive  possession  of  a  number  of  important  privi- 
l^es.  A  long  struggle  between  the  two  orders 
ended  in  the  attainment  by  the  plebeians  of  a  political 
equality,  and  the  establishment  of  a  new  aristocracy 
of  noftUes  based  ^  on  wealth  and  office.  Under 
Oonstantine,  the  dignity  of  patrieius  became  a 
personal  title ;  not  hereditary,  but  conferring  very 
nigh  honour  and  certain  privileges.  It  was  created 
at  Conaiantinople,  and  not  confined  to  Romans 
or  subjects  of  the  emjrare,  but  sometimes  bestowed 
on  foreign  princes.  These  patricians,  unlike  the 
old  Roman  order,  were  distini^ished  in  dress  and 
equipage  from  the  ordinary  citizens.  The  popes  in 
arter  times  conferred  the  same  title  on  eminent 
persons  and  princes,  including  many  of  the  German 
emperors.  In  several  of  the  Germanic  kingdoms 
the  title  of  patrician  was  bestowed  on  distinguished 
subjects  ;  and  in  some  parts  of  Italy  the  hereditary 
nobility  are  still  styled  patricians. 

PATRICSl,  St,  a  distinguished  missionary  of  the 
BQi  c,  commonly  known  as  the  Apostle  of  Ireland. 
There  is  some  uncertainty  as  to  the  date  and  place 
of  his  birth.  The  year  of  lus  birth  is  variously 
assigned  to  the  years  377  and  387,  of  which  the 
latter,  if  not  even  a  later  date  is  more  probable. 
Of  the  place,  it  is  only  known  for  certain,  from 
his  own  confession,  that  his  father  had  a  small 
farm  near  Bonavem  Taberiiiee;  and  in  one  of  the 
ancient  lives  he  is  said  to  have  been  born  at 
Kemthnr.  Arguing  on  these  data,  connected  with 
other  collateral  indications,  some  writers  assign  his 
birUiplace  to  Uie  present  Boulogne-sur-Mer ;  others 
to  a  place  in  i^e  estuary  of  the  Clyde  (called  from 
him  Kilpatrick)  at  or  near  the  modem  Dumbarton, 
fiis  father,  he  himself  tells,  was  a  deacon  named 
Calpumius ;  his  mother,  according  to  the  ancient 
biographers,  was  named   Conches  or   Couch«esa» 


according  to  some  of  these  authorities,  a  sister  of 
St  Martin  of  Tours.    P.'s  original  name  is  said  U 
have  been   Suocath,   Patricius   being  the    Roman 
appellative  by  which  he  was  known.    In  his  16th 
year  he  was  seized,  while  at  his  father*s  farm  of 
bonavem  Tabemie,  by  a  band  of  pirates,  and  with 
a  number  of  others  was  carried  to  Ireland,  and 
sold  to  a  petty  chief,  in  whose  service  he  remained 
for  six  years ;  after  which  he  succeeded  in  effecting 
his  escape,  and,  probably  after  a  second  captivity, 
went  to  France,  where  he  became  a  monk,  first  at 
Tours,  and  afterwards  in  the  celebrated  monastery 
of  Lerins.     In  the  year  431  he  went  to  Rome, 
whence   he  was    sent  by  the  pope  of   the  day, 
Celestine,  to    preach  in  Ireland;    PaUadius,  who 
had  been  sent  as   missionary  to  that  country  a 
short   time    before,    having    died.      Such    is    the 
received  account  of  his   mission ;    but  Dr  Todd, 
his   latest  biographer,  regards   this  statement  as 
erroneous,  and  fixes  the  date    of   his  comine  to 
Ireland  eight  years  later.     He  was  ordained   in 
France,  and  amved  in  Ireland  in  432.    His  mission 
was  eminently  successful   He  adopted  the  expedient 
of  addressing  himself  first  to  tne  chiefs,  and  of 
improving,  as  far  as  ]x>8sible,  the  spirit  of  clanship, 
and  other  existing  usages    of   the    Irish  for  the 
furtherance    of    his    preaching;    nor    can    it    be 
doubted  that  he  had  much  success  in  Christian- 
ising the   ancient   Irish  system  of  belief  and   of 
practice.    By  degrees  he  visited  a  large  portion  of 
the  kingdom,  and  baptised  great  numbers  as  well 
of  the  chieftains  as  of  the  people.    According  to  the 
accounts  of  his  Irish  bio^phers,  he  founded  365 
churches,  and  baptised  with  his  own  hand  12,000 
persons.    He  is  said  also  to  have  ordained  a  vast 
number  of  priests,  and  to  have  blessed  very  many 
monks  and  nuns.   After  he  had  been  about  ^  years 
engaged  in  his  missionary  enterprise,  he  is  saSd  to 
have  fixed  his  see  at  Armagh  aoout  the  year  454 ; 
and  having  procured  two   of  his  disciples  to  be 
ordained  bishops,  he  held  probably  more  than  one 
synod,  the  decrees  of  which  have  been  a  subject 
of  much  controversy.    He  died  at  a  place  called 
Saul,  near  Downpatrick  ;  and  his  relics  were  pre- 
served at  Downpatrick  down  to  the  period  of  the 
Reformation.    The  place  is  stUl  venerated  by  the 
people.    The  date  ot  his  death  is  much  disputed; 
the  fiollandists    placing  it  in  460,  while  Ussher 
holds  it  to  have  been  49£   Dr  Todd  inclines  strongly 
to  the  latter  opinion,  in  which  case  P.'s  age  would 
have  been  126,  or  at  least  116.    The  only  certainly 
authentic  literary  remains  of  St  P.  are  his  *  Confes- 
sion *  and  a  letter,  both  of  very  rude  Latinity,  but  of 
much  historical  interest.    The  letter  is  addressed  to 
Goroticus,  who  is  supposed  to  have  been  a  Welsh 
chieftain   named    Ci^adoc    (from  whom    Cardi^n 
is  named),  who  had  made  a  descent  on  the  Irish 
coast,  and  slain  or  carried  off,  with  circumstances 
of  great  cruelty,  a  number  of  the  Irish,  many  of 
whom  were  neophytes.     These,  with  some  other 
remains  ascribed  to  him,  as  also  decrees  of  synods, 
were  published   in  Wilkins's   Concilia,  and  sepa- 
rately by  Ware,   Opuseula  S.  Patriad  Adacripta 
(1656)    and   by  Villanueva  (Dubhn,   1835).      The 
latest  biography  of  »t  P.  is  that  of  the  Rev.  J.  H. 
Todd,  1  voL  8vo.  (Dublin,  1863). 

PATRICK,  St,  Obdkb  of,  a  national  order  of 
knighthood  for  Ireland,  established  by  George  IIL 
on  Sie  5th  of  February  1783,  and  enlarged  in  1833^ 
As  originidly  constituted,  it  consisted  of  the 
Sovereign,  the  Grand-master  (who  was  slways  the 
lord-lieutenant  of  Ireland  for  the  time  being),  and 
15  Knights.  By  the  statutes  of  1833  the  number  of 
knights  was  increased  to  22. 

The  Collar  of  the  order  (of  ^old)  is  composed  d 
roses  alternating  with  harps,  tied  together  ^-ith  » 


PATRIPASSIAN8-PATE0N. 


knot  of  gold,  the  roees  bein^  euanielled  altemstely 
white  wiUlin  red,  and  red  within  white,  and  in  the 
oentre  it  mn  imperial  crown  luimountlDg  a  harn  of 
sold,  from  which  the  badge  is  miBpeuded.  The 
Sadgt  or  Ji  •eel  it  of  gold,  and  oval ;  (nrromldiug 
it  ia  a  wreath  ot  shamrock  proper  on  a  gold  field ; 
vithia  this  is  a  biatd  at  sky-blue  enamel  charged 
with  the  motto  of  the  order,  Qms  Skparabit  j 
mjCCLIUCXin.  in  gold  letters  ;  and  within  this  band  | 
•  aaltire  giilea  (the  croaa  of  St  Fatrick),  aurmonnted 
by  a  ahamrock  or  trefoil  slipped  vert,  having  on 
each  of  its  leaves  aa  imperial  crown  or.  The  lield 
of  the  croaa  ia  either  argent,  or  pierced  and  left  open. 


Older  of  St  Fstiick. 

A  akv.blne  Biibtm,  worn  over  the  right  ahonlder, 

sustains  the  badge  when  Uie  collar  is  not  worn.  The 
Star,  worn  on  the  left  side,  differs  from  the  badge 
only  in  beini;  circulai;  in  place  of  oval,  and  in 
■abstitutiag  for  the  exterior  wreath  of  shamrocks 
eight  rays  of  diver,  foar  of  which  are  Urger  than 
the  other  four.  The  Manti.b  ia  of  rich  sky-blue 
tabinet,  lined  with  white  silk,  and  foateaed  by  a 
cordon  of  blue  ailk  and  gold  with  tassels.  On  the 
right  ahoolder  is  the  Hoos,  of  the  same  materials  aa 
the  mantle. 

The  Older  ia  uidioated  by  the  initials  K.  P. 

PATRIPA'SSIAITS  (Ut  pater,  father,  and 
pisnut,  Baffered),  the  name  of  one  of  the  earlieat 
classes  of  anti- Trinitarian  sectarips,  who,  in  main- 
taining the  oneness  of  the  Godhead,  held  that 
all  t))nt  is  aacribed  in  the  Scriptures,  according  to 
the  Trinitarian  eipositioo,  to  any  of  the  Three 
PeraoDs,  is  in  reality  true  of  the  one  Principle, 
whom  alone  these  sectaries  admitted,  being  in 
eouaequence  called  '  Monarchians '  (Gr.  monot, 
one,  and  ardtl,  principle).  The  leader  of  this 
aect  was  Praieas,  a  native  of  Fhrygia,  who  lived 
in  the  end  of  the  2d  century.  The  name  P.,  for 
which  the  Greek  eqnivalent  was  PaCropiurAite, 
was  in  some  sense  a  sobriquet,  being  founded  on 
what  their  aatagonista  regarded  as  the  absurd 
consequence  derivable  from  their  doctrine —viz., 
that  as  it  was  true  to  say  that  Jesus,  in  whom 
dwelt  the  Logos,  or  the  Sun,  anSered,  theiefoie  it 


would  be  true  on  their  principles  to  aay  tbit 
Father  suffered.  The  sect  in  this  ;>arUculir  f( 
was  chieSy  knuwn  in  Rome  ;  but  then  priucipln 
in  the  main  the  same  with  those  of  the  Sabetlii 
In  Rome,  Praieos  was  sacceeded  by  Noetus,  but 
])arty  does  not  appear  to  have  bam  nnmenoui 
influentiaL 

PATRO'CLUS.     See  ACHlLLia. 

PATROX  is  a  detachment  of  live  or  ail  BolJi< 
fully  armed,  sent  out,  under  a  sergeant,  from 
niainguard  or  picket  to  traveree  the  streets  i 
garrison  town,  &c.,  and  arrest  disorderly  pen 
or  soldiers  out  of  barrack  without  proptr  {laa 
Prisoners  are  taken  to  the  guard- house,  and  hroii 
before  the  town-major.  In  a  besie^^  (ortr 
patroU  are  strong  bodies  of  men  empluyed  to  j 
menode  Uie  linea  of  defenoe,  oud  watuh  against 
Msaults  on  tiie  part  of  the  enemy. 

PATRON  (Lat  patronaa.  from  palrr,  latt 
among  the  UomauB  originally  siEnitied  a  citizen  ' 
had  dependents,  who  were  called  elienti,  attschei 
him.  Before  the  time  of  the  I^ws  of  the  Twi 
Tables,  the  most  freqiient  use  of  the  term  pain 
was  in  opposition  to  libertue,  thete  two  woide  b 
used  to  eignify  peraoas  who  stood  to  one  anothe 
the  relation  of  master  and  manumitted  alave. 
Romau  was  not  denuded  of  all  right  in  his  > 
when  he  freed  him  ;  a  tie  remained  somewhat 
that  of  ]>sreiit  and  child,  and  the  law  recogo 
important  obligations  on  the  part  of  the  libe 
towards  his  iiatron,  the  neglect  of  which  invo! 
aevere  punishment  In  some  cases  the  patron  o 
claim  a  right  to  the  whole  or  part  of  the  prop 
of  his  freed  man.  The  original  idea  of  a  po 
apart  from  the  manumitter  of  slaves  continne 
exist.  A  Roman  citizen,  desirous  of  a  prate- 
might  attach  himself  to  a  patron,  whoee  dien 
thenceforward  became  ;  and  distinguished  Ron 
were  Bometimea  patrons  of  dependent  atata 
citica,  particularly  where  they  had  beta  the  m 
of  bringing  them  into  subjection.  Thus  the  1 
celli  were  patrons  of  the  Sicilians,  because  Clan 
Marcelliis  had  conquered  Syracuse  and  Sicily, 
patron  was  the  guardian  of  his  client's  inte 
public  and  private ;  as  his  legal  adviser,  he  v 
cated  his  rights  before  the  court*  of  law. 
cUent  was  Ijound,  on  vanons  ocouions,  to  a 
the  patron  with  money,  aa  by  paying  the  cos' 
his  suits,  contributing  to  the  marriage  portioi 
his  daughters,  and  defraying  in  j>art  the  eipi 
incurred  in  the  discharge  of  public  fnnct 
Patron  and  client  were  under  an  obligation  nev 
accuse  one  another  ;  to  violate  this  law  amounti 
the  crime  of  treason,  and  any  one  wae  ot  liber 
slay  the  offender  with  impunity.  One  obvious  i 
of  the  institution  of  dienteta  was  the  introducti< 
an  element  of  union  between  classea  of  citizens 
were  otherwise  continually  brought  into  opiioe 
to  each  other.  As  the  patron  was  in  the  nal 
ap)>earing  in  support  of  his  clients  in  cour 
justice,  the  word  palroaus  acquired,  in  cour 
time,  the  signilication  of  advocate  or  Ingal  ad 
and  defender,  tlie  client  being  the  party  defen 
hence  the  modem  relation  between  counsel 
client. — Palroa,  in  after  times,  became  a  cnn 
designation  of  every  protector  or  powerful 
motor  of  the  interests  of  another ;  and  the  si 
who  were  believed  to  watch  over  tbe  inters 
particular  persona,  places,  badea,  £c.  luquir- 
the  middle  ages  the  designation  of  their  p 
saints.  The  saint  in  wbuae  name  •  chui' 
founded  is  considered  its  patron  saint. 

The  term  Patron  has  also  been  applied  to 
who  endowed  or  sapjiorted  cburohea  and  ooai 
See  PATftOHAOB,  EccuBtASixcu. 


PATRONAOa 


PATBONAOB,  Eoolkiaotioai,  the  rif[ht    of 

Ereseotiog  &  fit  person  to  a  vacant  eccleaiiutical 
enelice.  The  patrOD,  in  the  original  and 
■Uict  aense,  van  the  penoD  who  founded  or  audowed 
the  chucch.  In  the  early  ages  of  Chriationitj,  the 
countries  where  the  new  religion  had  been  adopted 
were  iiareclled  out  into  large  districts  or  dioceses, 
nnder  the  auperbtendeDce  of  a  biebop,  who  usually 
reBided  in  the  neighboiirhiHid  of  one  of  the  religieuB 
booBea.  Within  such  district  the  bishop  had  the 
aominBtioa  of  the  priests,  wbo  Bup]itLed  religj 
iDstrnction  to  the  people.  The  pneBta  were  paid 
lut  of  the  epieoopal  treasury,  and  tr«ve!Ied  about  in 
:ht  eierciae  of  their  duties,  having  their  residence 
Kith  the  bishop,  and  forming  that  epifcopi  eltru* 
n-hich  constituted  the  notion  of  cathedral  churches 
ind  monuteriea  in  their  simplest  form.  Ocua. 
lionally  a  bishop  endowed  a  church  in  bis  diocese, 
knd  attached  a  ]iriGSt  permanently  to  it;  and  in  Gaul, 
n  the  5th  c,  a  bishop  who  founded  a  church 
L  neighbouriuff  dioceae  wag  allowed  to  appoint  .._ 
nctunb«nt  of  his  choice.      As  Christianity  became 


Lonasteriea,  and  occasional  e|)iscopally  endowed 
churches,  became  inadequate  for  the  demands  of  the 
)eo[ile,  and  the  proprietors  of  lauds  began  to  build 
iad  endow  churches  in  their  own  poeaessiona.  In 
inch  cases  tbe  chaplain  or  priest  was  not  paid  by  the 
Mshop,  but  allowed  to  receive  for  his  maintenance, 
md  for  the  use  uf  his  church,  the  whole  or  a  part 
if  the  profits  of  the  lands  with  which  the  founder 
lad  enilowed  it,  and  the  offeringa  of  tliose  who 
reqnented  the  church  for  worship.  A  district  was 
leflned  by  the  founder,  within  which  the  functions 
if  tbe  officiating  priest  were  to  be  eierciaed  ;  and 
>oth  the  burden  and  the  advaiitages  of  bis  ministry 
tere  limited  to  the  inhabitants  of  that  district.  As 
hese  pioni  fciundations  tended  both  to  the  advance- 
nent  of  religion  and  to  the  relief  of  the  episcopal 
reosury,  they  were  encouraged  by  the  bishops, 
i-ho  really  consecrated  the  churches  thus  esta- 
hliahed,  and  consented  that  the  incumbent  should  be 
esident  at  tbe  church,  and  receive  the  tithes  and 
fferings  of  the  inhabitauta  and  what  endowment 
he  founder  bod  annexed  to  the  church.  Eventually, 
'.  came  also  to  be  atipniated  with  the  bishop  that 
be   founder  and  his  hein  should  have  a  share  in 


person  in  holy 
fficiating  minister  whenever  a  vacancy  occurred 
b  also  became  a  not  unusual  arrangement  that 
'ben  owners  of  estates  rebuilt  such  churches  as  were 
ependent  on  the  cathedral,  or  undertook  to  pay  tbe 
icumbeat.  to  the  relief  of  the  cathedral,  the  right 
F  presentation  was  transferred  from  the  bishop  to 
lese  persons,  who  thenceforward  stood  in  the 
ime  relation  to  these  churches  as  if  they  had  been 
le  uriginal  founders.  Out  of  these  private  endow- 
leats  arose  the  parochial  divisions  of  a  later  time, 
hich  thus  owe  their  origin  rather  to  accidental  and 
riv»t«  dotation  than  to  any  legislative  scheme  for 
le  ecclesiastical  subdivision  of  the  country.  Tbe 
loads  of  a  parish  were  at  first  generally  commen- 
mte  vith  those  of  a  manor,  and  the  lord  of  tbe 
»aor  was  the  hereditary  patron.  The  person 
ijoying  the  privileges  of  a  founder  was  colled 
itrwAuj  and  ailiH>calu»,  He  had  a  pre-eminent  seat 
id  a  bniial-ploce  in  the  church  ;  he  enjoyed  a  [ire- 
^dence  among  the  cler^  in  processions;  his  name 
id  arms  were  engraved  on  the  church  aud  on  the 
■□rch-bella,  and  he  was  specially  named  in  the 
iblic  prayers.  He  bad  the  right  to  a  certain  por- 
oD  of  the  church  funds,  called  patronagium,  and 
ij€^ed  the  fruits  of  the  benefice  during  a  vacancy. 
.f  . 1  •: —  j^  sometimes  happened  that. 


ijinrea 
I  the  c 


with  the  ooncuirenoe  of  all  parties 
patronage,  and  the  church  with  its 
appurtenances,  were  made  over  to  a  ri 
wliich  thus  t>ecame  both  patron  i 
incumbent  of  the  jiaiiah,  while  the  im; 
of  the  cure  were  devolved  on  a  vicar 
curate.  In  France,  the  right  of  |i 
often  extended  to  churches  not  ort^ 
foundations  by  tlie  necessities  of  t 
which  led  them  to  take  possession  t 
perty,  and  bf'stow  it  in  fee  on  Inyme 
priated  tbe  greater  part  of  the  i-evea 
the  appointment  of  the  clerjgr  into  tht 
For  a  length  of  time,  not  merely  the  n 
the  investiture  of  the  clergy  came  to  b 
lay  patrnns,  a  state  of  matters  whli 
mdignaticn  of  successive  poi>es  and  t. 
it  was  at  last  ruled  by  the  third  and  f 
Councils  (1179  and  J215  i.D.)  that 
tion  of  the  patron  should  not  of  it 
confer  any  ecclesiastical  Lenetice,  evci 
fied  by  the  diacretiiiuary  power  of  r 
to  the  bishop,  when  the  presentee 
man.  It  was  declared  necessary  that 
should  not  merely  have  the  tcmpor 
benefice  confetreil  on  him  by  induotio 
invested  with  the  spiritualities  b; 
When  tbe  bishop  was  patrou  oE  the 
ceremonies  of  induction  and  institutio 
in  that  of  collation.  With  the  growtl 
power,  however,  a  practice  arose  by  w 
of  presentation  or  induction,  whidi  b 
been  left  to  tbe  patrons,  became  in 
nugatory.  Towar(b  the  close  of  tbe  I 
of  request,  called  mandates  or  exjiecl 
to  be  issued  by  the  popes  to  patrons, 
benefices  should  be  bestowed  on  parti 
What  had  at  first  been  requested  as 
soon  demanded  as  a  right,  and  a  codt 
laid  down  with  regard  to  grants  and  : 
expectatives.  In  the  13to  c  the  pal 
livings  whose  incumbents  had  died  al 
Rome  {vticaiUia  in  curiil)  was  claimed 
and  as  ecclesiastics  of  all  ranks  from 
Europe  frequently  visited  Rome,  th 
^-""llce8  vacantia  in  curiA  wsa  alwaj 
ent  V.  went  so  far  as  broadly  t« 
the  poi>e  possessed  Clio  full  and  free  i 
ecclesiastical  1>eneiices,  The  practice 
the  pope  making  reversionary  grants, 
sions  of  benetices,  during  the  lifetime 
bent,  and  reserving  what  benetices  h 
for  his  pri  vate  patronage.  By  means  < 
'~  hold  benefices  in  commendam,  and 
non-residence  and  holding  of  plural 
of  fifty  benefices  were  often  held  by 
and  thi-oughout  all  Eurojie  the  princ 
fiUed  by  Italian  pnesta,  nom 
popes,  who  were  often  ignorant  of  i 
lage  of  the  people  amona  whom  tht 
I  the  14th  c.  these  claims  encou. 
opiHMition.  England  took  the  lead  in 
resistance,  which  was  in  the  end  Si 
iries  of  English  statutes  was  passi 
■ith  the  Statute  of  Provisors,  25  B 
solemnly  vindicating  the  rights  of 
ktronage,  and  subjecting  to  severe  | 
ilsuctnibe]  all  persons  who  shonk 
enforce  the  authority  of  papal  provisioi 
The  principles  adopted  by  the  thirt 
Lateran  Councils  have  since  been  sub 
law  of  patronue  in  Eoman  Catholic  < 
lay  patron  is,  by  the  canon  law,  boun 
his  right  of  presentation  within  four,  i 
siastical  patron  within  sii  months, 
the  right  to  present  accrues  jurr  ifti 


I  , 


I 

I  I 


PATEONAGB-PATRONYMia 


bishop  of  the  diooefle.  Patronage  has  alwa^  been 
more  or  less  subject  to  alienatioQ,  transmission,  and 
the  changes  incident  to  other  kinds  of  property. 
The  modem  practice  of  patronage  in  the  Itbman 
Catholic  church  is  detailed  under  the  head  Pbo- 
TIBIOK  (q.  ▼.)• 

In  England,  where  the  modified  canon  law,  which 
was  in  use  before  the  Reformation,  is  still  in  force, 
the  rights  of  patrons  do  not  materially  differ  from 
those  which  tney  possess  in  Roman  Catholic  coun- 
tries. For  some  details  regarding  the  right  of 
presentation  in  England,  see  Advowson. 

In  Scotland,  at  the  Reformation,  the  rights  of 
patrons  were  reserved,  and  presbyteries  were  bound 
by  seversl  statutes  to  admit  any  ^luUified  person 
presented  by  the  patron.  The  pnnciple  of  these 
statutes  was  retained  in  the  enactments  introducing 
Episcopacy.  On  the  establishment  of  Presbyteiy 
under  favour  of  the  civil  war,  patronage  was  abol- 
ished  by  act  1649,  c.  23,  and  the  election  of  the 
clergy  was  committed  to  the  kirk-session.  At  the 
Restoration,  this  statute  fell  under  the  act  rescis- 
sory, and  patronage  was  replaced  on  its  former 
footing.  On  the  reintroduction  of  Presbytery  at 
the  Revolution,  patronage  was  a^in  cancelled, 
and  the  right  to  present  conferr^  on  the  Pro- 
testant heritors  and  the  elders  of  the  parish, 
subject  to  the  approval  or  rejection  of  the  whole 
congregation.  In  consideration  of  being  deprived 
of  the  right  of  presentation,  patrons  were  to  receive 
from  the  parish  a  com[)en8ation  of  600  merks 
(£33,  6s,  sterling),  on  payment  of  which  they  were 
to  execute  a  formal  renunciation  of  their  rights. 
Only  three  parishes  effected  this  arrangement  with 
the  patron,  and  patronage  was  permanently  restored 
in  all  the  parishes  where  no  renunciation  had  been 
granted  by  10  Anne,  a  12.  This  act,  with  modifi- 
cations introduced  by  6  and  7  Vict.  &  61,  is  now 
law.  Should  a  patron  fail  to  present  for  six  months 
after  the  occurrence  of  a  vacancy,  the  right 
to  present  falls  to  the  presbytery  jure  devoluto. 
The  presentee,  before  he  acquires  a  right  to  the 
emoluments  of  the  benefice,  must  be  admitted 
to  it  by  the  presbytery  of  the  bounds.  He  is  first 
appointed  to  preach  certain  trial  sermons,  after 
which  a  day  is  fixed  within  six  weeks  for  moderat- 
ing in  his  calL  On  that  day  the  people  are  invited 
to  sign  a  written  call  to  the  presentee  to  be  their 
minister,  and  however  few  the  signatures  to  the  call 
may  be,  the  pre8b3rtery  are  in  nse  to  pronoimce  a 
formal*judgment  sustaining  it.  They  then  proceed 
to  examine  into  the  qualifications  of  the  presentee, 
Mid  provided  the  result  be  satisfactory,  the 
ordination  follows  (if  he  have  not  been  previously 
ordained),  and  he  is  formally  admitted  minister  of 
the  parish  by  the  presiding  minister.  Soon  after 
the  above-mentioned  act  of  Queen  Anne,  a  feeling 
which  had  sprung  up  in  favour  of  popular  election, 
in  opposition  to  patronage,  led  to  various  acts  of 
resistance  to  the  settlement  of  presentees,  and 
brought  about  two  considerable  secessions  from  the 
Church  of  Scotland.  It  continued  for  a  length  of 
time  to  be  a  subject  of  dispute  how  far  the  right  of 
the  church  to  judge  of  the  fitness  of  presentees 
could  entitle  her  to  make  rules  tending  to  disqualify 
them,  and  in  particular  whether  she  could  legally 
make  the  dissatisfaction  of  the  congregation  a  dis- 
qualification. For  a  long  time  prior  to  1834,  there 
had  been  no  attempt  to  give  effect  to  any  dissent  on 
the  part  of  the  congregation.  In  that  year  the  law 
of  patronage  again  became  a  ground  of  contention, 
when  a  majority  of  the  (General  Assembly  embodied 
their  views  on  the  subject  in  the  so-called  Veto 
Act,  which  declared  that  no  minister  was  to  be 
imposed  on  a  congregation  when  a  maiority  of  heads 
of  iamiUes  and  oommonioants  dionld  dissent  from 


his  admission.  The  decision  of  the  Court  of  Session, 
confirmed  by  the  House  of  Lords,  finding  this  act 
to  be  ultra  vires  of  the  General  Assembly,  led  to  the 
secession  of  1843  and  formation  of  the  Free  Chunk 
(q.  v.).  After  that  event,  an  act,  6  and  7  Vict  c  71, 
commonly  called  Lord  Aberdeen's  Act,  was  paaaed 
to  fix  by  a  legislative  provision  the  effect  which  the 
church  courts  were  in  future  to  be  entitled  to  gi?e 
to  the  dissent  of  the  congregation  in  the  collatioa  d 
ministers.  It  is  there  ena^ed,  that  after  the  trial 
sermons,  the  presbyteiy  shall  give  to  the  parishioner^ 
being  members  of  the  congregation,  an  opportunity 
to  state  objections  which  do  not  infer  matter  of 
charge  to  be  proceeded  M^ainst  according  to  the 
discipline  of  the  church.  l%e  presbytery  are  either 
to  dispose  of  the  objections,  or  to  refer  them  to  the 
superior  church  judicatory ;  and  if  the  objections  be 
considered  well  founded,  the  presbytery  may  reject 
the  presentee.  No  power  is,  however,  given  to  reject 
him  on  the  ground  of  mere  dislike  as  such  on  the 
part  of  any  portion  of  the  congregation.  In  Scotlaad, 
patronage  is  in  all  cases  a  heritable  right;  it  ii 
transferable  by  disposition  without  infeftment,  bat 
capable  of  bemg  feudalised,  after  which  it  can  bs 
completely  conveyed  only  by  infeftment. 

In  the  Protestant  churches  of  Germany,  Sweden, 
and  Denmarl^  patronace  exists  to  some  extent 
subject  to  restrictions,  which  differ  much  in  different 
localities.  The  right  to  present  is  sometimea  divided 
between  the  patron  and  the  consistory.  The  par- 
ishioners have  in  many  instances  a  voice:  the 
appointment  mav  be  entirely  in  their  hands,  or  they 
may  have  merdy  a  right  to  reject  the  presentee 
after  he  has  been  subjected  to  the  ordeal  of  a  trial 
sermon;  and  in  either  case  this  right  may  be 
exercised,  according  to  local  usage,  either  by  the 
parishioners  at  large,  by  a  committee  of  their 
number,  .or  by  the  bUrgermeister.  When  there 
w  no  patron,  the  choice  generally  rests  with  the 
consistory  in  East,  and  with  the  parishioners  in 
West  Grermany.  Induction  by  the  superintendent 
completes  the  rig^t  of  the  presentee. 

In  the  Greek  Church  the  right  to  present  is 

fenerally  in  the  hands  of  the  biuiope,  exoeptin^  in 
Uissia,  where  lay  patronage  exists  to  a  limited 
extent 

PATRONT'MIC  (Gr.  paier,  father,  and  oifomo, 
name),  properly  a  name  taken  from  one's  father, 
but  generally  applied  to  such  names  as  express 
descent  from  a  parent  or  ancestor.    In   Samskiit; 
Greek,  and  Latin,  patronymics  are  very  nnmeroua 
They  may  be  derived  from  the  name  of  a  &ther, 
mother,  grandfather,  or  remoter  ancestor,  as  Atrides^ 
i.e.,  (Agamemnon),  son  of  Atrens  ;  Phityrides,  ie., 
(Chiron),  son  of  Philyra ;  .£acides,  L  e:^  (Acfa^es), 
grandson  of  JEacmb.  .The  names  of  the  founders  of 
nations  have  also  been   used  to    form  a  sort   of 
patronymic,  as  when  the  Romans  are  called  Romu- 
lidao.     In  Greek  and  Latin  the  commonest  tennina- 
tions  of  patronymics  are  ides  and  is.    Patronymics 
have    no  fewer  than    thirteen    recognised  termi- 
nations in  Sanskrit    A  number  of  the  surnames  ia 
use  in  modem  times  are  patronymics,  as  Johnson, 
the  son  of  John;  Thomson,  the  son  of  Thomas. 
Originally  these  names  fluctuated  from  generation 
to  generation,  as  stUl  is,  or  very  recently  was,  tibe 
case  in  Shetland,  where  Magnus  Johnson  s  son  caUa 
himself  John  Magnusson  or  Manson.    In  the  ooime 
of  time,  it  was  generally  found  more  convenient  to 
take  a   surname    from   one  well-known  ancestor, 
which  should  descend  unchanged  to  the  children  of 
the  bearer  of  it.    The  termination  s  is  sometimes 
used  as  equivalent  to  son,  as  in  Jones,  Bodgerk 
To  patronymics  belong  Norman,  Highland,   Irid^ 
and  Welsh  surnames  with  the  prefixes  Fitz^  Mac,  O, 
and  Ap,  respectively.   'In  many  cases  the  Mae  si 


PATTfiE-PAUL. 


Pattte. 


the  Highlandfl  of  Scotland  ceased  to  have  a  flacta- 
ating  character  oidy  a  few  senerationa  ago.  In 
1465,  an  act  of  the  parliament  of  Ireland  was  directed 
aeainst  the  use  of  patronymics.  Every  Irishman 
'dwelling  betwixt  or  among  Englishmen  in  the 
counties  of  Dublin,  Myeth,  Uriel,  or  Kildare,*  was 
ordered  *to  take  to  him  an  English  surname  of 
a  town,  as  Sutton,  Chester,  Trym,  Skryne,  Corke, 
Kinsale ;  or  colour,  as  White,  Blacke ;  or  arte  or 
science,  as  Smith  or  Carpenter;  or  office,  as  Cooke 
or  Butler  ;  and  that  he  and  his  issue  should  use  the 
same.'  In  Wales  it  was  long  the  practice  to  use  a 
string  of  ancestral  names,  each  with  the  syUable 
Ap  prefixed  to  it.  Camden  relates  that  *in  the 
time  of  King  Henry  VIIL  an  ancient  worshipful 
gentleman  of  Wales  being  called  at  the  pannell  of 
a  jury  by  the  name  of  fhomas  Ap  William  Ap 
Thomas  Ap  Richard  Ap  Hoel  Ap  Evan  Vaghan,  &c., 
was  advised  by  the  judge  to  leave  that  old  manner ; 
whereupon  he  afterwuds  called  himself  Moston, 
according  to  the  name  of  his  principal  house,  and 
left  that  siuname  to  his  poeteritie.'    See  Nams. 

PATTfiE.  Cross,  in  Heraldry  (Lat  patulus, 
spreading),  also  called  Cross  FormCe,  a 
cross  wiui  its  arms  ezi>anding  towards 
the  ends,  and  flat  at  their  outer  edges. 
PATUXENT,  a  river  of  Maryland, 
U.S.,  rises  20  miles  east  of  Frederick 
City,  and  after  a  south-easterly  course 
of  90  roUes,  empties  by  a  broad 
estuary  into  Chesapeake  Bay;  navi- 
gable for  small  vessels  for  50  miles. 

PAU,  a  flourishing  town  of  France,  capital  of 
the  department  of  Ba8ses-Pyr§n6es,  on  the  right 
bank  of  tiie  Gave-de-Pau,  105  miles  south-south- 
east of  Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  rockv  heidit, 
cloven  into  two  portions  by  a  ravine  through  which  a 
streamlet  flows  into  the  6ave-de-Pau,  aud  united 
by  a  high  bridge.  Toward  the  south  it  commands 
most  magniflcent  views  of  the  Western  Pyr€n6es ; 
indeed,  for  mountain  views  its  situation  is  hardly 
surpassed  by  that  of  any  town  in  France.  As  seen 
from  this  town,  the  distant  Pyr^n^es  rise  in  peaks, 
conea,  and  serrated  ridges,  aud  present  an  outline 
as  varied  as  it  is  strikin^y  beautif uL  The  town 
contains  a  palace  of  justice,  a  promenade,  Koyal 
Square,  with  a  bronze  statue  of  Henri  IV.,  beau- 
tifal  theatre,  university-academy,  museum,  and 
library  c^  25,000  vols.  Linen  and  cloth  manufactures 
are  the  chief  branches  of  industry ;  in  the  vicinity, 
JnraJi^oB  ¥rine  (good  but  strong)  is  grown.  Many 
■wine  are  fed  in  the  vicinity,  and  from  the  pork  the 
^mous  Jambona  de  Bayoime  are  made.  Pau  is  a 
favourite  resort  of  the  English,  especially  during 
winter,  and  is  a  general  rendezvous  for  those  who 
iriah  to  explore  the  PyrSn^es.    Pop.  17,865. 

The  principal  building,  however,  of  Pau,  and  that 
to  which  it  owes  its  existence,  is  the  old  castle 
^which  stands  on  the  ridge  overlooking  the  river, 
Ana  forms  botii  tiie  most  conspicuous  and  most 
mtereating  feature  of  the  town.  It  has  five  towers, 
«iuted  by  an  outer  wall,  and  is  supnosed  to  have 
been  founded  by  Gaston  de  Foix  about  the  year 
1363.  Pau  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Ueai-n, 
^«a  its  castle  was  the  birthplace  of  the  famous 
Henri  IV. 

PAUIi,  the  great  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was 
bom  of  Jewish  parents  at  Tarsus,  in  Cilicia,  and 
inherited  from  them  the  rights  of  Roman  citizenship. 
His  original  name  was  Sam.  He  was  educated  first 
in  bis  native  dty,  then  in  the  zenith  of  its  repu- 
tsUion  for  its  schools  of  literature  and  philosophy, 
^rhere  he  doubtieas  learned  to  speak  and  write 
Greek  ;  and  afterwards,  to  be  perfected  'in  the  law 
gi.  his  futfaersy*  was  sent  to  Jerusalem,  where  he 


studied  under  Gamaliel,  a  great  Jewish  doctor,  and 
became  one  of  the  strictest,  most  zealous,  and  most 
ardent  Pharisees.  Whether  it  was  here  or  at 
Tarsus  that  he  acquired  his  knowledge— which  ws 
have  no  reason  to  believe  was  ever  very  deep— of 
the  philosophy  and  literature  of  Greece,  cannot  be 
ascertained.  According  to  the  wholesome  rule 
observed  among  the  Jews,  that  every  person  should 
learn  some  trade,  Saul  became  a  tent-maker,  and  at 
this  trade  he  afterwards  laboured  (Acts  xviil  3) 
for  his  support  A  few  years  after  the  death  of 
Jesus,  he  became,  as  might  have  been  exjiected 
from  his  training  and  temperament,  a  furious 
adversary  of  the  new  sect  of  Christians.  We  are 
told  (Acts  vi.  9)  that  the  Jews  of  the  Cilician 
s3^agogue  at  Jerusalem ,  were  among  those  who 
disputed  with  Stephen,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  the  young  and  brilliant  zealot,  eager  for 
disputation,  was  conspicuous  among  the  crowd 
of  Jewish  students  who  poured  out  of  their  syna- 
gogues (of  which,  according  to  the  Talmud,  there 
were  480  in  the  holy  city),  in  the  insolence  of  their 

Jrouth  and  scholarship,  to  crush  the  ignorant  fol- 
owers  of  the  Nazarene.  This  supposition  is  rendered 
highly  probable  by  the  fact,  that  he  was  present  at 
the  martjrrdom  of  Stephen,  which  followed  almost 
immediately,  having  charge  of  the  raiment  of  them 
that  slew  him.  He  now  became  a  prominent  actor 
in  the  great  persecution  of  the  Christians  that  broke 
out  at  Jerusalem.  The  mysterious  circumstances 
that  led  to  and  attended  his  conversion  are  familiar 
to  all  readers  of  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and  need 
not  be  recapitulated  here.  After  a  solitary  sojourn 
in  Arabia — perhaps  to  calm  his  i)ertiu*bed  spirit  in 
communion  with  God,  and  to  solemulv  prepare 
himself  for  his  new  mode  of  life— on  his  return 
to  Damascus,  he  changed  his  name  to  Paul,  and 
resumed  or  began  (it  is  not  quite  clear  which)  his 
apostolic  laboiu^s.  Naturally,  he  became  an  object 
of  intense  hostility  to  the  unbelieving  Jews  in  that 
city.  They  resolved  to  kill  him ;  but  his  friends 
contrived  a  way  of  escai)e,  and  he  fled  to  Jerusalem, 
where  at  first  he  was  received  with  suspicion  by  the 
disciples,  but  afterwards,  through  the  kind  offices 
of  Bamabss,  with  great  cordiality.  He  now  *  spoke 
boldly  in  the  name  of  Christ,'  disputing  also  against 
the  'Grecians' — i  e.,  the  Hellenistic  Jews — with 
dangerous  success,  for  his  ojmonents  sought  to 
take  his  life.  Again  he  was  ooliged  to  flee,  and 
betook  himself  to  his  birthplace,  Tarsus,  where  he 
seems  to  have  remained  till  Barnabas  brought  him 
to  Antioch  (not  far  off)»  to  assist  in  the  great  work 
of  evangelisation  going  on  in  that  city.  After 
a  short  visit  to  Jeri^alem  in  the  year  of  the  famine, 
44  A.D.,  they  were  set  apart  by  the  prophets  and 
elders  of  the  church  at  Antioch  for  the  evangel- 
isation of  the  more  distant  Jews.  From  Seleucia 
they  proceed  on  their  first  missionary  expedition  to 
the  southern  districts  of  Asia  Minor,  ram'phylia, 
Pisidia,  and  Lycaonia,  where  they  met,  especially 
in  some  places,  with  considerable  success,  in  preach- 
ing the  gospeL  -It  is  very  interesting  to  notice  how 
gnvdually  tne  light  of  Christianity  dawned  on  the 
mind  of  the  apcMtle.  He  did  not  grasp  all  at  once 
its  grand  design.  It  was  not  even  by  abstract  reflec- 
tion tiiat  he  arrived  at  it.  Circumstances  of  quite 
an  outward  sort  forced  him  to  the  sublime  con- 
clusions of  his  creed.  It  was  when  the  Jews  of 
Pisidian  Antioch,  enraged  at  his  preaching  th« 
gosi)el  indiscriminately  to  their  Gentile  fellow- 
townsmen  and  themselves,  '  contradicted  and 
blasphemed  *  him,  that  he  boldly  announced 
Christ  as  t^e  universal  Redeemer.  After  the 
return  of  P.  and  Barnabas  to  Antioch,  they  ooa*> 
tinned  to  labour  in  that  city  for  a  long  time,  tiU 
dissensioDS  having  arisen  about  the  circumcision  ol 


PAUL. 


Qentile  converts,  he,  along  with  Barnabas  and  others, 
was  d  losen  to  go  up  to  Jerusalem,  to  get  the  opinion 
of  tho  apcitles  and  elders  there  on  the  question, 
about  51  4  •  D'  P.  and  Barnabas  now  returned  to 
Antioch,  where  they  continued  to  teach  and  preach, 
tOl  a  yearning  grew  up  in  the  heart  of  the  former 
to  revisit  bis  Gentile  converts  in  Asia  Minor.  In 
his  second  expedition,  P.  was  accompanied  by  Silas 
instead  of  Barnabas,  and  traversed  the  whole  of 
Asia  Minor  from  south  to  north,  evangelising  with 
great  success,  after  which  the  two  missionaries 
crossed  the  ^^ean  and  landed  in  Europe,  planting 
at  Philippi,  the  capital  of  Thracian  Macedonia, 
the  first  Christian  cnurch  in  that  continent.  The 
details  of  his  visits  to  Thessalonica,  Berea,  Athens, 
and  Corinth  are,  doubtless,  familiar  to  our  readers, 
and  need  not  be  given  here.  We  can  only  notice 
his  appearance  at  Athens,  where,  on  Mars'  Hill, 
before  a  crowd  of  the  citizens,  amonff  whom  were 
Epicurean  and  Stoic  philosophers,  he  delivered  that 
magnificent  discourse  in  which  he  declared  to  the 
Athenians  the  character  of  the  'unknown'  Crod. 
On  his  return  to  Asia  Minor  he  visited  Ephesus, 
where,  as  usual,  he  *  reasoned'  with  the  Jews 
in  their  synagogue;  sailed  thence  to  Cffisarea,  in 
Palestine,  and  proceeded  to  Jerusalem  *to  keep  the 
feast;'  after  which  he  again  returned  to  Antioch, 
the  centre  from  which  his  operations  radiated.  Thus 
closed  his  second  evangelistic  journey. — The  third 
journey  of  P.  commenced  probably  about  54  a.  d., 
and  extended  over  much  tne  same  district  as  the 
previous  one.  At  Ephesus,  where  he  remained  for  a 
period  of  two  years  and  three  mouths,  his  efforts  were 
powerfully  seconded  by  the  eloquence  of  the  great 
Alexandrian  convert,  Apollos.  Here  it  is  recorded 
(Acts,  xix.)  that  'God  wrought  special  miracles  by  the 
hand  of  Paul,  so  that  from  his  body  were  brought 
imto  the  sick  handkerchiefs  or  aprons,  and  the 
diseases  departed  from  them,  and  the  evil  spirits  went 
out  of  them.'  In  explanation  of  this  very  curious 
procedure,  which  has  a  disagreeable  resemblance  to 
ordinary  legerdemain,  it  has  been  suggested,  that  as 
Ephesus  was  a  city  noted  for  its  exorcisms,  spells, 
and  incantations — the  famous  Ephesia  Grammata 
sold  at  a  high  price  to  the  ijrnorant  and  super- 
stitious populace— this  style  of  miracle  was  an 
accommodation  to  their  b^ef  in  magic  and  dsemo- 
nism,  and  intended  to  shew  them,  according  to 
tiieir  own  way  of  regarding  thin^,  the  superiority 
of  Christ's  power  to  that  of  the  evil  spirits  of 
heathen  worshii).  From  Ephesus,  P.  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  with  a  presentiment  that  heavy  evils  were 
about  to  fall  upon  him  through  the  ever- maddening 
malice  of  the  Jews.  The  Jewish  populace  were 
goaded  into  the  wildest  fury  by  the  very  sight  of  Paul 
The  captain  of  the  Eloman  guard,  Claudius  Lysias, 
had  to  interfere  to  save  him  from  being  torn  to  pieces ; 
but  as  foi-ty  Pharisees  had  sworn  neither  to  eat 
nor  drink  till  they  had  taken  his  life,  he  was  sent 
by  night,  under  a  strong  escort,  to  the  Roman 

governor,  Felix,  at  Caesarea,  where  he  was  unjustly 
etained  a  prisoner  for  two  years.  Having  finally 
appealed  to  the  Eoman  emperor,  according  to 
the  privilege  of  a  Eoman  citizen,  he  was  sent 
to  Rome.  On  the  voyage  thither,  he  suffered 
shipwreck  at  Melita  (probably  Malta),  in  the  spring 
of  61  A.  D.  At  Rome,  he  was  treated  with  respect, 
being  aJlowed  to  dwell  *for  two  whole  years  in 
his  own  hired  house.'  His  first  thoughts  were, 
as  usual,  directed  towards  his  Jewish  brethren 
in  the  city;  but,  on  the  whole,  he  made  little 
impression  on  them.  Whether  he  ever  left  the 
city  or  not,  cannot  be  positively  demonstrated, 
bat  it  is  believed  by  many  critics,  from  a  variety  of 
considerations,  that  he  did  obtain  his  liberty  about 
64  A.  D.,  and  that  he  made  journeys  both  to  the  east 


and  to  the  west,  revisiting  Asia  Minor,  and  carrying 
out  his  long-cherished  wish  of  preaching  the  go«pd 
in  Spain,  then  thought  to  be  the  western  limit  of 
the  world.  Meanwhile  occurred  tiie  great  sad 
mysterious  burning  of  Rome,  generally  attributed 
to  Nero.  The  latter  threw  the  olame  on  the  Chris* 
tians,  who  were,  in  consequence,  subjected  to  a 
severe  persecution.  Among  the  victims  was  P., 
who,  according  to  tradition,  suffered  67  A.i>.--Foir 
an  account  of  P's  correspondence  with  the  churches, 
see  the  articles  on  the  different  Epistles. 

PAUL,  the  name  of  five  {rapes,  of  whom  the 
following  appear  to  call  for  special  notice. — Paul 
III.,  whose  pontificate  falls  upon  one  of  the  most 
critical  periods  in  the  history  of  the  church,  was 
originally  named  Alessandro  Farnese,  and  was  bom 
at  Carino,  in  Tuscany,  in  1468.   Having  been  created 
cardinal,  he  served  m  several  important  trusts,  and 
eventually  became  Bishop  of  Ostia  and  Dean  of  the 
Sacred  College.    On  the  death  of  Clement  VIL,  in 
1534,  he  was  elected  pope,  just  at  the  crisis  when 
the  world  was  alive  with  expectation  of  the  general 
council  which  was  to  deciae  all  the  controversies 
at  that  time  agitating  the  public  mind  of  Europe. 
After  some  delays,  P.  convoked  the  council  to  meet 
at  Mantua  in  1542 ;  but  it  did  not  actually  assemble 
(in  Trent)  until  1545.    These  delays  are  by  some 
charged  upon  P. :  but  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that 
much  of  it  was  due  to  the  difficulties  of  the  times. 
The  bull  of  excommunication  and  deposition  which 
he  issued  in  1538  against  Henry  VIII.  of  England, 
is  one  of  the  last  examples  of  the  exercise  of  the 
temporal  power  claimea  by  the  medieval  -popes. 
In  the  contest  of  Charles  v.  with  the  Prot^tant 
League  in  Crermany,  P.  sent  a  large  force  to  sapport 
him,  and  he  opposed  the  pacification  proposea  by 
the  emperor  upon  the  basis  of  the  Interim  (q.  v.). 
P.'s  conduct  in  aggrandising  the  fortune  of  his  son, 
Pietro  Luigi  Famese,  has  been  severely  criticised  by 
historians ;  the  more  so,  that  this  son  was  bom  oii 
of  wedlock,  in  the  early  yoath  of  his  father.  P.  died 
November  10,  1649,  in  his  82d  year.— Paui.  IV., 
named  John  Peter  Caraffa,  a  member  of  the  noble 
family  of  that  name,  was  bom  in  Naples  in  147& 
His  early  career  was  distinguished  for  ascetic  rigour. 
He  was  apiX)intod  Bishop  of  Cliieti,  in  which  see 
he  labour^  most  earnestly  for  the  reformation  of 
abuses,  and  for  the  revival  of  religion  and  morality. 
With  this  view,  he  established,  in  conjunction  with 
several  congenial  reformers,  the    congregation    of 
secular  clergy  called  Theatines  (q.  v.),   and  was 
himself  the  first  superior.    It  was  under  his  infiu- 
ence  that  Paul  III.  organised  the  tribunal  of  the 
Inquisition  in  Rome.    On  the  death  of  Maroellns  IL 
in  1555,  although  in  his  seventy-ninth  year,  he  was 
elected  to  succeed.      He  entered  upon  the  wider 
career  of  reformation  which  his  new  position  opened 
for  him  with  aU  the  ardour  of  a  young  man,  and 
wtth  all  the  stem  enthusiasm  which  had  charac- 
terised him  during  life.     He  enforced  vigorously 
upon  the  clergy  the  observance  of  aU  the  clerical 
duties,   and  enacted  laws  for  the  maintenance  of  ' 
pubUc  morality.    He  established  a  censorship,  and 
completed  the  organisation  of  the  Roman  inqui- 
sition ;  he  took  measures  for  the  alleviation  of  the 
burdens  of  the  poorer  classes,  and  for  the  better 
administration  of  justice,  not  sparing  even  his  own 
nephews,  whom  he  banished  from  Rome,  on  acconnt 
of  their  corrupt  conduct  and  profligate  life.     His 
foreign  relations,  too,  involved  him  in  mvch  lalioor 
and    perplexity.      He    was    embroiled   with    the 
Emperor    Ferdinand,    with    Philip    IL    of    S^iain, 
with  Cosmo,  Grand  Duke  of  Tuscany.    Having  con- 
demned the  principles  of  the  Peace  of  Aogaburg, 
he  protested  against  its    provisions.      Under  the 
weight  of  BO  many  cares^  his  great  age  gav  i  w»y. 


PAUL. 


He  died  August  18,  1559,  in  his  84th  year.  At  his 
death,  the  )x>pulaGe  broke  out  into  an  insurrectionary 
tumult,  which  lasted  till  the  conclave  for  the 
appointment  of  his  successor. — Paul  V.,  originally 
named  Camillo  Borghese,  was  bom  in  Rome  in  1552. 
In  his  early  life,  he  was  a  distinguished  canonist  and 
theologian ;  and  after  the  ordinary  prelatical  career 
at  Rome,  he  rose  iirst  to  the  post  of  nuncio  at  the 
Spanish  court,  and  afterwards  to  the  cardinalate 
mider  Clement  VIIL  On  the  death  of  Leo  XI. 
in  1605,  Cardinal  Borghese  was  elected  to  succeed 
him.  His  pontificate  is  rendered  memorable  by 
the  celebrated  conflict  with  the  republic  of  Venice, 
into  which  he  was  plunged  at  the  very  outset  of  his 
career.  The  original  cround  of  dispute  was  the 
question  of  the  immunity  from  the  jurisdiction  of 
civil  tribunals  conceded  to  the  clergy,  who  claimed 
to  be  tried  by  ecclesiastical  tribunals  alone.  This 
claim  the  senate  resisted ;  and  further  causes  of  dis- 
pute were  added  by  a  mortmain  law,  and  a  law  pro- 
hibiting the  establishment  of  new  religious  orders  or 
associations  unless  with  the  sanction  of  the  senate. 
Each  party  remaining  inflexible  in  its  determination, 
P.  issued  a  brief,  directing  a  sentence  of  excommu- 
nication ai^ainst  the  doge  and  senate,  and  placing 
the  republic  under  an  interdict,  unless  submission 
should  be  made  within  twenty-four  dayB.  The 
senate  persisted,  and  an  animated  conflict,  as  well 
of  acts  as  of  writings  ensued,  in  the  latter  of  which 
the  celebrated  Fra  Paolo  Sarpi,  on  the  side  of  the 
republic,  and  on  the  papal  side,  Bellarmino  and 
Baronius,  were  the  leaders.  Preparations  were 
even  made  for  actual  hostilities ;  but,  by  the  inter- 
vention of  Henry  IV,  of  France,  the  dispute  was 
accommodated,  and  peace  restored  in  1607,  although 
dissatisfaction  afterwards  arose  on  the  subject  of 
the  nomination  of  a  patriarch.  A  misunderstanding 
of  a  similar  nature  arose  between  the  po})e  and  the 
crown  in  France  as  to  the  rights  of  censorship  on 
books,  and  as  to  the  receiving  of  the  disciplinary 
decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent ;  but  it  was  removed 
by  mutual  explanations.  His  administration  was 
vigorous  and  enlightened,  and  he  did  a  great  deal 
for  the  promotion  of  useful  public  works,  for  the 
embellishment  of  the  city,  the  restoration  and 
preservation  of  antiquities,  the  improvement  of  the 
museums  and  libraries,  and,  above  all,  for  the  pious 
and  charitable  institutions  of  Rom&  P.  died  in 
his  69th  year,  January  28, 1621. 

PAUL,  ViNCTKNT  DE,  One  of  the  most  eminent 

saints   of  the  modem  Catholic  Church,  was  born 

of  humble  parentage  at  Ranquines,  in  the  diocese 

of  Dax,  in  the  year  1576.    The  indications  of  ability 

-which  he  exhibited  led  to  his  being  sent  to  school 

at  Toulouse.     He  became  an  ecclesiastical  student, 

and  was  admitted  to  priest's  orders  in  IGOO.     On  a 

voyage  which  he  was  making  from   Marseille  to 

Narbonne,  his  ship  was  capti^ed  by  corsairs,  and 

he  with  his  companions  sold  into  slavery  at  Tunis, 

-where  he  passed  through  the  hands  of  three  dijQferent 

masters.     The  last  of  these,  who  was  a  renegaile 

SaToyard,  yielded  to  the  exhortations  of  Vincent, 

resolved  to  return  to  the  Christian  faith,  and  with 

Vincent,  made  his  escape  from  Barbary.  They  landed 

in  France  in  1607.     Having  gone  thence  to  Rome,  he 

-was  intrusted  with  an  imxK)rtant  mission  to  the 

French  court  in  1608,  and  continued  for  some  time 

to  r^iide  in  Paris  as  the  almoner  of  Marguerite  de 

Valois.    The  accident  of  his  becoming  preceptor  of 

the  children  of  M.  de  Gondy,  the  commaudant  of 

the  galleys  at  Marseille,  led  to  his  being  appointed 

almoner-general  of  the  galleys  in  1619.    It  was  at 

thia  time  that  the  well-known  incident  occurred  of 

his  offering  himself,  and  being  accepted,  in  the  place 

of  one  of  Sie  convicts,  whom  ne  found  overwhelmed 

with  grief  and  despair  at  having  been  obliged  to 


leave  his  wife  and  family  in  extreme  destitution. 
Meanwhile  he  had  laid  the  foundation  of  what  even- 
tually grew  into  the  great  and  influential  congr(^- 
gation  of  Priests  of  the  Missions ;  an  association  of 
priests  who  devote  themselves  to  the  work  of  assisting 
the  parochial  clergy  by  preaching  and  hearing  con- 
fessions periodically  in  those  districts  to  which  they 
may  be  mvited  by  the  local  pastors.  The  rides  of 
this  congregation  were  Anally  approved  by  Urban 
VIIL  in  1632 ;  and  in  the  following  year  the  Fathers 
established  themselves  in  the  so-^dled  Priory  of  St 
Lazare,  in  Paris,  whence  their  name  of  LazarUU  is 
derived.  From  this  date,  his  life  was  devoted  to 
the  organisation  of  works  of  charity  and  benevo- 
lence. To  him  Paris  owes  the  establishment  of 
the  Foundling  Hospital,  and  the  first  systematic 
efforts  for  the  preservation  of  the  lives,  and  the 
due  education  of  a  class  theretofore  neglected, 
or  left  to  the  operation  of  chance  charity.  The 
pious  Sisterhood  of  Charity  is  an  emanation  of 
^e  same  spirit,  and  Vincent  was  intrusted  by  St 
BVancis  of  Sales  with  the  direction  of  the  newly- 
founded  order  of  Sisters  of  the  Visitation.  The 
queen,  Anne  of  Austria,  warmly  rewarded  his  exer- 
tions, and  Louis  XI IL  chose  him  as  his  spiritual 
assistant  in  his  last  illness.  He  was  placed  by  the 
queen-regent  at  the  head  of  the  ConscU  de  Con- 
science,  the  council  chiefly  charged  with  the  direc- 
tion of  the  crown  in  ecclesiastical  afiairs ;  and  the 
period  of  his  presidency  was  long  looked  back  to  as 
the  golden  era  of  impartial  and  honest  distribution 
of  ecclesiastical  patronage  in  France.  Vincent  was 
not,  in  any  sense  of  the  word,  a  scholar,  but  his 
preaching,  which  (like  that  of  the  Fathers  of  his  con- 
gregation of  Lazarists)  was  of  the  most  simple  kind, 
was  singidarly  affecting  and  impressive.  He  left 
nothing  behind  him  but  the  Rules  or  Constitutions  of 
the  Congregation  of  the  Mission,  1658 ;  Conferences 
on  these  Constitutions,  4to ;  and  a  considerable 
number  of  letters,  chiefly  addressed  to  the  priests 
of  the  mission,  or  to  other  friends,  on  spiritual 
subjects.  He  died  at  the  advanced  age  of  85,  at 
St  Lazare,  September  27,  1660,  and  was  canonised 
by  Clement  All.  in  1737.  His  festival  is  held  on 
the  19th  July,  the  day  of  his  canonisation. 

PAUL  (Pbtrowitsch),  Emperor  of  Russia,  the 
second  son  of  the  unfortunate  Peter  IIL  and  the 
Empress  Cathaiine  IL,  was  bom  in  1754,  became 
heir-apparent  on  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in 
1763,  and  succeeded  his  mother  on  the  imperial 
throne  in  1796.  The  tragical  death  of  his  father 
when  he  wiis  still  a  child,  and  the  neglect  and  want 
of  confidence  with  which  his  mother  treated  him, 
exerted  a  baneful  influence  on  the  character  of 
P.,  who  was  kept  in  compulsory  seclusion  while 
Catharine  shared  the  administration  of  the  govern- 
ment with  her  favourites.  In  1776,  P.,  on  the  death 
of  his  first  wife,  a  princess  of  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
married  the  Princess  Dorothea  of  WUrtemberg,  by 
whom  he  had  four  sons — the  late  Emperors  Alex- 
ander and  Nicholas,  and  the  Grand  Dukes  Constan- 
tine  and  Michael,  and  several  daughters.  After 
suending  some  years  in  travelling  with  his  wife 
tnrough  Germany,  France,  and  Italy,  P.  was  recalled 
by  his  mother,  who  assigned  to  him  the  palace  of 
Gatchina,  30  miles  from  St  Petersburg,  as  his 
settled  residence,  while  she  took  his  children  under 
her  own  immediate  care.  The  death  of  the  empress 
in  1796  released  him  from  his  unnatural  restraint, 
and  he  ascended  the  throne  with  no  practical 
acquaintance  ^dth  the  mechanism  of  government, 
and  no  knowledge  of  the  people  whom  he  was 
called  to  rule  over.  A  determination  to  change 
everything  that  had  existed  under  the  previous 
reign,  and  to  wreak  vengeance  on  the  muraerers  of 
his  father,  were  the  pr^ominating  influences  thai 


PAULDING-PAUUS  (ST)  CAlnBDRAL. 


guided  his  actions ;  and  his  earliest  measures,  which 
were  the  disgrace  of  his  father's  murderers,  and  the 
pudon  of  all  Polish  prisoners,  gave  hopes  of  a  good 
reign ;  but  the  capricious  violence  of  character  and 
incaiiacity  for  busmess  which  P.  betrayed,  soon  dis- 
appointed the  hopes  that  he  had  awakened.  No 
department  of  the  state  was  free  from  his  frivolous 
Interference,  and  no  class  of  the  nation  exempt 
from  the  effect  of  his  arbitrary  legislation.  Whue 
he  irritated  the  soldiery  by  vexatious  regulations 
in  re^rd'to  their  dress,  he  offended  the  nobles  by 
imperious  enactments  as  to  the  ceremonials  to  be 
observed  in  his  presence.  His  foreign  policy  was 
marked  witii  similar  caprice.  After  having  adopted 
A  system  of  neutrality  in  the  war  between  France 
and  the  rest  of  Europe,  he  suddenly  declared  in 
favour  of  the  allied  powers,  and  sent  an  army  of 
56,000  men  under  Suwaroff  into  Italy.  The  success 
of  his  general  encouraged  him  to  send  a  second 
army  of  equal  strength  to  co-operate  with  the 
Austrians ;  but  their  defeat  in  1799  induced  P.  td 
recall  Suwaroff  with  the  Russian  troo])8 ;  and  having 
retired  from  the  allied  coalition  without  having 
nven  any  reason  for  his  conduct,  he  quarrelled  with 
Sn^land,  because  she  would  not  comply  with  his 
whmiisical  demand  for  the  surrender  of  Malta,  and 
his  own  recognition  as  Grand  Master  of  the  Order  of 
Malta,  and  entered  into  a  close  alliance  with  Bona- 
parte, who  was  then  First  Consul.  The  jealousy 
and  hatred  of  England  by  which  both  were  actuated, 
proved  a  powerful  bond  of  union  between  them ;  and 
in  furtherance  of  their  scheme  of  uniting  all  the 
smaller  maritime  powers  into  one  vast  confederation 
against  England,  P.  concluded  a  convention  with 
Sweden  and  Denmark  for  the  purpose  of  opposing 
the  right  insisted  on  by  England  of  searching  neutnu 
vesseh.  The  result  was  that  the  English  govern- 
ment sent  a  fleet  into  the  Baltic  under  Nelson  to 
dissolve  the  coalition,  at  the  close  of  March  1801. 
P.  was  preparing  to  give  material  aid  to  the  Danes, 
when  a  conspiracy  was  formed  at  St  Petersburg  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  capricious  despotism  under  which 
all  classes  of  men  m  Russia  were  groaning.  The 
conspirators,  whose  numbers  included  Count  l^ahlen, 
the  most  influential  man  at  court,  General  Bening- 
sen,  Uwarow,  and  many  other  distinguished  nobles 
and  officers,  appear  originally  to  have  intended  only 
to  force  P.  to  abdicate,  but  his  obstinate  disposition 
led  to  a  scuffle,  in  which  the  emperor  was  strangled, 
March  24,  1801. 

PAULDING,  James  Kirke,  an  American  author, 
was  bom  at  Pleasant  Valley,  New  York,  Auc;ust 
22,  1779.  His  father  was  a  farmer,  descended  from 
the  early  Dutch  settlers.  Self-educated,  and  early 
developing  a  tendency  to  literature,  he  was  a  friend 
of  Washington  Irving,  and  wrote  a  portion  of 
Salmagundu  During  the  war  of  1812,  he  published 
the  Diverting  Hvttory  of  John  Bull  ana  Brother 
Jonathan;  in  1813,  a  parody  of  the  Lay  of  tiie  Last 
Minstrdt  entitled  A  Lay  of  the  Scottish  FiddU;  and 
in  1814,  a  more  serious  work,  The  United  States  and 
England^  a  defence  against  articles  in  the  Quarterly 
Bemew.  This  work  attracted  to  him  the  attention 
of  President  Madison,  and  caused  him  to  bs 
appointed  a  member  of  the  Board  of  Naval  Com- 
missioners. In  1817,  he  published  a  defence  of  the 
southern  states  and  of  slavery  in  Letter^  from  the 
Souths  by  a  Norifiem  Man ;  in  1819,  a  new  series  of 
Salmagundi ;  in  1822,  A  Sketch  of  Old  Englatid,  by  a 
New  England  Man;  and  in  1824,  John  Bull  in 
America,  or  tlie  New  Munchauseny  a  satire  on  the 
writings  of  certain  British  tourists.  This  was 
followed  by  Konigsmarke,  a  novel  (1825) ;  Merry 
Tales  of  the  Three  Wise  Men  of  Ootham  (1826) ; 
i%e  New  Pilgrim's  Progress  (1828) ;  Tales  of  a  Good 
Woman  (1829) ;  Book  qf  St  Nicholas  (1830).    These 


works,  mostly  humorous  and  satirical,  had  varions 
degrees  of  local  popularity ;  but  in  1831  he  produced 
Tm  Dutchman's  Fireside^  a  novel  that  was  reprinted 
in  England,  and  translated  into  French  and  Dutch ; 
and  in  1832,  Westward  Ho!  which  attained  to  a 
similar  popularity.  These  were  followed  by  a  Lift 
of  Washington  (1835),  SUwery  in  the  United  Stales 
(1836),  in  which  the  institution  is  defended  on 
social,  economical,  and  physiological  grounds.  He 
held  at  this  period  the  lucrative  post  of  Navy 
Agent  at  New  York,  and  was  by  Mr  Van  Buren 
appointed  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  which  gave  him 
the  position  of  cabinet  minister.  At  tbe  doss 
of  Mr  Van  Buren*s  presidency  in  1841,  Mr  P. 
retired  to  a  country  residence  at  Hyde  Park,  New 
York,  where  he  wrote  The  Old  Continental^  a  novd 
(1846) ;  The  Puritan  and  his  Daughter  (1849) ;  and 
with  his  son,  a  volume  of  Plays  and  Fairy  Talea 
He  died  at  Hyde  Park,  April  6,  1860. 

PAULrCIANS,  an  ancient  sect  of  the  Eastern 
Empire,  who,  by  Catholic  writers,  are  reckoned  an 
offdhoot  of  the  Mauichsans  (q.  v.).  According  to 
Peter  of  Sicily  and  Photius,  tiie  sect  originated  in 
Armenia  from  two  brothers,  named  Paul  (from  whom 
it  is  alleged  to  have  received  its  name)  and  John, 
who  flouiiahed  in  tbe  4th  century.  0  there  trace  it 
tp  an  Ai'menian  named  Paul,  who  lived  under 
Justinian  XL  The  P.  were  at  all  times  treated 
with  much  suspicion,  and  repressed  with  great 
severity,  by  the  eastern  emperors^  Constans,  Jus- 
tinian XL,  and  Leo  the  Isaurian  esi)eGially  laboured 
to  repress  them,  and  indeed,  with  the  exce]>tion  of 
Nicephorus  Logotheta  (802 — 811),  it  may  be  said 
that  all  the  emperors,  with  more  or  le^i^s  rigour,  per- 
secuted them.  Their  greatest  enemy,  however,  was 
Theodora  (841 —SoS),  who,  having  ordered  that  they 
shoidd  be  compelled  to  return  to  the  Greek  Church, 
had  all  the  recusants  cruelly  put  to  the  sword  or 
driven  into  exile.  A  bloody  resistance,  and  finally 
an  emigration  into  the  Saracen  territory,  was  the 
consequence  ;  and  it  is  from  the  Paulician  settlers 
in  Bulgaria  (Catholic  historians)  that  the  Mani- 
chaaan  doctrines  which  tinged  the  opinions  of  most 
of  the  medieval  sects,  are  supposed  by  Koman 
Catholic  historians  to  have  found  their  way  into 
the  eastern  provinces  of  the  Western  Empire. 
Even  so  late  as  the  17th  c.,  according  to  Mosheim 
(iL  238),  there  was  a  remnant  of  this  sect  existing 
in  Bulgaria. 

It  is  proper,  however,  to  notice  that  a  very 
different  view  of  the  character  and  doctrines 
of  the  P.  has  been  advocated  by  such  modem 
writers  on  ecclesiastical  history  as  Gieseler  and 
Neander,  according  to  whom  they  had  their  origin 
from  one  Constantino  of  Mananalis  (near  Samosata), 
an  Armenian,  who  had  received  a  present  of  tv^o 
Vdlumes — one  containing  the  four  gospels,  and  the 
other  the  epistles  of  l^aul — and  who  afterwards 
assumed  the  name  of  Paul,  in  testimony  of  his  great 
veneration  for  that  ajjostle.  The  distinctive  char- 
acters of  his  doctrine  and  that  of  his  followers 
were  the  rejection  of  the  worship  of  the  Virgin,  the 
saints,  and  the  cross,  the  denial  of  the  material 
presence  of  Christ  in  the  Eucharist,  and  the  asser- 
tion of  a  richt  freely  to  search  the  Scrij)tures ;  and 
the  charge  of  Manicmeism  was  falsely  brought  against 
them  by  their  persecutors. 

PAULLrNIA.    See  Qxjaraixm.  Brxao. 

PAUL'S  (St)  CATHEDRAL  in  London  is  noted 
from  its  beins  the  largest  and  most  magnificent  Pro- 
testant churcn  in  the  world,  and  second  only  to  8t 
Peter's  in  Home  among  the  religious  structur^ea  of 
modern  times.  The  site  of  the  present  building  was 
occupied  about  610  by  a  Christian  church  dedicivted 
to  St  Paul.   This  ohurch  continued  till  1083,  when  it 


PAULUS  iEGINETA— PAULUS  DIACONUS. 


deetroyed  by  fire.   From  its  ruins  arose  a  much 
more  splendid  edifice — the  immediate  precursor  of 
the  present  cathedral.     In  1137,  the  building  snf- 
fered  severely  from  fire ;  but,  that  being  the  great 
age  for  splendid  churches,  it  was  soon  restored  with 
great  magnificence,  the  bishops  and  the  people  con- 
tributing most  liberally  to  defray  the  cost     Old  St 
Paul's  was  the  largest  church  in  the  country,  being 
690  feet  in  length,  130  in  breadth,  and  about  150 
feet  hi^h.     The  total  height  of  the  stone  tower  and 
the  spire,  covered  with  lead,  which  surmounted  it, 
was  520  feet.    The  cloister  was  90  feet  square,  with 
a  beautiful  chapter- house  in  the  centre.    In  1666, 
the  great  fire  of  London  completely  destroyed  the 
old  cathedral,  along  with  a  large  portion  of  the 
city  and  most  of  the  churches ;  and  thereafter,  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  was  employed  to  design  about  50 
of  the  new  churches,  and,  among  others,  the  new 
cathedraL    In  1673,  he  submitted  several  designs 
for  a  new  cathednd  to  the  king,  who  selected  one, 
and  ordered  a  model  of  it  on  a  large  scale  to  be 
prepared.    This  was  done  by  Wren,  and  the  model 
still  exists.    Its  plan  is  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross, 
having  a  large  aome  over  the  centre,  supported  on 
eight  arches.     This  was,  however,  eventually  de- 
parted from ;  and  the  new  design  was  modelled  on 
that  of  a  Qothio  cathedral,  with  an  interior  length 
of  460  feet,  width  240  feet  across  transepts,  and 
a  nave  94  feet  wide.     The  dome,  and  the  eight 
supporting  arches  of  the  model,  are  preserved ;  But 
in   the  new  design  the   angle  arches  lead  to  no 
spacions  compartment,  but  to  small  dark  passages 
only :  while  tne  upper  portions  pf  these  great  arches 
are  blocked  up  with  other  arches,  introduced  for 
constructive  purposes,  but  very  destructive  of  the 
architectural  effect.     The  plan  of  supporting  the 
dome  on  eight  arches  had  the  charm  of  novelty, 
and  also  of  simplicity  of  construction,  but  it  made 
the  arches  themselves  too  small  in  proportion  to  the 
great  s])an   of  the  dome.      The  constructive  skill 
displayed  by  Wren  in  this  building  is  universally 
acknowledged    and    admired,    but    it    is    thought 
that    he    nas    allowed   the    mechanical    exigences 
of  the  work  to  interfere  too  much  with  its  decora- 
tive   requirements.       The   dome,    for   example,   is 
constructed  on  a  new  and  most  masterly  principle, 
the  thrust  of  the  vault  being  counterbalanced  by 
the  weight  of  a  brick  cone,  which  is  carried  up  to 
aapport  the  stone  lantern  over  the  exterior  dome. 
But  in  order  to  carry  this  out  with  the  least  expen- 
diture possible,  the  drum,  or  plain  cylindrical  wall 
under  the  dome,  is   sloped   inwards,  so    that  the 
columns  with  which  it  is  decorated  appear  to  the 
spectator  below  to  be  falling  inwards,  thus  pro- 
docing  a  painful  and  disagreeable  effect.     Great 
exception  is  taken  to  the  fact,  that  the  external 
dome  is  of  wood,  and  not  of  stone,  and  so  liable  to 
premature  decay ;  but  the  same  may  be  said  of  the 
-wooden  roofs  over  the  vaults  of  Gothic  cathedrals ; 
mxkd  by  making  it  of  wood.  Sir  Christopher  was 
enjkbled  to  raise  it  to  a  height  which  makes  it  one 
of  the  noblest  buildings  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 
The  design  of  the  nave,  from  the  classic  vaulting 
with  which  it  is  covered,  is  necessarily  to  a  great 
extent  a  f  ailurei   When  domes,  or  intersecting  vaults, 
are  used  in  a  classic  building,  the  compartments 
muflt  be  about  square ;  there  can  therefore  be  but 
*  small  number  of  nave  piers,  as  compared  with 
those  of  a  Gothic  cathedral,  and  the  jierspective  effect 
of  the  latter  is  thus  entirely  awanting.     The  same 
is  the  case  at  St  Peter's.     The  dome  is  particu- 
larly successful,  and  is  admitted  to  be  the  finest  in 
existence  ;  no  other  bein^  so  graceful  and  varied  in 
outline  and  yet  so  massive  in  general  effect    Its 
hei^t  from  the  pavement  to  the  top  of  the  cross  is 
404  feet.     The  west  front,  as  seen  from  Ludgate 


Hill,  is  most  striking ;  the  t^m  campaniles  group 
most  harmoniously  with  the  dome,  and,  together 
with  the  portico,  produce  a  most  pleasing  and 
remarkable  effect.  This  front  must,  however,  be 
condemned,  along  with  the  screen-walls,  if  strictly 
criticised.  The  upper  portico  appears  to  indicate 
an  upper  story  where  there  is  none,  and  the  actual 
construction  and  true  form  of  the  building  are  not 
expressed  at  alL  St  Paul's  is  the  burial-place  of 
many  heroes  and  men  of  distinction,  whose  tombs 
are  in  the  crypt,  and  whose  monuments  adorn  the 
interior  of  the  cathedraL  Amongst  these  are  Nelson 
and  Wellington,  CoUingwood,  Abercromby,  Moore, 
Howe,  St  Vincent,  Picton,  Rodney,  and  many  other 
celebrated  soldiers  and  sailors ;  Howard,  Johnson, 
Reynolds,  Barry,  Opie,  West,  Astley  Cooper,  Sir 
William  Jones,  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  and  other 
distinguished  civilians.  Several  of  the  monuments 
are  by  Flaxman,  Chantrey,  Bacon,  and  Rossi ;  but 
it  must  be  confessed  that  they  savour  generally 
too  much  of  heathen  mythology,  to  be  appropjriate 
in  a  Christian  cathedraL 

PAUXUS  JEGINETTA,  a  celebrated  Greek 
physician,  was  bom  in  the  island  of  iEgina,  and 
flourished  during  the  conauests  of  the  Calif  Omar 
in  the  7th  century.  Of  nis  life  we  know  almost 
nothing  more  than  that  he  pursued  his  medical 
studies  first  at  Alexandria,  and  afterwards  in  Greece 
and  other  countries.  His  forte  lay  in  surgery  and 
obstetrics,  in  the  latter  of  which  departments  of 
medicine  his  practice  was  great  He  abridged  the 
works  of  Galen,  and  was  deeply  read  in  tinose  of 
JStius  and  Oribadius,  while  he  always  exercised  an 
independent  judgment  in  forming  his  conclusions. 
His  descriptions  of  diseases  are  brief  and  succinct, 
and  also  complete  and  exact.  He  often  grounds  his 
explanation  of  morbid  phenomena  on  Galen's  theory 
of  the  cardinal  humours;  while  in  surgery  his 
writings  abound  with  novel  and  ingenious  views. 
His  works — the  principal  of  which  is  commonly 
called  De  Be  Medica  Libri  Septem  (Lond.  1834)— 
have  passed  through  many  eoitions,  of  which  the 
best  is  that  completed  at  Lyon  in  1567,  and  they 
have  also  had  many  translators,  of  whom  the  besi 
in  English  is  Dr  Francis  Adams. 

PAULUS  DIACONUS  (also  called  Paulus 
Levita,  both  surnames  being  derived  from  his  eccle- 
siastical office),  one  of  the  most  learned  men  of  his 
time,  and  the  greatest  Lombard  historian,  was  bom 
of  a  noble  Lombard  family  at  Friuli  about  730. 
His  father's  name  was  Wamefrid.  He  received  a 
superior  education  at  Pavia,  at  the  court  of  the 
Lombard  king  Ratchis,  and  appears  to  have  con- 
tinued at  court  during  the  reigns  oi  his  successors, 
Aistulf  and  Desii.onus,  and  to  have  accompanied 
Adel|)erga,  the  daughter  of  Desiderius,  whose  edu- 
cation he  had  conducted,  to  the  court  of  her  hus- 
band, Duke  Arichis  of  Beneventum.  For  her  he 
wrote,  in  781,  after  he  had  become  an  ecclesiastic, 
one  of  his  principal  works,  his  Histoi-ia  Romanoy  a 
work  of  no  authority,  as  it  is  a  mere  compilatioa 
from  works  which  we  possess,  but  which  was  greatly 
used  during  the  whole  of  the  middle  ages,  as  the 
many  manuscripts,  recensions,  and  continuations  of 
it,  attest  An  edition  of  the  jgenuine  text  is  still 
awanting,  but  a  great  part  of  it  is  given  in  Muratori*8 
Berumltalicarum  Scriptores,  vol  1  (Milan,  1728). 
In  781,  P.  became  a  monk  of  Monte  Casino ;  but 
afterwards  went  to  France,  and  won  the  esteem  of 
Charlemagne  in  a  high  degree  by  his  character  and 
learning.  He  aided  that  monarch  in  his  schemes 
for  the  promotion  of  learning,  and  introduced  the 
study  of  the  Greek  language  into  France.  He  made 
a  collection  of  homilies  from  the  best  sources,  at  the 
emperor's  desire,  known  as  the  HomUarium,  often 


PATTLUS— PATTSANIAS. 


lonnted  between  1482  and  1569,  and  translated  into 
German  and  Spanish.  At  the  inquest  of  An^ram, 
Bishop  of  Metz,  he  also  wrote  a  history  of  the  Bishops 
of  Metz,  Oeaia  Epiaooporum  Mettensium  (printed  m 
Pertz*8  Monumenta  CfermankB  HistoriccL,  voL  2), 
the  first  work  of  the  kind  on  the  north  of  the  Alps, 
but  the  example  of  which  was  soon  very  generaliy 
followed.  In  787,  he  returned  to  his  convent, 
where  he  remained  till  his  death,  which  is  said  to 
have  taken  place  in  797.  In  the  latter  years  of  his 
life,  he  wrote  bis  History  of  the  Longobards  {De 
Oestia  Langohardumy  Libri  6),  but  did  not  live  to 
complete  iti,  bringing  down  the  history  only  to  the 
deatn  of  liutprand  in  744.  There  are  several 
editions  of  this  work,  the  best  of  which  is  contained 
in  the  work  of  Muratori.  It  is  characterised  by 
remarkable  cjvndour,  and  a  style  nnusually  pure  for 
that  age.  The  high  repute  in  which  this  work  also 
was  long  held,  is  attested  by  the  groat  number  of 
manuscripts  and  continuations.  P.  was  likewise 
the  author  of  a  number  of  theological  works,  and  of 
some  hymns  and  letters  still  extant. 

PAULUS,  Hkinrich  Eberhabd  (Iottlob,  a 
Grerman  theologian  of  great  note  in  his  day,  and  one 
of  the  le«adcrs  of  the  Rationalists  at  the  close  of  the 
last  and  the  first  quarter  of  the  present  century, 
was  born  at  Leonbei*g,  near  Stuttgart,  1st  September 
1761.  He  gave  himself  to  the  study  of  oriental 
languages  at  Guttingeu,  and  afterwards  prosecuted 
it  in  London  and  Paris.  In  1789,  he  was  called  to 
tiiie  professorship  of  Oriental  Languages  at  Jena,  and 
in  1793  became  rrofessor  of  Geology,  on  the  death  of 
D(>derlein.  Here  he  especially  signalised  himself  by 
the  critical  elucidation  of  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament^  in  so  far  as  they  presented 
oriental  characteristics.  The  results  of  his  labours 
may  be  seen  in  his  PhilologiacJi-kritischen  und  kisto- 
rUchen  Commentar  ^ber  daa  Neiie  Testament  (4  vols. 
Lilb.  1800—1804) ;  Clavis  ilber  die  Paalmen  (Jena, 
1791) ;  Clams  uber  den  Jesaias^  and  other  writings 
belonging  to  this  period  of  his  literary  activity.  In 
1803.  he  removed  to  Wiirzburg ;  in  1808,  to  Bamberg ; 
in  1809,  to  NUmberg;  and  in  1811,  to  Ansbach. 
During  these  various  changes,  he  had  ceased  to  be  a 
professor,  and  become  a  director  of  ecclesiastical  and 
educational  affairs ;  but  in  1811  he  accepted  the 
professorship  of  Exegesis  and  Ecclesiastical  History 
at  Heidelberg.  In  1819,  he  started  a  kind  of  his- 
torico-political  journal  entitled  Sophronizon,  in 
which  he  continued  to  write  for  about  ten  years. 
His  contributions  were  marked  by  weighty  sense, 
moderation,  and  knowledge  of  his  various  subjects, 
and  won  him  great  applause  at  the  time.  As  a  theo- 
logian, he  is  generally  looked  upon  as  the  type  of 
pure  UDmitig<ated  rationalism — a  man  who  sat  down 
to  examine  the  Bible  with  the  profound  conviction 
that  everytliing  in  it  represented  as  supernatural 
was  only  nature  or  fabulous,  and  that  true  criticism 
consisted  in  endeavouring  to  prove  this.  From  his 
numerous  writings,  we  select  for  mention  the  fol- 
lowing: Memorabillen  (Leip.  1791 — 1796) ;  Samrrdung 
der  merkwurdigsten  Reiseti  in  den  Orient  (7  vols. 
Jena,  1792 — 1803) ;  Leben  Jesu,  als  Orundlage  einer 
reinen  Gesdikhtedes  Urchristenthums  (2  vols.  Heidelb. 
1828) ;  Aufkldrende  Beitrdge  zur  Dogmen-KircheU' 
und  BeW/ionsgeschicJUe  (Bremen,  1830) ;  and  Exege- 
tisches  Handbueh  fiber  die  drei  ersten  Evangdien  (3 
vols.  Heidelb.  1830—1833).  P.  died  10th  August 
1851,  at  the  advanced  age  of  90 — having  lived  long 
enough  to  see  his  own  rationalistic  theory  <n 
Scripture  give  place  to  the  'mythical'  theory  of 
Strauss,  and  that  in  its  turn  to  be  shaken  to  its 
fonndations  partly  by  the  efforts  of  th,e  Tubingen 
school,  and  partly  by  those  of  Neander  and  the 
'Broad  Church'  divines  of  Germany.  See  P.*s 
Skiaun  aus  meiner  BUdungs-und  LebensgesehidUe 


mm  Andenken  an  mein  80-jdhriffe$  Jubildun^ 
(Heidelb.  1839),  and  Reichlin  Meldegg's  ff,  £.,  G. 
Faulus  und  Seine  Zeit  (2  vols.  Stuttg  1853). 

PAUPER  COLONIES  are  establishments  at 
Frederiksoord  and  Veenhuizen  in  the  Netherlands, 
province  of  Drenthe,  and  at  Willemsoord  and 
Ommerschans  in  OverysseL  They  were  erected  by 
a  benevolent  society  for  the  purpose  of  employing 
poor  people  in  cultivating  land  and  various  indus- 
tries. In '1858,  the  society  suspended  payments, 
and  the  state  took  the  temporary  management, 
arranged  with  the  creditors,  finally  retaining  Om< 
merschans  and  Veenhuizen,  leaving  Frederiksoord 
and  Willemsoord  to  be  governed  by  the  society. 

On  1st  January  1860,  the  government  colonies 
contained  6034  j>er8ons,  of  whom  4407  had  been 
beggars.  There  were  41  farms,  15  factories  and 
WOTkshops,  with  churches  and  school^.  The  stock 
consisted  of  104  horses,  508  cows,  1259  sheep,  &c., 
and  the  breadth  of  land  in  culture  extended  to  1454 
acres  in  rye,  barley,  oats,  and  buckwheat,  741  in 
potatoes,  and  1124  in  grass.  Peat  is  extensively  cut ; 
naif  a  million  coffee-oags  are  made  annually,  &c. 
These  institutions  are  kept  up  at  a  considerable 
expense  to  the  nation,  but  have  been  successful  in 
reducing  the  numbers  and  improving  the  social 
condition  of  many  of  the  destitute  poor. 

The  colonies  of  the  benevolent  society  extend  to 
4942  acres,  and  the  inhabitante  are  either  tenant 
cotters,  with  about  7  acres  of  land  attached  to  each 
house,  or  labour  for  the  society.  In  1863,  there 
were  259  cotter  families,  paying  for  house,  garden, 
land,  and  the  use  di  a  cow,  a  yearly  rent  of  abont 
£5,  178.  Those  who  are  not  required  for  the  land, 
work  in  the  factories,  weaving  cottons,  bagging, 
coarse  linens,  making  baskets,  mats,  &c  There  are 
two  Protestant  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel, 
and  a  synagogue.  The  society^s  colonies  have  never 
been  self-supporting,  and  are  partly  maintained  by 
the  yearly  contributions  of  members,  gifts,  legacies, 
&c;  the  total  receipts,  from  all  sources,  in  1862; 
amounting  to  £37,000,  and  the  ex]>enditure  to 
£34,000.  Pop.  261L  In  1863,  there  were  5079  mem- 
bers who  contributed  £1.378;  and  the  property, 
stock,  &C.,  of  the  society  are  valued  at  £74,000.  The 
colonists  have  been  greatiy  improved  in  position, 
and  their  houses  shew  signs  of  industry  and  comfort. 
When  working  in  the  factories,  a  tenth  part  of 
their  weekly  earnings  is  placed  in  a  reserve  fund, 
which  Ib  paid  out  to  them  in  winter  or  in  time  of 
sickness. 

PAUSA'NIAS,  a    famous  Spartan  Kgent  and 

Eneral,  the  son  of  Cleombrotus,  and  nephew  of 
K>nidas.  He  commanded  the  confederate  Greeks 
in  the  important  battle  of  Plat«sa  (479  B.C.),  in 
which  the  Persians  were  totally  routed,  and  tlieir 
leader,  Mardonins,  slain.  He  then  marched  hit 
troops  a^inst  Thebes,  and  compelled  the  inhabit- 
ants to  give  up  the  chiefs  of  the  Persian  party  to 
him  for  punishment  Elated  by  this  victory,  how- 
ever, he  became  in  an  extreme  degree  haughty  and 
vain-glorious,  took  all  the  credit  to  himself,  and 
allowed  none  to  the  Athenian  generals,  Aristidea 
and  Kimon,  who  commanded  under  him,  and  treated 
all  the  other  Greeks  as  if  the  Spartans  were  their 
lorda  Nevertheless,  he  stiU  oontinaed  his  conquests, 
capturing  Cyprus  and  Byzantium.  It  was  here  he 
first  began  to  play  false  to  Greece.  He  entered  into 
secret  negotiations  with  Xerxes,  with  the  view  of 
becoming  ruler,  under  the  Persian  monarch,  of  the 
whole  country,  and  in  his  journey  through  Thrace, 
even  adopted  the  dress  and  luxurious  habite  of  a 
Persian  satrap,  and  surrounded  himself  with  a  body- 
guard  of  Persians  and  Egyptiana  Being  recalled,  on 
account  of  these  things,  by  the  Spartans,  lus  former 


PAUSANIAS-PAVTA. 


■errices  procared  his  acqnittaL  He  thea  returned 
to  Byzantium,  where  he  reqewed  his  traitorous 
intrigues,  was  expelled  from  the  cit^  for  a  criminal 
assamt  upon  a  Byzantine  lady,  withdrew  to  the 
Troad,  and  there  continued  his  treachery.  He  was 
a  second  time  called  to  account  by  the  Spartan 
ephors,  but  again  escaped,  though  with  greater 
difficulty.  Tet  his  passion  for  the  sovereignty  of 
Greece,  even  though  at  the  expense  of  the  national 
liberties,  once  more  drove  him  to  play  the  traitor. 
He  tried  to  stir  up  the  Helots,  but  was  taken  in 
his  own  net.  A  Helot  betrayed  him.  When  P. 
found  his  position  desperate,  he  took  refuge  in  a 
temple  of  Athene.  Hereupon  the  people  blocked 
up  the  gate  of  the  temple  with  hea|)s  of  stones, 
and  left  him  to  die  of  hunger,  his  own  mother 
depositing  the  first  stone. 

PAUSANIAS,  one  of  the  most  eminent  of 
Greek  geographers  and  historians,  was  probably  a 
native  of  Lydia  in  Asia  Minor,  and  was  bom  some 
time  in  the  2d  century.  He  travelled  through 
almost  all  Greece,  Macedonia,  and  Italy,  and  also 
through  part  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  composed  from 
his  observations  and  researches  an  Itinerary,  entitled 
Hdladoa  Peri^gesiSy  in  ten  books,  describing  the 
different  parts  of  Greece,  and  giving  a  particular 
account  of  the  monuments  of  art  and  of  the  legends 
connected  with  them.  His  style  is  by  no  means 
pure ;  but  in  matters  of  his  own  observation  he 
is  most  trustworthy,  and  his  work  \s,  on  many 
subjects,  one  of  the  most  valuable  sources  of 
information  that  we  possess.  There  are  numerous 
editions  of  his  work;  the  oldest  was  printed  at 
Venice  in  1516  by  Aldus;  and  the  most  recent  is 
that  by  J.  H  C.  Schubart  and  C.  Walz  (3  vols. 
Leip.  1838—1840.  Translations  of  P.  exist  in 
English,  German,  and  French. 

PA'VEM:ENT,  flat  stones  or  'flags'  used  for  the 
flooring  of  halls,  kitchens,  and  other  apartments, 
and  frequently  for  footpaths ;  also  the  stone  covering 
of  the  roadway  of  streets.  The  stones  used  for  flags 
vary  in  different  districts,  according  to  the  geological 
formation  of  the  neighbourhood.  The  pavements 
now  most  commonly  used  in  England  and  Scotland 
are  the  Arbroath  and  Caithness  stones — the  former  a 
softer  and  more  agreeable  stone  than  the  latter, 
which  is  exceedingly  hard  and  slippery  when  wet 
Pavement  should  be  carefully  laid  on  a  solid  dry 
foundation,  and  set  in  a  good  bed  of  concrete  or 
lime,  and  the  joints  point^  with  cement.  It  may 
also  be  laid  on  small  dwarf  walls,  bmlt  of  brick, 
so  as  to  support  all  the  edges—this  is  a  good  method 
for  keeping  the  floor  dry. 

The  Pavinq  of  Streets  is  of  early  date,  and  is, 
in  fact,  necessary  to  any  considerable  degree  of 
civilisation  and  traffic.  The  Romans  paved  their 
streets  in  the  same  elaborate  and  solid  manner  in 
which  they  paved  their  highways.  See  Boai>s. 
Portions  of  the  ancient  pavement  of  the  streets  of 
Borne  are  in  use  to  the  present  day,  and  the  pave- 
ment of  Pompeii  remains  entire.  It  is  laid  with 
large  blocks  of  stone  of  polygonal  shape  (like  Cyclo- 
pean masonry),  very  cu^fuQy  fitted  together,  and 
id  considerable  depth,  and  below  there  is  a  carefully 
prepared  basis,  often  composed  of  several  distinct 
strata.  Some  of  the  Italian  towns — Florence,  for 
instance — have  still  pavement  of  this  description, 
and  no  foot-pavement. 

The  medieval  cities  were  almost  all  unpaved  till 
about  the  12th  a,  when  the  main  streets  of  the 
ehief  towns  began  to  be  protected  with  stone.  The 
plan  now  adopted  is  nearly  the  same  in  all  the 
cities  of  Europe.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to 
■ecore  or  make  a  solid  foundation.  This  is  done, 
where  the  natund  substratum  is  not  of  a  solid  kind, 


by  laying  the  street  with  a  solid  bed  of  concrete, 
having  a  slope  from  the  middle  to  the  sides  to 
throw  off  the  water.  On  the  concrete  is  placed 
the  real  pavement,  which  is  composed  of  blocks  of 
granite,  trap,  or  other  tough  rock.  These  should 
be  rectangular,  and  the  deei>er  the  better.  They 
are  generally  about  10  inches  to  12  inches  in  depth, 
and  6  inches  or  7  inches  broad,  and  from  1  to  2 
feet  in  length.  They  should  be  all  bedded  and 
jointed  in  strong  mortar.  This  is  not  often  done, 
as  it  is  thought  sufficient  to  bed  the  stones  in  sand, 
and  grout  tnem  with  hot  lime  on  the  top.  It  is 
clear,  however,  that  the  more  equal  the  stones  are 
in  depthf  and  the  more  solidly  they  are  bedded, 
the  longer  they  will  last.  Other  materials  besides 
stone  have  been  tried  for  the  paving  of  streets — 
such  as  blocks  of  wood  with  the  end  up,  and  blocks 
of  cast  iron.  The  wooden  pavement  is  delightfully 
easy,  and  not  noisy,  but  in  wet  weather  it  is  exceea- 
ingly  slippery.  Cast-iron  is  too  hard,  and  causes 
too  much  jolting  and  noise. 

The  great  oDstacle  in  the  way  of  really  good 
pavement  in  modem  streets  is  the  necessity  of 
frequently  breaking  it  up  for  the  laying  and  repair- 
ing of  pipes  for  gas,  water,  &c  The  true  remetly — 
and,  in  the  end,  the  cheapest— would  be  to  have,  in 
the  chief  streets  at  least,  sub-ways  or  tunnels  for 
drains  and  pipes,  accessible  without  breaking  up 
the  pavement. 

PA'VIA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  capital  of  the 
province  of  the  same  name,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Ticino,  20  miles  south  of  Milan,  and  3  miles  above 
the  confluence  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Po.  A  covered 
bridge  of  eight  arches  connects  the  city  with  the 
subm-b  of  Borgo  Ticino,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
river,  and  from  this  bridge  the  Strada  Nuova,  or 
Corao,  the  principal  thoroughfare,  leads  north,  and 
extends  to  the  outskirts.  The  city  is  large,  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  has  an  imposing  appearance, 
bearing  the  impress  of  antiquity.  In  former  times, 
it  was  called  the  'city  of  a  hundred  towers  ;*  but 
the  palace  of  Theodoric,  and  the  tower  where 
BoSthius  wrote  the  treatise  De  Consolatione  PhilO" 
sophicB^  no  longer  exist ;  among  the  remaining  ones 
are  those  of  B^credi  and  Del  Maino,  which  are  each 
169  feet  high.  Its  oldest  church,  and  perhaps  the 
oldest  in  Italy,  is  that  of  San  Michele,  which, 
although  the  date  of  its  foundation  is  uncertain,  is 
first  mentioned  in  661.  The  cathedral,  containing 
some  good  paintings,  was  commenced  in  1484,  but 
was  never  finished.  In  a  beautiful  chapel  attached 
to  it,  are  the  ashes  of  St  Augustine,  in  a  sarcophagus 
ornamented  with  50  bassi-i*ilievi,  95  statues,  and 
numerous  grotesques.  In  the  Church  of  San  Petro 
in  Ciel  d'Auro  are  deposited  the  remains  of  the 
unfortunate  Boethius.  The  Certosa  of  P.,  the  most 
splendid  monastery  in  the  world,  lies  four  miles 
north  of  the  city.  It  was  founded  in  1396,  contains 
many  beautiful  paintings,  and  abounds  in  the 
richest  ornamentation.  It  has  an  octagonal  cupola, 
painted  ultramarine,  and  enamelled  in  gold.  It 
was  sacked  by  Uie  French  in  1796.  Its  church  is 
in  the  form  of  a  Latin  cross,  and  is  249  feet  long, 
and  173  feet  wide.  The  university  of  P.  is  said 
to  have  been  founded  by  Charlemagne  in  774,  and 
was  one  of  the  most  famous  seats  of  leamins 
during  the  middle  ages.  Its  efficiency  was  much 
increased  by  Galeazzo  Visconti,  who  bestowed 
many  privileges  upon  it  in  the  year  1396.  It  con- 
sists of  numerous  colleges,  and  attached  to  it  are 
a  library  of  120,000  vols.,  a  numismatic  collection, 
anatomical,  natural  history,  and  other  museums,  a 
botanic  ^urden,  a  school  of  the  fine  arts,  ftc.  llie 
university  is  attended  by  about  1600  students.  It 
has  numbered  among  its  professors  Alciati,  Fidelfo, 
Spallanzani,   Volta,  Soaipa,  Foscolo,   and   Monti. 

SS6 


PAVIA-PAWNBROKING. 


The  other  chief  ediBces  comprise  private  palaces, 
theatre,  g^nasium,  &c.  P.  carries  on  a  eood  trade 
in  wine,  noe,  silk,  and  cheese.    Pop.  (186^)  30>480. 

P.,  the  ancient  Ticinum  (afterwards  Papia, 
whence  the  modem  name),  was  founded  by  the 
Ligorii ;  it  was  sacked  by  Brennus  and  by  Hannibal, 
burned  by  the  Huns,  conquered  by  the  ]iU>mans, 
and  became  a  place  of  considerable  importance, 
at  the  end  of  the  Boman  empire.  Then  it  came 
into  the  possession  of  the  Goths  and  Lombards,  and 
the  kings  of  the  latter  made  it  the  capital  of  the 
kinedom  of  Italy.  It  became  independent  in  the 
12tn  c.,  then,  weakened  by  civil  wars,  it  was  con- 
quered by  Matthew  Visconti  in  134:5.  Since  that 
period,  its  history  is  merged  in  that  of  the  con- 
querors of  Lombardy.  Here,  in  1525,  the  French 
were  defeated  by  the  imperialists,  and  their  king 
taken  prisoner;  but  in  1527,  and  again  in  the 
following  year,  it  was  taken  and  laid  waste  by  the 
French.  It  was  stormed  and  pillaged  by  Napoleon 
in  1796,  and  came  into  the  possession  of  Austria  by 
the  peace  of  1814.  Since  1859,  it  has  been  included 
within  the  re-organised  kingdom  of  Italy. 

PAVIA.    See  Hokse-chestnut. 

PAYI'LION,  a  portion  of  a  building,  under  one 
roof,  of  a  tent-like  form,  with  the  slope  of  the  roof 
either  straight  or  curved.  This  form  is  much  used 
in  France — the  higher  parts  of  the  new  buildings  at 
the  Louvre  are  good  examples  of  pavilions.  Pavilion 
roofs  are  sometimes  called  Frencn  roofis. 

PAVLOGRA'D,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Ekatermoslav,  and  38  miles  east- 
north-east  of  the  town  of  that  name,  on  the  Voltcha, 
an  affluent  of  the  Dnieper.  It  was  founded  in  1780, 
during  the  reign  of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.,  and 
its  first  colomsts  were  the  Zapor^ky  Cossacks. 
But  in  1782,  a  great  portion  of  ue  English  garrison 
of  Fort  Magon  m  Minorca,  having  been  subdued  by 
the  Spaniards,  and  being  forcea  by  the  terms  of 
their  capitulation  to  renounce  the  English  service, 
obtained  liberty  from  the  Empress  Catharine  to 
settle  in  Pavlograd.  The  gariison  was  composed 
ohiefly  of  Corsicans.    Pop.  of  the  town  (1864),  9309. 

PAVO'NIDjSi,  A  name  sometimes  used  by 
ornithologists  to  designate  the  family  of  gallinaceous 
birds  more  commoiuy  called  Phaaianida  (q.  v.), 
sometimes  applied  as  a  designation  to  a  portion  of 
that  family  separated  from  uie  rest  on  very  slight 
grounds,  we  chief  distinction  being  the  greater 
expansion  of  the  tail     See  Peacock  and  Polt- 

FLBCTRON. 

PAWL,  <m  shipboard,  is  a  catch  or  hook  to 

Srevent  the  capstan  from  flying  round  backwards 
uring  a  pause  in  the  heaving.    A  similar  catch  is 
used  in  the  common  windlass. 

PA'WNBROKING  (Du.  pamd,  Ger.  pfcaid,  Fr. 
jpofi,  a  pledge).  The  business  of  lending  money  on 
pawns  or  pledges  appears  to  have  been  carried  on 
in  England  by  certam  Italian  merchants  or  bankers 
as  early  at  least  as  the  reign  of  Richiuxl  L  By 
the  12tli  of  Edward  L,  a  messuage  was  confirmed 
to  these  traders  where  Lombard  Street  now  exists ; 
the  name  being,  according  to  Stow,  derived  from 
the  Longobards  who  used  to  congregate  there  for 
business  purposes.  Subsequently,  these  merchant 
adventurers  became  known  generally  by  the  name 
of  Lombardens.  Their  wealth  became  proverbial 
Among  the  richest  of  them  were  the  celebrated 
family  of  the  Medici ;  from  whose  armorial  bearings 
it  is  conjectured  that  the  pawnbroking  insignia  of 
the  three  balls  have  been  derived.  The  bankers  of 
Lombard  Street  appear  to  have  exercised  a  monopoly 
in  pawnbroking  until  the  reign  of  Mizabeth.  J?he 
trade  is  first  recognised   in  law  by  the  act  Ist 


James  I.  c.  21.  In  the  perilous  days  of  Charles  L 
the  goldsmiths  were  very  frequently  choaen  as  the 
custodiers  of  plate  and  money ;  which  circumstance 
seems  to  have  suggested  to  them  the  ]>rofitable 
business  of  lending  cm  pawns  and  discounting  bills. 
From  this  time,  tlM  oppression  and  extortion  often 
exercised  by  brokers  has  continued  to  attract  much 
public  attention  and  discussion ;  and  an  effort  has 
been  made,  both  in  England  and  on  the  continent, 
to  obviate  the  evil  by  the  establishment  of  what  are 
called  Monta  de  Pilt^,  the  object  of  which  is  to 
advance  small  sums  to  the  vety  poor  at  a  moderate 
interest.  See  Mont  db  Pi£t4  in  England,  after 
many  abortive  efforts,  a  Mont  de  Pi6<S  office  was 
started  in  1708;  but  in  1731  it  came  to  a  disas- 
trous end.  The  bubble  mania  of  1824 — 1825  gave 
rise  to  a  similar  scheme.  In  this  instance  upwards 
of  £400,000  wa^  subscribed ;  but  the  undertaking 
miscarried,  and  the  capital  was  lost.  A  similar  fate 
attended  the  Irish  Monts  de  Pi6t^  of  which  there 
were  eiffht  in  1841.  In  1848,  they  had  all  dis- 
appeared except  one,  which  lingered  to  1853  ;  when 
it  also  expired.  It  would  thus  seem  hopeless  to 
attempt  to  establish  a  pawnbroking  office  in 
England  on  any  other  footing  than  an  ordinaiy 
commercial  one.  The  cause  of  failure  will  be  found 
to  lie,  generally,  in  the  great  difficulty  of  conducting 
a  commercial  undertaking  on  charitable  principles^ 
with  sufficient  energy  and  ability  to  compete  suc- 
cessfully with  others  originating  in  the  ordinary 
motives  which  lead  men  to  engage  in  trade. 

It  hardly  admits  of  dispute  that  the  pawn-shop,  in 
its  practical  working,  is  an  evil—  necessary,  it  may 
be,  but  still  an  evil ;  and  the  having  recourse  to  it  is 
strongly  to  be  discouraged.  There  are,  doubtless, 
cases  where  men  are  driven  to  pawn  their  goods 
from  causes  which  are  not  discreaitable,  and  which 
do  not  render  it  certain  that  they  are  on  the  road 
to  ruin ;  but  such  cases  are  rare  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule.  Besides  making  borro^'ing  too  easy, 
and  thus  encouraging  the  fat^  habit  of  anticipating 
income,  the  pawn  snop  is,  in  nine  cases  out  of  ten, 
the  door  to  l^e  drinking-shop.  Even  where  the 
one  does  not  directlv  lead  to  the  other,  it  generally 
does  so  in  the  end.  That  'borrowing  dulls  the 
edge  of  husbandry '  applies  with  a  force  increasing 
in  a  geometrical  ratio  as  we  descend  in  the  scale 
of  society.  Admitting,  however,  that  with  all  its 
tendency  to  demoralise,  pawnbroking  is,  in  many 
cases,  of  value  in  tiding  over  unforeseen  pecuniary 
difficulties,  it  is  sufficient  to  say,  that  so  loujg  as 
improvidence  prevails  among  large  classes  of  society, 
and  so  long  as  even  the  most  prudent  are  liable  to 
unforeseen  accidents,  the  accommodation  of  the 
pawn-shop  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  necessity,  and 
like  other  demands  of  the  public  will  continue  to  be 
supplied.  Nor  are  those  who  supply  this  demand 
to  blame,  an^  more  than  the  caterers  for  many  other 
expenses  which  economists  pronounce  to  be  wasteful 
The  fault,  where  there  is  a  fault,  is  in  those  who 
borrow,  not  in  those  who  lend.  The  legislature, 
accordingly,  instead  of  trying  to  put  down  pawn- 
broking,  has  wisely  confined  itseu  to  putting  it 
under  stringent  regulations  so  as  to  prevent  as  far 
as  possible  its  abuse. 

Pawnbrokers  are  restricted  in  their  business  by 
various  acts  of  parliament,  some  of  which  were 
passed  before  the  recent  abolition  of  the  Usury 
Acts.  The  chief  statute  is  the  39  and  40  Gea  IlL 
0.  99,  which  requires  them  to  take  out  a  licence 
(for  which  they  pay  £7>  10«.,  and  if  they  deal  in 
silver-plate,  £5,  15l  additional),  fixes  the  rate  of 
interest,  and  makes  it  necessary  that  a  table 
of  interest  should  be  put  up  in  a  conspicuous 
part  of  the  shop,  to  keep  books  with  correct 
entries  of  the  name  and  place  of  abode  of  the  owners 


PAWTUCKET  -  PAXTON. 


<rf  goods,  fta  If  the  ownw  of  goods  has  jnst  cause 
to  suspect  that  such  goodd  hare  been  pawned  at  a 
particular  shop,  the  justices  of  tl)e  peace  may  grant 
a  search-warrant,  and  if  found,  the  goods  must  be 
restored  to  the  owner.  Pawnbrokers  aie  expressly 
prohibited  from  taking  in  pledge  goods  of  inanu- 
nicture  in  an  unfinished  state,  and  also  any  goods 
under  circumstances  which  ought  to  have  aroused 
&etr  suspicions.  Goods  which  have  been  in  pledge 
for  A  year  may  be  sold,  unless  notice  not  to  sell  be 
given  before  the  expiration  of  the  12  months,  in 
which  case  three  months  more  are  allowed  to  the 
owner  to  redeem  them.  If  the  duplicate  is  lost,  the 
owner  of  the  goods  may  obtain  a  fresh  one  on  veri- 
fying the  fact  of  his  being  the  owner  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace.  If  the  money  borrowed  be  tendered 
with  interest  within  the  year,  the  pawnbroker  is 
bound  to  deliver  them  up,  otherwise  a  justice  of  the 
peace  may  by  order  compel  him  to  do  sa  The  mode 
of  selling  forfeited  goods  is  prescribed  by  the  statute 
to  be  by  auction,  and  at  four  times  in  the  year — tl^e 
catalogues  to  contain  the  names  of  the  pawnbrokers, 
and  the  month  when  the  goods  were  pawned  and 
the  number  entered  in  the  pawnbrokers  books. 
The  result  of  the  sales  is  to  be  entered  in  the  books 
of  the  pawnbroker  and  auctioneer,  and  the  surplus 
is  to  be  paid  on  request  to  the  owner  of  the  goods 
after  deducting  the  costs  of  the  sale.  Pawnbrokers 
are  not  to  take  goods  in  pawn  from  persons  under 
the  influence  of  drinJk,  or  under  the  age  of  16,  nor 
after  certain  hours,  according  to  the  season  of  the 
vear.  In  case  of  penalties  imposed  on  pawnbrokers 
lor  offences  against  the  act,  these,  in  several  cases, 
or  parts  of  them,  are  made  payable  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor  of  the  parish  A  pawnbroker  is  not 
liable  to  the  owner  of  the  goods  for  their  value  in 
case  of  an  accidental  fire  occurring  on  the  premises. 
But  in  all  cases  of  loss,  or  destruction  by  his  neglect 
or  fault,  the  pawnbroker  is  liable. 

The  greatest  pawnbroking  establishment  in  the 
world  is  the  Mont  de  Pi^S  of  Paris.  It  trades 
with  borrowed  capital,  and  with  the  profits  of 
former  years  temporarily  capitalised.  Recent 
statiBtics  are  not  at  hand ;  but  in  1853  it  received 
1,431,575  pledees,  valued  at  £1,036,371,  including 
renewals,  and  uie  average  charge  was  about  15  per 
cent,  per  annum.  Taking  one  of  the  largest  offices 
in  England  out  of  London,  we  find  that  in  1857 
it  received  142,835  pledges,  valued  at  £36,560, 
including  renewids,  and  the  average  charge  was 
25  per  cent,  per  annum.  Various  circumstances 
renaer  the  difference  between  the  rates  really  much 
less  than  these  figures  indicate;  still  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  interest  charged  on  small  loans  is 
lower  at  the  Mont  de  Pi6t6  of  Paris  than  in  the 
pawnbroking  offices  in  this  country;  but  this 
convenience  is  limited  by  the  fact  of  the  French 
establishment  taking  no  loans  under  three  francs. 

What  IB  called  in  England  the  '  dolly  shop,'  and 
in  Scotland  the  'wee  pawn'  system  is  carried  on 
by  brokers,  ostensibly  buying  and  selling.  They 
receive  articles  as  bought;  tnere  being  a  distinct 
understanding  that  the  seller  is  to  have  an  oppor- 
tunity of  repurchasing  within  a  limited  time,  at 
•n  understood  increase  of  price.  The  general 
understanding  as  to  charge  is  a  penny  per  shilling 
per  week ;  a  month  TOing  usually  allowed  to 
redeem  the  article.  The  '  wee*  broker  is  commonly 
resorted  to  because  the  article  is  one  which  the 
regular  dealer  will  not  take,  or  will  not  give  so 
high  an  advance  upon. 

PAWTU'CKET,  a  town  of  Rhode  Island,  U.S., 
on  both  sides  of  the  Pawtucket  River,  4  miles  north 
of  Providence.  A  fall  of  60  feet  on  the  river,  and 
its  proximity  to  the  sea,  caused  it  to  be  selected  by 
Saimiel  Slater,  in  1790,  as  the  site  of  the  first  cotton 
934 


factory  in  the  United  States.  It  now  contains  19 
>  cotton  mills,  9  machine  shops,  3  furnaces,  and  manu- 
factures of  fire-engines,  beltmg,  jewellery,  &c.  There 
are  11  churches,  4  banks,  2  newspapers,  a  publio 
library,  with  extensive  steam-boat  ana  railway  con** 
nections.    Pop.  in  1860,  8880. 

PAX,  called  also  Pacificalb  and  Osculatobiijii 
(Lat.  oscuhr,  I  kiss),  the  *  Kiss  of  Peace,'  and  also 
a  sacred  utensil,  employed  in  some  of  the  solemn 
services  of  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  ceremony  of 

5iving  the  so-called  *  kiss  of  peace '  during  the  mass, 
lie  practice  of  saluting  each  other — the  men,  men, 
and  the  women,  women— during  publio  worship, 
and  particularly  in  the  agape,  or  love-feast,  is 
frequently  alluded  to  by  ancient  writers,  as  Cyril  of 
Jerusalem,  Catech.  xv.,  and  St  Augustine,  Serm. 
227.  All  the  ancient  liturgies,  without  exception, 
refer  to  it  as  among  the  rites  with  which  the 
Eucharist  was  celebrated  ;  but  they  differ  as  to  the 
time  and  the  place  in  the  Eucharistic  service  in  which 
it  is  introduced.  In  the  Eastern  liturgies  it  is 
before,  in  the  Western  after  the  Offertory  (q.  v.) ; 
and  in  the  Roman  it  immediately  precedes  the 
communion.  The  ceremony  commences  with  the 
celebrating  bishop  or  priest,  who  salutes  upon  the 
cheek  the  deacon;  and  bv  him  the  salute  is 
tendered  to  the  other  members,  and  to  the  first 
dignitary  of  the  assistant  clergv.  Ori^ally  the 
laity  also  were  included,  but  this  has  long  since 
been  abandoned.  It  is  when  the  mass  is  celebrated 
by  a  high-  dignitary  that  the  utensil  called  the  jMtx 
is  used.  The  pax  is  sometimes  a  crucifix,  some- 
times a  reliquary,  sometimes  a  tablet  with  a  figure 
sculptured  or  enamelled  upon  it.  Having  been 
kissed  by  the  celebrant,  and  by  him  handed  to 
the  deacon,  it  is  carried  by  the  latter  to  the  rest 
of  the  clergy.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  pax  is  given 
l^  merely  Dowing,  and  approaching  the  cheek  to 
the  person  to  whom  it  is  communicated.  The 
pax  IS  omitted  in  the  mass  of  Maundy-Thursday 
(q.  v.),  to  express  horror  of  the  treacherous  kiss  of 
Judas. 

PAXO,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  lies  10  miles 
south-west  of  the  coast  of  Albania,  and  9  mUes 
south-south-east  of  the  island  of  Corfu.  It  is  about 
5  miles  long,  and  about  2  miles  broad.  The 
capital,  or  rather  the  chief  village,  is  Port  Gaio 
(pop.  2000),  on  the  east  coast.  Olives,  almonds, 
and  vines  are  grown,  and  the  island  is  famous  for 
its  oiL  Water  is  sometimes  very  scarce.  Pop.  of 
the  island  about  5000. 

PAXTOl^,  Sir  Josbph,  English  architect  and 
horticulturist,  was   bom    at  Milton-Bryant,   near- 
Wobum,  Bedfordshire,  in  1803.     He  was  sent  to 
Wobum  Free  School,  but  left  it  at  an  early  age, 
and  obtained  employment  as  a  working  ^trdener. 
He    entered   the   service  of   the   sixth   Duke   of 
Devonshire,  at  Chiswick,   and  was  thence  trans- 
ferred to  Chatsworth,  where  he  became  the  duke's 
chief   gardener.     His  abilities  as  a  horticulturist 
found   ample   scope   in   the  beautiful   gardens  ol 
Chatsworth,  and  are  further  attested  by  FaxUm's 
Magazine  of  Botany,  of  which  he  was  editor,  as 
well  as  other  works  on  plants  and  flowers.    The 
experience  he  obtained  in  designing  capacious  glass 
conservatories  at  Chatsworth  led  him  to  proix)se' 
a  Crystal  Palace  of  glass  and  iron  for  the  Great: 
Exhibition  (q.  v.)  of  1851.    It  was  the  first  time- 
these  materials  had  been  employed  on  so  extensive* 
a  scale,  and  visitors  found  an  inexhaustible  theme* 
of  admiration  in  a  fair^  palace  so  novel,  beauti- 
ful, and  magnificent.     His  design  obtained  for  him- 
great  popularity  and  the  honour  of  kni|j;hthood. 
The  Crystal  Palace  of  1851  was  removed  from  Hyde 
Park,  but  became  the  germ  of  the  nobler  ai>d  more 

337 


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I  . 


PAYMASTER-GENERAL  -PEA. 


splendid  Palace  at  Sydenham,  the  ooDstruction  of 
which  he  superintended ,  the  grounds  were  also 
laid  out  by  nim.  Crystal  palaces  for  exhibitions 
of  artistic  and  industrial  objects  have  since  1851 
been  constructed  at  Dublin,  New  York,  Paris, 
Manchester,  kc  In  1854,  P.  was  returned  to 
parliament  on  the  liberal  interest  for  Coventry, 
which  he  still  (1864)  continues  to  represent.  He 
is  a  member  of  many  learned  societies  in  Europe, 
and  his  woHls  on  horticulture  and  botany  are  much 
esteemed. 

PAY'MASTER-GE'NERAL  ia  an  officer  of  the 
British  ministry,  but  not  of  the  cabinet,  charged 
with  superintending  the  issue  of  all  moneys  voted 
by  parliament.  He  is  virtually  the  paymaster  of 
the  public  service,  having  no  control  over  the  sums 
issued,  and  paying  merely  on  the  order  of  the 
department  concerned.  ,The  salary  of  the  office 
is  £2000  per  annum.  The  paymaster-general  is 
always  either  a  peer  or  a  member  of  the  House  of 
Commons,  and  of  course  changes  with  the  ministry. 
Of  late  years  the  office  has  been  held  in  conjunction 
with  that  of  Vice-president  of  the  Board  of  Trade. 
The  paymaster-general  is  assisted  by  a  deputy  and 
a  statf  of  clerks,  the  annual  cost  of  the  whole  depart- 
ment amounting  to  £21,500.  The  first  notice  of 
this  office  is  in  tne  early  part  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.,  when  the  paymaster-general  was  nothing  more 
than  the  sole  fuiymaster  of  the  army.  The  present 
extensive  duties  of  the  office  have  been  added  by 
degrees  during  the  19th  century. 

PAYMASTER,  Military  and  Naval.— Mili- 
tary paymasters  are  either  *  District  *  or  *  Regimen- 
tal.' Of  the  latter,  who  constitute  by  far  the  more 
numerous  class,  there  is  one  to  every  brigade  of 
artillery,  r^ment  of  cavalry,  and  battalion  of 
infantry.  The  paymaster  holds  no  other  commis- 
sion, but  the  appointment  is  nearly  always  conferred 
upon  some  person  who  has  })reviously  neld  a  com- 
batant rank  in  the  army.  The  functions  of  pay- 
master comprise  issuing  and  accounting  for  the  pay 
of  officers  and  men,  and  having  charge  generally  of 
all  the  finances  of  tiie  cor|)s.  In  di8ci])line,  the  pay- 
master is  responsible  to  the  officer  commanding  the 
regiment ;  but  in  all  money  matters  he  looks  for 
omers  to  the  War  Office  alone.  He  commences 
with  a  [)ay  of  12m.  Gc^.  aday,  with  the  relative  rank  of 
captain  ;  and  after  twenty  years*  service  attains  the 
pay  of  £1,  28.  6d,  a  day  and  relative  rank  as  major. 
Regimental  paymasters  were  first  appointed  during 
the  French  war. 

District  paymasters  have  financial  charge  in 
recruiting  districts.  They  are  usually  old  officere, 
and  receive  each  28.  6d.  a  day  more  tnan  the  rates 
of  regimental  pay.  Both  in  districts  and  regiments 
army  paymasters  have  to  provide  security  for  the 
faithful  discharge  of  their  duty.— The  Naval  Pay- 
master is  for  a  ship  what  the  military  paymaster  is 
for  a  regiment ;  but  he  adds  to  those  duties  some  of 
those  performed  in  the  army  by  the  quartermaster, 
commissanat,  and  militarv  storekeeper,  for  he  has 
charge  of  the  provisions,  clothing,  and  miscellaneous 
stores,  as  well  as  of  mere  money.  Paymasters  are 
commissioned  officers,  receiving  from  £1,  128.  lid, 
to  ld«.  Sii.  a  day,- and  ranking,  according  to  service, 
with  captains,  commanders,  and  lieutenants.  Up 
to  the  year  1844  paymasters  were  styled  pursers, 
and  were  paid  by  profits  thev  made  on  certain  of 
the  ^ip's  charges.  At  a  still  earlier  period  these 
pursers  had  been  warrant-officers. 

PAYMASTER-SERGEANT,  in  the  army,  is  a 
non-commissioned  officer,  whose  dutv  it  is  to  act 
as  clerk  to  the  paymaster.  He  ranks  with  other 
staff-sergeants,  and  receives  from  29.  to  3^.  a  day, 
according  to  his  corps,  with  an  increase  of  Qd,  after 


seven  years'  uninterrupted  service    m  paymaster- 
sergeant. 

PAYNISING,  a  process  for  preserving  and  hard- 
ening wood,  inventea  by  a  Mr  Payne.  It  consists  in 
placing  well-seasoned  timber  in  an  air-tight  chamber, 
and  then,  when,  by  means  of  a  powerful  air-pump, 
the  wood  is  deprived  of  its  air,  a  solution  of  gulpku' 
ret  o/caldum,  or  of  su1))huret  of  barium  is  admitted, 
and  readily  fills  up  the  empty  vessels  all  throneh 
the  wood.  The  air-pump  is  again  used,  and  ue 
superfluous  moisture  is  drawn  out,  and  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  iron  is  injected;  this  acts  chemically 
upon  the  sulphuret  of  barium  or  of  calcium,  and 
forms  all  through  the  wood  either  the  insoluble 
sulphate  of  barium  (heavy  spar)  or  of  lime  (gyp- 
sum). The  addition  of  these  mineral  matenalf 
renders  the  wood  very  heavy,  but  it  becomes  also 
very  durable,  and  almost  incombustible. 

PEA  {Pi8um),  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Leguminoam^  suborder  PapilionacecBy  closely 
allied  to  the  ^enus  Lathyrv8  (q.  v.),  from  which  it 
differs  chiefly  m  the  triangular  style.     Two  species, 
supposed  to  be  natives  of  the  south  of  Europe  and 
of  the  East,  are  very  extensively  cultivated  for 
their  seeds  (peas),  which  are  the  best  of  all  kinds 
of  pulse;   the  Common  Pea  or  Garden  Pea  {P. 
sativum)  in  gardens,  and  the  Field  Pea  (P.  arvatte) 
in  fields ;    both  of  them  climbing  annuals,   with 
pinnate  leaves,  ovate  leaflets,  and  branching  temlrilB 
m  place  of  a  terminal  leaflet  -,   the  Garden  Pea 
distinguished  by  having  two  or  several  flowers  on 
each  flower- stalk,  the  flowers  either  red  or  white, 
more  generally  white,  and  the  seeds  subglobular ;  the 
Field  Pea  having  one  flower  on  each  flower-stalk, 
the    flowers  always    red,  and  the   seeds   angular 
from  crowding  and  compression  in  the  pod.     But 
it    is    not    improbable    that    thev   are   truly   one 
species,    of  which    the  Garden  Pea  has,  through 
cultivation,  departed  furthest    from    the    original 
type.     Peas    have    been    cultivated   in    the   East 
from    time    immemorial,     although    the     ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans  do  not  seem  to   have  been 
acquainted  with  this  kind  of  pulse,  the  cultivation 
of  which  was  apparently  introduced  into  Europe 
very  early  in  the  middle  ages ;  and  its  cultivation 
extends  from  warm  climates,  as  India,  even  to  the 
Arctic  regions,  the  plant  being  of  rapid  growth  and 
short  life.     The  seeds  of  the  Garden  Pea  are  used 
for  culinary  purposes  both  in  a  green   and  in  a 
ripe  state ;  aUo  the  green  succulent  pods  of  some 
varieties,  known  as  Sugar  Peas  or  Wyker  Peas,  in 
which  the  membrane  lining  the  inside  of  the  pod — 
parchment-like  in  most  kinds — is  much  attenuated. 
Field  peas  are   used  both  for  feeding  cattle  and 
for  human  food.    For  the  latter  purjKwe,  peas  are 
often  prepared  by  being  shelled,  or  deprived  of  the 
membrane  which  covers  them,  in  a  particular  kind 
of  mill ;  they  are  then  sold  as  Split  Peas,  and  are 
much  in  use  for  making  Pea  Soup.    They  are  also 
ground  into  meal,  which  is  used  in  various  ways, 
chiefly  for  making  a  kind  of  pottage  and  of  un- 
leavened bread.     In  the  countnes  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  peas  are  roasted  in  order  to  eating. 

There  are  innumerable  varieties  both  of  the  Field 
Pea  and  the  Garden  Pea,  those  of  the  latter  being  so 
much  the  products  of  horticultural  art,  that  uiey 
cannot  be  preserved  without  the  utmost  attention. 
Some  of  the  kinds  of  garden  peas  have  long  stems, 
and  require  for  their  support  stakes  of  six  or  eight 
feet  in  height ;  others  are  of  humbler  growth ;  and 
certain  dwarf  kinds,  preferred  as  most  convenient 
in  many  gardens,  succeed  very  well  wit-hout  Li^ea. 
The  lai^est  kinds  are  sown  in  rows  about  four  feet 
asimder.  In  Britain,  garden  peas  are  sown  at 
different  times  from  February  to  June,  in  order  to 


't 


PEA— PEABODY. 


secure  a  supply  of  green  peas  during  a  considerable 
part  of  summer  and  antumn ;  and  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  island  they  are  also  sown  in  the  end 
of  autumn,  a  very  little  protection  being  sufficient 
for  them  during  the  winter.  Certain  small  kinds, 
of  veiy  rapid  erowth,  known  as  JEarly  Peas,  are 
preferred  for  the  first  sowinss,  although  less  pro- 
Quctive  than  many  othera  The  varieties  known 
IB  Mammoth  Peas  are  remarkable  for  their  size 
and  tenderness  in  a  green  state,  but  shrivel  as  they 
ripen. 

Branches  of  trees  are  generally  used  for  pea- 
stakes,  when  they  can  be  obtained,  and  nothing 
can  be  better;  but  in  lieu  of  them,  strings  are 
sometimes  stretched  between  poles  along  the  rows. 
Field  peas  are  sometimes  sown  alone,  and  allowed 
to  support  each  other,  where  the  soil  is  not  very 
rich,  but  are  very  generally  sown  with  beans,  to 
which  they  clin^ 

Chalky  and  other  calcareous  soils  are  particularly 
suitable  for  peas,  and  in  other  soils  a  good  field 
crop  is  seldom  obtained  unless  the  land  has  been 
well  limed,  or  manured  with  gypsum.  The  free  use 
of  lime  is  supposed,  however,  to  be  unfavourable 
to  the  quality  of  garden  peas  intended  to  be  used 
green. 

Peas  are  cultivated  to  a  considerable  extent  as  a 
field  crop  in  Britain,  but  are  best  adaj)ted  to  those 
districts  in  which  the  climate  is  least  moist,  the 
seeds  being  very  apt  to  grow  in  the  pods  when 
moist  weather  prevails  in  autumn,  by  which  the 
crop  is  injured  or  destroyed.  The  most  productive 
kinds,  being  also  in  general  the  most  bidky  in 
straw,  are  very  apt  to  lodge  before  the  pods  are 
filled,  in  wet  seasons,  and  particularly  on  nch  land. 
The  crop  is,  therefore,  rather  a  precarious  one. 

The  haulm  or  straw  of  peas  is  used  for  feeding 
cattle ;  and  for  its  sake,  field  peas  are  often  reaped 
before  the}'  are  quite  ripe,  great  care  being  taken 
in  stacking  the  straw  to  provide  for  ventilation,  so 
that  it  may  not  fieoL  Pea  haulm  is  more  nitro- 
genous and  more  nutritious  than  hay. 

Land  to  be  sown  with  field  peas  should  be  very 
c^Ain,  and  in  particular  free  of  couch  grass ;  other- 
wise the  best  management  cannot  prevent  its 
becoming  more  foul  whilst  bearing  the  pea  crop. 
The  seed  ought  always  to  be  sown  in  rows,  twelve 
inches  apart,  or,  in  rich  soils,  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches  apart.  Various  means  are  employed  for ! 
sowing  peas  ;  they  are  not  unfrequently  ploughed 
under  each  second  furrow ;  but  the  seed  ought  not 
to  be  buried  more  than  four  inches  under  the 
surface,  and  indeed  that  depth  is  too  great ; 
alth()u_:h  many  farmers  sow  their  j)eas  deeper  than 
they  otherwise  would,  to  place  them  beyond  the 
reach  of  wood  pigeons.  All  possible  means  ought 
to  }je  used  to  keep  the  land  free  of  weeds.  In  some 
districts,  peas  are  generally  sown  broadcast,  which 
renders  it  impossi^e  to  do  anything  for  this  pur- 
pose. In  the  harvesting  of  peas,  the  sheaves  are 
senerally  left  loose  till  the  haulm  is  somewhat  dry. 
In  drying,  it  shrinks  very  much.  Broadcast  peas 
are  often  cut  with  the  scythe,  and  the  harvesting  of 
them  is  managed  much  as  that  of  hay. —  Winter 
f'tid  Peas,  a  variety  with  very  small  seeds,  are 
much  cultivated  in  France  and  Germany,  being 
sown  in  October,  enduring  the  severest  frosts 
without  injury,  and  ripening  very  early. 

Besides  being  one  of  our  most  important  agricul- 
tural and  horticultural  crops,  peas  are  largely 
imported  into  Britain,  the  quantity  sometimes 
reaching  120,000  quarters.  We  receive  them  from 
Denmanc,  Pjrussia,  the  Hanse  Towns,  Hollaud, 
Morocco,  United  States,  British  Korth  America; 
and  of  these,  Denmark  and  our  North  American 
colonies  send  the  greater  partb     As  an  article  of 


food,  if  not  taken  too  often  or  without  other  food, 
peas  are  very  valuable,  as  they  contain  a  large  per- 
centage of  casein^  which  is  a  flesh-forming  principle. 
This  principle  in  the  pea  has  been  called  legvmmy 
but  chemists  are  now  generally  agreed  that  it  is 
identical  with  the  casein  of  cheese.  The  following 
is  an  analysis  of  one  hundred  parts  of  pea  meal : 

Water, 14-1 

C'isein,     .       .       .       .       t  28*4 

Starch,       «       .        .        .        .  87  0 

Sugar,      •       •       •        •        .  2*0 

Gum,          •        .       •        .        .  9-0 

F'«t, 3-0 

Wtx)dy  Fibre,      ....  10*0 

Mineral  Hatter,       •        •       .  2*5 

1000 

The  unripe  peas  of  the  garden  varieties  are  amongst 
our  most  esteemed  vegetables,  and  the  meal  of  me 
white  or  yellow  varieties  used  in  soups  is  a  highly 
nutritious  and  agreeable  food. 

A  plant  found  on  some  parts  of  the  shores  of 
Britain,  as  well  as  of  continental  Europe  and  North 
America,  and  known  as  the  Sea  Psa,  has  been 
commonly  referred  to  the  genus  Pisum,  and  called 
P.  maritimvmj  althoi^h  botanists  now  generally 
refer  it  to  Lathyrua,  It  much  resembles  the  com- 
mon pea ;  has  large  reddish  or  purple  flowers  on 
many-fiowered  stalks;  and  its  seeds  have  a  dis- 
agreeable bitter  taste.  Its  abundance  on  the  sea 
coast  at  Orford,  in  Sussex,  is  said  to  have  saved 
many  persons  from  death  by  famine  in  1555. — The 
other  species  of  Pisum  are  few.  But  the  name  Pea 
is  often  eiven  to  species  of  other  papilionaceous 
genera.  The  Sweet  Pea  and  Eveblastino  Pea 
are  species  of  Lathyrus.  The  Chick  Pea  (q.  v.)  is 
a  species  of  Cicer, 

PEA  BEETLE,  or  PEA  CHAFER  {Bruchus 
pisi),  a  coleopterous  insect,  very  destructive  to  crops 
of  peas  in  the  south 
of  Europe  and  in 
North  America.  It 
is  about  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  long, 
black,  variegated 
with  bright  brown 
hairs,  and  with 
white  spots  and 
dots  on  the  wing- 
cases.  It  lays  its  eggs  in  the  ^oung  pods,  one 
for  each  pea,  and  thelarva  eats  its  way  into  the 
pea,  and  completely  hollows  it  out. 

PEABODY,  George,  an  American  merchant^ 
whose  name  deserves  to  be  held  in  remembrance 
on  account  of  his  munificent  philanthropy,  was 
born  at  Dan  vers,  Massachusetts,  February  18,  1795. 
His  parents  were  poor,  and  his  only  education 
was  received  at  the  district  school  At  the  age 
of  II  he  was  placed  with  a  grocer,  and  at  15  in  a 
haberdasher's  shop  in  Newburyport.  When  ^  years 
old,  he  was  a  partner  with  Elisha  Biggs  in  Baltimore. 
Coming  to  England  in  1827  to  buv  merchandise,  he 
transacted  financial  business  for  the  state  of  Mary- 
land. In  1837  he  removed  to  London,  and  in  1843 
became  a  banker,  and  accumulated  a  large  fortune. 
He  did  not  forget  his  humble  ori^n  or  place  of 
birth.  In  1852,  on  the  200th  anniversary  of  the 
settlement  of  his  native  town,  he  sent  home 
20,000  dollars  to  found  an  Educational  Institute  and 
Library,  a  sum  he  afterwards  increased  to  60,000 
dollars,  with  10,000  to  North  Danvers.  He  also 
contributed  10,000  to  the  first  Grinnell  Arctic 
Expedition,  500,000  dollars  to  the  city  of  Baltimore 
for  an  Institute  of  Science,  Literature,  and  the  Fine 
Arts ;  and  in  1863,  on  retiring  from  active  business 
in  London,  he    made    the    splendid   donation    of 

£150,000  sterling,  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  of 

339 


Pea  Beetle  (BmehuspM). 
a,  natural  size. 


PEACE— PEACH. 


London,  which  is  now  being  expended  in  building 
improved  dwellings  for  the  working-classes. 

PEACE,  Abtiglus  of  the,  in  English  Law,  are 
certain  complaints  made  against  a  person  who 
threatens  another  with  bodily  injury,  and  the 
redress  given  is  to  bind  the  tiiireatenins  party  over 
with  sui^ties  to  keep  the  peace.  All  justices  of 
the  peace  have,  by  their  commission,  authority  to 
cause  persons  to  find  sufficient  security  to  keep  the 
peace,  and  an  ancient  statute  also  gives  authority. 
Hence  any  one  who  is  threatened  either  in  }>erson 
or  properby,  or  in  the  person  of  his  wife  or  child, 
mav  go  before  a  justice  of  the  peace  and  complain 
on  his  oath  of  the  fact.  The  justice  is  to  consider 
it'  the  language  used  amounted  to  a  threat,  and  if 
1)0  IS  satisned  that  it  does,  he  issues  his  warrant  to 
bring  the  party  before  him,  who  is  then  heard  in 
explanation,  and  if  it  is  not  satisfactory^  he  is 
ordered  to  find  sureties.  If  he  cannot  do  so,  he  is 
committed  to  prison  for  a  limited  time,  or  until  the 
next  quarter-sessions.  The  party,  when  he  finds 
sureties,  is  bound  over  for  a  term  not  exceeding 
twelve  months.  If  he  has  entered  into  recognizances 
(Le.,  given  a  bond  with  sureties),  and  he  break  the 
peace,  he  forfeits  his  recognizance,  and  the  sureties* 
goods  can  be  seized  to  pay  the  amount  of  the  bond. 

PEACE,  Offences  against  the  Public,  are 
those  offences  which  consist  in  either  actually 
breaking  the  peace,  or  constructively  doing  so  by 
leading  directly  to  a -breach.  These  offences  are 
now  usually  known  under  the  heads  of  unlawful 
assemblies,  seditious  libels  and  slanders,  riots, 
affrays,  challenges  to  fight,  forcible  entry  and 
detamer,  and  libel  and  slander.  Those  who  take 
Pfirt  in  an  unlawful  assembly  commit  a  misde- 
meanour against  the  public  safety.  All  persons 
assembled  te  sow  seditiou,  and  bring  into  contempt 
the  constitution,  are  in  an  unlawful  assembly.  Thus 
it  was  held  that  an  attempt  to  hold  a  national  conven- 
tion was  illegal,  for  it  was  impossible  to  anticipate 
with  certainty  the  peaceable  result  of  such  a  meeting. 
It  is,  however,  somewhat  difficult  to  define  precisely 
what  amounts  to  an  illegal  assembly,  except  by 
saying  that  it  points  to  some  course  inconsistent 
with  the  orderly  administration  of  the  laws.  It  is 
the  duty  of  all  individual  citizens  to  resist  and 
oppose  any  unlawful  assembly;  but  the  duty  rests 
primarily  with  the  magistrates  of  the  district,  who 
are  indictable  for  breach  of  duty  in  not  taking 
active  and  immediate  steps  to  put  down  riots.  Thus 
the  mayor  of  Bristol  was  mdicted  for  not  suppressing 
the  riots  at  the  time  of  the  Reform  Bill  The 
magistrates  ought  to  call  at  once  upon  special 
constables  to  bi  sworn  in,  and  if  these  are  insuffi- 
cient, to  call  for  the  aid  of  the  military.  Seditious 
lib«!ls  are  also  offences  against  the  peace,  as  inciting 
directly  to  a  breach.  Such  are  libels  vilifying  the 
Sovereign  or  the  Houses  of  Parliament,  or  the  courts 
of  justice,  or  even  a  foreign  soverei£p,  as  in  the  case 
of  Peltier,  who  was  tri^  for  a  fibel  against  the 
Emperor  Napoleon  I.,  the  tendency  of  such  a  libel 
being  to  breed  misunderstanding  between  our  own 
sovereign  and  the  foreign  sovereign.  A  riot  is  the 
rooet  active  form  of  an  offence  against  the  public 
peace.  To  constitute  a  riot,  there  must  be  at  least 
three  persons  engaged  together  in  pursuance  of  an 
illegal  purpose.  Riots  often  originate  in  an  attempt 
to  redi^  summarily  some  private  wrong.  On  such 
an  occasion,  before  extreme  measures  are  resorted 
to,  and  as  a  test  of  the  good  faith  of  those  who  are 
spectators,  instead  of  purties,  and  by  way  of  full 
notice  to  all  concerned,  the  justices  of  the  peace 
may  read  tiie  liiot  Act,  1  Geo.  L  st.  2,  c  6,  which 
commands  all  persons  to  disperse  within  one  hour 
after  a  proclamation  is  read,  otherwise  they  will  be 

340 


guilty  of  felony.  Persons  not  removing  within  one 
hour  thereafter  may  be  arrested,  and  carried  before 
a  justice,  and  committed  to  prison.  It  is,  however, 
possible  that  the  justices  may  make  a  mistake  in 
thinking  that  te  be  an  illegal  assembly  which  is  not 
so,  for  the  mere  reading  of  the  Riot  Act  does  not 
alter  the  character  of  the  assembly,  and  accordingly 
if  the  paHy  arrested  prove  at  the  trial  that  it  was 
no  illegal  assembly  he  will  be  discharged.  An 
affray  is  also  an  offence  against  the  public  peace, 
being  a  public  assault,  L  e.,  an  assault  committed  in 
presence  of  third  parties,  for  this  is  apt  to  lead  to 
further  breaches  of  the  peace  by  others  joining  in 
it.  Thus  prize-fights  and  duels  are  affrays,  and  all 
present  at  them  are  principal  offenders,  and  may  be 
arrested  by  a  constable  and  bound  over  to  keep  the 
peace,  and  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment 
besidea  So  challenges  to  fight,  provocations  to 
fight,  and  forcibly  entering  into  a  house,  are 
misdemeanours  against  the  public  peace. 

PEACH  {Amygdalus  Perttka)^  a  tree  much  cul- 
tivated in  temperate  climates  for  its  fruit;  a  native 
of  Persia  and  the  north  of  India  ;  of  the  same  genui 
with  the  Almond  (q.  v.),  and  distinguished  by 
oblongo- lanceolate  serrulate  leaves ;  solitary  flowers, 
of  a  delicate  pink  colour,  api^earing  before  the 
leaves;  and  the  sarcocarp  of  the  drufie  succulent 
and  tender,  not  fibrous  as  in  the  almond.  This 
difference  in  the  drupe  has  been  made  by  some  the 
groimd  of  a  generic  distinction,  but  there  are  inter- 
mediate stateis,  so  that  others  have  doubted  if  the 
P.  and  almond  are  even  specifically  distinct.  The 
Nectaru^  differs  from  the  P.  only  in  having  a 
smooth  fruit,  whilst  that  of  the  P.*  is  downy  or 
velvety,  and  is  a  mere  variety,  probably  produced 
and  certainly  preserved  by  cultivation.  Both  peaches 
and  nectarines  are  divided  inte  fiteatonea  and  dinff- 
stones.  In  the  former  the  flesh  of  the  fruit  parti 
from  the  stene ;  in  the  latter  it  adheres  to  it.  The 
Freestone  P.  is  the  Pi(Ji£  of  the  French,  the 
Clingstone  P.  their  Pavvt;  the  Freestone  Nectarins 
they  call  Piche  lisse^  and  the  Clingstone  Nectarine 
Brugnon,  Of  all  these  there  are  many  sub-varieties, 
the  finer  ones  being  perpetuated  by  bnd<ling,  which 
in  Britain  is  generally  on  plum  or  almond  stocka 
There  is  a  remarkable  variety  of  Chinese  origin, 
with  the  fruit  compressed  and  flattened,  and  i^ith 
almost  evergreen  leaves.  The  P.  is  much  cultivated 
in  the  south  of  Europe^in  many  parts  of  the  East> 
in  the  warmer  temperate  parts  of  North  and  South 
America,  in  Australia,  &c.,  as  a  standard  tree;  in 
general,  it  is  rather  a  small  tree  with  a  full  head ; 
in  Britain,  it  is  generally  trained  on  walls,  and  in 
the  northern  parts  of  it  on  flued  waUs  or  in  hot- 
houses, although  even  in  Scotland  excellent  peaches 
are  ripened  on  open  walls  without  artificial  heat 
The  Nectarine  is  rather  more  tender  than  the  peach. 
In  the  extensive  P.  orchards  of  New  Jersey,  Penn- 
sylvania, Maryland,  and  other  states  of  North 
America,  which  sometimes  contain  10,000  or 
20,000  trees,  the  fruit  is  often  of  very  inferior 
quality,  from  want  of  care  in  cultivation — the 
orchanls  being  planted  by  simply  depositing  the 
seed  in  the  ground ;  and  much  of  the  fruit  is  used 
for  making  a  spirituous  liquor  called  Peach  Brandy; 
much  of  it  is  dried  in  ovens,  or  in  drying-houses 
furnished  with  stoves,  or,  in  the  more  southern 
states,  in  the  sun,  each  fruit  being  divided  into  two 
parts,  and  the  stone  taken  out^  and  when  dried  it 
is  sent  to  market  to  be  used  for  pies ;  the  refuse  of 
the  orchards  is  used  for  feeding  swine. — The  P.  ii 
a  very  pleasant  and  refreshing  fruit,  and  in  a  stewed 
form  is  useful  in  slight  cases  of  constipation.  The 
leaves,  when  fresh,  have  the  smell  and  taste  of 
bitter  almonds ;  and  by  bruising  them,  mixing  the 
pulp  with  water,  and  flistillinfe  the  Peach  Water  ii 


PEAOH-WOOD— PEACOCK. 


nlitained  which  IB  to  much  catMined  hy  many  tar 
MavuiiTina  articles  of  cookery.  Tfaey  have  been 
emiilayetfu  a  ledative  and  u  a  vermifuge.  Tbe 
weila  slmoat  entirely  agree  in  their  properties  with 
bilter  almonda  ;  the  flowera  exhale  an  odour  of 
bitMr  almoQilii ;  and  both  seeds  and  flowers  are 
employed  in  the  maunfacture  of  a  liqueur  sailed 

PKACH-WOOD.  or  LTMA-WOOD.  a  dye-wood 
imjMnteil  from  South  America,  supptised  to  be  the 
produce  of  a  species  of  Cteaalpima,  allied  to  that 
which  yirtila  the  Nicaragua  wood.  It  yields  a  tioe 
peach  colour,  whence  its  name,  and  is  now  much 
nwd  in  mnslin  aud  calico  printing  and  dyeiu)^  I 

PEA'COCK.  or  PEAFOWL  (pavo),  a  Renm  of 

?illinacean*  birds  of  tha  family  Pavimida,  or 
koMaaida,  of  which  only  two  sjiecies  are  known, 
natives  of  tbe  East  Indies;  birds  of  large  size,  and 
remarkable  for  magnificence  of  plumngt.  The  bill 
is  of  moderate  size,  somewbnt  arclied  towarita  the 
tip;  the  cheeks  nearly  naked:  the  head  created; 
the  tarsi  rather  lon^,  and  armed  with  a  single  spur ; 
the  wings  short ;  the  upper  tail-coverts  prolcnged 
ill  beyond  the  tail,  and  forming  a  splendid  train — 
]>apularly  called  the  foil —which  is  capjible  of  being 
erected  and  spread  out  into  a  great  disk,  the  true 
tail  being  at  the  same  time  erected  to  aupiart  it 
The  Conunon  P.  (F.  cn'jfatui)  has  for  crest  a  kind  of 


aigrette  of  24  npnght  feathers,  with  slender  almost 
naked  shafts  and  nmad  tip.  The  tail  cnnsiata  of 
IS  browa  stiff  feathers,  and  is  about  six  inches  long. 
Tbe  train  derives  much  of  its  beauty  from  the  loose 
barbs  of  ita  feathers,  whilst  their  gre»t  Dumber  and 
their  Dnequal  length  contribute  to  its  gorgeousness, 
the  upper  feathera  being  snccessively  shorter,  so 
that  when  it  is  erected  into  a  disk,  the  eye-like  or 
moon-like  spot  at  the  tin  of  each  feather  is  dis- 
played. The  lowest  and  longest  feathers  of  the 
train  da  not  terminate  in  luch  spots,  but  in  spread- 
ing barbs,  which  encircle  the  erected  duk.  The 
blue  of  tlie  neck,  the  green  and  black  of  the  back 
and  wings  ;  the  brown,  green,  violet,  and  gold  of 
the  tail ;  the  amngemeut  of  the  colours,  their 
metallic  splendour,  and  the  play  of  colour  in  chang- 
ing hghts,  reniler  the  male  P.  an  object  of  universal 
admiration — a  sentiment  in  which  the  bird  himself 
evidently  participates  to  a  degree  that  is  very 
amusing,  as  he  struts  about  to  display  himself  to 
advantage,  and  labours  to  attract  attention,  afford- 
ing a  familiar  proverbial  image  of  ostentation  and 
pnde.  When  the  disk  is  erected,  the  P.  has  the 
power  of  rattling  the  shafts  of  its  feather*  against 
■ach  other  in  a  very  peculiar  msnncr,  l>y  a  strung 
F  vibration.    The  Peahen  is  muuh  smaller 


than  the  male  bird,  hu  no  train,  mcl  is  of  dnll 
plvimage,  mostly  brownish,  except  that  the  neck  is 
ereen.  As  in  some  other  gallmaceoua  birds,  the 
female  has  been  known,  in  old  age,  to  assume  the 
plomage  of  the  male.  Individuals  with  white  plum- 
age not  nnfreqitently  occur,  in  which  even  the  eye- 
like spots  of  the  tail  are  but  fainUy  indicated  ;  and 
nied  peacocks,  having  the  deep  blue  of  the  neck  aoA 
breast  contrasted  with  pure  white,  are  sometimes 
to  be  seen.  The  P.  is  generally  supposed  to  have 
been  known  to  the  Hebrews  in  the  time  of  Solomon, 
bnt  it  is  Dot  certain  that  the  word  commonly  trans- 
lated pentoct*  in  the  account  of  Solomon's  im])orta- 
tioDS  from  Tarshish  [2d  Chron.  ix.  21)  does  not 
sigoify  parrola.  It  is  commonly  stated  that  it  first 
became  known  to  the  Greeks  on  tbe  occasion  of 
Alexander's  expedition  to  India,  but  Aristophanes 
mentions  it  in  plays  written  before  Alexander  was 
bom.  The  P.  became  common  among  the  Greeks 
and  Bomans ;  a  sumjituous  banquet  m  the  hitter 
days  of  Boman  greatness  was  scarcely  complete 
without  it ;  and  wealth  and  folly  went  to  the  excess 
of  providing  dishes  of  peacocks'  tongues  and  |ieik- 
cocks'  brains.  Throughoat  the  midcUe  ages,  also,  a 
P.  was  often  presented  at  the  tables  of  the  great,  on 
great  occasiona,  the  akin  with  the  plumage  being 
placed  aronnil  the  bird  after  it  was  cooked.  The  R 
IS  DOW  common  in  most  parts  of  the  world ;  geuer- 
olly  kejit,  liowever,  except  in  warm  countries,  for 
ornament  rather  than  for  profit,  although  both  the 
flesh  and  the  eggs  are  very  good.  It  readily  par- 
takes of  all  the  ordinary  food  Tirovided  for  the 
poultry -yard,  and  is  fond  of  buds  and  succulent 
vegetables.  It  is  bu'dy  enough  even  in  cold 
climates,  except  that  few  eggs  an  laid,  and  the 
young  are  diflicult  to  rear,  but  the  adult  birds  sit 
on  trees  or  on  the  tops  of  houses,  stacks,  jtc.,  diiriiitc 
the  keenest  frosty  nights,  never,  if  they  can  avoid 
it,  submitting  to  the  coufiuement  of  a  roosting- place, 
Uke  that  of  the  common  fowL  Peacocks  are  found 
in  almost  all  parts  of  India,  Siam,  &c.,  and  tlie 
moltitndes  in  which  they  occur  in  some  districts 
are  wonderfuL  '  About  the  passes  in  the  Jungletery 
district,'  Colonel  Williamson  aaya,  in  his  OnVnCnl 
Fidd  Sportt, '  whole  woods  were  covered  with  their 
beautiful  plumage,  to  which  a  rising  sun  imp.\rted 
additional  brilliancy.  The  small  patches  of  plain, 
among  the  long  grass,  most  of  them  cultivated,  and 
with  mustard  then  in  bloom,  wbioh  induced  the 
birds  to  fe«d,  increased  the  beauty  of  the  scene ; 
and  1  speak  within  bounds  when  1  assert  that  there 
could  not  be  less  tban  1200  or  1500  peafowls,  of 
various  sizes,  within  sight  of  the  apot  where  I  stood 
for  near  an  hour.'  Sir  James  Kmerson  Tennent, 
also,  in  his  work  on  Ceylon,  says  tliat  ^in  some  of 
the  nnfrefiuented  portions  of  the  eastern  proiinoe, 
which  Enropenns  rarely  resort,  and  where  the 
unmnlested  by  the  notives,  their  num- 
traordinary  that,  regarded  as  game,  it 
ceases  to  ue  "  aport "  to  destroy  them  ;  and  their 
cries  at  early  morning  are  so  tumultuous  and 
incessaut  as  to  banish  sleep,  and  amount  to  an 
actual  inconvenience' — The  harsh  cry  of  the  P. 
seems  to  have  been  imitated  in  its  Greek  name 
Tae»,  and  probably  has  given  rise  also  to  the 
lAlin  Fano  and  the  English  pm-coch.  The  P., 
in  a  wild  state,  always  roosts  on  trees,  bnt 
makes  its  nest  on  the  ra'ound.  When  alarmed, 
as  it  feeds  on  the  ground,  it  cannot  readily  take 
wing,  and  is  sometimes  run  down  by  dogs  or  by  , 
horsemen.— The  other  species  of  P.  is  the  Japau  P. 
or  JavaNbbB  P.  {P.  Japontaaii,  Javaniaii,  or  iitu(i- 
ciu),  a  native  of  some  of  the  south-eastern  parte  of 
Asia  and  neighbouring  islands.  It  is  nearly  equal  in 
size  to  the  Common  P,  but  of  less  brilliant  altliough 
very  sinuloi  plumage.     The  cheeks  and  around  the 


£??." 


PEACOCK-STONE-PEARI* 

«y«t  Km  yellow ;  th«  neck,  and  other  fore  parta, '  wild  state  it  u  usu&lly  either  «  large  ihrnb  or  a 
Kreenish  with  golden  reflectiooA  The  crest  ia  Bmall  tree,  tbomy,  and  with  small  auatere  fruit.  la 
wnger  than  that  of  the  Common  P..  its  feathers  less  cultivation  it  is  without  tliarus,  becomes  a  tree  of 
equal,  and  webbed  along  their  whole  length.  I  40  or  5U  feet  high,  Binnetimes  more ;  and  its  stem 


PEACOCK-STONE,  the  nlune  under  which  the  '  ' 


r  of  three  feet.    Cnltivii 


dry  cartilaginous  ligaments  ot  some  U™  lameili- ■ ';"!"fi''j^  ^^.^f^"  K^-'^'^" ''''*?8"' '"  tlie  "f  .""Iqijlity 
branchiate  moUuscs,  as  the  pearl  oyster,  are  sold  °^  "*  ''"'^.  .'^•'^  V>f'  *"»  P*^""  cultiv.-iteU  from 
by  iewellets-  They  are  naed  for  ornamental  piir-  remota  aiitiqirt;^  Its  cultivation  was jorobiLIy 
poae^  although  not  so  much  as  formerly ;  and  far  ■"troduced  ipto  Britara  by  the  Romans.  The  ciUti- 
more  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  particularly  in  '='«'*■  vanetiL-s  are  eitreniely  numerous ;  and  many 
Portugal,  than  in  Britain,  They  have  opaline  °«*  ""!»  "ij"^'  eioellenoe  ha>-e  reoenUy  been 
reflections,  and  an  therefore  sometimes  oaUed  Blaci  Pi^uoed.  The  JargonMe  Pear  may  be  mentioned 
ii_.i  I  as  one  of  the  must  esteemed  of  the  vanetiea  long 

^„.  „„.„,„.        ,        ,  „       ^  I  known  in  Britain.     Some  of  the  kinds  Called  Bni;. 

PEA  CRAB  [Pinnofherei],  a  genus  of  brachyour-    „^,  g^j  s^^^  ^  jjigtiy  egteerned.     Many  new 

one  enutaceana,  with  nearly  circular  and  not  very    iiinds  havr *'■■  '■■ "-  ■-' ' -■  ■'-'■-   B"--;- 

hard  carapace.    They  are  of  small  size,  aud  interest-    fff,m  Frati,»  .uu  uc.i; 
ing    from   their  U-ring  within   the    mantle-lobea  of    ^^^  n,„pi,  ;„  hardines 

lamellibranchiat*   molluscs,   a   circumstnnce    which ;  ^i]^ .    although    a    deep,    moderately   string,    dry, 

was  w.ell  known  to  the  ancients,  and  gave  nso  to  ,  joamy  hoU  is  the  best  tor  this  fruit      The  finer 

many  curious  fables.     A  species  {P.   velerum)   is  i  varieties   are  cultivated  in  Britain  aa  wall-trees. 

very  common  in  the  pinwx  of  the  Mediterranean,    p^„  succeed  well  as  espaliers.     They  are  generally 

and  was  uaagmed  to  render  important  service  to    gifted  „n  aefolling  st-.^ks  of  the  wUd  iiear.  but 

Its  host  m  return  for  ita  lodging,  keeping  a  lookout    gomctimes  on   the  rowan,  and  sometimes   on   the 

for  approaching  dangers,  against  which  the  blind  ,  quince.     Pcira   grafted  on  quince   stocks    ara    ti.e 

pinna    Itself    could    not   guard,    and    narticularly    best  for  shallow  soils.     Tlie  ffowers  and  fruit  of  the 

appriainji  it,  that  it  might  close  ite  shell  when  the    „„  are  mosUy  produced  on  spurs,  which  spHng 

cuttle-fish  came  near.     It  is  cunous   to   find  this    {^^  branches  of  more  than  one  vear  old.     Various 

fepeated    by   Hosselqmst,    in   the    middle    of    last    mojea  of   training  and    .irunlng'a™   practiaed    for 

century,   as    a   piece  of   genume  natural  hiatoty.  |  pear-trees.    Among  the  varieties  of  pes™  are  some 

WhethertheP.C.livesattbeeipcnseofthemoUuBC,  ;  „.ych    ripen    early  in   autumn,   and  some  which 

and  sucks  its  juices,  is  iiuoertain.      It  is  certain    do  not  ripen  till  the  beginning  of  win  tor.  and  which 

that  the  fleah  of  such  molluKS  is  palatable  to  pea    eren  require  to  be  mellowed  T>y  keeping  for  a  abort 

crabs,  and  they  eat  it  greedily  m  the  aquanum.    time;  whilst  some  ot  the  kinds  caunot  easily  be 

ThefnendHhipoftheP  t.andthei)innaiflofcou«e    tept  for  niore  than  a  few  days.     In  general,  pesn 

M  fabulnuB  as  that  of  the  bon  and  jaokol,  or  of  the    ca„not  be  kept  80  long  nor  «<>  easfly  a*  apples. 

rattlesnake,  the  owl.  and  the  praine-dog.    A  species    ^^„  ^  sometimes  muda  into  a  preserve  with 

of  P.  C.   (P.  pi^m)   18  very  oomnion  within  the    gynip ;  and  sometimea  cut  into  pieces,  and  dried  in 

mantle-lobes  of  the  Common  Mussel  on  the  British    ^^  gu,,  qj.  in  ^q  oven  to  be  afterwards  used  in  pies, 

coaato.     Sjwcies  are  found  in  almost  aU  |mrl«  of  the    .  iiractice  very  prevalent  in  France.— A  very  agree- 

worid.-  I  ui,]g  ferment*^  liquor  called  Perry  is  made  ircan 

PEA  MACGOT,  the  caterpillar  of  a  small  moth    pears,  in  the  same  manner  as  Cider  from  apples ; 

(Torln'r:  or  Oraphotil/ia  pirij,  which  lava  its  eggs    and  pear  orchards  for  this  purjioae  a 

in  young  pods  of  peas.     The  oaterpdlar  lives  in  the    in  some  parts  of  Enuland,  cf       '  " 

pods,  and  eats  the  peas.     This  moth  is  very  com-    sliire    and    Herefordshire.       '  ..    , 

mon  in  Britain,  and  in  wet  seasons  the  ]>ods  of  ^leas    cultivated  for  making  perry  are  all  rather  auBtcre, 

are  often  found  very  full  of  its  cateipitlor.  and  those  which  yield  the  best  perry  are  far  too 

PE'AN  (Old  Pr.,  pan»«,  furs),  one  of  the  fnts    fi^stere  to  be  palatable. -The  woo<l  of  the  pa^-tree 

■      bomeinHcraldry,differingfrom    "  reddish,  very  hard,  fine-grained,  wid  valuable  to 

I   Ermine  only  in  the  tlnrtnres :    I^™'^"  '^^  joiner*      It  is  often  dyed  bhuik   in 

I    the  ground  being  sable,  and  the  ,  •"■ta'™  of  ebony,  which  it  than  greatly  rHembles- 

spots  of  gold.  Besides  the  vanetiea  of  pear  usuallv  referred  to 

'  Pi/nia  commJinis,  some  are  occasionally  cultivated 

PEA  ORB.  a  form  of  com-  ;  ij-hioh  are  generally  regarded  as  distinct   specie*. 

pact  brown  iron  ore  (hydrstod    Such  are  l£a  AoamiN    Pkab   \P.   ialvij.Aia\.  a 

peroiide  of  iron),  consisting  of    aiAivo  ot  France,  with  leaves  much  narrower  than 

round  smooth  grains,  from  the    [j,^  common  pear,  and  a  long  fruit,  which  is  naed 

size  of  mustard-seed  to  that  ot    f^,  mating  juttv;  the  Snowv  Pur  (R  M™iig),  a 

Pean.  small    pease.      Sometimes    the    native  of  the  Alps  of   Austria,   with  oval  obtuse 

_      .  .      ™  .    .       8^""?    "*    "*,'"    ^'"''Uer    and   leaves,  white  and  silky  beneath,  and  a  Hlobose  fruit, 

flattisk    This  iron  ore  is  very  abundant  m  some  ;  „hich  ia  very  acid  tiU  it  becomes  quite  ripe,  or  is 

pl.-»ees  in  France,  and  is  smelted.  |  beginning   to  decay,  when  it  is   very  aweet ;    the 

PEAR   {Pynu  comnainU),  a  tree  of  the  same    Sand  Pear   {P.  Siamti*),  a  native  of  China  and 

genus  with  the  Apple  (see  PVBDS),  and  like  it  one    Coohin-China,  with   heart-shaped,    shining,   almoat 

of  the  moat  extensively  cultivated  aud  valuable    evergreen   leaves,  and   apple-ahaped   warted  fniit, 

friiit-trees  of  temperate  climates.     The  leaves  are  '  very  gritty,  and  lit  only  for  baking,  cultivated  in 

ovate,  serrated,  smooth  on  both  surfaces,  and  with-    gardens  in  India,  hut  hanly  in  Britain.   The  PaSHii. 

out  glands  ;  the  Howers  are  produued  in  corymbs,  I  {P.   pasliia  or  P.   vaiioloKi)   is   a   native    of   the 

which  may  almost  be  called  ilmbels.  and  are  smaller  |  Himalaya  ;  the  fruit  of  which  ia  only  edible  when 

than  those  of  the  apnle ;    the   styles   are   distinct  ;  bletted    or    partially   decayed.       The    Pa1.too    {P. 

and  not  combined  at  the  base,  as  in  the  apple  ;  and  |  lanata)  is  another  Himalayan  species  with  etUbl* 

the  fruit   is   hemispherical  at  one   end,   tapering    fruit.     Both  are  quite  hardy  in  mtajo. 

rt^  V^'k""'"  °*  '**■   "'l'i»»lJ:j,'^'P°i?t|      PEAR,  Pmcki-t.    See  Pricklt  PiiB. 

at  the  other.    The  pear-tree  grows  wild  m  wooda  ■■""■••i  '  ™viu.       .~= 

and  copses  in  Britain,  on  the  continent  of  Europe,        PEARL,  a  peculiar  product  of  oertain  marin.  sod 

knd  Uiroughout  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,    lu  its  ^  fresh-water  molluscs  or  aheli-fiah.      Uoat   ol    tha 


ntoUoscoas  animala  which  are  aqnaUc  and  reside 
■hella  u«  provided  with  a,  Huid  Becretina  with  whieh 
they  line  their  ihelts,  and  eive  to  the  othenrise 
hanh  graanlar  materinl,  of  which  tbe  shell  ii  formed, 
ft  beantdfully  Braooth  Burfaee,  which  prevents  »ny 
ODpIeosaat  friction  upon  tha  extremely  tender  body 
of  the  animal.  This  secretian  ia  evidently  laid  in 
fitremely  thin  semi-trsneparent  tilma,  which,  in 
consequence  of  such  an  armngemeat,  have  generally 
%  beautiful  irideacence,  and  form  in  some  species  a 
■tiScient  tbicknesa  to  be  cut  into  ueefii!  and  orna- 
mental articleB.  The  material  itself  in  its  hardened 
cnndition  is  called  nacre  by  zoolo^Bts,  and  by  dealers 
W  other- of -pearl  (u.  v.).  Besides  the  pearly  lining  of 
tbe  sheila,  detached  and  generally  spherical  or 
ruunded  portions  of  the  nacre  are  often  found  on 
opening  the  shells,  and  there  is  great  reason  to 
■uppoae  these  are  the  result  of  occidental  causes, 
anch  as  the  intrusion  of  a  grain  of  ssnd  or 
other  subataaoe,  which,  by  irritating  the  tender 
body  of  the  anioial,  obliges  it  in  self-defence  to  cover 
the  cause  of  offence,  which  it  has  no  power  to 
remove  ;  and  as  the  secretion  goes  on  regularly  to 
snpply  the  growth  and  wear  of  the  shell,  the 
included  body  constantly  gets  its  share,  and  thereby 
eontinaes  to  increase  in  size  until  it  becomes   a 

nirL  The  Chinese  avail  themselves  of  the  knnw- 
ge  of  this  fact  to  compel  one  species  of  fresh- 
water iDQwel,  Unio  Hgria,  to  produce  pearls.  In 
order  to  do  this,  they  keep  the  Unios  in  tanks,  and 
insert  between  the  shell  and  the  mantle  of  the 
animal  either  small  leaden  shot  or  little  spherical 
pieces  of  mother-oEpearL  These  are  aura  to  receive 
atings  of  the  nacreous  secretion;  and 
e  look  tike  pearls  formed  under  ordinary 

cea      These  curious  people  also  practise 

>notber  trick  upon  these  animals ;  they  insert  small 
images  of  the  Buddha  stamped  out  of  metal,  which 
■oun  becume  coated  with  the  pearl- secretion,  and 
are  cemented  by  it  to  the  shells  ;  to  those  ignorant 
of  its  origin,  the  phenomenon  is  a  aupematural  testi- 
mony t«  the  truth  of  Buddhism.  Examples  o£  these 
euriositiea  are  tu  be  found  in  many  of  our  miisenms. 
A  plan  of  making  pearls  was  suj^ested  to  the 
Swedish  government  by  Linutcus.  It  consisted  in 
boring  a  small  hole  through  the  shell  of  the  river 
mussel,  and  inserting  a  grain  of  sand,  so  as  to  afford 
a  nucleus  for  a  pearL  The  plan  at  tirst  succeeded 
sufficiently  well  to  prove  its  i>racticability,  and  be 
was  rewardeilby  asumof  money  (£45U),  but  it  failed 
as  a  protitable  apeculation,  and  was  abandoned. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  secretion  has  never  been 
satisfactorily  determined ;  it  is,  however,  ascertained 
that  it  is  deposited  in  thin  films,  which  overlie  each 
other   BO    irregularly,   that 
their  sharply  serrated  edges, 
_'    when  magnified,  present  the 
rC    appearance    represented    in 
"^  Ge.  1 1  and  to  this  peculiar 
disposition  of  the  plates,  the 
beautiful  irideBcence  of  com- 
mon   pearls    is    attributed. 
Their  fraiuatioii  was  a  great 
pUEzIe     to     tha     ancienta, 
amongst   whom    they   were 
very  highly  prized.   IJioscor- 


coast  of  Ceylon,  or  Taprobsne  as  it  was  called  hy 
the  Greeks,  having  from  the  eartii^t  times  been  th« 
chief  locality  for  pearl  lishing.  They  are,  however, 
obtained  now  of  nearly  the  same  quality  in  other 

Sits  of  the  world,  oa  Panama  in  Soiitli  America.  St 
argarita  in  the  West  Indies,  the  Coromanilel 
Coast,  the  shores  nl  the  Ijoolou  Islands,  the  Bahrein 
Islands,  and  tbe  islands  of  Karrak  and  Corso  in  the 
Pereian  Gulf.  llie  pearls  of  the  Bahrein  fisherr 
are  said  to  be  even  tinur  than  those  of  Ceylon,  and 
they  form  an  important  part  of  the  trade  of  Bassora. 
These,  and  indeed  all  the  foreign  pearls    used   in 

i'ewellery,  are  produced  by  the  Pearl  Oyster  (q.  v.), 
'he  shells  of  the  molluscs  which  yield  the  Ceylon, 


ng.  1. 


1  Pliny  mention  the 
belief  that  they  were  drops  of  dew  or  rain  which 
fell  into  the  shells  when  opened  by  the  animal,  and 
were  then  altered  by  some  |)ower  of  the  animal 
into  pearls.  This  opinion,  wlncli  obtained  all  over 
the  eaist,  is  thus  channingly  alluded  to  by  Moore : 


IS  that 


tin  from  the  sky. 


Which  turns  into  pearls  as 
The  moat  famous  pearl*  are  those  from  the 


theB< 


Fig.  2. 

Indian,  and  Penian  ones,  are  sometimes  as  muck 
as  a  foot,  in  diameter,  and  are  usually  about  nine 
inches.  Those  of  the  Now  World,  although  the 
shtlls  are  smaller  and  thicker,  are  believed  to 
be  the  same  spedes.  The  cliief  locality  of  the 
Ceylon  pearl  fishery  is  a  bank  about  20  miles 
long,  10  or  12  miles  from  shore,  opposite  to  the 
villages  of  Condatchy  aud  Aripo  on  the  northern 
coast  Tbe  season  of  the  lisliery  lasts  about  three 
TDonths.  commencing  at  the  befrinning  of  February, 
and  is  carried  on  under  government  regulations. 
The  boats  employed  are  open,  aud  vary  in  size  from 
10  to  IQ  tons  burden  ;  they  put  ont  at  night,  usually 
at  10  o'clock,  on  a  siennl  ^un  being  fired  from  the 
fort  of  Anpo,  and  make  for  the  (9)vernmeDt  guard 
vessel,  which  is  moored  on  the  bank,  and  serves  the 
double  purpose  of  a  guard  and  a  light-ship.  Tbe 
divei«  are  under  the  direction  of  a  manager,  who  is 
called  the  Adaiianaar,  and  they  are  chietly  Tamils 
and  Moors  from  India.  For  each  diver  there  is 
provided  a  diving-stone,  weighing  about  30  pounds, 
which  is  fastened  to  the  end  of  a  ropo  long  enough 
to  reach  the  bottom,  and  having  a  loop  made  lor 
the  man's  foot ;  and  in  addition  to  this,  a  large 
network  basket,  in  which  to  place  the  pearl  oyat^ 
as  he  collects  tbem.  These  are  hung  over  the  aide* 
of  the  boat ;  and  the  diver,  placing  his  foot  in  the 
loop  attacheil  to  the  stone,  libetates  the  coils  of  the 
roi>e,  and  with  his  net-basket  rapidly  descends  to 
the  bottom.  To  each  boat  there  is  usually  allotted 
a  crew  of  13  men  and  10  divers,  S  of  whom  are 
descending  whilst  the  others  are  resting.  This  work 
is  done  very  rapidly ;  for,  notwithstanding  tbe  atorte* 
to  the  contrary,  the  best  divers  cannot  remain 
longer  than  80  seconds  below,  and  few  are  able  to 
eicecd  GO.  The  greatest  depth  they  desoend  is  13 
fathoms,  and  the  usual  depth  about  9  (atbomt. 
When  the  diver  gives  tbe  signal  by  pulling  the  rope, 
he  ia  quickly  hauled  up  with  bis  net  and  its  con- 
tend. Accidents  rarely  happen  ;  and  as  the  men 
are  very  superBtitious,  their  safety  is  attributed  to 
Uie  incantations  of  their  shark- charmei«,  performed 
at  the  commencement  of  the  fishing.  Sir  E.  Ten- 
nent  however,  attributea  tha  rarity  ol  accidents  from 
aliarks,  usually  so  abundant  in  tropical  seas,  to  the 
bustle  and  to  the  excitement  of  tJie  waters  duling 


PEARL. 


the  fishery  frightening  away  those  dreaded  creatures. 
The  divers  are  sometimes  paid  fixed  wjiges,  others 
agree  for  one-fourth  of  the  produce.  When  a  boat- 
load of  oysters  has  been  obtained,  it  returns  to  shore, 
and  the  cargo,  sometimes  amounting  to  20,000  or 
30,000,  is  landed  and  piled  on  the  shore  to  die  and 
putrefy,  in  order  that  the  pearls  may  be  easily  found. 
The  heaps  are  formed  in  small  walled  compartments, 
the  walls  surrounding  each  being  about  one  or  two  feet 
in  height  Several  of  these  compartments  surround 
a  smul  central  enclosure,  in  which  is  a  bath,  and 
they  slope  towards  this  bath,  and  are  each  connected 
with  it  by  a  small  channel,  so  that  any  pearls 
washed  out  £rom  the  putrefying  mass  by  the  rain 
may  be  carried  into  the  bath.  When  the  animals 
in  tiie  shells  are  sufficiently  decomposed,  the  washing 
commences,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  watch  for 
the  loose  pearls,  which  are  -always  by  far  the  most 
valuable ;  the  sheila  are  then  examined,  and  if  any 
attached  pearls  are  seen,  they  are  handed  over  to 
the  clippers,  who,  with  pinchers  or  hammer,  skilfully 
remove  them.  Such  pearls  are  used  only  for  setting ; 
whilst  the  former,  being  usually  quite  round,  are 
drilled  and  strung,  and  can  be  used  for  beads,  &c. 
The  workmen  who  are  employed  to  drill  the  pearls 
also  round  the  irregular  ones,  and  polish  them 
with  great  skill  The  method  of  holding  the  pearls 
during  these  operations  is  very  curious ;  they  make 
a  number  of  holes  of  small  depth  in  a  piece  of  dry 
wood,  and  into  these  they  fit  the  pearls,  so  that  they 
are  only  partly  below  the  surface  of  the  wood, 
which  they  then  place  in  water.  As  it  soaks  up 
the  water  and  swells,  the  pearls  become  tightly 
fixed,  and  are  then  perforated,  &c  These  operations 
are  all  carried  on  on  the  spot. 

For  many  miles  along  the  Condatohy  shore,  the 
accumulation  of  shells  is  enormous,  and  averages 
at  least  four  feet  in  thickness.  This  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at,  when  it  is  remembered  that  this 
fishery  has  been  in  active  operation  for  at  least 
2000  years.  The  place  itself  is  exceedingly  barren 
and  dreaty,  and,  except  during  the  fishing  season, 
is  almost  deserted  ;  but  at  that  time  it  presento  an 
exceedingly  animated  spectacle ;  thousands  of  people, 
of  various  countries  and  castes,  are  here  drawn 
together— some  for  the  fishery,  others  to  buy  pearls, 
and  others  to  feed  the  multitude.  They  chiefly 
reside  in  tents,  so  that  it  appears  a  vast  encampment 

The  pearls  vary  much  in  size  ;  those  as  large  as  a 
pea,  and  of  good  colour  and  form,  are  the  best, 
except  unusually  large  specimens,  which  rarely 
occur,  the  most  extraordinary  one  known  being  the 
pearl  owned  by  the  late  Mr  Hope,  which  measured 
two  inches  in  len^h,  and  four  in  circumference,  and 
weighed  1800  grains.  The  smaller  ones  are  sorted 
into  sizes,  the  very  smallest  being  called  seed-pearla 
A  •considerable  quantity  of  these  last  are  sent  to 
China,  where  they  are  said  to  be  calcined,  and  used 
in  Chinese  pharmacy.  Amongst  the  Romans,  the 
pearl  was  a  great  uivourite,  and  enormous  prices 
were  paid  for  fine  ones.  One  author  gives  the 
value  of  a  string  of  pearls  at  1,000,000  se^rces,  or 
about  £8000  sterling.  The  single  pearl  which 
Cleopatra  is  said  to  have  dissolved  and  swallowed 
was  valued  at  £80,729 ;  and  one  of  the  same  value 
was  cut  into  two  pieces  for  earrings  for  the  statue 
of  Venus  in  the  Pantheon  at  Kome.  Coming 
down  to  later  times,  we  read  of  a  pearl,  in  Queen 
Elizabeth's  reign,  belonging  to  Sir  Thomas  Cresham, 
which  was  valued  at  £15,000,  and  which  he  is  said 
to  have  treated  after  the  fashion  of  Cleopatra ;  for 
he  powdered  it  and  drank  it  in  a  glass  of  wine  to 
the  health  of  the  Queen,  in  order  to  astonish  the 
ambassador  of  Spain,  with  whom  he  had  laid  a 
wager  that  he  would  give  a  more  costly  dinner  than 
•oold  the  Spaniard. 


During  the  occupation  of  Britain  by  the  Bomans 
this  cotmtry  became  famous  for  ite  pearls,  'which 
were  found  in  the  freshwater  mussel  of  our  rivers. 
See  Freshwatbr  Musskl.  Generally  the  pearls  of 
this  mollusc  are  small,  badly  coloured,  and  often 
valueless;  but  occasionallv  they  occur  of  sach 
beauty  as  to  rival  those  of  the  pearl  oyster.  At 
present,  in  the  Sooteh  rivers,  the  search  for  pearls 
IS  prosecuted  vigorously  and  successfully,  especially 
by  a  merchant,  named  Unger,  of  Edinburgh,  who 
has  brought  Scoteh  pearis  into  great  repute. 
He  has  collected  specimens  ranging  from  £5  to 
£90  each,  and  formed  a  necklace  worth  £350.  In 
Scoteh  pearls  of  the  highest  quality,  there  is  a 
pleasing  pinkish  tint,  which  is  very  permanent. 
The  fishing  for  pearl  mussels  is  by  no  means  so 
dangerous  or  troublesome  as  for  pearl  oysters; 
usually  they  are  found  in  the  beds  of  streams, 
shallow  enough  to  wade  in,  and  so  clear  that  they 
can  be  seen  at  the  bottom.  If  too  deep  to  remove 
with  the  hand,  they  are  easily  captured  by  potting 
a  stick  between  their  gaping  shells,  which  instantly 
close  upon  it  and  can  oe  drawn  out  with  it  So 
profitable  is  this  pursuit  becoming,  that  a  great 
many  persons  are  now  engaged  in  it. 

Very  fine  river  pearls,  known  on  the  continent  as 
Bohemian  pearls,  are  found  in  the  rivers  Moldaa 
and  Wottawa.  There  is  also  a  fresh-water  pearl 
fishery  in  Bavaria,  where  the  river  Iltz  yields  at 
times  very  fine  specunens.  Even  the  most  inferior 
pearls  have  a  market  value  ;  for  pearls  can  only  be 
properly  polished  with  pearl  dust,  and  the  inferior 
pearls  are  powdered  for  the  purpose  of  polishing 
and  rounding  the  finer  ones. 

Falae  pearU  are  very  admirable  imitations,  made 
by  blowing  very  thin  beads  or  bulbs  of  glass,  and 
pouring  into  them  a  mixture  of  liquid  ammonia, 
and  the  white  matter  from  the  scales  of  the  Bleak, 
and  sometimes  of  the  Boach,  and  Dace.  The 
proper  way  to  prepare  'the  pearl-matter  is  first 
to  remove  the  scales  of  the  lower  part  of  the  fish ; 
these  must  then  be  very  carefully  washed,  after 
which  they  are  put  to  soak  in  water,  when  the 
pearly  film  falls  off  and  forms  a  sediment  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  which  is  removed  and  placed 
in  liquid  ammonia  for  future  use.  This  pearl 
mixture,  when  of  the  best  quality,  is  very  costly, 
being  as  much  as  £4  or  £5  per  ounce.  For  use,  it 
is  diluted  with  ammonia,  and  injected  into  the 
glass  beads,  so  as  to  thinly  coat  them  inside ;  after- 
wards the  better  kinds  have  melted  white  wax 
poured  in,  which  renders  them  much  more  durable. 
The  French  and  Germans  produce  in  this  way  imita- 
tions of  the  finest  oriental  pearls  of  such  beauty, 
that  the  most  practised  eye  can  hardly  detect  the 
difference.  The  bleak  is  procured  in  considerable 
quantities  for  this  purpose  from  the  Thames  and 
other  rivers  in  England.    See  Bleak. 

The  invention  of  artificial  pearls  is  due  to  a 
Frenchman,  named  Jaquin,  in  the  time  of  Catharine 
de  Medicis,  and  the  manufacture  is  now  chiefly 
carried  on  in  the  department  of  the  Seine,  where 
great  improvements  nave  lately  been  made,  espe- 
ciallv  in  the  art  of  giving  uie  irr^ular  forms 
of  lar^e  pearls  to  we  glaSs-bulbs,  and  thus 
increasing  the  resemblance,  and  in  removing  the 
glassy  appearance  caused  by  the  exterior  slass 
coating,  oy  exposing  it  for  a  short  period  to 
the  a^on  of  the  vapour  of  hydrofluoric  acid. 
Mucilage  of  fine  gum-arabic  is  iJso  used  instead 
of  wax,  which  increases  the  translucency,  gives 
greater  weight,  and  is  not  liable  to  melt  with 
the  heat  of  the  wearer's  body -a  defect  to  which 
those  filled  with  wax  are  very  liable. 

Roman  pfarla  differ  from  other  artificial  pearls, 
I  by  having  the  coating  <rf  pearly  matter  on  tiis 


PEA.RL-P£ASANT  WAR. 


outside,  to  which  it  is  attached  by  an  adhesive 
substance.  The  art  of  making  these  was  derived 
from  the  Chinese. 

PEARL,  a  river  of  Mississippi,  T7.S.,  which  rises 
abont  100  miles  north-north-east  of  Jackson,  and, 
flowing  south  through  the  state,  separates  it  in  its 
lower  course  from  Louisiana,  and  empties  into 
Misaissippi  Sound,  near  the  outlet  of  Lake  Pontchar- 
train.  It  flows  nearly  300  miles  tliroiigh  a  fertile 
ootton  country,  and  is  navigable  to  Jackson,  the 
ca^MtiJ. 

PEARL  ASHES.    See  Potash. 

PEARL  BARLEY.    See  Barlet. 

PEARL  OYSTER  {Avieula  or  Meleagrina 
margariti/era)^  a  lamellibranchiate  mollusc,  of  the 
family  Aviculidce,  generally  found — great  numbers 
together — attached  to  submarine  rocks  at  a  consid- 
erable depth  on  the  coasts  of  tropical  countries,  and 
important  as  prodncinff  almost  aU  the  pearls  and  all 
the  mother-of-pearl  of  commerce.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Pearl  Mussel  ;  but  the  family  to  which 
it  belongs  differs  considerably  both  from  that  of 
mnssels  and  from  that  of  oysters,  the  valves  of  the 
shell  being  uner^ual,  the  hinge-line  straight  and 
long,  and  the  animal  furnished  with  two  adductor 
muscles,  one  of  them  small,  and  with  a  foot  by 
which  it  produces  a  byssus.  The  P.  0.  is  of  an 
oblique  oval  form,  longitudinally  ribbed,  and  with 
concentric  foliations  when  young  which  disappear 
when  it  is  old  It  attains  a  large  size,  and  there 
ai«  several  varieties,  the  most  important  of  which 
are  noticed  in  the  article  Mother-of-Pearl.  The 
whole  inside  of  the  shell  is  covered  with  a  thick 
layer  of  nacre  or  mother-of-pearl,  compact  and  bean- 
tifol,  forming  indeed  the  chief  part  of  the  shell,  and 
exhibiting  very  considerable  variety  of  colour,  most 
frequently  white,  but  sometimes  blood-red.  Pearls 
are  formed  of  the  same  substance  (see  Pearl),  and  are 
flenerally,  if  not  always,  produced  by  eggs  which  have 
become  abortive,  and  which  remain  lodged  within 
the  mollusc  instead  of  being  ejected  into  the  sea. 

The  P.  O.  is  too  rank  and  coarse  to  be  eaten.  When 
taken  from  the  sea  it  is  commonly  laid  out  in  the 
sun  to  die,  that  the  pearls  may  be  sought  for  af ter 
the  shell  opens. 

The  P.  O.  is  not  the  only  mollusc  which  produces 
pearls.  The  Placuna  placenta — an  oyster  (family 
Og^readcB)  with  thin  transparent  shell,  which  is  usea 
in  China  and  elsewhere  as  a  substitute  for  window 
glass — ^produces  diminutive  pearls.  The  Fresh- 
water Mussel  (q.  v.)  of  Britain  produces  pearls 
sometimes  of  considerable  beauty  and  value ;  and 
instances  have  occurred  of  pearls  being  found  in 
pinnae,  &c.,  and  even  in  limpets. 

PEARL  SHELLa    See  Mother-of-Pearl. 

PEARL  WHITE.    See  White  Colottrs. 

PEARSON,  John,  an  English  prelate  of  high 
eelebrity,  was  bom  in  1612  at  Snoring,  in  Norfolk, 
of  which  place  his  father  was  rector,  educated  at 
Eton  and  ICing's  College,  Cambrid^  where  he  took 
the  degree  of  M.A.  in  1639,  and  in  the  same  year 
took  orders,  and  was  collated  to  a  prebend  in 
Salisbury  Cathedral  In  1640  he  was  appointed 
ehaplain  to  Finch,  lord-keeper  of  the  great  seal,  and 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  civil  war  became  chaplain 
to  Lord  Goring,  and  afterwards  to  Sir  Robert  Cook, 
in  London.  In  1650,  he  was  appointed  minister  of 
8t  Clement's,  Eastcheap,  London ;  and  in  1659, 
published  the  great  work  by  which  he  is  now 
remembered.  An  ExposiHon  of  the  Creed,  It  was 
dedicated  to  his  flock,  to  whom  the  substance  of  it 
had  been  preached  some  years  before  in  a  series  of 
discourses.  The  laborious  learning  and  the  judicial 
calniness  displayed  by  the  author  in  this  treatise 
have  long  been  acknowledged^  and  command  tiie 


respect  even  of  those  who  think  his  elaborate  argu- 
mentation tedious  and  not  always  forcible.  It  i# 
^nerally  reckoned  one  of  the  ablest  works  produced 
m  the  greatest  age  of  English  theology — the  17th 
century.  During  the  same  year,  P.  published  7%s 
Chlden  Bemcane  of  the  Ever  Memoi-able  Mr  Jc^ 
Hales  of  Eton,  At  the  Restoration,  honours  and 
emoluments  were  lavishly  showered  upon  him. 
Before  the  close  of  1660  he  received  the  rectory  of 
St  Christopher's,  in  London ;  was  created  D.D.  at 
Cambridge ;  installed  Prebendary  of  Ely  and  Arch- 
deacon of  Surrey ;  and  made  Master  of  Jesus 
College,  Cambridge.  In  1661,  he  obtained  the 
Margaret  professorship  of  Divinity,  and  was  one  of 
the  most  prominent  commissioners  in  the  famous 
Savoy  conference  ;  in-  1662,  he  was  made  Master  of 
Trinity,  Cambridge,  and  in  1673,  was  promoted  to 
the  bishopric  of  Chests.  The  year  before  he  had 
published  his  Vindicice  Epistolnnim  8.  Ignatii^  in 
answer  to  M.  Daill^,  who  had  denied  the  gen- 
uineness of  the  epistles.  It  was  imagined  for 
years  that  P.  had  triumphed  over  his  opponent. 
The  history  of  the  controversy,  however  (see 
Ignatius),  has  shewn  that  Daill^  was  right  and  P. 
wrong.  In  1684,  appeared  his  Annalea  Ctiprianid, 
He  died  July  16,  1686.  P.'s  Opeia  Posthuma 
Chronologka  were  published  by  Dodwell  (Loud. 
1688),  and  his  Orationes,  Condones  et  Deierminor 
tiones  TheologiccB  contain  much  valuable  matter, 
for,  as  Bentleynsed  to  say,  P.'s  *very  dross  was 
gold*  Bishop  Burnet  thought  him  *  in  all  respects 
the  greatest  divine  of  his  age.* 

PEASANT  WAR,  in  German  history,  the  name 
given  to  that  great  insurrection  of  the  peasantry 
which  broke  out  in  the  beginning  of  the  year  1.525, 
and  which  Zschokke  has  described  as  the  *  terrible 
scream  of  oppressed  humanity.*  The  oppression  of 
the  peasants  nad  gradually  increased  in  severity,  as 
the  nobihty  became  more  extravagant  and  the 
clergy  more  sensual  and  de<^enerate.  The  example 
of  Switzerland  encouraged  the  hope  of  success,  and 
from  1476  to  1517  there  were  risings  here  and  there 
amongst  the  peasants  of  the  south  of  Germany. 
A  peasant  rebellion,  called  from  its  cognizance, 
the  Bundschuh  (Laced  Shoe),  took  place  in  the 
Rhine  countries  in  1502,  and  another,  called  the 
*  League  of  Poor  Conrad,*  in  WUrtemberg,  in  1514^ 
both  of  which  were  put  down  without  any  abate- 
ment of  the  grievances  which  occasioned  them. 
The  Reformation,  by  the  mental  awakening  which 
it  produced,  and  the  diffusion  of  sentiments  favour- 
able to  freedom,  must  be  reckoned  amount  the 
causes  of  the  great  insurrection  itself ;  although 
Luther,  Melanchthon,  and  the  other  leading 
reformers,  whilst  urging  the  nobles  to  justice  and 
humanity,  strongly  reprobated  the  violent  proceed- 
ings of  the  peasants.  The  Anabaptists,  "however, 
and  in  particular  Mttnzer,  encouraged  and  excited 
them,  and  a  peasant  insurrection  took  place  in  the 
Hegau  in  1522.  Another,  known  as  the  'Latin 
War,'  arose  in  1523  in  Salzburg,  against  an 
unpopular  archbishop,  but  these  were  quickly 
suppressed.  On  January  1,  1525,  the  peasantry  of 
the  abbacy  of  Kempten,  along  with  the  towns- 
people, suddenly  assailed  and  plundered  the  convent, 
compelling  the  abbot  to  sign  a  renunciation  of  his 
rights.  THiis  proved  the  signal  for  a  rising  of  the 
peasants  on  all  sides  throughout  the  south  of  Ger- 
many. Many  of  the  princes  and  nobles  at  first 
regarded  the  insurrection  with  some  measure  of 
complacency,  because  it  was  directed  in  the  first 
instance  chiefly  a^nst  the  ecclesiastical  lords; 
some,  too,  because  it  seemed  likely  to  ])romote  the 
interests  of  the  exiled  Duke  of  WUrtemberg,  who 
was  then  upon  the  point  of  reconquering  his  domin- 
i<^ns  by  the  help  of  Swiss  troops ;    and  of  hei-a». 

Ma 


PEA-STONE— PEAT. 


because  it  seemed  to  set  bounds  to  the  increiise  of 
Austriaa  power.  But  the  Archduke  Ferdinand 
hastened  to  raise  an  army,  the  troops  of  the  empire 
being^  for  the  most  {)art  engaged  in  the  emperor|8 
wars  in  Italy,  and  intrust^  the  command  of  it 
to  the  Truchsess  Von  Waldburg,  a  man  of  stem 
and  unscrupulous  character,  but  of  ability  and 
energy.  Von  Waldburg  negotiated  with  the  peas- 
ants in  order  to  gain  time,  and  defeated  and 
destroyed  some  large  bodies  of  them,  but  was 
himself  defeated  by  them  on  the  22d  of  Ajpril, 
when  he  made  a  treaty  with  them,  not  having, 
however,  the  slightest  intention  of  keeping  it 
Meanwhile  the  insurrection  extended,  and  became 
general  throughout  Germany,  and  a  number  of 
towns  took  jwt  in  it,  as  Heilbronn,  MUhlhausen, 
Fulda,  Frankfurt,  &c.,  but  there  was  a  total  want  of 
organisation  and  co-operatit)n.  Towards  Easter, 
1625,  there  appeared  in  Upper  Swabia  a  manifesto, 
which  set  foHJbi  the  grievances  and  demands  of  the 
insiurgents.  They  demanded  the  free  election  of 
their  parish  clergy ;  the  appropriation  of  the  tithes 
of  gram,  after  competent  maintenance  of  the  parish 
clergy,  to  the  support  of  the  poor  and  to  purposes  of 
general  utility ;  the  abolition  of  serfdom,  and  of  the 
exclusive  hunting  and  fishing  rights  of  the  nobles ; 
the  restoration  to  the  community  of  forests,  fields, 
and  meadows,  which  the  secular  and  ecclesiastical 
lords  had  appropriated  to  themselves ;  release  from 
arbitrary  augmentation  and  midtiplication  of 
services,  duties,  and  rents ;  the  equal  administra- 
tion of  justice ;  and  the  abolition  of  some  of  the 
most  odious  exactions  of  the  clergy.  The  conduct 
of  the  insurgents  was  not,  however,  in  accordance 
with  the  moderation  of  their  denuinds.  Their  many 
separate  bands  destroyed  convents  and  castles, 
murdered,  pillaged,  and  were  guilty  of  the  greatest 
excesses,  wnich  must  indeed  oe  regarded  as  partly 
in  revenge  for  the  cruelty  practised  against  them  by 
Von  Waldburg.  A  number  of  princes  and  knights 
included  treaties  with  the  peasants  conceding 
their  principal  demands.  The  city  of  WUrtzburg 
joined  them,  but  the  Castle  of  Leibfrauenberg  made 
an  obstinate  resistance,  which  gave  time  to  Von 
Waldburg  and  their  other  enemies  to  collect  and 
strengthen  their  forces.  In  May  and  June  1525,  the 
peasants  sustained  a  number  of  severe  defeats,  in 
which  large  bodies  of  them  were  destroyed.  The 
Landgraf  Thilip  of  Hesse  was  also  successful  against 
them  in  the  north  of  Germany.  The  peasants,  after 
they  had  l^een  subjugated,  were  everywhere  treated 
with  terrible  cnielty.  In  one  instance  a  great  body 
of  them  were  perfidiously  massacred  after  they  had 
laid  down  their  arms.  Multitudes  were  hanged  in 
the  streets,  and  many  were  put  to  death  with  the 
greatest  tortures.  Weinsberg,  Eothenburg,  WUrtz- 
burg, and^Dther  towns  which  had  joined  them,  suffered 
the  terrible  revenge  of  the  victors,  and  torrents 
of  blood  were  shed.  It  is  supposed  that  more  than 
160,000  persons  lost  their  lives  in  the  Peasant  War. 
Flourishmg  and  populous  districts  were  desolated. 
The  lot  of  the  defeated  insurgents  became  hanler 
than  ever,  and  many  burdens  of  the  peasantry 
originated  at  this  period.  The  cause  of  tne  Kefor- 
mation  also  was  very  injuriously  affected.  See 
Sartorius,  Versuch  einer  Qeschiclite  dea  Deutachen 
Bauemkriegs  (BerL  1795) ;  Ochsle,  JBeitrdge  zur 
OearJuchte  des  Deutschen  Bauemhriega  ^eilbronn, 
1829) ;  Wachsmuth,  Der  Deutsche  Bauernkneg  (Leip. 
1834) ;  and  Zimmermann,  AUgemeine  Qeadiichte  des 
groasen  Bauemkriega  (3  vols.,  Stuttg.  1841—1843). 

PEA-STONE,  PISOLITE,  or  PI'SIFORM 
LIMESTONE,  is  a  kind  of  calcareous  spar  or 
limestone,  which  occurs  in  globules  from  one-eighth 
of  an  inch  to  half  an  inch  in  diameter,  imbedded  in 

a  oement  of  similar  subetancei    There  is  generaUy 
146 


a  grain  of  sand  in  the  centre  of  each  globule  as  t^e 
nucleus,  around  which  it  has  been  formed,  and  the 
concentric  plates  of  its  structure  are  easily  visible. 
Sometimes  the  nucleus  is  merely  a  bubble  of  air. 
P.  is  found  in  great  masses  near  the  hot  sprinss  of 
Carlsbad,  in  Bfihemia.  It  is  sometimes  used  for 
ornamental  pur[)oses. 

PEAT,  a  substance  formed  by  the  decomposition 
of  plants  amidst  much  moisture,  as  in  marsnes  and 
morasses;  and  sometimes  described  as  a  kind  of 
Humus  (q.  v.),  formed  by  the  accumulation  of  the 
remains  of  mosses  and  other  marsh-plants.  The 
remains  of  the  plants  are  often  so  well  preserved  in 
it,  that  the  species  can  be  easily  distinguished. 
Reeds,  rushes,  and  other  aquatic  plants  may  usually 
be  traced  in  peat,  and  stems  of  heath  are  often 
abundant  in  it;  but  it  chiefly  consists,  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world,  of  different  species  of 
Spfiagnum  (q.  v.),  or  Bog- moss.  Mosses  of  this 
genus  grow  in  very  wet  situations,  and  throw  out 
new  shoots  in  their  iipper  parts,  whilst  their  lower 
parts  are  decaying  and  being  converted  into  peat ;  so 
that  shallow  ijootk  are  gradually  changed  into  bogs. 
It  was  at  one  time  believed  tnat  bogs  owed  their 
origin  to  the  destruction  of  forests,  the  fallen  trees 
impeding  the  natural  drainage,  and  causing  the 
growth  of  thos^  marsh -plants  of  which  peat  is 
formed ;  and  this  theory  was  supported  by  reference 
to  instances  supposed  to  be  authenticated  by  tradi- 
tion— as  that  of  the  moor  of  Hatfield  in  Yorkshire, 
now  consisting  of  about  12,000  acres  of  peat,  and  said 
to  have  been  a  forest  of  firs,  till  *  the  Romans  under 
Ostorius,  having  slain  many  Britons,  drove  the  rest 
into  the  forest,  which  was  then  destroyed  by  the 
victors.  There  are,  however,  satisfactory  proofs 
that  peat  has  accumulated  in  many  places  around 
trees ;  and  flrs  remaining  in  their  natural  position 
have  been  found  to  have  six  or  seven  feet  of  i»eat 
under  their  roots,  although  other  trees,  as  oaks,  are 
commonly  found  with  their  stumps  resting  on  the 
soil  beneath  the  peat.  Yet  it  is  not  improbable  that 
tJie  destruction  of  forests  may,  in  some  instances,  by 
impeding  the  course  of  the  streams  which  flowed 
through  them,  have  caused  the  stagnation  of  water 
from  which  the  growth  of  peat  resulted  Some  of 
the  largest  mosses  and  fens  of  Europe  occupy  the 
place  of  forests,  which  were  destroyed  by  onler  of 
Severus  and  other  Roman  emperors ;  and  some  of 
the  British  forests,  now  mosses,  as  well  as  some  of 
those  of  Ireland,  were  cut  because  they  harboured 
wplves  or  outlaws.  The  overthrow  of  a  forest  by  a 
storm  in  the  17th  c,  is  known  to  have  caused  the 
formation  of  a  peat-moaa  near  Loch  Broom,  in 
Ross-shire.  Layers  of  trees  are  not  unfrequently 
found  in  peat,  which  seem  to  have  been  suddenly 
deposited  in  their  horizontal  }>ositioii,  and  sometimes  to 
have  been  felled  by  human  hands.  It  is  not  improb- 
able, however,  that  sometimes  peat  has  been  formed 
where  the  soil  has  been  exhausted  by  the  long-con- 
tinued growth  of  one  kind  of  tree.  The  growth  of 
peat  is  often  rapid :  bogs  have  been  known  to  increase 
two  inches  in  depth  in  a  year.  The  surface  of 
a  bog  sometimes  oecomes  a  floating  mass  of  long 
interlaced  fibres  of  plants,  known  in  IrelaTid  as  Old 
Wive£  Tow.  The  vegetation  on  the  surface  is  some- 
times very  green  and  compact,  like  a  beautiful  turf. 

Peat  is  vegetable  matter  more  or  less  decomposed, 
and  passes  by  insensible  degrees  into  Lignite  (q.  v.). 
The  less-perfectly  decomposed  peat  is  generally  of  a 
brown  colour ;  that  which  is  more  perfectly  decom- 
posed is  often  nearly  black.  Moist  peat  possesses  a 
decided  and  powerful  antiseptic  property,  which  is 
attributed  to  the  presence  of  gallic  acid  and  tannin, 
and  is  manifested  not  only  in  the  perfect  pres4.*rva- 
tion  of  ancient  trees  and  of  leaves,  fniits,  &&,  but 
sometimes  even  of  animal  bodies.    Thus,  in  iom« 


PEA  WEEVIL-PEBBLE. 


insfcanoes,  haman  bodies  have  been  found  perfectly 
preserved  in  peat,  after  the  lapse  of  centuries. 

The  formation  of  peat  may  beTegarded  as  one 
of  the  most  important  geolo&;ical  changes  now  in 
evident  progress.  It  takes  place,  however,  onl^  in 
the  colder  parts  of  the  world.  In  warm  regions, 
the  decay  of  ve^table  substances,  after  life  has 
ceased,  is  too  rapid  to  permit  the  formation  of  peat. 
The  surface  covered  by  peat  is  very  extensive  in  all 
the  colder  parts  of  tiie  world ;  although  in  the 
southern  hemisphere  no  moss  seems  to  enter  into  its 
composition ;  and  the  South  American  peat  is  said 
by  Mr  Darwin  to  be  formed  of  many  plants,  but 
chiefly  of  Astelia  pumila,  a  phanerogamous  plant  of 
the  rush  family.  The  surface  covered  by  peat  even 
in  England  is  considerable;  it  is  greater  in  Scotland, 
and  very  great  in  Ireland.  Extensive  ti'acts  are 
covered  with  peat  even  in  the  southern  coimtries  of 
Europe,  and  sometimes  even  near  the  seaj  and  in 
more  northern  regions,  the  mossea  or  bogs  are  still 
more  extensive.  Por  their  physical  characters,  and 
the  mode  of  reclaiming  them,  or  converting  them 
into  arable  land,  see  BoG. 

Mere  peat  is  not  a  good  soil,  even  when  suffi- 
ciently drained,  but,  by  the  application  of  lime, 
marl,  &c.,  it  is  soon  converted  into  good  soil,  yield- 
ing excellent  crops.  A  mixture  of  peat  is  often  of 
beneHt  to  soils  otherwise  poor.  And  for  many 
shrubs,  as  rhod(  dendrons,  kalmias,  whortleberries, 
ftc,  no  soil  is  3o  suitable  as  one  in  great  part 
composed  of  peat;  which  is  therefore  in  much 
request  with  gardeners  in  order  to  the  formation  of 
the  soil  for  certain  kinds  of  plants. 

Peat  is  extensively  used  ror  fuel.  The  more  per- 
fectly decomposed  that  the  vegetable  matter  i^  and 
the  more  consolidated  that  the  peat  thei'efore  is,  the 
better  is  it  suited  for  this  use.  It  is  the  ordinary 
fuel  of  great  part  of  Ireland,  and  is  there  almost 
always  called  turf,  although  the  term  turf,  in  its 
ordinary  English  sense,  is  utterly  inapplicable  to  it 
To  procure  peat  for  fuel,  the  portion  of  bog  to  be 
operated  upon  must  first  be  partially  dried  by  a 
wide  open  drain ;  its  surface  is  then  pared  off  with 
the  spade,  to  the  depth  of  about  six  inches,  to  remove 
the  coarse  undecomposed  vegetable  matter;  the 
peat  is  afterwards  cut  out  in  pieces  (peats)  like 
Dricks,  by  means  chiefly  of  a  peculiar  implement, 
called  in  Ireland  a  elanei  and  m  Scotland  a  peat- 
9pade,  resembliuj^  a  long;,  narrow,  sharp  spade,  the 
blade  of  which  is  furnished  on  one  side  with  a 
tongue  set  at  a  right  angle  to  it  This  implement 
is  used  by  the  hands  alone,  without  pressure  of  the 
foot  The  soft  peats  are  conveyed  to  some  neigh- 
bouring place,  where  they  are  set  up  on  end  in 
little  dusters  to  dry.  When  sufficiently  dry,  they 
are  conveyed  away,  and  may  be  piled  in  outhouses 
or  stacked,  in  the  open  air.  The  operation  of  peat- 
€uUmg  is  always  performed  in  spring  or  summer.— 
Where  peat  for  fuel  cannot  be  obtamed  in  the  way 
just  described,  the  black  mud  of  a  semi-fluid  bog  is 
sometimes  worked  by  the  feet  of  a  party  of  men, 
women,  and  children  until  it  acquires  such  a  con- 
sistency that  it  can  be  moulded  by  the  hand.  The 
process  is  laborious,  but  the  fuel  obtained  by  it  is 
good. — In  countries  depending  on  peat  for  fuel,  a 
very  rainy  season  sometimes  occasions  great  incon- 
vemence,  and  even  distress,  by  preventing  the 
cutting  and  drying  of  the  peat 

Peat  is  a  lignt  and  bulky  kind  of  fuel,  and  cannot 
be  conveyed  to  considerable  distances  without  too 
great  expense.  Eflbrts  have,  however,  been  made, 
both  in  Scotland  and  Ireland,  to  render  it  more 
generally  useful,  and  so  to  psomote  the  reclaiming 
of  bogs,  by  compressing  it  until  its  specific  gravity 
is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  ooaL  For  this  purpose,  it 
is  first  reduced  to  a  pulpb    The  compressing  of  peat 


has  not  yet  been  advantageously  prosecuted  on  aa 
extensive  scale. 

Peat-charcoal,  made  from  uncompressed  peat,  is 
very  light  and  inflammable,  and  therefore  unsiiit^ 
able  for  many  purposes,  but  for  others  it  is  par- 
ticularly adapted,  and  no  kind  of  cliarcoal  exoelis  it 
in  antiseptic  and  deodorising  properties.  It  is  also 
an  excellent  manure  f^  many  kinds  of  soil,  and 
great  crops  have  often  been  obtained  by  its  use. 
Peat-charcoal  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  smelt- 
ing of  iron,  and  for  working  and  tempering  the 
finer  kinds  of  cutlery.  Charcoal  made  from  com- 
pressed peat  is  in  density  superior  to  wood-char- 
coal, and  is  capable  of  being  used  as  coke.  The 
Irish  Amelioration  Society,  some  years  ago,  en- 
couraged the  conversion  of  peat  into  charcoal,  but  it 
seems  not  to  have  paid  as  a  commercial  speculation, 
although  the  resulting  charcoal  was  of  good  quality. 
Various  companies  have  been  formed  for  the  purpose 
of  obtaining  valuable  products  from  the  destructive 
distillation  of  peat  it  appears  from  researches  of 
Sir  K.  Kane  and  others,  that  1000  parts  of  peat 
yield  about  11  of  sulphate  of  ammonia,  7  of  acetate 
of  lime,  2  of  wood  naphtha,  1  of  paraffin,  7  of  tixed 
oil,  and  3  of  volatile  oiL  The  manufacture  has  uot, 
however,  as  yet  proved  sufficiently  profitable  to 
be  generally  adopted,  although  the  distillation  of 
peat  lias,  we  believe,  been  carried  on  for  some  years 
at  Athy,  near  Kildare.  For  further  details  on  this 
subject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  a  parliamentary 
Report  on  the  Nature  and  Products  ofUie  Destructive 
DisitUaZion  of  Peat ^  pubhshed  in  1851,  and  to  a  paper 
by  Dr  Paul  in  the  6th  volume  of  The  Chemical  News» 

Flower-pots  are  sometimes  made  of  peat,  and 
might  pernaps  with  advantage  be  more  extensively 
us^  than  they  have  yet  been.  It  is  easy  to  trans- 
plant flowers  growing  in  them  without  loosening 
the  earth  from  the  roots,  the  pot  being  readily  cut 
to  pieces;  and  liquid  manure  applied  outside  such 
a  flower-pot  finds  its  way  sufficiently  to  the  roots  of 
the  plant. 

PEA  WEEVIL  (SiUma  crinita  and  S.  Uneata), 
small  coleopterous  insects,  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  long,  which  are  very  destructive  to  crops  of 
peas  and  other  kinds  of  pulse,  devouring  the  leaves 
and  other  succulent  parts,  often  soon  after  the 
plants  appear  above  ground.  lime,  soot,  or  wood 
ashes  dusted  over  tiie  plants,  protect  ^em  in  some 
measure  from  the  ravages  of  these  insects;  and 
hoeing  or  other  stirring  of  the  soil  is  beneficial, 
probably  by  destroying  the  eggs,  larv»,  and  pupee. 

PEBBLE  (probably  allied  to  bubble,  from  the 
sound  of  water  running  among  stones),  a  smallf 
round,  water- worn  stone  of  any  kind ;  but  with 
jewellers  sometimes  an  agate — agates  being  often 
found  as  loose  pebbles  in  streams,  and  those  of 
Scotland  in  particular  being  popularly  designated 
Scotch  Pebbles.  Hence  the  name  has  come  even  to 
be  extended  to  rock-crystal,  when  not  in  the  crystal- 
line form,  and  we  hear  of  spectacles  with  eyes  of 
pebble,  &c.  Deposits  of  pebbles  (in  the  sense  of 
water- worn  stoues),  occur  among  the  rocks  of  all 
periods,  but  the  pebbles  are  seldom  loose ;  they  are 
generally  cemented  together  by  iron,  lime,  or  silex. 
Forming  a  pudding-stone  of  greater  or  less  hardness. 
Single  pebbles  are  sometimes  found  in  deposits  which 
have  been  formed  at  a  distance  from  currents  i^MP^^ 
fectly  still  water,  as  in  chalk  and  fine  silt  They 
must  have  been  floated  to  their  places  entangled  in 
the  roots  of  trees,  or  attached  to  the  roots  of  large 
buoyant  sea-weeds. — Brazilian  Pebbles  (so  called 
from  Brazil  having  been  long  famous  for  the  purity 
of  its  rock  crystal),  are  very  pure  pieces  of  Rock 
Crystal  (q.  v.),  used  by  opticians  for  making  the 
lenses  of  spectacles,  &Q. 


PECCAET— PECTOEILOQUT. 


PE'OCART {IhieoUlei),  aganiw  of  Pachydermaia, 
of  the  family  SiiUlin.  much  reBembline  hora ;  tut 
having  0  mere  tubercle  instead  of  s  tail;  only  three 
toes— DO  eiterarf  toe— on  the  hind-feet ;  the  molar 
teeth  an<!  inoiaurB  very  like  those  of  hogs,  bnt  the 
canine  teeth  not  Dearlj  lo  long,  and  not  cnrving 


easterly  600  miles  through  New  Meiico  and  Teri^ 
and  flows  into  the  Rio  Qmnde-del-Norte,  in  lab 
about  29-  OT  N.,  long.  1()2'  W. 

PECTEN,  a  genua  of  lamelli branchiate  moUoKi, 
commonly  referred  to  the  same  family  with  the 
oyster  IVitreadiE].  which  is  sumutimes  called  Fecit- 
nida.  The  ahvll  biw  neither  teeth  nor  lamiiue  io 
the  hinge  ;  the  valves  are  unequal,  ooe  of  them 
being  often  much  more  convex  than  the  other  ;  tlw 
shape  is  regular ;  the  hinge  ia  eiteuded  by  eon, 
and  in  moat  of  the  species  both  valves  have  eUm 
radiating  from  the  nmbo 
to  the  margin.      Hence  the  ■~  - 

name  peclea  (Lit,  a  comb), 
from  the  agipearauce  which 


they  present.  The  animal  i 
has  a  small  foot ;  some  of  | 
the  apccicB  are  capable  of  " 


Fecoary  {Dt/mtda  lorqaaiat), 

(Hltirard£,  An  approach  to  rominanti  ii  seen  in 
the  itomach,  which  is  divided  into  several  lacs ; 
also  in  the  union  of  the  metacarpal  and  metatarsal 
bones  of  the  two  greater  toea  into  a  kind  of  cannon 
bone.  A  glandular  opening  on  the  loins,  ncHT  the 
tail,  secretes  a  fetid  humour.  Only  two  species  are 
known,  both  natives  of  South  America,  and  except 
tiie  tipirs,  the  only  existine  pachydermata  of  the 
American  continenL^ — The  Cohuon  P.,  Colla-Red 
Pt  or  Tajasu  (D.  torquaXan),  is  found  in  almost  all 
wts  of  Soiill  America ;  the  WniTB-LiPFEp  P,  {D. 


in  Tery  large  hcnU,  and  sometimes  doing  great 
uischicf  to  mnixe  and  other  crops.  The  herds  of 
the  White-lipi>ed  P.  seem  to  follow  a  leader,  like 
those  of  ruminants.  The  Common  P.  chiefly  fre- 
quents forests,  and  small  companies  sometimes  take 
np  their  abode  in  the  hollow  of  a  great  tree.  The 
Common  P.  is  about  tha  size  of  a  small  hc«,  grayish ; 
the  hairs  alternately  ringed  with  black  ana  yellowish 
white,  bristly;  and  on  the  neck  longer,  and  forming 
>  mane.  A  narrow  white  collar  anrrounds  the 
neck.  The  White-lipped  P.  is  considerably  larger, 
of  a  darker  colour,  with  conspicuously  white  lips. 
The  ears  are  slm.ist  concealed  by  the  hair.  Both 
•pedes  are  capable  of  being  lamed,  but  aie  of 
initable  and  uncertain  temper.  In  a  wild  state 
they  defend  themselves  vigorously  against  assailants, 
making  good  use  of  their  sharp  tusks,  and  a  whole 
berd  combine  for  defence.  The  hunter  has  often  ' 
take  refuge  from  them  in  a  tree.  They  are  omni 
eroos  J  and  if  hurtful  to  crops,  render  service  ^ 
destroying  rei'tiles.  Their  voice  is  somewhat  like 
that  of  the  bog,  but  more  sharp.  Their  flesh 
resembles  that  of  the  hog,  but  is  said  to  be  inferior. 
The  glands  on  the  loins  must  be  cut  out  immediately 
after  the  P.  is  killed,  or  their  fetid  Immour  infects  the 
wboleflesb-  Ki'Httemptsseemyetlo  havebecnmade 
lor  the  econooil-:  domestication  of  the  peccaries 

PE-CHIH-LE'.    See  Chih-lk. 

PECK,  a  measure  of  capacity  for  dry  goods, 
•neb  as  grain,  fruit,  Ac,  used  in  Britain,  and  equiva- 
lent to  1  unperial  »dlons,  or  G54'543  cubic  inches. 
It  is  thus  the  fourth  part  of  a  Bushel  (q.  v.).  The 
«ld  Scotch  peck,  the  IGth  part  of  a  boll,  when  of 
wheat,  was  sli^btly  less  than  the  im)ierial  peck ;  but 
irheu  of  barley,  was  equal  to  about  1  '466  of  it. 

PECORA  (Lat^  oattle),  a  Linnean  order  of 
Mammalia,  now  generally  called  BDMiHurn&  (q.  v.). 

PECOS,  a  river  of  Texas,  U.S.,  rises  in  the 
mountains  near  Santa  tb,  Nev  Mexico,  raot  south- 


Pecten. 


ittaching  themselves  by  a 
byssus ;   they  are  capable  £ 
also  of  locomotion  by  open-  \ 
ing  and  rapidly  closing  th« 
vuves,  and  in  this  way  can 
the  sea   from 


on  the  shore.  Some  ol 
larger  species  are  olten 
■opuUrly  called  dana,  a  name  shared  by  oth^ 
livalves.  P.  Jacohau*,  a  native  of  the  Medi- 
erronean,  ia  the  Scallop-suell  which  pilgrims 
were  accustomed  to  wear  in  fri>iit  of  their  hat,  in 
token  of  tlieir  having  visited  the  ehrine  of  St  James 
at  Compostella.  It  attains  a  aiie  of  about  4  inches 
lung  and  0  inches  broniL  P.  maxiiiai*,  fuund  on 
many  parts  of  the  British  coasts,  ia  about  6  incbea 
broa^  It  is  sometimes  eat«n,  but  is  bard  and 
indigestible.  Several  other  species  are  British. 
°^cie9  are  found  in  almost  all  i^rts  of  the  world. 
PECTIO  ACID  AND  PBCriNB.  See  FHim*. 
PECTINIBRANCHIA'TA  (Lat  comb-giUed), 
1  order  of  gaatoropodous  molluscs,  having  tbe  gilU 
.imposed  of  numerous  leaflets  or  fringes,  arranged 
like  the  teeth  of  a  comb,  and  affiled  to  the  internal 
surface  of  a  cavity  which  opens  with  a  wide  open- 
ing above  the  head.  The  sexes  ore  distinct.  All 
the  P.  have  two  tentacles  and  two  eyes,  the  ey«a 
often  stalked.  The  month  is  produced  into  a  pro- 
boscis, more  or  less  lengthened.  The  eggs  are  depo- 
sited in  a  mam,  with  an  envelope  often  of  very 
remarkable  and  complicated  form,  which  is  produced 
by  coagulation  of  a  viscous  j^buminous  matter 
secreted  by  a  peculiar  gland  of  the  female.  Tha 
P.  are  very  numerous ;  the  greater  number  d 
gasteropods  being  included  in  this  order  ;  some  bav« 
a  siphon,  and  some  are  destitute  of  it;  some  luv« 
spiral,  and  some  have  simply  conical  shells.  Almost 
^  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea  or  its  shores ;  a  few 
ore  foimd  in  fresh  water.  To  this  order  belong 
Whelks,  Periwinkles,  Cones,  Volutes,  Calyptraea,  Ac 
PECTORI'LOQUY  is  a  term  of  such  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  history  of  chesC  diseases  as  to 
require  a  brief  notice  in  this  work.  If  the  atetho. 
scope  be  applied  to  the  chest  of  a  healthy  peison, 
and  he  be  requested  to  speak,  the  sounds  of  bia 
voice  will  be  conveyed  to  the  ear  of  the  observer 
with  very  different  degrees  of  clearness,  accnrding 
to  the  part  of  the  cheat  on  which  the  base  of  tbe 
instrument  rests.  If,  for  example,  it  be  applied 
at  the  top  of  the  sternum  or  brvast.bone  the  voice 
will  reacn  the  ear,  through  the  tube,  with  tolerable 
distinctness.  For  a  short  distance  on  either  side 
of  the  sternum,  just  below  the  collar-bones,  and  in 
the  arm-pits,  the  voice  is  still  beard,  but  the  sound 
is  indistinct  and  confused.  Below  the  third  rib,  and 
ovei  tha  remainder  of  the-  chest,  the  voice   only 


PECULIAR— PEDICULAEia 


pn>duc«a  an  obacnre  thrilling  Bound  which  is  known 
aa  pectoral  reaonana.  In  certain  morbid  conditiona 
the  Bonnda  ol  the  voice  »e«m  to  proceed  with 
diBtinctness  from  the  walls  of  the  chest  directly  into 
the  ear;  and  then,  in  plaoe  of  the  normal  pectoral 
reeoiiance,  we  have  the  phyaic&l  sign  known  oa 
Pectoriloquy  (from  the  Latm  pedort,  from  the  cheat, 
and  to'juor,  I  speak).  It  occurs  when  a  tolerably 
mperficial  excavation,  of  moderate  or  considerable 
ate,  lies  uoilcr  the  stetlioacope ;  and  hence  it  waa 
4t  one  time  regarded  as  aji  almost  certaiu  indication 
of  advanced  consumption,  but  it  is  now  known  that 
it  may  also  occur  when  solidified  masses  of  lung  lie 
between  a  large  bronchial  tube  and  the  part  of  the 
chest  on  which  the  instrument  rests. 

P£CITLIAR  (Fr.  ptculier,  L  e.,  private)  ia,  in 
English  Law,  a  particular  parish  or  church  having 
iunadiction  within  itself,  and  exempt  from  the 
juriadidtion  of  the  ordinary.  The  Courta  of  Paeuliar* 
m  these  jurisdictions  amount  to  abont  300  ID 
^igland  and  Wales,  and  had  jurisdiction  in  refer- 
ence to  probates  oC  wills  before  the  recent  cOoBtita- 
tion  of  the  Court  of  Probate.  Their  jurisdiction 
is  still  somewhat  obscure. 

PEDAL  (lat  pm,  a  foot},  any  part  of  a  mtiaical 
instrument  acted  on  by  the  feet  The  pianoforte, 
the  barp,  and  the  organ  are  furnished  with  pedals, 
which,  honever,  serve  an  entirely  different  purpose 
in  each  instrument.  In  the  pianoforte,  their  object 
is  to  effect  a  change  in  the  quality  or  intensity  of 
the  sound;  the  damper  pedal  prolongs  the  sound  after 
the  finger  is  lifted  from  the  key,  and  the  shifting  or 
vtM  corda  pedal  softens  tiie  t«ne.  The  pedals  of 
the  harp  are  the  means  by  which  the  chromatic 
changes  of  intonation  ore  effected.  In  the  orgm, 
the  pedals  arc  keys  put  in  action  by  the  feet.  The 
division  of  the  or^an  which  is  connected  with  the 
foot- keys  is  called  the  pedal-organ,  and  contains  the 
largeet  pipes.  The  introduction  of  pedals  in  the 
organ  is  assigned  to  »  German  of  the  name  of 
Bemhard,  who  flourished  in  the  ISth  c. ;  they  were 
long  of  being  brought  into  use  in  England,  but  now 
few  or^ns,  except  those  of  the  smalleat  dimensions, 
are  mode  without  them'.  Pedals  are  also  used  in 
the  organ  to  act  on  the  swell  and  on  the  stops. 
See  Oroah. 

PEDALIA'CE!^    See  BiasoviACtM. 

PEDAL-POIHT,  or  PEDAL  HARMONY.    See 

PEDEE',  Qbut,  a  rivar  of  North  and  South 
Canilina,  U.S.,  rises  in  the  Allesliany  Mountains, 
in  the  north-west  of  North  Carolina,  and  running 
sooth  by  east  flows  through  the  east  portion  ol 
South  Carolina,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  through 
Winyaw  Bay  at  Georgetown.  It  is  navigable  to 
Cheraw,  150  miles,  and  is  abont  350  miles  in  length. 
— The  LllTLB  Pedbb,  its  principal  eastern  branch, 
is  formed  by  the  conflucuce 
of  several  smaller  rivers 
in  the  south  part  of  North 
Carolina, 

PBa>ESTAL,  ■  base 
block    on    which    oolui 
statues,  &c,  are   frequently 
■eL     The  pedestal  is  much 
nsed  in  classic  architecture. 
Like  the  column, 


base,     a,     and    a    sort    of 

capital    or    cornice,    called 

FedestaL  t>he   snrbaae,  c     The  shaft, 

01     plain      block, 

oaDed  the  dado  or  die,  b. 

PEDETES,  or  HEXAMYS,  4  ^ua  of  rodent 
^udmpedi    of    the    family   iturtda,    ftllied    *" 


although  very  long,  are  not  so  long  as  in  the  jerboas. 
The  taU  is  long  The  JchP'Iiio  Harb  [P.  or  If. 
CaptTint)  of  South  Africa  is  about  the  size  of  a 
rabbit.  It  can  jump  20  or  30  feet  at  a  bound.  Iti 
fore-feet  also  are  very  strong,  and  it  burrows  very 
expeditiously.  The  cLaws  are  long  and  strong.  The 
habits  of  the  animal  ore  nocturnal,  and  it  doei 
considerable  mischief  in  com-flolds  and  gardens. 

PEDICELLA'BI^  are  very  remarkable  minute 
appendages  of  the  integuments  of  many  of  the  Echi- 
nodormata,  having  the  form  of  a  stalk,  with  a  small 
two'bladed  or  three-bladed  forceps  at  its  summit 
They  are  of  a  fleshy  BnbataDCe.  with  calcareous 
granules  imbedded,  and  in  a  living  state  the  blades 
-  continually  opening  and  cloning.  They  were  at 
time  supposed  to  be  parasitic  zoophytes,  but 
low  geneially  believed  to  be  organs  of  the  star- 
fish or  sea-nremn,  although  their  use  is  merely 
conjectured  to  be  that  of  keeping  the  surface  of  this 
echinoderm  free  of  algce  and  zoophytes.  The  intro- 
duction of  a  pin's  point  between  the  blades  causes  an 
immediate  closing  of  them.  They  are  found  both  on 
shelly  and  on  comparatively  soft  integuments,  and 
are  always  present,  and  always  of  a  iiarticular 
form,  according  to  the  species  of  echinoderm,  and 
according  to  the  particular  place  which  they  occupy, 
being  crowded  chiefly  around  the  spines,  and  near 
the^outh  of  sea-urchins. 

PEDICULA'RIS,  a  genua  of  herbaceous  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Seropkulariaceie,  some  of  which 
have  rather  largo  and  finely-coloured  fiowera.     Two 

yciea,  P.  paTustria  and  P.  eslvatira,  are  native* 
Britain,  oommon  in  wet  grounds.  Both  have 
received  the  name  of  Loiisewort,  the  English  equi- 
valent of  *  pedicntaris,'  from  their  siip|)osed  innu- 
>nCB  in  producing  the  lousy  disease  in  aheep ;  an 
nflnenoe  purely  imaginary.    Their  acridity  render* 


are  found  in 
taptrum,  or  King  Charles'* 
Sceptre,  is  one  of  the  principal  ornaments  of  marshy 
grounds  in  the  most  northern  countries  of  Europe. 


PEDICULUS— PEDOMETER. 


PEDI'CULUS.    See  Lousit 

PEa)IGKEE  (probably  from  Lai  peSy  a  foot),  a 
tabular  view  of  the  members  of  a  particular  family 
with  the  relations  in  which  they  stand  to  each 
other,  accompanied  or  nnaccompanied  by  a  notice 
of  the  chief  events  in  the  life  of  each,  with  their 
dates,  and  the  evidence  of  the  facts  stated.  Pedi- 
grees are  indispensable  aids  to  the  student  of  his- 
tory. The  wars  of  the  Bx)8es,  the  claim  of  Edward 
III.  to  the  crown  of  France,  the  relative  position  of 
Mary  and  Lady  Jane  Grey,  the  circumstances  which 
brought  about  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  England 
and  Scotland,  the  Schleswig-Hoktein  question — now 


characters  in  English  history.  Some  of  these  books 
are  lost,  the  rest  are  scattered  among  the  public 
and  private  libraries  of  the  country,  the  largest 
collections  being  in  the  archives  of  the  College  of 
Arms  and  the  British  Museum.  After  the  begin- 
ning of  last  century,  the  visitations  were  discon- 
tinued, and  there  has  since  been  no  official  and 
regular  collection  of  pedigrees.  A  standing  order 
of  the  House  of  Lords,  in  1767*  required  that  before 
any  peer  should  be  allowed  to  take  his  seat,  Garter- 
king-of-Arms  was  to  deliver  at  the  table  of  the 
House  of  Lords  a  pedigree  of  his  family,  to  be 
verified  by  the  Committee  of  Privileges,  and  even- 
tually preserved  in  the  records  of  the  House,  a  copy 

"  Arms.     This 
in  1802,  with 
-       ,.  -»,,  .    •  1    J.  "i_  J  •    Ai-    if        i/uo  TIC  w  ux  framing  a  new  one ;  but,  unfortunately, 

of  pedigrees.  The  materials  to  be  used  m  the  for-  ^his  was  never  donl  Persons  sensible  of  the  import^ 
mation  of  a  pedigree  aw  notes  of  the  facte  to  be  set  ^^^^  ^f  preserving  an  authentic  account  of  ^eir 
forth,  and  a  recognised  series  of  signs  and  abbre-  |  aescent,  frequently  record  their  pedigrees  for  pre- 
viations.  These  notes  comprise  the  name  of  every  nervation  in  the  Register  of  the  Allege  of  A^ns. 
person  who  is  to  appear  m  the  pedigree,  with  sucK  This  register  is  quite  distinct  from  tlie  heraldic 
dates  and  circumstances  as  it  may  be  considered    department  of  that  institution,  and  is  open  to  any 

one  who  wishes  to  preserve  evidence  of  any  pro- 


perly authenticated  facte  regarding  his  descent  and 
family.— In  Scotland,  in  the  absence  of  the  regular 
system  of  visitations  which  prevailed  in  England, 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  evidence  reganiing  the 


desirable  to  record.     Among  the  commonest  abbre 
viations  are  dau,,  for  daughter  of ;  8.  and  A.,  son  and 
heir  of ;  coh.^  coheir  of ;  »o.,  wife  of ;  $.  p.  {sine  prole), 
without  issue  ;  v.  p.  (vitd  patrU),  in  his  father's  life- 
time ;  6.,  born,  d.,  died  ;  dep.j  deposed  ;  K.,  king ;  R, 

earl,  &c.  The  sign  =  placed  between  two  names,  pedigrees  of  the  historical  families  of  the  country 
indicates  that  they  were  husband  and  wife ;  Tf:  scattered  here  and  there  in  public  and  private  col- 
mdicatcs  that  they  had  childi-en ;  ^  under  a  name  lections,  including  the  Advocates*  Library  and  Lyon 
signifies  that  the  person  had  children.  All  persons  Office.  A  register  of  genealogies,  similar  to  that  of 
of  the  same  generation  are  to  be  kept  in  the  same  the  English  Heralds*  College,  existe  in  the  Lyon 
horizontal  line ;  and  the  main  line  of  descent  is,  <  Office,  in  which  the  pedigrees  of  applicants,  after 
wherever  possible,  to  be  indicated  by  keeping  the  being  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  heraldic 
Buccesbive  names  in  a  vertic;il  column.  Continuous  authorities,  are  inserted  with  the  accompanying 
lines  indicate  the  succession  of  the  different  gene-  i  evidence.  *  To  what  extent  the  register  of  gene- 
rations. The  members  of  the  same  family  are  alogies  in  the  Lyon  Office  may  be  admitted  as  a 
generally  arranged  in  their  order  of  birth  in  two  I  probative  document,  conclusive  of  the  facte  which 
groups— the  sons  first,  and  then  the  daughters  ;!  it  sets  forth,  has  not  been  ascertained  by  actual  deci- 
but  where  the  same  father  or  mother  has  chil-  '  sion ;  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that,  in  qiiestions 
dren  by  more  than  one  marriage,  the  children  of  '  both  as  to  property  and  honours,  it  would  be  re- 
each  marriage  ought  te  form  distinct  groups.  The  garded  as  a  most  important  adminicle  of  proof.  The 
actual  arrangement,  however,  of  a  pSiigree  must  genealogical  department  of *the  Heralds*  College  in 
always  dei>cnd  on  the  leading  object  which  it  is  London  is  a  very  important  one,  and  it  is  to  be 
intended  to  illustrate.  I  regretted  that  the  uses  of  the  corresponding  depart- 

Tabular  genealogies,  generally  brief,  and  meant  to  ment  of  the  Lyon  Office  are  so  little  understood 
illustrate  some  particular  claim  of  right,  are  found  and  appreciated  by  the  public.* — Lorimer*8  Hand- 
among  the  records,  public  and  private,  of  the  early  hook  of  the  Law  of  Scotland,  2d  edit,  p.  446. 
middle  ages  ;  bjit  after  the  incorporation  of  the  |  PEDIGREE,  in  point  of  law.  is  the  legal  rela- 
Eniilish  Heralds  College,  far  more  attention  was  ■  tionship  between  mdividuals  which  is  looked 
devoted  to  the  compilation  of  pedigrees  of  fanulies,  I  ^  with  regard  to  the  descent  of  property  and 
more  particularly  with  reference  to  their  claims  to  ,  honours.      The  occasion  in  which  it  comes   into 


dignities  and  heraldic  insignia.  In  the  course  of 
the  1 6th  c,  the  heralds  obtained  copies  of  all  such 
accounte  of  the  English  families  of  any  distinction 
as  could  be  supplied  to  them,  and  entered  them  in 
the  books  which  contain  the  records  of  their  official 
proceedings.  Royal  commissions  were  issued  under 
the  Great  Seal  to  the  two  provincial  kings-of-arms, 
empowering  them  to  visit  in  turn  the  several  coun- 
ties of  England,  in  order  to  collect  from  the  princi- 
pal persons  of  each  county  an  account  of  the  changes 
which  had  taken  place  in  their  respective  families 
in  the  interval,  since  the  last  preceding  visitation, 
and  to  inquire  what  account  could  he  given  of 
themselves  by  families  who  had  stepped  into  the 
rank  of  gentry,  or  had  become  settled  in  the 
county  since  that  period.  The  register-books 
kept  by  the  heralds  and  their  assistante  contain  the 
pedigrees  and  arms  collected  in  the  course  of  the 
visitations,  with  the  signatures  of  the  heads  of  the 
families.  The  pedigrees  thus  collected  contain 
ft  vast  body  of  information,  interesting  not  only 
to  the    professed   genealogist,  but  to    every   one 


question  is  where  a  person  dies,  in  which  case  his 
property,  if  he  diea  intestate,  is  divided  among 
those  who  are  related  by  blood.  The  real  property 
goes  to  one  set  of  relations,  and  the  personal  pro- 
perty to  others.  See  Intestacy,  Next  of  Kin, 
SuccESSTON,  Paterson's  Comp.  of  English  and  Scotch 
Law,  251,  257. 

PE'DIMENT,  the  triangular  space  over  the 
portico  at  the  enda  of  the  rooi  of  chwsic  buildings. 
It  is  enclosed  by  the  horizontal  and  the  raking 
oomioes,  the  latter  of  which  follow  the  Ao^e%  of  the 
roof.  The  pediment  may  be  called  the  gable  of 
classic  buildings.  It  is  frequently  enriched  with 
sculpture,  for  which  it  forms  a  fine  setting.  The 
doors  and  windows  of  classic  buildings  are  often 
surmounted  by  pediments,  either  straight-sided  or 
curved. 

PEDLERS.    See  Hawksrs. 

PEDO'METER,  an  instrument  for  measuring 
walking  distences.  It  sometimes  has  a  wateh  or 
clock  attached.    In  the  patent  pedometer  of  Messn 


who  would  know  anything  of  the  distinguished    Payne,  William,  k  Oa,  there  is  a  repeating  w»toh, 


PEDRO— PEEL. 


vhich  shews  seconds,  minates,  and  hoiirs,  and 
also  the  day  of  the  month.  They  are  used  hy 
pedestrians,  and  for  measuring  streets  when  tibe 
lares  of  hu«d  carriages  are  Ssputed.    See  Odo- 


PBBRO  I.  (DoM  Pedbo  d*Alcaktara),  Emperor 
of  Brazil,  was  the  second  son  of  John  VL,  kins  of 
Portugal,  and  was  horn  at  Lisbon,  12th  October 
179S.  On  the  death  of  his  elder  brother  in  1801,  he 
became  Prince  of  Beja,  and  heir  to  the  throne ;  and 
after  his  father's  accession  to  the  throne  of  Portugal 
and  Brazil  in  1816,  he  received  the  title  of  Prince  of 
BraziL  He  was  carried  alone  with  the  rest  of  the 
royal  family  of  Poring  in  their  fiijght  to  Brazil  in 
18(>7,  and  from  that  tmie  remained  in  that  coimtry. 
His  edncation,  owing  to  political  disturbances,  was 
not  carried  on  systematically,  and  after  his  arrival 
in  Brazil,  he  was  left  to  insect  himself  very  much 
according  to  his  own  inclination.  In  1817,  he 
married  the  Archduchess  Leopoldine  of  Austria, 
and  on  his  father's  return  to  Lisbon  in  1821,  was 
named  Re^nt  of  BraziL  At  this  time,  a  great 
political  crisis  was  impending ;  the  Brazilians  had 
been  utterly  disgusted  at  the  preferment  of  Portu- 
guese to  the  highest  offices  of  state  and  the  chief 
clerical  dignities,  and  their  discontent  was  height- 
ened by  the  refusal  of  the  Portuguese  Cortes  to 
accord  to  Brazil  a  liberal  constitution  similar  to  that 
which  had  been  granted  to  the  mother-country,  and 
by  its  arbitrary  command,  that  P.,  who  was  at  the 
head  of  the  hWral  party,  should  at  once  return  to 
Portngal  to  complete  his  education.  P.,  however, 
cast  in  his  lot  with  the  Brazilians,  despite  threats 
of  exclusion  from  the  throne  of  Portugal,  and  was 
chosen,  on  12th  October  1822,  Emperor  of  BraziL 
His  government  was  very  vigorous,  but  a  war  which 
broke  out  between  his  supporters  and  the  advocates 
of  republicanism,  distracted  the  country  for  a  time, 
and  prevented  the  liberal  measures  of  the  govern- 
ment from  taking  full  effect.  In  1825,  his  title  was 
reco^ised  by  the  Portuguese  Cortes ;  and  the  death 
of  his  father,  in  the  following  year,  opened  for  him 
the  succession  to  the  throne  of  PortugaL  This 
revived  the  national  spirit  of  the  Brazilian  Chambers, 
who  feared  that  they  were  about  to  be  again  reduced 
to  a  dei)endent  state,  and  P.'s  hasty  and  passionate 
temper  led  him  to  measures  which  whetted  the 

general  discontent*  But  he  merely  retained  the 
ignity  of  king  of  Portngal  lon^  enough  to  shew 
his  right  to  it,  and,  after  granting  a  more  liberal 
constitution,  immediately  resigned  m  favour  of  his 
daughter,  Maria  IL  (q.  v.).  The  disturbances  in 
Brazil  still  increased,  tne  finances  fell  into  disorder, 
the  emperor's  second  marriage  with  the  Princess 
Amelia  of  Leuchtenburg  displeased  his  subjects ;  and 
after  making  various  ineifectual  attempts  to  restore 
tranquillity,  he  was  compelled,  by  the  revolution  of 
Julv  ISwil,  to  resign  the  throne  in  favour  of  his  son, 
Pedro  IL,  a  boy  of  5^  years  old.  P.  then  sailed  for 
Portugal,  where  his  brother  Miguel  had  usurped  the 
throne ;  and  with  the  aid  of  an  army  which  was 
•welled  by  French  and  English  volunteers,  after  a 
three  years*  campaign,  he  drove  away  the  usurper, 
and  r^tored  his  daughter  to  the  throne  in  1834. 
Bnt  the  ceaseless  excitement  by  which  he  had 
been  sum>unded,  and  the  excessive  demands  on  his 
energies,  had  produced  total  exhaustion,  and  he  died 
24th  September  1834  See  Brazil  ;  Miguel,  Dom  ; 
and  PoRTUOAL. 

PEDUNCLE.    See  Flowkb. 

PEEBLES.    See  PxkblxsshirIp 

PEEBLESSHIRE,  a  countv  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  also  called  Tweeddale,  from  consisting 
mainly  of  the  upper  valley  of  the  Tweed,  a  river 
which  originates  m  the  county.    P.  is  bounded  by 


Dumfries  and  Selkirk  shires  on  the  S.,  Lanarkshire 
on  the  W.,  Mid- Lothian  on  the  N.,  and  Selkirkshire 
on  the  E.    The  county  is  smalL  containing  only  356 
square  miles,  or  227,869  statute  acres.    Its  lowest 
point  above  the  mean  level  of  the  sea  is  about 
450  feet,  from  which  to  1200  feet  is  the  region  of 
cultivation ;  but  the  county  being  a  group  of  hills, 
is  mostly  pastoraL  with  the  arable  lands  chiefly  in 
the  valleys.    The  highest  hill  is  Broad  Law,  which 
reaches  an  elevation  of  2754  feet.      Within   the 
county,  the  Tweed  has  for  tributaries  the  small 
rivers  Eddleston,  Leithen,  Quair,  Manor,  and  Lyne, 
besides  many  mountain  rivulets.    P.  comprehends 
sixteen  parishes,  but  several  being  ecclesiastically 
united,  the  number  of  parish  churches,  each  with 
a  settled   minister,  is   fourteen;    the    number    of 
parish  schools  is  fifteen.     The  only  town  in  the 
county  is  Peebles,  an  ancient  royal  burgh,  pleasantly 
situated  on  a  peninsula  formed  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Eddleston   with    the  Tweed.      The    principal 
villages  are  Innerleithen,  Walker  Bum,  West  Linton, 
and  Uarlops.    In  1861,  the  population  of  the  county 
was  11,408,  of  whom  about  2000  belonged  to  Peebles, 
which,  distant  22  miles  from  Edinburgh^  is  the  seat 
of  a  sheriff  and  county  administration.     It  is  also 
the  seat  of  a  presbytery.    Besides  the  parish  church, 
the  town  has  several  dissenting  places  of  worship, 
including    an    Episcopal    and    a  Roman    Cathoho 
chapeL     It  likewise  possesses  some  good  schools, 
has  three  branch  banks,  and  a  numljer  of  inns.     As 
a  means  of  literary  and  social  improvement,  Mr  W. 
Chambers,  in  1859,  mode  a  free  gift  to  this  his 
native  town  of  a  spacious  suite  of  buildings,  com- 
prising a  Keading-room,  a  Public  Library  consisting 
of  15,000  volumes,  a  Museum,  Gallery  of  Art,  ana 
Hall  for  lectures  and  concerts — the  whole  being 
designated    the    Chambers*    Institution.      Long 
secluded  from  general  traffic,  P.  has  been  lately 
opened  up  by  railways ;  and  the  woollen  manufac- 
ture has  made  considerable  progress  in  the  ]>ari8h 
of   Innerleithen.      In   18(5.3,  the  valued  rental   of 
the  county,  town  included,  exclusive  of   railway 
property,  was  £96,734,  5».  Id.    P.  abounds  in  t^e 
remains  of  British   hill-forts,   border  towers,  and 
other  antiquities,  and  possesses  numerous  modem 
mansions  of  a  handsome  kind.     Hitherto,  the  only 
account   of   the   shire  has  been   a  Description  of 
Ttofieddale,    by  Dr    Alexander    Pennicuik,    1716 ; 
reissued  with  notes,  1815 ;  but  in  the  present  year 
(1864)  has  been  written  a  History  oj  Peebleamirej 
by  W.  Chambers,  1  voL  8vo,  illustrated  with  maps 
and  wood-engravings. 

PEEL,  a  small  but  populous  and  thriving  sea- 
port town  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Man.  It 
was  formerly  called  'Holm,'  and  was  a  place  of 
great  importance  in  the  island.  The  herring-fishery, 
the  building  of  vessels  of  small  tonnage,  and  the 
manufacture  of  nets,  are  here  carried  on  extensively, 
and  form  a  source  of  large  profits  to  the  inhabitants. 
The  bay  is  spacious,  and  abounds  with  fish  of 
excellent  quality. 

At  the  northern  extremity  of  this  bay  are  several 
grotesque  and  romantic  caverns.  Tne  southern 
extremity  is  formed  by  Peel  Island,  on  which  stand 
the  grand  old  ruins  of  Peel  Castle  and  St  German's 
CathedraL  The  castle  was  formerly  the  frequent 
residence  of  the  Earls  of  Derby,  then  Lords  of  the 
Isle  of  Man,  and  is  expressly  named  in  the  original 
grant  of  Henry  IV.  to  the  Stanley  family.  Beneath 
the  cathedral  is  a  strong  subterranean  dungeon, 
where  many  noble  persons  were  in  former  days 
imprisoned,  including  Thomas,  Earl  of  Warwick, 
in  the  time  of  Kichard  IL,  and  Elinor  Cobham, 
Duchess  of  Gloucester,  who  was  sentenced  to  per^ 
petual  imprisonment  in  it  in  the  year  1440,  and 
who  died  within  its  gloomy  recesses.    In  Sir  Walter 


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PEEL-TO  WER-PEX3ASU3. 
vi  table.    Some 


(l#r  a.  few  days,  wm  recall™!,  and  resumed 
Lurd  Stanley  (now  Earl  Derby),  'eceded.  and 
Ixird  George  Bentinck,  Mr  UiaiMi-li,  &c, 
J  ■  'no-surrender'  lory  party;  but  the 
of  Wellington,  Graham,  Abenieeii,  Gladetoui:, 
ther  emineat  Conservatives,  stood  by  him, 
■IS  meaaure  for  the  repeal  wa«  carried.  He 
lowever,  immediately  afterwarda  defeated  on 
sh  Protection  of  Life  Bill  Not  so  much  upon 
^rounC,  OS  because  be  felt  that  the  course  wbich 
1  pursued  had  produced  a  dissolution  of  the 
s  of  party,  and  that  he  could  not  expect  for 
:ime  to  6nd  bimaelf  at  the  head  of  a  atroi^ 
imeot,  P.  retired  £rom  office  in  June  134^ 
place  to  a  Whig  administration  under  Lord 
Hussell,  to  which  he  gave  an  independent 
leneral  suiiport  aa  the  leader  of  a  mEddle 
rather  wiu;  than  Tory.  In  the  critical 
of  1847-181S,  he  waa  one  of  the  moat 
aot  props  of  the  govemraeiit,  whose  free-trade 
lies  he  had  now  completely  accepted.  His 
astical  policy  had  also  undergone  a  remark- 
change,  and  he  now  framcly  supported 
Ihiffi  in  the  eCTortH  to  caxry  an  act  for 
epeat  of  the  Jewish  disabilities.  He  waa 
f  regarded  by  the  working  and  middle 
I  generally  with  much  gratcfm  respect  An 
?ct^  catastrophe  put  an  end  to  his  career. 
;  28th  of  June  1S50,  he  had  spoVcn  with  great 
uce  in  the  debate  on  Lord  Palmeiaton's  Greek 
;  but  on  the  following  day  was  thrown  from 
ne  in  Hyde  Pork,  and  was  so  much  inj  ured, 
e  died  on  the  evening  of  the  2d  oC  July. —  He 
e  Bona,  the  cldeat  of  whom,  Sir  Rohebt  Peel, 
e  second,  FsBDmcK,  are  both  metiibera  of  the 
of  Commons,  and  have  adopted  generally  the 
r  Whig  politics  of  their  father. 
iHL-TOWER  (W.  piU,  a  stake,  a  fortress ; 
•ila,  a  stoke,  pillar,  stmcture),  the  name  given 
towers  erected  on  the  Scottish  borders  for 
e.  They  are  square,  witL  turrets  at  the 
,  and  the  door  is  sometimes  at  a  height  from 
vund.  The  lower  story  is  usually  vaulted, 
rmed  a  stable  for  horses,  cattle,  to.  For  on 
it  of  these  oM  towers,  now  mostly  in  ruin,  see 
•I  af  Peeblewhirt,  by  W.  Chambers,  1861 
■:PtrL,  PIPUL,  or  PIPFUL  (ficM*  reiigiaia), 
nuwn  as  the  SaCRBD  Fra  of  India,  and  in 
I  called  tbe  Bo  'I'see  ;  a  species  of  Fig^  (q.  v.), 
hat  resembling  the  Banyan,  but  the  branohea 
oting  like  those  of  that  tree,  and  the  leaves 
ihaped  with  long  attenuated  points.  The  tree 
1  sacred  by  the  Hindus,  because  Vishnu  is  said 
e  been  bom  under  it.  It  is  generally  planted 
£mples,  and  teligioui  devotees  spend  their 
inder  its  shade,  li  is  also  held  sacred  by  the 
lists.  It  attains  a  gre^t  ^™  ■"<'  ^8^'  ^ 
rfully  aged  tree  of  this  species  is  figured  in 
tide  Bo  TrBE.  The  P.  is  often  planted  near 
.  and  by  the  aides  of  walks,  for  tbe  sake  of 
it«ful  shade.  The  juice  contains  caoutchouc, 
used  by  women  as  bandoline.  Lac  insects 
pon  this  tree,  and  much  lac  is  obtained  from 
tie  fruit  is  not  much  lai^er  than  a  grape,  and 
gh  eatable,  is  not  valned. 
SR  (Fr.  pair;  Lat.  par.  equal),  a  general 
applied  to  the  titled  nubility  of  Great  Britain 
eland,  indicating  their  equality  of  rank.  The 
^  includes  the  various  degrees  of  Baron, 
mt,  Earl,  Marquis,  and  Duke.  The jpeers  of 
ad,  of  Great  Britain,  cf  the  United  Kingdom, 
ertain  representative  peers  of  Scotland  and 
d,  together  with  certau  o{  the  bishops  and 


archbishops,  who  are  called  lords  spiritual,  consH- 
tutethe House  of  Lords.  Tbedignityof  the  jweraae 
is  hereditary,  but  in  early  times  waa  territorial 
Life  peerages  seem  at  one  time  to  have  been  not 
unknown  in  England  ;  but  in  1806  Sir  James  Parke, 
having  been  created  by  Her  Majesty  Baron 
Wensleydale  '  for  and  during  the  term  uf  hia  uatuivl 
liic,'  the  House  of  Lords,  on  the  re]K)rt  of  a  Com- 
mittee of  Privileges,  held  that  he  was  not  entitled  to 
sic  and  vote  in  parliament.  Ladies  may  be  peeresses 
in  their  own  right  either  by  creation  or  by  mherit- 
ance.  The  wives  of  peers  are  also  styled  peeresses. 
Under  (he  articles  Nobilttt,  Parliamknt,  Duki, 
Mabqitih,  Eabl,  Vl'^count,  and  Babdn,  will  be 
found  notices  of  each  order  of  peera,  and  oF  the 
origin,  histotr,  and  privileges  of  the  peers  as  a  body. 

A  certain  limited  number  of  the  French  nobility 
were  styled  Peers  of  Fraace. 

PEEWIT.     See  Lapwing. 

PEGASSE,  or  PACASSE  (Boa  jvnaiu'),  a  specica 
of  ox.  a  native  of  the  interior  of  Westi-rn  Africa. 
The  head  is  short  and  thick,  the  forehead  wide ;  the 
horns  long,  extending  laterally  from  the  frontal 
ridge,  then  turning  downwards,  and  o^'aiii  npwanls; 
the  eats  very  large  and  pendulous ;  the  neck 
maned ;  the  tail  entirely  covered  with  long  hair; 
tbe  legs  long.  Little  is  yet  known  of  this  cmiooa 
species  of  a  moat  important  tribe. 

PE'GASUS,  in  Greek  Mythology,  a  winged  horse 
which  arose  with  Cbrysaor  from  the  blootl  of  the 
Gorgon  Medusa,  when  she  was  slain  by  Perseus. 
He  IB  said  to  have  received  his  name  because  he 
first  made  his  appearance  beside  the  springs  {plgai) 
of  OceanuB.  He  afterwards  ascended  to  heaven,  and 
was  believed  to  carry  the  thunder  and  lightning  of 
Zeus.  According  to  later  authors,  however,  he  was 
tbe  hone  ot  Eos.  The  myth  concerning  P.  is  inter- 
woven with  that  of  the  victory  of  BoUerophon  over 
ChimEero.  Bellerophon  had  in  vain  sought  to  catch 
P.  for  his  combat  with  this  monster,  but  was  advised 
by  the  seer  Pulyidoe  of  Corinth  to  sleep  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva,  and  the  goddess  apiiearing  to 
him  in  bis  sleep,  gave  him  a  golden  bridle  and 
certain  instructions,  upon  which  he  acted,  and  made 
use  of  P.  in  his  combat  with  the  Chimera,  the 
Amazons,  and  the  Solymi.  P.  is  also  spoken  of  in 
modem  times  as  the  horse  of  the  Muaes,  which,, 
however,  be  was  not.  The  ancient  legend  on  this 
subject  is,  that  the  nine  Muses  and  the  nin« 
daughters  of  Pieroa  engaged  in  a  competition  in 
singing  by  Helicon,  and  everything  was  motionless 
to  hear  Uieir  song,  save  Helicon,  wbiiA  rose  ever 
higher  and  higher  in  ita  delight,  when  P.  put  a  stop 
to  this  with  a  kick  of  bis  hoof,  and  from  tlie  print 
arose  Hippocrene,  the  inspiring  spring  of  the  Muses. 
But  that  P.  ia  the  horse  of  the  Musea,  is  entirely 
a  modern  idea,  being  first  found  io  the  Orlaado- 
Innamorato  of  Boiar£>. 

PEGASUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  conatitutiiig  the- 


Sea  Dragon  {Ptgaiu  draco). 

family  Peqamda,  at  the  order  jMphobraiKhii  {q.  T.)i 
Tbe  S|>ecie8  are  few ;  they  are  siuall  fishes,  natirea  oi 
the  Indian  seas,  interesting  from  their  peculiar  form 


i  . 


f   ! 


fiU'i 


!n 


I 


1 


'  '    It 


■  ,;: 


,;l 


I 


\  1 


ll . 


•1U'», 


■    ■  ' '  I  ; 


PEGS— PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE. 


and  appearance.  The  breast  is  neatly  expanded, 
much  broader  than  high,  the  giU-openincs  in  the 
sides ;  the  pectoral  fins  are  extremely  large  and 
strong ;  a  long  Buoiit  projects  before  the  eyes,  and 
the  mouth  is  situated  under  and  at  the  base  of  it ; 
the  body  is  surrounded  by  three  knobbed  or  spinous 
pings.  One  species  (P.  draco)  is  called  the  Ska 
Dragon,  another  (P.  volajta)  is  popularly  known  as 
the  Pegasus. 

PEGS.  Small  square  pointed  pegs  of  wood  have 
of  late  years  been  introduced  by  the  Americans 
into  the  manufacture  of  boots  and  shoes,  for  the 
purpose  of  connecting  the  parts  of  the  sole 
and  up[)er  leather  together  without  sewing.  See 
SiiOEiMAKiNG.  This  invention  has  been  so  exten- 
sively adopted,  that  the  manufacture  of  wooden 
pegs,  for  this  purpose,  has  become  an  important 
trade  in  America  and  Bohemia,  from  which  countries 
a  considerable  importation  is  made  to  Great  Britain. 
They  are  chiefly  made  of  maple-wood,  and  are  rarely 
more  than  an  inch  in  length. 

PEGU',  a  province  of  British  Burmah,  lies  between 
the  parallels  of  15**  14—19'  27'  N.  lat,  and  the 
meridians  of  94*  13— 96'  62'  E.  long.,  and  is 
divided  for  fiscal  purposes  into  the  following 
districts  or  provinces : 


Artftin 
Square  Uiim. 

Rangoon,     ....  SiM) 

Bassein, 89(10 

Prome,         ....  A494 

Henzada,  .        •        •        .  22(10 

Tharnwadj,         .        .        .  2160 

Tonghoo,         ....  3900 


Totel, 


32,454 


Popalation, 
IMt 

25S.507 

225,876 

232.»<67 

11H6I4 

12H.248 

<)6,7T3 

1.024,885 


Of  this  number  of  inhabitants,  about  800,000  are 
true  Burmans ;  but  in  addition  to  tliese,  there  is  a 
sprinkling  of  Karens,  who  live  in  the  wild  and 
hilly  districts,  Taleins  or  Peguers,  Shans,  Khyengs, 
Yabaings,  Indians,  Chinese,  and  a  few  other  races.* 

The  principal  river  of  P.  is  the  Irrawadi  (q.  v.). 
In  March,  the  river  begins  to  rise,  and  gradually 
increases  in  volume  till  its  waters  are  forty  feet 
above  their  lowest  leveL  They  rapidly  subside  in  \ 
October,  when  the  rains  cease,  and  the  north-east  i 
monsoon  sets  in.  The  revenue  of  P.  for  the  year 
1862—1863  was  5.653,,316  rupees;  though,  under 
the  rule  of  the  king  of  Burmah,  it  did  not  amount 
to  half  that  sum.  P.  was  annexed  to  British  India 
at  the  close  of  the  Burman  war  of  1852,  since 
which  time  slavery  has  ceased  to  exist,  schools 
have  been  established,  and  various  public  works 
undertaken. 

Kice  and  teak  timber  are  the  principal  exports. 
A  flotilla  of  steamers  keep  up  the  communication 
between  Rangoon  (q.  v.),  the  principal  port,  and  the 
chief  stations  on  the  Irrawadi,  conve3ring  troops, 
stores,  passengers,  and  mails  from  place  to  place. — 
"Winters  Six  Months  in  British  Bumuih  (LoncL 
1858)  ;  Martin's  British  India  (Lond.  18G2). 

PEHLBVI  (Valour,  Power;  Zahdn  PeJilevi  ^ 
Language  of  Heroes)  is  the  name  of  an  ancient 
West- Iranian  (Median  and  Persian)  idiom,  in  use 

•  Lleutenant-oolonel  A.  P.  Phayre,  chief  commlKKioner  of 
British  Burmnh,  in  his  report  for  1S63  (Bangoun,  1868)  states 
the  population  of  Pega  as  follows : 

1.  Europeans  and  their  descendants,          .        •  S,409 

9.  Burmese,  including  Aracanese  and  Talaings,   •  924.091 

9.  KarenH, 349,518 

4.  Shunn  and  Toungthoos, 34,689 

5.  Chiner>e 1,734 

8.  Khyen^H, 18.879 

7.  Indiana 11.844 

8.  Muhnmroedans  of  Burmah,        ....       3.089 
f.  All  races  not  included  abore,  •       •  9,143 


ZH 


Total, 


1,344,385 


chiefly  during  the  period  of  the  Sassanides  ('235- 
640  A.  D.),  who,  wishing  fully  to  restore  the  ancient 
Persian  empire,  endeavoured  also  to  reinstate  the 
primitive  national  language,  fallen  into  disuse  as  a 
court-language  since  tne  time  of  Alexander's  con- 
quest.    Yet  they  did  not  fix  upon  the  pure  Persian 
as  it  was  still  spoken  in  the  interior,  but  ni)OQ  the 
dialect  of  the  western  provinces,  largely  mixed  with 
Semitic  words,  to  which  Arian  terminations  were 
affixed.      The    grammatical    structure    of   the  P. 
presents  almost  the  same  poverty  of  inflections  and 
terminations  as  the  present  Persian.    Although,  how- 
ever, less  rich  than  Zend  (q.  v.)  in  in  flee  tic  a  and 
accentuation,  it  yet  boasts  of  the  same  copiousness 
of   words   as  that-  dialect,  to  which  it   in  reality 
succeeded.     It  is  written  from  right  to  left,  and  the 
letters  are  mostly  joined.    The  remnants  of  P.  extant 
consist  of  coins,  inscriptions   (found  at  Hajiabad, 
Persepolis,  Kirmanshah,  &c.),  and  a  number  of  books, 
all  relating  to  the  religion  of  Zoroaster.     The  mast 
important  of  tliese  are  the  translation  of  the  chief 
part  of    the  Zend-Avesta   (Yazna,   Visparad,  and 
VendidUd),  and  such  original  religious  works  as  the 
Bundehesh,  Shikandgum&ni,  Dinkart,  Atash  Bar&m, 
&c.    The  P.  of  the  books  difl'ers  from  that  of  the 
inscriptions  and  coins   to   such  a  degree— accord- 
ing   to   the    larger    or    smaller    preponderance   of 
the  Semitic  element — as  to  have  misled  investig- 
ators (Westergaard  and  others)  to  assume  that  two 
utterly  distinct  languages,  a  purely  Iranic  and  a 
Semitic  one,  had  been  used  somewhat  indiscrimin- 
ately at  the  time.       The  non-Iranian    element  is 
called  Huzvaresh  (Huzooresh)  by  the  Parsee  priests, 
who,  taking  advantage  of  the  ambiguity  of  the  P. 
alphabet,  often  substitute  the  corresponding  Persian 
for  the  foreign  words.     The   Iraman  part  of  the 
P.    differs   little    from   the    Persian   of    our   own 
day,  and,  in  fact,  the  P.  changed  first  into  Par- 
see,  and  subsequentlv  into  modem  Persian,  simply 
by  getting  rid  hrst  of  its  Chaldee,  and  then  of  those 
of  its  Iranian  words  which  had  become  obsolete. 
The  chief  use  of  the  P.  dialect  at  present  is  the 
assistance  it  offers  towards  the  elucidation  of  the 
Zend  itself.     For  the  history  of  its  investigation 
since  it  was  first  made  known  in  £urope,  we  refer 
to  Persian  Language  and  LrrsRATURE. 

PEI-HO',  a  river  of  China,  which,  rising  on  the 
confines  of  Tartary,  traverses  tlie  northern  part  of 
the  province  of  Chih-le  (q.  v.)  or  Pe-chih-le,  and  falls 
into  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chih-le,  in  about  38'  30  N.  lat 

The.  attack  on  the  escort  of  the  British  and 
French  ambassadors,  whilst  ascending  the  Pei-ho  to 
Pekin  (June  1S59),  led  to  the  war  with  China  of 
1860.    See  China. 

PEINE  FORTE  ET  DURE,  the  'strong  and 
hard  pain  ;*  a  species  of  torture  formerly  applietl  by 
the  law  of  England  to  those  who,  on  being  arraigned 
for  felony,  refused  to  plt^ad,  and  stood  mute,  or  who 
peremptorily  challenged  more  than  twenty  jurors, 
which  was  considered  a  contumacy  equivalent  to 
standing  mut&  In  the  beginning  of  the  13th  a, 
this  penalty  seems  to  have  consisted  merely  in  a 
severe  imprisonment  with  low  diet,  persisted  in  till 
the  contumacy  was  overcome.  But  by  the  reign  of 
Henry  IV.,  it  had  become  the  practice  to  losui  the 
ofiender  with  weights,  and  thus  press  him  to  death ; 
and  till  nearly  the  middle  of  the  18th  c,  pressing 
to  death  was  the  regular  and  lawful  mode  oi 
punishing  persona  w^ho  stood  mute  on  their  arrai^- 
ment  for  felony.  The  motive  which  induced  an 
accused  party,  in  any  case,  to  submit  to  this  (len&lty 
rather  than  to  plead,  was  probably  to  escape  the 
attainder  which  would  have  resulted  from  a  eon- 
viction  for  felony.  During  the  15th,  16th,  17th, 
and  even  the  18th  c,  vanoos  casea  are  recorded 


I'JUIPUS-PEISISTRATOS. 


of  the  in  diction  of  the  pamsbment  in  question. 
Latterly,  a  practice  prevailed  virhich  had  no  sanction 
from  the  law,  of  first  trying  the  effect  of  tying  the 
thumbs  tightly  together  with  whipcord,  that  the 
pin  might  induce  the  offender  to  plead.  Among 
instances  of  the  infliction  of  the  peitie  forte  et  dure^ 
are  the  following :  Juliana  Quick,  in  1442,  charged 
with  high  treason  in  speaking  contemptuously  of 
Henry  V  L,  was  pressed  to  deatL  Anthony  Arrow- 
Emith,  in  1598,  was  pressed  to  death  (Surtees* 
History  of  Durham^  vol.  3,  p.  271).  Walter  Calverly 
of  Calverly,  in  Yorkshire,  arraigned  at  the  York 
assizes  in  1605,  for  murdering  his  two  children  and 
stabbing  his  wife,  was  pressed  to  death  in  the  castle 
by  a  large  iron  weight  placed  on  his  breast  (Stow's 
Chronic^).  Major  Strang  ways  suffered  death  in  a 
similar  way  in  Newgate  in  1657,  for  refusing  to 
plead  when  charged  with  the  murder  of  his  brotner- 
in-law,  Mr  FusselL  In  1720,  a  person  of  the  name 
of  Phillips  was  pressed  in  Newgate  for  a  consider- 
able time,  till  he  was  released  on  his  submission ;  and 
the  same  is  recorded  in  the  following  year  of  one 
Nathaniel  Hawes,  who  lay  under  a  weight  of  25Qi  lbs. 
for  seven  minutes.  As  late  as  1741,  a  person  is  said  to 
have  >>een  pressed  to  death  at  the  Cambridge  assizes, 
the  tying  of  his  thumbs  having  been  hrst  tried 
without  effect. 

'Hie  statute  12  Geo.  III.  c.  20  virtually  abolished 
the  p^tn€  /arte  et  dure,  by  enacting  that  any  person 
who  shall  stand  mute  when  arraigned  for  felony  or 
piracy  shall  be  convicted,  and  have  the  same  judg- 
ment and  execution  awarded  against  him  as  if  he 
had  been  convicted  by  verdict  or  confession. 

PEI'PUS,  Lake,  in  the  north-west  of  Russia,  is 
surrounded  by  the  government  of  St  Petersburg, 
and  the  provinces  of  Esthonia  and  Livonia.  On  the 
south-east  it  is  connected  with  Lake  Pskoff  by  a 
strait  16  miles  in  length  and  from  1^  to  44  miles 
br*)a<L  The  length  of  boili  lakes  is  87  miles,  the 
greatest  breadth  about  40,  and  the  depth  from  14  to 
49  feet.  Lake  Pskoff  receives  the  waters  of  the 
river  Velekaia,  and  Lake  P.  is  supplied  by  Lake 
Pskoff,  and  by  the  Embach  from  the  west,  and  other 
rivers.  The  waters  of  the  lower  lake  are  carried  to 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  by  the  Narova.  The  lakes  are 
studded  with  several  picturesque  islands,  and 
siuTounded  with  banks  which  are  for  the  most  part 
marshy  and  abound  in  fish,  tlie  taking  of  wuich 
gives  employment  to  many. 

PEISI'STRATOS  (Lat  Pmstratus),  a  famous 
*  tyrant  *  of  Athens,  belonged  to  a  family  of  Attica, 
which  claimed  descent  from  Pylian  Nestor,  and  was 
born  towards  the  close  of  the  7th  c.  B.a — certainly 
net  later  than  612.  His  father's  name  was  Hip- 
ptKjrates,  and  through  his  mother  he  was  pretty 
closely  related  to  the  great  lawgiver,  Solon,  between 
wh(*m  and  P.  a  very  intimate  friendship  long 
existed.  He  received  an  excellent  education ;  and 
the  charm  of  his  manners,  as  well  as  the  generosity 
of  his  spirit  was  so  great  that  (according  to  Solon) 
had  he  not  been  ambitious,  he  would  have  been  the 
best  of  Athenians ;  but  his  passion  for  the  exercise 
of  sovereign  power  led  him  to  adopt  a  policy  of 
artifice  and  dissimulation,  for  the  purix)se  of 
attaii^ins  his  ends,  which  prevents  us  from  regarding 
him  with  the  admiration  that  the  beneficent  char- 
acter of  his  government  might  seem  to  demand. 
At  first,  P.  co-operated  with  his  kinsman  Solon, 
and  in  the  war  against  the  Megarians,  acquired 
considerable  military  distinction ;  but  afterwards, 
when  probably  his  ambitious  views  had  become 
more  matured,  he  came  forward  as  the  leader 
of  one  of  the  three  parties  into  which  Attica  was 
then  divided.  These  were,  the  Pedkei  (party  of 
the  Plain),  or  the  landed  proprietors;   the  ParcUi 


(party  of  the  Seaboard),  or  wealthy  merchant 
classes ;  and  the  Diacrii  (party  of  the  Highlands), 
chiefly  a  labouring  population,  jealous  of  the  rich, 
and  eager  for  equality  of  political  privileges.  It 
was  to  the  last  of  these  that  P.  attached  himself ; 
but  indeed  he  assiduously  cultivated  tlie  goo4-will 
of  all  the  poorer  citizens,  to  whom  he  shewed  him- 
self a  most  liberal  benefactor.  At  last  P.  took  a 
decided  step.  Driving  into  the  market-place  of 
Athene  one  day,  and  exnibiting  certain  self-inflicted 
wounds,  he  called  upon  the  people  to  protect  him 
against  his  and  their  enemies,  alleging  that  he  had 
been  attacked  on  account  of  his  patriotism.  Solon, 
who  was  present,  accused  him  of  hypocrisy  ;  but 
the  crowd  were,  according  to  Plutai-ch,  ready  to 
take  up  arms  for  their  favourite ;  and  a  general 
assembly  of  the  citizens  being  summoned,  Ariston, 
one  of  P.'s  partisans, .  proi>osed  to  allow  him  a 
body-guard  of  fifty  men.  The  measure  was  carried 
in  spite  of  the  strenuous  opposition  of  Solon.  Gra- 
dually P.  increased  the  number,  and  in  660  B.C., 
when  he  felt  himself  strong  enough,  seized  the 
Akropolis.  The  citizens,  in  general,  seem  to 
have  tacitly  sanctioned  this  high-handed  act. 
They  were  sick  of  the  anarchic  broils  of  the 
different  factions,  and  probably  glad  to  see  their 
champion  and  favourite  usurp  supreme  authority. 
Megakles  and  the  Alkmaeonids— the  heads  of  the 
rich  aristocratic  party — immediately  fled  from  the 
city.  Solon,  who  loved  neither  oligarchic  arrogance 
nor  military  despotism,  but  was  a  thorough  consti- 
tutionalist, tried,  but  in  vain,  to  rouse  the  Atheni- 
ans against  Peisistratos.  P.,  who  was  not  at  all 
vindictive  in  his  disposition,  did  not  attempt  to 
molest  Solon ;  he  even  maintained  the  legislation 
of  the  latter  almost  intact,  and  distinguished  him- 
self chiefly  by  the  vigour  of  his  administration. 
P.  himself  did  not  enjoy  his  first  *t)rranny*  long. 
The  Pedkei  and  the  Parali  ralUed  under  Lykurgos 
and  Megakles,  united  their  forces,  and  overthrew 
the  usurper,  who  was  forced  to  go  into  exile.  But 
the  coalition  of  the  two  factious  was  soon  broken 
up.  Megakles  hereupon  made  overtures  to  P., 
inviting  him  to  resume  his  tyranny,  which  he  did, 
but  a  family  quarrel  with  Megakles  induced  the 
latter  to  again  ally  himself  with  LykurgOs,  and  P. 
was  driven  from  Attica.  He  retired  to  Eulxea, 
where  he  remained  for  ten  years,  ever  keeping  an 
eye,  however,  on  Athens,  and  making  preparations 
,  for  a  forcible  return.  How  he  managed  to  acquire 
BO  much  influence  while  only  a  banished  man,  is 
difficult  to  ascertain ;  but  certain  it  is  that  many 
Greek  cities,  particularly  Thebes  and  Argos,  placed 
the  greatest  confidence  in  him,  and  finally  supplied 
him  abundantly  with  money  and  troops.  P.  at 
length  sailed  from  Eubcea,  landed  in  Attica  at 
Marathon,  and  marched  on  the  capital.  His  par- 
tisans hurried  to  swell  his  ranks.  At  Pallene, 
he  encountered  his  opponents,  and  completely 
defeated  them,  but  used  his  victory  with  admir- 
able moderation-  When  he  entered  the  city, 
no  further  resistance  was  made,  and  he  resumed  the 
sovereignty  at  once.  The  date  of  this  event,  as  of 
most  others  in  the  life  of  P.,  is  very  uncertain  ; 
perhaps  we  shall  not  err  far  if  we  place  it  about  543 
B.a  He  lived  for  sixteen  years  afterwards  in  un- 
disturbed possession  of  power,  dying  527  B.C.,  and 
transmitting  his  supremacy  to  his  sons,  Hippias  and 
Hipparchus,  known  as  the  Peisistratldce,  His  rule 
was  mild  and  beneficent  Although  the  y)recau- 
tionary  measures  that  he  adopted  to  estaltlish  his 
authority  involved  at  flrst  a  certain  resolute  and 
stringent  policy  (e.  g.,  the  seiziu^  of  the  children  of 
his  leading  opi>onents,  and  the  detaining  them  as 
hostages) ;  yet  no  sooner  had  he  placed  himself  out  of 
danger,  than  he  began  to  display  that  wondeiful  tact, 

955 


PEKAN— PEKm. 


moderation,  Idndlineas,  and  sympathetic  appreciation 
of  the  wishes  of  the  Athenians,  that  have  won  him 
the  praise  and  esteem  of  all  later  ages,  in  spite  of 
his  usurpation.  He  tirmly,  but  not  harshly,  enforced 
obedience  to  the  laws  of  Solon ;  emptied  the  city  of 
its  poorest  citizens,  and  made  them  agriculturists, 
■applying  such  as  had  no  resources  with  cattle  and 
seea;  secured  provision  for  old  and  disabled  sol- 
diers ;  bestowed  great  care  on  the  celebration  of 
the  religious  festivals  of  the  Atticans,  and  even 
introiluced  some  important  changes ;  encouraged 
literature  more  than  any  Athenian  had  ever  done 
before — it  is  to  P.,  or  to  the  poets,  scholars,  and 
priests  about  him,  that  we  owe,  for  example,  the 
tirst  complete  edition  of  Homer  (q.  v.) ;  and,  like 
his  still  more  brilliant  successor  in  the  following 
ccntunr,  Perikles,  he  adorned  Athens  with  many 
beautiful  buildings,  such  as  the  Lyceum,  a  temple 
to  the  Pythian  Apollo,  another  to  Olympian  Zeus,  kc 

PEKAN,  or  WOOD-SHOCK  {Martes  Canadensis), 
a  species  of  Marten  (a.  v.),  very  nearly  allied  to  the 
sable,  a  native  of  the  northern  parts  of  North 
America.  It  is  twice  the  size  of  tne  pine  marten, 
and  is  generally  of  a  grayish  brown  colour ;  the  legs, 
tail,  and  back  of  the  neck  marked  with  darker 
browu.  The  fur,  although  not  so  valuable  as  sable, 
nor  even  as  that  of  the  pine  marten,  is  useful,  and 
large  quantities  are  sent  to  the  market.  The  P. 
lives  in  burrows,  wliich  it  excavates  in  the  banks 
of  rivers ;  and  feeds  chiefly  on  fish  and  other  aquatic 
animals. 

PBKI'N,  or  PE-KrNG  fLe.,  Northern  Capital), 
the  capital  of  the  Chinese  empire  since  1408  a.  d..  is 
situated  in  lat.  39"  54'  13"  N.,  and  long.  116"  28'  64" 
£.,  in  the  northern  province  of  Chih-le,  at  a  dis- 
tance of  nearly  100  miles  from  the  sea,  and  about 
60  miles  from  the  great  Chinese  WalL  The  popula- 
tion of  the  city  is  estimated  at  about  2,000,000; 
the  entire  area,  in  which  is  included  much  vacant 
space,  at  27  square  miles,  and  the  circuit  of  the 
walls  is  said  to  be  about  25  miles.  These  walls 
are  made  of  earth,  with  an  outer  casing  of  brick, 
having  embrasures  for  musketry  or  ordnance  every 
50  feet;  their  height  is  about  40  feet;  thickness 
at  the  base  about  30  feet,  and  at  the  top  12 
feet,  which  is  paved  with  stone,  and  where  horse- 
men can  ascend  by  a  ramp  or  sloping  way.  At 
intervals  of  60  yards  are  square  towers,  projecting 
outwards  from  Uie  walls  50  or  60  feet.  The  gates 
which  give  access  to  the  city  from  the  surrounding 
country  are  16  in  number,  nine  of  which  belong 
to  the  Northern  or  Tartar  City,  and  seven  to  the 
Southern  or  Chinese  City.  Over  each  gate  is  a 
watch-tower  nine  stories  in  height,  and  Toopholed 
for  cannon. 

The  city  of  P.  is  divided  into  two  x>arts,  separated 
by  a  wall  with  three  gates.  These  two  sections 
form  respectively  the  Northern,  Interior,  or  Tartar 
City,  called  Nd-tching  ;  and  the  Southern,  Elxterior, 
or  Chinese  City,  called  Wai-t4^ing.* 

I.  Nei-UMng,  or  tfie  Northern  City,  has  three 
distinct  divisions  or  enclosures — viz.,  the  Prohibited 
City,  the  Hwang-Ching,  or  Imperial  City,  and  the 
General  City.    The  tirst  of  these — the  innermost  or 

*  Northern  Gi^  and  Southern  City  are  the  most 
correct  terms.  The  latter  was  added  to  the  more 
ancient  Northern  City,  and  was  originally  designed 
to  encircle  it ;  hence  it  was  called  the  Exterior  City,  in 
contradistinction  to  the  Northern  or  Interior  City.  It 
was  also  intended  to  reserve  the  Northern  City  for  the 
Tartars,  and  the  Southern  City  for  the  Chinese,  as  the 
names  still  imply;  but  in  point  of  fact,  the  Tartar 
City  contains  as  many  Chinese  as  Tartars ;  and  it  is 
not  surroxmded  by  the  so-called  Chinese  City,  which 
latter  has  only  been  added  on  the  south  side. 


central  block — is  surrounded  by  a  yellow  wall  about 
two  miles   in   circumference,  which   shuts  in  the 
palaces,  pleasure-grounds,  and  temples  of  the  sa<'red 
city.     Here  live  the  emperor  and  his  family,  the 
laaies  of  the  court,  and  the  attendant  ennucha 
*KeSn-tsing-Kung,'    or    *the    Tranquil    Palace   of 
Heaven,'  the  emperor's  private  palace,  is  the  most 
magnificent  of  the  royal  residences.     Other  notable 
buildings  of  the  prohibited  city  are  'Fung-seen- 
teen,'   the  Temple  of  Imperial  Ancestors;  Ching- 
hwang-meaou,  the  Temple  of  the  Guardian  Deity  of 
the  city ;  Nan-heun-teen,  the  Hall  of  Portraits  of 
the  Chinese  emperors  and  sages  ;  and  Wan-yuen  Ro, 
the  Imperial  Library.     The  Imperial  City  is  built 
around  this  central  block,  and  contains  the  palaces 
of  the  princes,  temples,  some  of  the  government 
offices,  and  spacious  pleasure-grounds.     From  Woo- 
ying-teen,  the  Imperial  Printing-office,  the  Jinpfrialf 
or  Pt'king  Oazette  is  issued  daily  for  all  govern- 
ment   officials   throughout    the    empire.      This   is 
the  only  publication   in  China  approaching  to  a 
newspaper,  and  is   named  King  Paou,  or  'Great 
Report.       It  is   not  merely  a   report  for    official 
information,  but  forms  the  basis  of  the  national 
annals,  and  is  compiled  from  the  daily  records  of 
the  Supreme  Council.     Besides  the  daily  edition, 
there  is  one  published  every  two  days,  which  is 
sold  to  the  public,  and  from  which  is  withheld 
decrees  and  reports   of  a  secret  character.     The 
journal  itself  is  a  miserable   ])roduction   even   for 
China,  and  consists  of  from   15  to  20  pat^eis,  not 
so    large    as    common    note-paper.      The    General 
City — the  third  division  or  enclosure — lies  between 
the  Imperial  City  and  the  outside  walls ;  it  is  more 
densely  populated  than  either  of  the  preceding  divi- 
sions, and  contains  the  most  imi)ortaut  of  the  pubUc 
offices,    including    the    six    supreme    tribunals   or 
boards;  the  Le-fan-yuen,  or  the  Office  of  Foreign 
Affairs ;  Too-cha-yuen,  or  the  Iniperial  Censorate,  &c. ; 
Han-lin-yuen,  or  the  Grand  National  College;  the 
Great  Medical  College ;  the  Observatory ;  the  Police- 
office  ;  and  the  British,  French,  and  Austrian  le>;a- 
tions,  which   are    close  to    the  south   walL    The 
British  minister  resides  in  the  Lean^-kung-foo,  or 
the  Palace  of  Leang,  a  gorgeous  buildmg,  consisting 
of  four  or  five  large  halls,  and  covering  many  acres 
of  land.     The  principal  streets  of  the  general  city 
— from  140  to  200  feet  wide  and  unpaved — are  con- 
tinuous lines  of  shops  painted  red,  olue,  and  green, 
decorated  with  starint;  signs  and  resplendent  witii 
Chinese  characters'  highly  gilt.      By  day  and  by 
night,  by  the  light  of  the  sun,  or  by  the  illumination 
of  torches  and  paper  lanterns,  the  roar  of  these  great 
thoroughfares  is  incessant ;    shopkeepers,   pedlars, 
mountebanks,  quack-doctors,  passeneers  on  foot  or 
on  horseback,  each  and  aU    contriouting    to   the 
general  hubbub.   The  minor  streets  and  lanes,  where 
the  houses  of  the  populace  are  mingled  with  public 
offices,  temples,  stores,  and  manufactories,  are  by  no 
means  pleasant  places,  their  general  characteristics 
being   an   *  insupportable   odour,*   and   one-storied 
brick  houses  with  roofs  of  a  gray  colour.     Thert?  is 
*  Fetid  Hide  Street,'  *  Dog's-tooth  Street,'  *  Dog's-tail 
Street,'  'Barbarian  Street,'  and  many  others  with 
names  equally  iminviting. 

2.  Wai-tMng,  or  the  Southern  City,  ia  the 
second  great  division  of  Pekin.  It  measures 
about  four  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  two  miles, 
or  less,  from  north  to  south ;  but  a  great  portion 
of  the  enclosed  space  is  laid  out  in  parks  and 
gardens.  Teen-Tan,  or  the  Temple  to  Heaven,  and 
Tec-Tan,  or  the  Temple  to  Earth,  with  their  grounds, 
occupy  a  considerable  space;  the  theatres  and 
places  of  public  amusement  are  likewise  situated 
in  the  Southern  or  Chinese  City.  Robert  Fortune, 
who  has  lately  visited  P.,  describet  its  most  peculiar 


PEKm— PELAGIANISM. 


and  striking  features  at  foUows:  'As  an  eastern 
city,  it  is  remarkable  for  its  great  size,  and  for  its 
high  massive  walls,  ramparts,  and  watch-towers. 
It8  straight  and  wide  streets  are  different  from 
those  of  any  other  Chinese  town  which  has  come 
under  my  observation.  Its  imperial  palaces,  summer- 
bouses,  and  temples,  with  their  quaint  roofs  and 
yellow  tiles,  are  very  striking  objects ;  and  the 
number  of  private  dwellings  situated  amongst  trees 
and  /gardens,  surrounded  with  high  walls,  give  a 
0011  ntry  or  park-hke  appearance  to  the  great  city. 
The  trees  and  gardens  of  the  palace,  with  King- 
shan,  or  Prospect  Hill,  are  objects  of  considerable 
interest,  as  is  also  Lama  Mosque,  suggesting  as  it 
does  some  connection,  in  times  long  gone  by,  with 
Tiliet  or  India.* 

Outside  the  city,  there  are  nnwalled  suburbs,  as 
about  every  walled  town  in  China.     These  are  of 
coDHiderable    extent,    but    straggling,    and   consist 
r>nnci}  tally  of  an  agricultural  population,  the  land 
leini!  everywhere  in  a  state  of  cultivation,  producing 
chiefly  maize  and  millet,  as  it  is  not  so  suitable  for 
the  staple  products  of  rice  and  wheat.     The  land 
is  ba<Jly  watered,  but  well  timbered,  which  gives  a 
pleasin<;  asjiect  to  the  landscape ;  and  when  viewed 
towards  the  range  of  mountains  extending  from  the 
west  of  P.  to.  the  north-east,  presents  a  picturesque 
panorama     It  is  in  the  former  direction,  towards 
the  north,  that  the  famous  Yuen-ming-yutn  palaces 
sre  situated,  which  were  sacked  and  destroyed  by 
the  alliea   in    October   18CU.      These  were   SO  in 
number,  surrounded  by  every  variety  of  hill  and  dale, 
woodland  and  lawn,  interspersed  with  canals,  pools, 
rivulets,   and  lakes,   with  mmierous   temples  and 
p.'i!:;(Klas  containing  statues  of  men  and  gods  in  gold, 
silver,  and  bronze.     Here  had  been  heaped  up  for 
centuries  all  the  movable  riches  and  presents  oi  the 
emperors    of    China,   amongst  which  were    found 
many   sent    by  the    English    embassies.     At  the 
approach  of  the  allies,  Hien-fung  tied  in  haste  ;  and 
when    Lord    Elgin  learned  that  it  was   in   those 
grounds   that  the  British    and  French   prisoners, 
caittured  by  treachery,  had  been  tortured,  he  gave 
the  order  to  sack  and  destroy  this  favourite  resi- 
dence of  the  emperor  s, '  as  it  could  not  fail  to  be  a 
blow  to  his  pride  as  well  as  his  feelings ;    and  it 
became  a  solemn  act  of  retribution.*     The  palaces 
were   clf^nred  of  every  valuable,   and   their  walls 
destro;.  eil   by  tire  and  sword ;  while  the   fugitive 
monarch  died  at  his  stronghold,  Zchol,  among  the 
Tartarian  Al|)8. 

P.  has    thus  been  rendered  memorable  by  this 
march  of  the  British  and  French  forces  (18G0)  to 
the  walls   ol  the  city,  on  which  the  British  and 
French   flags  were  raised.     The  provisions  of  the 
treaty  of   Tien-tsin  (1858,  see  Cuina)  were  subse- 
quently niktified  and  sup[»lementcd  by  the  Convention 
or  P.,  which  was  signed  in  the  EngUsh  and  French 
languages   at  P.,  October  124,  1360.    The  following 
is  an   abstract  of  this  important  document.     By 
Article  4,  it  is  agreed  that  on  the  day  on  which 
this    convention  is   signed,  the  port  of   Tien-tsin 
shall   be    opened    to   trade,   and    British   subjects 
shall  reside  and  trade  there  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as   at  any  other  port  of  China  by  treaty 
open  to    trada     Article  5  confers  full  liberty  on 
the    Chinese    to    emigrate,    together    with    their 
families,  to  British  colonies  or  other  foreign  parts. 
Article    6    cedes   to   Her   Majesty  the    Queen    of 
Grea^t  Britain  and  Ireland,  and  to  her  heirs,  the 
township   of  Cowloon,  in  the  province  of  K^ang- 1 
tang,  as  a  dependency  of  Her  Britannic  Majesty  s  ' 
colony  of  Hong-kong,  with  a  view  to  the  mainten- 
ance of   law  and  order  in  and  about  the  harbour 
of  Hong-kong.     But  the  most  important  article  of 
^ifl  Convention  is  that  which  allows  the  residence 


of  a  British  envoy  at  P.,  a  privilege  which  was  alone 
accorded  to  Kussia.  About  four  years  have  elapsed 
since  then,  and  the  greatest  benefits  have  resulted 
to  both  governments  by  this  step.  The  same  has 
been  granted  to  the  French  and  American  govern- 
ments ;  who,  with  the  several  missionary  establish- 
ments, now  (1864)  form  a  population  of  41  foreign 
residents,  besides  a  few  ladies,  children,  and  servants ; 
while  foreigners  of  all  nations  are  allowed  to  visit, 
but  not  to  trade  within  the  precincts  of  the  city. 
— See  Yedo  and  Peking^  by  Kobert  Fortune  (Lond. 
1863),  Chinese.  Rejx>sUqry  (March  1834),  Macmillan*$ 
Magazine  (January  1861),  Lord  Elgin's  Dtspatehes 
(October  1860),  MS,  Notes  (1863). 

PELA'GIANISM,  the  doctrinal  system  of  Pela- 
gius  (<^.  v.),  especially  on  the  subjects  of  the  natural 
condition  of  man,  original  sin,  grace,  free-will,  and 
redemption.  Under  the  head  Pelagius  will  be 
found  what  may  be  called  the  external  history  of 
the  controversy  to  which  the  opinions  of  that 
remarkable  man  gave  occasion.  The  movement, 
considered  in  itself  is  one  of  the  most' interesting  in 
the  history  of  the  human  mind.  At  the  close  of  the 
great  controversies  on  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation, 
the  speculation,  which  for  nearly  a  century  had 
wearied  itself  in  vain  endeavours  to  make  plain  the 
inscrutable  mysteries  of  the  divine  nature,  at  length 
turned  inwards  upon  itself ;  and  no  one  at  all 
familiar  with  the  controversy  on  P.  can  doubt  that 
that  prouder  view  of  the  capabilities  of  human 
nature,  which  lies  at  the  root  of  all  the  theories  of 
which  P.  was  but  the  exponent,  was  a  reaction 
against  the  crude  and  degrading  conceptions  of  the 
nature  and  origin  of  the  soul  which  characterised 
the  philosophy,  not  alone  of  the  Manichsean  teachers, 
but  of  all  the  dual  is  tic  religions  which  spning  from 
the  prolific  soil  of  GnosticisuL  To  the  Manichsean, 
and  to  all  in  general  who  adopted  the  Gnostic 
views  as  to  the  evil  origin  and  nature  of  matter  and 
material  substances,  man  was,  in  his  psychical  nature, 
evil  and  incapable  of  goocL  The  Christian  teacher, 
in  combating  this  view,  easily  passed  into  an  opposite 
extreme,  and  overlooking  or  explaining  away  the 
strong  language  of  the  Scripture,  was  led  to  repre- 
sent man  as  endowed  with  full  capacity  for  all  gCK)d ; 
and  so  long  as  the  only  adversaries  to  be  contro- 
verted were  those  who  urged  the  views  of  the 
Gnostic  school,  the  line  taken  by  Christian  writers 
was  but  little  guarded  by  any  of  those  limitations 
and  reserves  which  have  arisen  in  later  controversy  ; 
and  thus  the  earUer  Fathers,  especially  those  of  the 
Eastern  Church,  where  Gnosticism  was  chiefly  to  be 
combated,  are  found  to  press  earnestly  the  power 
for  good  which  man  possesses,  without  entering  nicely 
iilto  the  origin  or  the  motive  principle  of  that  power. 
But  whatever  of  vagueness  hung  over  this  important 
subject  was  dispelled  by  the  bold  and  precise  state- 
ments of  Pelagius,  or  at  least  by  the  discussion  which 
at  once  arose  thereupon,  throughout  the  entire 
church  His  teaching  on  the  subject  of  original  sin 
and  on  the  primitive  state  of  man,  has  been  already 
detailed.  See  Original  Sin.  The  earliest  formal 
embodiment  of  these  doctrines,  for  the  puipose  of 
obtaining  upon  them  the  pubUo  judgment  of  the 
church,  was  in  a  number  of  articles  presented  to 
the  council  of  Jenisalem,  in  415,  by  Orosius.  See 
PsiAGiua  Of  these,  the  first  five  regarded  the 
doctrines  already  noticed  under  Original  Sin.  The 
latter  portion  of  the  articles  alleged  that  no  grace  or 
aid  from  God  was  needed  for  pa^icular  actions,  but 
that  free-will  and  the  teaching  of  the  law  sufl&ced  ; 
that  God's  grace  is  given  in  proiwrtion  to  our 
merits  ;  that  free-will  would  not  oe  free,  if  it  stood 
in  need  of  aid  from  God  ;  that  the  pardon  of  peni- 
tents is  not  granted  according  to  Gk>d*s  grace  and 
mercy,  but  according  to  their  own  merit  and  labour; 


PELAQIANISM— PELAOIUS. 


anri  that  oar  victor;  doea  not  come  from  God's 
agsistaiiue,  but  from  our  free-wilL  Although  the 
fiii.ll  sentence  condemnatory  of  these  doctrines  (see 
Felaqids)  woa  very  generally  accepted,  yet  the 
reciiBimt  pnrty  noa  not  wanting  in  enert;y  and 
•bility.  The  preat  chumpiona  on  each  aide  were 
Aii;:;ii8tine  for  the  orthoJui,  and  Julianus,  Biahop 
of  Ekitanum,  for  the  Pelaginns.  Of  so  much  ot 
the  controversy  as  re;;anlB  original  sin,  the  history 
hai  been  already  related  :  that  on  grace  and  free- 
will was  mora  gubtle,  and  has  led  to  more  nnmer- 
oiu  divisions  on  the  Bi<)e  of  orthodoxy  as  weH 
M  of  diasent  In  order  to  evnde  the  condemna- 
tion of  the  doctrine  origiiinlly  ascribed  to  thi^m  as  to 
gi-nce,  Pelagius  and  his  followers  declared  that  tliey 
dill  not  deny  the  necessity  of  grace  1  but  l)y  this  name 
they  did  nut  understand  any  I'ca!  and  internal  siiper- 
natural  tud  given  by  God  in  each  particular  action, 
Imt  oaty  either  some  general  external  assistance,  such 
as  iircat'liing,  the  Scriptures,  good  example,  &c..  or 
an  aid  given  which  might  facilitate  and  secure  the 
particular  work,  but  which  was  by  no  means  neces- 
sary for  its  acCDinplislimcnt  Wlietlier,  indt.<cd,  they 
at  nny  time  odmittiid  any  real  internal  grace,  is  a 
question  much  disputed.  Grace  is  of  two  kinds — 
tnat  which  moves  the  will,  ami  that  which  enlij^fhtcns 
the  understanding.  It  is  necessary,  too,  to  distin- 
gnish  two  perioiU  in  the  history  of  P. — one  before 
the  appearance  of  the  KpuiUila  Traeloiia  of  Pope 
Zoaimus;  the  other,  subseiiiient  to  that  decree,  tu 
the  lirst  period,  it  would  seem  that  the  Pelagians 
did  niit  admit  the  necessity  of  any  internal  grace 
whatever ;  in  the  latter,  thvy  admitted  the  necessity 
of  a  grace  of  the  intellect,  but  not  of  the  will ;  or  u 
thev  seemed  to  speak  of  any  internal  grace  of  the 
will,  it  was  only  as  facilitatinff  man's  act,  not  as  at 
all  neceasary  toliisdoingit  'i'he  Pelagi.tn  theory,  in 
a  word,  was,  that  man,  as  coming  from  his  Creator's 
hand,  possessed  in  himself,  anil  as  constitnenta  of 
bis  own  nature,  alt  the  inu'ers  which  are  accessary 
for  the  attainment  of  salvation  ;  that  by  the  faithful 
emphiyment  ol  these  natural  powers,  without  any 
fni  tl'ei'  aid  whatever  from  Giid.  he  merits  eternal 
life,  and  all  other  rewards,  by  a  strict  title  of  justice  ; 
and  that,  to  snppose  grace  to  be  neecasaty,  is  in 
tnith  to  destroy  the  essence  of  free-wilL  This 
doctrine  was  somewh.it  moiiitied  in  the  Semi-Pela- 
gian System  (q.  v.).  The  Catholic  schools,  all  without 
eiteeptiou,  maintain  the  neeessity  of  grace  for  the 
performance,  not  only  of  all  meritorious,  but  of  all 
Bupernatnral  good  worts  ;  and  they  are  equally 
unanimous  in  maintaining  that  the  grace  so  given, 
even  that  which  is  called  'efficacious,'  does  not 
destroy  the  freedom  of  the  will  They  distinguish 
between  the  '  natural'  and  the  'aupematuml'  onler, 
and  between  the  powers  and  giFts  which  are  proper 
to  the  one  and  to  the  other.  Fortlie  attammeutof  all 
the  enils  of  the  natural  order,  man  possesses,  by  his 
Teiy  constitution,  all  the  powers  and  all  the  ijifta , 
which  are  necessary ;  and  l>y  the  proper  use  of  these 
powers,  he  is  able  to  merit  all  the  rewanls  which 
behmg  to  the  natural  oriier.  He  is  able,  therefore, 
without  any  BU|>ernatllral  grace,  to  perform  morally 
go.>d  works  (as  acta  of  notiiral  benevolence,  the 
fullilment  of  the  ontinary  duties  to  his  neigh- 
bour, &e.),  and  to  fullil  tlie  purely  natural  obliga- 
tions. But  m  order  to  works  in  the  suiiematural 
Or<ler  (such  ua  the  love  of  Ooil  above  all  things  for 
His  own  sake,  faith  in  Him  as  the  author  of  all 
good,  Ac),  and  the  rewanls  which  are  promiseil  for 
such  works,  the  will  of  man  must  be  moveil  and 
strengthened  by  supernatural  grnce.  with  whiiJi 
the  will  freely  co-operates,  but  whii:h  is  a  purely 
gratuitous  gift  of  God— so  purely  gratuitous,  that 
although  God  has  promised  etern;d  life  as  the 
reward  of  man's  co-operation,  yet  the  merit  arisea 


entirely  from  God's  gift  and  promise,  and  not  fm 
the  natural  powers  of  the  human  will 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  the  tawlin!;  i 
the  Cat'iiolic  schools,  it  will  be  enough  to  particuliirii 
the  most  remarkable  among  them.  Of  these,  ti 
chief  are  the  Molinist.  which,  giving  most  to  Uiirrt' 
lies  nearest  to  the  border  of  P.,  but  is  clearly  ilistii 
guiahed  from  it  by  maintaining  the  necessity  < 
grace  for  every  au)>emntural  act ;  and  the  Thnnii 
and  Augiistinian,  which  give  most  to  grace,  htil  • 
the  tame  time  eijireasly  preserve  the  freedom  i 
man'a  wtlL  The  I'homiats  are  often  represented  : 
denying  the  freedom  of  man's  actions  under  gtic^ 
but  although  it  is  difficult  to  explain,  in  [lopiili 
language,  their  method  of  reconciling  both,  yi-t,  i 
those  accjuainted  with  the  scholastic  tcrrainoln.; 
their  diatiuctioii  between  the  infallible  efficaciou 
of  jn'ace,  and  its  imposing  n< 
^rfectly  appreciable.  In  this 
^ustinian  school,  differ  from  tl 
The  Jansenists,  indeed,  re^rd  the  Molin 
as  a  plain  revival  of  P.,  and  they  profem  th. 
they  alone  represent  fully,  in  their  own  (yrtem.  ti 
very  same  position  which  St  Augustine  former 
maintained  against  that  heresy  in  its  first  origiu. 

In  the  Heformed  Church,  tiie  Arminian  dixtiii 
mav  be  said  to  correspond  in  the  main  with  t! 
Molinist  system  in  tlie  Roman  Church.  Tl 
Gomarists,  in  most,  although  not  in  all  p»ri 
oulars,  fall  in  with  the  Jansenistio  views,  fi 
Pelagian  views  are  diatinctiy  represented  in  mode 
contiiiveisy  by  the  Socinians  and  nationalists ;  ai 
indeedverymany  of  those  who,outEiideof  the  Koni. 
Church,  have  at  various  timea  engaged  in  the  p' 
destinarian  cantri>versy  on  the  si<le  of  free-will,  ba 
leaned  towards,  if  they  have  not  fully  odoptvil,  t 
Pelagian  view.  In  this  controversy,  however,  t 
practice,  which  is  not  uncommon  in  polemics, 
miputing  to  an  antagonist  the  extremcst  views 
the  jiarticular  aide  to  which  he  leans,  has  If.' 
B|iecially  noticeable.  The  Jesuits  have  been  «ti 
matised,  even  by  their  Catholic  antagoni'-ts. 
Pelagians  ;  the  'Thnmista  are  called  by  tiic  Jesii 
indiscriminately  Jansenists  and  Calvinists  ;  w!i 
both  unite  in  representing  Calvin  and  his  s>:liuul 
in  aubatance  Maniehtean. 

Hardly  one  among  the  many  Christian  conti 
versics  has  called  forth  a  greater  amount  of  su>>i!t' 
and  power,  and  not  one  has  so  long  and  so  p- 
aistently  maintained  its  vitality.  Within  t 
twenty-five  yeara  which  followed  its  first  ajipe; 
ance,  upwards  of  thirty  Councils  (ime  of  tiie 
the  General  Council  of  Ephesus)  were  held  for  I 


medieval  philosophic  schools ;  and  there  is  hanll.i 
single  subject  which  has  come  into  discussion  uii<i 
so  many  different  forms  in  modern  controven 
See  Jansem,  Abminius,  Grace,  Pbedbstisatk 
ItepROBATroN.  Okkiinal  Sin,  Taaiiuci am.su. 

PELA'GICS,  a  celebrated  heresiareh  of  the  i 
c,  author  or  syatemaliser  of  the  doctrine  kn-n 
as  pELAOiANiau  (q.  v.).  Of  his  early  life,  tittle 
known.  He  was  probably  born  about  or  before  I 
middle  of  the  4tli  c.,  in  Britain,  or  acconting 
some,  in  Bretagne,  his  n.ime  being  BU|j|)08od  W 
a  Greek  rendering  [Pda-iioK,  of  or  belonging  tu  i 
sea)  of  the  Celtic  a|ipellative  Hurgan,  or  sea-lw 
He  was  a  monk,  but  the  time  and  place  of 
entering  that  state  are  unknown  ;  it  is  terta 
howewer,  that  he  never  entered  into  holy  ordc 
He  settled  m  Itome,  and  at  the  end  of  the  4(!i  c, 
bad  already  acquired  a  considerable  reputation  : 
sanctity  and  for  knowledge  of  the  Holy  Scriptn. 
and  the  spiritual  life.  P.  does  not  a]>pear  to  hi 
Imnself  been  a  very  active  prupagandiat ;  but  he  b 


PELARGONIC  ACED-PELASGIAKS. 


Attached  to  his  views  a  follower  of  great  energy, 
and  a  bold  and  ardent  temjier,  named  Oelestius, 
who  ia  generally  supposed  to  have  been  a  Scot, 
which,  in  the  vocaoulary  of  that  age,  means 
a  native  of  Ireland.  At  Rome,  however,  they 
attracted  but  little  notice,  although  they  began 
to  make  their  doctrine  public  about  405 ;  and  in 
41  (^  after  the  sack  of  the  city  by  the  Goths,  they 
withdrew  to  Africa.  After  some  time,  P.  made  a 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  where  he  met  St  Jerome, 
and  for  a  time  enjoyed  the  regard  and  confi- 
dence of  that  eminent  but  hot-tempered  scholar. 
Uis  opinions,  however,  becoming  known,  Jerome 
withdrew  from  this  association.  Celestius  having 
remained  at  Carthage,  and  sought  to  be  admitted  to 
ordination,  his  doctrines  became  the  subject  of 
discussion,  and  in  a  synod  several  opinions  ascribed 
to  him  were  condemned.  He  appealed  to  Rome,  but 
leaving  Carthage  without  prosecuting  the  appeal,  he 
passed  to  Ephesus  ;  and  the  proceeilings  taken  in 
Carthage  regarding  him  are  chiefly  important  as 
having  first  introduced  St  Augustine  into  the  con- 
troversy. Meanwhile  P.  remained  at  Jerusalem, 
and  news  of  the  i)rocecding8  at  Caithage  having 
been  carried  to  Palestine,  P.,  in  415,  was  accused  of 
hereby  before  the  synod  of  Jerusalem,  by  a  Spaniard 
named  Orosius.  The  impeachment  failed,  probably 
from  the  fact  that  Orosius  was  unable  to  speak 
Grx»ck,  the  language  of  the  synod  ;  and  in  a  synod 
Bubsemiently  held  at  Diospolis  in  the  same  year,  P. 
evaded  condemnation  by  accepting  the  decrees  of 
the  synod  of  Carthage  already  referred  to,  and  even 
obtained  from  the  synod  an  acknowledgment  of  his 
orthodoxy.  The  West,  however,  was  more  sharj)- 
si.uhted  or  less  indulgent.  A  synod  of  Carthage,  in 
41 G,  condemned  P.  and  Celestius,  and  wrote  to  Pope 
Imuxjent  I.,  requesting  his  approval  of  the  sentence, 
with  which  request  Innocent  complied  by  a  letter 
which  is  still  extant.  On  the  death  of  Innocent, 
Celestius  came  to  Rome  in  person,  and  P.  at  the 
same  time  addressed  a  letter  to  Zosimus,  the  suc- 
CQssoT  of  Innocent ;  and  in  a  council  which  Zosimus 
hehl,  Celestius  gave  such  ex])lanations  that  the  pope 
was  led  to  believe  that  the  doctrines  of  P.  had 
been  misunderstood,  and  wrote  to  call  the  African 
bishops  to  Rome.  A  council  of  214  bishops,  how- 
ever, was  held  in  Carthage,  in  which  the  aoctrines 
of  P.  were  formally  coudemnetl  in  nine  canons, 
which  were  sent  to  Rome  with  fidl  explanations; 
and  on  receipt  of  these  decrees,  Zosimus  re- opened 
the  cause,  cited  and  condemned  Celestius  and  P., 
and  published  a  decree,  called  £/>istola  Tractoricu, 
adopting  the  canons  of  the  African  council,  and 
reipiiring  that  all  bishoi)s  should  subscribe  them, 
under  pain  of  deposition.  Nineteen  Italian 
bii^hops  refased  to  accept  these  canons,  and 
Were  deiK>8ed.  Their  leader,  and  the  person 
who  may  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  theological 
advocate  of  P.  in  the  ancient  controversy,  was 
the  celebrated  Julian,  bishop  of  Eclanum,  near 
Bene  Ventura,  who  is  well  known  to  every  rea<ler  of 
hia  CTeat  antagonist,  St  Augustine.  P.  himself 
was  banished  from  Rome,  in  418,  by  the  Emperor 
Honoriua.  From  this  date,  P.  disaiipears.  Of  his 
after-life,  nothing  is  known  in  detail.  Orosius  gives 
an  unfavourable  account  of  his  later  career,  but 
in  a  period  of  such  excitement,  we  may  not  accept 
implicitly  the  judgment  of  an  adversary.  The  con- 
troversy, considered  aa  an  exercise  of  intellectual 
energy,  is  the  most  remarkable  in  the  ancient  history 
of  the  church.  But  the  most  important  of  the 
writings  on  the  Pelagian  side  have  been  lost.  Julian 
is  chiefly  known  through  the  replies  of  Augustine. 
P.'s  Fourteen  Books  of  a  Commentary  on  St  PauVa 
EpUtles^  his  Epistle  to  Detnetrivs,  and  his  Memorial 
to  Pope  Innocent^  have  escaped  destruction  probably 


from  their  being  included  by  collectors  in  the  irorks 
of  St  Jerome.  They  are  much  mutilated,  but  y*'* 
almost  certainly  genuine.  All  his  other  works  have 
been  lost,  except  some  further  portions,  chietly  frag- 
mentary, which  (with  the  above)  have  been  published 
imder  the  title  of  Appfudix  Awjastiniana.  After 
his  banishment,  P.  is  supjwsed  to  have  returned  to 
his  native  country,  and  to  have  died  there.  Others, 
however,  represent  him  as  having  died  in  Palestine. 
Of  his  doctrines  in  detail,  an  account  will  be  found 
under  Pelagian is^ 

PELARGO'NIC  ACID  (HO,Ci,H,-Oa)  is  one 
of  the  volatile  fatty  acids  of  the  general  formula 
C2,Hg»04.  It  is  an  oily  fin  id,  nearly  insoluble  in 
water,  but  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  derives 
its  name  from  its  having  been  originally  obtained 
from  the  leaves  of  Pelarrjonium  rosniim  (see  next 
article),  by  distilling  them  with  water.  It  may 
also  be  obtained  by  the  oxi<lation  of  oleic  acid  or 
of  oil  of  rue  by  nitric  acid.  The  pelargonate  of 
oxide  of  ethyl,  C3.HaO,CiyH,-03,  is  an  oily  tluid  of  a 
very  peculiar  smell.  According  to  Franklaud,  it  is 
to  this  compound  that  old  whisky  owes  its  peculiar 
flavour ;  and  its  atldition  to  new  whisky,  with  a 
view  of  giving  it  an  old  flavour,  is  not  uncommon. 

PELARGO'NIUM,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  GeravUioce,  including  many  of  the 
most  favourite  greenhouse  flowers,  to  Mhich  the  old 
generic  name.  Geranium,  is  often  iM)|)ularly  given. 
The  characters  M'hich  distinguish  P.  from  geranium, 
as  now  restricted  by  botanists,  are  given  in  the 
article  Geranium.  The  species  are  numerous,  and 
mostly  South  African ;  Australia  also  producing 
a  few.  Some  of  them  are  herbaceous,  and  some  are 
stemless;  most  of  them  are  half-shrubby.  Some 
have  tuberous  root-stocks.  The  leaves  exhibit 
great  variety  in  form,  division,  &c.  The  flowers 
always  adhere  to  a  certain  ty]>e  in  form,  but 
with  great  varietv  in  size,  colour,  &c.  ;  they  are 
always  iu  stalked  umbels,  which  arise  from  the 
axils  of  the  leaves,  or  in  the  stemless  kinds  from  the 
midst  of  the  leaves.  In  no  genus  has  the  art  of  the 
gardener  produced  more  striking  results  than  in 
this ;  and  the  number  of  beautiful  hybri<ls  and 
varieties  is  very  great,  some  of  them  excelling  in 
beauty  any  of  the  original  species.  Some  species, 
not  jwsseasing  much  beauty  of  flower,  are  cultivated 
for  the  grateful  odour  of  their  leaves,  which  in  some 
resembles  that  of  roses ;  in  others,  that  of  ap])les, 
lemons,  &c. ;  whilst  that  of  many  species  is  rather 
un]>leasant.  The  cultivation  of  ])elargoniums  va 
sinailar  to  that  of  other  Geraniacece,  See  Geranium. 
A  few  of  the  s])ecies  endure  the  oi)en  air  in  the 
south  of  England ;  many  are  planted  out  in  summer 
even  in  Scotland.  Water  must  be  liberally  supjilied 
to  pelargoniums  during  the  time  of  flowering ;  but 
no  plants  more  strongly  require  a  period  of  rest,  and 
water  must  then  be  very  sparingly  given.  Many 
of  the  shrubby  kinds  may  be  taken  out  of  the  soil, 
hung  up  by  the  roots  in  a  dry  dai'k  cellar,  or  covered 
with  hay,  and  put  aside  in  a  box,  in  a  cool  dry  loft 
or  garret,  care  being  taken,  however,  to  protect 
them  from  frost.  Every  leaf  should  be  removed 
before  they  are  taken  up,  and  young  watery  shoots 
should  be  cut  off.  Another  method  of  treating 
them  is  to  cut  off  every  leaf  before  frost  comes,  ana 
to  keep  the  plants  all  winter  in  their  pots  in  a  dry 
cool  room,  without  giving  them  a  drop  of  water.  By 
such  means,  many  of  this  beautiful  genus  are 
successfully  cultivated  by  persona  who  have  no 
greenhouse. 

PELA'SGIANS,  variously  explained  as  denoting 
either  *  Swarthy  Asiatics  *  (Pell-Asici)  or  *  Storks 
( Pelargoi) — significative  of  wandering  haltits  ;  or  as 
being  derived  from  the  biblical  Pdeg  (Gen.  x.  25), 

359 


PELASGIAHa 


trcm  the  Greek  PHagot  (tlis  Sea),  pdaxo  (to  ftp- 
proaoh),  or  priet'n  and  agrot  (to  till  the  field),  ko. — 
*a  name,  in  fact,'  as  Ntcbnhr  tayt.  'odious  to  the 
hiatoriaD,  vho  hates  the  spurious  philology  oiit  of 
which  the  pretences  to  knowledge  on  the  subject  of 
•uch  eitioct  people  arise'— designates  a  certain  tribe 
or  number  of  tnbes  who  inhabited  Italy,  Thracia, 
Macedonia,  a  part  ol  Asia  Minor,  and  many  other 
reaiona  of  Southern  Europe,  in  prehistoric  times. 
Euinologically,  they  belong  to  the  same  race  as  the 
great  itock  of  the  earliest  knovn  settlers,  that 
reached  from  the  Po  and  the  Amo  to  the  Rhyn- 
diJEUB  [near  Ey zikDa).  Yet  no  Felascion  town  or 
Tillage  eiiating  in  Greece  Proper  after  776  b.  a, 
apeculation  has,  ever  stoce  the  commeacement  of 
European  historiography,  been  busy  trying  to  supply 
the  facts  (hat  were  wanting  to  ascertain  the  exact 
orieia  and  history  of  these  predecessors  of  the 
HdleBes  and  Romans  ;  and  so  futile  have  all  efforts 
in  this  direction  remained,  that  the  very  term  Pelasgi 
has,  from  the  days  of  Homer  to  our  own,  been  used 
almost  arbitrarily  to  designate  either  a  single  obscure 
division  of  a  tiihe  like  the  Lele^ee  and  the  Dolopes, 
or  as  an  equivalent  for  all  the  Greeks  of  a  very 
early  period.  In  this  latter  sense,  they  are  spoken 
of  by  ..Eachylus,  Herodotus,  Homer  ;  while  tiey 
are  cooBidered  one  of  the  branches  of  the  race  or 
races  that  peopled  Greece,  by  Thucydides,  Strabo, 
ajid  most  modern  writers,  the  word  thus  not  being 
a  comprehensive  term,  like  Arian,  but  a  narrowly 
circumscribed  one,  like  Hindu.  Recent  investigation 
•eema,  as  regards  their  previous  history,  to  lead  to 
the  result,  that  soon  after  the  first  immii^tion  oE 
Turanians,  they,  like  other  tribes,  left  their  ifaiatic 
homes,  and  proceeded  towards  Europe.  They  are 
found  at  a  very  early  period  settled  in  Asia  Minor; 
and  Homer  speaks  of  them  oh  allies  of  the  TrojauR. 
They  then  seem  to  have  spread  themselves,  by  way  | 
of  the  Propontis  and  j^ccean,  and  again  by  Crete,  ' 
over  many  of  the  islands  between  the  two  con-  . 
tinents ;  and  finally,  cime  to  occupy  a  great  part  I 
of  the  Hellenic  mainland— Thessaly,  Epirus,  the  j 
Pelononnese,  Attica,  Macedonia,  Arcadia,  province*  I 
which,  one  and  all,  up  to  the  latest  penod,  bore  ! 
distinct  traces  of  the  once  undisputed  away  of  the  ! 
Pelaagians.  According  to  Herodotus,  the  Hellenes  I 
themselves  sprang  from  them  ;  and  there  can  hardly 
be  a  doubt  that  they  formed  a  most  important ' 
element  in  the  formation  as  well  of  that  most  gifted 
of  nationalities,  as  of  the  Latin  people.  The  early 
Etruscans  (q.  V.)  were  P.  to  a  certain  extent ;  and 
die  southern  tribes  of  the  Peucetisns,  (Enotrians, 
uid  lapygiaus  are  distinctly  declared  by  ancient 
writere  to  belong  to  their  race.  The  step  from  Greece 
into  Italy  is  natural  enou<jh.  What  caused  their 
wauderings  origioally,  is  diihciilt  to  conjecture  ;  but 
it  may  not  unreasonably  be  sasumed,  that  they  were 
caused  to  a  certain  extent  by  immigrations  of  eastern 
tribes,  such  as  the  Lydians,  Phrygians,  Carians,  who 
pushed  them  further  and  further  west,  aa  they  took 
posaesEion  of  their  old  homea  A  siieciol  stock  was 
formed  by  the  Tyrrhenian  Pelasgi,  whose  gradnal 
advance  in  Greece  may  be  traced  from  Acamania  to 
Boxitia.  tbence  to  Attica,  and  later  still,  to  the  Hel- 
lespont, Lemnoe,  &0.  A  strong  protest,  however, 
must  be  recorded  here  on  the  port  of  some  modem 
writera  against  the  assumption  of  others,  that  the  P. 
were  in  r^ity  the  original  population  of  all  Italy,  a« 
they  were  of  the  greatest  part  of  Greece  (Pelasgia). 


Eitin^  the  queatious  about  a  contemponiry  colon; 
ill  the  whole  nation  off  b;  pestilence  uid  famine. 
The  Felasgiaus,  from  what  we  can  glean  iboa 
them,  would  appear  to  have  been  a  highly  intel 
lectual,  receptive,  active,  and  stirring  jieople.  « 
simple  habits  withal,  chiefly  intent  upon  ogricnl 
tural  pursuits.  8evenl  Improvementa  in  this  [m 
vince  were  distinctly  traced  back  to  them,  such  i 
the  ploughing  with  oxen — for  which  purpose  the 
had  to  invent  the  special  goad ;  further,  the  ai 
of  snrveying,  and  tlie  like.  Yet  they  were  no  lei 
warlike  when  attacked  and  driven  to  self-defcDM 
and  the  trumpet,  which  calls  the  widely  scattere 
troops  to  the  attack,  was  supposed  to  have  bee 
first  used  by  them.  That  the  sjt)  of  navisation  ns 
well  known  to  them,  is  shewn  sufficiently  by  the, 
incessant  migrations  over  sea  and  land.  Of  thei 
architectore,  in  that  style  which,  jn  default  of 
better  name,  baa  been  called  Cyclopean  (q,  v. 
remnanta  are  still  existing.  The  names  Larisa 
Argoa,  Ephyia,  frequently  met  in  ancient  Greeo 
were  bestowed  by  them  upon  their  fortiSed  citie 
and  are  only  generic  names,  expressive  of  eithi 
mountain  fortresses  or  strongholds  in  plaina.  Wis! 
""         -  ■■    "oured  to  ke< 

that  it  really  seems  moat  surprising  how  tht 
ever  oould  have  been  taken.  Beaides  these,  the 
built  canals,  dama,  and  subterranean  water-wurl 
of  aatoimding  strength  and  most  skilful  constru 
tion.      The  accompanying  woodcut  represents  tl 


.„r  many  centuries,  should  suddenly,  just  at  the 
^>proach  of  historical  times,  die  out  without  leaving 
even  such  single  remnants  as  the  Pelasgio  settle- 
ments in  Greece  mentioned  by  Herodotus.  These 
aboriginal  Italian  P.  are,  according  to  them,  neither 


Tig.  L— Section  of  Tomb  ol  Atreni  at  UyBena 

tomb  or  treasury  of  Atreus  at  Uyceiue,  vaolte 
with  a  fine  pointed  'horizontal  arch,'  48^  feet  i 
diameter.  Of  their  sculpture,  which  they  no  dout 
likewise  cultivated  to  a  certain  degree,  we  have  lu 
very  small  relics,  such  as  a  head  of  Medusa,  and 


Vlg.  3.— Flan  of  Tomb  al  Attenj  at  Hyeanis. 


an    to    be    found 


PELAYO— PELEW  ISLANDS 


which,  though  not  hitherto  ascrihed  to  them,  hear 
their  direct  influence  upon  their  very  face.    How 
far  they  were  either  the  inventors  of  the  so-called 
Cadmean    or   Phcenician    writing-characters,  from 
which    all   European   characters    are  derived,    or 
merely  their  'improvers,*  is  not  to  he  decided  by 
the  contradictory  evidence  to  be  found  on  the  sub- 
ject :   but  this,  at  all  events,  is  certain,  that  they 
were  acquainted  with  the  ait  of  writing,  and  had 
thus  »  vast  element  of  culture  in   their  posses- 
aioQ  before  the  dawn  of  history.     Respecting  their 
relinon  and  worship,  there  is  this  only  to  be  held 
with   certainty,  that  it  originally  consisted  in  a 
mystic    service    of   those    natural   powers,   whose 
iniluence   is  chiefly  visible  in  the  growth  of  the 
fruits  of  the  earth.      From  Eeypt  they  obtained 
names  for  their  till  then  nameless  gods,  generally 
called   by  them  the  Theoi ;   and  they  proceeded 
^by    permission    of    the   Dodonio    oracle,  which, 
together  with   the   Pythian,  they  first  founded — 
to  bestow  them  upon  them  individually.      Their 
deities  were,  besides  the  Phoenician  Kabiri,  Demeter, 
Persephone  Kora,  Dionysos,  Hermes,  Zeus  of  Dodona, 
Apollo,    Hephffistus,   Themis,  Pan,  &c.      Whether 
those  P.  who  inhabited  Lemnos  and  Imbros,  and 
who  were  conquered  by  Darius,  oflered  up  human 
lacrifices  or  not,  is  doubtful     An  ambiguous  term 
of  Herodotus  respecting  the  language  of  those  small 
Pelasgian  remnants  who  had  survivec)  to  his  day, 
has  given  rise  to  endless  and  most  t .satisfactory 
discussions.    He  speaks  (i.  57)  of  their  *  barbarous 
huiguage;*  and  the  question  is,  whether  he  meant 
that  it   completely  oiifered  from  Greek,   or  that 
there  was  only  so  vast  a  divergence  of  dialect,  that 
it  had  become  unintelligible  to  his  contemporaries. 
Grote   inclines    to    the  former  opinion ;    Niebuhr, 
Thiriwall,  T.  0.  Miiller,  followed  by  G.  Rawlinson 
and   others,   hold,   with   more    ap])arent   show    of 
reason,  that  the  term  *  barbarous  language '  merely 
indicates  a  corruption  or  alteration  of  idiom,  such 
as  a  long  lapse  of  time  would  infallibly  produce, 
and  that  it  oore  the  same  relation  to  the  Greek 
of  the   day  as  the  Gothic  does  to  the  German,  or 
the  Latin  to  any  of  the  Romance  languages,  not 
to  instance    the   forlorn  patois    of    out-of-the-w^ay 
places    in    Switzerland    and    elsewhere,    supposed 
to    be    inhabited    by  unmixed    descendants    from 
Roman  legions.     That  other  phenomenon  of  the 
vast  number  of  roots  common  both  to  Greek  and 
Latin — the  latter,  it  must  be  remembered,  having 
been  proved  to  be  derived,  not  from  the  former,  but 
from  the  Oscan — would  thus  easily  be  explained  by 
the  assumption  of  a  common  Pelasgian  linguistic 
(as  well  as  ethnical)  stock  in  both  nationalities. 

Their  political  circumstances  are  as  unknown  to 
us  as  the  whole  process  of  transition  between  them 
and  the  real  Greek  period.  From  a  few  scattered 
allusions,  we  may  conclude,  that  they  were  not : 
uniformly  governed  ;  that  some  of  their  multifarious 
tribes  were  nded  by  priests,  while  others  stood 
under  the  patriarchal  rule  of  the  head  of  the  clan 
or  family. 

How  they  gradually  disappeared  from  the  rank 
of  nations,  by  being  either  '  absorbed '  by  superior 
races  (Hellenes,  Italici,  Carians,  Lydians,  Phrygians), 
or  being  reduced  to  nameless  serf-populations,  does 
not  seem  so  diflicult  to  understand  as  some  writers 
would  have  it.  Hundreds  of  nations  have  dis- 
appeared in  the  same  manner,  and  we  may  even 
watch  the  process  with  our  own  eyes.  Interesting 
as  it  might  be  to  dwell  more  minutely  on  some  of 
the  widely  divergent  theories  and  speculations  uiK)n 
the  P.  on  the  part  of  historians,  philologists,  ethnolo- 
gista,  antiauaries,  and  investigators  generally,  to 
whom,  at  ail  times,  this  people  proved  exceedingly 
•ttractive,  we  cannot  enter  any  further  upon  them 


hero,  but  we  shall  conclude  with  Grote's  dictom : 
'  If  an^r  man  is  inclined  to  call  the  unknown  ante- 
Hellenic  period  of  Greece  by  the  name  of  Pelasgic,  it 
is  open  to  him  to  do  so.  But  this  is  a  name  carry- 
ing with  it  no  assured  predicates,  noway  enlarging 
our  insight  into  real  history,  nor  enabling  us  to 
explain  what  would  be  the  real  historical  problem — 
how,  or  from  whom,  the  Hellenes  acquired  that  stock 
of  dispositions,  aptitudes,  arts,  &c,  with  which  they 
begin  their  career.' 

PELA'YO,  said  by  historians  to  have  been  the 
first  Christian  king  in  Spain,  after  the  conquest  of 
that  country  by  the  Arabs.  Contemporary  his- 
torians make  no  mention  of  him,  but  this  may 
be  accounted  for  on  the  ground  of  the  insignificant 
size  of  his  kingdom,  which  comprised  only  the 
mountainous  district  of  Asturias.  He  is  said  to 
have  been  a  scion  of  the  royal  Visigothic  line,  and 
to  have  retired  before  the  conquering  Arabs  to  the 
moimtains  of  Asturias,  where  he  maintained  him- 
self against  the  armies  which  were  sent  to  attack 
him,  defeating  them  in  various  pitched  battles,  and 
in  numberless  minor  engagements.  One  of  his  most 
famous  exploits  was  the  destruction  of  a  large  army 
sent  against  him  by  Tarik,  near  Cangas-de-Onis. 
His  men  were  posted  on  the  heights  bounding  the 
valley  through  which  the  Ara})S  were  to  pass,  and, 
waiting  till  uie  enemy  had  become  involved  in  the 
defile,  at  a  given  signal,  overwhelmed  them  with 
enormous  masses  of  rock.  This  great  success  caused 
P.  to  be  recognised  as  sovereign  by  the  surrounding 
districts,  and  the  Christians  nocked  to  him  from  i^ 
parts  of  Spain.  He  was  much  engaged  in  contests 
with  the  Arabs,  but  nevertheless  found  time  to 
reanimate  agriculture,  superintend  the  reconstruc- 
tion of  chiux;bes,  and  the  establishment  of  a  civil 
administration.  He  died  in  737-  Such  is  the  account 
given  us  by  later  historians,  who  trace  from  him  the 
genealogy  of  the  royal  family  of  Spain. 

PELECA'NIDiE,  a  family  of  palmiped  birds,  the 
Totipalmali  of  Cuvier;  characterised  by  a  long, 
straight,  compressed  bill,  broad  at  the  base,  often 
with  a  pouch  beneath  the  lower  mandible;  long 
wings,  of  which  the  first  quill  is  the  longest ;  shoi-t 
strong  legs,  and  all  the  toes— including  the  hind 
toe — united  by  a  membrane.  They  are  generally 
excellent  swinmiers,  expert  divers,  and  birds  of 
powerful  flight  Some  of  them  often  perch  on  trees, 
which  few  other  web-footed  birds  do.  To  this 
family  belong  pelicans,  cormorants,  frigate-birds, 
tropic-bu-ds,  and  darters. 

PELEW  ISLANDS,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
North  Pacific  Ocean,  450  miles  east  of  the  Philip- 
pines, in  lat  7"— 8"  Sty  N.,  long.  134  —136  E., 
at  the  western  extremity  of  the  Caroline  Archi- 
pelago. The  group  includes  about  20  islands, 
which  form  a  chain  nmning  about  120  miles  from 
south -south- west  to  north-north-east.  The  princi- 
pal island  is  Babelthouap,  28  miles  by  14,  coa- 
taining  a  mountain  from  whose  summit  a  view  of 
the  whole  group  is  obtained.  As  seen  from  the  sea, 
the  islands  api)ear  mountainous  and  rugeed ;  but 
the  soil  is  rich  and  fertile,  and  water  is  abundanti 
Bread-fruit,  cocoa-nuts,  bananas,  sugar-cane,  lemons, 
oranges,  and  other  tropical  trees  and  fruits,  are 
grown.  Cattle,  fowls,  and  goats  thrive,  and  fish 
abound  on  the  coasts.  The  inhabitants,  who  are 
estimated  at  about  10,000  in  number,  are  of  the 
Malay  race.  They  shew  considerable  ingenuity  in 
building  their  canoes,  are  active  agriculturists,  and 
entertain  exceedingly  primitive  notions  regarding 
dress,  as  the  men  go  entirely  naked,  and  the  women 
nearly  sa  In  1783,  the  Antelope  was  wrecked 
upon  the  P.  L,  and  the  crew  were  treated  by  the 
natives    with    the    greatest    kindness       Furthei 


PEI ICAN— PELLA. 


■cquuDbmce  with  white  in«D,  however,  kcdib  to 
have  altered  their  diaixigitioa,  and  several  vemels, 
whQe  viaiting  these  islands,  within  comparBtively 
recent  jeare,  have  narrowly  eBcajied  being  cut  off. 
The  islanilB  are  said  to  have  been  diacovered  b; 
the  Spnniarda  in  1545. 

PEXICAN  (Prlecaniu),  ■  genus  of  birds  ot  the 
family  I'll'-canida  (q.  v.),  having  s  very  long,  large, 
flattened  bill,  tlie  npper  mandible  terminated  by  a 
■trorg  hoi)k,  which  curves  over  the  tip  of  the  lower 
one ;  beneath  the  lower  mandible,  which  is  oompoBed 
ri  two  flexible  bony  branches  meeting  at  th«  tip,  a 
creat  ponch  of  naked  skin  is  ap[iended ;  the  tongue 
IS  very  short,  and  almost  rudimentary ;  the  face  and 
throat  are  naked ;  tbe  wings  of  moderate  length, 
the  tail  rounded.  The  species  arrfwidely  distributed, 
frequenting  the  shores  of  the  sea,  lakes,  and  rivers, 
and  feeding  chiefly  on  fish.  Although  birds  of 
powerful  wing,  they  are   seldom   seen    at   a  great 


water,  and  plunging  upon  it  when  it  apjieais.    Tliey 

;n  fly  in  large  flocks,  and  the  sudden  swoop  of  a 

flock  of  jielicuiB  at  a  shoal  of  dsh  is  a  striking  and 


often  fl 


beautiful  sight     They  store  up  their  prey  in  tbeir 

rch,  from  wbich  tbey  bring  it  oat  at  leisure,  either 
tbeir  own  eating,  or  to  feed  tbeir  young.  The 
pouch  is  capable  of  being  wriukled  up  into  small 
size,  and  of  being  greatly  distended. — The  Common 
P.  [P.  oiwayiliilus)  is  as  large  as  a  swan,  white, 
■lightly  tinged  with  flesh  colour,  aod  in  old  birds. 


PeliosD  {Pdtcaaiu  oni>eroiala$), 

tile  breast  golden  yellow.     The  qoill -feathers  are 

black,  but  are  scurccly  seen  except  when  tlie  wings 
are  exjiandi'iL  It  is  a  native  of  the  eastern  parts  of 
Euro]>e.  and  of  many  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and 
frequents  both  tbe  sea-coast  and  also  riveni  and 
lakes.  It  maki?B  a  nest  of  grass  on  tbe  ground  in 
•ome  retired  simt  near  the  water,  often  on  on  island. 
»nd  lays  two  or  three  white  eggs.  The  parents  are 
•aid  to  carry  water  to  their  young,  as  well  as  food, 
in  tbeir  pouch.  During  tbe  night,  the  P.  sits  with 
its  bill  resting  on  its  breast.  The  nail  or  hook 
which  terminates  the  bill  is  red,  and  Mr  Brodeiip 
supposes  tbat  the  ancient  fable  of  the  P.  feeding  its 
young  with  blood  from  its  own  breast  has  originated 
from  its  habit  of  pressing  the  bill  upon  the  breast, 
in  order  the  more  easdy  to  empty  the  pouch,  when 
the  red  tip  might  be  mistaken  for  blood. — The 
Eoroinf-NECKKD  P.  (P.  /uscut]  abounds  in  the  West 
Indies  and  in  many  parts  of  America.  Other 
■pecies  are  found  in  other  |>arts  of  the  world,  and 
la  some  places  the  numbtr  of  pelicans  is  prodigious, 
Twtinikriv  ■"  "on'e  of  the  luott  Muthern  parts  ol 

lu  Ueraldry,  the  Pelican  i«  drawn  with  tier  wingi 


Pelican,  in  EerUdr] 


endorsed,  and  wounding  her  breast  with  her  besl 
When   representei'  '  ..... 

with  her  blood,  si 
a  pelican  in  Aer  pielg. 

PE'LION,  tbe  ancient 
name  of  a  wooded  mountain 
range  in  Thessaly,  extending 
along  the  east  coasL  Its 
eastern  side  descends  in  steep 
and  rugged  precipices  to  the 
sea.  Further  to  the  north, 
near  the  mouth  of  the 
Peneus,  is  the  steep  conical 
peak  of  Ossa  (q.  v.),  which, 
according  to  the  classic  myth, 
the  Titans  placed  upon  the 
summit  of  P.,  in  order  to  scale  Olympna,  the  uboi 
of  the  gods. '  The  modem  name  u  Zagori,  and  i 
of  old,  its  sides  and  summit  are  clotned  wil 
venerable  forests  of  oak,  chestnut,  beecli,  elm,  u 

PELIiiSIKB,  AtUABLB  Jban  jACQrts,  Manli 
of  Franco,  Duo  da  Malakhoff,  bora  in  1734  . 
Maromme,  near  liouen.  Ilia  father  was  a  ami 
fanner,  little  above  the  degree  of  a  puuwnt.  P.  w 
first  sent  to  tbe  Lyceum  at  Brussels.  At  twenty.  1 
gained  admission  to  the  celebratecl  French  artillci 
college  of  La  Fl<>chc,  and  was  boot,  transferrcl 
the  specif  school  of  ^t  Cyr.  He  entered  tl 
artillery  of  the  Royal  (luarii  aa  snb-lieuteuant 
1814,  anil  licing  trausfenred  to  t'lw  CTth  Begiment 
tbe  line,  which  was  not  called  u[)on  to  do  duty  aft 
the  return  of  Napoleon  fron*  Elba,  he  esc.iped  tl 
dilemma  of  declaring  either  for  or  against  tl 
Emperor.  He  served  on  the  staff  in  Spain  in  lS2i 
made  the  camn^gn  of  the  Morea  in  18'JSi  joioi 
the  first  expedition  to  Alfriers  in  1S30  as  m.i) 
of  cav.ilry  ;  and  in  1839  ireturned  to  Algeria  wi 
the  rank  of  lieutenant-coLineL  He  commanded  tl 
left  wing  of  the  French  4rmy  at  tbe  battle  of  Isl 
In  IfUTi,  be  acquired  *.a  unenviable  luitoriety  1 
suffocating  more  than  5(10  Aralia  who  took  rtfu 
in  tbe  caves  of  Onled-ltiah  in  the  Dahro.  M^irsb 
Soult,  then  Minister  of  War,  did  not  venture 
approve  tliis  atrocity,  but  Marshal  Btigeauil,  cot 
mandcr-in-chief  in  Algeria,  dcclaru-d  tbat  P.  on 
carried  out  bis  poKtivc  Onlcra.  By  1850,  he  h: 
attained  the  rank  of  General  of  Division.  Wht 
the  news  of  tbe  ixiip  iTilat  reached  AIc;iers,  I 
espoused  the  cause  of  the  emperor,  and  placed  t! 
proviuce  of  Algiers  under  martial  law  until  otd 
was  restored.  I^  the  war  with  liussia,  he  obtain' 
in  18J5  tbe  command  of  the  first  corps  of  tl 
Crimean  army,  and  soon  succeeded  Marshal  Ci 
rubert  in  the  chief  command,  when  a  chan^  Rui 
over  the  fortunes  of  the  campaign.  The  Itiiuisi 
were  defeated  on  the  ToLcrnaya,  and  on  the  Si 
September  tbe  Malakhoff,  tbe  key  of  Scl>astopi 
was  carried.  After  tbe  fall  of  SelKistopol,  '. 
received  a  marshal's  batiiu,  and  on  his  return 
France,  was  created  Due  de  Mataklioff  and 
senator,  and  received  a  dotation  of  100,000  fiani 
He  also  received  the  order  of  a  G.C.B.  from  Que 
Viutorio.  In  1858.  he  came  to  London  as  Uie  Fcva 
amljassador,  but  resigned  his  post,  for  which  he  h; 
Uttle  relish,  in  the  following  year.  He  was  (hi 
named  Governor-general  of  Algeria,  where  he  di 
(May  1864)  of  congestion  of  the  lungs. 

PEXLA,  the  ancient  capibJ  of  Macedonia,  ai 
Oie  birthplace  of  Alexander  the  Great,  was  situst 
on  a  hill,  and  surrounded  by  marshes.  It  w*s 
wealthy  and  powerful  city,  but  declined  iiDder  t 
Bomans  until  it  became  ^  -  ■         ' 


«  tbnr- 


caitl^  called  Bod&k^     Ita  site  tiac  boon  idenb^ 


PELLAORA-PEIXITOHY  OP  SPAIN. 


with  that  of  tlia  village  of  NeokAoH  or  TeniL-iug, 
near  which  ia  a  Bpring  called  Pelle. 

FEliLAGKA,  at  one  time,  the  Dftme  of  a 
Iciathaome  Bkin-disease,  lupposed  to  be  enilemic  to 
the  rice-produciii^  part  of  the  north  of  Italy,  ia  now 
eiu|>inyed  to  designate  a  group  of 'phenomena,  of 
which  the  moat  promineut  and  signitirant  are 
mentaL  Allied  affectiuna  have  recently  been 
described  in  TariooB  contiuentol  coUDtriea ;  but  as 
pivHented  in  ita  meet  intense  form  in  Lombardy, 
peUai;ra  consists  in  the  skin  being  covered  witli 
tuliercles  and  rough  acales.  in  debility,  vertigo, 
inability  to  preserve  the  equilibrium,  epilepsy,  and 
great  depreaaiun  oF  spirita.  Ilia  melancholia  which 
constituted  tbe  latter  atiu-fi  often  led  to  suicide,  and 
BO  frequently  to  destruction  by  drowning,  that  it  «-as 
distiuguisUed  as  a  aiiecial  form  of  the  tendency  by 
(lie  ajipellstion  of  Hydromania.  The  extent  of  tbe 
ravages  of  this  affection  may  bo  estimated  from  the 
facts,  that  of  51)0  patients  ia  the  Milan  Lunatic 
Asylum  m  1S27.  one  third  Were  pellagrins;  that 
when  Strambio  wrote  (1784),  one  of  every  twenty, 
aud  uben  Hullaiid  [1S17),  one  of  every  Sve  or  ux 
of  the  population  presented  aymptonu  oE  tbe 
disease.  The  belief,  ao  long  cnrrtnt,  that  this 
nialoily  waa  the  result  of  the  use  of  rice  or  maize 
ks  the  chief  article  of  diet,  must  now  be  greatly 
Diudilied,  as  it  has  beeu  observed  in  districts  and 
uniler  circumstancea  where  the  food  is  of  a  different 
leacription ;  but 'where  poverty,  insulBcient  nourish- 
nieot.  tilth,  toil,  and  the  ordinary  a^jcuta  in  humau 
legeuecatiOQ  Are  at  work. 

PR'LLET,  or  OGRESS,  in  English  Heraldry,  a 
Ettsuodle  (q.  v.)  sable. 

PE  LLIOO,  Silvio,  an  Italian  poet,  celebrated 
for  his  long  and  cruel  impriaonment  by  tbe  Auatriana, 
m-ire,  peniapa,  than  for  his  verses,  was  bom  in 
17S3  at  Salu^izo,  in  Piedmont,  and  was  cincated  in 
Pignerol,  where  hia  father,  Onurato  Petlico,  also 
lavourably  known  as  a  lyric  poet,  had  a  silk-factory. 
In  bis  IGth  rear,  he  accompanid  his  sister  Itosina 
(on  her  marriage)  to  Lyon,  where  he  remained  until 
Foscolo's  Carme  di  ti/'polcri  awakened  in  him  a 
Itrtiujj  patriotic  feeling  and  an  irresistible  desire  to 
return  to  Italy.  Coming,  about  1810,  to  Mihtn, 
wiiL-re  his  family  were  now  settled,  he  was  warmly 
received  by  Ugo  Foscolo  and  Vinceuzo  Monti,  and 
was  employed  OS  tutor  in  the  family  of  Count  Porro, 
Id  whose  house  alt  the  most  diatiii|:iii:ihed  men  in 
MilaD  were  accustomed  to  meet.  Uis  tragedica  oE 
LaiMiamia  aud  fVaim«ca  da  Rimini  gained  him  an 
honourable  name  amoiiuat  Italian  poets.  He  also 
translated  the  Mauf red  of  Byron,  with  whom  he 
liiul  become  ocquoiuted.  He  lived  in  great  intimacy 
cith  the  most  eminent  patriots  and  authors  of 
jlieral  views,  and  took  an  active  part  in  a  |>eriodi- 
^  called  li  CondUatore,  which  after  a  time  was 
nippressed  on  account  of  its  liberal  tone.  Having 
t>ccome  connected  with  the  secret  acciety  of  the 
Carlionori,  then  tJie  dread  of  the  Italian  govern- 
meut,  P.  was  apprehended  in  1S20,  and  sent  to  the 
nriaon  of  Sta  Margherita,  where  his  friend,  the  poet 
hilBnincelli,  waa  Euso  confined.  In  the  beginning  of 
the  following  year,  he  waa  carried  to  Veniee.  and 
in  January  IS22,  to  the  prison  on  the  iale  of  Boa 
Uicbele.  near  Venice;  and  Maroncelll  and  he  were 
St  last  condemned  to  death  ;  but  the  emperor  com- 
muted the  sentence  to  20  years'  imprisonment  for 
btaroncelli,  and  16  years  for  Pellico.  In  March 
18:12,  they  were  both  conveyed  to  tbe  subterranean 
dungeons  of  the  Spielberg.  Ia  Au)(uat  1830,  how- 
ever, they  were  set  at  liberty.  P.  published  an 
account  of  his  sufferings  during  his  ten  years' 
imprisonment,  under  the  title  Le  mic  Frujioai 
if^iiia,  I&33),  which  baa  been  translated  into  other 


languages,  and  has  made  his  name  familiar  where  it 
would  not  have  been  known  on  ocoount  of  hia 
poetry.  P.'s  health,  never  robust,  was  permanently 
injured.  The  Marchioness  of  Barolo  received  him 
into  her  house  at  Turin  as  her  seuret.'kry.  P.  sub- 
sequently published  numerous  tragedies  and  other 

!ms,  aud  a  little  catechism  on  the  duties  of  man. 

1  death  took  phice  January  31,  1654. 


both  unisexnd 
and  hermaphro- 
dite flowen  on 
the  soma  plant, 
the  perianth  of 
both  kinds  4-lid. 
The  CoMMOif  P. 
(P.  offiHnaiU), 
which  grows  on 
old  walla  and 
heaps  of  rubbish  ' 
In  Britain  and 
many  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia, 
a  herbaca- 
perennial, 
with  prostrate 
branched  stems, 
rarely  with 
stems,  ovate 
leaves,  and  incon- 


ion      from      the 

the      poUen      is 

copiously         dis-      PeQitoTy  [Parietaria  offcinalU), 

char^red    in    hot 

ner  days  by  an  elastic  movement  of  the  fila- 
a.      It    was   formerly   much   esteemed  as  a 
tic,  refrigei-ant,  and  litbontriptic   Its  propertiea 
dqiend  on  nitre,  which  it  contains. 

PELLITOEV  OP  SPAIN  (^noc.vrfuj  pyre- 
f/u'um),  a  plant  of  tbu  natural  order  Ci/mpot-t/t,  of  a 
genus  nearly  allied  to  Chamomile  (q.  v.),  a  native  of 
the  Levant  and  of  Barbary,  and  cultivated  to  some 
extent  in  Germany  and  other  countries.  It  has 
procumbent,  branched,  downy  stems ;  each  branch 
one-flowered;  the  root-leaves  pinnate,  with  pinua- 
tifid  segments  and  linear-subulate  lobes.  Tbe 
flowers  (neoils  of  Sowers)  have  a  white  ray,  purplish 
beneath,  and  a  yellow  disc  Tbe  root  is  spindle- 
shaped  and  fleshy,  and  when  dried,  te  about  th« 
thii.'tiueBS  of  the  little  fingi^r.  ino{larons,  breaking 
with  a  resinous  fracture.  It  haa  a  very ,  peculiar 
taste,  sliL'iit  at  first,  but  becoming  acididous,  salioe, 

the  month  and  throat,  which  continues  for  some 
time.  It  is  valued  in  medicine,  and  is  chewed  or 
administered  in  the  form  of  a  tincture  to  relieve 
toothache,  also  in  cases  of  paralysia  of  the  tongue, 
as  a  sialo^iogue  in  certain  kinds  of  headache,  and 
oE  rheumatic  and  neuralgic  affections  of  the  face, 
and  is  used  as  a  gargle  in  relaxation  of  the  uvula. 
The  powder  of  it  enters  into  the  composition  of 
oertam  cephaUc  sauffa,  and  is  rubbed  ou  the  skin 
in  some  eastern  countries,  to  promote  perspiration. 
It  is  the  Hadix  pip-etiiri  of  tbe  phanuaoopiEias.  It  is 
a  powerful  local  irritant.  The  plant  cultivated  in 
Germany  has  more  slender  roots  than  that  of  the 
Levant,  and  baa  sometimes  been  described  as  ft 
ilietinct  B]>eciea  [A.  o^ciiioruni),  but  ia  probably  ■ 


:f 


I '.  ♦ 


ir. 


'K 


ft 


I  '■ 


\ 


I'! 


ill 


1 

ill 

I  i 

J 


\<i'ii(:. 


■M 


'  1  '  F 


trit^' 


k    • 


i1Hfj#t  II 


!        I 


t , 


t  ■■ 


.   I 


I    I 


•     '1;:.'; 

'    ''     ■  ''.. 
■  ■■■■''  II 

•  '  '  *  ■ 


PELLS-PELTRY. 


PELLS,  Clerk  of  tee  (Lat.  peUia^  a  akin),  a 
elerk  belonnnff  to  the  Conrt  of  Exchequer  in 
England  ana  Ireland,  whose  office  was  to  enter 
every  teller's  biU  into  a  parchment  or  skin,  called 
pellis  receptorum,  and  also  to  make  another  roll  of 
payments,  which  was  called  peilis  exituuniy  and 
which  shewed  the  warrant  under  which  the  money 
was  paid.  The  office  was  abolished  in  1834  by  the 
statute  4  and  5  WilL  IV.  c  16,  which  transferred 
the  duties  to  the  comptrolIer-ceneraL  who  there- 
npon  assumed  the  custody  of  the  records  ;  and  the 
Treasury  thereafter  established  new  forms  of  books, 
accounts,  and  warrants. 

PELO'PIDAS,  a  celebrated  Theban  general,  of 
noble  descent,  noted  among  his  fellow-citizens  for 
bis  disinterested  patriotism.  The  inviolable  friend- 
ship between  himself— one  of  the  richest  men  in 
Thebes — and  Epaminondas — one  of  the  poorest — 
is  amon,^  the  most  beautiful  things  recorded  in 
Greek  history.  In  382  B.  a  he  was  driven  from 
Thebes  by  the  oligarchic  party,  who  were  sup- 
ported by  the  Spartans,  ana  forced  to  seek  refuge 
at  Atheus,  whence  he  returned  secretly  with  a 
few  associates,  379  B.  c.,  and  recovered  possession  of 
the  Kadmeia,  or  citadel,  slaying  the  Spartan  leader, 
Leontiades,  with  his  own  hand.  Plutarch  gives  us 
a  vivid  picture  of  the  adventurous  exiles  gliding 
quietly  in  disguise  into  the  city  on  a  winter  after- 
noon, amid  bitter  wind  and  sleet.  Having  been 
elected  Boeotarch,  in  conjunction  with  Melon  and 
Charon,  he  set  about  training  and  disciplining 
bis  trooj>8,  so  that  they  soon  became  as  formidable 
as  the  Lacedaemonians,  and  were  successfid  in 
several  small  encounters  with  the  latter.  His 
*  sacred  band'  of  Theban  youth  largely  contributed 
to  the  victory  of  Epaminondas  at  Leuctra  (371  B.C.), 
but  failed  in  a  subscouent  attack  on  Sparta  itself. 
In  the  expedition  of  tne  Thebans  against  the  cruel 
tyrant,  Alexander  of  Pherae  (368  B.  c.),  he  was,  after 
several  important  successes,  treacherously  taken 
prisoner,  when  in  the  character  of  an  ambassador ; 
but  was  rescued  by  Epaminondas  in  the  expedition 
of  the  following  year.  He  was  then  sent  to  Susa,  as 
ambassador  from  Thebes,  to  counteract  the  Spartan 
and  Athenian  intrigues  going  on  at  the  court  of 
Persia,  and  behaved  himseii  very  nobly  while 
there.  His  diplomacy  was  successful  In  .364  B.  o., 
a  third  expedition  was  planned  against  Alexander 
of  Pherse,  who,  as  usual,  was  threatening  the  Thes- 
salian  towns.  The  command  was  given  to  P.,  and 
in  the  summer  he  marched  into  Thessaly,  where  he 
won  the  battle  of  KynoskephalsB,  but  was  himself 
killed  while  too  eagerly  pursuing  the  foe.  He  was 
buried  by  the  Thessalians  with  great  pomp. 

PELO'PIUM  was  the  name  given,  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century  (1802),  by  Rose  to 
a  new  metal,  which  he  thought  he  had  discovered 
in  the  mineral  Columbite.  It  was  subsequently 
ascertained  that  it  was  identical  with  Niobium. 

PELOPONNE'SIAN  WAB.    See  Greece. 

PELOPONNB'SUS  (La,  the  isle  of  Pelops),  now 
called  the  Moiea  (q.  v.),  a  peninsula,  which  formed 
the  southern  part  of  ancient  Greece,  Hellas  Proper 
beinz  situtited  to  the  northward  of  the  isthmus,  on 
which  stood  the  city  of  Corinth.  See  Grebck  The 
whole  area  is  less  than  9000  square  miles.  In  the 
most  flourishing  periods  of  Grecian  history,  the  P. 
had  a  population  of  more  than  two  millions, 
although  at  present  it  has  little  over  half  a 
million.  ^  Among  its  most  important  cities  were 
Sparta  in  Laconia,  and  Argos  the  capital  of 
Argolia  S^tarta  acquired,  iSter  the  Messenian 
War,  a  decided  supremacy  over  the  other  states, 
and  disputed  the  supremacy  with  Athens  in  a  war 
of  almost  thirty  years*  duration  (431 — 404  B.a)~ 


the  famous  *  Peloponnesian  War,*  of  which  the 
history  has  been  written  by  Thucydides.  After  the 
Roman  conouest,  the  P.  formed  part  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Acuaia,  and  subsequently  belonged  to  the 
Byzantine  empire.   For  its  later  history,  see  Morka. 

PE'LOPS,  in  Greek  Mythology,  the  grandson 
of  Zeus,  and  the  son  of  Tantalus,  was  slam  by  his 
father,  and  served  up  at  an  entertainment  which  he 
gave  to  the  gods,  in  order  to  test  their  omniscience. 
They  were  not  deceived,  and  would  not  touch  the 
horrible  food ;  but  Ceres,  being  absorbed  with  grief 
for  the  loss  of  her  daughter,  ate  pait  of  a  ahoiucler 
without  observing.  The  gods  then  commanded  the 
members  to  be  thrown  into  a  cauldron,  out  of  which 
Clotho  brought  the  boy  again  alive,  and  the  want  of 
the  shoulder  was  supplied  by  an  ivory  one.  Accord- 
ing to  the  legend  most  general  in  later  times,  P. 
was  a  Phrygian,  who,  being  driven  by  Iloe  from 
Sipylos,  came  with  great  treasures  to  the  peninsula, 
which  derived  from  hini  the  name  of  Peloponnesus, 
married  Hippodamia,  obtained  her  father's  kingdom 
by  conquering  him  in  a  chariot-race,  and  became 
the  father  of  Atreus,  Thyestes,  and  other  sons. 
But  in  what  appear  to  be  the  oldest  traditions, 
he  is  representea  as  a  Greek,  and  not  as  a  foreigner. 
He  was  said  to  have  revived  the  Olympic  garnet, 
and  was  particularly  honoured  at  Olympia. 

PE'LTRY,  a  general  term  applied  to  the  trade  in 
skins  of  wild  animals,  and  to  the  skins  themselves. 
It  is  understood  to  mean  only  skins  undressed, 
except  by  dr3nng,  and  chiefly  those  which,  when 
dressed,  are  callea  furs,  and  it  is  especially  apphed 
to  the  i>roduce  of  North  America  and  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Territory,  although  all  others  are 
included.  The  following  table  will  shew  the  kind 
of  skins  meant,  and  the  vast  destruction  of  animal 
hfe  which  is  necessitated  by  this  valuable  bi-anch 
of  commerce. 


Pbltsiu  Impobtbd  tivto 

OmiAT  BurrAiv 

»  1860. 

Common  N«m«^ 

F^m  HndMm'B 

Trom  ochor 

Totel 

B«7  TcrritoriM. 
1384 

Couiitriot. 

Imports. 

Ba.lger, 

56J8 

6912 

Bear,  •        • 

8043 

10.549 

15*.592 

Braver,  •       • 

108,130 

118,176 

226,306 

Cat,    .        • 

•  •• 

19,688 

19  6>8 

ChinchiUs,    . 

•  •• 

18,544 

18.541 

Deer,  . 

2695 

73,891 

76,586 

Doj?.      • 

... 

M43 

3143 

Elk.    . 

12 

363 

375 

Ermine, 

1251 

313  909 

315,1<H) 

Fnher,       • 

6430 

10  869 

17,. '99 

Fttcb,    . 

•  •• 

34,371 

34  371 

Fox,  .        • 

21,211 

107  518 

1S8  729 

Goat,     •       • 

6430 

4439 

10  V.9 

Hare,         • 

215 

2,108  046 

2.108  361 

Kid.       . 

••• 

485,480 

4H5  480 

Kolinski,    . 

•*• 

61l>65 

61.965 

Lamb,    .        • 

•.. 

1,194,592 

1,194  592 

L'opurd,    • 

••• 

186 

186 

Lion,     •        • 

... 

19 

19 

L/nx. 
Hirmot, 

15,969 

19,073 

35.041 

•  •• 

333 

232 

Marten,      . 

77.979 

98.7H9 

176  748 

Mmk,    . 

3i,699 

116.936 

149.625 

Monkej,     . 

•  •• 

5787 

5717 

MiipqiMith,    • 

205,694 

2.063,059 

2,267  7o3 

Neiitiia,     . 

•  •• 

1,04'>,345 

1.045..<45 

Orter,     . 

13,519 

27,180 

40,699 

0  ter,  Ses, . 

137 

165 

903 

Panther, 

.»• 

78 

78 

Riihblt,      , 

29,973 

216.039 

346.04:1 

Raccoon,        . 

2636 

787,893 

790  538 

Sable, 

•  •» 

332 

S3J 

Seal,       . 

10.471 

661,677 

572.148 

Sheep, 

••• 

2,257.918 

3,2  7  918 

Skunk, . 

37»9 

134,617 

13    376 

Squirrel,    . 

10,471 

164,976 

175  447 

Swan,    • 

1043 

2933 

S975 

Tiger, 

••• 

380 

S80 

Weasel. 

... 

463 

463 

Weenuflk,  • 

8639 

•.. 

S&^ 

Wolt,     . 

6059 

6186 

iS.24S 

WolTerine, 

1398 

1459 

tb5l 

•».  . 


PELUSItJM-PELVIS. 


The  pelts  of  nuoj  huhuJb  in  tbdr  originil  itate 
do  not  appear  well  fitted  for  decorative  or  eTen 
ordinary  apparel,  but  the  art  of  tbe  furrier  chauges 
them  gr^y.  The  recent  ducovery,  that  the  iong 
bsira  which  project  over  the  fine  under-fur  of  many 
species,  are  aJBo  deeper  rooted  in  the  akin,  boa  given 
riee  to  aji  easy  and  admirnble  method  of  removing 
them  very  completely.  Tbe  pelta  are  atretched  and 
passed  tbrouuh  a  paring -machine,  which  pares  the 
flesh-side  with  snob  nicety  that  it  takes  off  a  thin 
layer,  and  ciitH  only  through  tbe  roots  of  the  coarse, 
deep-seated  haire,  which  are  consequently  eaaily 
■haken  or  brushed  out  In  this  way,  and  by  dyeing 
tte  fur,  beautiful  imitations  of  the  costly  seal-skins, 
ka.,  are  prepared  from  musquash,  hare,  and  other 

PELU^IUH,  the  Greek  name  of  an  ancient 
Egyptian  city,  situated  at  the  north-eastern  anale 
nt  the  Delta,  and  important  as  the  key 
Egj-pt  on  the  Asiatic  side,  lie  eastern  mouth 
31  tbe  Nile  derived  from  it  the  epithet  Pclnsiau 
[Ostium  FdivntKum).  P.  is  called  Sin  in  the  Old 
reatament;  and  both  words,  as  well  aa  the  native 
Coptic  or  Egjiitian  name  Perimunin,  or  Peromi, 
lignify  the  mud-city.  The  Oilium  Prluiiacum  w 
;hoked  up  with  sand  as  long  ago  as  tbe  Ist  c.  B.i 
uid  its  diitSDCe  from  the  sea  boa  ever  since  heu- 
jjcreasing.  P.  appears  to  have  ori^nu^ly  borne  the 
:iame  of  Anaris,  or  Abaris.  It  is  so  called  by 
Uanetho,  who  attributes  its  foundation  to  the 
Hyksos  abont  SOOO  B.  a  ;  but  it  Bnt  Ggures  in 
Km i- authentic  history  as  the  scene  of  Sennacherib's 
leFeaC,  when  (according  to  the  Egyptian  tradition, 
■8  reported  by  Herodotus),  the  camp  of  the 
iBavri.ins  was  invaded  at  night  by  a  boat  of 
ield-mice,  who  rnawed  their  bowatrii 
ihield- straps,  so  that  in  the  morning,  n 
Egyptians    fell  upon  them,  they  were  detenceli 


below  by  the  nm)er  border  of  Out  acetabdnm  (sea 
fig.  II.),  and  in  front  and  behind  by  the  anterior  and 
posterior  borders.  It  presenta  various  curved  lines 
and  rough  surfacee  for  the  attachment  of  the  gluleai 
and  other  powerful  muscles  connecting  the  pelvia 
and  the  lower  extreroitiea.  The  internal  surface, 
which  is  amooth  and  concave,  has  the  same  boun- 
dariea  as  the  eitemal,  eieept  inleriorly,  where  it 
terminates  in  a  prominent  line,  termed  the  linea 
Uio-pectinea.  The  surface  of  the  crest  is  convex, 
roughened,  and  sufficiently  broad  to  admit  of  the 
attachment  of  three  planes  of  muscles.  The  hor- 
de™ will  be  BufficienUy  understood  by  a  reference 
fi^  L    The  ueMum  is  the  inferior  Mid  strongest 


!ount  of   Senoacherib'-   

«e  2  Kings,  chaps.  18  and  ia  In  B25  B.  a,  Cam- 
)yse«  overthrew,  near  P.,  tbe  forces  of  Pharaoh- 
'sammetichus.  The  city  was  sJbo  taken  by  the 
'ersiana  in  309  B.  0. ;  and  in  173  B.  C,  it  was  the 
cene  of  the  defeat  of  Ptolemy  Fhilometor  by 
Ititiochos  Epiphuiea  blark  Antony  captured  it, 
i5  B.  a,  and  it  opened  ita  ^tea  to  Octavian  after 
LIB  victory  at  Actium,  31  B.  c  Its  later  history  is 
nimportant.  and  its  ruina — at  Txnth,  near  Damiutta 
-po«seBS  little  interest. 

PBXVIS,  Tea  (from  the  Latin  pelvii,  a  basin),  is 
boov  ring  intoposed  between  the  apiual  column 
nd  the  lower  extremities,  so  as  to  tranamit  the 
'ei^ht  of  the  [armer  to  the  latter.  Before  consid- 
ring  the  pelvis  aa  a  whole,  it  will  be  expedient  to 
onBider  the  individual  bonet  of  which  it  is  com- 
oaetL  Theae,  in  the  adnlt,  aro  four  in  number, 
iz^  the  two  ossa  innominata  which  constitute 
■  aidea  and  front,  uid  the  sacrum  and  coccvi, 
rhich  complete  it  behind  The  oa  innomtnaluni 
eceivea  its  name  from  its  bearing  no  resemblance 
>  any  koown  body,  and  is  a  large  irregular-shaped 
one.  In  the  young  subject,  it  consiste  of  three 
bones,  which  meet  and  form  the  deep 
sd  cavity  (the  awfoiu/um),  aitm  ■ 
le  middle  of  the  outside  of 
which  the  head  of  tbe  thigh- 
lence  it  is  usual  to  describe  this  bone  as  coasiating 
F  tbe  ilium,  the  ischium,  and  the  pubes.  The  ilium 
I  the  superior,  broad,  and  expanded  portion  which 
irma  the  prominence  of  the  hip,  and  articulates 
1th  the  sacrum.  This  bone  may  be  described  as 
iviiilile  into  an  eitemal  and  an  internal  surface, 
crest,  and  on  anterior  and  posterior  border.  Tbe 
xtemal  sorfaos  (see  fig.  I.)  is  convex  in  front,  and 
an:»Te  behind  j  it  i*  bounded  above  by  the  creat, 


fsraoan.-lffnim  Wllun.} 

portion  of  the  hone.  It  consist*  of  a  thick  and 
eulid  portion,  tbe  body  (whose  ioferior  border  if 
led  the  tudcnwity),  and  a  thin  ascending  portion, 
the  ramus;  In  the  ordinary  sittinij  ]>asition,  the 
whole  weight  of  the  body  rests  on  tue  ischium  ;  and 
by  Bitting  on  the  iianda,  we  can  nsually  feel  the 
part  (the  lubfronty.  see  fig.  L  15)  through  which 
the  weight  is  transmitted.  The  pabtt  is  that 
portion  which  runs  horizontally  inwards  from  the 
inner  side  of  the  acetabulum  for  about  two  inchest 
snd  then  descends  obliquely  outwards  for  about 
tbe  same  length,  thus  making  an  acute  angle  with 
its  original  direction.  The  former  part  is  culed  tbe 
bodif,  and  the  latter  the  ramut,  of  the  pubes.  The 
mmus  is  continuous  with  the  ramus  of  tbe  ischium. 
Between  tbe  ischium  and  pubes  is  a  large  apertiu^ 
known  as  the  thyroid  or  obtvmtor  /oramea,  which 
in  the  living  body  is  closed  by  a  membrane  termed 
the  eUuraior  ligament  The  object  of  this  targe 
foramen  is  probably  to  give  lightuess  to  the  parts, 
without  materially  diminishing  their  strength. 

Tbe  development  of  the  oa  innomioatum  affords 
an  excellent  example  of  tbe  general  principlea  lud 
down  in  tbe  article  OeeiFiCATiON.  There  are  no 
less  than  eight  centres  of  ossification  for  this  bone : 
three   primary— one    for    the   ilium,  one   for  the 


PELVia 


iBchinm,  and  one  for  the  pnbes — and  five  secondary 
ones  for  various  processes,  &a  The  first  centre 
appears  in  the  lower  part  of  the  ilium,  at  about  the 
same  period  that  the  development  of  the  vertebns 
commences,  viz.,  at  about  the  close  of  the  second 
month  of  foetal  life ;  the  second  in  the  body  of  the 
ischium,  just  below  the  acetabulum,  at  about  the 
third  month  ;  and  the  third  in  the  body  of  the  pubes, 
near  the  acetabulum,  during  the  fourth  or  fifth 
month.  At  birth,  the  crest  of  the  ilium,  the  bottom 
of  the  acetabulum,  and  the  rami  of  the  ischium  and 
pubes,  are  still  cartilaginous.  At  about  the  sixth  or 
seventh  year,  these  rami  become  completely  ossi- 
fied ;  next,  the  Oium  is  united  to  the  ischium  ;  and 
lastly,  the  pubes  is  joined  to  the  other  two  in  the 
acetabulum.  The  complete  ossification  of  the  bone, 
from  the  secondary  centres  in  the  crest  of  the 
ihum,  the  tuberosity  of  the  ischium,  &c.,  is  not 
completed  till  about  the  twenty-fifth  year. 

Each  OS  innominatum  articulates  with  its  fellow  of 
the  op|)osite  side  (through  the  intervention  of  the 
interosaeoua  fibro-cartUafje,  which  unites  the  two 
surfaces  of  the  pubic  bones,  see  fig.  II.  /),  with  the 
sacrum,  and  with  the  femur  (at  the  acetabulum). 
No  less  than  thirty -five  muscles  are  attached  to  this 
bone,  some  ]>roceeding  to  the  region  of  the  back, 
others  forming  the  walls  of  the  abdomen,  others 
forming  the  floor  of  the  pelvis,  others  passing  down- 
wards to  the  lower  extremities,  &c.    As  the  other 


Kg.IL 
PeWlB  (with  Fifth  Lnmhar  Vertebra)  of  Buropean  Femiile 
Adult.    Trannyerse  diameter,  6  7 ;  antero-posterior  diameter, 
4*5  inches. 

1,  the  \mX  lumbar  vertebra;  3,  the  inter- vertebral  substance 
connectlnfr  it  with  the  sacrum;  8,  the  promontorr  of  the 
Mcrnm;  4,  \i*  anterior  surface;  6,  the  coccjz;  6,  6,  the 
iliiic  foM^sB ;  9,  the  acetabulum;  e,  tlie  tuberosity,  and  ft  the 
body  of  the  ischium;  «,  the  os  puhia;  /,  the  S7mph3'iiiii 
pubix ;  gt  the  arch,  t,  the  spine,  and  k  the  pectineal  line  of 
the  pubis \kylfkt  /,  the ileo-pvctlneal lines.— (From  Humphry.) 

bones  entering  into  the  formation  of  the  pelvis,  the 
sacrum,  and  the  coccyx,  belong  essentially  to  the 
vertebral  column,  and  will  be  described  in  the 
article  on  that  subject,  it  is  sufficient  here  to  remark 
that,  collectively,  they  forhi  a  triangular  bony  mass 
(with  the  base  upwards,  and  with  a  concave  ante- 
rior surface),  which  constitutes  the  posterior  part  of 
the  pelvic  ring.     See  fig.  II.  4,  5. 

The  pelvis,  considered  as  a  whole,  is  divisible  into 
s  false  and  true  pelvis.  The  falae  pelvis  is  all  that 
expanded  |)ortion  which  is  boimded  laterally  by  the 
iliac  bones,  and  lies  above  the  prominent  line  termed 
the  linea  ileo-peetinea  (see  fig.  iL  ky  I) ;  while  the  true 
pelvis  is  all  that  part  of  the  general  pelvic  cavity 
which  is  situated  below  that  line.  The  broad, 
shallow  cavity  of  the  false  pelvis  serves  to  support 
the  weight  of  the  intestines;  while  the  rectum, 
bladder,  and  part  of  the  generative  organs,  lie  in 
the  cavity  of  the  true  pelvis.  The  upper  aperture  of 
the  true  pelvis  is  termed  the  inle^  it  is  somewhat 
see 


heart-shaped  in  form,  and  has  three  principal  dia- 
meters—an antero-posterior  (or  sacro- pubic),  which 
extends  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  sacrum  with 
the  last  lumbar  vertebra  to  the  symphysis  pubis, 
or  point  of  anion  of  the  two  pubic  bones;  the 
transverse^  at  right  angles  to  the  former,  and 
extending  across  the  greatest  width  of  the  pelvis ; 
and  the  oblique,  extending  from  the  sacro-iliac 
symphysis  (or  union),  on  one  side,  to  the  margin 
of  the  brim  corresponding  with  the  acetabulum  on 
the  other.  The  diameters  of  the  outlet  are  two— 
an  aniero-posteriorj  extending  from  the  tip  of  the 
coccyx  to  the  lower  part  of  the  symx>hysis  pubis ; 
and  a  transverse,  from  the  posterior  part  of  one 
ischiatic  tuberosity,  to  the  same  point  on  the 
opposite  side.  As  the  precise  knowledge  of  the 
diameter  and  depth  of  the  pelvis  is  of  the  greatest 
importance  in  the  practice  of  midwifery,  we  ^ve 
the  average  numbers  representing  the  dimensions 
of  a  well-formed  adult  female  {pelvis.  Di(imtt*ri  of 
inlet  or  brim — antero-posterior,  4*4  inches ;  trans- 
verse, 6*4  inches  ;  oblique,  4'8  inches.  Diameters  of 
ouUet — antero-posterior,  6  inches ;  transverse,  43 
inches.  Depth  of  the  true  /)f/r«— posteriorly,  4*5 
inches ;  in  the  middle,  3*5  inches ;  anteriorly,  1*5 
inches. 

The  pelvis  is  placed  obliquely  with  regard  to  the 
trunk  of  the  body ;  the  plane  of  the  inlet  to  the  true 
pelvis  form  lug  an  angle  of  from  60**  to  65°  with 
the  horizon.  According  to  Naegele  (Uther  das 
toeibliche  Becken)^  the  extremity  of  the  coccyx  is 
in  the  female,  when  standing  upright,  about  seven 
lines  higher  than  the  lower  edge  3  the  sj^mythysis 
pubis ;  the  upper  edge  of  the  symphysis  being  at 
the  same  level  as  the  lower  edge  of  the  second 
segment  of  the  coccyx.  By  attention  to  these  data, 
a  detached  pelvis  may  readily  be  placed  at  the  an^le 
at  which  it  normally  lies  in  the  skeleton.  The 
shape  of  the  human  pelvis  is  much  affected  by  the 
curving  forward  of  the  lower  part  of  the  socnim. 
This  bend  of  the  sacrum  forwaixl  serves  to  supix)rt 
the  viscera,  when  the  body  is  in  an  erect  ix)sture ; 
but  it  is  of  much  more  im|x>rtance  in  its  relntiou  to 
the  act  of  parturition.  If  all  the  antero-posterior 
diameters  of  the  true  pelvis  from  the  brim  to  the 
outlet  were  bisected,  the  points  of  bisection  would 
form  a  curved  line,  similar  to  the  curve  of  the 
sacrum,  and  termed  the  axis  of  the  pelvis.  As  the 
head  of  the  child  has  to  follow  this  curve,  the  diffi- 
culties of  parturition  are  much  greater  than  if  the 
axis  of  the  pelvis  had  been  straignt,  as  in  the  other 
vertebrata.  Without  entering  into  unnecessary 
details,  we  mav  remark  ^nerally,  that  the  fa^tal 
head  is  of  oval  sba})e,  with  its  greatest  diameter  h*om 
before  backwards,  and  that  in  its  passai^e  tlirough 
the  pelvis  it  is  so  placed  that  its  lon^t  diameter  at 
each  stage  of  labour  coincides  with  the  longest 
diameter  of  the  pelvis.  The  head  enters  the  pelvis 
with  the  occiput  (or  back  of  the  skull)  being  directed 
towards  one  ilium,  and  the  face  towards  the  other, 
while,  at  its  final  emergence,  the  face  is  turned 
towards  the  sacrum  and  coccyx.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  screw-like  or  rotatory  motion  which 
is  thus  given  to  the  foetal  head,  renders  its  |MSsa^ 
through  the  pelvis  more  easy  than  it  would  other- 
wise nave  been. 

There  are  well-marked  differences,  chiefly  having 
reference  to  the  act  of  parturition,  between  the  male 
and  female  pelvis.  In  the  female,  the  bones  are 
hghter  and  more  delicate  than  in  the  male,  and  the 
muscular  impressions  and  eminences  are  less  dis- 
tinctly marked.  The  iliac  fosso  are  large  and 
expanded,  and  hence  the  great  prominence  of  the 
hips.  The  several  diameters  (particularly  the  trans- 
verse diameter  of  the  brim,  which  measures  ooly  5*1 
inches  in  the  male)  are  somewhat  greater ;  and  the 


PEMBROKE-  PE^^ROKESHIRB. 


ucnim  also  is  wider  and  leas  cnrved. 

It  is  worthy  of  notice  that  the  pelvii  of  the  ncRrn 
fs  iQuller  m  all  ita  dimeaBiooa  than  that  of  tha 
European,  and  prespnta 
a  partial  approximation 
to  that  of  the  monkej 
(fig:  III.).  especiaUy  in 
the  deficiency  of  ita 
width.  This  difTerance 
is  verjt  ninch  more 
obrioui  in  the  male  than 
in  the  female  negro ;  and 
parturition  in  the  black 
races  ia  facilitated  both 
by  the  aacram  being  less 
curved,  and  by  the  tietal 
head  being  of  amatler 
dimensions.  In  the  apes 
and  in  I1 11  keys,  wluch 
approaoh  moat  nearly  to 
man,  the  pelvis  is  ' 
Kg.  III.  and  niirrower,  ant 

ttl'ix,  witli  iKo  Lumbiir  Ver-  leas  curved  than 
TSiItVer'e  diinipSr  *]'l'''*'il  1"^'"^"  subject  In  other 
anicro-po-iehior  (llJnieior,"l  mammals,  the  differenoea 
Incho.— iFrum  Humiilii'j.)  are  for  the  moat  ]iart 
the  same  in  kind,  bnt 
greater  in  degree.  In  many  of  the  Cheiroptera  (bats) 
uid  Insectivora  (sa  the  mole),  the  pubic  banes  are 
jnly  loosely  connected  by  a  small  ligament,  or  there 
ia  a  complete  opening  between  the  bones  (as  occurs 
[lormally  in  birda),  an  arrnn^enient  by  which  the 
let  of  parturition  in  tbese  aainiala  is  much  facilitated, 
rhe  pelvic  bonea  are  very  simple  in  the  Cctacea,  in 
lome  aaaea  being  represented  by  two  aimjile  elong- 
ated bonea  lying  near  the  anus,  and  coaverging 
From  opjiosite  sidea  (a  transverse  connecting  piece 
Ming  Buraetimcs  bat  not  always  preBect) ;  in  others, 
?y  a,  small  V-sba;ied  bone,  while  aometimes  (as  in 
Hanatus)  they  seem  to  ba  entirely  wanting.  The 
idriiti'inal  pelvic  bones  in  the  non-piaeent^  mam- 
nals  have  been  alremly  noticed  in  the  articles  on  the 
MAKaUFIATA  and  MoNOTBEMATA.  In  the  echidna 
Vlonging  to  the  latter  onler),  the  aeetabnlum  is 
MrforatfJ,  as  occurs  normally  in  birds.  In  birds,  in 
b.idJtion  to  the  peculiarity  just  notice<l,  we  liad  the  i 
jetvis  open  in  front  (or,  more  correctly,  inferiorly),  | 
Jiere  bemg  no  union  of  the  pubic  bones  in  any  bird 
■xcept  the  ostrich.  This  normal  incompleteneaa  of  i 
:he  pelvic  ring  is  obviously  for  the  purpose  of  facili-  j 
ati  a^  the  passage  ./f  the  e;^  It  is  unnecessary  to 
Tsce  the  further  degradation  of  the  pelvic  bonea  in 
,he  Kcjittles  and  Fishes. 

PEMBROKE,  a  aeaport  of  South  Wales,  ■ 
narket-town,  and  municipal  and  parliamentary 
Mroupb,  in  the  county  of  the  aame  name,  occupies 
t  rocky  ridge  on  a  navigable  creek  of  Milford 
Oavtrn.  7  mdea  soutb-east  of  MilFord.  On  the 
(Xtreraity  of  the  rid^fe  on  which  the  town  is  built, 
ire  the  remains  of  its  once  extensive  oaatle.  In 
1648,  the  castle  was  beleaguered  by  Cromwell,  and  ! 
^en  after  k  siege  of  six  weeks.  Within  tbia  ' 
Lncient  strongholiC  Henry  VII.  was  bom  in  1457.  j 
rhe  keep,  the  principal  building  in  the  inner  court,  [ 
s  75  feet  hizh.  and  163  feet  in  circumference,  and  is  ' 
mrmonnted  Dy  a  cone-shaped  rooF  of  masoniy,  still 
perfect.  Paiir,  otherwise  called  Pembroke  Dock, 
vhich  is  rather  a  sbip-building  than  a  commercial 
»itre.  ii  two  miles  from  the  town,  and  has  12  build- 
ng-slipa  and  a  dry-dock.  The  entire  naval  establiah- 
nent  rmbiaces  an  area  of  80  acres,  and  ia  surrounded 
}V  a  bi^b  wall,  flanked  by  two  martello  towers. 
mithin  P.  are  8t  Michael's,  a  church  of  Norman 
lat«,  and  numerous  ecclesiastical  and  educational 
Pop.  (1861)  of  parliamentary  borough, 


which  is  co-extensive  with  tha  municipal  hnronxb, 
15.071.  P.  unites  with  Tenby,  Milford,  and  Wiaton 
in  sending  a  member  to  partismeut 

PEMBROKE  COLLEGE,  Oxford.  Bkoadqatbs 
Hall,  a  place  of  education,  originally  belonging  in 
part  to  St  Frydeswyde's  Priory,  and  in  part  to  the 
monastery  of  Abingdon,  was.  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  religioua  houses,  given  to  Christ  Church  by 
Henry  VIII.  In  ]62!l,  it  waa  made  a  college  by 
Jomea  I.,  and  took  its  name  from  the  Earl  of 
Pembroke,  then  chancellor  of  the  university.  By 
the  ordinances  of  the  commissioners  under  17  and 
18  VicL  c.  81,  the  conatitution  of  the  college  ia  now 
as  foUowB  :  There  are  to  be  nut  less  than  10  f.aiow- 
sliipa,  open  to  all,  not  to  exceed  £2110  a  year  in 
value,  BO  long  as  the  number  of  the  fellow9bi]>s  is 
lesa  than  IG.  There  are  not  to  he  leaa  than  10 
incorporated  scbolai'ships,  value  £!>0  a  ye.ir,  and 
rooms  free ;  of  these,  5  are  ojx.'n,  5  lillecf  up  from 
Abingdon  School.  There  are  bi.>sides  11  other 
scholLirshi]>a,  subject  to  variutia  cmiditinns.  This 
,  college  presents  to  8  benetices,  of  which  6  have  been 
purohoKed  since  1812. 

i  PEMBROKE  COLLRGP*  Cambridob,  waa 
!  founded  in  1347  by  Mary  de  6t  Paul,  the  widow  of 
Aymer  de  Valence.  Earl  of  Pembroke.  She  waa 
maid,  wife,  and  widow  all  in  one  day,  her  husband 
being  alain  at  a  tilting-match  held  in  honour  of  her 
nuptiala.  On  this  sod  event,  ahe  sequestered  herself 
from  all  worldly  delights,  and  beqnejitlieil  her  estate 
to  pious  nses.  Henry  VI.  was  so  liWral  a  bene- 
factor to  this  college  as  to  obtain  the  name  of  a 
second  founder.  There  are  16  fellowships  and  24 
acholarahips  of  different  values. 

PEMBROKESHIRE,  a  maritime  county  of 
South  Wales,  and  the  westemmoat  county  of  the 
Principality,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Bristol 
Channel,  and  on  tha  W.  and  N.  by  St  Goorge'a 
Channel.  Area,  627  square  miles,  or  4()1,G9I  acres. 
Pop.  (ISei)  30,-278.  The  river  Teivy  seiwrates  the 
county  on  the  north-east  from  that  of  Cardigan.  On 
the  north  are  Newport  and  Fishsnard  B.iys,  tha 
latter  3  miles  in  width,  from  30  to  70  feet  in  de[ith, 
a-il  with  good  anchoring- ground.  Off  St  Dnvid'a 
Heail,  on  the  weat  coast,  are  a  number  of  rocky 
islets,  called  the  Bisho])  and  his  Clerks.  St  Bride  B 
Bay,  the  widest  inlet,  ia  8  miles  in  width,  and  haa 
an  inland  sweep  of  7  miles.  Milford  Haven  (q.v.) 
is  the  most  important  estuary.  The  shores  on  the 
Bouth  are  wild  and  inhospitable,  and  fronted  by 
high  precipitous  cliOa.  Tlie  surface  is  undulating; 
green  hills  alternate  with  fertile  valleya.  The  prin- 
cipal elevations  occur  in  the  Precelly  Hills,  which 
traverse  the  north  of  the  county  from  east  to  west, 
and  rise  in  their  highest  summit  to  the  height  ol 
1754  feet  The  rivers  of  the  greatest  importance 
are  the  Eastern  and  Western  Cleddnu,  which  unite 
and  form  a  navigable  portion  of  Milford  Haven. 
None  of  the  rivera,  of  which  the  Western  Cleddau 
is  the  principal,  are  important.  The  climate  ia 
mild,  but  damp  in  tha  aonth  of  the  county  ;  while 
in  the  north,  tlie  temperature  ia  conaiderably  lower. 
There  are  eiceUcnt  and  productive  soils  in  the 
south,  and  along  the  north-west  Coaat  the  barley 
districts  are  famous ;  but  the  land  on  the  Precelly 
Mountains  and  in  the  coal  districts  is  inferior 
Coal,  slate,  lead,  and  iron  are  the  only  miuerala 
worked.  The  county  ia  penetrated  by  the  great 
coal-Held  of  South  Wales,  which,  entering  from  the 
east,  narrows  aa  it  approaches  St  Bride's  Bay.  The 
coal,  which  is  anthracite,  and  ia  contained  in  beds 
of  shale  and  sandstone,  occur?  in  aeama,  varying 
in  thickness  from  a  few  inches  to  6  feet,  and  some- 
times more.  Oats,  barley,  and  potatoes  are  tha 
principal  cropa.    Tha  county  returns  one  member 


PEMMICAN-PEN. 


»ad  Tenby. 

PEIVIMtCAN.  Tb;a  vraa  oiisinally  ■  North 
American  Indian  pre^ration  mdr,  out  it  wu  intro- 
duced into  the  Brittah  navy  victualling- yards,  io 
«rder  to  supply  the  arctic  eipeditiooB  witS  an  easily- 
pre>erved  food,  containing  the  largest  aniount  ol 
tmtriment  ia  the  gmallegt  spaoe.  As  made  by  the 
IndiaoB,  it  consista  of  the  teaa  portions  of  vvniKon 
dried  by  Che  sun  or  wind,  and  then  pounded  into  ■ 
paste,  and  tightly  pressed  into  cakea ;  sometimea 
a  few  fruits  o£  Amdaneliifr  ooata  are  addad,  to 
improve  the  flavour.  It  will  keep  for  a  very  long 
time  uninjured.  That  made  for  the  arctic  voyaj^rs 
was  chiefly  of  beeL  In  making  pemmican,  it  U 
necessary  to  remove  the  fat  oomiuebely. 

PirMPHIGUS,  or  PO'MPHOLTX,  belongs  to 
that  order  of  skin-diseasea  which  is  characterised 
by  an  eniptiou  of  lai^  vesioles.  filled  with  seroua 
fluid,  and  known  aa  biiil<B.  The  disease  occurs  both 
in  the  acute  and  in  the  chronic  form.  Tn  a  mild 
case  of  acute  pemphif^iis,  buUie,  or  blisters,  from 
the  size  of  a  pea  to  tjiat  of  a  chestnut  appear  in 
BuccesaioQ  (cbiefly  on  the  extremities],  and  having 
oontioued  three  or  four  days,  break,  form  a  thin 
■cab,  and  soon  heal,  unaccompanied  with  febrde  or 
inflMumatory  symptoms.  In  severe  cases,  there  is 
considerable  constitutional  disturbance ;  tbe  bullse 
are  larger,  and  the  scaba  heal  with  difficulty.  The 
ahronic  form  diSen  mainly  from  the  acute  by  its 
prolonged  continuance.  'Dia  acute  variety  chiefly 
affects  children,  and  has  been  ascribed  to  dentition, 
errors  of  diet,  &c  ;  whiie  the  chronio  form  chiefly 
Attacks  af^  persons,  and  is  probably  due  to  debility 
and  impaired  nutrition.    The  acute  form  usually 

3uirei  nothing  but  cooling  medicines  and  diet,  and 
d  local  dressm^,  such  aa  aimple  cerate,  to  protect 
the  raw  anrfaces  from  exposure  to  tbe  air.  !□  the 
chronic  form,  a  nutritious  diet,  with  the  judiciona 
use  of  tonics  (iron,  bark,  Jtcj,  is  most  commonly 
■uoueasfuL  In  obstinate  cases,  arsenic  ia  sometimes 
of  use. 

PEN,  an  iostnimeat  for  writinc  with  a  fluid.  In 
ancient  times,  a  kind  of  reed  {Lat.  Calamut)  woa 
chiefly  usF'd,  though  sometimes  the  letters  were 
painted  with  a  fine  hair-pencil,  as  amODg  the  Chinese 
at  the  present  day.  Qudl-pens  (>es  QuiLW)  pro- 
bably came  into  use  after  the  iatrodnction  of 
modem  paper.  The  English  name  pen  is  from 
Lat.  penna,  a  feather ;  but  the  old  form  of  pfnaa 
was  puna  or  petna  (  =  Or.  peteron),  from  the  root 
pel.  to  fly;  and  just  as  Lat-  pfd  is  identical 
with  Eng.  fool  (see  letter  F),  Bo  piina  or 
|>rt«ron  corresponds  to  /taiher  {Ger.  feder).  Dar- 
ing last  century,  many  efforts  were  made  to 
improve  the  quill-pen,  the  great  defect  of  which 
was  its  speedy  injury  from  use,  and  the  conse- 
quent trouble  of  frequent  mendio);;  moreover, 
even  the  moat  skilful  maker  could  not  insure  uni- 
formity of  quality,  and  any  variation  afTected  the 
writer's  work.  These  efforts  were  chiefly  directed 
to  fltting  small  metal  or  eren  ruby  points  to  the 
nib  of  Che  quill-pen ;  but  Uie  delicacy  of  tSttinc  was 
so  great,  that  hut  very  little  success  attended  the 
experiments.  At  the  bcKinning  of  this  oantnry, 
pens  began  to  be  mode  wholly  of  metal ;  they  con- 
sisted 01  a  barrel  of  very  thin  steel,  and  were  cut 
and  slit  so  as  to  resemble  the  qnill-pen  as  closely 
H  possible.  They  were,  however,  very  indifferent, 
and  being  dear  (the  retail  price  at  first  was  half-a- 
orown,  and  subsequently  sixpeQce),  they  made  but 
little  way ;  their  chief  fault  was  hardness,  which 
produced  a  disagreeable  scratching  of  the  paper. 
In  1820,  Mr  Joseph  OiOott,  who  dealt  in  the  metal 
-pens  then  made,  nit  upon  an  improvement,  which. 


by  removing  this  great  defect,  gave  a  Etimnlu  ti 
the  manufacture,  which  has  cans^  it  to  be  developei 
to  an  extent  troly  marvellona.    This  consisted  ii 
making  tbree  slits  instead  of  the  single  one  formerb 
used,  and  by  this  means  much  greater  softness  uii 
flexibility  were  acquired.   MrGillott  alsointroducei 
machinery  for   the   purpose    of  canying   out  hi 
improvements,  and  thereby  ao  reduced  Uia  cost  o 
production,  that  he  was   enabled  to  sell  his  iin 
proved  pens  in    1821  at    £7,  4&  per  gross,  vhid 
was  then  considered  a  remarkable  success.     Bette 
pens  are  now  sold  at  twopence  per  gross  by  tii 
same  manufacturer ;  or,  in  other  wot^  864  pen 
for  the  same  price  as  one  pen  in  1621.     Nor  is  thi 
to  he  wondered  at,  when  we  are  acijnainted  wit 
the    wonderful    ingenuity    of    the    machinery    b 
which  it  ia  effected.      "tbe  lowest-priced  pens  u 
made  almost  entirely  by  machinery,  but  the  betU 
ones  require  much  hand-labour  for  their  completion 
nevertheless,  in  the  works  of  Mr  GillotC  alone,  wh 
is  only  one  of  several  large  manufacCureni  in  Bii 
mingbam,   the  annual   production   is  now   nearl 
150,000,000  pens,  requiring  a  supply  of  live  tons  pc 
week  of  the  tine  aheet-steel  made  for  the  purpose  i 
Sheffield,  a  portion  of  which  is  returned  as  scrap  o 
waste  for  re-manufacture.     From  Sheffield  Uie  sUt 
is  sent  in  sheets  about  eight  feet  king  by  three  fee 
broad  ;  it  is  prepared  from  the  best  iron,  general! 
Swedish  bloom.     The  manufacturer  then  prenares  i 
by  dipping  for  a  short  time  in  dilute  aulpkunc  acii: 
which  removes  the  tcale  or  black  surface  ;  the  acL 
itself  is   also    carefuUy  removed   by  immersion   i 
clean  water  ;  the  sheets  are  then  passed  backward 
and  forwards  through 
a     rolling-mill     with 
smooth  rollers,  which 
reduces   the   steel   to 
the     exact    thickness 
required,  and  givee  it 
greater    compactness ; 
It   is    next    slit    into 
strips  of  various  widths 
according  to  the  kind 
of  pen  to  be  made;  for 
the  ordinary  kind  it* 
width  is  seen  in  6g.  1. 
This    is    then    passed 
through     a     euttinv- 
macbine,  which  lapid^ 
punches  out  pieces  of 
the   shape   shewn    in 
flg.  2,  and  in  the  order 
shewn  in  fig.  1,  which 
is   a   portion   of    the 
strip  with  the  pieces 
or  blanks,  as  they  are 
called,   cut   out ;    that 
which    is    represented 
is  the  waste  or  scrap 

previously  referred  to.  The  blanks  are  now  pi 
through  a  succession  of  operations,  each  c 
by  a  separate  person :  women  or  girls  are  cuien; 
employed.  Tbe  first  process  is  called  Mlting  ,-  the; 
are  passed  one  by  one  into  a  cutting-machine  wo^e< 
by  a  emaU  hand-lever,  which  mokea  the  two  aide 
slits,  as  seen  in  figi  3.  The  second  process,  call« 
pUrcing,  is  performed  by  a  similar  machine  or  hud 
bich,  however,  only  one  punch  acts,  ant 
ant  the  small  hole  seen  in  fig.  4.  Tin 
ipeated  rolling  and  stamping  of  the  metal  haa  bj 
iiB  time  made  it ' — ^  "~     '   ""'  '   ' 

__iry  to  anneal  it, ;._     

of  the  slU  and  pierexd  blanks  i 
box,  and  placed  in  the  fire  for  a  time,  which  softeoi 
them  conaideiably  ;  this  is  the  third  process.  Wliei 
cold,  another  operator   reoeives  them,   and  witll 


P^.L 


PEN  HOLDEKS— PENALTY. 


Shn  hutd-pren  &uJ  n  punch  stampa  or  marks, 
:  i»  c&Ued,  the  name  ui  C''e  maker,  fig.  6,  which 
ititutet  the  fourth  proceai.  The  Gfu  ia  Bome- 
t  umilar,  and  ia  wmetunea  omitted ;  it  couaiats 


A 


iilacineitanderftnotherpr*!*,  which  hM  a  punch 
1  die  for  embosaiug  any  ornamental  mark.  The 
th  process,  called  rauing,  consists  in  passing  it 
)  another  press,  which  has  a  sinker  and  grooved 
,  as  in  fig.  0.    The  Bat  blank  a  ia  pushed  under 


Rg.& 

linker  c,  is  pressed  by  the  action  of  the  lever  into 
groove  t^,  and  comes  out  with  its  edges  curved 
as  in  6,  The  seventh  process  caDHiHts  in  A^rri^^n- 
which  ia  done  by  placiDg  the  pens  in  an  iron 
or  miiMe,  and  when  they  are  at  a  red  heat, 
wing  them  ioto  oil ;  this  renders  them  exceed- 
f  brittle  and  hard,  too  mach  so.  indeed,  for  they 
!  now  to  paai  throngh  the  eighth  or  Itmptring 
ess,  which  brings  them  to  the  reqaired  temper 
ardnesa  and  el^ticity.  The  ninth  operation  is 
ring ;  this  consists  in  putting  a  large  number 
a  tin  oylinder,  which  ia  kept  revolving  by 
machinery  ;  sand  and  coanie  emery- 
powder  are  mixed  with  t)iem;  and 
i  A  tha  friction  of  these  materials  and  of 
nV^  the  pens  themselves  cleanses  them 
from  all  impurities,  and  brings  out 
the  natural  colour  of  the  metaL  The 
tenth  and  eleventh  proceaaes  conaiat 
in  grinding  the  outeide  of  the  nib, 
firet  lengUiwiae  {iig.  7),  and  then 
^_  crosswise  (lig.  S),  which  are  done  by 
~4  different  persons  at  separate  grinding- 
*4fl  wheels.  Next  follows  the  moat  im- 
W  Xjjtf  portant  operation,  conatttuting  the 
8  twelfth  process  or  billing— i^t  is, 
Jng  the  eeatral  slit,  upon  the  nicety  of  which 
whole  Talue  of  the  pen  depends.  This  is 
1  in  a  band-press  similar  to  the  others,  but 
cutting  part  consists  of  two  chiaela,  one 
1  on  the  table,   the   other   oomiiig  down   on 


id  BO  acenntel> 

f.  The  operatOT 
then  akilfuUy  holds  the  pen  lengthwise  on  the 
fixed  chisel,  and  brings  down  the  movable  one 
so  as  to  effect  the  beautifully  clean  tfut  nhii:h  con- 
stitutes so  important  a  feature  in  the  manufacture. 
Two  other  processes,  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth, 
tin'sh  the  serie*:  the  Srat  ia  colaiiring.  by  heating 
them  in  t,  revolving  cyhnder  over  a  chorcoiS 
stove,  which  gives  them  a  blue  or  ytllowish  colour, 
according  to  the  time  employed ;  and  the  last  ia 
varnishing  tiiem  with  a  varnish  comjuaed  of  Ib« 
anil  naphtha.  In  the  works  of  Measra  Qillott,  from 
inspection  of  which  we  have  gathered  these  facta, 
there  ore  400  women  and  100  men  employed,  and 
the  daily  produce  is  enormous :  a  clever  girl  will 
cut  out  14,000  pens  per  day.  and  a  gooil  slitter  will 
^U  28,000.  Besides  the  kind  specially  described 
above,  many  other  forms  are  made,  es|iecially  the 
large  and  email  barrel  pens  \  but  the  piocessea  ore 
all  the  aame,  or  are  moditicatjons  of  thijse  deacribed. 
Oold  pena  are  eiteosively  made  in  Birmiugham,  and 
—  they  reaist  the  corrosive  action  of  the  ink,  they 
i  very  durable ;  their  durability  ia  also  greatly 
increased  by  the  ingenioua  but  difficult  proceas  of 
soldering  on  to  the  points  of  the  uib  minute  particle* 
of  iridium,  which,  from  their  extreme  hardness, 
resist  wear  for  many  years.  The  manufacture  of 
m-poiuted  pens  is  extensively  carried  on  in 
ty  of  New  i'ork,  where  the  proceaa  is  said  to 
hare  been  first  brought  to  perfection. 

PEN  HOLDERS  are  amall  turned  sticks,  usually 
of  cedar,  and  generally  with  a  steel  cylinder  to  fix 
the  pen.    They  are  used  only  for  metal  pens,  and 

made  by  machinery,  which  is  so  ingeniona, 

lUrns  the  cedar,  previously  cut  into  squar« 
sticks,  round,  often  in  a  spiral  or  otherwise  orna- 
mental style,  cuts  them  to  the  required  length,  and 
polishes  and  varnishes  them. 

PENAL  SERVITUDE  is  a  sentence  for  criminal 
offences,  which  was  recently  introduced  in  lien  of 
the  sentence  of  transportation  beyond  the  seas.  Sea 
Convict;  TRAMaPOKTiTlos. 

PE'NALTY  is  a  snm  of  money  declared  by  some 
tatute  or  contract  to  be  payable  by  one  who  com- 
lita  an  oifence  or  breach  of  contract.  It  is  con- 
idered  as  a  kind  of  punishment,  and  constituting 
adirectly  a  motive  to  the  party  to  avoid  the  ccm- 
'lission  of  the  act  which  inducea  such  a  conaequenee. 
Many  contracts  executed  between  partips  contain  ■ 
clause  that  one  or  other  of  them  who  fails  to 
perform  hia  part  of  the  contract,  will  incur  a  iienalty, 
-  -  will  be  liable  to  pay  a  tixtd  sum  of  money  to 
other  party.  In  such  caaea,  a  diatinctiou  ia 
drawn  between  a  liquidated  and  unliquidated 
penalty ;  and  whether  it  is  of  the  one  kind  or  the 
other,  depenils  on  the  language  used  in  the  contracL 
"  '  is  a  liquidated  [lenalty.  then,  when  the  breach 
intract  ia  committed,  the  party  in  default  must 
pay  that  preeiae  aiun,  neither  more  nor  leaa  ;  but  if 
"'  is  unliquidated,  then  he  is  not  to  pay  the  whole 
m,  but  merely  such  part  of  it  as  corresponds  to- 
the  amount  of  injury  or  damage  done,  and  of  which 
projiortion  a  jury  is  the  sole  judge  in  an  action, 
of  lianuLgea.  In  statutes,  when  penalties  are  declared 
Follow  on  certain  illegal  acta,  the  sum  is  »ome- 
es  tiled,  but  in  many  cases  only  a  maximum  sum- 
itated,  it  being  left  to  the  court  or  the  justices 
]  enforce  the  penalty  what  is  a  sufEcient 
puniahmeat  for  the  offence.  Sometimes  peunlties 
can  only  be  sued  for  by  the  parties  immediately 
injured;  but,  as  a  general  rule,  and  uulcsa  it  is 
otherwise  restricteil,  anybody  may  sue  for  the 
penalty,  for  in  an  ofTence  against  public  law,  where 
there  la  no  public  prosecutor,  any  person  who  chooeei 


naj  let  the  law  in  motion.  Accordingly,  nnt  oi 
may  anybody  in  t^cerat  me  for  the  )>«i^ty,  bat 
induoement  ia  offered  by  declaring  the  party  who 
<)oe8  BO  to  be  entitled  t«  the  whole  or  a  holE  of  the 
lidnalty.  Without  such  indiiceuieiit,  many  ofTencea 
would  be  unpunished.  The  party  who  so  sues  ia 
generaUy  called  the  informer.  Thua,  in  offences 
against  the  game  laws,  anybody  nay  sue  for  the 
penalty,  nnd  he  is  eotitlcd  to  half  of  it.  Sometinies 
the  penalty  can  only  be  saed  for  in  the  superior 
oour&  of  law ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  instances, 
the  enforcing  of  penalties  ia  part  of  the  adminiatra- 
tion  of  joatice  before  justices  of  the  peace.  It  is  for 
the  jiisticee  to  tii  the  amouat  if  they  have  (as  they 
generally  have)  a  discretion  to  do  so.  If  it  is  not 
paid,  the  justices  may  issue  a  distress- warrant, 
authorising  a  constable  to  seize  and  sell  the  goods 
of  the  party  to  pay  the  tine ;  and  if  there  are  no 
goods,  Uien  the  jDaticea  may  ciimmit  the  party  to 
prison  as  a  substitutionaiy  puaisbmeat.  Sometimes 
justices  have  a  discretion  either  to  imjtoae  a  penalty 
or  commit  the  party  to  prison  as  an  alternative 
pnaishment.  All  these  matters  depend  on 
construction  of  particular  etatute*. 

FETH^TSCE  (Lat.  pamiUmtia),  in  Roman  Catholic 
tiieology,  means  the  voluntary  or  accejited  aelf- 
inflictS  punishment  by  which  a  repentant  einoer 
manifests  his  sorrow  for  sin,  and  aceka  to  atone  for 
the  sin,  and  to  avert  the  punishment  which,  even 
after  the  guilt  has  been  remitted,  may  still  remain 
due  to  the  offence.  Penance  is  believed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Chnrch  to  be  one  of  the  sacraments 
of  the  New  Law.  It  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
it  brieSy  both  under  ita  relations  as  a  aacrament, 
and  OS  a  private  personal  exercise 

Penance  must  be  carefully  dirtiDguished  from 
repentance,  which  is  simply  sorrow  for  evil-doing, 
accompanied  with  a  purtiose  of  amendment.  Fen- 
aoce  la  tie  fruit  or  the  manifestation  of  tiiis 
sorrow,  and  it  is  commonly  accompanied  or  ex- 
pressed by  some  oF  those  external  acts  which  are 
the  natural  manifestations  of  any  deep  sorrow, 
either  negative,  aa  the  neglect  of  ordinary  attention 
to  dress,  to  the  care  of  the  person,  to  the  use  of 
food;  or  positive,  as  the  direct  acts  of  personal 
mortification  and  self-inBicted  pain,  such  as  tasting, 
wearing  haircloth,  strewing  the  head  with  aahea, 
watching  of  nights,  sleeping  hard,  tc  Such  mani- 
festations of  sorrow,  whether  from  motives  oE 
religion  or  from  merely  natural  causes,  are  common 
among  the  eastern  racea,  and  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  Scripture.  In  the  personal  jiractice  of 
the  early  Christians,  penance  found  a  prominent 
place,  and  the  chief  and  acknowledged  object  of 
the  stated  Foats  (q.  v.],  and  other  works  of  morti- 
fication which  prevailed,  was  that  of  penitential 
oorrection,  or  of  the  manifestation  o£  Sorrow  for  sin. 

A  still  more  striking  use  of  penance,  however, 
in  the  early  church,  was  the  disciplinary  one ; 
and  this,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  is  con- 
nected with  the  sacramental  character  of  pen- 
ance. Any  discussion  of  this  purely  theological 
question  would  bo  out  of  place  here,  and  it  will 
be  enough  to  state  briefly  that  Roman  Catholics 
number  penance  among  the  Seven  Sacraments 
(ij.  v.),  and  believe  it  to  ba  of  direct  divine 
institutioB  (Mutt.  xvL  19.  xviii.  IS;  John  xx. 
21).  The  maiter  of  this  sacrament  consists,  in 
their  view,  of  the  three  acts  of  the  penitent^ 
contrition.  Or  heartfelt  sorrow  for  sin,  as  baing  an 
offence  againrt  God ;  confeseioD,  or  detailed  accusa- 
tion of  one's-aelf  to  a  priest  approved  for  the 
purpose;  and  satisfaction,  or  the  acceptanoe  and 
accomplishment  of  certain  penitential  works,  in 
ntonement  of  the  saa  confessed  i  and  the  /orni  of 
the  saorameut  is  tJis  sentenoe  of  absolution  from 
sjg 


t«ntial  disposition  of  the  self-accusing  sin 
all  these  points,  of  ooune,  they  are  at  in 
Protestants.  Even  in  the  apostolic  tin 
practice  prevailed  of  excluding  persons  of 
ous  life  from  the  spiritual  fellowship 
Christian  community  (see  EicoiuinNiCATia 
without  attempting  to  fix  the  date,  it 
stated  as  certain,  from  the  authority  of  T< 
and  other  writers,  that  from  a  very  early  I 
persons  so  excluded  were  subjected  to 
penitential  regulations.  The  class  of  offei 
treated  were  Uiose  who  had  been  notorioual 
of  the  grievous  crimes  of  idolatry  or  a 
murder,  adultery,  and  other  scandalous  i 
The  period  of  penitential  probation  diff 
different  times  and  places,  bnt  in  gene 
graduated  according  to  the  enormity  of 
some  going  so  for  in  their  rigour  (see  No 
as,  contrary  to  the  cleariy-expressed  senst 
church,  to  cany  it  even  beyond  the  grave, 
earlier  ages,  much  depended  upon  the  spirit 
particular  church  or  cou  ntry ;  but  about  thi 
the  public  penitential  discipline  assumed  a 
form,  which,  eepecially  as  established  in  th 
Chnrcb,  is  so  curious  that  it  deserves  to  be 
described.     Sinners  of  the  classes  already 

had  their  names  enrolled,  and  were  (i 
churches,  after  having  made  a  prelimina; 
feasion  to  a  priest  appointed  for  the  j 
admitted,  with  a  bleasing  and  other  ceremo 
the  bishop  to  the  rank  of  penitents.  Thi 
ment  appear*  to  have  commonlj;  taken  p 
the  first  day  of  Lent  The  penitents  so  i 
were  arranged  in  four  grades,  called — 
proAlaionta,  Lat  fienUi)  'Weepers;'  : 
atroOmenoi,  Lat.  audimta)  '  Hearers  ;'  a  (G 
aiptnnla,  Lat,  prosternenlei]  '  ProstraterB  ; ' 
lutUmttt,  Lat.  con#uf«nI«)  '  Stonders.'  O 
nassea',  the  first  were  obliged  to  remain  on 
the  church  at  the  time  <tt  public  worship, 
ik  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  as  they  i 
The  second  were  permitted  to  enter  and  to 
the  place  and  during  the  time  appointed 
Catechumens  (q.  v.) ;  but,  like  them,  were  r 
depart  before  the  commencement  of  the 
part  of  the  Liturgy  {q.  v.).  The  third  wt 
mitted  to  pray  with  the  rest,  but  knee 
prostrate,  and  for  them  were  prescribed  mac 
acts  of  mortification.  The  fourth  were  pe 
to  pray  with  the  rest  in  a  standing  posture,  a 
apparently  in  a  distinct  part  of  the  chun 
they  were  exclnded  from  making  offerings  v 
1,  and  still  more  from  receiving  the  comi 
:  time  to  be  spent  in  each  of  these  gradoi 
differed  very  much  according  to  tames  and 
stances,  but  was  afterwards  regulated  by  el 
laws,  called  penitential  canons.  Still  it  wat 
power  of  the  bishop  to  abridge  or  to  prolon 
ower,  the  exercise  of  which  is  connected  v 
iatorical  origin  of  tbe  practice  of  Indulgenci 
Of  these  tour  grades,  the  firat  two  hardly  aj 
the  Western  Church.  It  is  a  subject  of  cont 
whether,  and  how  far,  this  discipline  was  ei 
to  other  than  public  sinners;  but  it  seems 
that  individuala,  not  publicly  known  as 
volimtaTiiy  enrolled  themselves  among  the  pe 
All  four  grades  wore  a  distinguishing  pen 
drees,  in  which  they  appeared  on  all  occai 
public  worship,  and  were  obliged  to  observe 
rules  of  life,  to  renounce  oertain  indnlgeni 
luxuries,  and  to  practise   certain   ausCeriti 


e  laborious  works  of  charity.    Hie  peni 


MNANG— PENCIIA 


WWCT,  conid  onty  be  restored  to  commUDiDn 
ahop  who  had  e^icluded  him,  and  this  only 
pLrstion  of  the  appointed  time,  nolen  the 
imself  had  shortened  it;  but,  in  case  of 
a  illneBB.  he  might  be  restored,  trith  the 
,  however,  that,  if  he  recovered  from  the 
<he  whole  coime  of  penance  should  be 
d.  The  reconciliation  of  penitenta  took 
nmonly  in  Hol^  Week,  and  wag  pubUcly 
d  by  the  bishop  in  the  ohuroh,  with  prayer 
isitioii  of  haods.  It  wm  followed  by  t^e 
ration  of  communion.  If  any  of  the  clergy 
ty  of  a  crime  to  which  tinblic  penance  wu 
they  were  lirat  deposed  from  the  rank  of 
y,  and  then  sulijected  to  the  ordeal,  like 

themselves.  Tbis  public  discipline  con- 
i  force  villi  greater  or  less  exactness  in 
3th,  and  Tth  centuries,  gradually,  however, 
placed  by  semi-public,  and  ultimately  by 
wnance.  In  the  11th  and  mh  centuriea. 
Ic  penance  had  entirely  disappeared.  The 
□it  origin  of  private  penatice  is  a  subject 
versy between  Catholics  and  Protestants; 
>r  contending  that  it  had  eiieted  from  the 

tbat  it  held  the  same  place  even  in  the 
public  penance  for  ircret  lina  which  the 
lenance  did  for  public  offences.  At  all 
rem  the  date  of  the  cessation  of  the 
iscipline.  it  has  eiiated  uuiveisally  in 
an  Church.    The  priest,  in  absolving  the 

imposes    upon     him    the     obligation    of 

certain  prayers,  undergoing  certain  works 

ication,  or  performing  certain  devotional 

These  acta   of   the  penitent   are  held 

■D   integral   part  of    the    sacrament  of 

ing  to  Protestants,  penance  has  no  coan- 
trhalever  from  Scripture,  and  is  contrary 
of  the  most  eXBential  principles  of  the 
ictigioili  fiarticularly  to  the  doctrine  of 
ion  by  faith .  in  Jesus  Chnst  alone,  on 
ad  of  his  complete  or  '  finished '  work  ; 
being,  in  fact,  founded  on  a  doctrine  of — 
-supplementary  atonement  by  the  works 
ings  of  man— the  sinner — himselL  The 
expressions  of  hnmilintion,  sorrow,  and 
M  common  under  the  Jewish  dispensation, 
ied  as  very  consistent  with  the  character 
apensatioD.  in  which  so  many  symbols  were 
.  It  is  also  held,  that  the  self-inflicted 
B,  M  fisting,  sackcloth  and  ashes,  he, 
I  and  earliest  Christian  times,  had  for  their 
■ose  the  iwrtifiaition  of  unholy  lusts  and 
isions  in  the  people  of  God  ;  or  the  expres- 
om>w  for  sin,  so  that  others .  beholding 
I  warned  of  its  evil  and  reetmined  from 
which  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
I  of  Christiknity,  if  kej.t  within  the 
f  moderation  and  discretion.  But  penance 
her  view,  as  a  pw>oii<d  axrei*t,  is  utterly 
Arguments  founded  on  the  meaning  of 
Greek  words  metanotS  and  melamtieomai, 
islated  in  our  English  version  Trpent,  are 
^ed  by  mauy  Roman  Catholio  contro- 
I — the  Former  being  represented  as  eqtiiva- 
the  English  Do  Penance;  but  this  is 
>d  by  Protestants  as  inconsistent  nith  the 
of  the  words  in  the  New  Testament  itself, 
nance  began,  as  a  practice,  very  early 
hristian  chun^  is  not  only  admitted  by 
ita,  but  alleged  in  proof  of  the  very  early 
E  those  corruptions  which  finally  developed 
M  in  the  d>Ktriaes  and  practices  of  the 
!ktholia  Church,  and  of  which  Protestants 
[  tbat  there  are  plain  intimations  in  the 
ikment,  oot  mily  prophetical,  bat  shewing 


the  development  of  their  germs  to  have  alread} 
begun  during  the  age  of  the  apostles. 

In  the  discipline  of  the  Protestant  churches, 
penance  is  now  unknown.  The  nearest  approach  tr 
the  Roman  Catholic  pohty  on  the  subject  was  that 
in  use  among  the  English  Puritans  of  the  ITth  c, 
aod  more  particularly  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
during  that  and  the  succeeding  century,  when  it  was 
common  'ta  moke  satisfaction  pubUciy  on  the  Stool 
of  Repentance'  (q.  v.).  It  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  the  Reformers  or  their  more  immediate 
successors  in  the  Protestant  churches,  that  their 
system  of  discipline,  iwith  its  public  rebukes  and 
enforced  hpmiliations  of  various  kinds — as  the  wear- 
ing of  a  sackcloth  robe,  and  sitting  on  a  particular 
seat  in  church — was  liable  to  be  interpreted  in  a 
sense  very  different  from  tbat  of  a  mere  expression 
of   sorrow  for   sin ;   but  the   belief   is   now   very 

Seneral  among  the  most  zealous  adherents  of  their 
octrinal  opinions,  that  in  all  this  they  adopteil 
Eractiees  iueongnioas  with  their  creed,  anil  in 
anoony  rather  vrith  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Nor  do  they  seem  to  have  perceived  tbat  Church- 
Disci]ilina  (q.  v.),  in  its  proper  sense,  as  relating  t< 


church  courte.  Penitential  humihations,  im))oae<l 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  are  now  no  more  in 
favour  where  church  discipline  is  most  strict,  than 
where  the  utmoet  laxity  prevails.  The  commuta- 
tion of  penalties  deemed  shameful,  for  a  fine  to  the 
poor  of  the  parish,  was  an  abuse  once  prevalent  ia 
Scotland,  but  never  sanctioned  by  the  higher 
ecclesiastical  authorities. 

PENANG.     See  Pulo-Psbavo. 

PENA'NG  LAWYERS,  the  commercial  name 
for  the  stems  of  a  species  of  palm  importeil  from 
Penang  for  walkiug- sticks.  They  arc  smaU  und 
hard,  and  have  a  {xirtion  of  the  root-stock  attached, 
which  is  left  to  form  the  handle. 

PENATES.     See  Lak^  Manss,  and  Pehatbl 

PE'IfCII'8  are  instruments  for  writing,  drawing 
and  painting,  and  they  differ  as  much  in  their  con- 
struction as  in  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied. 
Probably  the  pencil  was  the  first  instrument  used 
by  artists,  and  consisted  then  of  lumps  of  coloured 
earth  or  chalk  simply  cut  into  a  form  convenient 
for  holding  in  the  hand.  With  such  pencils  were 
executed  the  line-drawings  of  Aridices  the  Corin- 
thian, and  Tetephanes  the  Sicyonian,  and  also  the 
early  one-coloured  pictures,  or  monocAromato,  of 
the  Greeks  and  Egyptians ;  but  as  wet  colours 
began  to  be  used,  small  fine-pointed  brushes 
would  be  rei)uired,  and  we  find  it  recorded  tbat 
as  early  as  the  4th  c.  B.C.,  several  Greek  artists 
had  rendered  the  art  of  painting  with  hair, 
so  famous,  that  some  of  their  pictures  e 
vast  sums  of  money.  There  are  now  in  use  the 
following  kinds  of  pencils:  hair-i>eDcils,  black-lead 
pencils,  chalk- pencils,  and  slate-|ienc!ls.  The  first 
are  us^  for  painting  or  writing  with  fluid  colours, 
either  oil  or  water,  and  in  China  and  Japan  are 
employed  almost  entirely  instead  of  pens  for  writing: 
the  coloar  used  being  the  black  or  brown  pigment 
obtained  from  various  species  of  sepia  or  cuttle, 
tish.  The  manufacture  of  hair-pencus  is  of  gieat 
importance,  and  requires  much  care  and  skiU.  The 
ham  employed  are  chiefly  those  of  the  camel, 
badger,  sable,  mink,  kolinski,  fitch,  goat,  and  the 
bristles  of  hogs;  and  the  art  of  pencil-making 
requires  that  these  hairs  shall  be  tied  ap  in 
cylindrical  bundle*,  so  nicely  arranged  that  all 
their  naturally  tine  points  ^lall  be  m  one  direo- 
tion.  and  that  the  central  one  shall  project  the 
fnrthest,  and  the  othera  in  lucoesaion  ahall  rMede, 

m 


>   sold   for 


PENA5.0B. 


may  set  the  law  i»  motion.  Accordingly,  not  only 
may  anybody  in  j^eneral  siie  for  the  penalty,  but  an 
inducement  is  offered  by  declaring  the  party  who 
€>oe9  so  to  be  entitled  to  the  whole  or  a  naif  of  the 
][ienalty.  Without  such  inducement,  many  offences 
would  be  unpunished.  The  party  who  so  sues  is 
generally  called  the  informer.  Thus,  in  offences 
against  the  game  laws,  anybody  may  sue  for  the 
penalty,  and  ne  is  entitled  to  half  of  it»  Sometimes 
the  penalty  can  only  be  sued  for  in  the  superior 
courts  of  law ;  but  in  the  great  majority  of  instances, 
the  enforcing  of  penalties  is  part  of  the  administra- 
tion of  justice  before  justices  of  the  peace.  It  is  for 
the  justices  to  fix  the  amount  if  they  have  (as  they 
generally  have)  a  discretion  to  do  so.  If  it  is  not 
paid,  the  justices  may  issue  a  distress-warrant, 
authorising  a  constable  to  seize  and  sell  the  goods 
of  the  party  to  pay  the  fine ;  and  if  there  are  no 
goods,  tnen  the  justices  may  commit  the  party  to 
prison  as  a  substitutionary  punishment.  Sometimes 
justices  have  a  discretion  either  to  impose  a  penalty 
or  commit  the  party  to  prison  as  an  alternative 
punishment.  All  these  matters  depend  on  the 
construction  of  particular  statutes. 

PE'NANGE  (Lat.  pomitentia)y  in  Roman  Catholic 
theology,  means  the  voluntary  or  accepted  self- 
inflicted  punishment  by  which  a  repentant  sinner 
manifests  his  sorrow  for  sin,  and  seeks  to  atone  for 
the  sin,  and  to  avert  the  punishment  which,  even 
after  the  guilt  has  been  remitted,  may  still  remain 
due  to  the  offence.  Penance  is  believed  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church  to  be  one  of  the  sacraments 
of  the  New  Law.  It  will  be  necessary  to  explain 
it  briefly  both  under  its  relations  as  a  sacrament, 
and  as  a  private  personal  exercise 

Penance  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
repentance,  which  is  simply  sorrow  for  evil-doing, 
accompanied  with  a  purpose  of  amendment.  Pen- 
ance IS.  the  fruit  or  the  manifestation  of  this 
sorrow,  and  it  is  commonly  accompanied  or  ex- 
pressed by  some  of  those  external  acts  which  are 
the  natural  manifestations  of  any  deep  sorrow, 
either  negative,  as  the  neglect  of  ordinary  attention 
to  dress,  to  the  care  of  the  person,  to  the  use  of 
food;  or  positive,  as  the  direct  acts  of  personal 
mortification  and  self-inflicted  pain,  such  as  fasting, 
wearing  haircloth,  strewing  the  head  with  ashes, 
watching  of  nights,  sleeping  hard,  &c.  Such  mani- 
festations of  sorrow,  whether  from  motives  of 
religion  or  from  merely  natural  causes,  are  common 
among  the  eastern  races,  and  are  frequently  alluded 
to  in  the  Scripture.  In  the  personal  practice  of 
the  early  Christians,  penance  found  a  prominent 
place,  and  the  chief  and  acknowledged  object  of 
the  stated  Fasts  (q.  v.),  and  other  works  of  morti- 
fication which  prevailed,  was  that  of  penitential 
correction,  or  of  the  manifestation  of  sorrow  for  sin. 

A  still  more  striking  use  of  penance,  however, 
in  the  early  church,  was  the  disciplinanr  one; 
and  this,  in  the  Roman  Catholic  view,  is  con- 
nected with  the  sacramental  character  of  pen- 
ance. Any  discussion  of  this  purely  theological 
question  would  be  out  of  place  here,  and  it  will 
be  enough  to  state  briefly  that  Roman  Catholics 
number  penance  among  the  Seven  Sacraments 
(q.  v.),  and  believe  it  to  be  of  direct  divine 
institution  (Matt  xvi  19,  xviii.  18;  John  xx. 
21).  The  matter  of  this  sacrament  consists,  in 
their  view,  of  the  three  acts  of  the  penitent — 
contrition,  or  heartfelt  sorrow  for  sin,  as  being  an 
offence  against  Grod ;  confession,  or  detailed  accusa- 
tion of  one*s-self  to  a  priest  approved  for  the 
purpose;  and  satisfaction,  or  the  acceptance  and 
accomplishment  of  certain  penitential  works,  in 
Atonement  of  the  sin  confessed ;  and  the  form  of 
the  sacrament  is  tha  sentence  of  absolution  from 
S70 


sin  pronounced  by  the  priest  who  has   ieoeiT<ed 
the  confession,  and  has  been  satisfied  of  the  peni- 
tential disposition  of  the  self-accusing  sinner.     In 
all  these  points,  of  course,  they  are  at  issne  with 
Protestants.      Even   in    the    apostolic   times,    the 
practice  prevailed  of  excluding  persons  of  scandal- 
ous   life   from    the    spiritual    fdlowdiip   of    the 
Christian  community  (see  ExcoMMUiacATiON) ;  and 
without  attempting   to  fix  the  date,  it  may  be 
stated  as  certain,  from  the  authority  of  Tertullian 
and  other  writers,  that  from  a  very  early  time  the 
persons    so   excluded  were    subjected    to    certain 
penitential  regulations.    The  class  of  offenders  so 
treated  were  uioee  who  had  been  notoriously  guilty 
of   the  grievous   crimes  of    idolatry  or  apostasy, 
murder,  adulteiy,  and  other  scandalous  offences. 
The    period   of    penitential  probation  differed    in 
different    times    and    places,  but  in  general   was 
graduated  according  to  the  enormity  of  the  sin, 
some  going  so  far  m  their  rigour  (see  Novatiak) 
as,  contrary  to  the  clearly-expressed  sense  of  the 
church,  to  carry  it  even  bevond  the  grave.     In  the 
earlier  ages,  much  depended  upon  the  spirit  of  eacb 
particular  church  or  country;  but  about  the  4th  c^ 
the  public  penitential  discipline  assumed  a  settled 
form,  which,  especially  as  established  in  the  Greek 
Church,  is  so  curious  that  it  deserves  to  be  briefly 
described.    Sinners  of  the  classes  already  r^erred 
to  had  their  names  enrolled,  and  were  (in   some 
churches,  after  having  made  a  preliminary   con- 
fession to    a   priest    appointed  for   the   purpose) 
admitted,  with  a  blessing  and  other  ceremonial,  by 
the  bishop  to  the  rank  of  penitents.    This  enrol- 
ment appears  to  have  commonly  taken  place  on 
the  first  day  of  Lent    The  penitents  so  enrolled 
were    arranged    in    four    grades,    called — 1.    (Gr. 
proaklaiontes,    Lat.   ftentes)    *  Weepers;'    2.     (Gr. 
akrodmenoiy  Lat  audientes)  *  Hearers  ;*  3.  (Gr.  hjfpo- 
piptontes,  Lat  progternefUea)  '  Prostraters ; '  4.   (Gr. 
sustatUeSt  Lat  consigtentes)  *Standers.'      Of  these 
classed,  the  first  were  obliged  to  remain  outside  of 
the  church  at  the  time  of  public  worship,  and  to 
ask  the  prayers  of  the  faithful  as  they  entered. 
The  second  were  permitted  to  enter  and  to  remain 
in  the  place  and  during  the  time  appointed  for  the 
Catechumens  (q.  v.) ;  but,  like  them,  were  required 
to  depart  before  the  commencement  of  the  solemn 
part  of  the  Liturgy  (q.  ▼.).    The  third  were  per- 
mitted to   pray  with   the    rest,  but  kneeling  or 
prostrate,  and  for  them  were  prescribed  many  other 
acts  of  mortification.    The  fourth  were  permitted 
to  pray  with  the  rest  in  a  standing  posture,  although 
apparently  in  a  distinct  part  of  the  church;  but 
they  were  excluded  from  making  offerings  with  the 
rest,  and  still  more  from  receiving  the  oommimion. 
The  time  to  be  spent  in  each  of  these  grades  at  first 
differed  very  much  according  to  times  and  circum- 
stances, but  was  afterwards  regulated  by  elaborate 
laws,  called  penitential  canons.    Still  it  was  in  the 
power  of  the  bishop  to  abridge  or  to  prolong  it ;  a 

{)ower,  the  exercise  of  which  is  connected  with  the 
listorical  origin  of  the  practice  of  Indulgence  (q.  v.). 
Of  these  four  grades,  the  first  two  hardly  appear  in 
the  -Western  (3hurch.  It  is  a  subject  of  controversy 
whether,  and  how  far,  this  discipline  was  extended 
to  other  than  puMie  sinners ;  but  it  seems  certain 
that  individuals,  not  publicly  known  as  sinners, 
voluntarUy  enrolled  themselves  among  the  penitents 
All  four  grades  wore  a  distinguishing  penitential 
dress,  in  which  they  appeared  on  all  occasions  of 
public  worship,  and  were  obliged  to  observe  certain 
rules  of  life,  to  renounce  certain  indulgences  and 
luxuries,  and  to  practise  certain  austerities.  In 
some  churches,  they  were  employed  in  the  care  of 
the  sick,  the  burial  of  the  dead,  and  other  of  the 
more  laborious  woriu  of  charity.    Tlie  penitent^  in 


PENANG— PENCIIA 


ardmarr  oases,  oonld  only  be  restored  to  communion 
hj  the  Dishop  who  had  excluded  him,  and  this  only 
at  the  expiration  of  the  appointed  time,  unless  the 
L^ofp  himself  had  shortened  it;  but,  in  case  of 
dan^rous  illness,  he  might  be  restored,  with  the 
conmtion,  however,  that,  if  he  recovered  from  the 
illness,  the  whole  course  of  penance  should  be 
completed.  The  reconciliation  of  penitents  took 
place  commonly  in  Holy  Week,  and  was  publicly 
performed  by  the  bishop  in  the  church,  with  prayer 
and  imposition  of  hands.  It  was  followed  by  the 
administration  of  communion.  If  any  of  the  clergy 
were  guilty  of  a  crime  to  which  public  penance  was 
annexed,  they  were  first  deposed  from  the  rank  of 
the  clergy,  and  then  subjected  to  the  ordeal,  like 
the  lait^  themselves.  This  public  discipline  con- 
tinaed  in  force  with  greater  or  less  exactness  in 
the  5th,  6th,  and  7th  centuries,  gradually,  however, 
being  replaced  by  semi -public,  and  ultimately  by 
private  penance.  In  the  11th  and  12th  centuries, 
the  pubfic  penance  had  entirely  disappeared.  The 
nature  and  origin  of  private  penance  is  a  subject 
of  controversy  between  Catholics  and  Protestants ; 
the  former  contending  that  it  had  existed  from  the 
first,  and  that  it  held  the  same  place  even  in  the 
agee  of  public  penance  for  secret  sins  which  the 
public  penance  did  for  public  offences.  At  all 
events,  from  the  date  of  the  cessation  of  the 
public  discipline,  it  has  existed  universally  in 
the  Roman  Church.  The  priest,  in  absolving  the 
penitent,  imposes  upon  him  the  obligation  of 
reciting  certain  prayers,  undergoing  cert^n  works 
of  mortification,  or  performing  certain  devotional 
exercises.  These  acts  of  the  penitent  are  held 
to  form  an  integral  part  of  the  sacrament  of 
penance. 

According  to  Protestants,  penance  has  no  coun- 
tenance whatever  from  Scripture,  and  is  contrary 
to  some  of  the  most  essential  principles  of  the 
Christian  religion;  particularly  to  the  doctrine  of 
justification  by  faith .  in  Jesus  Christ  alone,  on 
the  groQud  of  his  complete  or  *  finished  *  work ; 
penance  being,  in  fact,  founded  on  a  doctrine  of — 
at  least — supplementary  atonement  by  the  works 
or  sufferings  of  man— the  sinner — himself.  The 
outward  expressions  of  humiliation,  sorrow,  and 
repentance  common  under  the  Jewish  dispensation, 
are  r^arded  as  very  consistent  with  the  character 
of  that  dispensation,  in  which  so  many  symbols  were 
employed.  It  is  also  held,  that  the  self-inflicted 
austerities,  as  fasting,  sackcloth  and  ashes,  Ac., 
of  Jewish  and  earliest  Christian  times,  had  for  their 
sole  purpose  the  nwrttfiotUion  of  unholy  lusts  and 
sinful  passions  in  the  people  of  God  ;  or  the  expres- 
sion of  sorrow  for  sin,  so  that  others  beholding 
might  be  warned  of  its  evil  and  restrained  from 
it;  all  which  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
principles  of  Christianity,  if  kept  within  the 
ix>undk  of  moderation  and  discretion.  But  penance 
in  any  other  view,  as  a  personal  exercise,  is  utterly 
rejected.  Arguments  founded  on  the  meaning  of 
the  two  Greek  words  melanoe6  and  metameleoTnai^ 
both  translated  in  our  English  version  Trepent^  are 
much  urged  by  many  Roman  Catholic  contro- 
versialists— the  former  being  represented  as  equiva- 
lent to  the  English  Bo  Penance;  but  this  is 
condemned  by  Protestants  as  inconsistent  with  the 
very  use  of  the  words  in  the  New  Testament  itself. 
That  penance  besan,  as  a  practice,  very  early 
in  the  Christian  church,  is  not  only  admitted  by 
Protestants,  but  alleged  in  proof  of  the  very  early 
growth  of  those  corruptions  which  finally  developed 
themselves  in  the  doctrines  and  practices  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  and  of  wnich  Protestants 
also  hold  that  there  are  plain  intimations  in  the 
New  Testament,  not  only  prophetical,  but  shewing 


the  development  of  their  genns  to  have  already 
begun  during  the  age  of  the  apostiles. 

In  the  discipline  of  the  Protestant  churches, 
penance  is  now  unknown.  The  nearest  approach  t^ 
the  Roman  Catholic  polity  on  the  subject  was  that 
in  use  among  the  English  Puritans  of  the  17th  c, 
and  more  particularly  in  the  Church  of  Scotland 
during  that  and  the  succeeding  century,  when  it  was 
common  'to  make  satisfaction  publicly  on  the  Stool 
of  Repentance'  (q.  v.).  It  does  not  seem  to  have 
occurred  to  the  Reformers  or  their  more 'immediate 
successors  in  the  Protestant  churches,  that  tJiieir 
system  of  discipline,  i  with  its  public  rebukes  and 
enforced  hpmiliations  of  various  Kinds — as  the  wear- 
ing of  a  sackcloth  robe,  and  sitting  on  a  particular 
seat  in  church — was  liable  to  be  interpreted  in  a 
sense  very  different  from  that  of  a  mere  expression 
of  sorrow  for  sin;  but  the  belief  is  now  very 
general  among  the  most  zealous  adherents  of  their 
aoctrinal  opinions,  that  in  all  this  they  adopted 

Eractices  incongruous  with  their  creed,  and  in 
armony  rather  with  that  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 
Nor  do  they  seem  to  have  perceived  that  Church- 
Discipline  (q.  v.),  in  its  proper  sense,  as  relating  to 
ecclesiastical  rights  and  privileges,  is  wholly  distinct 
from  the  imposition  of  penalties  by  churches  or 
church  courts.  Penitential  humiliations,  imposed 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  are  now  no  more  in 
favour  where  church  discipline  is  most  strict,  than 
where  the  utmost  laxily  prevails.  The  commuta- 
tion of  penalties  deemed  shameful,  for  a  fine  to  the 
poor  of  the  parish,  was  an  abuse  once  prevalent  in 
Scotland,  but  never  sanctioned  by  the  higher 
ecclesiastical  authorities. 

PENANG.     See  Pdlo-Penano. 

PENA'NG  LAWYERS,  the  commercial  name 
for  the  stems  of  a  species  of  palm  imported  from 
Penang  for  walking-sticks.  They  are  small  and 
hard,  and  have  a  xx)rtion  of  the  root-stock  attached, 
which  is  left  to  form  the  handle. 

PENATES.    See  Lares,  Manbs,  and  Penateb. 

PE'NCILS  are  instruments  for  writing,  drawing; 
and  painting,  and  they  differ  as  much  in  their  con- 
struction as  in  the  uses  to  which  they  are  applied. 
Probably  the  pencil  was  the  first  instrument  used 
by  artists,  and  consisted  then  of  lumps  of  coloured 
earth  or  chalk  simply  cut  into  a  form  convenient 
for  holding  in  the  nand.  With  such  pencils  were 
executed  we  line-drawings  of  Aridices  the  Corin- 
thian, and  Telephanes  the  Sicyonian,  and  also  the 
early  one-coloured  pictures,  or  monochromata,  of 
the  Greeks  and  Egyptians;  but  as  wet  colours 
began  to  be  used/  small  fine-pointed  brushes 
would  be  required,  and  we  find  it  recorded  that 
as  early  as  the  4th  c.  B.C.,  several  Greek  artists 
had  rendered  the  art  of  painting  with  hair-pencils 
so  famous,  that  some  of  their  pictures  sold  for 
vast  sums  of  money.  There  are  now  in  use  the 
following  kinds  of  pencils:  hair-i>encil8,  black-lead 
pencils,  chalk-pencils,  and  slate-pencils.  The  first 
are  us^  for  painting  or  writing  with  fluid  colours, 
either  oil  or  water,  and  in  China  and  Japan  are 
employed  almost  entirely  instead  of  pens  for  writing ; 
the  colour  used  being  the  black  or  brown  pigment 
obtained  from  various  species  of  sepia  or  cuttle- 
fish. The  manufacture  of  hair-pencus  is  of  great 
importance,  and  requires  much  care  and  skill.  The 
hairs  employed  are  chiefly  those  of  the  camel, 
badger,  sable,  mink,  kolinski,  fitch,  goat,  and  the 
bristles  of  hogs;  and  the  art  of  pencil-making 
requires  that  these  hairs  shall  be  tied  up  in 
cvlindrical  bundles,  so  nicely  arranged  that  all 
their  naturally  fine  points  shall  be  in  one  direc- 
tion, and  that  the  central  one  shall  project  the 
furthest,  and  the  others  in  succession  shall  n^^e, 

371 


PENDANT~PENDE2«TIVB. 


■o  tbat,  coIlei:tive1y,  the  whule  shall  farm  a  beauti- 
fully imootb  cone,  the  »\tex  of  which  »  a  sharp 
poiLiL  filack-lead  pcDciU  ate  made  of  graphite 
or  [ilumbago,  which  contaiua  no  lead  whatever  m  ita 
compoaition,  bnt  ia  ia  reality  aJmoit  pitre  carbon. 
See  BLkCE-LEAD.  The  misnomer  u  probably 
owing  to  the  fact,  that,  previous  to  the  employmeat 
of  graphite  for  making  pencUa,  commoa  li^ad  was 
used,  and  this  was  the  caae  even  within  the  present 
century.  Consequeatly,  as  the  pliirnbago,  with  ita 
bUck  streak,  offered  a  contrast  to  tbe  pale  one 
of  the  lead,  it  waa  called  in  ooDtradistiDction 
l'arl:.lead. 


Austria  aud  Prussia,  in  Caylou,  aod  various  parts 
of  North  America;  hut  they  tie  rarely  used  in 
J  le  II  oil- making,  except  for  very  inferior  kinds. 
lIlackTiead  is  rarely  sufficiently  free  from  sand  and 
other  foreiga  iojiredients  to  be  used  without  pre- 
paratiua;  it  is  therefore  generally  ground  fine,  and 
levigated  or  washed  until  it  is  pure,  and  again 
formed    into   iolid   blacks   by    means  of   enormouB 

Iiresaure.  generally  in  hydraulic  presses  j  these 
ilocki  ate  then  sawn  into  thin  pUtee  about  the 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness,  which  are  again 
cut  aoroBB,  so  «•  to  form  them  into  aniall  square 

r  appear  a  vei^ 

icri^il  graphite  ii 
difEcuit  in  pract 
the  employment  of  this  method,  which  has  led 
immense  improvement  in  pencil- making.  It  was 
found  at  first  that  the  difficulty  of  pressing  out  the 
contiuned  air  was  so  great  that  the  presses  were 
broken  under  the  weight  required;  presanrc  in  a 
vacuum  was  then  tried,  bnt  the  difficulty  of  apply- 
ing it  was  found  almost  insunnouutable,  and  it  was 
certainly  improlitabl^.  Mr  Srokedon  of  Loudon, 
who  has  long  been  famous  for  his  pencils,  at  last 
surmounted  the  difficulty  by  an  iugeiiious  and  very 
simple  prooesa.  This  consists  in  compressing  the 
block-lead  into  blocks  two  or  three  inches  square, 
with  only  moderate  pressure;  these  are  then  coated 
over  witn  paper,  well  glued,  so  that,  when  dry, 
the  covering  is  air-tight.  A  small  hole  ia  now 
made  through  this  coating  on  one  side,  and  several 
of  these  cubes  of  black-lead  are  pnt  under  tlie 
receiver  of  an  au'-pump,  and  tbe  air  being  exhausted 
completely  from  them,  the  orifice  in  each  is  closed 


a  the  ri 


nof 


r  when  they  are  taken  out  of  the 
They  are  next  placed  under  the  hydraulic  press, 
and  a  well-sustained  and  regular  pressure  is  brought 
to  bear  upon  them  for  twenty-four  hours,  auer 
which  they  are  found  to  be  so  completely  conso- 
lidated, that  in  cutting  them  the  substance  is  equal 
in  density  to  the  best  sjiecimens  of  unprepared 
graphite  There  is  so  large  a  variation  in  the 
colour  of  various  qualities  of  black-lead,  that,  by  a 
judicious  miitnre  of  them,  when  in  the  powdered 
state,  almost  any  shade  of  darkuesa  can  be  pro- 
cured ;  but  instead  of  thus  carefully  combiniug 
different  qualities  of  graphite,  it  is  a  common 
practice  to  add  sulphur  or  sulpburet  of  antimony, 
and  by  heating  to  procure  the  desired  degree  of 
blackness.  For  veiy  inferior  pencils,  the  worst 
quality  of  black-lead  is  mixed  with  black  chalk 
and  size,  or  gum-water,  and  formed  into  a  paste, 
of  which  the  pencil  ia  made. 

It  is  usual  to  enclose  the   material  constituting 
the  esaeotiol  put  oE  Uie  pencil  in  a  case  of  wood,  for 


its  protectinn  from  brenka^,  and  to  pre 
soiliug  the  handa.  The  woi,.l  (generally  c 
lirat  sawn  into  thin  boanls.  about  half  th 
oeas  of  the  intended  pencils;  tbes^  are  I 
into  small  pieces  about  ten  inchei  long,  t 
width,  which  are  placed  in  the  cutting  and  | 
machine.  This  machiue  consiata  principal!; 
circular  saws-  one  very  thin,  and  So  set  tlu 
oat  through  the  board;  the  other  revolvin 
t^e  eighth  of  an  inch  of  it,  so  set  as  only 
fine  square  groove  in  the  wood.  By  meam 
machine,  the  little  boanla  are  cut  into 
square  sticks,  each  having  a  groove 
surface.  Into  these  grooves,  the  little  j 
sticks  of  black-lead  are  laid  and  covered 
similar  piece  of  wood,  but  not  grooved.  A  w 
who  is  called  the  '  fastener-up,'  having  gl 
inner  faces  of  the  two  pieces  of  wood,  press 
together,  and  sets  them  to  dry  ;  after  whi 
are  passed  through  the  rounding-machine, 
with  a  semi-circular  smoothiug-plane,  cut 
ends,  and  then  polished  by  rubbing  tht 
a  piece  of  shark-akin.  The  last  process  is  s 
them  with  the  maker's  name  and  the  letti 
designates  their  pecuii:ir  quality.  These  lei 
H,  HH,  HHH,  B,  BB,  BBB,  HB,  FS.  H 
kani;  repeated  twice  and  thrice,  it  mean? 
and  nery  hard.  B  means  blade,  HB  tutrd  Sa 
and  so  on.     FS  signifies  linf  ilroix. 

Chatk-peucils  are  maiie  in  a  similar  mani 
that  linety-powJered  coloured  chalks,  such 
used  for  crayons,  are  aiibstjtutcd  for  the  bin 
Previous  l«  pressing  and  cutting  the  chft] 
miied  with  a  little  hot  melted  wax,  which 
softness  and  adhesiveness. 

Slate-pencils  for  writing  on  slate  are  mad 

-   ........      ^infig   JQto  t^JQ   gticka,  and  r 

_'  cutting  It  into  fine  square  si 
encasing  them  in  wood,  as  in  the  case  o 
lead,  &c 

PB'NDANT,  or  PENNANT,  U  a  aarroT 
great  length,  tapering  to  a  point,  and  carrie 
head  of  the  principal  mast  m  a  royal  ship. 
that  she  ia  in  commission.    In  the  British  n. 
pendants  are  bums  of  three  colours  —red.  i 
blue — according;  to  the  colour  to  which  the 
commanding  the  fleet  pertains.     See  Fi.aq-( 
A  broad-pennant  is  a  blue  pennant,  ahor 
broader    than    the    above. 
carried    at    the    mast-head   . 
of     a     oommo^lore's     ship,   ' 
to  denote  that  faer  captain 
is      the      commodore      on 
the    station.      A    firat.claas 
commodore  hoists  his  broad- 
pennant  at  the  fore ;   if  of 
the    second-class,    his    flag 
llies  at  the  mizzeu. 

The  radder-peadantt  are 
strong  ropes  spliced  in  t^ 
rings  oE  tbe  rudder-chain, 
to  prevent  the  leas  of  the 
rudder,  should  it  by  any 
aucident  become  unshipped. 

PENDANT,  a  hanging 
ornament,  used  in  ceilings, 
vaults,  staireases,  timber- 
roofs,  Ac,  It  is  sometim 
a  simple  ball,  and  sometim 
elaliorately  omameuted,  ai 
ia  chiefly  used  in  the  later  Qothie  and  Wit 

PENDE'NTIVB.  the  portion  of  a  vault 
on  one  pier,  and  fitending  from  the  sprii 
the  apex. — The  WL-rd  pendeutivr  ii  also  ap 


lu, 


PENDLETON— raWDULUM. 


>ns  of  TBalta  introduced  io  the  SDgtea  of 
IT  compwrtmenta.  in  order  to  reduce  them 
ukr  or  other   (uitKble   form  to   receivB 

iLETON,  B  township  of  Lancashire,  \nth  a 
I  the  Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Railway,  ia 
of  Manchester,  and  ia  2^  miles  weat-north- 
.e  town  of  that  name.  In  ISdl,  it  contained 
id  JD  1S61,  2II,<J'I0  iohabitants.  Since  then, 
itian  has  slightly  increased.  P.  ia  part  of 
mentary  boruugh  of  Salford,  and  since  1H52 
a  iucoriKirated  with  the  municipality  of  the 
>ugh.  The  rajiid  increase  of  its  population 
the  immense  industry  of  the  locality.  The 
te  are  employed  in  the  Dumerous  cotton 
milli,  prmt  and  dye-worka,  iron  foun- 
p,  and  uhemiual  works,  in  operaticiu  here. 
I  of  the  population  are  also  employed  in 
known  F.  collieries,  which  are  conducted 
h  eoterprise  by  the  lessiiea.  P.  ia  aUo  the 
of  a  portion  of  the  mercaotile  coiumuoity 
ichestcr,  whose  large  mansiuna,  with  their 
,  ganlt'aa,  are  dott«!  at  iotervala  along  the 
I  leadiag  from  the  townaliip  westward  to 


of  a 

sqailibriam.  In  its  more  uaiial  application, 
this  term  ia  restricted,  in  conformity 
tymology  (Lab  peadto,  to  hang),  to  bodies 
I  from  a  point,  or  oscillating  aboat  an  axia, 
i  action  of  gravity,  bo  that,  although  the 
leir  motion  are  the  same,  Hocking  Stones 
agnetic  Needle*,  Toniog-forks,  Balance 
a   watch,  Ac,  are  not  inclnded   in  the 

.pU  pendolum  consists  (in  theory)  of  a  heavy 
jiartiele,  susjicniied  by  a  flexible  string 
'eight,  and  therefore  constrained  to  move 
re  alwaya  on  the  inner  surface  of  a  amootli 
bowL  If  auch  a  pendulum  be  drawn  aaide 
;htly-iDcIined  position,  and  allowed  to  fall 
vidcntly  will  oecillate  from  eide  to  side  of 
n  of  equilibriimi,  the  motion  buicg  conBned 
cal  plane.  If.  instead  of  being  allowed  to 
it  be  projected  honxontally  ia  a  direction 
alar  to  that  in  which  gravity  teada  to 
he  bob  will  revolve  about  its  lowest  posl- 
tbere  is  a  particular  velocity  with  which. 
rojected,  it  deacribea  a  circle  about  that 
.  ia  then  called  a  eonieai  pendulum.  As 
'  of  the  simple  [lendulum  can  be  very  easily 
explained,  by  refer- 
ence to  that  of  the 
conical     peuduli 


the  li 


with 


^STbd 


«  that 
the  (lo-callcd)  Cen- 
trifugal Force  (q.  v.) 
must  balance  the 
tendency  towanls 
the  vertical.  ITua 
^p  tendency  ia  not 
—  directly      due       to 

gravity,  but  to  the 
tension  of  the  aoi- 
pending  cord.  Id 
the  tig.  let  O  be  the 
I,  OA  the  pendulum  in  its  lowest 
in  any  position  in  the  (dotted) 


circle  which  it  describM  when  revolving  as  a 
conical  pendulum ;  PB,  a  radins  of  the  dotted 
circle,  ia  evidently  perpendicular  to  OA.  Now,  tha 
centrifugal  force  ia  directly  as  the  radius  Pfi  ot 
the  circle,  and  inversely  aa  the  square  of  the  time 
of  revolution.  Also  the  radiiia  FB  ia  PO  ain. 
BOP,  the  length  of  the  string  multiplied  by  the  aiaa 
of  the  angle  it  makes  with  the  vertical ;  and  the  force 
towards  the  vertical  ia  proportional  to  the  earth's 
attraction,  and  to  the  tangent  of  the  above  nuglu — 
as  may  be  at  once  seen  from  the  conaidcriLtion  that 
the  three  forces  acting  on  the  bob  at  P  are  ]>arallct, 
and  therefore  proportiunal,  to  the  sidea  of  the  tri- 
angle DBF.  Hence  the  square  of  the  time  of  revc 
lution  is  directly  as  the  length  of  the  string  aud  tb« 
sine  of  the  aogle  BOP,  and  inveraely  as  the  earth 'a 
attractioQ  and  the  tangent  of  the  same  angle ;  or 
(what  is  easily  seen  to  be  equivalent)  to  the  length 
of  the  string  and  the  cosine  of  its  incUnatioa  to  the 
vertical  directly,  aud  to  the  earth's  attraction 
inversely.  Hence,  in  any  given  locality,  all  conical 
pendulums  revolve  in  equu  times,  whatever  be  the 
lengths  of  their  atrin^  ao  long  aa  their  heigklt  are 
eqiial ;  the  height  being  the  product  of  the  length 
of  the  string  by  the  cosme  of  ita  inchuation  to  the 
vertioaL  Mm  the  anuarea  of  the  times  of  revolu- 
tion of  conical  peadulumB  are  as  their  heights 
directly,  and  as  the  earth's  attraction  inversely. 

Now,  «D  long  at  a  conical  pmdaluia  U  dejlfcled 
only  through  a  very  small  angle  from  the  veriinil.  the 
motion  of  its  bob  may  be  considered  aa  com- 
[X)unded  of  two  equal  simple  pendulum  oaoilla- 
tiona  in  directiona  perpendicular  to  each  otlier.  such 
as  it  appears  to  make  to  an  eye  on  a  level  with  it 
aud  viewing  it  at  some  diatance,  first  from  one 
point,  say  on  the  north,  and  then  from  another  fi)* 
round,  aay  on  the  east.  And  these  motions  take 
place,  by  Newton's  second  law  (ace  Motion,  Laws 
or),  independently.  Also  the  time  of  a  (double) 
oscillation  in  either  of  these  directiona  is  evidently 
the  same  as  that  of  the  rotation  of  the  conical  pen- 
dulnm.  Hence,  for  iiBo/i  oroo/tTfirafion,  the  square 
of  the  time  of  oeciUation  of  a  simple  pendulum  is 
directly  as  ita  length,  and  inversely  aa  the  carth'a 
attraction.  Tliua,  the  length  of  the  second'a  pen- 
dulum at  London  being  391393  inches,  that  of  the 
half-second's  pendulum  ia  9-7S48  inches,  or  oiie- 
funrth ;  that  of  the  two  seconds'  pendulum  16G-5572 
inohe^  or  four  tiroea  that  lenrth-  It  foUowa  from 
the  princiule  now  demonstrated,  that  so  long  aa  the 
arcs  of  vibration  of  a  pendulum  are  all  small  rela- 
tively to  the  length  of  the  atrtng,  they  may  differ 
cotiaiderally  in  length  among  themaelvea  without 
differing  appreciably  in  time.  It 
is  to  thia  property  of  pendulum 
oscillations,  known  aa  Iai>chron- 
ism  (q.  v.),  that  they  owe  their 
value  in  measuring  time-  See 
HOBOLOOY. 

That  the  timea  of  vibration  of 
different  pendulums  are  as  the 
square  roots  of  their  lengths,  may 
be  demonstrated  to  the  eye  by 
a  very  aimple  experiment.  Sua- 
peud  three  musket  balls  oa 
double  threads  as  in  the  figure, 
ao  that  the  heighta  in  the  dotted 
line  may  be  aa  1,  4,  and  9.  When 
they  are  made  to  vibrato  almul- 
tancoiisly,  while  the  lowest  boU 
makes  one  oscillation  the  highest 
wilt  be  found  to  make  three,  and 
the  middle  baU  one  and  a  holf- 

A  pendulum  of  given  length  ia  a  moat  dtliosto 
instrument  for  the  measurement  of  the  relative 
amounts    of    the   earth's    attroLtion    at    differeat 


FIi.1 


places.     I^aotinilly,  it  givea  the  kinetic 

m<;nt  of  gntvity,  which  la  not  only  by  far  the  must 

CfUvenieDt,  but  also  the  true  measure.      By  thii 

afiplicatioii  <<{  the  pendalnm,  the  oblateucBa  of  the 
earth  hais  boea  deteniUDed,  to  term*  of  the  Uw 
of  decreaM  of  gravity  from  the  polea  tu  the  equator. 
The  instrument  has  also  beeu  employed  to  detarmiiie 
the  mean  deiuity  oE  the  earth  (from  which  iti  masa 
il  directly  derivable),  by  tbe  oboervation  of  ib  timea 
of  vibration  at  the  mouth  aod  at  the  bottom  of  a 
coal-pit  it  was  shewn  by  Newton,  that  the  force  of 
attraction  at  the  bottom  of  a  pit  de|>enda  only 
upon  the  internal  nucleua  which  remains  when  a 
•bell,  everywhere  of  thickness  equal  to  the  depth  of 
the  pit,  hiis  been  supposed  to  be  removed  from  the 
whole  surface  of  the  earth.  The  latest  observations 
by  tbis  method  were  made  by  Airy,  tha  present  astro- 
nomer-royal, in  tbe  Harton  coat-pit,  and  gave  for  the 
mean  density  of  the  earth  a  result  nearly  equiva- 
lent to  that  deduced  by  CaveniUsb  and  Moakels'ne 
from  eiperimenta  of  a  totally  diSerent  nature.    See 

BiBTK. 

If  the  bob  of  tbe  rimple  pendulum  be  slightly 
dis|)taced  in  any  manner,  it  describes  an  ellipae 
about  its  lowest  position  as  centre.  This  elli[iae 
may,  of  course,  become  a  straight  line  or  a 
circle,  aa  in  the  cases  already  considered.  The 
bob  dues  not  accurately  describe  the  same  curve 
in  successive  revolutions ;  iu  fact,  the  eUiptic 
orbit  just  mentioned  rotates  in  its  own  plane  about 
its  centre,  in  the  same  direction  as  the  bob  moves, 
with  an  angular  velocity  nearly  proportioaal  ta  the 
area  of  the  ellipse.  This  ia  an  interesting  case 
of  progrtttion  of  lh«  aptt  (Apsides,  q.  v.),  which 
can  be  watched  by  any  one  who  wLl  attach  a 
•mail  bullet  to  a  fine  thread;  or,  still  better, 
attach  to  the  lower  end  of  a  long  string  fixed  to  the 
ceiling  a  funnel  full  of  line  sand  or  ink  which  is 
allowed  to  escape  from  a  small  ori&ce.  By  this  pro- 
cess, a  more  or  less  permanent  trace  of  the  motion 
of  ijie  pendulum  is  recorded,  by  which  the  elliptic 
form  of  the  path  and  the  phenomena  of  progression 
aro  wtll  shewn. 

Acconliug  to  what  ii  stated  above,  there  ought 
to  be  DO  progression  if  the  pendulum  could  be  mode 
to  vibrate  simply  in  a  straight  line,  as  then  the  area 
of  its  elliptic  orbit  vanishes.  It  is,  however,  found 
to  be  almost  impossible  in  practice  to  render  tbe 

Sath  absolutely  straight ;  so  that  there  always  is 
-cm  this  cause  a  slight  rate  of  change  in  the  posi- 
tion of  the  line  of  oscillation.  But  as  Che  direction 
of  this  change  depends  on  the  direction  of  rotation  in 
the  eLipse,  it  is  as  likely  to  atlect  the  motion  in  one 
way  as  in  the  apposite,  and  is  thus  easily  se[)arab1e 
from  the  very  curious  result  obtained  by  Foncault, 
that  on  account  of  the  earth's  rotation,  tbe  pii 
vibration  of  the  pendulum  appears  to  'urn  i 
Bftme  direction  as  the  sun.  that  is.  in  the  opposite 
direction  to  the  earth's  rotation  about  its  ai'  *" 
illustrate  this  now  well-known  cose,  considt 
moment  a  simple  pendulum  vibrating  at  the  polt  of  the 
earth.  Here,  if  the  penrlulum  vibrates  in  a  straight 
line.  th«  direction  of  that  line  remains  absolutely 
fixed  in  space,  while  tbe  earth  turns  round  below  ' 
once  in  21  hours.  To  a  spectator  on  tbe  earth, 
appears,  of  course,  as  if  the  plane  of  motion  of  (he 
pendulum' were  turning  once  round  in  24  hours,  but 
m  the  opposite  direction.  To  tind  tbe  amount  of 
the  corresponding  phenomenon  in  any  other  lati- 
tude, oil  that  is  required  ia  to  know  the  rate  of 
the  earth's  lotation  about  the  vertical  in  tl: 
latitude.  Thia  is  easy,  for  velocities  of  rotati 
are  resolved  and  compounded  by  the  same  process 
u  forces,  henco  the  rate  at  which  the  earth  rotates 
about  the  vertical  in  latitude  y  ia  less  than  that  of 
MtatioQ  about  the  polar  axis  in  the 


to  I.    Henc«  the  time  of  the  apparent  rd 

the  plane  of  the  peoduliun's  motion  is  —  , — 
the  pole,  thia  is  simply  24  hours ;  at  the  pqni 
infinitely  great,  or  there  ia  no  effect  of  this  1 
the  Utitude  of  Edinburgh  (66"  67'  23-2 
2S'63  h.,  or  23  b.  37  m.  48  s. 

We  have  not  yet  alluded  to  the  obviona  f 
a  timpte  pendulum,  such  as  we  have  describe 
exists  in  theory  only,  since  we  cannot  procu 
a  sicgle  heavy  particle,  or  a  perfectly  li 
flexible  string.  But  it  is  easily  shewn,  alth 
process  cannot  be  given  here,  that  a  rigid 
any  form  whatever  vibrates  aiwut  an  axis  u 
action  of  gravity,  according  to  the  same  la 
hyintbetical  simple  penilulum.  The  lengt 
equivalent  simple  pendulum  depends  upon 
called  the  Radius  of  Gyration  (q.v.)  of^thi 
louB  body.  Its  property  is  simply  this,  th. 
whole  moss  of  the  body  were  collected  al 
whose  distance  from  the  axis  is  the  radius 
tiou,  the  moment  (q.  V.)  of  inertia  of  this  he: 
(about  tbe  axis)  would  be  tbe  same  as  ths 
complex  body.  The  square  of  the  radius  of 
of  a  body  about  any  axis,  is  greater  than  tli 
of  the  radius  of  gyration  about  a  para 
through  the  centre  ^  gravity,  by  tbe  squai 
distance  between  those  lines.  Now,  the  1 
the  simple  pendulum  e<juivalent  to  a  body 
ing  about  any  axis  is  du-ectly  as  the  squoi 
radius  of  gyration,  and  inversely  as  the  di 
the  centre  of  gravity  from  the  oiia.  Henc 
the  radius  of  gyration  of  a  body  about 
through  the  centre  of  gravity,  ^'f  -t-  h' 
about  a  parallel  axis  whose  distance  from 
is  h  i  and  the  length.  I,  of  the  equivalent  ajn 

dulum  is  1  =  — T — . 

This  eipreasion  becomes  infinitely  greai 
very  large,  and  also  if  A  be  v«ry  suuQl  (t 
body  vibrates  very  slowly  about  an  axis  ■ 
from,  or  near  to,  its  centre  of  gravity), 
therefore  have  a  minimum  valuet  By  sol 
equation  above  as  a  quadratic  in  A,  we  £i 
cannot  be  leas  than  ^k,  which  ia,  therefore,  t) 
of  the  simple  ppndidum  corresponding  to  tlie 
vibrations  which  the  body  con  execute  al 
axis  parallel  to  the  given  one.  In  this 
value  of  h  ia  equal  to  Ic  Heuce,  if  a  circular 
be  described  in  a  body,  its  axis  passing  thr 
centre  of  gravity,  and  its  radius  being  the 
gyration  about  the  axis,  the  times  of  oi 
about  all  generating  lines  of  tbis  cylinder  a 
and  less  than  the  times  of  oscillation  ab 
other  axes  parallel  to  the  given  one.  Al 
tbe  formula  for  I,  above  given,  may  be  thus 
4(1  -  ft)  =  i',  it  is  obvious  that  it  is  satislic 
be  put  tor  ft.  Heuce,  if  any  value  I  (of  co 
less  than  2i)  be  assigned  aa  the  length  of 
valent  simple  pendulum,  there  are  ttm  val 
which  will  satisfy  the  conditions  ;  that  is,  i 
two  concentric  cylinders,  about  a  generatin 
cither  of  which  the  time  of  oscillation  is  thj 
assigned  simple  pendulum.  When  l  =  i 
cylinders  coincide,  and  form  that  above  d 
And,  since  the  sum  of  the  radii  of  these  cyl 
I,  it  is  obvious  that  if  we  can  find  experi 
two  parallel  axes  about  which  a  body  oeci 
equal  times,  and  if  the  centre  of  gravit; 
body  lie  betiofea  these  axes,  and  in  their  [ 
diitana  bttiaten  Stat  axet  ii  tbt  ItnglA  of  th 
lent  rimple  p<mduluin,  Thia  result  is  i^  vi 
importance,  because  it  enabled  Kater  (who 
tirat  to  employ  it)  to  nae  the  complex  pend 

the   delermioatiaa  of  the   lengta  of  tlu 


PENELOPfi-PENODIN. 


id's  pendnlum  io  any  locality.  The  aimple  [ 
m  is  perfect  in  tbeory,  but  cannot  be  c 
sted  ;  and  tbne  the  metnod  vUch  enables  ui 
in  ita  reBQJtt  by  the  beln  of  such  a  pendulun 
UI  constmct,  is  especially  valuable. 
impentation  Paidutum.^Aa  tbe  lenoith  of  a  rod 
ar  of  ADy  material  deiiends  on  ita  teniperature 
Hkat),  a  clock  witb  an  ordinary  [lendulum 
falter  in  cold,  and  slower  in  bot,  weather. 
ooa  contrivances  have  been  derised  for  the 
ooe  o[  diniinishiDR,  if  not  destroying,  these 
to.  The  most  perfect  in  theory,  thongh  per- 
not  the  most  available  in  practice,  u  (hat 
r  D.  Brewster  (q.  v.),  founded  upon  the  eiperi- 
«1  diaoovery of  Mitscherlicb, tbatsomecrystola 
Hd  by  heat  in  one  direction,  while  contracting 
lio  perpendicular  one  ;  and  therefore  that  a 
nay  be  cut  out  of  the  crystal  in  sucb  •  direc- 
aa  not  to  alter  in  length  by  any  change  of 
lerature.  In  the  method  of  correction  usually 
oyed,  and  called  compm^alion,  adranta^  is 
n  of  the  fact  that  different  subatances  have  dif- 
(  coe:fficients  of  linear  dilatation  ;  so  that  if  the 
}f  the  pendulum  be  so  suspended  as  to  be  raised 
he  expansion  of  one  substance,  and  depressed 
he  expansion  of  another,  the  lengths  of  f" 
tive  portions  of  these  substances  may  be 
ited  that  the  raising  and  depression,  taking 
place  simultaneously,  may  leave  the 
position  of  the  bob  unalTected.  There 
are  two  common  methods  of  effecting 
this,  diff.:riug  a  little  in  construction, 
but  ultimately  depending  on  the  same 
principle.  Of  these,  the  mrrairial  yea- 
allium  is  tbe  more  easdy  described. 
3^^  The  rod  AC,  and  the  framework  CB. 
tB  are  of  steeL  Inside  the  fnunewoik  is 
*  placed  a  cylindrical  glass  jar,  nearly 
.  h  full  of  mercury,  which  con  b«  raised  or 
'*  depressed  by  turning  a  not  at  B.  By 
H^B  increase  of  temperatun,  the  «l«el  por- 
'  tion   AB  is  lengthened    by  an  amount 

;.  X  proportional  to  its  length,  its  coefficient 
of  linear  dilatation,  and  the  change  of 
eratnre,  conjointly— and  thus  the  jar  of  mercury 
aoved  from  the  axis  of  suspension.  But  neglect- 
ne  e^ipansion  of  the  ^obs,  which  is  veiy  small, 
lercury  rises  in  the  jar  by  an  amount  propor- 
I  to  its  bulk,  its  coefficient  of  cubical  dilatation, 
the  change  of  temperature,  conjointly.  Now, 
icreaaing  or  diminishing  the  quantity  of  mer- 
it is  obvious  that  we  may  so  sidjust  tiie  instni- 
that  the  length  (  t~  )  of  the  equivalent  simple 
ilnm  shall  be  nnaltered  by  tbe  change  of  tem- 
iire,  whatever  be  its  amount,  so  long  as  it  is  not 
enough  to  sensibly  change  the  coefficients  of 
ition  of  the  two  metals.  The  screw  at  B  has 
iig  to  do  with  the  aympcntoHon,  ita  use  is  to 
t  the  length  of  the  pendulum  to  that  it  shall 
te  in  one  second- 

e  construction  of  the  ifriiftran  pendulum  will 
>ily  understood  from  the  cut.  The  black  bars 
«el,  the  shaded  ones  are  brass,  copper,  or  some 
once  whose  coefficient  of  linear  dilatation  is 
than  double  that  of  stael.  It  is  obvious  from 
gnre  that  the  horizontal  bars  ore  merely  con- 
rs,  and  that  their  expansion  has  nothing  to  do 
the  vibration  of  the  pendulum,  so  they  may  be 
of  any  substance^  It  is  easily  seen  that  an 
ue  of  temperature  lowers  the  bob  by  eipand- 
le  steel  rods,  whose  effective  length  consists  of 
Lim  of  the  lengths  of  Aa,  BO,  and  (he  steel  bar 
tiicb  tbe  bob  is  attached  ;  while  it  raises  the 
by  expanding  the  broBS  bars,  whose  effective 
his  that  of  one  of  them  only;  the  other,  aa  well 


as  the  steel  rod  iK,  being  added  to  tbe  instrument  for 
the  sake  of  symmetry,  strength,  and  stiSneu  only. 
If   the   effective   lengths   of    steel   and    brass   bi 
inversely  as  their  respective  dilatation 
coefbcienta,  the  position  of  the  bob  is 
unaltered  by  temperature ;  and  there- 
fore the  pendulum  will  vibrate  in  the 
same  period  as  before  heating.    This  . 
is  on  the  supposition  that  the  weight 
of  the  framework   may  be  negli^Lted 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  boli  i 
if   this  wei|;ht  must    be    taken    into 
accoimt,    the    requisite    adjustment*, 
though    possible,    are    gicatly    more 
Comdex,  and  can  only  iJu  alluded  to 
here.      Practically,  it  is  found  that  a    c' 
strip  of  dry  fir-wood,   carefully  varn- 
ished, to  prevent   tbe   absorption  of 
moisture,  and  consequent  hygromutric 
alterations  of  its  length,  is  very  little        Fig.  i, 
affected    by   change  of   tempera'' 


Bcka,  this 


effective  substitute  for  the  more  elaborate  f 
just  described.  To  give  an  idea  of  the  nicety  which 
modem  astronomy  requires  in  the  construction  of 
an  observing  clock,  we  may  mention  that  the  Rus- 
sian astronomers  find  the  gridiron  suj>erior  to  the 
mercurial  pendulum  ;  because  differences  of  tem- 
perature at  different  parts  of  the  dock  case  (though 
almost  imperceptible  in  a  properly  protected  instru- 
ment), may  heat  the  steel  or  the  mercury  unduly  in 
the  tatter  ;  while,  in  the  former,  tbe  steel  and  brass 
bars  run  side  by  side  tlirough  tbe  greater  part  of  the 
length  of  the  pendulum,  and  are  thus  eimiutaneuualy 
affected  by  any  such  alterations  of  temperature. 

It  would  lead  us  into  details  of  a  character  far  too 
abstruse  for  tbe  present  work  to  treat  of  the  effect* 
of  the  hydrostatio  pressure  and  viscoaity  of  the  air 
upon  the  motion  of  a  pendulum. 

PENB'LOP^,  in  Homeric  legend,  the  wife  of 
Ulysses  (Odysseus),  and  mother  of  Telemachiis, 
who  was  still  an  infant  when  Ctysses  went  to  the 
Trojan  war.  During  his  long  wanderings  after 
tbe  fall  of  Troy,  he  was  generally  regarded  as 
dead,  and  P.  was  vexed  by  the  urgent  suits  of 
many  lovers,  whom  she  put  off  on  the  pretext 
that  she  must  first  weave  a  shroud  for  Laertes, 
aged  father-in-law.  To  protract  the  time,  she 
undid  by  night  the  i>ortion  of  thii  web  which 
she  had  woven  by  day.  When  the  suitors  had 
vered  this  device,  her  position  became  moro 
difficult  than  before  ;  but  fortunately  Ulirsses 
returned  in  time  te  rescue  his  chaste  spouse  from 
tbeir  distasteful  importunities.  Later  tradition 
iprcseeta  P.  in  a  very  different  light,  asserting 
lat  by  Hermes  (Mercury),  or  by  all  her  suitor* 
together,  she  became  the  mother  of  Pan  (q.  v.),  and 
that  Dlyases,  on  bia  return,  divorced  her  lu  conse- 
quence. But  the  older  Homeric  legend  ia  tba 
•mipler  and  more  genuine  veraion  of  the  story. 

PE'NOUIN  (AplenodyUa),  a  genns  of  birda  of  tha 
family  Alcida  (see  Atm).  or  constituting  the  family 
ApUnodiila,  regarded  by  many  as  a  anb-family  of 
Alcida,  and  divided  into  several  genera  or  sub- 
genera. They  have  short  wings,  ijuito  unfit  for 
flight,  but  covered  with  short  rigid  acale-lihtt 
feathers,  admirably  adapted  for  swimming,  and 
mucb  like  tbe  flippers  of  turtles.  The  legs  are  vei; 
abort,  and  are  pUced  very  far  back,  so  tluit  on  laiu 
penguins  rest  on  the  tarsus,  which  is  widened  like 
the  sole  (rf  the  foot  of  a  quadruped,  and  maintain  a 
perfectly  erect  posture.  Their  bones,  unlike  those 
of  birds  in  general,  are  bard,  comtioot,  and  heavy, 
and  have  no  air-cavities ;  those  of  tbe  extremitiea 
contain  an  oily  marrow.   The  body  ia  of  an  elliptical 


PENICItLARlA— PENITENTIAHIEa 


tonn ;  the  neck  of  modente  length ;  the  be»A 
■mall ;  the  bill  moderately  long,  streight,  more  or 
tcBi  oomprewed  ;  the  tail  very  ihort  Some  of 
them  hare  a  long,  slender,  and  pointed  bill,  the 
upper  nundible  >  little  curred  at  the  tip,  and 


Penguin  (Aplmodjita  ptnnatu), 

feathered  for  about  a  third  of  ita  lenifth ;  aome, 
aometimea  c&lled  OorfewB  or  Garfous  {Chrygocoma} 
liave  a  stout  and  pointed  bill,  a  little  curved  at  the 
tip;  some.  Sjihenisqiiea  or  Splieuiscftna  {SphentKcui), 
have  a  Btraiebt  and  compreBs^d  bill,  irregularly 
furrowed  at  the  base^  The  PeneuinB  are  all  among 
the  most  aquatic  birds,  althoiigii  tbej  are  Bcldom 
•een  very  far  out  at  sea. ;  but  it  ia  only  in  the 
breeding  seaaon  that  they  spend  moch  time  on 
■bore.  They  are  found  onl^  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, and  chieSy  in  high  sonthem  latitude*, 
although  some  oE  the  speciea  extend  into  wonn 
regions,  aa  Sphaiitatt  Humholdtii  to  the  coast  of 
Peru.  Of  this  species,  which  is  called  Paxaro  niHo, 
or  Child  Bird,  by  the  Peruvians,  Tachudi  states 
that  it  is  easily  tamed,  becomes  very  sociable,  and 
follows  its  master  like  a  dog,  waddling  along  in  a 
very  amusing  maancr  with  ita  plump  body  and 
short  legs,  keeping  ite  balance  by  motions  of  its 
little  wings.  It  displays  oousiderable  intelligence, 
and  learns  to  answer  to  its  name.  In  some  of  the 
furthest  antarctic  regions,  penguins  are  prodigiously 
numeruUB,  appearing  on  the  shore  like  regiments  of 
aoldiets,  or,  according  to  another  similitude  whidi 
has  been  used  by  a  voynger,  like  bands  of  little 
children  in  white  aprons.  TTiey  often  occupy  tor 
their  breeding  ground  a  sjiace  of  several  acrea, 
which  is  laid  out  and  levelled  and  divided  into 
•quares,  aa  nicely  as  if  it  had  been  done  by  a 
surveyor ;  whilst  between  the  comjiartments  they 
march  as  accurately  as  soldiers  on  [larade.  The 
ElMG  P.  [A.  Patachonica),  a  large  siiecies,  of  the 
aue  of  the  groat  aiik,  dark  grayish-blue  above,  white 
beneath,  with  a  black  head  and  a  yellow  carved 
band  on  the  throat,  is  found  in  such  nuniben  on 
aome  of  the  sandy  antarctic  coasta,  that  Mr  Bennett 
deacribes  one  breeding  ground  on  Maoquaria  Island 
as  covering  thir^  or  forty  acres,  and,  to  give  some 
notion  of  Uie  multitudes,  speaks  of  30,000  or  40,01)0 
birds  at  continually  landing  and  as  many  putting 
to  sea.  On  many  of  the  antarctic  shores,  the 
penguins  do  not  tiee  from  nor  seem  to  dread  the 
presence  of  man,  remaining  aa  if  stupidly  indifferent. 


the  idea  of  lonelinen  and  deaolation  more  p 
fully  than  if  them  were  a  total  abaence  ol 
When  attacked,  however,  they  often  shew  co 
in  self-defence,  and  are  i«*dy  to  ran  wiUi  ope 
at  an  invader.  The  yoong  are  reckoned 
eating ;  the  old  are  said  to  be  black  and  t 
The  name  P.  is  said  to  be  derived  from  the 

pinffllit.  Eat Penguins  make  no  neat,  but 

■ingle  egg  in  a  choten  place  on  the  ahote  ;  an 
egg  is  carefully  tended  both  by  male  and  ft 
The  female  P.  keeps  charge  of  her  young  for  i 
twelve  months. —  Many  of  the  penguins  are  bi 
bright  plumage. — Cuttlefiah,  and  other  Cepholc 
form  a  great  part  of  their  food.  Thar  vo 
loud  and  harah,  between  a  quack  and  a  bra; 
there  are  many  diversities  in  the  different  apei 
PENICILLA'BIA.      See    Gcinu   Cork 

MlLI-CT. 

PF.NITE'NTIAL  PSALMS,  seven  of  theP 
of  David,  so  called  aa  being  spucially  ezpresi 
sorrow  for  sin,  and  accepted  by  Chnatiao  del 
aa  forms  of  prayer  suitalAe  for  the  repentant  s 
They  are  Psalms  vL,  xxiiL,  iixviil,  li.,  cii.,  ■ 
and  cxliiL  according  to  the  Authorised  Ve 
which  correspond  with  vL,  iixL,  ixxviL.L,  cL.c 
and  cxiii.  of  the  Vulgate.  These  Pealms  have 
act  apart  from  a  very  early  jwriod,  and  are  rei 
to  as  such  by  Oriaen  (Horn,  li  in  Leviticum), 
Innocent  III.  ordered  that  they  should  be  r 
in  Lent.  They  have  a  special  place  in  the  It 
Breviary,  and  more  than  one  of  the  popea  att 
an  indulgence  to  the  recital  of  them.  The 
deeply  penitential,  and  the  most  freqiieDt  it 
both  public  and  private,  is  the  51st  Psalm,  o 
Marrert  (50th  in  the  Vulgate). 

PEN  ITE'NTI ARIES,  strictly  so  called 
institutions  for  the  reception  of  penitent  wi 
in  which  confinement  is  purely  voluntary. 
name  has  alao  been  applied  to  prisons  imde 
aeparate  system,  having  been  adopted  bj 
Quakers  of  Pennsylvania  in  1TS6,  when  they  c 
iLe  legislature  of  that  state  to  abolish  the  pi 
menta  of  death,  mutilation,  and  the  whip,  ai 
substitute  Bolitary  confinement  as  a  reform 
process.  Of  penitentiaries,  in  the  tirat  i 
there  are  63  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland, 
able  of  receiving  2657  inmates,  besides  num 
small  private  '  Homes.'  The  singEe  conditii 
admission  to  most  of  the  institutions  ia  '  penit 
a  desire  and  endeavour  to  return  to  a  virtuom 
The  inmatee  remain  in  the  strictest  seclusio 
periods  varying  from  a  few  months  to  two  ; 
the  average  time  being  about  a  year;  they 
return  to  their  friends,  or  to  situations  pro 
for  them.  It  is  an  invariable  rule  not  to  di 
any  one  without  seeing  that  she  is  provided 
the  means  of  honest  subaietence.  During 
seclusion  they  are  employed  in  needlework, ' 
ing,  and  housework-  itie  ages  at  which 
are  received  vary  from  14  to  40.  In  the  n 
polls  there  are  19  institutions,  accommod 
1165  women  ;  in  other  towns  of  England,  34 
tutiona,  accommodating  1116;  and  in  the 
towns  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  10  institu 
with  accommodation  for  3S6.  One  third  a. 
provincial,  and  one  half  of  the  metropolitan  t 
lishmenta  have  been  created  in  the  last  ten  i 
The  oldest  institution  in  existenco  is  the  Lc 


of  tite  others  date  earlier  than  the  pi 
century.  The  results  of  these  penitentiarie 
far  as  they  cau  be  ascertained,  are  exce 
During  the  last  100  years,  8983  women  have  p 
throu^  the  London  Magdalen,  and  the  ccun 


^ENITENTIABT— PENN. 


i>t  the;  bkve  found,  from  their  Bxteruive 
ice,  that  70  per  ceoi  ilre  permsneatlj 
d.  All  the  iastitutioDl  can  uiew  a  very 
tr-centage  reatored  to  their  friends  and  to 

[TENTIART  (LaL  and  ItaL  penilentianm), 
M  given  to  one  of  the  offices  of  the  Komaa 
id  alio  to  the  dipiit&ry  (a  cardinal,  called 
iariui)  who  preeides  over  it.  The  cardinal 
jary  must  be  a  piiert  and  a  doctor  of 
'  or  canon  law.  Ha  is  named  by  the  pope 
and  should  the  penitentiary  die  while  the 
tee  is  vacant,  the  cardinals  must  be  Bpecially 
9d  to  elect  by  secret  scrutiny  a  pro-peaiten- 
I  act  for  the  time.  The  officials  of  the 
iory,  nndcr  the  cardinal  penitentiary,  are  a 
^ree  eecretaties.  three  clerks,  a  correctar,  a 
r  in  theology,  and  another  in  canon  law, 
or  two  minur  ofBcers.  The  subjects  which 
ider  the  notira  of  the  penitentiary  are  oil 
relating  to  the  confessional,  ea|iecislly  the 
in   from  sins  and  from  canonical  censurea, 

to  the  pope,  and  in  certain  cases  dispensa- 
im  the  impediments  of  marriage. 
1,  'William,  a  celebrated  English  Quaker 
lanthropiat,  the  f oimder  of  the  colony  of 
rania,  was  the  eon  of  Sir  William  Penn, 
lent    English    admiral,   and    was    bom    at 

14th  Ochiber  1641  His  eaily  yeara  were 
irtly  in  Essex  and  partly  in  Ireland,  where 
■X  had  several  estatea     r.  studied  at  ChrisC 

Oxford,  and  while  here  was  converted  to 
un  by  the  preaching  of  a  diacipie  of  George 
ned  Thomas  Loa.  His  eathualasm  for  hie 
,b  assumed  a  pugnacious  form.  Not  only 
jbject  personally  to  attend  the  services  of 
rch  of  England,  and  to  wear  the  sur^.lioe  of 
it — both  of  which  he  considered  eminently 
il— but,  along  with  some  companions  who 
I  become  Quakers,  he  attacked  several  of 
w-atudcnts,  and  tore  the  obnoxious  robes 
eir  backs.  For  this  unseemly  procedure 
expelled  from  the  university.  His  father 
xcessively  annoyed  at  hia  conduct,  that  he 

a  beating,  and  turned  him  out  of  doora ; 
luon  afterwards  molliiied,  and  sent  his  son 
I  on  tliB  continent,  in  the  hope  that  change 
and  the  gaiety  of  French  life  would  change 
b  of  his  mind.  They  failed,  however,  to 
is.  but  the  youth  certainly  acquired  a  grace 
^ity  of  address  that  ha  did  not  before  pos- 
I  1666  the  admiral  aent  him  to  Ireland  to 
er  his  estates  in  the  county  of  Cork,  which 
a  hia  father's  complete  satisfaction  ;  for  in 
of  business  he  was  as  practical  an  English- 
in  religion  he  was  an  out-and-out  mj^stic 
ity  of  Cork,  however,  he  again  fell  in  with 
Loe,  and  for  attending  a  Quaker  meeting 
ng  with  some  others,  imprisoned  by  the 
>ut  was  immediately  afterwards  released  on 
g  to  the  lord  president  of  the  Council  of 
,  who  was  peraonally  acquainted  with  him. 
return  to  England,  F.  and  his  father  again 
nI,  because  the  'conscience'  of  the  former 
ot  allow  him  to  take  off  his  hat  to  anybody 
'en  to  the  king,  the  Duke  of  York,  or  the 
himself.  P.  was  again  turned  oat  of  doora  by 
ipa  testy,  but  assuredly  provoked  parenL  The 
however,  stepped  in,  and  smoothed  matters 
lat  P.  was  allowed  to  return  home,  and  the 
even  exerted  his  influence  with  the  govem- 
wink  at  hia  son's  attendance  at  the  illegal 
cles  of  the  Quakere,  which  nothing  would 
lim  to  give  up.  In  1668,  however,  he  was 
into  the  Tower,  on  aocoant  of  a  publication 


entitled  The  Sandy  Faandation  SAaSxn,  in  which 
he  attacked  the  oiiiinary  doctnuea  of  the  Trinity, 
God'a  '  satisfaction'  in  the  death  of  Christ,  and  jus- 
tihcation  by  the  imputation  of  Christ's  righteous- 
nesa.  While  in  prison  he  wrote  the  most  famont 
and  popular  of  his  books,  No  Crou,  no  Croum,  and 
Innoeatey  ujilh  her  Open  Faix,  a  vindication  of  him- 
self, which  contributed  to  his  liberation,  which  waa 
obtained  through  the  interference  of  the  Duke  of 
York.  In  September  1670,  Admiral  Penn  died, 
leaving  his  son  an  estate  of  XI6CKJ  a  year,  together 
with  claims  upon  government  for  i.lG.0UO.  la 
1671,  the  upright  but  incorrigible  sectary  waa 
again  committed  to  the  Tower  for  preaching, 
and  as  he  would  not  take  an  oath  at  his  trial,  ha 
was  sent  to  Newgate  for  aii  months.  Here  ha 
wrote  four  treatises  ;  one  of  them,  entitled  Tkt 
Ortat  Caute  of  LVitrty  of  Contcimre,  is  an  admir- 
able defence  of  the  doctrine  of  toleration.  After 
,^  ining  his  liberty  ha  viaited  Holland  and 
Germany,  along  with  Fox  and  Barclay,  for  the 
advancement  of  Quakerism.  The  Countess  Palatine 
Elizabeth,  the  granddaughter  of  James  I.,  shewed 
him  particular  favour.  On  hia  returu.  he  married, 
in  the  beginning  of  1672,  Gulielma  Maria  Springett, 
daughter  of  Sir  William  Sjiringctt,  and  for  aume 

B    thereafter    continued     to    propagate,     by 

;hin^  and  writing,  the  doctrines  of  his  sect, 
imetances  having  turned  his  attention  to  the 
New  World,  he,  in  1681,  obtained  from  the  crown, 
lieu  of  hia  monetary  claim  upon  it,  a  grant 
the  territory  now  forming  the  state  of  Peon- 
ay  Ivania.  P.  wanted  to  call  it  Sylvania,  on 
account  of  ita  forests;  but  the  king  (Charlea 
IL)  good-hnmouredly  inaisted  on  the  [irefiK  Penn. 
His  great  desire  was  to  estal>)ish  a  home  for 
his  CO- religionists  in  the  distant  West,  where  they 
might  preach  and  practise  their  convictions  in 
unmolested  peace.  P.,  with  aeverol  friends,  sailed 
for  the  Delaware  in  August  16S2,  waa  weU  received 
by  the  settlers,  and  on  the  30th  of  November  held 
his  famous  interview  with  the  Indian  tribes,  under 
a  large  elm-tree  at  Shackamaxon,  now  Kensington. 
He  next  plan  ned  and  named  the  city  of  Piiiladelphia, 
and  for  ^o  years  governed  the  colony  in  the  wiaeat^ 
most  benevolent,  and  liberal  manner.  Not  only 
Quake™,  but  peraecnted  members  of  other  religious 
sects,  sought  refuge  iu  his  new  colony,  where,  from 
the  flrst,  the  principle  of  toleration  was  established 
by  law.  Having  <»lled  the  colonists  together,  he 
gave  tha  infant  state  a  constitution  in  twenty-four 
articles.  Towards  the  end  of  the  reign  of  Charles 
Il„  P.  retnmed  to  England  to  exert  himself  in 
favour  of  his  peraecnted  brethren  at  home.  His 
influence  with  James  II. — an  old  friend  of  his 
father's^was  so  great,  that  many  people  then,  and 
soma  even  yet.  do  not  feel  qmte  satistied  about 
the  nature  of  their  relations;  but  the  suspicion  tiiat 
he  allowed  himself  to  be  used  as  a  tool  by  the 
court  is  really  not  justified  by  any  known  facts. 
It  is  possible,  for  his  position  was  equivocal,  but 
it  is  not  proven,  and  Lord  Macaulay — who  bos 
urged  the  view  of  his  complicity  in  some  of  the 
disgracehd  incidents  that  followed  Monmouth's 
rebellion,  with  an  ungracious  animosity — has  been 
convicted  of  haste  and  inaccuracy  in  several 
important  particulara.'  At  any  rate,  his  exertions 
in  favour  of  the  Quakera  were  so  far  anccessfui, 
that  in  1686  a  proclamation  was  issued  to  re- 
lease all  persons  imprisoned  on  account  of  their 
religioUB  opinions,  and  more  than  1200  Quakera 
were  aet  tree.  In  the  April  following,  James 
issued  an  edict  for  the  repeal  of  all  rebgicus  teats 
and  peualtiea,  but  the  mass  of  Nonconformists 
mistrusted  his  sincerity,  and  refused  to  avail  them- 
selves of  it,    After  the  accession  of  the  Prince  of 


FENVALISU-PENNATULA. 


OnmgB  MM  WillLHn  IIL,  P.  wu  twice  ancuMd  nt 
treason,  and  of  corr«ponding  with  tite  exiled 
■uonaFch,  but  wmg  acquitted.  Id  161M)  ha  waa 
•ireated  on  a  charee  of  compiracy,  but  waa  again 
aoquitded.  NevertneleBO,  in  the  following  year, 
the  ohar){e  vaa  renewed.  Nothing  appearB  to 
haTe  been  dune  for  aome  time,  but  P.  at  laat, 
through  the  kindly  offices  of  hia  friends,  Locke, 
TillotBon,  and  othera,  bad  the  matter  thoroughly 
investigated,  and  he  was  fiiulty  and  honourably 
•equitted,  November  1693.  Shortly  after,  hia  wife 
died,  but  in  leea  than  two  years  he  married  agaia. 
Uis  second  wife,  Hannah  Callowhill,  was  a  Bnatol 
lady.  In  1699  be  paid  a  second  Tisit  to  the  New 
World,  and  found  FeaniyWonia  in  a  prosperous 
conilition.  His  stay,  which  lasted  two  yean,  was 
marked  by  many  useful  measures,  and  by  efforts  to 
ameliorate  the  couditioo  both  of  the  Indians  and 
Negroes.  P.  departed  for  England  towards  the 
ena  of  1701,  leaving  the  manageioent  of  his  affairs 
to  a  Quaker  agent  named  Ford,  whose  villany 
virtually  rained  Penn.  When  the  rogue  died,  he 
left  to  his  widow  and  son  false  claims  against  his 
master,  and  these  were  so  rutlilesaly  prmsed,  that 
P.  allowed  himself  to  be  thrown  into  the  Fleet  in 
1708,  to  avoid  extortion.  His  friends  afterwards 
procured  his  release,  but  not  till  bis  constitution 
was  fatally  impaired.  P.  died  at  Ruscombe,  in 
Berkshire,  July  30,  17ia  He  left  issue  by  both 
marriagea.  Upon  the  P.  controversy  it  is  unneces- 
■ary  furtlier  to  enter.  We  refer  our  readeni  to 
Hacaulay's  Hulory  of  England  (1849—1855)  ; 
Heuworth  Diion's  Life  of  Perm  (new  edit  1856); 
J.  Pscet'l  Inquiry  inUt  the  Emdence  of  U\t  Charget 
ImmgKt  bu  Lord  Maeaula;/  agatmt  Wiliiaia  Ptnn 
(Edin.  1858). 

FB'NN'ALISH,  the  name  given  to  a  practice 
once  prevalent  in ,  the  Protestant  nniversities  of 
Germany,  which  seems  to  have  been  essentially  the 
Mme  as  the  Fa^ng  (q.  v.)  of  the  English  public 
ichools.  The  u^hnien  or  students  of  the  first 
year  (oalled  pfanaif—L  e.,  pen-auft;  fags)  were 
considered  by  the  elder  students  ('scnorists') 
as  virtually  their  servants.  Whatever  property  the 
pennals  had  they  must  give  up  to  the  schorists.  who 
now  employed  them  in  the  meanest  offices,  made 
laughiug-stocks  of  them,  and  beat  and  ill-used  them 
— all  which  had  to  be  endured  without  comjilaint.  ' 
After  a  year  of  this  discipline  followed  the  oere- ! 
mony  of  '  deposition  ' — a,  practice  older  than  pennai- 
ism  itself,  and  borrowed  probably  from  knightly . 
oonsecration — in  whicb  the  pennal  underwent  a ' 
number  of  symbolical  trials,  indicative  generally  of 
pnrgatian  from  impurity  and  consecration  to  an  ' 
mtdlectual  life.  Pennalism  is  said  to  have  been 
introduced  in  the  beginning  of  the  ITth  c,  and  to 
liave  been  mostly  conlined  to  the  Protestant  univer- 
sities of  Germany.  But  although  the  full  develop- 
ment of  the  system  may  have  been  thus  restricted, 
germs  and  modiScations  of  it  were  moch  esflier 
knd  more  general,  as  is  manifest  from  the  prevalence 
of  names  of  contempt  for  first  year's  students  (see 
Bbjan),  and  frum  statutes  passed  by  French  uni- 
versities as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  I4tb  c, 
Kgainst  levying  payments  for  first  footing  from 
them.    See  also  FtooiNO.    The  servitude  imposed 


had  to  » 


8  Mge  b 


knight  All  attempts  to  check  the  evils  of  peimal- 
ism  were  long  Dnavailiug,  as  the  pennals  took  part 
with  the  scborisfa  in  resisting  all  regulations  of  the 
authorities,  which  would  have  deprived  them  of  the 
hope  of  exercising  in  their  turn  a  like  tyranny  upon 
others.  Edicts  against  the  practice  were  issued  in 
Jena  and  cither  nnivenilieB  about  the  beglmiing  of 


the  17th  c,  but  it  was  not  till  the  last  hslf 
century  that  the  universities,  by  uniting  in 
measures,  were  able  to  check  the  evil ;  and 
of  it  survived  for  a  long  time  afterwards.  1 
tation  of  the  Htudents,  a  kind  of  pennalis 
adojjted  by  other  bodies,  more  particularly 
printers,  who  retained  the  ceremony  of  '  dept 
after  it  hod  disappeared  from  the  univers 
Schbttgen,  Hitlone  da  Peunalweieyu  (Dresd. 

PENNANT,  Thomas,  LL.D.,  toniist,  nat 
and  antiquary,  woe  bom  June  14, 1726,  at  Dc 
in  Flintshire,  and  edncated  at  Queen's  ani 
Colleges,  Oxford.  Hia  first  important  publ 
was  the  Brilisli  Zoologg  (1761—1769),  whic 
tained  in  all  132  plates  on  imperial  paper,  en 
by  Mazel,  and  established  his  reputation.  Wl 
work  was  in  course  of  publication,  P.  made 
to  the  continent,  and  saw  some  of  the  scienti 
literary  celebrities  of  the  time,  as  Buffon,  w 
favourably  mentioned  him  in  his  great  wi 
NataToi  HUlory.  Voltaire,  HaUer.  the  two  G 
and  Pallas.  In  1769.  he  made  the  first  ot  his 
tours  in  Scotland,  penetrating  to  the  remotf 
of  the  country,  which,  he  says,  was  then  '  all 
little  known  as  Kamtschatka.'  He  returned 
very  good  opinion  of  it,  and  published  bis 
in  1771,  in  consequence  of  which  [according  ( 
Scotland  has  'ever  since  been  inondfe  with  sn 
visitants.'  The  year  before,  he  added  10.? 
to  his  BritiA  Zoology,  with  descriptive  noti« 
in  1771,  printed  at  Chester  bis  Sgnnpnt  of 
TTipfiU,  subsequently  enlarged  and  improved 
the  title  of  hitlary  of  Quadrupnls.  Of  thi 
Cuvier  says  ;  '  It  is  still  indispensable  to  the 
wish  to  study  the  history  of  quadrupeds.' 
same  year  the  university  of  Oxford  couferr>.'d 
the  degree  of  LL.D.  Next  year  be  undertf 
second  and  most  important  tqur  in  Scotland, 
included  a  voyage  to  the  Hebrides  (an  aco 
which  appeared  in  3  vols.  1775).  P.  was  i 
welcomed  by  the  inhabitants.     Almost  evei 

S rated  town  paid  him  some  formal  complime 
returned  'rich  in  civic  honour.'  In  1! 
published  his  Oenera  of  Birds,  and  made  a 
quarian  tour  throu^jh  the  north  of  England 
Bubaequent  tours  through  Wales  do  not  : 
special  notice.  In  1777  appeared  a  fonrth  ' 
of  his  BrilUh  Zuology,  containing  the  Verm 
Crustaceous  and  the  Testaceous  Animals 
Country.  Among  a  great  variety  of  later 
laneouB  publicatioua.  we  may  mention  in  pai 
an  amusing  life  of  himself  {The  Literary  . 
the  late  Thomat  Pranant,  iig,,  by  himtdf. 
He  died  December  16,  1798. 

PENNATULA,  a  genos  of  zoophytes  [AtU 
allied  to  Qorgouia  (q.  v.)  and  Aleyonitan  (q.  i 
having  very  similar  polypes ;  but  the  polype 
not  fixed  by  its  base,  has  a  fleshy  stem  streng 
by  a  bone,  and  a  skin  containing  calcareous  s 
the  upper  part  of  the  stem  wmged  on  two 
with  numerous  pinnn,  along  the  upper  mar 
which  the  polype-cells  are  tanged.  The 
form  somewhat  resembles  a  quill,  so  that  the 
lar  name  Ska  Pbn  is  very  oEtcQ  given  tn 
zoophytes.  One  species,  P.  p/iotphorea,  is  o 
on  the  northern  parts  of  the  British  ooasL 
from  two  to  four  inches  in  length,  of  a  parpl 
colour,  and  like  many — .perhaps  all — of  the 
sp^ies,  is  tomstimes  biilliantly  phospboi 
emitting  flashes  of  Ught  when  disturbed,  but 
to  be  luminous  on  relapsing  into  quimoence 
■talk  is  hollow  in  the  centre,  and  the  bone 
it  contains— and  which  is  composed  of  phi 
and  carbonate  of  lime,  like  the  bones  of  tht 
brate  animals — ia  a  very  remarkable  part 


PENNON-PENNT. 


eub  end  luto  a  hook.  Other 
found  in  the  Mediterranean  and  other 
of  them  mora  pen-like  than  even  the 


Fenutnla  ( Virgviiria  mtrabilit). 

Jih  one.  It  has  been  alleged  that  they  iwim 
contractions  and  dilatations  of  their  coramoi 
ly  mbstance,  or  by  movemente  of  the  piuMe, 
there  is  do  good  evidence  of  their  posseBaing 
■uch  power  of  locomotion,  which  ia  very  con- 
f  to  the  analogy  o(  all  eimilar  zoophytes,  and 
a  probably  the  opinion  jirevalent  among  the 
trmen  of  the  Scottish  coaate  ia  the  correct  one, 
their  natural  place  ia  at  the  bottom  of  the  aea, 
I  Uie  eomewhat  flexible  lower  end  of  the  stalk 
eraed  in  mnd.  Nearly  allied  to  the  pennatuhe 
nother  genns  of  eitremely  beautiful  loophytee, 
mlaria,  ranked  with  them  in  the  family  Pmita- 
'a,  and  Mmetimea  receiving  the  popular  name 
Sea.  R[78h:.  One  species. 
V.  miTohilit,  ia  found  on 
the  British  coasts.  It 
Tesembles  a  slender  rod, 
beanog  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  its  length 
two  rows  of  lobes,  along 
the  motgin  of  which  the 
polypes  are  arranged. 
The  whole  length  ie 
from  aiz  to  tea  inches. 

rSSSOlS,  a  small, 
pointed,  or  a  wallow- 
tailed  flag,  CATried  by 
the  medieval  knight  on 
hia   lance,   bearing   bis 


personal 

badge,   I —  

richly  fringed  with  gold. 
Th«     device'   was 
placed  as  to  appear 

FsDnon.  its  proper  positi 

the    weapon    was 
he   charge.      The    accompanying   exampli 
the  brass  to  Sir  John  D'Aubernoun  at  Stoke 
*emon,   Surrey ;   it  is  azure,  charged  with  a 
BToa  and  fringed  gules. 

S'NNONCEI.LE,  a  long  streamer-like  Sag,  the 
native  of  the  Fennon  (q.  v.). 
INNBYLVA-MIA,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
ed  States  of  America,  now  the  aecond  in  popn- 
1.  and  called  from  its  position  and  importance 
Keystone  State,'  is  in  lat.  39'  43'— 42°  10'  N., 
74-  75'— 80°  37'  W.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  Lake 
and  New  York ;  E.  by  New  York  and  New 
ly,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  Delaware 
r;  a  by  Maryland  and  Virginia ;  and  W,  by 
mi*  and  Ohio.  The  small  state  of  Delaware 
9t  for  a  few  miles  on  its  soutb-eastem  angle- 
form  is  very  regular,  the  boundaries  of  three 
being  lines  of  latituda  and  longitude.  It  is 
miles  long,  160  wide,  containing  an  area  of 
0  si^uare  mUes,  or  29,440,000  acres,  divided  into 
unties.  The  state  is  divided  near  the  middle 
M  Alleghaniea  into  an  eastern  region,  whose 


waters  fall  into  the  Delaware  and  Chosapeak* 
Bays,  and  a  western,  in  which  the  principal  rivets 
are  the  Alleghany,  the  MonongaheU.  and  other 
important  affluents  of  the  Ohio.  'These,  with 
the  Delaware  and  Sasquehanna,  Lehigh,  Schayl- 
kill,  and  Juniatta,  are  the  principal  nvers.  Ths 
chief  towns  are  Philadelphia,  on  its  south-eastern 
border;  Pittsburgh,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio;  and 
Harriaburgh,  the  capital,  on  the  Suaquehanns.  I'he 
Blue  Ridge,  which  enters  the  south-eastern  portion  of 
thestate,  rises  to  theheifiht  of  1500  fett;  the  posses 
of  the  Aileghanies  are  2000  feet  high,  and  siucle 
peaks  3000  feet  Lake  Erie  is  650  feet  above  Uie 
ocean.  The  geological  formations  range  from  the 
Potsdam  sandstone  to  the  coal- measures.  There  ia 
middle  secondary  red  sandstone  and  drift  in  the 
north-east ;  gneiss  and  red  sandstone  in  the  south- 
east; the  centre  of  the  state  is  a  rich  and  fertile 
limestone  valley.  Near  Philadelphia  are  tine  quarries 
of  white  marble.  The  great  anthracite  and  semi- 
anthracite  deposits  of  coal  are  east  of  the  Alleghaniea ; 
west  are  the  great  beds  of  bituminous  coaX  which 
largely  supply  tbe  Mississippi  valley.  Salt  is  found 
beneadi  tiie  coal,  and  in  the  bituminous  districts 
great  deposits  of  jietroleum.  Adjacent  to  the 
coal-measures  are  neb  beds  of  iron  ore,  also  lead, 
copper,  nickel,  and  chrome  ores.  The  climate  is 
mild,  and  the  soil  fertile,  producing  abundance  of 
wheat,  Indian  com,  oats,  rye,  buckwheat,  potatoes, 
flax,  hemp,  tobacco,  hay  and  iiasturage,  with  apples, 
pears,  i>eaobe8,  grapes,  &c  While  one  of  the  best 
agricultural  states,  P.  has  also  a  large  industry 
engnced  in  mines  and  manufactures,  coal,  iron, 
woollen,  and  cotton.  The  state  baa  more  thiui  3000 
miles  of  railwasrs,  1030  of  canals,  26  colleges,  S 
schools  of  medicine.  20  state  academies,  335  publio 
schools,  having  14,000  teachers  and  647,414  pupils, 
4000  churches,  400  public  and  school  libraries,  310 

fEriodicala— of  which  27  are  daily  papers,  and 
I  literary  publications— 2  state  penitentiaries  at 
Philadelphia  and  Pittsburg  on  the  solitary  system, 
asylunxs  for  insane,  blind,  tc,  Girard  College  for 
orphan  boya  In  1627  a  colony  of  Swedes  and  Finns 
settled  on  the  river  Delaware.  In  1681  tbe  terri- 
tory was  granted  by  Charles  IL  to  William  Penn, 
who,  by  the  industry  of  his  co-religionists,  the 
Society  of  Friends,  by  cultivating  peace  with  the 
Indians  and  encouraging  emigration,  founded  a 
rich  and  flourishing  state.  It  was  the  scene  of 
Braddouk'a  defeat  in  the  French  war ;  and  in  the 
revolution  of  1776,  Philadelphia  was  the  chief  city 
and  capital  of  the  Federation,  near  which  were  the 
actions  of  Germantowu,  Braudvwine,  to.  The 
population,  largely  Scottish  and  German  in  its 
origin,  was  in  1300.  602,361 ;  1820, 1,049,458 ;  1640, 
1,724,033 ;  1800,  2,90e,37a 

PENNY,  a  British  coin  and  money  of  MConnL 
After  tbe  Sceattte  (q.  v.)  it  is  the  moat  ancient  of 
the  English  coins,  and  was  the  only  one  generally 
current  among  the  Anglo-Saxons.  The  name  is 
evidently  the  same  as  the  German  p/ennig,  and 
both  words  seem  to  be  intimately  connected  with 
the  old  German  p/ant,  a  pledge,  and  the  X^tin 
pendo,  to  weigh  or  to  pay.    Both  ii    "  "   ' 


I  the 


the 


.n. 


i  for 


_  ineral,  hence  we  have  such  phrases 
.._,  he  has  got  his  ptany-uyorlh,'  i.e.,  he  has  got 
value  for  his  money,  &o.  The  penny  ia  lirat 
mentioned  in  the  laws  of  Ina,  kins  of  the  Weet 
Saxons,  about  the  close  of  the  7th  century.  It 
was  at  this  time  a  silver  coin,  and  weighed  about 
22^  troy  grains,  being  thus  about  i^tb  of  the 
Saxon  pound-weight,  ^his  relation  bi  the  pound- 
weight  is  evidenuy  derived  from  the  usage  of  th« 
early  Franks,  who  retained  the  Roman  division  of  the 
libra  into  20  aoiidi,  and  the  totidu*  into  12  denarii 


PENKYROTAL— PENSIONS  ANT)  PENSIONEBa 


iihnorpound.  SeeMARE.  Halfpence  and  farthings 
were  not  coined  id  England  till  the  time  of  Edward 
L,  bnt  the  practice  pravioualy  prevailed  of  ao  deeply 
indentinR  the  penny  with  a  crosa  mark,  that  tlie 
coin  could  be  easily  brohea  into  two  or  four  parts 
■B  required.  Silver  farthings  ceased  to  be  coined 
under  Edward  VL,  and  silver  halfpennies  under  the 
Commonwealth.  By  this  time  the  penny  had 
steadily  decreased  in  weight ;  it  was  18  grains  under 
Edward  HL,  15  and  12  under  Edward  IV..  S  under 
Edward  VL,  and  under  Elizabeth  it  was  finally  fixed 
at  7H  grains,  or  ^  of  an  oance  o(  silver,  a  value  to 
which  the  subsequent  copper  pennies,  which  till 
IS60  were  tiie  circulating  medium,  closely  approxi- 
niated.  In  1G72  an  anthoriscd  copper  coinage  was 
established,  and  halfpence  and  farthinHs  were  atruek 
in  copper.  The  penny  was  not  introduced  till  1797, 
and  at  the  same  jieriod  the  coinage  of  twoj-enny 
pieces  was  begun  ;  but  these  latter,  being  found 
unsuitable,  were  withdrawn.  The  penny  of  the 
present  bronze  coinage  is  of  only  about  half  the 
value  of  the  old  copper  penny.  The  German  pfinni'j 
was  also  originally  a  silver  coin,  bearing  the  same 
relation  to  the  German  pound  of  silver  as  the 
English  penny  to  its  pound.  And  in  the  12th  o. 
it  waa  made  so  broad,  in  imitation  of  the  Byzan- 
tine coins,  that  it  would  no  longer  bear  to  be 
■truck  with  a  die  oo  each  gide  as  before,  but  was 
Struck  on  one  side  only.  In  the  1>e>!iniiing  of  the 
14th  c  the  mark  of  silver  was  anew  divided  into  60 
parta  or  coins,  which,  to  distinguish  them  from  the 
old  coins,  were  called  proMi  denarii,  whence  the 
term  groictun.  In  the  modern  money  system  of 
Prussia,  the  pfennig  is  a  Copper  cob,  the  twelfth 
part  of  a  groschen. 

PEHNYRO¥'AL,aBpecif»of  Mint{q.T.).  The 
name  P.  is  given  in  North  America  to  a  small  plant, 
SedeotinapuUgioida,ai^edto  the  mints,  and  having, 


FennjmyBL 

liks  Vketa,  a  pleasant  aromatic  smell,  and  *  warm 
pungent  taste ;  which  is  much  m  use  in  domestic 
medicine,  in  the  form  of  a  warm  infuaiun,  to  promote 
perspiratioQ  and  as  an  emmenagogne. 

PENNY  WEDDINGS,  or  PENNY, BRIDALS, 
WM  the  name  given  to  festive  marria^  ceremonials 


furnishing  their  dwelling.  This  practice,  now  di<- 
used,  waa  prevalent  in  the  17tli  c. ;  and,  as  leading 
to  '  profane  minstrelsing  aud  promiscuous  dancing? 
was  denounced  by  an  Act  of  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  Kirk,  1645,  as  well  as  by  numerous  acta 
of  presbyteries  and  kirk-sesaiona  about  the  lama 

PENO'BSCOT,  a  river  of  Maine.  U.S.,  rises  nesr 
the  centre  of  the  stat«  by  two  branches,  from  a 
chain  of  lakes  extending  north-westerly;  and  after  a 
south  by  west  course  of  136  miles  from  the  junction, 
or  275  in  all,  empties  into  Penobscot  Bay,  a  broad 
and  sheltered  opening  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  20 
miles  wide,  with  several  large  islands.  Its  chief 
towns  are  Belfast,  at  its  mouth;  Bangor,  50  milrs 
above,  where  falls  supply  power  to  saw-mills  and 
factories  ;  Castine.  and  BucksporL  It  is  oavigible  to 
Bangor,  wliere  there  is  a  tide  of  20  feet.  The  chief 
trade  is  pine  timber. 

PE'NKITH,  a  market  town  of  Cumberland,  in  ■ 
pictures<jue  and  fertile  valley,  with  rich  and  strikius 
soonery  m  the  vicinity,  stands  on  the  Carlisle  and 
Lancaster  Railway,  17  miles  south -south -east  of 
Carlisle.  In  the  parish  churchyard  is  a  monument 
of  great  antiquity,  formed  of  two  pyramidal  atones 
about  12  feet  high,  and  knovrn  oa  tlie  'Giant's 
Grave.'  The  town  contains  an  ancient  free  gram- 
mar-school, and  other  educational  institutions.  A 
new  and  beautiful  church,  built  in  the  style  of  (he 
13th  c,  was  consecrated  here  in  1S50.  Cotton, 
linen,  and  woollen  goods  are  mauufacturcd.  Fop. 
(1861)  7139. 

PENRY'N,  a  municipal  and  pnrliamentary 
borough  and  market  town  of  England,  in  the  county 
of  Cornwall,  in  a  warm,  sheltered,  and  richly  pro- 
ductive valley,  on  the  Plymouth  and  Falmouth 
Railway,  two  milea  west  north-west  of  Falmouth. 
It  stands  on  a  low  hill  projecting  eastward  into 
Falmouth  Harbour.  Trade  is  carried  on  to  some 
eit«nt  with  the  mining  district  of  Redruth,  and  there 
are  several  qnarries  in  the  vicinity,  from  which  the 
famous  P.  granite — the  material  of  which  Waterloo 
Bridge,  the  Chatham  Docks,  and  a  great  nuinber  of 
other  important  public  works  are  constructed — is 
obtained  :  20,000  tuns  of  granite  have  been  expcoted 
in  the  year,  but  the  quantity  varies  much.  Pup. 
(1861)  of  municipal  borough,  3547.  Togi-thGr  with 
Falmouth,  it  forms  a  parliamentary  borongh,  which 
returns  two  members  to  parliament,  and  the  popn- 
lation  of  which,  in  1861,  was  U.4S5. 

PENSACO'LA,  a  town  and  port  of  entry,  on  a 
deep  bay  opening  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  at  the 
south -western  extremity  of  West  Florida,  U.S. 
Lat  30°  24'  N.,  lone,  87''  Iff  W.  The  bov,-Q,  nearly 
destroyed  during  tlie  war  of  1861,  is  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  bay,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with 
Montgomery,  AJabama.  Near  the  entrance  were 
the  navy  yard,  hospital,  and  Fort  Barrancas.  The 
entrance  is  farther  defended  by  Fort  Picken^  at  the 
west  end  of  Santa  Rosa  Island,  and  Fort  M'Rae  on 
the  opposite  point  llie  bay  branches  into  two 
divisions,  receiving  the  Escambia  and  Yellow  Riven. 
As  one  of  the  best  harbours  on  the  gulf,  P.  was 
settled  by  the  Spaniards,  occupied  by  the  British  in 
1B14,  and  acquired  by  the  Uutcd  States  in  1S31. 

PENSION  (Lst  pmno,  from  pendo,  to  weigh 
ont,  to  pay),  an  allowance  paid  annually  by  goreni- 
ment  to  an  individual  in  conaideraboD  of  past 
services,  civil  or  military.    See  Civri.  List. 

PENSIONS  AND  PENSIONERS,  MiUTARir 
AiiD  Navai.    There  are  pensions  for  good  service^ 


PENSIONS  AKD  PENSIONERS  -PENTACHTNUS. 


ere  faithful  ordmary  service,  for  wounds,  tmd 

nl-Srrrice  Paieiona  are  rewards  to  •elected 
1  in  tiie  Britisli  oavy  for  di8tiDguLslit.-d  eetvice. 
H  the;  are  as  follow :  7  admirals  have  £300 
21  captains  £150,  1  general  of  marinea  £300, 
laels  £150,  and  3  medical  ofEcerv  £100;  the 
charge  being  £6150.  The  correBpoDding 
in  in  the  army  is    called    a   Hbwars   toa 

fOVlSBSD  SEKVICK  (q.  v.). 

I  Petuioiujbr  Long  Service  are  awarded  in  the 

lerved  21  years  in  the  infantiy,  or  24  years  in 
va]ry,  or  earlier  if  disabled  from  further  service. 
Ling  to  the  wouoda,  loss  of  health,  and  conduct 

pensioner.  The  unonnt  is  tiied  by  the  com- 
nen  of  Chelsea  Hospital,  and  varies  fmm  ltd 
id.  a  day,  the  lower  rates  being  mainly  con- 

to  negro  pensioners  from  the  West  India 
;nta.  Fenaioaers  are  either  m-ptniionera  of 
«  (q.  T.)  or  Eilmaiiiham  HoepitsJs,  in  which 
hey  forego  their  proper  pension,  and  receive 

lodging,  and  a  sntoll  sum  for  tobacco-money, 
^pensioners  residing  where  they  please,  and 
ag  their  pensions  from  the  staff  officers  of 
ners,  of  whom  there  is  one  in  ever;  consider- 
iwn.  ThesainencanfoI!owotherpurBnit8,ofteQ 

with  great  auccesB,  as  their  military  habits 
ularity  stand  them  in  good  stead  in  civil  lifei 
rticular,  railways  give  employment  to  great 
;iuilmen,  gui  ' 
lalth,  and  ar 
roUed  in  a  force  caUed  the 
Ued  Pensioners,'  which  forms  a  defensive  corps 
irans.  This  gives  the  men,  as  an  adjunct  to 
insion,  an  annual  retaining  fee  of  £1  each, 
i  p&y  during  the  yearly  traioing,  of  8  days  at 
te  of  2a:  a  day  foe  privates,  2i.  6(1.  for  corporals, 
.  for  Serjeants.  The  veterans  are  officered  by 
eapeutive  stsff  officers,  and,  in  case  of  emer- 

would  be  embodied  for  service.  As  gsrrison 
,  these  old  soldiers  would  doubtless  prove 
valuable.  A  pension  is  forfeited  if  the  holder 
victed  of  felony.  The  number  of  pensioners 
M  is  61,917,  and  their  pensions  amount  to 
,198.  These  are  eicluaive  of  538  in-pensioneta 
Uea,  and  about  13U  of  Kilmainham ;  the  cost 
se  estabtishmeots  together  being  £33,260. 
Mt  o[  the  enrolled  pensionera  is  £40,000  in 
in,  and  that  of  the  1500  men  composing  the 
if  reserve  (see  KsSEaVB)  £10,000  more. 
JVarai  Pmt»ion*/or  Long  SfrvUe  are  given  to 
>fficera,  seamen,  and  marine*,  under  pnndple* 
ally  similar  to  those  for  the  army ;  the 
saionera  of  Greenwich  Hospital  awarding  the 
□cea,  Greenwich  Hospital  being  the  home  of 
-pensioner,  and  the  out-penstoners  drawing 
>eDBioas  through  the  stall  officers  of  military 
lers.  In  1864,  7536  petty-officers  and  sfla- 
ud  5201  marines  receive  pensions,  producing 

of  £245,082,  10* 

er  this  section  should  be  mentioned  pensions 
lecial  bravery  in  action,  granted  with  the 
La  Cross  (q.  v.). 

.ions  for  Kouiidt  are  common  to  both  services, 
re  limited  to  officers.  Tliey  are  awarded 
^vely  by  the  Secretary  for  War  and  Lords  of 
miralty.  For  serious  bodily  injury,  asthelosaof 

or  eye,  and  vary  according  to  the  rank  of  the 
at  and  other  circumstances.  In  coses  of  less 
injury,  temporary  pensions  ore  sometimes 
1,  or  gratuLtiea.  The  charge  for  pensions  for 
s  for  1864  is— army,  290  recipients,  i29,663; 
570  recipients,  £36,8581  total,  £66,521.  In 
se  of  common  soldiers  and  sailors,  wounds 
erva  to  hasten  or  angmeat  the  pension  for 


service  (see  above) ;  but  they  have  no  distinctive 
pension  for  wounds. 

Widows  of  commisaioned  and  warrant  officers  ix 
the  army  and  navy  receive  pensions  so  long  as  they 
remain  unmarried,  provided  they  have  been  married 
severally  twelve  months  when  their  husbands  die, 
and  that  the  latter  were  under  60  years  of  age  (50 
for  warrant  officers)  when  they  married  the  claim- 
ants. Such  pension  is  not  granted  if  the  widow  be 
left  in  wealthy  circumstances,  and  het  dormant 
during  a  second  mnrriage,  though  it  may  be  revived 
ahould  she  ogain  become  a  widow.  The  amount  of 
pension  varies  according  to  rank,  and  there  are 
three  distinct  classes  for  each  rank :  lat,  When  the 
husband  was  killed  in  battle,  or  died  within  six 
months  of  wounds  received  therein ;  2d,  When  he 
died  from  some  csiise  distinctly  falling  within  the 
sphere  of  his  duty,  but  not  from  wounds  in  action  j 
3d,  When  he  died  in  the  course  of  nature.  Ths 
following  table  shews  the  amount  of  pension  to 
widows  of  combatant  ranks,  civil  ranks  receiving 
similar  rate*  according  to  relative  standing.  Sea 
Rsi^TtTK  Rake. 


FlinOBIoer,  or  0«i«iI1 
CMVitaliu'ln  Nir)- i  ciil-i 


Commmdm  tB  NSTJ ;( 

S  Lib-Lou'lnunl^'ir■(;, 
Llcswiuinli,  Arnij,  , 
fcnM^",  Arm  J, 


Compassionate  allowances  are  small  additional 
pensions  granted  to  the  children  of  deceased  officer^ 
left  in  indifferent  or  hod  circumstances.  They  vary 
from  £5  to  £40  each,  and  can  be  held  by  bo3rB  till 
18  (unless  earlier  provided  for),  and  by  girla  unlal 
21,  or  an  earlier  marriage.  If  an  officer  fall  in 
action,  without  leaving  a  widow  or  orphans,  bul 
leaving  a  parent  who  hod  been  more  or  leas  depend- 
ent on  nim,  such  parent  may  be  granted  the  pension 
or  a  portion  of  it,  and  is  sometimes  allowed  to  com- 
mute the  pension  into  a  single  payment.  In  very 
special  cases,  the  sisters  of  an  officer,  who  had  been 
more  or  lees  dependent  on  him,  are  granted  com- 
passionate allowances.  The  coat  n(  widows',  &C., 
pensions  for  1864  strmd  as  follows  : 


■"} 


Nsv7— pH»lan«(o3Sie  wldown,  .       ,      £t 

OunpuilDiiaU      sllowincM      lo> 


£MS.M» 


PEHSIOKABT,  GRAND,  o»  Holland.     8eo 
Grand  FEiraioNARr. 

PENTA'CRINUS,  a  ^nns  of  Eehinodfrmata,  of 
ths  order  or  family  Grinotdrte  (q.  v.).  remarkable  aa 
containing  the  only  permanently  stalked  Crinoiden, 
or  Crinoidees  believed  to  be  permanently  stalked, 
known  now  to  exists  and  thus  the  only  true  living 
representative  of  the  fossil  Encrinitea  (q.  '  "" 
genus  P.  baa  a  long  pentangular  column  01 1 


v.).    The 


PBNTADESMA-PENTATEUCH. 


joints,  from  which  there  uise  kt  intervali  many 
nhorU  of  unbranched  artat,  and  which  bean  s'  ~"~ 
•uminit  a  diao  at  first  divided  into  five  radii 
raembera,  and  afterward»  branching  into  ten  i 
each  further  subdivided.  The  whole  of  this  skeleton 
U  calcareous,  but  it  is  onited  by  cartilages,  and 
covered  with  a  fleshy  interment.  P.  C 
Mixljiaa,  the  Msduha-'s  Hud,  u  found  in  the  ^ 
Indian  leas,  and  ia  very  rare  in  eoUections,  being 
only  dredged  up  from  waters  of  considerable  depth  ; 
from  which  causa  also  the  nature  of  the  base  of 
tbe  eoltunn  is  not  certainly  known.  The  sten 
more  than  a,  foot  long, — The  fossil  species  of  P. 
numerous  in  the  Lias  and  Oolite  formations.  They 
gradually  become  fewer  in  the  newer  rocks.— The 
stalked  young  of  Comahila  rosiuea  waa  at  one 
regarded  as  a  P.,  and  described  under  the  name  of 
P,  £xiropau».     See  CrINOIDB*. 

PENTADE'SMA,  a  genua  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  QttUiJenx,  to  wbicb  belongs  the  Bdttbs-and- 
TaLLOW  Tbeb  of  Sierra  Leone,  P.  bulgracta.  It  ie 
a  tree  sixty  feet  high,  and  produces  a  conical  fruit 
of  the  aize  of  a  very  h,T^  i>ear,  the  pulp  of  which 
abounds  in  a  yellow  oily  eiibatance,  with  a  strong 
flavour,  somewhat  reaembling  that  of  turjientine,  yet 
niuph  used  by  the  natives  as  an  article  of  food. 
The  'country  butter,'  bniUKht  to  the  market  of 
Freetown,  ia   supposed  to   be  procured  from  this 

PE'NTASTXLE,  a  building  with  a  portioa  of  fire 

PE'NTATEUCH  {Or.  fivefold  boot),  a  name 
^ven  by  Greek  translators  to  the  Ave  books 
ascribed  to  Moses,   which   are  in  Helirew  called 


LaiB  is  alao  the  general  name  by  which  the  work 
portions  of  it  are  referred  to  and  quoted  (the  words 
'  of  Moses '  or  '  of  the  Lord '  being  added  occaaion- 
allv)  both  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 

The  division  into  five  portions  (fnrtUer  divided 
into  SO,  40,  27,  36.  34  chapters,  or  12,  11,  10,  10,  II 
Farshioth  or  Sidras  respectively,  by  the  Masoretes) 
if,  if  not  original,  at  all  events  of  a  very  remote 
date,  and  certainly  anterior  to  the  Septuagiitt 
Genosis,  Leviticus,  and  Deuteronomy,  the  first, 
third,  and  fifth  bouks.  form  clearly  defined  and 
internally  complete  parte  of  the  work  as  a  whole, 
and  thua,  also,  fix  the  limits  of  the  intermediate 
second  (Exotlus)  and  the  commencement  of  the 
concluding  fifth  (Deuteronomy].  The  chief  aim  of 
the  Pentateuch  being  to  give  a  description  of  the 
origin  and  history  of  the  Hebrew  people  np  to  the 
conyuest  of  Canaan,  tojjether  with  the  theocracy 
founded  among  them,  the  centre  is  formed  by 
the  person  of  Moses  himself,  the  rcceneralor 
and  lawgiver  of  the  nation.  Genesis,  beginaing 
with  the  history  of  the  creation  and  antediluvian 
genealogy  from  Adam  to  Noah,  m  rapid  outlines 
■ketches  the  propagation  of  the  various  tribee  that 
descended  from  the  one  man  who  was  saved  in  the 
Deluge,  but  dwells  with  special  emphasis  upon 
Shem,  from  whom  sprang,  in  the  tenth  generation, 
Abraham,  the  proffenitor  of  the  'people  of  the 
covenant.'  The  salient  events  in  the  lives  of  hia 
descendants,  the  Patriarchs,  are  minutely  described  ; 
and  a  fitting  close  is  found  in  the  benediction  of 
Jacob,  who,  as  it  were,  reinangnrates  and  confirms 
•U  his  twelve  sons  in  the  covenant  made  between 
Abraham  and  God.  Exodus,  treating  of  the  libera- 
tion of  the  people  from  E^ypt;  their  wanderings  in 
the  desert  ;  the  promulgation  of  the  Law,  by  v^ich 
they  became  emphaticaUy  the  'holy  nation'  and  the 
'people  of  the  Lord;'  and  tje  erection  of  •  visible 
sanctuary  j   may  be   regarded   as    the   nucleua   of 


the  work ;  while  Leviticus,  tbe  following 
fittingly  enters  into  the  details  of  the  1^ 
and  the  mode  of  worship ;  chiefly  coocernit 
priests  and  Levites,  the  expoaitora  of  the 
and,  in  a  manner,  tbe  spiHtoal  representati 
the  other  tribes.  The  historical  thread  ia 
up  anin  in  Numbers,  the  fourth  book,  whicli 
side  by  nde  with  the  relation  of  the  events  tx 
the  Sinaitic  period  and  the  beginning  i 
fortieth  year  after  the  Exodus,  contains 
laws  explanatory  of,  or  complementary  to, 
of  the  former  books,  together  with  such  a 
circumstances  had  called  into  existence^  f 
recapitulation  of  the  jireceding  portions;  S 
most  impressive  and  reiterated  exhortationa  t 
that  Law,  which  was  now  completed,  and  sol 
transmitted  to  the  Levites  \  and  the  death 
legislator  himself  i  form  the  chief  contents 
fifth  book,  or  Deuteronomy.  Thus,  the 
cratio  jilan  of  tbe  work  ia  carried  througi 
beginning  to  end,  coming  out  more  prominei 
tbe  three  intermediate  books,  but  never  lost 
of  entirely.  Nothing  ia  dwelt  or  even  touche 
save  that  which  in  some  wav  illustrates  eith 
relation  of  God  to  the  people,  or  of  the  pet 
God ;  the  political,  civil,  and  domestic  laws 
selves,  being  enumerated  only  as  bearing  npi 
main  aim  and  object  of  tbe  work. 

The  special  books  being  treated  separately 
their  respective  heads,  we  have  here  only  t 
sider  some  questions  relating  to  the  work 
whole,  and  principally  that  of  its  authorshi 
history,  as  far  as  these  points  have  not  been  it 
upon  already  nnder  Oenssts.  Tradition,  ae  em 
in  the  eariieat  histories]  records,  mentions  Mt 
the  writer  of  the  complete  Pentateuch,  anch  a 
before  us :  with  the  exception  of  a  few  verves,  d< 
ing  the  last  moments  of  the  lawfriver,  ftc,  whic 
ascribed  to  Joshna.  ThU  tradition  has  for  n 
long  century  been  almost  universally  adhered  ti 
that  there  have  not  at  different  periods  sus) 
been  raised  respecting  this  '  authenticity.' 
Pseudo-Clementines,  for  instance,  assumed  th 
Law,  orallv  delivered  by  Moses  to  the  Elden 
before  and  after  ita  being  committed  to  w 
undergone  innumerable  changes,  nay,  corruf 
among  these  the  too  person^  and  human  c 
tions  of  God,  and  the  unworthy  traits  re< 
of  the  Patriarchs.  Jerome  expresses  himi 
a  somewhat  doubtful  manner  on  the  relab 
Ezra  as  tbe  '  redactor,'  or  rather  '  restorer,' 
Pentateuch.  Aben  Ezra  boldly  calls  s 
]>aBBages  later  interpolationa,  and  speaka  of 
still  more  poignantly  as  a  Siod,  or  a  '  My 
L  e.,  as  containing  difficulties  not  to  be  cleared 
in  consonance  with  the  common  belief,  whii 
however,  was  too  pious  wnntoiUy  to  disturb. 
voices,  vaguely  lifted  up  by  more  or  lees  com] 
scholars,  remained  unheard.  It  wss  not  onti 
after  the  Eeformation,  at  the  dawn  of  the  exei 
and  critical  modern  age,  that  the  question  wl 
this  codex  was  the  work  of  one  man,  or  ei 
one  age,  and  what  aliare,  if  any,  Moses  had  in  it 
position,  began  to  be  discussed  seriously  ai 
scientific  grounds.  Eobbes  held  that  the  Penti 
was  rather  a  work  on.  than  by  Moses.  Spinoza 
to  the  conclusion,  that  it  wss  to  Ezra  that  wc 
indebted  for  the  book  in  its  present  shape,  am 
it  embodies  certain  gemiine  portions,  collects 
late  period,  together  with  a  vast  amount  of 
material,  added  at  various  periods  snbeequetit 
time  of  the  supposed  author.  Vitriuga,  Le 
i).  BiciL,  Simon,  and  otbeia,  folioweil,  r 


if  the  creation,  and  the  like,  coot 


PENTATEUCH. 


ms.  The  next,  and  indeed  tli«  most  import- 
p— becftiue  the  one  which  At  ottoa  removed 
BsttoD  from  the  Held  of  hazy  uid  timid 
tioni   to    that    scienCifio   basiB  upon  which 

rats,  wiui  tAbeo  bjr  Aatnio,  who,  froi 
rked  difference  of  the  Divine  nftrnet  me 
»is  and  the  beginning  of  Exodut— noticed 
['aluud  and  the  Fathers  or  tbx  Churcb — 
D  the  conclasion,  that  these  books  had 
irked  np  from  diffemat  oriKinal  docnm 
he  call»l  Jehovistio  and  Elohktio  respect' 
tee  article  Grubsis,  where  the  development  of 
dilation  U  described.  At  the  present  stage 
ivestigation,  the  view  very  generally  adopted 

*  complcmeotary  theory,'  which  asanmea, 
;rtainty,  two  or  more  anthort— Jehovirts 
ohists— for  the  whole  of  the  lirat 
it  least;  the  fifth  being  by  some  (Detitzsch, 

Kurz,  &c,)  atill  ascribed  chiefly  to  Moses'; 
id.  Only  a  small  apolo^tic  school,  of  which 
:t  spokesman  ia  Hengstenberg,  itill  upholds 
ire  intesrity  snd  authenticity  of  the  work, 
icing  Moses  its  sole  avithor.  The  oontem- 
disciissions  on  these  points,  which,  up  to 
a  very  recent  period,  were  chiefly  confined 
nany,  have  now  also  found  their  way  into 
L  The  irapuUe  to  the  controversy  in  this 
waa  principally  given  by  Dr  Davidson, 
layists  and  Keviewers,'  snd  Bishop  Colenso, 
'bom,  on  the  basis  of  these  Oerman  investi- 
raised  some  new  pninta.  Innnmerable 
by  more  or  less  competent  champions,  have 
lued ;  but  as  yet,  so  far  from  either  of  the 
ints  having  declared  themselves  convinced 
arguments  from  the  other  side,  the  contro- 
loita  new  puhlications  uninterruptedly. 
!  endeavouring  to  trace,  in  the  briefest  of 
,  some  of  the  chief  objections  raised  against 
loic  Batboiabip,  and  the  replies  given  thera- 
i  mnat  remind  the  reader  that  oura  is  only 
[  of  epitomisers.  as  it  were,  and  that  the 
tiire  of  our  task  preclitde*  us  from  giving 
lion  whatsoever  about  the  superior  force  a 
iments  on  either  side. 

rk,  alleged  to  be  the  prodnction  of  one  man, 
ged,  Stvt  of  all,  ought  to  contain  neither 
sary  repetitions  of  considerable  length,  nor 
ictioni,  nor  sjiacbronisms.  There  ought  to 
n  and  a  unity.  Yet,  there  can  be  no  doubt, 
y,  about  the  fragmentnry  character  of  the 
uch.  Many  ])ortionB,  evidently  complete  in 
ves,  are  strungtogether  without  the  slightest 
lequence,  nay,  in  an  nnchroaological  order, 
repetitions  and  contradictions,  there  is,  to 
ith,  the  very  history  of  the  creation,  which 
wice  in  the  first  chapters  of  Oenesia,  ia  each 
rea  differently,  and  in  each  account  the 
lame  is  consistently  mentioned  in  a  different 
'he  same  is  to  be  said  with  regard  to  the 
of  the  Deluge,  and  leveral  incidents  in  the 
the  Patriarchs  ;  the  important  conversation 
.  (iod  and  Moses  respecting  Aaron  (Eiod. 
-16,  and  tL  9)  ;  the  descriptions  of  the 
;te ;  the  prieatly  vestmenti ;  the  story  of 
ina  as  given  in  Exodos  and  Numbers  ;  the 

of  the  appointment  of  the  council  of  the 
a  in  the  same  books  ;  tc  Again,  the  work 
imetimes  seems  to  indicate  an  author  who 
the  legislator  himself,  such  as  the  phrase 
a  being  the  humblest  of  men  ;  the  acconnt 
>wn  death  -,  the  passi^  in  Genesis  '  before 
igned  any  king  over  l£e  children  of  Israel ' 
31) ;  the  occurrence  of  the  name  of  the  city 
(Qen.  xiv.  14,  Deut.  ixxiv.  1),  so  called  onljr 
e  conquest  by  that  tribe.     In  Numb,  xizii. 


number  of  towns  and  viUagee  built  by  the  tribe* 
of  Oad  and  Renben — an  event  which  could  not 
have  happened  during  Moses's  lifetime ;  further, 
the  fKquent  occurrence  of  the  fonnTiU  '  unto  this 
day'  (e.  g,.  Dent  jc  8,  where  the  author  speaks  ol 
the  institution  of  the  Levitea  oa  being  still  in  force 
'up to  this  day'),  &c.  It  ta  contended,  also,  that 
the  language  of  the  Pentateuch  varies  very  little 
from  that  of  the  last  prophets,  and  that  it  can 
hardly  be  assumed  that  a  thousand  yeara  should 
have  made  no  perceptible  difference  in  the  idiom; 
more  particularly  has  Deuteronomy  been  supposed 
to  bear  a  striking  resemblance,  in  style  and  language, 
to  Jeremiah,  The  Pentateuch  is  further  said  to 
contain  many  facts  palpably  contradictory  to 
natural  laws,  as  they  are  establiahed  in  the  ex- 
perience of  Uie  whole  historical  human  race,  and 
nystematised  by  science. 

Of  the  many  waya  to  get  nd  of  these  and  similar 
— old  and  new — enceptions,  the  moat  generally 
adopted  is  that  which  we  mentioned  as  the  method 
of  '  inter[)olation,'  by  which  the  Apologetic  School 
strikes  out  some  fifty  or  more  pasaagea,  as  not 
belonging  to  the  original  work,  but  having  crept  in, 
by  way  of  commentary,  note,  or  eiplanation,  in 
poat-Mosaic  times — the  body  of  the  work  being  tfana 
saved.  80  to  say.  by  a  most  extensive  ampatation. 
As  to  the  argument  from  the  language,  it  is  said  that 
the  Pentateuch,  being  the  divine  book,  by  way  of 
eminence,  and  embodying  the  very  phrasea  (to  the 
letter)  made  use  of  by  the  Almighty,  must  needs 
'lave  served  as  a  modd  for  the  neit  thouannd  years, 
ind  priests  and  Levites,  the  teachers  of  the  people, 
vere  enjoined  constantly  to  study  and  r^Ml  it : 
hence  the  small  difference  in  the  later  writers. 
Arabic  and  Syriac.  it  is  argued,  did  likewise  not 
change  essentially  for  many  centuries— an  assertion, 
however,  which  only  holds  good  if'many'is  taken 
in  a  veiT  vague  sense  indeed.  That  Deuteronomy 
differs  iQ  style  and  manner,  is  verbose,  tc.,  is 
iplained  by  Moses's  advanced  age.  On  the  other 
land,  events  which  are  not  in  harmony  with  the 
natural  laws,'  are  accepted  by  the  orthodox 
simply  and  literally  as  'miracles.'  while  'coneerva- 
'*  ~  '  rationalists  of  the  school  of  Eichhom,  Koeen- 
!r,  and  others,  who  stand  by  the  authenticity 
of  the  Pentateuch,  have  been  at  great  pains  to  find 
kind  of  poetical  interpretation  for  them. 
e  most  recent  attacks  on  the  authenticity  are 
chiefly  founded  upon  arithmetical  grouiida  The 
nbera  of  the  people,  their  cattle,  and  the  like, 
varioua  penoda,  do  not  seem  to  conform 
._  the  lawa  of  natnral  increaae,  or  even  to  the 
geometrical  limits  within  which  they  were  at  time* 
stated  to  have  been  confined.  Among  the  direct 
ifa,  howeVHr,  proffered  by  the  defendera  of  the 
authenticity,  the  following  chiefly  deserve  attentioa. 
Deuteronomy,  it  is  averred,  can  only  be  the  work  of 
Mosea  He  speaks  in  it  to  the  men  whom  he  haa 
led  for  many  years,  as  one  who  has  lived  through 
all  the  events  himself.  There  is  no  possibility  ot 
any  one  imitating  the  local  colouring  in  aucb  a 
mner.  If,  then,  Deuteronomy  must  be  allowed 
be  the  work  of  Moses,  the  three  iireceding  books, 
the  contents  of  which  frequent  allusion  is  made, 
must  equally  be  supposed  to  be  finally  redacted,  if 
not  written,  by  the  same  hand  ;  and  it  further 
foUowB  naturally,  that  the  introduction  to  these 
books,  which  ia  Oenesia,  must  have  emanated  from 
it.     Again,  any  one  writing  after  Moses,  could  not 

Eiaibly  have  possessed  the  ertiaordinarily  correct 
□wledge  of  contemporary  Egypt  and  Arabia, 
which  appears  throughout  the  Peotateach.  A  writer 
who  might  be  snppoeed  to  have  acquired  it  by  dint 
of  study  of  antiquities,  must,  it  ia  said,  have 
"    ■    ,yed  himself  on  evay  page  by  ir  ' 


PENTATEUCH. 


•nachrouinnB.  Nioereb  ii  in  OeueiiB  &  city  o( 
^etlittle importance;  wbileResen, of  whichnotn  . 
u  to  be  fonDd  in  any  other  part  of  the  Bible,  is  the 
great  metropolis  of  Auyria  of  the  timch  Tyre, 
great  in  the  days  of  David,  and  mentioned  already 
In  Joshua,  a  not  to  be  met  with  in  the  Pentateuch, 
ichere  a  later  writer  would  certainly  have  spoken  of 
it  in  connectioQ  with  Sidon.  The  Caooamte  gods 
and  altars  are  often  ipohen  of ;  never  their  temples. 
of  which  yet  we  read  in  Joshna.  Why,  then,  should 
that  very  ancient  anthor,  to  whom  must  needs  be 
traoed  Ute  Pentateuch,  not  be  Moies  himself, 
mther  than  some  contemporary  of  hiiT  The  frag- 
tneotary,  abrupt,  and,  as  it  were,  confused  character 
of  the  wort,  the  apoloeista  further  urge,  ao  far 
from  testifying  against  Moses,  confirm  the  tradition 
of  his  autbonhip.  Would  not  a  later  historian 
have  worked  the  mixed  man  of  bistoriool, 
geographical,  legal,  and  personal  material  into 
a  methodical  and .  systematical  whole  F  Who  else 
could  have  imparted  to  the  book  the  impress 
of  a  diary,  so  to  say,  but  the  man  who  was  in  the 
midst  of  the  events,  jotting  down  all  the  items 
important  either  in  his  own  individual  or  the  national 
career!  And  who  but  one  standing  in  its  very 
centre  conld  depict  with  such  glowing  colours  the 
life  that  moved  around  him  1 — But  a  further  direct 
argument  for  the  authenticity  is  found  by  them  in 
jdie  very  item  of  the  language  of  tlie  Pentateuch. 
Trne,  they  say,  it  resembles  as  much  as  can  be  that 
of  the  later  books,  because,  as  we  said  before,  it 
remained  the  classicat  language  for  all  later  genera- 
tions ;  bnt,  on  the  other  hand,  it  offers  certain  pecu- 
liarities— such  as  the  use  of  a  commoa  pronoun  of 
Uie  third  person  singular  for  both  the  masculine 
and  feminine  genders ;  the  same  term  for  boy  and 
girl ;  and  the  like  archaisms— all  of  which  distinctly 
prove  it  to  be  a  work  of  a  ve^  much  older  date, 
t  Mosaic  code  of  laws 


>rOuld  farther  appear  proved  beyond  any  doubt  by 
the  constant  recurrence  of  quotations  from  'the 
Law  of  Jehovah '  or  '  the  Law  of  Moses '  throughout 
the  other  books  of  the  Old  Testament  from  Joshua 
to  Hoses.  Bad  there  io  reality  been  no  such  code 
in  existence,  the  authors  of  the  different  bibUcol 
works  couLl  not  possibly  have  so  nnanimoiisly 
epoken  of  it  without  betraying  a  conscious  forgery 
somewhere.  That  Ezra  should  have  lieen  the  author, 
or,  at  all  eventa,  the  refoonder  of  the  Pentateuch, 
is  equally  improbable,  on  account  of  the  spirit,  tone, 
language,  and  all  those  smaller  peculiarities  of 
which  meetion  baa  been  made ;  and  he  would,  on 
the  other  hand,  never  have  been  able  so  skilfully  to 
»roid  his  own  individual  manner  and  style,  as  it 
Appears  in  his  own  book.  The  Samaritan  P.,  it 
is  further  said,  which,  with  a  very  few  character- 
istic alterations,  is  an  accurate  transcript  of  our 
Pentateuch,  would  have  been  an  utter  impossibility, 
considering  the  hostile  relations  between  the 
Samaritans  and  the  Jews,  if  it  had  not  been  well 
known  as  a  genuine  document  before  the  division  of 
the  empire.  'Ihat  Hilkiah,  who  is  said  to  have 
/bund  the  Book  of  the  I,aw  in  the  temple  in  the 
days  of  Josiah  (2  Kings,  xxiL  ;  2  Chron.  xxxiv.) 
■houhl  have  been  ita  re^  author — an  opinion  lirst 
advanced  by  De  Wette— would  imply  a  complicity 
in  the  forgery  not  only  on  the  part  of  Jeremiah, 
Huldah,  and  the  elders,  but  almost  al  the  whole 
people,  among  whom,  on  the  contr«ry,  there  cer- 
tainly seems  to  have  been  living  a  very  vivid 
tradition  of  the  former  existence  of  the  book  or 
■oma  of  its  portions  at  least  Moreover,  had  it  been 
firat  written  in  those  dajrs,  there  surely  would  have 
been  introduced  some  kind  of  prophetical  allusion 
to  the  royal  house  of  David,  or,  at  all  events,  a 
|iediaree  and  origin  differing  from  tite  incestuous 


one  given  in  Oen.  ixiviij.  Deuteronoai] 
altogether  have  changed  its  language  about '. 
(xvii.  15 — 20)  very  considerably ;  and  > 
would  not  have  stood  out  so  prominent 
favoured  tribe.  The  alleged  difficulties  ret 
the  numbers  are  explained  away  more  or  1< 
vincingly— in  the  moat  difficult  cases,  by  mil 
interference.  Corruptions,  interpolatjons, 
many  fates  that  befall  ancient  documei 
allowed  to  have  crept  in,  in  some  places  j  s 
this  argument  is  given  up  by  those  who  he 
a  special  providence  watched  over  the  divin 
In  all  other  respects,  they  hold  these  be 
eractly  as  they  were  written  by  Moses  andi 
'Inspiration.' — Thus  far,  in  swiftest  outlii 
pros  and  contras  most  commonly  addoc 
worthy  of  some  consideration. 

A  lew  rationalistio  critics,  however,  have 
far  as  to  deny  the  very  possibility  of  Moses 
eiven  the  laws  contained  in  the  Pentatenoh, 
rounding  their  objections  u[ion  the  ground 
was  not  likely  to  have  been  versed  in  tb< 
writing  to  an  extent  which  the  comi)OBition 
laws  would  presuppose.  Egyptian  characte 
which  he  might  have  been  familiar,  could  n 
been  used  for  Hebrew  composition ;  a 
Hebrews  themselves,  uncultivated  as  they  « 
not  possess  any  characters  of  their  own.  Tl 
only,  in  reply  to  these  objections,  that  fac 
stated,  that  a  soberer  criticism  of  more  reci 
has  found  itself  obliged,  in  deference  to 
paleograjjhical  and  other  scientiSc  truths,  to 
most  of  these  points,  or,  at  all  events,  to  f< 
such  sweeping  condemnation  npon  those  wh 
remain.  On  the  contrary,  whichever  of  th< 
thesea  enumerated  at  the  beginning  is  assnii 
groundwork  of  the  legislation  is  traced  bi 
al  most  unauimous  consent,  to  the  historical  p 
Moses,  who  is  no  longer  the  mythical  dem 
barbarous  hordes,  but  a  man.  such  as  i 
endeavoured  to  sketoh  under  that  head.  T 
redaction  of  these  laws,  however,  as  of  the  i 
the  Pentateuch,  is  almost  as  unanimouslj 
especially  by  German  critics — placed  in  f^ 
after  him. 

In  the  contemporary  '  moderate '  school  i 
land,  BO  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  glean  frc 
writings,  the  following  seems  to  be  the  pi 
opinion  on  the  point  of  the  Mosaic  authors 
is  allowed,  that  Moses  did  not  write  the  whol 
Pentateuch,  but  portioas  of  Eiodus,  Ijcvitii 
Numbers,  and  the  whole  of  Deutoronomy,  v 
aiceptioD  of  the  account  of  his  death,  an 
portions  as  palpably  shew  an  author  who  p 
the  imminent  dissolution  of  the  emjiire.  Tb 
the  fundamental  Law  {Decalogue)  should  be  I 
two  varying  versions,  they  hold,  strentftbens 
the  assumption  of  their  geuuine  Mosaic  autho 
some  original  shape.  The  lator  editor,  find 
different  recensions  made  bv  contemporarit 
subsequent  ages,  embodied  them  both,  on  aci 
their  paramount  importance,  literally.  Ueni 
worked  up  from  ancient  documents,  comp< 
various  writers,  living  at  various  'prefa 
periods,  either  by  Moses  himself,  or  Under  hi 
vision,  by  some  of  the  elders.  The  first  re 
of  the  five  books  as  B  whole  took  place  al 
conquest  of  Canaan,  through  Joshua  and  the 
the  second  and  fiual  redaction,  however,  in  \ 
received  its  present  shape,  is  to  be  dated  fi 
time  of  Ezra,  aftor  the  return  from  the  exile. 

The  majority  of  continental  modem  critia 
more  moderate  stamp — who  repudiato  the  n 
their  belonging  to  the  advancea  rationalistic 
hold  opinions  of  a  very  different  kind  ;  an 
they  have  found  professed  partisana  ioEngli 


PENTECOST— PENUMBRA. 


of  whom  la  Pr  DaTidaon,  we  will  make 

hia  own  word*  {J.i'roduclum  to  the  Old 
i():  'There  ia  little  txtema!  _  :."..___ 
VIoBMO  BDtborahip ;  and  wL:i^  little  there 
lot  stand  the  teitof  criticiam.  Tl.c  <nccrL'd' 
en  of  the  Old  Testament  do  not  cunfini] 

Tenenble  authority  of  Christ  himself  liui 
!r  bearing  on  the  questioQ.     Tlie  objection! 

from  internal  structviro  are  coneluaivf 
he  Moaaio  authonihlp.  Various  contradic- 
:  irreconcilable.  The  traces  of  a  liter  date 
incing.  The  narratives  of  the  Pentoteui;h 
Jly  troatworthy,  though  partly  mythical 
ndary.  The  miraclea  recorded 
tioiu  of  a  later  age.  The  voice  of  God 
I'itbout  profanity,  be  said  to  have  extemany 
,It  the  preeepts  attributed  to  him,  Moaea^a 
L  the  foundation  of  the  edifice  of  God's  word, 
.3  grown  into  the  proportions  in  which  we 
eaa  it ;  but  he  was  not  the  first  writur  who 
larta  of  the  national  legends  and  history, 
jmphatically  m  laWHfivfr,  not  ■  historian,  a 
liritusJ  actor  in  the  life-drama  of  the 
v  who  founded  their  theocratic  constitution 
e  direct  guidance  of  the  Supreme.' 
words  must  be  added  ree[>ectiDg  the  use 
entatench.  According  to  Deut.  xxxi.  24 
iras  preaerved  in  the  Ark  of  the  Coveaant. 
rentb  year,  it  had  to  be  read  to  the  people 

;  and  probably  the  Schools  of  Prophets, 
I  at  the  time  of  .Samnel,  propagated  its  use 
.  Moreover,  certain  prieatly,  sanitary,  and 
n  required  constant  refereuce  to  it,  so 
WD  portiooa  of  it  eeem  to  have  been 
1  use  at  an  early  period.  EveiT  syua- 
,   according  to  the    traditional    Law,   to 

roll  of  the  Toroh,  written  on  parchment, 
r  certain  strictly- insisted- upon  regulations, 
rhich    roll    certain    portions   ore    read    on 

anrl  feaat-days ;  and,  according  to  the 
:uatom  in  Palestine,  when  Monday  and 
■  were  the  market-days — when  the  conntry- 
>me  to  town  and  the  judges  aat — also  on 
a.  A  amaUer  portion  (Parsaha)  is  read  on 
1  on  the  afternoon  service  of  the  Sabbath 
the  Sabbath  morning  service,  when  a 
Iraia  read,  or  rather  chanted,  according  to 
•utJt,  which  ia  note  and  accent  at  the  same 
le  Samaritans  have,  of  all  biblical  books, 
>ted  the  Pentateuch,  with  slight  variations 
iRiTAua),  their  Book  of  Joshua  being  a  very 
work  from  ours  ;  and  certain  very  recent 

of  their  possessing  alao  othiiT  adaptations 
ilicai  books,  require  contirmation.  For  the 
iranalations  of  the  Pentatench,  ancient  and 
see  Vbrsioss.  The  first  printed  edition 
intateuch  dates. Bologna,  H82.  foL  The 
commentators  and  writers  on  the  whole 
atateuch,  both  in  and  out  of  the  Church,  ia 
Ve  mention  among  the  foremost,  beaidea 
ch  Fathera  (Augustine,  Jerome,  Ephraim. 
;.)  and  the  medieval  Jewish  commentators 
>.  Kimchi,  Aben  Ezra),  Calvin,  Luther, 
je  Clerc,  Spence,  Michaclis,  Eichhom,  Jahn, 
3,  Keil,  H^vemich,  Uleek,  Hengstenberg, 
urtz.  Stahelin,  Berthcau,  Cnlenao,  Graves, 

'ECOST  (Or.  paiCeeoiti,  fiftieth)  was  the 
en  to  the  feast  among  the  Jews,  held  on 
.h  day  after  the  paesover,  in  celebration  of 
athering,'  and  m  thanksgiving  for  the 
See  FfirriViLa.  From  the  Jewish  use  it 
Inced  into  the  Chriatiau,  and  with  8i>eciat 
,  aa  being  the  day  of  the  descent  of  the 
1st  oa  the  Bj)oatles,  and  of  tbe  tirat  aolemn 
;   of  the  Christian  religion.    From  early 


timea,  pentecost  has  been  regarded  aa  one  of  the 
great  festivala  of  the  Christian  year,  and  it  waa 
chosen  as  one  of  the  times  for  the  solemn  admini< 
stration  of  baptism  ;  and  the  English  name  of  tho 
festival,  H'kil-Sandat/,  ta  derived  from  the  ieliU4 
Tohea  in  which  the  newly- baptised  were  clod.  It 
ia  regarded  aa  specially  sacred  to  tbe  Third  Person 
uf  the  Blessed  Trinity,  to  whose  honour  the  services 
of  the  day  are  directly  addressed.  Many  curiona 
usages  were  anciently  connected  with  the  celebra- 
tion. The  dove,  being  held  aa  an  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  in  some  churches,  a  figure  of  a  dove, 
suspended  by  a  cord  from  the  ceiliug,  was  lowered 
so  as  to  alight  on  the  high  altar  during  the  service. 
In  othere,  Hgnres  of  cloven  tongues,  or  red  rose- 
lea  vea,  were  similarly  introduced.  The  latter 
practice  is  said  to  be  still  retained  at  Messina,  but 
in  general  these  scenical  representationa  have  been 
discontinued.  In  some  places,  however,  in  the 
East  as  well  as  in  the  West,  the  practice  prevails 
of  decorating  the  cliurches  with  evergreens  and 
Uowers,  aa  ia  done  in  England  at  Chriatmas.  The 
whole  time  intervening  between  Easter  and  Pente- 
celebrated  in  the  Roman  Catholic  church 
with  s[>ecial  solemnity,  and  with  some  peculiar 
"uiges.  and  of  this  something  ia  retained  in  the 
hiirch  of  England. 

PE'NTHOTTSB,  a  projection  forming  an  open 
lof  or  shed,  protecting  a  doorway,  gate,  window, 
&c. 

PE'NTLAND     FIRTH,    a    channel    or    atraik 
between  the  Atlantic  and  German  Oceans,  sepai 
ating  the  mainland  of  Scotland  from  the  Orknef 
Islands.     It  is  17  milee  long,  and  from  6  to  8  miles 
wide.    About  a  mile  west  of  Duncanshay  Head  ja 
ferry  station,  whence  boata  cross  to  Burwick,  in 
le  iuand  of  Ijouth  Ronaldahay,  a  distance  oE  7 
iles.  The  Pentland  Kkerriea,  6  miles  north-east  of 
uncansbay  Head,   couaiat  of  two   islets,   and   of 
■veral  contiguous  rocks.  On  the  larger  of  the  isleta 
a  light-house  with  two  lights,  one  of  which  is 
170.  aiid  the  other  140  feet  above  seo-level.  The  lat. 
of  the  lij^ht-housa  ia  58°  41'  N.,  long.  2°  55'  W.    Off 
■  e  coast  of  Caithueas,   and  separated  from   it  by 
channel  called  the   Inner  Sound  (about  2  milea 
width),   is  the  island  of  Stroma;  and  3  uilea 
norUi- north -east  of  Stroma  ia  the  islet  of  Swona, 
of  the  Orkneys.    Ou  the  north  side  of  Stroma  is 
the  small  vortei  or  whirlpool  of  .Swalchie,  and  west 
of  it  are  the  breakers  called  the  'Men  of  Mey,' 
which  are  supposed  to  he    produced  by  a  current 
setting  strongly  on  a  concealed  reef,      fhe  naviga- 
tion of  the  P.  P.  ia  more  dangerous  than  that  of 
her  portion  of  the  Scottish  seaa.     A  current 
^  from  west  to  cast  flows  through  the  Firth 
witii  a  velocity  of  from  3  to  9  miles  an  hour,  and 
numerous  eddies  and  whirlpools.     It  is  eati- 

that  about  4U00  vessels  with  cargoes  paat 

through  the  Firth  annually. 

PENTLAND    HILLS,  in  the   Lowlands   of 
Scotland,    eitend    north-east    from    the    border    of 
Lanarkshire  to  the  centre  of  the  county  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  to  within  4  milea  of  the  city  of  that 
ime.     Mean  height  upwards  of  1000  feet ;  highest 
.mmit.  East  Cairn,  near  tbe  middle  of  tbe  range,. 
139  feet. 

PENU'MBBA.  When  the  shadow  of  an  opaque- 
object  is  thrown  upon  a  surface  at  some  little  di»- 
tance  by  a  light  of^  considerable  apparent  size,  it  ia 
'  that  the  shadow  is  divided  into  two 
1  dark  portion  in  tho  centre,  and  a  lighter 
i^^-^^  .arrounding  it  The  former  is  known  as- 
the  tanbra,  or  comiJete  shadow ;  the  latter  as  the 
petmmbra,  or  partial  shadow.    A  reference  to  th» 


PENZA-PEPR 


ABCD,  it  18  seen  that  the  small  portion,  rm,  receives 
(omitting  all  consideration  of  refraction,  disper- 
sion, &c.,  of  light)  7u>  light  from  S,  while  the  whole 
surface  outside  of  PPPP  is  completely  illuminated. 
The  point  P'  receives  light  from  the  whole  of  8  ;  the 
point  F  is  only  half  illumined,  and  that  by  the 
lower  part  of  S,  the  illumination  of  the  points 
becoming  less  and  less  as  they  approach  u\  which  is 
unillumined.  The  portion  withm  au'  is  the  umbra, 
and  that  between  the  boundaries  PPPP'  and  uu'  is 
the  penumbra,  which,  as  we  have  seen,  gradually 
shades  from  perfect  light  at  the  outer  boundary  to 
perfect  darkness  at  the  inner,  so  that  it  is  almost 
mipossible  exactly  to  note  its  limits  on  either  side. 
This  phenomenon,  it  \a  evident,  can  only  occur 
when  the  illuminating  body  is  of  such  a  size,  real  or 
apparent,  as  to  make  the  ande,  P'Kr//,  of  sensible 
magnitude;  and  it  is  equauy  evident  that  the 
nearer  the  body  E  approaches  the  plane  on  which 
its  shadow  is  cast,  the  larger  is  the  umbra  and  the 
smaller  the  penumbra ;  while  by  increasing  the 
distance  between  £  and  the  plane,  so  that  the  point 
L  shall  fall  between  them,  the  umbra  is  made  to 
vanish,  and  the  penumbra  is  increased.  This  is 
well  illustrated  by  natural  phenomena :  the  shadow 
of  a  man  cast  by  the  sun  on  the  ground  presents 
almost  no  penumbra;  the  shadow  of  the  earth 
^thrown  by  the  sun  upon  space  at  the  distance  of  the 
moon  gives  a  penumora  many  times  as  large  as  the 
umbra ;  and  sometimes,  when  the  moon  is  new  at 
her  apogee,  for  instance,  her  shadow  cast  upon  the 
•earth  exhibits  no  umbra.  Spectators  on  the  earth 
who  see  a  partial  eclipse  of  the  sun,  are  situated 
within  the  penumbra,  but  within  the  umbra  when 
tthey  observe  a  total  eclipse ;  while  if  the  eclipse 
be  annular,  the  umbra  does  not  exist  in  the  shadow 
cast  by  the  moon  on  the  earth's  surface.  See 
Eclipses. 

PE'NZA,  a  central  government  of  European 
'Russia,  between  the  government  of  Nijni- Novgorod 
•on  the  north,  and  that  of  Tambov  on  the  west 
Jirefk  14,670  square  miles,  pop.  1,161,575.  The  sur- 
face is  in  extensive  and  elevated  plains,  marked 
occasionally  with  ridges  of  low  hills.  The  rivers 
«re  tributaries  of  the  Don  and  Volga,  and  three  of 
•them,  the  Khoper,  the  Soura,  and  the  Moksha,  are 
jiavigable.  The  climate,  though  rather  cold  in 
winter,  is  temperate,  agreeable,  and  healthy.  The 
4oil,  consisting,  for  the  most  part,  of  black  earth,  is 
extremely  fertile,  and  a^culture  is  the  principal 
employment  of  the  inhabitants.  Grain  of  different 
kinds,  leguminous  plants,  beet-root,  flax,  hemp, 
tobacco,  and  hops  are  the  principal  products.  Much 
of  the  grain  is  used  in  the  numerous  distilleries, 
and  considerable  quantities  of  it  are  exported  to 
the  neighbouring  governments.  About  one-third 
of  the  entire  area  is  covered  with  forests,  some  of 


figure  will  at  once  make  plain  their  origin  and  I  which  consist  entirely  of  oak-trees.  The  manufa^ 
rdation ,  for  if  S  be  the  illuminatiDS  body,  E  tories  are  centred  chiefly  in  the  towns ;  cloth  and 
the  object  whose  shadow  is  cast  on  the  sunace,  leather  are  the  principal  articles  made.  The  com- 
mercial improvement  of  the  govenmient  is  hindered 
by  the  want  of  direct  means  of  communication  with 
the  consuming  districts.  The  principal  towns  ue 
Penza,  Mokshansk,  and  Saransk. 

PENZA,  a  town  of  European  Russia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Soura, 
220  miles  south-south-east  of  Nijni-Novgorod.  It 
was  founded  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  c.,  as  a 
defence  against  Tartar  invasion,  is  a  handsome 
town,  occupying  an  elevation,  and  containing  19 
churches,  2  convents,  manv  gardens,  k  lar^^e  pai^, 
with  a  beautiful  fruit-garden  and  a  horticnltural 
schooL  It  possesses  2  cloth-factories,  4  iron-works, 
several  soap-boiling  and  candle-miJcing  establisli- 
ments.  The  principal  articles  of  commerce  are 
com  and  timber,  which  is  floated  down  the  Sooia 
during  spring.    Pop.  22,280. 

PENZA'NOE,  a  market  and  sea-port  town,  and  a 
municipal  borough  of  England,  in  the  county  of 
Cornwall,  stands  on  the  north-west  shore  of  Mount's 
Bay,  22  miles  west-south-west  of  Falmouth.  It  is 
the  most  westerly  town  in  England— the  light-houee 
on  its  pier  being  in  lat.  SS*  T  N.,  and  in  long. 
go  23/  yf^  tijq  town,  standing  on  a  finely-curred 
shore,  surrounded  by  rocky  eminences,  and  in  a 
fertile  district,  is  exceedingly  picturesque  in  situa- 
tion, and  is  famous  for  its  mild,  thou^  somewhat 
moist  climate.  Its  esplanade,  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  west  of  England,  commands  charming  land  and 
sea  views.  The  chief  buildings,  most  of  which  are 
constructed  of  granite,  are  the  town-hall  and  con- 
market,  surmounted  by  a  dome,  and  the  chapels  of 
St  Paul  and  St  Mary.  There  are  numerous  board* 
ing-houses  for  the  accommodation  of  the  visit<)rs, 
attracted  hither  by  the  temperate  and  equable 
climate,  by  the  beauty  of  the  neighbouring  scenery, 
and  the  curiosities  of  the  district  of  Land's  End. 
Woollen  yarns  and  cloths  are  manufactured ;  the 
flsliery  employs  upwards  of  2000  persons;  agri- 
cultural produce,  pilchards,  and  tin  and  copper 
ores  produced  from  the  mines  of  the  vicinity  are 
exported;  and  timber,  iron,  hemp,  and  hides  are 
the  chief  im|x>rts.  The  harbour  is  accessible  for 
vessels  of  considerable  burden,  and  is  furnished  with 
a  pier  800  feet  in  length.  In  1863,  3732  vessels  of 
360,511  tons  entered  and  cleared  the  port.  Pop. 
(1861)  of  municipal  borough,  9414. 

P.  was  laid  in  ashes  by  a  party  of  marauding 
Spaniards  in  1595,  and  was  sacked  by  Fairfax  in 

PE'ON.    See  Calophyllum. 

PEO'RIA,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  Illinois, 
U.S.,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Illinois  River,  which 
is  crossed  by  two  bridges  of  2500  feet,  at  the  outlet 
of  Peoria  llake,  70  mues  north  of  Springfield,  and 
160  miles  south-west  of  Chicago.  It  is  connected 
by  steamboat  navigation  with  the  Ohio  and  Missis* 
sippi,  by  canal  with  Lake  Michigan,  and  is  an 
important  station  on  the  g^reat  network  of  w&tem 
railways.  Bluff's  of  bituminous  coal,  opening  upon 
the  river  banks,  supply  numerous  manufactories. 
There  are  24  churches,  and  numerous  schools  and 
public  institutions.    Pop.  (1860)  14,426. 

PEP^.  Thred  Neapolitans  of  this  name  hsTe 
played  an  important  part  in  history.  The  first 
of  these  was  Gabrielb  Pbpb,  who  was  born  in 
1781  at  Bojano,  in  the  present  province  of  Oampo- 
basso,  Italy,  and  was  a  student  of  law  in  1799, 
when,  on  tiie  proclamation  of  the  Parthenopsan 
Republic,  he  took  service  in  the  Franoo-Neapolitaa 
army,  and  was  consequently  ezUed  on  the  uU  of 


PEPERINO— PEPIN. 


■r  goTernmenb  Suhsequently  he  served  in 
lisn  legiaa  la  the  FreDch  army  iioJer  Kin? 

in  Spain  with  great  dtstiaction,  and  with 
In  1S16,  he  waa  raised  by  the  latter  to  the 

colonel,  a  grade  conlinned  by  Ferdinand  I,, 
,ve  him  the  commnnd  of  a  province,  and 
rd»  ot  the  pirriBon  of  Syracuse.  Ha  eepoused 
eat  leal  the  cause  of  the  revolutionary  party 
,  and  was  deputed  to  the  national  parliament, 
downfall  of^  the  conatitutionol  government, 
seized  by  the  Austrions,  and  imprisoned  at 
.  in  Moravia  ;  but  was  released  at  the  end  of 
ira.  and  retired  to  Tuscany ;  where,  feeling 
.  some  remarks  of  JSI.  de  Lamartine.  then 
I'-affairee  in  thnt  eouotry.  on  Italian  patriot- 

in  turn  wielded  the  pen  in  defence  of  his 
men  with  such  severity  that  a  duel  resulteil 
L  him  and  the  poet,  followed  by  an  apology  , 
e  tatter.  From  this  time  he  took  no  part  ■" 
:  affairs,  but  devoted  himself  to  science  bi 
re,  uid  died  at  B<ijano,  Au^iat  1849.— His 
OcQLULMO  Pepe,  IwiTi  ID  1782  at  Squillace, 
man  of  equal  note.     After  serving  in  the 

army  of  Catalonia,  and  attaining  to  high 
d  honour,  he  retnmed  to  Na|iles  to  8iiji|)ort 

and  after  the  flight  of  that  chief,  was  one 
eaders  of  the  '  Muratiat'  party,  yet,  after 
oration,  the  Bourbon  Fei\linaiid  allowed 
retain  his  honours.  P.  rendered  valuable 
in  rooting  out  {1S18)  the  nests  of  brigands 
ested  the  provinces  of  Avellino  and  F<iggia, 
■r  the  insurrection  of  JS20,  was  for  s..me 
the  most  ioflnential  man  in  Naples ;  but, 
s  defeat  by  the  Aiistrians  at  Kieti,  Tth 
1821.  be  was  forced  to  flee  the  country, 
k  refii;^  in  Spain,  whence  he  retired  to 
,  when-  he  lived  many  years,  afterwords 
g  to  Fu-is.  In  1S48,  on  the  proclamation 
rmistioi!,  he  returned  to  Naples,  welcomed 
thusiabDi  by  the  people  and  the  court  ;  and 
,  constrained  by  the  public  voice,  gave  him 
mnnd  of  the  Neajxilitan  contingent  which 
t  to  aid  tbe  Lombards  against  Austria ; 
r  the  suppression  of  revohitiou  in  Naples 
ay),  P.  was  ordered  to  return  and  ijiit  dnwn 
irgents  of  Calaliria.  Digreganbu>:  these 
P.,  with  OS  many  of  the  Neapolitans  as 
idhera   to   him    (20IKI    men),   devoted   his 

to  the  defence  of  Venice,  of  whose  army 
>een  elected  commander-in-chief.  His  prud* 
d  courage,  joined  to  an  untiring  energy, 
him  greatly  to  retard  tbe  operations  of  the 
is;  but  the  force  under  his  command  was 
d  for  effecting  anything  of  importance, 
rt  remarkable  exploit  was  the    sortie  be 

in  person  (October  1849)  from  the  citadel 
hera.  After  the  fat!  of  Venice.  P.  iied  to 
a  board   a  French   ship,  and  subsequently 

to  Paris.  He  had,  however,  an  auti[iathy 
le,  and  speedily  removed  to  Turin,  where  he 

August  1856.  He  has  left  several  works, 
f  of  which  are,  Reiatioa  dn  Evnemeatg 
■J  et  Alililairf^  de  NnpUt  m  1820  tt  1821 
822,  in  Italian  and  French),  and  Hiabiirr  da 
>mel  da  Gatrra  Ulalie  en  1847,  1818,  el 
aris,  1850).  A  statue  of  him  has  been 
in  Turin.— His  elder  brother,  Florbstaso 

1780,  died  1851],  was  also  a  Miiratist,  but 
!d  to  Ferdinand.  He  was  a  mild  and  con- 
,  but  feeble  liberaL 

IRI'NO,  an  Italian  term,  apjilied  by  some 
a  Ut  tha  brown  volcaoio  iu(n  derivra  from 
ocka,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  ordinary 
hich   name   'Siey  conSne  to   the   lighter- 

pnmiceona  rocks  that  have  mure  trachyte 
composition. 


PBPIN,  the  name  of  seven 
here  of  the  Carlovingian  famil 
in  order  was  Pepin  le  Vibdic  i 
the  founder  of  the  family.  ] 
family,  and  took  his  designatit 
in  Liege,  Belgium).  KebeUJn. 
great  lords  of  Austrosia  againi 
haut,  who  was  regent  for  th 
offered  the  crown  to  Clotaire 
who,  in  reward  of  his  services 

Saiaia  of  Austrasia,  an  olfice  w 
old  during  tbe  two  following 
639.     Hia  administratimn  was 
servation  of  the  power  and  iDt< 
an  kingdom,  aud  though,  by 
hemes  of  centralisation  propi 
II  under  the  royal  disuleasun 
for  him  favour  and   iniiuence 
chiefs  :  his  power  and  wealth  w 
and  a  broad  and  firm  path   tc 
laid  for  his  descendanta.     His 
siicceeiled    him    as   maire  da 
.ttemj>ted  togatherthe  fnutaol 


Pepin 

Pepi.-j  lk  Gro8  or  Pepin  D'. 
elected  by  tbe  Austrasiau  nob 
to  protect  Austrasia  against  i 
EIroin,  the  able  maire  (if  Neui 
was  to  rid  himself  of  the  Me 
nominally  ruled  over  Austrasia 
by  obtaining  the  condenmatioi 
monarch,  Dagobert  II.,  by  a  coi 
then  putting  him  to  death. 
Merovingian  rule  IQ  Austruift  i 
sole  ruler,  but  bis  ambition  dii 
hod  resolved  on  tbe  ruin  c 
monorchs,  and  accordingly  levi 
the  invasion  of  Neuetiia.  Elr 
equally  resolved  to  humble  tl 
'cracy,  and  support  the  throne ; 
Austrasia,  his  army  came  in  si 
Id  the  battle  (680)  which  ens 
totally  defeated,  hia  bi'other  a 
was  token  prisoner  and  put  to 
self  narrowly  escaped.  Luckil; 
EIroin  was  soon  afterwards  ai 
successor,  Warato,  sipied  a  tP 
incapacity  and  tyranny  of  War* 
Berthoire,  diacontented  the  Nc 
went  over  to  P.,  and  by  this 
enobled  him  to  resume  the  offei 
immediately  invaded,  and  o  I 
batUe  at  Testry  (087)  freed  P.  ■ 
thaire,  who  wos  left  dead  on  t 
NeustHa  at  his  feet  Full  of  moc 
of  triumph,  and  satislied  that  b 
the  throne  o  more  obedient  sloi 
the  then  kin^  of  Neustria,  P.  ci 
proclaimed  kuig  of  Austrasia,  hi 
self  tbe  sovereign  power,  wieldin 
declining  the  crown.  From  tbi 
whole  of  France  (Austrasia  in  I 
election  as  Duke,  and  Ncuatria 
with  energy,  and  undisturbed  t 
motion,  during  the  lives  of  th 
kings,  tiU  his  death  in  714.  B 
campaigns  (689-708)  against  tl 
valiant  and  independent  race  ' 
subdued  fur  some  time  often 
legitimate  sons  who  died  before 
mate  son,  Charles,  subsequentl. 
Martel  (q.  v.),  who  succeeded 
third  who  bore  this  name  was 


PEPIN-PEPPER. 


yfninger  son  ot  Ckarlei  Martel,  who,  on  tlie  death  of 
hie  father  iu  741,  receiveil  ^ciistria  and  Bur^^ndy  ; 
Auatrsaia,  Thurinj^a,  aail  SuabLi  being  the  heritage 
of  hit  elder  brother  Carlonian.  Aiiuitaine  wju 
nnminalty  a  part  of  P.'t  dominions,  though,  ta  it 
ic.-Lt  really  independeut  undpr  its  own  duke,  be 
muile  several  attempts  to  subdue  it ;  but  the  duke 
■w.iB  quite  able  to  hold  Uis  owd  afraiDat  both  P.  ou  the 
oui^  hand  and  the  Arabs  (from  .Spain)  on  the  other. 
The  farce  of  governing  the  couritry  in  the  name  and 
M  the  chief  minister  of  the  Merovingian  Bi>ver<:ij;D 
wna  still  kejit  up,  though  V.  was  eagerly  louHiiig  lor 
an  opportunity  to  iiMume  the  crown ;  but  the  pre- 
Ki'iit  time  was  iDopportune,  aa  no  soouer  wag  the 
ri-stnunt  of  Charles  alartfl's  iron  hand  renioveil  by 
liiMth,  than  revolts  broke  out  in  all  quartere  among 
the  Franks,  Gennana,  Bavariaiia.  anci  tiaBc^oDS.  The 
ciiuntry,  by  the  united  eiertiona  of  P.  and  Oarloman, 
w.ia  restored  to  tranquillity  about  745.  Thi^ae 
l>i  luces  who  had  excited  the  iusurrection  were  mostly 
il"posed,  and  otherwise  punished,  and  the  Duke  of 
Aijiiitaiae  was  com|)ell«l  to  acknowledge  at  least 
the  nominal  sovereignty  of  Pepin.  In  747,  Oarloinan 
b.ide  adieu  to  power,  and  retired  into  a  couvent, 
U-aving  his  government  to  his  sous,  who  were  imme- 
diately diBpOBsessed  by  Pepin.  After  cruihing  a 
rel)ellion  of  Sajions  aud  Bavarians,  P.  began  to 
curry  out  his  favourite  project  of  diBI>oaBeasmg  the 
Merovingian  dynaaty  of  even  the  semblance  of 
authority,  and  of  originatins  in  i>ersan  a  new  royal 
dynasty.  To  gain  his  point  lie  flattered  tlie  clergy, 
Uien  the  moat  influential  biHly  in  France ;  and  as 
tljey  had  lieen  doBpoiled  by  Charles  Martel  for  the 
btboof  of  hia  wairiora,  a  moderate  degree  of  kindness 
and  generosity  on  the  |Kirt  oF  P.  contra8te<l  him  ao 
favourably  with  his  fatJicr,  that  the  clergy  at  once 
became  his  partisans.  Ho  did  the  ]>ope,  who  felt 
the  importance  ot  securing  the  oiil  of  the  iiowerfiil 
Prankish  chief  against  the  I/omban1s,  who  were 
then  masters  of  ItJily,  and  n'le:ued  the  Franks  from 
their  oath  of  fldelity  to  Childeric,  the  Merovingian 
monarch.  On  leammg  this.  P.  at  once  caiLied  him- 
self to  be  elected  king  by  the  assembly  of  estates 
at  Soisaons,  and  was  ccnsecritcd  by  the  Bishop  of 
Mayence  (March  752).  Childeric  retired  to  a  con- 
vent, where  he  died  in  755.  P.  was  the  first 
Prankish  monarch  whose  election  received  the 
aanction  of  the  poiie,  and  who  waa  consecrated  to  hia 
high  dignity ;  and  these  solemn  ceremonies  put  the 
crown  to  a  great  extent  at  the  mercy  of  the  clergy, 
who  from  this  time  took  a  pohtical  rank  in  the  state, 
Tlie  jjractice,  too,  followe<l  by  P.  and  his  predecessora 
in  ottii-c,  of  gaining  partisans  by  granting  parti' 
cnlar  tiefs  to  various  chiefs,  jjreatly  strengthened 
the  feudal  system,  and  proportionally  weakene<l  the 
ri'yal  iJi)wer.  This  effect,  however,  did  not  shew 
it^flf  till  after  the  Bubaequeiit  reign  of  Charlem^ne, 
on  account  of  the  pemonalgenins  of  these  two  ruk>rH. 
P.  was  soon  called  upon  to  aid  the  pope  against  the 
Lumbards,  and  marching  into  Italy  at  the  head  of  a 
lar}^  army,  he  compelled  .\stiilf,  the  I»ml>ard  king, 
to  retire  from  the  siege  of  Rome,  and  restore  several 
cities  which  had  previously  belonged  to  tlie  Greeks; 
these  were  now  handed  over  to  the  pope.  He  hod 
Laidly  returned  to  France,  when  he  was  anew 
summoned  (735)  to  Italy,  the  Lomb.irds  having 
briiken  their  engagements.  This  time  he  took 
Eaveuna,  Emilia,  the  Pentajxilia,  aud  the  duoby  ot 
Ifi>me  from  the  liombanU,  reunitinji  them  to  the 
Holy  See.  After  the  settlement  of  affairs  in  Italy, 
the  turbulent  nations  on  his  eastern  frontier  de- 
manded his  attention.  The  Saxons  and  other 
German  tribes  were  defeated  (767),  their  country 
cruelly  ravaged,  a  heavy  tribute  exacted,  and 
numbers  of  captives  and  hostages  taken.  Resolved 
to  unite  the  whole  of  Gaul  under  his  authority,  he 


eagerly  accepte<l  the  invitation  of  tlie  Vis 
Keptiiuania  to  aid  them  against  the  An 
hail  taken  possession  of  tlie  country;  and 
war  of  many  years'  duration,  Norlmune,  th 
the  Arab  strongholds,  was  taken,  and  the 
freed  of  these  invadcra,  at  once  acknowlei 
authority.  The  remaining  yeare  of  his  re 
occufiied  in  reducing  the  iudepcndent  inor 
Aquitaine,  which  was  not  accomplisheil  I 
nine  years  (760—768)  of  desolating  woi 
oiitaiued  the  asaasaination  of  his  opjmnei 
Waifre,  whose  partisans  then  laid  down  th 
surrendering  to  the  Prankish  monarch  i 
provinces  which  stretch  from  the  Loire  to  t 
and  the  Pyrenees.  Shortly  after  this  con. 
died  of  dropsy,  September  7l>a  He  was 
active,  enterprising,  and  in  general  fortunate 
he  established  the  unity  m  the  Gallic  nal 
protected  it  aa  far  as  could  be  done  by 
and  ravaging  the  territories  of  the  neigl 
nations,  though  he  also  introduced  those  elc 
weakness  iuto  ita  constitution  which  reili 
authority  of  his  successors  to  such  a  di 
state.  The  others  of  this  name,  though  ii 
(lersonages  at  the  time,  make  little  figure  in 

PEPPER  (Pi>T),  a  genus  of  plant*  of  th. 
order    Piprrartac   (q.  T.),   which   once   inclu 

hole  of  that  order ;  but,  as  no*  limiteil, 
of  plants  with  woody  stems,  solitary  spikes 
to  the  leaves,  and  covered  with  flowers  on  i 
the  Ho  Wilts  mostly  henna  [>hrodite.  Tt 
important  species  is  Coumon  P.  or  Blaci 
nvjram),  a  native  of  the  East  Inilies,  now  ci 
akm  in  many  tropical  countries,  and  exteii< 
some  parts  of  the  New  World;  its  fruit  b 
most  common  and  largely  used  of  all  sp 
is  a  rambling  and  climbing  shrub,  with  smo 
s|Kingy  stems,  sometimes  twelve  feet  in  leng 
broadly  ovate,  acuminate,  leathery  leave: 
fruit  II  about  the  size  of  a  i>ea,  of  a  hi 
colour  when  ripe,  not  crowiieil  on  the  B|i 
cultivation,  the  P.  plant  is  supiMrted  by  | 
by  smalt  trees  planted  for  the  ]>urpose.  as  il 
certain  degree  of  shade,  and  dlHercnt  kinds 
are  often  planted  for  this  purpose  in  lodu 
proiiagated  by  cutting,  comes  into  bciring 
or  four  yeora  after  it  is  planted,  and  yii 
crops  annually  far  about  twelve  years.  W 
of  the  'berries'  of  a  s]>ike  begin  to  chas 
green  to  red.  all  are  gathered,  as  when  mi 
rijie  they  are  lees  pungent,  besides  beiuj 
j_...  .cr     q'jipy  a^  aprsid  on  mats  and  si 


by  winnowing.  The  Bladi  P.  of  commerce 
of  the  berries  thus  dried,  and  become  wrinl 
black  ;  HV.ite  F.  is  the  seed  freed  from  the  i 
fleshy  part  of  the  frnit,  to  effect  which  ti 
fruit  is  soaked  in  water  and  then  rubbed. 
P.  thus  prepared  is  of  a  whitish-gray  oolour, 
unfrcquentfy  nndersiiea  a  bleaching  by  i 
which  impn>veB  ita  appearance  at  the  expen 
quality.  Black  P.  is  much  more  punge 
White  P.,  the  essential  constituents  of  tl 
being  more  abundant  in  the  outer  parts  of  i 
than  in  the  seed.  P.  dejieuds  for  its  ui 
chiefly  on  an  acrid  resin  and  an  acrid  vola 
it  contains  also  a  crystalline  aubstanci 
Pipa-ia. — The  fruit  of  Piper  (rioicum,  a 
veiy  similar  to  the  Common  P.,  is  more  p 
and  it  is  cultivated  in  some  parts  of  Indi 
fruit  of  otlier  species  of  Pxperacat  is 
pepper  in  their  native  countries ;  that  < 
bryoa  Capenae  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hop 
of  Peilobryoa  laagi/oUitm,  of  ArtaHlAt  m 
A.  Irichottaeiiya,  tuia  of  Saroaia  jaboraadi  i 


PEPPERMrar-PEEAMBULATION  OP  PAM8HE3. 


—Chnvim  RiaAur^'i  »nd  C.  offieinamm 
:  LoKO  Feppek  of  druggista.  ^ey  hava 
inibiug  stvms,  solitary  BfiikoB  opposite  to 
a,  diiBciuiiB  flowers,  and  the  fruita  bo  close 
on  the  apikes  tut  in  ri{)eiiiDg  to  become  a 

mags.  The  apikes  are  fathered  when 
nd  dried  in  the  aim.  They  are  u»ed  in 
mil  for  culinary  purposes,  also  in  mtdicine 
ante  purp<iee8  as  Coiamoa  Pep|>er.  Tbey 
rally  reputed  to  be   more  pun;;ent   than 

Pcp|>er.  C.  Roz'ianjhii  a  cultivated  in 
ud  the  Circara,  where  it  ia  called  Pippid  ; 
irum  JD  the  Dutch  Eoat  Indian  colonies. 

and  thickest  part  of  the  stem  of  C.  Rox- 
•e  extensively  used  in  India  as  a  stimulant 
:  and  are  uiiC  into  small  pieces,  driciL  and 
a  the  market  under  the  name  of  pipputa 

on  the  skin  as  a  rabefocieot  and  vesicant, 
't«n  used  fcjr  thia  puqioae  in  a  powdered 
isteiied  with  some  kind  ol  alcohulic  spirit. 

employed  a*  a  local  Rtiniulant  in  relaxa- 

'.l 

th 

(nantitii^  it  is  a  pleasant  stimnlnnt.  hut  in 
«s  it  prmiuces  great  pain  and  irritation, 
itity  useil,  however,  by  the  n.itive3  of  hot 

much  exceeds  anything  known  among 
s,  and  the  effects  are  evidently  beDclicial 
an  injurious.    The  chief  use  of  P.  ia  as  a 

I  known  to  the  ancients ;  Hippwratea 
it  as  a  mclii'lne  ;  and  Pliny  sxpressea  his 
:hat  it  shoulil  have  come  into  genenil  use, 
ig  its  waut  of  flavour.  In  the  middle  ages 
ine  of  the  moat  costly  spices,  and  in  the 
few  pounds  of  it  were  reckoned  a  princely 
The  quantity  noir  im]K>rted  into  Kiiro|ie 
ise ;  but  there  are  no  means  of  exactly 
ng  how  much  ui  the  P.  of  commerce  ia  the 
if  ri,.er  Hin-aiii,  or  indeed  of  the  Pi,ierace<t, 
much— although  certainly  it  is  not  a  lar^e 
n  of  the  whole— is  the  produce  of  speciea 

ime  P.  is  populai'ly  given  to  substances 
I,  a  pungency  rtsetnliling  that  of  P., 
"prodnceil  by  very  ditfereut  plants.  Thus, 
.  P.  is  Reproduce  of  Siieoiea  of  t'lqmcam, 
atural  ord«r  SuUtiiai-eir. ;  Jamaica  P.  (or 
I  of  species  of  Kuyiiia,  of  the  natural 
n-tiicea ;  and  Guinea  P.,  or  Mkleouetta 
^ciea  of  the  natural  orders  h'litanilHe'e  and 
;.  See  Cai^icuu,  Piuenio,  Ubaims  oj> 
!,  and  Gl'ikea  Fbfpeb. 
■ERMINT.  See  Mist. 
ER-POT,  a  celebrated  West  Indian  dish, 
Caeareep  (q.  v,)  is  a  priiiciiial  ingredient ; 
g  with  It  liesh  or  dried  fish,  vegetables, 
e  unripe  pods  of  the  ochro  (see  HlBiSCUii), 
es  (see  CAFSlcnti). 

ER-ROOT  {Deabiria  diphyUa),  a  perennial 
JB  plant,  of  the  natural  order  Unieijriic,  a 
[  ^o^th  America,  with  pairs  of  temate 
[id  racemes  of  white  tloH-cis  ;  the  root  of 
s  a  pungent  mustard-Uka  taste,  and  ia  used 

INE  has  been  already  described  (in  the 
FdEETiON]  as  one  of  the  essential  constituents 
Etric  juice.  Various  mixies  of  extracting  it 
walla  of  the  stomach  of  the  calf,  sheep,  and 
;  been  pnpi>oaed  by  different  chemists 
IQ,  Frerichs,  Schmidt,  Boudault,  and  others), 
ch  it  is  unnecessary  to  enter.  According 
idt'i  analysis,  it  contains  53-0  pet  cent,  ol 
i'7  iK  hydiogen,  17*8  of  nitrogen,  and  225 


as  a  powder  or  in.  solution,  baa  been  employed  ot 
late   yeara    to    a   considerable  extent   in   medico, 

Smctice,  in  caaea  of  disordered  digestion  from 
eficient  or  imperfect  secretion  of  gastric  juice,  and 
f  convalescence  from  tyjihoid  and  other  debilitating 
fvers.  Pepsine  wine  is  perhaps  the  best  form  in 
'bich  to  prescribe  this  substance  ;  a  teaspoonful 
eing  the  ordinary  dose.  The  fact  that  pepsine  has 
oC  been  thought  deserving  of  a  place  in  the  Britiiih 
harmaco[iLeia,  seems  to  indicate  that  its  effii:iency 
i  a  remedy  ia  not  genenlly  recognised  in  this 
juntry. 
PEPYS,  Saudel,  a  diatiognished  officer  of  tha 
Admiralty  during  the  reigns  of  Chartee  II,  and 
James  11.,  was  bom  February  23,  1633—1633.  Ha 
was  the  son  of  a  London  citizen,  a  tailor,  but  waa 
well  educated,  first  at  St  Paul's  School,  and  after- 
wards at  Magdalen  Colleije,  Cambri^^  His  cousin, 
Sir  Edward  Montagu  (the  first  Earl  of  Sandwich), 
introduced  him  to  public  employment  In  1660  he 
was  ap|>ouiteil  Clerk  of  the  Acts  of  the  Navy,' and 
m  1673  Secretary  for  the  Affairs  of  the  Navy.  Ho 
was  an  excellent  public  servant,  acute,  diligent,  and 
laborious ;  but  during  the  fanatical  exci^meot  of 
''  Popish  Plot  he  waa  committed  to  the  Tower,  on 
unfoundeii  and  absurd  charge  ot  aiding  in  the 
design  to  dethrone  the  kini  and  extirpate  the 
Protestant  religion.  Having  been  discharged  with- 
out  a  trial,  P.  waa  re|>1aced  at  hia  post  in  the 
Admiralty,  which  he  retained  till  the  atxUcation 
of  James  IL  For  two  years  he  held  the  honour- 
able aLition  of  Preaident  ot  the  Koyal  Society. 
He  died  May  2G,  ITt'l  P.  wrote  Mrmoiri  of  the 
Royal  Navg,  1690.  He  left  to  Magdalen  ColIe;;e 
his'  large  collection  of  books,  MSS.,  and  prints, 
including  al>out  2IKI0  ancient  English  Wlla<U. 
forming  live  folio  volumea  This  cunoua  eollectii>n 
waa  begun,  he  says,  by  Selden,  and  coutinued  down 
to  the  year  I7U0,  when  the  form  peculiar  to  the  old 
ballads,  namely,  the  black  letter  with  irictures,  was 
laid  aside  for  the  aimiiler  modem  fashion.  P.  i* 
now  best  rememberail  for  his  DUtry,  deciphered  by 
the  Rev.  J.  Smith  from  the  original  shorthand  MIS. 
in  the  Pepysian  Library,  Cambridge,  and  first 
publiahed,  under  the  editorial  care  of  Lord  Btay- 
brooke,  in  lS2d.  It  commences  on  the  lat  of 
January  1659—1660,  and  is  continued  for  above 
nine  years,  when  the  diarist  was  obliged  from 
defective  eyesight  to  abandon  his  daily  task.  As  a 
picture  of  the  conrii  and  times  of  Charles  II.  tliil 
Diary  is  invaluable ;  it  was  written  in  perfect 
confidence  and  secrecy ;  the  events,  characters, 
follies,  vices,  and  peciUiarities  of  the  age  are  prc- 
aenteii  in  true  and  lively  colours,  ana  the  work 
altogether  is  one  of  the  most  racy,  unique,  and 
amusing  books  in  the  language. 

PE'RA,  a  suburb  of  Const antinoplb  (q.  v.). 
PEKAMBULATIOH  OF  PARISHES.  Tha 
ancient  custom  in  England  of  perambulating  parishes 
in  ttogatioii  week  bad  a  twofold  object.  It  won 
designed  to  suppiicato  the  Divine  blessing  on  tba 
fruita  of  the  earth  ;  and  to  iireserve  in  all  classes 
of  the  community  a  correct  knowledge  of,  and  due 
res[iect  for,  the  bounds  of  parochial  and  individual 
l)roi)erty.  It  appears  to  have  been  derived  from  a 
stilt  older  custom  among  the  ancient  Romans,  called 
Tenninalia,  and  Auibarvalia,  which  were  festivals  in 
booour  of  tjie  god  Terminus  and  the  goddess  Ceres. 
On  its  becoming  a  Christian  custom  the  heathen  ritea 
and  ceremonies  were  of  course  discarded,  and  those 
of  Chri-.tiBuity  substituted.  It  was  ap|)ointed  to  ba 
obsorvud  on  one  of  the  Itogation  (q.v,)  days,  which 
were  the  tbiea  daya  next  before  Ascension  Day, 


PERAMBULATION  OF  PAHISHES -PERCEPTION. 


Btfore  tba  Reformation  panxJiial  perambulatinni 
were  conducted  with  great  ceremooy.  The  lord  of 
the  mBDDr,  with  a,  large  bauuer.  priests  in  ■nn)Uces 
uid  with  croasee,  and  other  iktbdiu  with  nand- 
beita,  banncre  and  rtaves,  followed  by  most  of 
the  parisbioners,  walked  in  procession  roiuid  tbe 
parish,  atoppiug  at  crvmee,  forming  cmaaa  on  tbe 
ground,  'aayiou  or  BingiDj;;  gospels  to  the  corn,'  and 
oJlowing  'drinkingB  and  ^riod  cheer'  (Giitidal's 
J!cmai>u,pTi.  141,  241,  and  Xule;  Whitgitt's  Worlis, 
iii.  2G6-a57;  Tiudal's  Works,  iii.  62.  234,  Parker 
Society's  Eilition),  which  was  remarkable,  as  tbe 
Rogatioa  days  were  appointed  fasts.  From  tbe 
diflerent   practices    obsened   on   the    occasion    the 

runntioning,  peramitvlaliag,  and  gawiiifj  the  bound- 
ariea;  and  the  week  in  wbicli  it  was  observed  was 
called  Bogation  toak ;  Crota  week,  because  crosses 
Were  borne  in  tbe  processions  ;  and  Oran  w^rir, 
because  tbe  Itocation  days  beiug  fasta,  vegetables 
formed  tbe  chief  portion  of  diet. 

At  the  Reformation,  the  ceremonies  and  practices 
deemed  objectjuaabte  were  abolished,  and  only  'the 
uneful  and  harndeas  part  of  tbe  custom  retained.' 
Yet  its  observance  was  considi^red  so  desirable,  tliat 
a  homily  was  prepared  for  the  occasion ;  and 
iujuDctioDB  were  issued  retjuiring  that  for  '  tbe 
j-erambulation  of  the  circuits  of  [larishea,  the  i>eriple 
should  once  in  tbe  year,  at  tbe  time  accustomed, 
with  the  rector,  vieor,  or  curate,  and  the  sub. 
stnntiul  men  of  the  parish,  walk  about  tbe  parishes, 
as  tbey  were  accustomed,  and  at  tbeir  return  to  the 
church  moke  tbeir  common  prayer.  And  the 
curate,  in  their  said  common  {lerambulatious,  was 
at  certain  convenient  places  to  sdriiouJsli  tbe  proula 
to  give  thanks  to  God  (wbQe  bcholiiiiig  of  his 
bentlits),  and  for  the  increase  .ind  abumiance  of  his 
fruits  upon  the  face  of  the  e.irth,  u  ith  the  saying  of 
the  laird  Psabn.  At  which  time  also  the  said 
uiiuister  was  required  to  inculcate  these,  or  sucb 
like  sentences,  Cursed  be  he  which  translateth  the 
bounds  and  doles  of  his  ueigbWur;  or  such  other 
oritiT  of  prayers  as  ahould  be  lawfuLy  a]ipoiutEd.' 
(bum's  KccUsiiuiical  Lata,  voL  iii  61 ;  Grindol's 
Jtrmaim,  p-  16a) 

Those  engaged  in  the  processioos  usually  bod 
lefresbments  |irovided  for  them  at  certain  jtarts  of 
tbe  parish,  which,  from  the  extent  of  the  circuit  of 
some  parishes,  was  necessary  ;  yet  the  cost  of  such 
refresbment  was  not  to  be  defrayed  by  the  parisb, 
nor  could  such  refreshment  be  claimed  as  a  custom 
from  any  particular  bouse  or  family.  But  small 
annuities  were  often  bequeathed  to  provide  such 
refreshments.  Id  tbe  parish  of  Edgcott,  Buckinu- 
hamsbire.  there  was  about  an  acre  ofland.  let  at  £3 
a  year,  called  '  Gang  Uonday  Land.'  which  was  Ictt 
to  the  parish -oiliciTB  to  provide  cakes  and  beer  for 
those  who  took  part  in  the  annual  perambulation  of 
the  pariah. 

To  this  day.  questions  of  disputed  boundary 
bi'tween  parishes  are  invariably  settled  by  the 
evidence  slTorded  by  these  jieranibulations ;  for  in 
such  questions,  immemorial  custom  is  conclusive. 
And  so  for  are  they  recognised  in  law.  that  the 
parithioners  on  such  occasions  are  entitled  to  tres- 
pass on  lands,  and  even  to  enter  private  houses  if 
these  stand  on  the  boundary  line.  In  Scotland,  where 
tbeparocbial  principle  bos  never  been  developed  as 
in  England,  there  seem  to  be  few  traces  of  a  similar 
practice.  But,  as  between  neighl>ouring  landowners, 
a  brieve  of  perambulation  is  the  tecbnical  remedy 
for  setting  right  a  dieputa  aa  to  boundaries  or 
marches ;  and  perambulating  or '  riding '  tbe  bounds 
of  boroughs  is  a  common  practice. 

The  necessity  or  determination  to  jierambulate 
along    the    old    track    often    occaaiooed    curioas 


incidents.     If  a  canal  had  been  cut  thi 

boiuidary  of  a  parish,  it  was  deemed  necei 
some  of  the  parishioners  sboidd  pass  thj 
water.  Where  a  river  formed  part  of  tbe 
line,  the  iirocession  either  passed  along  it 
or  some  oi  the  party  stripped  and  swam  a 
boys  were  tluTiwn  into  it  at  customary  jila 
house  bad  been  erected  on  the  boundar 

t recession  claimed  the  right  i»  pass  tbroii 
oHse  in  Buckinghamshire,  still  eiistij^ 
oven  passing  over  the  boundarj-  line.  It 
tomary  in  tbe  perambulations  to  put  a  lioi 
recess  to  preserve  the  intejjtity  of  the 

At  various  parts  of  tbe  parish  boundari 
three  of  the  village  boys  were  '  bumped  '- 
-------    part  of   the  person  was  i 


This,  it  will  scarcely  be  doubted,  was  an 
method  of  recording  tbe  boundaries  in  th 
of  these  ballerinti-rani»,  and  of  those  who 
this  curious  mode  of  registration. 

The  custom  of  perambulatmg  parishes 
in  some  parts  of  the  kingdom  to  a  lBt«  i 
tbe  religious  portion  of  it  was  general 
universally,  omitted.  Tbe  cnstora  has,  h< 
late  years    been  revived  in  its   integrity 


1  the  c 


1  uoder 


n.Ung 


enough,  but,  viewed  nhilosopiiic 
with  much  difficulty.  Perception,  conau! 
source  of  knowieiige,  refers  exclusively  to 
or  the  object  world— tlie  world  of  eiteod 
and  its  properties.  Tbe  names  for  the  ad 
ing  ones  own  mind— the  feeliiij^  and  tl 
the  individual — are  Self-consciousness 
intros]  lection.  The  word  '  coosciousness,' 
times  improperly  limited  to  this  sigoificatic 
used  the  term  *  Rejection '  for  the  same 
but  this  is  ambii;nous,  and  is  now  disused, 
knowleilge  is  thus  said  (by  those  that  d( 
ideas)  to  spring  from  two  aouices — Perce 
Self-consciousness. 

Two  great  disputes  connect  themsel 
Perception,  both  raised  into  their  full  pron 
the  philosophical  world  by  Bishop  Berkt 
tirst  is  the  origin  of  our  judgments  of 
tancee  and  real  Magnitudes  of  visible  b 
opposition  to  the  common  opinion  on  thi 
Berkeley  maintained  that  these  were  k 
experience,  and  not  known  by  the  me 
vision.    See  Vision. 

The  second  question  relate*  to  the  gt 
have  for  asserting  the  existence  of  an  ext 
material  world,  which,  in  the  view  of  Berl 
bound  up  Hith  the  other.  Inasmuch  as  ] 
is  a  mental  act,  and  knowledge  is  somel 
taincd  in  a  mind,  what  reason  have  we  foi 
in  the  existence  of  objects  apart  from  ot 
or  what  is  tbe  mode  of  existence  of  tb« 
external  world  T 

Tbe  following  sentences  shew  in  whs 
Berkeley  oi>ened  up  the  question:  'Tbi 
our  thoughts,  nor  passions,  nor  ideas,  foni 
imagination,  exist  vritbout  tbe  mind,  is  w 
body  wiU  allow  ;  and  it  seems  no  lem  evi 
the  various  sensations  or  idea?  imtirinCi 
sense,  however  blended  or  combined  togt 
whatever  object*  they  comikose).  cannot  e: 
wise  than  in  a  mind  perceiving  them.  1 
intuitive  knowledge  may  be  obtained  of  tl 
one  that  shall  attend  to  what  is  meant  b 
tzUl  when  applied  to  sensible  thinga.    Tl 


PERCEPTIOS. 


on,  I  My,  eiiata — L  &.  I  see  and  feel  it ;  and 
ere  oat  o!  mjr  atndv,  I  abould  aay  it  existed, 
ng  thereby  that  if  I  wu  id  my  study  I  Miglit 
ve  it,  or  that  lotne  other  spirit  actually  does 
ve  it  There  wa»  an  odour — i  e,,  it  wag 
d  1  there  was  a  sonnd — that  is  t«  say,  it  was 
;  a  colour  or  figure,  and  it  was  perceived  by 
or  touch.  This  ia  all  I  can  underataud  b^ 
and  the  like  exf  reasions.  For  as  to  what  u 
F  the  absolute  exiateuce  of  uuthinkiog  things, 
lit  any  relation  to  their  beiufj  perceived,  that 

jjerfectly  unintelligible.  Their  tsae  is  jiernipi, 
it  possible  they  sbould  have  any  eiiatence 

the  miods  or  thinking  things  whieh  perceive 

9  doclrino  of    Berkeley,  Bmonnting,  it  was 

0  a  denial  of  tho  existence  of  a  material  world 

1  ia  for  from  a  correct  view  of  it),  was  followed 
Hiioie,  who,  on  similar  rea.souin^,  denied  the 
nee  oC  mind,  and  resolved  tho  uuivcrse  into  a 
flow  of  idaaa  and  impressions  without  any 
;t  to  be  im  pressed,  acknowledging,  never- 
s,  that  he  felt  himself  unable,  procticalty,  to 
ace  in  his  own  unanswerable  arguments. 
was  obviously  some  ereat  mistake  in  a  mode 
soning  that  brought  ^H'Ut  a  de^-lock  of  this 


uible 

Keid  reclaimed  ai^inst  Berkeley  and  Hume, 
pi-aling  to  Common  Sense,  or  Unreasoning 
ct,  as  a  suiEcient  foundation  for  our  belief  in 
istenoe  of  a  world  apart  from  our  own  minds. 
'.  Hamilton  has  expounded  the  same  view 
Renter  clearness  and  precision.  He  considers 
ur  conaciousnes*  tells  ua  at  once  that  in  the 

perceiving  there  is  both  a  ptrceiidaq  mhjrct— 
r  the  mind — and  an  erieryial  rtalitii,  in  relation 
leiise.  as  the  direct  perceiced.  '  Of  the  exist- 
l  both  these  things.' be  says, '  I  am  convinced ; 
M  1  am  conscious  of  knowing  each  of  them. 
e<liai«ly  in  something  else,  04  repr'atnted,  but 
iiately  in  itself,  a»  nciiliitg.  Of  their  mutual 
ilence  I  am  no  less  convinced ;  because  each 
irebended  equaUy  and  at  once,  in  the  some 
lible  energy,  the  one  not  preceding  or  dctcr- 
i.  tho  other  not  following  or  determined  ;  and 
te  each  is  appreheniled  ont  of,  and  in  direct 
dt  to  the  other.'— fieW,  p,  747. 
;h  as  Hamilton  has  laboured  to  elucidate  this 
ne  in  ail  its  bearings,  it  has  not  been  uuivcr- 
accepted  as  satisfactory.  Many  believe  that 
I  regarded  as  an  ultimate  fact  of  our  consti- 

what  admits  of  being  still  further  resolved, 
IS  mistaken  an  acquisition  of  the  mature  mind 
irimitive  or  instinctive  revelation, 
fessor  Ferrier,  in  bis  Jattitutrs  of  Mrtaphyiie, 
ina  through  the  question  with  eitraordinary 
enesa  and  elaboration.  His  main  position  is 
separability  of  the  subject  and  the  object  in 
>tion  (a  position  also  maintained  by  Hamilton 
1  above  extract),  which  is  not  reconcilable 
Jie  Conunon  assumption  as  to  the  independent 
noo  of  matter.  Indeed,  he  reduces  tho  received 
I  of  the  eiistanoe  of  matter  per  «  to  a  selC- 
idtution.  and  builds  up  a  system  in  strict  con- 
y  with  the  correlation,  or  necessary  connection. 
!  mind  perceiving  with  the  object  perceived, 
ins  approacbea  nearer  to  Berlielay  than  to 
ItoQ  or  to  Beid. 

«e  who  would  endeavour  to  shew  that  our 
L  of  the  outer  world  is  a  complex  fact,  and  an 
ition,  and  not  a  simple  apprehension  of  the 
cated  mind,  explain  themselves  to  the  lot- 
;  effect    It  is  in  the  exercise  of /orve  that  we 


have  to  look  for  the  peculiar  feeling;  of  the  eiteni- 

ality  of  aensilile  l.hiu^  or  the  distmction  that  we 
make  between  what  impresses  from  without,  and 
impressions  not  reeo):;nieed  as  outward.  Any  impnts- 
Bioa  that  rouses  a  stroke  of  energy  within  us.  and 
that  varies  exactly  and  coustantly  as  that  energy 
varies,  we  call  an  outward  impression.  Dr  Johnson 
refuted  Berkeley,  as  he  thoiig'it,  by  kicking  a  stone. 


we  exert   particular  e 
picture  of  our  dweUing  is 
experience,  and  the  varia 


But  in  fact  i1 

quences,  and  not  the  optical  1 

Uie  eye,  that  satislicd  him  i 

something   outward.      The    sum -total    of    all    the 

occasions   for  putting  forth  active  energy,  or  for 

conceiving  this  as  possible  to  be  put  forth,  is  our 

external  world. 

Ihese,  when 
the  visible 
rmanent  and  habitual 
experience,  and  the  variations  of  apiiearance  that  it 
is  subject  to  corresiiond  principally  to  our  own 
conscions  movements.  As  we  move  from  one  end 
of  a  room  to  another,  we  expeKence  a  change  of  the 
visible  aspect  at  every  step,  and  this  regidarljr 
hapiwns  as  often  as  we  repeat  the  movement.  But 
at  times  the  appearance  exists  in  another  shape,  to 
which  we  give  the  name  of  memory  or  idea.  We 
draw  a  raai'bed  diatinction  between  these  two  model 
of  presentation,  the  actual  and  the  ideal,  and  we 
assign  a  superiority  to  the  one  over  the  other.  The 
BU|>erJority  we  tind  connects  itself  with  the  relation 
to  our  own  movements ;  a  mere  idea  or  mental  picture 
remains  the  same  whatever  be  our  boilily  position 
or  bodily  exertions  ;  the  sensation  that  we  coll  the 
O'lual  is  entirely  at  the  mercy  of  our  movements, 
shifting  in  every  possible  way  (but  uniformly) 
according  to  the  varieties  of  action  that  we  go 
through.  With  a  forward  movement  the  visible 
imprcBsion  enlarges,  with  a  backward  movement  it 
diminishea  A  certain  movement  of  the  eye  shuta 
it  out,  another  restores  it.  Tho  raising  of  tho  head 
and  the  bending  of  the  body  are  followed  by  on 
altered  S])ectacle.  We  cannot  but  draw  a  broad 
distinction  between  the  mental  scenery  that  is  thus 
shifted  by  oU  our  movements,  and  the  ideas  and 
dreams  that  vary  of  themselves  while  we  are  stilL 
To  express  the  one  fact,  we  use  the  terms  extern- 
ality, the  material  world,  independent  existence ; 
to  express  the  other  we  employ  the  opposite 
language,  interaality,  the  world  of  mind,  &c  Even 
if  senaatitin  were  only  in  ourselves,  we  should  still 
have  to  distinguish  between  jiresent  scusatiou  and 
remembered  or  revived  sensation ;  the  reference  of 
the  one  to  our  voluntary  movements,  and  of  the 
other  to  no  such  modifying  causes,  would  oblige  n* 
to  note  a  vital  difference  in  the  two  classes  of  facta. 
Such  is  the  uuiformtty  of  connection  between  certain 
appearances  and  certain  movements,  that  we  come 
to  anticipate  the  on^through  the  other.  We  know 
that  in  some  one  position,  aa  when  tying  in  bed, 
certain  movements  of  the  limbs  and  back  will  bring 
us  to  the  sensation  of  a  solid  contact  in  the  feet ; 
that  another  series  of  movements  will  bring  on  a 
particular  view  to  the  sight;  that  a  third  move- 
ment will  give  the  sound  of  a  bell  in  the  ear,  and  so 
forth.  We  cannot  avoid  regarding  thoee  varioui 
sensible  effects,  brought  uniformly  into  play  by  a 
regular  series  of  waking  voluntary  actions,  aa 
totally  different  from  our  ideas,  recollections,  and 
dreams. 

As  our  belief  in  the  externality  of  the  causes  of 
our  sensations  means  that  certain  actions  of  our* 


PERCEVAL— PERCH. 


kl 


m 


%ii 


1 

'lii! 

1 

If 

Hi 

m 

|i' 

Kipeatodly  oonadous  that  %  tree  becomes  larger 
•nd  larger  to  the  eye  in  coDnectinii  with  a 
detiiiiM  locomotion  on  onr  part,  called  the  forward 
advance  \  that  this  riiEiveinerit  bn'rigi  on  at  la<t 
k  senBBitiDD  of  touch ;  that  this  aenaatioa  of 
touch  varies  with  definite  movements  of  the 
arms,  and  lo  oa ;  the  repetition  of  all  this  train 
of  experience  fixes  it  on  the  mind,  so  that  from 
one  thing  alone,  as  from  the  distant  vision  of 
the  tree,  we  can  anticipate,  or  as  it  is  otherwise 
called,  percrim  all  the  other  consenaeuces.  We 
then  know,  without  going  through  the  steiw,  that 
the  specified  movements  will  bnng  about  all  the 
iensattons  above  described,  and  wa  know  nothing 
elac;  this  knowledge,  however,  is  to  us  the  recoe- 
□ition  of  external  existence,  the  actual  fact  that  is 
meant  when  a  material  world  is  spoken  of.  Behef 
in  external  reality  is  the  sure  anticipation  of  certain 
■ensations  on  the  iierfomumce  of  ceitain  movements ; 
everything  else  said  to  be  implied  in  it  is  but  a 
convenieiit  hypothesis  for  aiding  the  mind  in  holding 
together  those  multifarious  connections  that  our 
experience  has  established  in  the  mind.  In  order 
to  account  for  the  fact  that  the  conscious  move- 
ment of  elevating  the  upper  eyelid  is  followed  with 
the  sensation  of  Tight,  to  us  and  to  other  minds,  we 
Buppose  a  luminous  agency  always  existing  even 
when  not  affecting  us  or  any  other  person  ;  we 
cannot  know  or  verify  this  supi>03ition— it  is  a 
generaliaation  founded  upon  particular  exjieriences, 
And  serving  to  sum  up  those  eK|)ericnces  in  a  con- 
venient form,  but  no  such  perennial  independent 
■ubstance  can  be  absolutely  proved. 

PERCEVAL,  Spescer,  ItiaiiT  Hos„  English 
tuinister,  was  the  second  son  of  John,  Bar!  of 
Egmont ;  bom  November  1,  1 702 ;  educated  at 
Harrow,  and  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  He  was 
called  to  the  bar,  and  suon  obtained  a  reputation  as 
a  diligent  lawyer.  A  clever  i>a'n]ihlet  on  the  abate- 
ment of  the  impeachment  of  Warreu  Hastings, 
made  him  known  to  Pitt.  Obtaining  a  se^t  in  ]>ar- 
liament  fur  Northampton,  he  was  soon  conspicuous 
fur  his  Gitreme  hurror  of  rnpery,  and  his  I'iolent 
advocacy  of  what  was  cnJIed  by  his  party  the 
*  Protestant  interest'  In  the  Addington  administra- 
tion, he  was  made  Solicitor-general  in  ISl)l,and  Attor- 
ney-general in  1802.  He  was  afterwards  induced  to 
abondoD  his  profesBion,  and  adopt  a  political  career. 
In  the  Portland  administration  of  ISOT,  he  was  made 
Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  was  even  then 
the  real  head  of  the  government,  hia  influence  with 
George  UI.  being  obtained  fay  the  depth  of  his 
bigotry  and  hia  pertinacious  op|)usiCiun  to  the 
Catholio  claims.  On  the  death  of  the  Dnke  of 
Portland  in  1S09,  P.  became  Premier,  uniting  to  his 
office  of  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer  that  of  First 
Lord  of  the  Treasury.  He  was  retained  in  power  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  on  hia  accession  to  the  regency. 
On  the  nth  May  1812,  about  Sp.m.,  as  P.  was 
enterinKthe  lobby  of  the  Houae  of  Commons,  a  man 
named  Bell ingham  fired  a  pistol  at  him,  the  ball 
pierced  his  heart,  and  he  instantly  expired  The 
assassin  made  no  attempt  to  escape.  He  was  a 
Liverpool  broker,  trading  with  Russia,  who,  having 
iuatained  some  losses  and  injuries,  which  he  \m 
vainly  applied  to  the  government  to  redress,  deter- 
mined to  avenge  himself  by  taking  the*  life  of  the 
prime  minister.  P.'s  sssoasination  shocki'd  the 
public  mind,  and. parliament  hastened  to  make  an 
ample  provision  for  his  widow  and  nu  me  reus  family. 
His  death  waa,  however,  rather  a  private  than  a 
public  calamity.  '  With  all  my  respect  for  the 
virtues  and  excellences  of  the  late  minister,'  said 
the  Marquis  of  Wellesley,  who  had  held  the  office 
of  Foreign  Secretary  in  his  administration,  '  I  still 
foe]  it  my  duty  to  say  that  I  did  not  consider  him  a 


fit  man  to  lead  the  conncils  of  Uus  great 
He  was  ready  in  debate,  a  placid  and  not  i 

ful  speaker,  and  ted  the  House  of  Commo 
much  tact ;  but  he  was  superficial  and  inl 
Sydney  Smith,  in  his  Lellert  of  Pder  Plgii 
conferred  a  apeciea  of  immortality  upon  hii 
wit  and  sarcasm.  It  waa  tiie  fashion,  wl 
public  policy  was  attacked,  to  land  his  ! 
virtues.     '  Peter '  said,  if  he  had  to  chooae 

Eublio  and  private  virtues,  he  should  prefer 
. '  owed  for  the  veal  of  the  preceding  year, 
his  boys,  and  saved  his  country.' 

PERCH  (PtTco),  a  genus  of  acanthopteroi 
uf  the  family  PerrMic.  to  which  it  gives  il 
and  which  includes  many  genera  and  a  ve 
number  of  species  both  uf  marme  and  frei 
fishes.  The  Perdda.  nr  P.  family,  have  tl 
somewhat  oblong  and  more  or  less  compress 
scales  rather  large ;  the  bones  of  the  ^L 
toothed  or  otherwise  armed  ;  the  month 
barbels ;  the  ttnaei-  toothed,  and  generally 
palate  ;  there  are  sometimea  two  dorsals,  so 
only  one.  To  tiiis  family  belong  not  only  ' 
perches,  all  of  which  are  fresh-water  liahea, 
I^tes  Iq.  V.)  of  the  Nile,  the  Basse  (q.  v.; 
P.,  and  their  congeners  the  Pike  Perchei 
the  deiTani,  and  many  other  fishes.  T 
perches  (ferca)  have  two  dorsal  fios,  disti 


Perch  iPercafiairiaiUu). 


the  lakes,  ponda.  aud  stiU  rivers  of  almost 
of  Europe.  It  ia  ver^  common  in  Engb 
Ireland,  and  is  found  in  many  of  the  water 
south  of  Scotland,  although  in  the  north  i1 
and  ia  said  to  exist  only  where  it  has  bet 
duced.  But  it  is  found  in  Scandinavia,  and 
Lapland.  It  is  of  agreenish-brown  colour,  |>as 
golden  yellow  on  the  under  pirts.  and  ma 
the  back  with  six  or  seven  indistinct  blocki 
bauds.  Its  height  is  about  one-third  of  its 
It  often  attains  a  length  of  16  or  18  inche 
weight  of  2  or  3  pounds,  but  perches  ha 
taken  of  8  pounds  weight  or  more.  The 
stilt  waters,  and  is  caaiTy  reared  in  ponds.  I 
not  a  desirable  inmate  of  ponds  intended  f 
fiah,  because  it  is  very  voracious,  and  devoi 
fry.  It  ia  readily  caught  by  almost  any 
bait,  and  sometimes  takes  a  small  artificud 
is  much  esteemed  for  the  table.  It  lives  a  li 
out  of  the  water  if  ke;it  muist,  and  in  some  c 
is  thus  brought  to  market,  and  carried  ' 
the  pond  if  not  sold.  The  female  P.  depii 
eggs  in  long  strings,  united  by  a  viscid  ma 
si)ecies  of  P.  (J*.  Jtalica),  found  in  the  b 
Europe,  differs  from  the  Common  P.  in  its 
and  deeper  form,  and  want  of  black  bands, 
species  are  natives  of  the  rivers  and  lake^  < 


PEECH— PERCUSSION. 


■a,  mnd  an  imoDg  the  mort  eatoeusd  of  iti 
rater  luheB. 
tea.     SeePoLB. 

tULO'SE,  a  miliuK  or  other  endosnre  aapar- 
tomb  or  chapel  from  the  rest  of  a  church. 
ICLOSB,  or  DEMI-GARTER,  in  Heraldry, 
tliB  lower  half  of  a  garter  with 
the  buckle. 

FBRCOLA'TION.  a   pr 

much  used  in  Pharmacy,  and  io 
some  other  arts,  for  eitraoting 
oerbuu     soluble     propertiea     of 
w      /         variona    bodies    by    filtering    a 
/  liquid   throHgh   them.      Id    the 

•^  new   British   phanuacopitia,  39 

rdow.  tinctures    and    9    eitracts    are 

ordered  to  be  prepared  by 
;iaD.  As  the  fluid  loaka  in  and  passee 
the  material  acted  upon,  it  disfilacea 
rioB  with  it  the  aoluble  porta,  hesiee  per- 
is sometimes  called  the  Method  of  DiS' 
pii.  The  forma  of  apparatus  for  percolation 
J  nunjerouB,  but  the  principle  is  the  same 
vis.,  a  vessel  with  a  porous  bottom,  and  in 
ti  of  a  trnnoftted  cane  inverted,  receives  the 
.  first,  and  over  it  is  poured  the  water  or 
uid  whioh  is  to  extraut  ita  virtues.  One 
/  nn  eminent  French  pharmacien,  M.  Beiot, 
effoctivB  and  complete.  A  is  a  long  fuD- 
led  glass,  with  a  glass  stop-cock  (ft)  m  the 


Psrcolator. 


which  narrows  to  an  inch  diameter ;  thu 
tile  neck  of  a  large  globular  vessel  B,  both 
justed  by  grinding.  C  is  a  syringe  of  braea 
the  glass  B  as  shewn,  and  made  air-tight 
mutchouo  washer,  a',  a',  a'  are  three 
ma  of  porous  felt,  pierced  by  the  tulie  d, 
lows  air  bubbles  to  escape  from  the  bottom 
disturbing  t!ie  fluid.  The  material  to  be 
ion,  aa  wood,  bark,  root,  leaves,  4c.,  is  first 
i,  aod  is  then  Uid  on  the  top  of  the  upper- 
tphragm,  o',  so  as  to  half^  fill  the  space 
it  and  the  ^lass-oover  c ;  water,  or  any 
quired  fluid,  is  then  poured  in  until  it  is 
B  stop-cook  h  is  opened,  and  the  o|ierat«r 
e  air  from  the  outer  vessel  by  meaua  of  the 


air-pump  C,  the  fluid  is  thus  rapidly  drawn  through 
the  material,  and  displaces  its  soluble  parta  a' 
and  o'  arrest  the  fine  BiJid  particles  which  ar» 
carried  through  the  Hrst  diaphrasm  with  the  liquid, 
and  form  sediments  whioh  are  dso  acteil  upon  by 
the  liquid  which  is  checked  at  each  division  for  a 
time.  The  fluid,  when  it  reaches  the  globular  glass, 
however  dark  coloured,  is  beautifulfy  bright  and 
dear,  and  the  prepwations  so  made  are  remarkable 
for  their  good  quality  and  unifonnity  of  atrengtb. 
Within  the  present  year  (1864),  Dr  Kedwood,  of  tbe 
Pharmaceutical  Institution  of  Great  Britain,  has 
invented  a  new  percolator  of  great  efficacy.  It  con- 
sists of  a  tinned-copper  oj-linder,  witli  a  cj  linden 
of  fiannel  inside,  in  which  the  materials  are  put 
The  whole  is  filled  with  the  fluid  menstraiun,  and  as 
that  which  is  in  more  immediate  contact  with  the 
solid  materials  becomes  charged  with  the  soluble 
matter  di8i>laced,  it  gives  rise,  aa  its  density  is 
increased,  to  an  endosmotic  action  through  the 
flaunel  walla  of  the  inner  cylinder  until  the  wbola 
is  equalised,  when  it  is  drawn  otf  by  the  tap,  and 
fresh  fluid  added  until  it  comes  away  colourless^ 
The  outer  cylinder  has  a  tight  cover  to  prevent  losa 
by  evaporation. 

PEHCU'SSION,  in  Medicine,  is  the  method  of 
eliciting  sounds  by  tapping,  or  gently  striking  the 
surface  of  the  body  ;  its  object  being  to  determine 
by  the  nature  of  the  sound  the  oomjarative  density 
of  the  subjacent  parts.  This  means  of  diagnosis 
was  first  employed  by  Avenbrugjer  in  the  middle 
of  last  century,  and  it  was  afterwards  adopted  by 
Gorvisart  in  the  investigation  of  heart  (hseaaes; 
but  its  value  was  not  fully  appreciated  till  Laenneo 
mode  the  diseases  of  the  chest  his  ]>eculiar  study ; 
and  since  his  time,  its  application  and  various  uses 
have  been  considerably  extended  by  the  lolxmrs  of 
Piorry,  Hughes  Bennett,  and  other  physicians. 

Percussion  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  diagnosis  of 
diseases  of  the  lungs,  heart,  and  abdnminal  organs. 
It  may  be  dlrwt  (or,  aa  some  writers  terra  it,  imme- 
rfin/el,  or  it  may  be  meiliaU.  In  the  former  case, 
tbe  part  to  be  eiamined  is  struck  with  the  ends 
of  tlie  three  first  tingers  set  close  tcgpther  on  the 
same  level,  or  with  a  small  hammer  tipped  with 
India-rubber;  while  in  the  latter,  which  is  now 
almost  universally  adopted,  a  flat  body  is  placed 
upon  tlie  cheat,  or  other  part  to  be  examined,  and 
is  then  atruck  by  the  fiugcre  or  hammer.  The  flat 
intervening  body  is  termed  a  Fle^hiirler  (from  tbe 
Gr.  plexii,  a  blow,  and  ni*(ron,  a  nicaaure).  The 
instriuneDt  usually  sold  as  a  pleximeter  is  a  flat  oval 
piece  of  ivory,  but  the  left  index  or  middle  linger  of 
tbe  physician,  with  its  fiat  surface  fitted  accurately  to 
tbeparttobeeiaaiDed,acteequalIy  wclL  The  force 
of  the  stroke  on  tbe  pleximeter— whether  the  stroke 
be  made  with  the  fingeis  or  the  hammer— must 
vary  according  aa  it  ia  desired  to  elicit  tbe  sound 
from  a  superflcial  or  a  deep-seated  part  The  sur- 
face to  be  percussed  should  be  exposed,  or,  at  most, 
only  covered  with  one  layer  of  clothing  ;  and  the 
blow  should  fall  per|ieiidicularly  on  tbe  jileximeter. 
When  percussion  is  made  over  a  coneideritlile  cavity 
filled  with  air — oa  the  stomach  or  intestines — ft 
hollow,  drum-like,  or  (as  it  is  usually  termed  by 
medical  writers)  a  Ij/mjjanitic  sound  is  produced. 
When  any  part  of  the  surface  of  the  chest  is  struck. 


r  sound,  leas  loud  aiid  hollow  than  the  tynipan- 
iiiiu  sound,  and  termed  tbe  piitmonary  jKraiteioi 
note,  depending  partly  on  the  vibrations  of  air  in  the 


II  h 


i;:iir«1l!''  '1 


!  1 

- 

,- 


.-Ill 


<  '  I 
It 


ill,--  h-!!'. .  , 


,    •  '  I '  ♦•  ■  '1      ■  i 


.•  .f^-.T-iii^a 


PERCUSSION  CAPS— PERDIDO. 


i'1 


4^.|- 


the  sound  it  duU  in  proportion  to  the  density 
and  want  of  elasticity  of  the  part  struck.  The 
first  thing  that  must  be  acauired  in  order  to 
make  percussion  useful  in  the  diagnosis  of  disease, 
is  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  elicited 
from  the  different  parts  m  their  normal  condition. 
When,  for  example,  the  healthy  pulmonary  per- 
cussion note  is  known,  increased  resonance  of  the 
waUs  of  the  chest  will  indicate  a  dilatation  of  the 
air-ceUs  (or  Pulmonary  Emphysema),  while  various 
degrees  of  dullness  will  afford  evidence  of  such 
morbid  changes  as  the  effusion  of  fluid  into  the 
pleura  (Hydrothorax),  or  inflammatory  solidiflcation 
of  the  lung-tissue  (the  Hepatisation  of  Pneumonia), 
or  tubercular  deposition.  The  use  of  percussion  in 
relation  to  diagnosis  is  further  shewn  in  the  articles 
Pericarditis  and  Pleueusy. 

PERCUSSION  CAPS  are  small  copper  cylinders, 
closed  at  one  end,  for  conveniently  holding  the 
detonating  powder  which  is  exploded  by  the  act  of 
percussion  in  percussion-arms.  Caps  were  not  used 
with  the  earliest  percussion-arms,  which  the  Rev. 
Mr  Fors3rth  of  Belhelvie,  Aberdeenshire,  patented 
in  1807 ;  but  they  became  tolerably  general  oet ween 
1820  and  1830,  and  were  adopted  for  the  army  by 
1840.  The  manufacture  is  extremely  simple :  A 
sheet  of  thin  copper  is  stamped  into  pieces  of  appro- 
priate shape,  which  are  bent  into  the  form  of  caps 
by  stamping-apparatus  closing  roimd  a  mandril,  the 
whole  being  done  in  one  machine  by  two  o^^erations. 
The  caps  are  then  placed  in  a  tray,  mouths  upward ; 
and  the  inside  of  each  is  touched  with  a  strongly 
adhesive  varnish.  Over  this  is  dusted  the  deton- 
ating powder,  all  the  particles  which  fail  to  adhere 
being  blown,  dusted,  or  shaken  out.  A  stamper 
once  more  is  forced  into  the  cap,  to  fix  and  compress 
the  powder,  and  the  operation  is  completed.  Large 
numbers  are  filled  and  stamped  together,  so  that 
many  thousands  per  hour  may  be  turned  out  by  one 
machine.  Admirable  mechanism,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cajw,  is  employed  in  the  Royal  Laboratory 
at  Woolwich. 

For  muskets,  the  caps  are  charged  with  equal 
parts  of  fulminating  mercury  and  chlorate  of 
potash ;  for  cannon,  with  a  mixture  composed  of  two 
parts  of  chlorate  of  potash,  two  parts  of  native 
sulphiiret  of  antimony,  and  one  of  powdered  glass  ; 
the  laut  ingredient  taking  no  part  in  the  chemical 
acti'jn,  and  being  added  merely  to  increase  the 
friction.  For  the  manner  in  which  a  cap  is  used, 
■ee  Lock. 

PERCUSSION,  Cbnteb  of.    See  Centre  of 

Percussion. 

PERCY.  This  is  the  name  of  a  noble  Norman 
family  who  accompanied  the  Conqueror  to  England, 
and  whose  head,  William  de  Percy,  obtained 
from  his  sovereign  thirty  Knights'  Fees  in  the 
north  of  England.  The  l^presentation  of  the 
bouse  devolved  (temp.  Henry  I.)  on  Agnes,  daughter 
of  the  3d  baron,  who  married  Josceline  of  Lovain, 
brother-in-law  of  the  king,  only  on  condition  that 
he  adopted  either  the  surname  or  the  arms  of  P. ;  he 
chose  to  retain  his  paternal  arms  and  to  assume  the 
P.  name.  The  head  of  the  family  at  the  time  was 
one  of  the  chief  barons  who  extorted  Magna  Charta 
from  King  John ;  and  the  9th  feudal  lord  (temp. 
Edward  I.)  shewed  a  similar  spirit  towards  the  pope, 
against  whose  demands  he  maintained,  with  others 
01  the  greater  barons,  the  spiritual  indci^ndence 
of  the  English  crown.  This  nobleman's  great-grand- 
son was  a  distinguished  mihtary  commander  under 
Edward  III.,  and  acting  as  Marshal  of  England  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  II.,  was  created  Earl  of 
Northumberland.     He  subsequently,  however,  took 

op  arms  against  Richard,  and  placed  the  crown  on 
394 


the  head  of  Henry  of  Lancaster,  who  became  Heniy 
IV.  Again  dissatisfied  with  the  government,  he 
joined  in  rebellion  with  his  son  Hotspur,  for  the 
purpose  of  transferring  the  crown  to  Mortimer,  Earl 
of  March.  The  earl,  with  the  other  leaders  of  this 
rebellion,  fell  at  Bramham  Moor  (1407— 140S),  and 
his  titles  became  forfeited.  These,  however,  were 
revived  in  favour  of  his  grandson,  who  became  Lord 
High  Constable  of  England,  and  who  was  killed  at 
the  battle  of  St  Albans.  This  earl's  son  and  sue* 
cesser  (the  third  earl)  met  a  like  fate  on  Towtoa 
field,  fighting  in  the  van  of  the  Lancastrian  army. 
The  4th  earl  (who  obtained  a  reversal  of  his  fathers 
attainder)  was  murdered  bv  the  populace  in  North- 
umberland, when  ordered  by  the  avarice  of  Henry 
VIL  to  enforce  a  subsidy.  The  executions  of  the  6th 
and  7th  earls  by  Edward  VI.  and  Elizabeth  are 
part  of  the  history  of  England.  The  8th  earl  was 
committed  to  the  Tower,  on  a  charge  of  being  con- 
cerned in  a  plot  in  favour  of  Mary  Queen  of  fc^cots, 
and  died  a  violent  death  in  prison.  The  10th  earl 
fought  in  the  civil  wars  against  Charles  L,  though 
he  took  no  part  with  the  regicides,  and  eventuaUy 
joined  in  the  general  effort  to  bring  abont  the 
Restoration.  The  11th  earl  left  an  only  child,  who 
succeeded  to  the  ancient  barony  of  P.,  and  marry- 
ing Charles,  Duke  of  Somerset,  became  the  mother 
of  Algernon,  Duke  of  Somerset,  who  w^as  created 
Earl  of  Northuml^erland,  with  remainder  to  his 
son-in-law.  Sir  Hugh  Smithson,  of  Stanwick,  in  the 
county  of  York,  a  gentleman  of  respectable  lineaga 
Sir  Hugh,  succeeding  to  the  earldom,  obtained  in 
1766  his  advancement  to  the  dukedom  of  NorUi- 
umberland,  which  title  is  now  held  by  his  grandson, 
the  present  duke,  who  thus  represents  the  ancient 
house  of  P.  only  in  the  female  Ima 

PERCY,  Thomas,  D.D.,  an  eminent  poetical 
collector,  antiquary,  and  scholar,  was  bi)rD  at 
Bridgenorth,  Shropshire,  in  1728 ;  was  educated  at 
Chris tchurch,  Oxford ;  and  having  entered  the 
church,  rose  to  be  Bishop  of  Droinore,  in  Ireland, 
1782.  He  died  in  1811.  This  amiable,  and  accom- 
plished prelate,  the  friend  of  Johnson,  GoKlsmith, 
and  other  distinguished  contemporaries,  published 
translations  from  the  Icelandic,  a  new  version  of 
the  Song  of  Solomon^  the  Northumberland  House- 
hold  Book,  a  translation  of  Mallet's  Noiiharn 
AntiquUieSf  &c.  His  most  popular  and  valuable 
contribution  to  our  literature  was  the  lidiques  of 
Ancient  English  Poetry ,  consisting  of  old  heroic 
ballads  and  songs,  with  some  modem  imitations,  in 
which  the  editor  himself  displayed  the  taste  and 
feeling  of  a  poet.  This  work  appeared  in  1765,  and 
P.  lived  to  see  four  editions  01  it  called  for  by  the 
public,  and  to  receive  the  warm  commendations  of 
all  poetical  readers  and  critics.  The  Reli/juts  were 
chiefly  obtained  from  an  old  folio  MS.  that  had 
fallen  into  P.'s  hands,  with  the  addition  of  pieces 
from  the  Pepys  collection  at  Cambridge,  the 
Ashmole  Library  at  Oxford,  the  British  Museum, 
and  the  works  of  our  earlier  poets.  Certain 
liberties  were  taken  with  some  of  the  ballads— 
softening  touches,  repairs,  and  renovations— for 
which  the  editor  was  severely  censured  by  Ritson 
and  other  antiquaries ;  but  the  collection  was  of 
great  value  to  our  literature,  recalling  the  pubUc 
taste  to  the    rude    energy,    picturesqueness,    and 

Eassion  of  the  old  chivalrous  minstrds  and  Eliza- 
ethan  songsters.  It  captivated  the  youthful 
imagination  of  Walter  Scott,  and  was  tiie  irispirer 
and  model  of  his  Minatrdmf  of  the  SeoUigh  Border. 
The  memory  of  P.  has  been  still  further  perpetuated 
by  a  Club  Book  Association,  called  the  Perc< 
Society.    See  Club  Books,  in  Supplement. 

PERDI'DO,  a  bay  and  river  of  AlabamA,  UiL 


PEREGRINE  FALCON— PERENHIAL 


91  we«t  of  tbe  enlrance  to  PeQaacola  Bay ;  the 
T  hsea  in  South- Western  AJalnma,  and  bay  Bad 
r  farm  tbe  boondary   between  Alabama   and 

ETIEGBINB  FALCON  {Falto  perrgrinw,],  a 
iet  of  Falcon  (q.  v,)  found  in  almost  all  parte 
he  world.  The  female  ia  larger  than  the  male, 
g  about  18  iuchei  in  length  from  the  tip 
le  bill  to  the  tip  of  the  tail,  whilst  the  male  ib 
'  about  15  inches.  The  female  ia  the  l^aicon  of 
>ners,  and  the  male  the  Terrfl  The  plumage  of 
two  sezee  is  very  similar.  The  back,  wines,  and 
are  btuish-alate  or  aah-gray,  the  feathers  barred 
I  a  darker  tint;  the  crown  of  the  heail,  back  of 
neck,  and  a  spot  below  the  eye,  nearly  black ; 
froot  of  the  neck  white,  with  dark  longitudinal 
I :  the  breast,'  belly,  and  plumage  of  the  leca, 
ttsh,  witb  dark-brown  transverse  bars.  The 
iB  are  very  Ions,  reaching  almost  to  the  tip  of 
tail ;  and  the  bird  is  remarkable  for  its  power 
i^ht,  being  capable  of  maintaining  for  a  con- 
rable  time  a  rate  of  more  than  100  miles 
lour,  so  that  it  is  often  seen  for  from  any  of 
haunts  or  breeding- places ;  whence  the  name 
jirine,  from  the  Latin  perfrjiiiiua,  a  wanderer, 
iwoop,  when  rushing  on  its  quarry,  is  wonderful 
I  for  rapidity  and  force.'  The  V.  F.  can  easily 
y  through  the  air  a  bird  or  qua<lm[>ed  fully  its 
weight  Its  ordinary  prey  consists  of  grouse, 
Icocfes,  rabbits,  ftc.  The  woodcock  in  vain 
s  to  escape  from  it  by  threading  its  way  among 
ches  of  trees  and  bnishwoml ;  the  falcon  I 
WB,  and  exhibits  at  least  an  equal  power  of 
ing  with  great  rapidity  in  the  thicket  without 
Jig  entangled  or  stayed.  Sometimes  the  quarry 
I  into  the  air,  and  seeks  safety  by  trying  to  ' 
I  above  tho  falcon,  tiU  both  are  lost  to  onlinary  ' 
; ;  but  the  falcon  generally  gets  uppermost,  and 
kes'  it  at  last.  The  quantity  o(  game  des- 
td  by  tlie  P.  F.  is  very  great.  It  is  supposed 
a  single  nest  of  peregnoe  falcons  will  consume 
ly  300  brace  of  grouse  in  a  season,  besides  much 
r  prey.  The  P.  F.  is  a  bird  as  remarkable  for 
nesa  as  for  power  of  flight.  It  bos  sometimes 
seen  to  pounce  on  game  shot  by  a  aportaman, 
r^  it  could  fall  to  tbe  grouml ;  and  an  instance 
rred  in  Yorkshire  of  a  P.  F.  dashing  throiii-h 
rlasa  of  an  aviary  in  a  town,  and  carrying  off  a 
It  makes  its  nest  on  ledges  of  high  rocks, 
r  on  the  sea-coast  or  in  inland  precipices  and 
les.  and  lays  from  two  to  four  eggs.  Numerous 
itics  in  Britain  have  long  been  noted  as  breed- 
ilaces  of  the  P.  P.,  an<l  some  of  them  were 
larly  visited,  whilst  falcnijry  was  a  favourite 
.,  for  young  birds,  which  were  not  procured 
aut  danger  and  difficulty.  Tbe  bird,  caught 
1  adult,  although  more  difficult  to  train,  was, 
:ver,  believed  to  possess  superior  qoalities. 
P.  F.  is  more  docile,  and  becomes  more  gentle 
the  Gyr-falcon.  The  young  female  of  the  P.  F. 
been  by  mistake  deacrtbed  by  Pennant  and 
rt  nnder  the  name  of  the  linner  (q.  v.),  a 
es  not  found  in  Britain.     For  fig.  of  P.  F.,  see 

SBEIBA,  JOHiTHAN,  the  pharmacologist, 
bom  in  the  parish  ot  Shoreditch,  London, 
Hay  1801.  After  a  dUtinguished  career 
.  clasaicaL  academy  in  Finsbury,  where  he 
Ined  for  four  yean,  he  devoted  himself  to  the 
T  of  medicine,  and  in  1823  was  appointed 
ent  medical  officer  of  the  General  Dispen- 
in  Alderagate  Street,  at  which  institution 
eoune,  three   yeara   afterwords,    lecturer    on 


chemistry.  His  attention  was  early  attracted  to  th« 
study  in  which  he  has  become  famous.  In  1S24,  hn 
published  a  translation  of  the  London  J'luirin.z- 
mjMfia;  which  was  followed  byj4  Munuat  f-'  i.'ie 
t/K  oj  StudeiiU ;  A  Gmeral  Table  o/ Atomic  Ifttm- 
bert,  with  an  JiU.TOdiKtion  to  the  Atomic  Tkforg;  aiid 
other  text-books  for  the   use  of  those  who   wem 

Ereparing  for  medical  examinations.  He  contii- 
uted  numerous  pajjers  to  the  professional  journals 
on  the  projierties  and  adulteration  of  dnigs.  aud  toid 
the  foundation  of  those  researches  which  issued  in 
bis  great  work  on  Mata-ia  Metlica.  In  183^  he 
resigned  the  office  of  lecturer  for  that  of  Professor 
of  Materia  Medica  in  the  New  Medical  School  in 
Aldersgate  Street,  and  at  tbe  same  time  he  suc- 
ceeded Dr  Gordon  as  Lecturer  on  Chemistry  at  tho 
Loudon  HospitoL  His  Eiemmtt  of  Materia  Medica 
(first  published  in  the  form  of  lectures  contributed 
to  the  Medical  Timet  and  Oa^Uei  ap]>eared  as  a 
separate  work  in  1339 — 1840,  and  at  once  established 
bis  reputation  as  a  pharmacologist.    The  treatise  i« 


or  practical,  and  the  scrupulous  exactness  of  il 
statements.  In  1841,  he  priicured  the  licence  to 
practise  in  London  from  the  Oiilege  of  Physicians  ; 
■a  1845.  he  was  elected  a  F.llo.v  of  that  body  :  and 
on  the  establishment  of  tbe  London  University,  he 
was  appointed  Eiominer  in  Materia  Meihca  and 
Pharmacy,  a  post  which  he  filled  with  admirablo 
efficiency  till  his  death.  Among  his  other  contri- 
butions t«  science,  the  best  known  are  his  ejicelleat 
treatises  on  Di/^  and  on  Putaiiatd  LiiikL,  both  of 
which  appeared  in  184a  His  death,  wliich  took  place 
00  January  20,  1853,  was  the  result  of  a  fall  down  a 
Qight  of  steps  in  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  was 
deeply  felt,  not  only  by  his  profesxiunal  brethren, 
but  by  the  numeiuiis  scientilic  bodies,  such  as  the 
Itoyal,  the  LinnKon.  and  tbe  other  societies  of  which 
he  was  a  distinguished  Fellow. 

PKKEKU'P,  lOTBUua  or,  in  South  Russia, 
i^vemment  of  Taurida,  18  mites  long.  16  miles 
broad  at  its  southern,  and  5  miles  liroad  at  it* 
northern  extremity,  connects  the  peninaiila  of  tho 
Crimea  witb  the  mainland  of  European  Russia.  It 
is  an  arid  waste  of  mere  sand,  or  sand  combined 
with  clay.  There  are,  however,  numerous  salt  lakes, 
and  salt  is  extensively  made.  In  the  north  of  the 
isthmus,  and  forming  the  key  to  the  Crimea,  is 
the  smalt  town  of  Perekop.  Notwithstanding  its 
advanti^oua  position  at  the  convergence  of  the 
numerous  reads  leading  from  South  Kussia  into 
the  Crimea,  F.  is  of  little  commercial  importance. 
Pop.  of  town  3397. 

PERE-LA-CHA13R.    See  La-Chaise. 

PE'EEMPTOBY  DEFENCES,  in  Scotch  Law, 
mean  defences  to  an  action  or  suit,  which  amount 
to  an  entire  negative  of  the  right  of  action,  as  dia- 
tingulshed  from  a  preliminary  or  temporary  defence. 


3.  v.),  to  designate  plants  which  snbeistfora  number 
years.  Some  plants,  however,  which  are  annual  in 
cold  climates,  are  perennial  in  warmer  regions.  The 
term  perennial  ia  m  general  apphed  only  to  herba- 
ceous planta.  and  indicates  a  property  only  of  their 
roots,  the  stems  of  moat  of  them  dying  at  the  end 
of  each  summer.  Perennial  herbaceous  plants,  like 
shrubs  and  trees,  are  capable  of  producing  flowers  and 
fruit  time  after  time,  in  which  tbey  differ  from  annual 
and  biennial  plants,  which  are  fruitful  only  once. 
Those  plants  which  are  capable  of  being  projiogated 
by  cloves,  oflset  bulbs,  or  tuWrs,  are  all  perennial, 
llius  the  potato  is  a  perennial  plant,  altbuugh  the 
crop  is  planted  in  spring  and  reaped  iu  autumn,  lika 


PBRESLAV— PERFUMEBY.  PEBFUMBa. 

Uut  of  com,  whilst  all  the  com  plants  are  uinuala.  '  tbia  aenae  it  is  a  rare  uttainmeDt,  but  asser 
— There  is  great  divenit;  in  the  duration  of  life  of  '  aeveral  jwreona  have  eajoyed  thia  blessing,  t 
perennial  planta.  '  interruption,  for  many  yeara,  aever&l  enjoy  it 

PERESLA'V,  or  PEREIASLA'VLE-ZALIE'.  '  ^^y<"'^  "<>»  "  £ew  have  ,.niove.l  it  nnto  their 
SKY,  a  district  town  io  the  middle  of  Grrat  Uu«ia,  '  ",  *^"'J'  ^"^  .declared  with  Uieir  latert 
in  the  fiovemment  of  Vkdimir,  »nd  70  miles  north-  I  '^?;''".'y  »;;"'f»'"K  tl'"*  God  lu«l  saved  then 
west  of  the  city  of  that  name.     It  w»  founded  in    ?"  "»■  t^l  th^-r  »,«nt  ^-'tunjed  to  G«l.      C, 

npwar^  of  3')  chunhes  and  reli>;i 
but  is  priueiiutlty  noteworthy  for  it 

are  nine  in  number,  and  of  which  the  raiHt  important  ,  conTpt'on*  "" 

are  cotton-mili.  and  priut-works  for  cotton  goods.  . '"'<*.l'™","^  coiicemiuK  sanc-tihoa  ion  are  « 
The  factories  yield  iQ\dl  an  annual  pr.>lit  of  about ,  "^P'^l'lf.  "f  ^  ex|.lanation  oonsiateat  with  ren 
£3,000,UW.  The  cotton  manufactures  of  P.  an  j  J""""?'^""'  '"  bel'^*""-  ""^  *  "eed  of  fi.rthei 
exp.>fted  to  the  fairs  of  Niini-Novgorad  and  Irbit,  1  *'«f  *";"'.  "f.,"  <^|'"'"'«1  gP>''S  "n  unto  per 
an^  even  to  China  by  way  of  Siberia.  Pop.  (i783.  ,  "^''«V"»  'V'*"'™;.  •  ui  ■  .u-  rr  ■ 
eniploye.1  in  the  factories  and  in  the  pr^uctivB  I .  ^f"'*  t?'''"'^'"'"  "^  attainable  lu  th«  Iife^  i 
fishery  of  Lake  PleshtcheieiT.  \}l^  Ti-^ciscaos,  Jea.i.U,  and  MoUmst. 

_  .„,.,.,■,„.       (-■hurcn  of  Kome,  but  denied  by  the  Uoiuinica 

PEREZ,  Antonio,  minister  of  Phihp  11.  of  Spain,  I  Jangenists.    In  advocating  the  doctrine.  iU  ] 
was  bom  in  Aragon  in  1530.     His  fatlier  was  Seore-  ■  Catholic   aui.portera  gcneraUy  rcat  much  c 
tary  of  .State  under  Charlee  I.  and  Philip  II.,  and    distinction  Iwtween  mortal  and  veaial  ainiL 
lie  hiuiaelf  was  appointed  to  this  office  when  only  j      _    _  _ 

25  years  of  awe.  iid  acquired  tlie  entire  contiden™  I  PERFORMANCE  OF  CONTRACTS 
of  tlie  kinfi.  Don  Juan  D' Austria,  having  sent  his  ™  *^  ■"«■««  "  satisfying  the  contract, 
confidant,  Juan  de  Escoveilo.  to  8|>ain.  to  solicit  aid    may  ^be   either  Ijj;  doing   gome    specific   thi 


accomplisliment  of  thia  design,  which  P.,  to  gratify  !  perf'WToed, 

his  own  revenue,  accompUBhed  accordingly,  31st  |  PERFU'MEBY,  PERFU'MES  (Fr.  p 
March  157&  The  fMndy  of  Eaoovedo  denounced  from  Lat. /iimi,^  smoke  or  vai>our).  delicate  fn 
P.  as  the  iniirderer,  (uidall  his  enemies  joine,!  againit  ■  g^^Hg,  r^rfiiui.e  are  of  tliren  distinct  classes 
him.  The  kiii^'  at  first  sought  to  slncld  him ;  bnt  derived  from  plants,  and  there  is  a  fourth 
b  July  1581  he  «a«  arrested;  and  by  torture  fore«l ,  ^hicb  »re  of  animal  origin. 
to  coufe*!.  He  succeeded,  however,  m  making  his  |  (Jlass  l.-These  are  the  most  ancient,  am 
eacnjm  to  Arai;on,  where  he  i.nt  himself  under  pro-  },^a  in  use  from  the  earlii^t  period  of  whicl 
lection  of  ita  laws.  After  a  long  and  severe  inquiry  ;  £,  ^^ord.  They  coiiaiBt  of  the  various  odor 
^to  his  conduct,  he  was  found  guilty  of  many  acta  g„n,.re8ina,  which  exude  naturally  from  the 
-  ^  .  and  cirruption.  and  condemned  to  death  ,  «,hieh  yield  them  ;  and  to  increase  the  pnnlu. 
in  Madn.1;  but  the  Judiaa  Mitjor.  or  highest  plants  are  often  purposely  wounded.  The 
court  of  justice  in  fean^ossa,  refuse.1  to  deliver  him  fni.„rtant  are  benzoin,  olibanum,  myrrh,  au.l 
up.  The  king  apphed  for  aid  m  May  1591  to  the  phor.  No  leaa  than  51)00  cwt  of  these  toacth 
Inqniaition.  and  the  Aragonese  court  deUvereii  him  annuoliy  iuiiiorted  into  Britain.  Gum-resins 
np  to  ita  ageiiW.  but  the  people  rose  in  tumult,  and  the  chief  ingredients  in  '  Inceuae,'  (q.  r.).  i 
bberated  him.    This  happened  rej>eatedly  ;  and  at    Pastilles  (q   v  ) 

last,  in  September  15B1,  Philip  It  entered  Aragon  j  Class  if  are'  those  perfumes  which  are  p^ 
with  an  ariuy  powerful  enough  to  subdue  all  oppo-  by  disUlIation.  Aa  aoon  aa  the  Greeks  ar 
■ition,  abolished  the  old  constitutional  pnvileges  of  .  Romans  learned  the  use  of  the  atill.  which  v 
the  country,  and  caused  a  number  of  the  principal  invention  iiniwrted  by  them  fmm  Egypt,  they  q 
people  to  be  eieoutcd.  P..  however,  made  his  adapted  it  to  the  sciiaration  of  the  odorous  pn 
escajie,  avoiding  the  many  plots  whicli  the  king  f^oin  the  numeroua  fragrance-bearing  planU 
laid  fiir  hu  nsaaaainntion.  He  was  condemned  m  are  indi.'enous  toGreeoe  and  Italy  An  esaeul 
Spain  a*  a  heretic,  but  was  treated  with  great  „  ^tt^  ^^  procui^  from  orange-flowere  1« 
kindness  in  Paris  and  Loncloa.  He  spent  the  commerce  to  this  day  the  name  of  Seroly  sui 
latter  years  of  his  Lfe  in  Paris,  and  died  there  in  to  be  so  named  affer  the  Emperor  Nero. 
1611  in  great  poverty.  P.  wrote  an  account  of  his  before  that  time,  however,  fragrant  wattra  w 
miafortiiiiea,  which  was  pnbhshed  at  Pans  in  1398,  :  ugg  jn  Arabia.  Odonr-bcaring  plants  oouta' 
nnder  the  title  of  Edacioim.  I  fragrant  principle  in  minute  glands  or  sacs  ; 

PERFECTIBI'LITY  OF  CHRISTIANS,  a  I  are  found  sometimes  in  the  rind  of  the 
doctrine  held  by  the  Wesleyau  Methodists  (see  '  aa  the  lemon  and  orange ;  in  others  it  is  i 
Mbthodisi^)  oi  a  Chrittian  pei/Klioa  attainable  in  leaves,  as  sage,  mmt,  and  thyme ;  in  wn 
this  life.  It  is  not  a  perfection  of  jutti^cnthn.  but  rosewood  and  sandal-wood  ;  in  the  bark,  as 
a  perfection  of  taiiclificntlon ;  which  John  Weatey,  and  cinnamon ;  in  seeds,  aa  caraway  and  a\ 
in  a  sermon  on  Chriatian  Perfection,  from  the  text  i  These  glanils  or  bags  of  fragrance  ma 
Eeb.  vi  I,  *^Let  ns  go  on  to  perfection,'  earnestly  plainly  seen  in  a  thin  cut  stratum  of  « 
contends  for' as  attiinable  in  thia  life  by  believers,  peel;  ao  also  in  a  bay  leaf,  if  it  be  he. 
by  arguments  founded  chieflyon  the  commandmenta  to  the  aunlight,  all  the  oil  cells  may  be 
and  promises  of  Scn|iture  concerning  sanctitication  ;  like  n]>eckB.  All  these  fragrant- bearing  snlist 
guarding  his  doctrine,  however,  by  aaying  that  it  ia  yield  by  distiUntiou  an  essential  oil  peculi 
neither  an  aiiijdie  nor  an  Adamie  perfection,  and  each;  thua  is  procured  oil  of  patcfaouly 
does  not  exclude  ignorance  and  error  of  judgment,  the  leaves  of  tliB  pstchoidy  plant,  Pogm 
with  consequent  wrong  affections,  such  as 'needless  pRfcAoiif^,  a  native  of  Burmah  ;  oil  of  oar 
tear  or  ill  grounded  hope,  unreitsonnble  love,  or  un-  from  the  caraway  seed  ;  oil  of  geraniam,  froi 
reasonable  aversian.'    He  admits,  also,  that  even  in  |  leaves  of  the  Qeranium  rota;   oil  of  lemon. 


PEaFUMEEY,  PESFCTMES. 


>a-pe«1;    uid  »   hnudrsd    U   other*   of   more 

ite  variety. 

le  old  name  for  them  pure  odoriferouB  priDciplea 

QuintaneDce.       Latterly,    tliey    have    been 
ed    EsBenCial    Oils ;  they   are  Duw,  in  modem 
itifio    works,    often    termed    Ottos,  from  the 
liah  word  ftttar,  which  i«  aiiplied  to  the  weU- 
ra  otto  or  attar  of  roses.     See  OiL. 
1  the  various  essential  oils  or  ott«s  are  very 
tly  soluble  la  water,  eo  that  in  the  process  of 
Uation  the  water  which  comes  over  is  always 
nut,     ThuH,   elder    water,    rose   water,    oraDze  i 
r,  dill  water  are,  as  it  were,  the  residue  of 
llation  for  obtaining   the  several   ottos. 
«s   of  Distillation  (q.  v.)   is  very   simjilo ; 
ant  part  of  the  plant  is  put  into  the  still 
red  with  water ;  and  when  the  water  is  made 
nil,  the  ottos   rise  along  with  the  s 
ensed  with  it  in  the  pipe,  and  remain  floating 
tie  water,  from  which  they  are  eaeily  separated 
ecanting.     In  this  way  lUO  ponnde  of  orange, 
n,  or  iKTgamot  fniit  jieel  wiU  yield  about  10 
es  of  the  fragraat  oil ;    IIXI  pounds  of  cedar 
1  will  give  about  15  ounces  of   oil  of 
lounds  of  nutmeg  will  yield  60  to  70 
1  of  nutmeg ;  101)  pounda  of  geranium  leaves 
rield  2  ounces  of  oil 

ery  fragrant  substance  varies  in  yield  of 
tial   oiL    The  variety  of  essential  oils  '~       ' 

but  there  are  a  certain  relationship  among 
rg  aa  among  tints.  The  lemon-Uke  ottours  are 
uost  numerous,  such  as  verbena,  lemon,  ber^a- 
orange,  citron,  citroaella ;  then  the  almond- 
odours,  such  as  heliotrope,  vanilla,  violet ; 
spioe  odours,  cloves,  cinnamon,  cassia.  The 
}  may  be  classified  into  twelve  well-de6ned 
«.  All  these  ottos  are  very  soluble  in  alcohol, 
i,  batter,  and  fixed  oils.  They  also  mix  with 
snuff,  starch,  sugar,  chalk,  and  other  bodies, 
tich  they  inipart  their  fragrance, 
i  principal  consumption  of  the  various  trag- 
ottos  is  for  scenting  soap.  Windsor  soap, 
id  soap,  rose  soap,  and  a  great  variety  of  others, 
it  of  various  Boa[)s  maile  of  oil  and  tallow, 
rned  while  in  a  melted  state  with  the  several 
1  ottos  or  niiitttres  of  them. 
}Ugh  snuff  is  by  no  means  so  popular  au  article 
B  reign  of  Viotoria  aa  it  was  in  Anne's  time, 
le  increased  population,  and  still  more  increased 
ta  to  coionies,  cause  a  positive  increased  pro- 
in  in  scented  snuff  now  than  fifty  years  post, 
;  is  eepcdally  in  demand  m  the  fur  countries 
irthem  Canada.  There  is  a  lar),;e  consumption 
.(rant  essential  oils  in  the  manufacture  of  toilet 
;ra;  under  the  various  names  of  rose  iiowder, 

powder,  &c.,  a  mixture  of  starch  and  orris, 
rntly  scented,  is  in  general  demand  for  drying 
[in  of  infants  after  the  bath. 
cipitated  chalk  and  powdered  cuttle-fish  bnne, 
plumed  with  otto  of  roses,  powdered  myrrh, 
aifephor,  become  '  Dentifrice.  The  ottos  of 
nnint,  lavender,  rose,  and  others,  ore  exten- 
used  in  scenting  sweetmeats  and  lozenges. 
re  than  200,000  pounds- wei){ht  of  various  ottos 
imported  into  Britain  in  ItitiO,  and  valned  at 
£180,000  i  to  this  must  be  abided  at  least  one- 
>s  much  again  distilled  in  England.  Of  the 
ted  articles  enumerated,  oils  of  lemon  and 
not,  from  the  Two  Sicilies,  reached  128,309 
B,  valued  at  £57,054. 

^a  IIL— These  are  the  perfumes  proper,  such 
e  used  for  perfuming  handkerchiefs,  Sc 
uT  to  the  general  behef,  nearly  all  the  per- 

derived  from  flowers  are  not  made  by  dis- 
m,  I)at  by  the  processes  of  ea^eurage  and 
rtion.     Althon^  this  mode  of  obtaimng  the 


odoBTt  from  flowers  baa  ee. 
for  two  centuries  in  the  va! 
south  of  France,  it  is  onlj 
a  recent  work  *  that  the  i 
generally  known.  The  odoi 
a  gencru  rule,  exist  in  them 

flower  breathes  it  yields  1 
flower,  and'  fragrance  ceas 
ascertained  when  the  discos 
densing,  as  it  were,  the 
during  life;  what  we  km 
living  flower  be  placed  n 
fat,  butter,  or  oil.  these  be 
given  oET  by  the  blossom, 
selves  become  fragrant. 
unsaltcd  butter  upon  the  h 
plates,  and  then  till  one  of  tl 
fragrant  blossoms  of  demati 
with  the  second  greased  pb 
after  24  hours  the  grease 
The  blossoms,  thongh  sepai 
stem,  do  not  die  for  soni 
exhale  odour;  which  is  i 
To  remove  the  odour  from  t 
scraped  off  the  plates  and 
odour  then  leaves  the  greos 
spirit,  which  thus  becomes  ' 
again  becomes  odourless. 

The  flower  farmers  of  thi 
this  method  on  a  very  large  i 
practical  variation,  with  the  f 
orange,  acacia,  violet,  jasmine 
The  process  is  termed  enjleu 
the  var,  there  are  acres  of  ji 
violets,  and  the  other  fiowcn 
the  air  is  laden  with  fragrai 
is  at  hand  Women  aud 
blossoms,  which  they  place  : 
fisliermen's  baskets  bnng  ove 
are  then  carried  to  the  1 
and  weighed.  In  the  labo: 
"  Ters  has  been  anticipated, 
ter  great  qnantities  of  grei 
hav^  been  collected,  melted. 
In  each  laboratory  there  . 
dideaU  (sashes),  or  framed  gl: 
mase  to  be  scented  is  spreat 
the  blossoms  are  siyrinkted  c 
-re  is,  iu  fact,  a  frame  witi 
possible  like  a  wiiidow-sas 
is  two  inches  thicker,  so  thi 
>!aced  on  another,  there  is  I 
letween  evei^  two  glasses,  tli 
hlossoma  The  il'iistration  i 
grease  and  flowerc  iijKin  it  (fi) 
same  as  in  use.  The  flower 
every  day,  or  every  other  da 
igard  to  the  general  work  oftl 
ig  of  the  plants.  The  samegr 
.J  the  cbAsse  so  long  as  the 
used  yields  blossoms.  Each 
are  put  on,  the  grease  is  '  wor] 
with  a  knife~so  as  to  offer  a 
absorb  odour.  The  grea 
this  way  for  three  weeks  or  m 
the  plwits  produce  blossom 
off'  the  chAsse,  melted,  strai 
tin  canisters,  and  is  now  fit 
or  oil  is  perfumed  with  thest 
process  ot  maceration ;  that  is, 


Art  of  Ptrjumtry,  \ij  SeptI 


1  of  Per/umt 


PERFUMERY,  PEEFOMEa 


UuMomi  tte  inFuaed  in  it  for  seven]  boura.    Fra«h 
flower*  being   procured,  tliB   spent    bloBBoms    a 
itrained  awaj,  ftnd  new  flowera  added  repeatedly, 
loos  as  they  coa  be  procured.     The  bam  moi-ie 
VMoi  in  ard«r  to  prevent  the  grease  beoomiug  t> 


1^  OilHii  an  Tana ;  I,  Ghluli  an  Per. 

hot  from  expoaare  to  the  naked  fire ;  bo  long 
the  ^reaae  is  fluid,  it  it  warm  enough.  Oil  does  r 
require  to  be  warmed,  but  improved  reaulla  i 
obtained  when  it  ia  slightly  heated. 

Jaflinine   and   tuberose  produce   best  perfumed 
gtfaao  by  eoSeonga,  but  rose,  orange,  and  »c«oia 

>  I 


leurage   followed   by 


.         In  the  engravinff  a  ehdne  en  fir  { 

ia  shewQ  ;  this  is  for  enfleuraee  of  oil 
place  of  glass,  the  space  is  filled  with  a  w. 
on  which  u  laid  a  moUtlon,  or  thick  cotton 
moleskin,  soaked  with  oil ;  on  this  the  flot 
laid,  just  as  with  aolid  greaae.  In  dne  tin 
ia,  after  repeated  chan^iog  t^e  flon-ers  - 
becomes  fragrant,  and  it  ia  then  prp^^ed  ou 
DioleBkin  cloth.  Oil  of  jasmine,  tuberose, 
prepared  in  tbia  way.  In  order  niiw  to  obi 
perfume  of  these  (lowers  in  the  form  n 
scenting  handkerchiefs,  we  have  only  t< 
the  scented  fat  or  oil,  mode  by  any  of  th 
methods,  in  strong  alcohol. 

In  extracting  the  odour  from  solid  fat  it  h 
chopped  up  line  as  suet  is  chopped,  put  i 
apint,  and  left  to  infuse  for  about  a  month. 
case  of  Bcented  oil  it  has  to  be  repeatedly  i 
with  the  spirit.  The  result  ts.  that  the  sjiirit  < 
all  the  odour,  becoming  itself  'perfume,'  w 
grease  again  becomes  oclourless ;  thus  isproci 
eaeenoe  of  jasmine,  essence  of  orange  tiovers, 
of  violets,  and  others  already  named,  rose,  ti 
acacia,  and  jonqlliL 

It  is  remarkable  that  these  flowera  yield  p 
which,  either  se|>arate  or  mixed  in  various 
tioos,  are  the  ty]>ea  of  nearly  all  fiower  odour 
when  jasmine  and  orange  dowers  are  blend 
scent  produced  ia  like  sweet-pea ;  when  jaam 
tuberose  are  mixed,  the  perfume  is  that 
hyacinth,  Violet  and  tuberose  resemble  lilj 
valley.  All  the  various  Ixniqiiets  and  ni 
such  as  '  frangi[>anni,'  '  flbite  ruess,'  '  sweet  u 
are  made  ujnn  this  ]iriDci|>le. 

The  commercial  importance  of  this  bn 
perfumes  may  lie  indicated  by  the  quantity  of 
annually  grown  in  the  distnct  of  the  Var. 
Harvest :  orange  bloss<ims,  1,475,000  Iba  ; 
630,000  Iba.  ;  jaamine,  100,000  lbs.  ;  violets, 
lbs. ;  acacia,  45,000  lbs.  ;  ceranium,  3(1,00 
tuberose,  24.000  Ills. ;  jonquil,  6000  lbs. 

Class  IV.  Perfumes  of  aziimal  origii 
prindjial  are  Musk  (q.  v.],  Am)>ergris  (q.  v.) 

a.  v.),  and  Castor  (q.  v.).  The  aroma  of  i 
e  most  universally  admired  of  all  jierfnn 
freely  im|inrts  odour  to  eveiy  body  with  whi 
in  contact.     Ita  power  to  impart  odour  is  bui: 

elished  steel  will  become  fragrant  of  it  if  thi 
shut  in  a  box  where  there  is  musk,  coat 
being  necessary. 
In  perfumery  manufacture,  musk  is  mix( 
her   odorous  bodies   to   give  permanence 
ent      The  usual  statement  as  to  the  lee 
time  that  musk  continnea  to  give  out  odo 
been  called  in  question.      If  fine  mnsk  be 
in    thin    layers    iijion     any    surface,    and 
exposed  to  a  chaoging  current  of  air,  all  frsL 
*'i   is   said,   will   be    gone    in   from   six    to 
lonths. 

Civet  is  exceedingly  potent  as  an  odonr,  an 
pure,  and  smelled  at  in  the  bulk  of  an  onno 
...  ^4.*. — jy  insupportable  from  its  iiauseouaat 
spect  it  exceeds  musk.  When,  h( 
diluted  so  as  to  offer  but  minut«  qu; 
to  the  olfactories,  then  its  perfume  is  ge 
admitted  ;  this  is  so  with  gas-tar  ;  but  the  fi 
principle  is  the  same  as  that  breathed  1 
beautiful  narcissus.  Castor  is  in  our  day 
~:iBoIete  as  a  perfume. 
The  average  im[iortation  of  mnsk  per  ann 
the  past  five  years  ia  9388  ouncee,  value  £1 
export  15TS  ouncea,  value  £2143  ;  leavinv  for 
consumption  every  year  7810  ounces,  vuue 
Average  importation  per  annum  for  the  p« 
yean  ;  otto  of  roses  1117  ounces.  Talus  £1 
vanilla  36'2S  pounds,  value  £12,668 ;  amberp 


PEHOAJniS  -^ICARDinS. 


e«,  valne  £225  ;  civet  355  ounces,  Tolue  £300  ; 

root  420  hundredweight. 

le  worha  on  perfumes  are  very  fev;  that  of 
Mae  CelDArt,  tn  the  Libniire  Boret,  is  most 
hy  of  notice  among  the  French ;  »  trBnalation  of 
<B  been  made  br  Mr  C.  Mortit  of  FhiliwielphiB.. 
Cogland.  The  BritiA  Perfx.mer.  by  C.  Lilly 
i),  was  the  only  work  of  the  kind  published  in 
and  prior  to  the  AH  of  Petfumery  by  Septimus 
e  (1855). 

S'RGAMUS,  or  FEROAMUM,  anciently  a  city 
[yaia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  navigable  river 
IS,  at  the  distance  of  120  stadia  from  the  sea. 
nling  to  tradition,  the  place  was  of  Greek 
1,  but  its  early  history  is  quite  insignifioant 
Bt  acquired  pruoiinence  when  Lysimnchus,  one 
exander's  senerals,  chose  it  as  a  stroeghold  in 
h  tn  keep  mn  treasures.  Under  Philctienu  it 
ne  the  capital  of  a  state,  2S3  B.C.  Hia  ■ucceuor, 
:;ues  L,  mjiutaiiied  itfl  independence  against  the 
.cidffi,  although  the  title  of  king  was  first 
ned  by  Attains  I.,  who  reigned  from  241  to  197 

He  intimately  allied  himself  with  the  Romans 
st  Philip  of  Maceilou,  and  tliis  alliancH  sitbaisted 
ighout  succeeiUng  reigns,  in  which  the  kingdom 
oacd  in  ext^'ut  and  importooce,  till  at  lost 
luH  Ilr,  Buniained  PhilomL-ter.  who  died  in  133 
left  it  with  all  his  treasures  to  the  Romans, 
luccessfully  maintained  the  right  thus  acquired, 
mder  whom  the  city  continued  to  ttouriah.  It 
he  focus  of  nil  the  gruat  military  and  commercial 
a  of  Asia  Minor,  and  Pliny  descriliea  it  as  longe 
eiinuai  Aaia  Pfrgamum.     The  Attnli  coUected 

a  lil)rory  only  inferior  to  that  of  Alexandria, 
la  also  the  seat  of  a  famous  grammar-school, 
t  gave  its  name  to  Parchment  (q.  v.).  P.  sank 
r  the  Byzantine  emiierors,  but  the  place  itiU 
I  under  the  name  Bergainak,  and  is  not«d  for 
pleodour  and  magnilicenca  of  its  ruins,  which 
ace  temples,  palaces,  aqueducts,  gymnasia, 
itheatrea,  oad  city  walls. 

:BG0LBSE,  GiovaN!!]  Baiti?ta,  an  eminent 
nan  of  the  NeapoiitAn  achooL  Evidence 
ding  the  date  and  place  of  his  bitth  is  Con- 
■^^  ;  probably  the  correct  account  is  that  of  the 
hese  di  Villarooa,  his  latest  biographer,  who 
I  that  he  was  bom  at  Je«i,  near  Anoona,  on 
a  of  January  ITIO.  In  1717  he  was  admitted 
tbB  Conscrvatorio  dei  Foveri  di  Geah  Cristo  at 
?a.  where  he  studied  the  violio  under  Domenico 
atteis,  and  mnsioal  composition  ander  Uaetano 
>  and  Durante.  Under  the  conviction  that 
ly  and  taste  were  sacrificed  to  learning  by 
of  the  masters  of  his  time,  he  abandoned  the 

of  Scurlatti  and  Greco  for  that  of  Vinci  and 
e.  His  tirat  great  'work  was  the  oratorio  of 
Oiiglielaio  ifAquiiama,  composed  in  1731.  In 
and  the  followinE  year  appeared  his  operas  of 
Jei-ea  Padrona,  II  PHgionier  Superbo,  and  Lo 
;  JnaamonUo ;  in  1734,   Adriaao  in  Stria;  in 

li  l^laminio  and  L'Oiimpiade.  In  1734,  he 
,-e<l  the  appointment  of  Tiiiiej(n>  di  eapttla  of 
Ihuich  of  Ixiretto.  In  Consequence  of  delicate 
h,  he  removed  to  Pozznoli,  where  he  composed 
antata  oE  Or/to,  and  his  pathetic  SlabtU  Matar. 
i«l  there  of  consumption  in  1736.  Besides  the 
;. mentioned  works,  P.  oomposed  a  number  of 
B  for  the  church,  which  were  better  appreciated 
Lg  his  lifetime  than  his  secular  compositions, 
a  violin  concerto,  and  thirty  trios  for  violin, 
DC«Ilo,  and  harpsiohord.  Hia  works  are  all 
kcterioed  by  sweetness  and  freedom  of  style. 

RI   (Fairy),  according  to  the  mythical  lore 


iC  allnBion  t( 


immortal,  bnt  is  for  ever  excluded  from  the  joys  cr 
Paradise.  It  takes  an  intermediate  place  betweei 
angels  and  demons,  and  is  either  mnle  or  female 
So  far  from  there  being  only  female  Peris,  u 
is  snpposed  by  some,  and  these  the  n-ives  of  thi 
DevB,  the  Peris  live,  on  the  contrary,  in  constant 
warfare  with  these  Deva.  Otherwise,  they  arc 
of  the  most  innocuous  character  to  mankind,  and. 
exactly  as  the  fairies,  with  whom  oiir  own  populai 
mythuogy  has  made  us  familiar,  are,  when  femalq 
of  surpassing  beauty.  One  of  the  finest  compliment! 
to  be  paid  to  a  Persian  huly  is  to  apeak  lA  her  ai 
Perizadeh  (horn  of  a  Peri  ;  Greek,  Parisatis).  Thej 
belong  to  the  great  family  of  genii,  or  jin :  l 
belief  in  whom  is  enjoineit  in  the  Koran,  and  foi 
whose  conversion,  as  well  as  for  that  of  man, 
Mohammed  was  sent  (cf.  Koran,  chaps.  Iv.,  liiii, 

PBRIA'GUA,  ft  large  eanoe  composed  of  the 
trunks  of  two  trees,  bollowed  and  united  into  on« 
fabric  ;  whereas  an  ordinary  canoe  is  formed  of  the 
body  of  one  tree  only.  Periaguas  are  used  in  the 
Pacitic,  and  were  formerly  employed  among 
West  India  Islands,  whence  the  frequent  ^nsn 
them  in  lioiiinum  Crume. 

FE'KIANTH  (Or.  peri,  around.  niUhog,  o-flawer), 
in  Botany,  the  fioral  envelope  (sec  Flowes)  of  those 
plants  in  which  the  colyz  and  corolla  are  not  easily 
ogniBhed.  The  term  is  convenient,  as  it  con  be 
applied  indifferently  to  the  calyx  and  corolla  ;  thus, 
when  there  is  either  a  calyx  or  coroUa  existing,  but 
not  both,  the  perianth  is  said  to  be  tingle .-  when 
both  are  present,  doahlt.  Both  are  really  present  in 
many  endogenous  plants,  to  which  the  use  of  the  term 

Senanth  is  confined  by  some  botanists ;  the  single 
oral  envelope  of  exogenous  plants  bemg  regarded 
as  a  calyx,  and  the  corolla  sujipoeed  to  be  wanting. 
The  penanth  is  regular  in  some  plants,  rrregular  m 
others.  It  often  displays  great  beauty,  as  in  tulips, 
crocuses,  liliee,  Ac. 

PERIOARDI'TIS,  or  Inflammation  of  tiie 
Pericardium  (q.  v.),  is  a  disease  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  the  result  of  a  very  targe  number  of 
post-mortem  examinations  being  to  shew  that  about 
1  in  23  of  all  who  die  at  an  adult  age  exhibits 
traces  of  recent  or  old  attacks  of  this  disorder. 

For  reasons  which  will  be  obvious  when  we  come 
to  speak  of  the  physical  signs  of  this  disease,  we  shall 
commence  with  a  notice  of  the  anatomical  change* 
which  take  place  in  the  intlnmed  membrnne.  Very 
soon  aft^r  symptoms  of  pericarditis  biggin  to  shew 
themselves  there  is  an  abnormal  dryness  of  the 
serous  membrane,  which  is  speedily  followed  by  an 
increased  secretion  of  fluid.  The  sMreted  flmd  is 
sometimes  almost  entirely  fibrinous,  in  which  coaa 
it  coagidates,  and  gives  rise  to  adhesions  between 
the  heart  and  the  pericardium ;  or  it  may  consist 
almost  entirely  of  scrum,  which  remains  liquid  ;  or 
it  may  be,  and  it  most  frequently  is  a  mixture  of 
is  ft  large  am 


When  there 


it  of  liqidd 


which  ii  ... 

in  the  course  of  a  few  days,  in  consequence  oi  the 
interference  of  the  fluid  with  the  heart's  actions ; 
but  when  there  is  not  much  liquid  effusion,  or  when 
the  liquid  part  is  ftbsorbefl,  the  pericardium  become! 
more  or  leas  adherent,  and  apparent  recovery  usuaUy 
takes  place. 

In  the  cosea  that  prove  fatal  when  fibrinous  fluid 
has  been  effused,  but  has  not  coagulated  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  cause  complete  adhesion  of  the  heart  to 
the  pericardium,  the  partially  coagulated  fibrin  (or 
lymph,  as  the  older  author*  styled  it)  is  seen  to  be 
of  a  yellowish-white  colour,  and  to  occu 
shi^gy,  or  cellnlar  form.     Laennec  c 


PERICARDITIS-PERICARDIUM. 


of  butler  had  been  compresgeA  Dr  WotsoQ  regards 
the  appet^Tioe  as  more  like  the  roiigb  side  of  pieces 
»f  DQCiiKked  tripe  thun  anything  else  ;  white  others 
have  compared  it  to  lace- work,  cut  sponge,  a  honey- 
comb, a  ooDgeriee  of  earthworms,  &c.  Whco  the 
patient  dies  at  a  more  advoaced  stage  of  the  disease 
— viz.,  soon  after  the  whole  of  the  membrane  has 
become  adherent — incMient  blood-vessels,  in  the  form 
of  red  points  and  branching  lines,  are  seen,  indicating 
that  organisation  is  cunimenctng  in  the  deposit, 
which  if  death  bad  not  ensued  would  have  been 
fiually  converted  into  cellular  or  areolar  tissue,  and 
llave  occasioned  the  complete  obliteration  of  the 
pericardial  cavity. 

The  symptoms  of  pericarditis  are  pain  in  the 
■ituatioD  of  the  heart,  increased  by  a  full  inspiration, 
by  presBure  upon  or  between  the  rilis  in  the  cardiac; 
region,  and  especially  by  pressure  upwards  aesiiist 
the  diaphragm  by  thrusting  the  lingers  beneath  tlie 
cartilages  of  the  false  ribs;  pal  |u  tat  ions ;  a  dry 
oongh  and  hurried  respiration ;  discomfort  or  pain 
on  lying  on  the  left  side ;  restlessness ;  great 
Mixiety  of  countenance;  and  sometimes  deliriuuL 
The  pulse  nanalljrbeatafrDm  110  to  120  in  a  minute, 
mnd  is  somettmes  intennitteDt ;  and  febrile  symptoms 
•re  always  present  These  syniptoins  are  seldom 
collectively  present  in  any  individual  case,  and  until 
the  time  of  Louis  the  diagnosis  of  this  disease  was 
■mcertaia  and  obscure.  ThephyBicalBi^B,depeDdent 
on  the  anatomical  changes  which  have  been  described, 
ue,  however,  generally  so  distinct  that  by  their  aid 
the  disease  can  be  readily  detected.  They  are 
three  in  number.  1.  In  consequence  of  irritation 
propagated  to  the  iniisciilar  tissue  of  the  heart  at 
the  commencement  of  the  tiiilammation  of  its 
iQvestine  membmne,  the  ventricles  contract  mth 
increased  force,  rendering  the  sounds  of  the  heart 
louder  and  its  impulse  stronger  than  in  health,  or 
than  in  the  more  ailvanced  stages  of  the  disease. 
2.  When  much  fluid  is  elfueed  into  the  pericardium, 
dolness  oa  percussion  is  always  oliservoble  to  a 
greater  degree  than  in  health.  This  sign,  which  is 
very  chatactcgstio,  la  seldom  perceived  till  the 
disease  has  continued  for  two  or  three  days.  In 
relation  to  this  increased  dulness,  we  must  premise 
that  in  the  healthy  condition  of  the  heart  and  lungs 
there  is  an  irregular  roundish  space  with  a  diameter 
of  somewhat  leas  than  two  inches,  extending  from 
the  sternum  (or  breast-bone)  between  the  level  of 
tiie  fourth  and  fifth  ribs  towards  the  left  nipple,  in 
—'■■"'■  a  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  heart  is  not 
piled  by  the  lungs,  but  lies  in  contact  with 
tlla  of  the  chest  This  space  should  normally 
be  dull  on  percussion.  In  |ierieacditis  the  extent  of 
the  dulneas  beyond  the  normal  limit  indicates  the 
Amount  of  effusion.  In  extreme  cases  the  dulness 
may  extend  over  a  space  whose  diameter  is  seven 
inches  or  more.  Simiiltaneoua  with  the  increased 
dulness,  there  is  a  diminution  of  theheart's  sounds  in 
eoiuequence  of  the  intervening  Huid,  and  the  impulse 
ia  often  scarcely  perceptihie.  3.  The  rubbing  of 
the  inflamed  and  roughened  aurfaces  upon  each 
other  gives  rise  to  a  sound  which  is  commonly 
colled  the  /riclion  Kound,  but  which  has  received 
various  Dames.  Thus  Dr  Watson  oalls  it  a  to  and 
fro  sound,  and  observes  re^'arding  it«  variations 
that,  'like  all  the  other  morbid  sounds  heard  within 
the  chest,  it  is  capable  of  much  variety  in  tone  and 
degree.  Sometimes  it  very  closely  resembles  the 
noise  made  by  a  saw  in  cutting  through  a  board ; 
•ometimes  it  is  more  like  that  occasioned  by  the 
action  of  a  file  or  of  a  rasp  ;  but  its  essential  chor- 
kcter  is  that  of  aUmaix  rub6tn^  ;  it  is  a  to  antj  fro 


Dverlapiied 
Uie  walls  ol 


sound.'  This  sound  is  heard  early  in  the  i 
before  the  surfaces  of  the  pericardium  are  se] 
by  the  effiision  of  fluid  ;  and  it  is  due  eithei 
dryness  of  the  membrane,  or  to  its  mnghnei 
the  deposition  of  lymph.  When  the  cuu 
surfaces  are  either  separated  by  fluid,  or 
adherent,  the  sound  disappears ;  bat  when 
been  lost  from  the  first  of  these  Causes,  it  r« 
after  the  fluid  has  been  so  far  absorbed  *a  to 
the  surfaces  again  to  come  in  contact.  Bu 
ag^n,  its  duration  is  brie^  for  the  surfaci 
become  adherent  and  cease  to  rub  upon  each 

Pericarditis  is  a  disease  which  occasional 
a  very  rapid  course,  and  terminates  fatally  ii 
eight  hours  or  less.  In  ordinary  cases,  hi 
which  terminate  in  apparent  recovery,  tho 
generally  begins  to  yield  in  a  week  or  ten  da 
excepting  that  adhesion  remains,  the  cure  i 
to  be  complete  in  three  weeks  Or  leas.  But  a1 
these  patients  appnreiUly  recover,  the  per 
adhesion  commonly  occasions  other  str 
changes  of  the  heart  sooner  or  later  to  ■ 
themselves ;  and  in  those  cases  that  the  pb 
has  the  upportunity  of  subsequently  watchir 
obssrvcd  tiiat  fatal  disease  of  the  heart,  pr 
due  to  tho  pericarditis,  almost  always  sujw 
In  slight  cases  it  is  probable  that  a  tru 
without  adhesion,  may  take  place. 

Pericarditis  frequently  arises  from  expo) 
cold  when  the  body  ia  warm  and  perspiring, 
no  uncommon  result  of  a  contaminated  state 
blood,  such  as  occurs  in  the  exanthematuus  d 
especially  scarlatina,  and  in  Gright's  disease 
kidney ;  but  beyond  all  comparison,  it  is  o 
frequent  occurrence  in  association  with 
Rheumatism  (q.  v.),  of  which  it  forms  by  : 
most  dangerous  complication. 

At  the  commencement  of  the  disease,  blood 
be  freely  taken  (it  the  patient  is  tolerably 
from  the  region  of  the  heart  either  by  cu[> 
re)ieated  leeching ;  and  at  the  some  time 
attempt  must  be  made  to  get  the  system 
the  intlueace  of  mercun-  to  the  extent  of  rei 
the  gums  tender  and  of  affecting  the  breath 
only  should  calomel  in  small  doaes,  and  coi 
with  opium  with  the  view  of  preventing  pnrg 
frequently  given,  but  mercnriol  ointment  shi 
nilibed  into  the  armpits  and  inner  sides 
thighs,  and  the  mouth  should  be  kept  slight 
for  some  time  After  tliree  or  fonr  days,  i 
should  be  much  fluid  effiiaion,  a  largo  blister 
be  applied  over  the  heart  ;  and  if  the  patient 
already  nnder  the  influence  of  mi 
surface  may  be  dressed  with  mer 
Perfect  rest  botli  of  body  and  mina  is  ot  et 
importance,  and  all  possible  coosee  of  exci 
should  be  excluded.  The  diet  should  be  m 
chiefly  farinaceous,  )ind  little  or  no  animi 
should  be  allowed  till  the  beginning  of  convale 
Cooling  drinks  are  agreeable  to  the  patiei 
may  be  taken  freely  with  advantage  throaghi 
disease. 

PERIOA'RDIUM.  The,  is  a  conical  memh 


rouiy,  tJ 


Bac,cc 


nd  tl 


Uie  great  vessels,  to  the  eil«nt  of  about  two 
from  their  oriL;in.  It  is  placed  with  iti 
npwards  behind  the  sternum,  and  to  its  left  i 
the  interval  between  the  plenm — the  aeroi 
in  which  the  lungs  are  enclosed ;  while  ita  ' 
attached  to  the  diaphragm.  It  is  a  flbro 
membrane,  consisting  of  an  external  fibrous  . 
internal  serous  layer.  The  fibrous  layer  is  a 
dense,  fibrous  membrane ;  the  serous  layer 
the  heart,  and  ia  then  reflected  on  the  inner  i 
of  the  tibrous  layer.  Like  all  ■emus  membn 
is  ■  dosed  sac;   it*  inner  surface  is  cmool 


PEBICABP— PEETCLES. 


ig,  and  lecretcj  .1  thin  fluid  which  ierves  to 
)  tha  natural  moveuenti  ot  th«  benrt.    It 
imatioD  of  this  serous  aau  which 
lae  known  U  pericsrditia. 
ICAHP.     8ee  Fruit. 


9  victoiy  over  the  Peraiuia  at  Mycals, 
,  and  bis  mother,  Agariste,  was  the  niece 
;reat   Atbeniaa  reformer   Cleisthrnes.     P. 

aa  elnborate  education ;  but  of  ail  hie 
,  the  one  whom  he  moat  reverenced,  and 
loae  instructiona  lie  deiiTrf  moat  benefit, 

philosopher  Anaiogoras  (q.  v, ),  P.  was 
Dua  all  through  hia  career  for  tiie  amgular 
at  his  mannera,  the  '  Olympian'  thunder  of 
Lience,  hii  aagacity,  probiCy,  and  profound 
1  patriotiam.  When  he  entered  oo  pablic 
Ciilea  had  only  recentlj'  died,  ThemUtoclea 
xile,  and  Cimon  iras  lighting  the  battlea  of 
try  abroad.  Although  the  family  to  which 
ged  was  ^ood,  it  did  Dot  rank  among  the 
loint  of  either  wealth  or  iollueDce,  yet  bo 
lent  were  the  abilitiea  of  P.,  that  he  rapidly 
he  highest  power  in  the  state  aa  the  leader 
Dmioant  democracy.  The  sincerity  of  his 
:nt  to  the  'popular'  party  has  been  quea- 
>ut  without  the  shadow  of  evidence.  At 
,  the  measurea  which  either  peraoually  or 

hia   adherenta   he   brought   forward   and 

0  be  passed,  were  always  in  favour  of 
J  the  privileges  of  the  poorer  class  of  the 

P.  seems  to  have  grasped  very  clearly,  and 
held  as  firmly,  the  modern  '  railical' idea, 
:be  state  is  supported  hy  the  taxation  of 
of  the  citilens,  it  must  govern  with  a  view 
il  and  not  to  ccate  interests.  In.46t  B.O., 
gh  the  agency  of  his  follower,  Ephialtea, 
great  blow  at  the  influence  of  the  oligarchy, 
ig  the  decree  to  be  passed  which  dejirived 
o|iagua  of  its  most  important  political 
Shortly  after,  the  democracy  obtained 
riumph  in  the  oatraeism  of  Cimou.  During 
few  years  the  political  course  pursued  by 
very  clearly  discernible,  but  in  general  hu 
was  hostile  to  the  desire  for  foreign  con- 
territorial  aggrandisement,  so  prevalent 
ia  ambitions  i^ow-citizena  In  454  B.C., 
y  after,  ho  ro^nanimously  jiropoBed  the 
(which  waa  earned)  for  the  recall  of  Cimoo, 
it  the  aame  time  commenced  negotiations 

1  other  Hcllemo  atates  with  the  view  of 
a  grand  Hellenic  confederation,  the  design 
waa  to  put  an  end  to  the  mutually  destruo. 
1  of  kindred  peoples — to  mako  of  Greece 
ity  nation,  fit  to  front  the  outlying  worliL 

waa  not  leaa  aagaciona  than  noble.  Hod 
Lccomplished,  tho  semi- barbarous  Macedo- 
uld  have  menaced  tha  civilised  Greeks  in 
,  even  Rome  at  a  later  period  might  per- 
1  found  the  Adriatic,  and  not  the  l^IupbrHtea, 
a  of  her  empire.  But  the  Spartan  aristo- 
V  utterly  incapable  of  morally  appreciating 
Ited  patriotism,  or  of  uuderstauding  the 
lecesaity  for  it,  and  by  their  secret  intriguea 
the  well-planned  scheme  to  naught.  AtBens 
ta  were  already,  and  indeed  had  for  some 
0,  in  that  mood  towards  each  other  which 
the  future  Feloponnesiau  war  inevit' 
aey  are  always  found  on  opposite  aides. 
le  Spartans,  m  448  B.C.,  restured  to  the 
s  the  guardianship  of  tha  temple  aud 
ot   Delphi,   of    which    they    hod    been 


deprived  by  the  PhocianB,  the  Athenians  imni» 
diatelv  after  marched  an  army  thither,  and  rein- 

I  stated  the  latter.  Three  years  later,  an  insurrection 
broke  out  in  the  territoriea  tributary  to  Athena, 
Megara,    Eubcea,    &c,    and    the    Spartans    again 

I  appeared  in  the  field  as  the  allies  of  the  insurgents. 
The  position  of  Athena  was  critical.  P.  wisely 
declined  to  fight  against  all  his  enemies  at  oncEi, 
A  bribe  of  ten  talents  sent  Uie  Spartans  home,  and 

,  the  insurgents  were  then  rapidly  and  thoroughly 

'  crushed. 

Cimon  waa  now  dead,  and  was  succeeded  in  the 
leadership  of  the  aristooratical  party  by  Thucy- 
didcs,  son  of  Milesiaa,  who  in  444  B.C  made  a  strong 
effort  to  overthrow  the  supremacy  of  P.  by  attacking 
him  in  the  popular  assembly  for  squandering  the 
public  money  on  buildings,  and  in  festivals  and 
amusementa.  Thucydidea  made  an  effective  speech ; 
but  P.  immediately  rose  and  oflered  to  execute  the 
buildings  at  his  ou'n  expense,  if  the  citiiL-ns  would 
allow  him  to  put  his  own  name  upon  them  instead 
of  theirs.  The  sarcasm  was  auooessfid,  and  P,  was 
empowered  to  do  as  he  pleased  in  the  mutter.  But 
P.  did  not  moan  to  be  simply  sarcastic ;  he  wished 
to  point  out  to  the  Athenians  in  a  delicate  Way  tha 
spirit  and  aim  of  his  policy,  which  was  to  make 

■  Athens,  as  a  city,  worthy  of  being  the  head 
and  crown  of  Hellas.  Hia  victory  in  the  assembly 
was  followed  by  the  ostracism  ot  Thucydidea ;  and 

j..-;__  i.1 1  _(  i.-_  -gpggj  '  there  was,' says  the 

n  name  a  democracy,  but 
in  the  hands  of  the  first 
,  however,  jofonns  us  that 
PEorthyof  his  high  position; 
the  people,  0  ' ' 


historian  Thucydides,  'i 
in  reality  a  government 
man.'  The  same  author, 
he  never  did  anytliing  un\ 
that  he  did  not  flatter 

adversaries ;  and  that  with  all  his  unlimited  c 
mand  of  the  public  purse,  he  was  personaUy  inoor- 
ruptihle.  Soon  after  this  tha  Samiau  war  broke 
out,  in  which  P.  acquired  high  renown  aa  a  naval 
commander.  Tliia  war  originated  in  a  quarrel 
between  the  Milesians  and  Samians.  in  which 
Athena  waa  led  to  take  a  part  with  the  former. 
The  Samiana,  after  an  obstinato  straggle,  were 
beaten,  and  a  peace  was  concluded  in  440  B.  c. 
The  position  in  which  Athens  then  stood  towards 
many  of  the  Greek  states  was  pecidiar.  Since 
the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion  she  bad  been 
the  leader  of  the  confederacy  formed  to  resist  the 
attacks  of  the  powerful  enemy,  and  the  guardian 
of  the  coaCedernte  treasury  kept  in  the  isle  of 
Delos.  P.  got  the  treasui^  removed  to  Athens, 
and,  commuting  the  contingents  of  the  allies 
for  money — Athens,  of  course,  herself  imdertakiug 
to  protect  the  confederacy— enormously  increased 
the  contributions  to  the  '  patriotic  fund.'  The 
grand  charge  against  P.  ia,  that  he  applied  the 
money  thus  obtained  to  other  punmaea  than  those 
for  which  it  was  designed ;  that,  in  short,  be 
adorned  and  enriched  Athens  with  the  spoils  of  the 
allied  states.  But  the  objection  is  more  plausible 
than  solid,  for.  in  point  of  fact,  Athens  kept  up  in 
admirable  discipline  a  great  Ueet  and  a  line  army, 
and  P.  mofle  the  Greek  name  more  respected  in  hia- 
time  than  it  had  ever  been  before.  It  may  be  that 
hia  conduct  is  open  to  criticism  in  some  i-eepects, 
but  a  broad  and  just  view  of  the  motives  which 
impelled  him  to  act  as  he  did,  and  a  fair  cmsider- 
atiun  of  the  political  exigences  of  the  time  will,  in 
the  main,  justify  bis  procedure.  It  ia  imuecessary 
to  give  a  detailed  account  of  all  that  he  did  to  make 
his  native  city  the  most  glorious  in  tho  ancient 
world.  Greek  architecture  and  sculpture,  under 
hia  patronage,  reached  [lerfection.  To  P.,  Athena 
owed  the  Parthenon,  the  Propyliea,  the  Odeum, 
and  numberless  other  public  and  sacred  edilices  j. 
he  also  liberally  encouraged  music  and  the  drama; 


PERTER— PEEM. 


•od,  doling  hii  rule,  indiutiy  and 

in  BO  flnuriBhiTig  a  condition,  that  prosperity  was 

nni venal  in  Attica. 

At  length,  in  431  n.  a,  the  long-foreaeen  and 
inevitable  '  Peloponnwian  war'  broke  out  between 
Atliens  sitd  Sparta.  With  the  circaniBtaiices  that 
led  to  it  we  have  not  here  to  do,  but  as  it  termin- 
ated most  disastronaly  for  Athens,  it  ia  but  ri^ht 
to  say  that  P.  is  not  ti>  blame  for  the  result.  Hud 
the  policy  which  he  recommeaded  been  pimued, 
one  can  hardly  doubt  that  Athens,  with  her  im- 
meaBe  resourccB,  would  have  been  the  victor,  and 
not  the  Taaquiehed,  in  the  struj^le.  P.  himself 
died  in  the  autumn  of  429  B.O.,  after  a  lingering 
sickness.  His  character  hoe  been  sufficiently 
delineateil  in  the  ontline  of  biH  life  which  we  have 

S'ven.     His  connection  with  the  biilbant  Aspasia 
.  v.]  is  noticed  elsewliere. 

PBRIER,  Casiuir,  a  celebrated  French  states- 
man,  was  born  nt  Grenoble,  in  the  department  of 
Isere,  France,  2Ut  October  1777.  His  father  had 
enriched  hiniselC  by  mercantile  and  induBtrial 
puranits,  into  which  he  initiated  his  two  elder 
sons ;  but  Cosimir  was  stiU  studying  at  the  cntlei;e 
of  the  Oratory  at  Lyon  when  the  revolution  br<jke 
out  He  immediHtely  went  to  Paris,  and  there 
•saociated  himself  with  his  father  and  (jder  brother 
Antoine-Scipion  in  their  endeavours  to  found  a 
banking  company.  It  is  sufficient  to  notice  here 
that  the  banking  conii)any  wsa  Urmly  established. 
and  became  the  Bank  of  France.  C^i^iinir  was 
drafted  into  the  army  in  1798,  and  seri-ed  in  an 
engineering  corps  till  1801,  when  he  returned  to 
Paris,  and  resumed  the  position  of  coadjutot  to 
bis  brother.  The  bouse  of  P.  prospered  greatly 
under  the  empire  ■,  the  peace  which  followed  tbe 
events  of  1815  aided  lie  development  of  their 
plane,  and  gave  a  wider  scope  to  their  enterprises ; 
Mid  the  public  regarded  with  special  favour  men 
■uch  as  these  two  brothers,  who  devoted  their 
abiiitii'3  and  fortunes  to  foeter  the  growth  of  public, 
as  well  as  their  own,  prosperity.  In  1817,  P-  pub- 
Lshed  three  tracts,  in  which  he  oondemned  the 
financial  policy  of  the  ministry.  These  papers 
moilo  a  lively  impression  on  the  public,  and  led  to 
the  return  of  tbe  author  to  the  (JliamWr  of  Deputies 
by  the  electors  of  Paris.  P..  in  bis  ]x>litical  prin- 
ciples, was  essentially  a  Constitution  aliat,  eqoally 
far  removed  from  absolutism  on  the  one  hand,  and 
extreme  democracy  on  the  other.  The  elections  of 
1824,  conducted  nnderfpivernnientintlnence,  resulted 
in  the  onstiug  of  the  ^ri^atcr  nortiou  of  the  Constitu- 
tionalistd.  P.,  howeter.  and  s  few  others  of  the 
'■biefs  of  the  party  retained  their  seats ;  but  their 
opposition  to  the  ministerial  measures,  tbough 
constant  and  unwearying,  was  quite  ineffective;  it, 
however,  raised  them  grently  in  public  ojiinion,  and 
secured  their  re-election  in  1827.  In  this  year,  P. 
bad  the  honour  of  being  elected  as  representative  by 
both  the  departments  of  the  Seine  and  Aubo.  He 
defended  the  loyal  and  sagacious  administration  of 
M.  de  Martignac,  whose  representations  to  the  king, 
Charles  X..  seemed  to  have  the  effect  of  reconciling 
the  royal  party  to  government  in  conformity  with 
the  charter  ;  but  the  subsequent  rule  of  the  Prince 
da  Polignac  reduced  this  hopeful  state  of  affairs 
to  its  former  critical  condition.  Tbe  revolution 
(of  July  18.10],  which  P.,  from  his  experience  of 
that  of  1TS9,  had  made  every  endeavour  to  pre- 
vent, now  followed,  and  it  only  remained  for  hiin 
to  render  it  as  bloodless  as  jiussible.  In  this  he 
was  Bucccaaful,  through  his  great  influence  with 
the  people  of  Paris.  On  August  3,  he  was  elected 
President  of  tbe  Chamber  of  Deputies,  but  resigned 
this  office  on  the  11th  of  tbe  same  month  to  become 
«  membec  of  tbe  ministry.     Whan  Laffitta  beoune 


President  of  tie  Council  (Novembej-  2),  1 
that  the  tendencies  of  the  ministry  were 
lutionary,  resigned  office,  and  resnmed 
dency  of  the  Chamber  of  Depnties.  On  1^ 
1831,  he  succeeded  Laffitte  as  minister,  am 
whole  attention  to  the  repression  of  revol 
maintenance  of  order  at  home  and  of  peai 


of   1 


,   the 


balancing  of  Austrian  influence  m  Italy 
general,  to  the  spread  and  progress  of  com 
hberty  both  at  home  and  abroad  ;  but 
growui  of  extreme  hberaliam  in  France,  pa: 
to  previous  encouragement  unwittingly  a1 
himBcIf,  was  a  source  of  great  atinoyanc 
On  the  outbreak  of  cholera  in  Pari 
1832,  P.  made  tbe  most  extraordinary 
for  the  enforeement  of  the  necessary 
measures ;  but  he  was  attacked  by  thi 
and  his  system  being  already  exhausted 
exertion,  he  died,  IGth  May  IS32.  No  p 
in  France  was  ever  so  generally  and 
lamented,  and  a  monument  to  his  mei 
erected  by  public  nibscriptiiHt  in  the  cei 
Pftre-la-Chaise. 

PB'RIOEE  (Or.  peri,  near ;  gt,  earth),  1 
in  tbe  moon's  orbit  which  is  nearest  to  i 
The  opposite  point  is  the  Apogee  (q.  v.),   S 

P^RIGUEUX,  a  town  of  France,  c 
the  department  of  Dordogne,  and  aitu^to 
right  bank  of  the  Isle,  68  miles  east-norl 
Bordeaux  It  consists  of  tbe  ancient  c 
Proper— which  ia  gloomy  in  aspect,  and  hi 


.and  a  rival  iowa.    In  the  old  t< 

The  old  ramparts  bave  been  demuliahed. 
placed  by  beautiful  and  spaciouB  boulevai 
catheclral  of  St  Front  is  a  majestic  edifice 
at  tbe  end  of  the  15th  century.  Quarries 
ing-stone  are  worked  in  the  vicmity,  a 
hands  are  employed  in  cutting  and  polisliin 
Pajjer,  woollen  cloths,  cntleiy,  and  hi- 
manufactured.  Tbe  celebrated  PdUa  de  } 
made  of  partridges  and  truffles,  are  larg 
and  exjrartad.    Pop  16.422. 

P.,  a  town  of  the  highest  antiquity,  J*  the 
mentioned  by  Ccesar.  In  ancient  times, 
city  of  much  iidportance.  It  stood  at  the 
of  live  Poman  roads,  and  contained  a  n 
splendid  edifices.      Close  to  the  modem 


still  to  best 


ithe  r 


oval  in  form,  and  larger  ii 

'    amphitheatre   of  Ntmea.      Tberi; 
icieat  aqueducts,  baths,  and 


in  circumference,  a    .  _._..._. 

has  neither  doors  nor  windows.    Its  purp 

PBRIHBXION  (Or.  poi.  and  \elvf, 
that  point  in  its  orbit  at  which  a  planet  i 
the  sun.  The  point  of  the  orbit  oppusit 
called  the  ApheLon  (q.  v.).  The  pontia 
perihelion,  i  e.,  its  longituds  east  or  we 

ininoz,  is  one  of  the  seveo  elements  of  i 

bit. 

PBRPM,   a   small  idand   bdonamg 

ritain,  sitnated  in  the  stnit  tA  Bab-el 
at  tbe  entrance  to  the  Bed  Sea.    Lat  ot 


FEGIMETEB— PERIODICAL. 


2°  38'  N.,  long.  43°  12'  R  It  is  31  mUe«  long 
broad ;  is  about  a  mile  distant  from  the 
D,  and  about  13  miles  from  the  African  coast, 
h  sides  of  this  island,  the  Darigatiaa  is  c 
ttle  Strait,  betu'een  the  island  and  Arabia, 
iiunage  matt  eenerally  token  by  veoeels.  The 
is  bare,  destitute  of  fresh  water,  and  ill- 
ed  with  prOTisionB,  which  are  brought  for  the 
Art  from  Aden.  P.  owes  its  importance 
to  its  commandiag  position  at  the  entnutce 
Red  Sea,  On  its  south-west  side  is  an  eicel- 
rbonr,  IJ  miln  in  length,  and  from  a  half  to 
iiart«n  of  a  mile  in  Breadth.  It  is  easy  of 
7  to  8  fathoms  in  depth,  and  is  capalile  of 
lodating  forty  men-of-war.  Fortih cations 
'en  erected  on  the  island  since  1657,  and  the 
immand  the  strait  on  both  Bides.  It  was 
;npied  hv  the  English  in  1799.  and  held  by 
I  a  check  upon  the  designs  of  the  French, 
fre  then  in  Egypt  It  was  abandon^  in 
ut  was  reocca|iied  by  Great  Britain,  Febru- 
1857,  with  a  view  to  the  prntectiua  of  her 
possessions,  which  were  thought  to  be 
to  some  chance  of  danger  from  the  opening 
Inez  Canal  (q.  v.). 

I 'METER  (Gr.  prri,  around,  m'tron,  a 
■]  and  PERI'PHHUV  <Gr.  p/.nv,  I  carry) 
ns  denotiog  the  boundary,  or  the  length  of 
iddary,  of  any  closed  plane  tigure ;  uiough 
n  '  perimeter'  is  generally  conHned  to  those 
nbich  ore  honnded  by  straight  tines. 
,IOI>.  a  term  used  in  Chronology  in  the  same 
I  Cycle  (q,  v.),  to  denote  an  interval  of  time 
licti  the  aatronomical  phenomena  to  which 
recur  in  the  some  order.  It  is  also  employed 
fy  &  cycle  of  cycles.  Various  periods  have 
iventeJ  by  astronomers,  but  we  can  only 
few  of  the  moat  important, 
^haldieans  invented  the  CMdakf  Period,  or 
of  EtU/ia,  from  observing  that,  after  a 
number  of  revolutions  of  the  moon  round 
th,  her  eclipses  recurred  in  the  same  order 
the  same  magnitude.  Thia  period  conaJBta  of 
lations,  or  6793-2S  days,  and  corrcB]ionds 
exactly  to  a  complete  revolution  of  the 
node.  The  Egyptians  made  use  of  the  fJofj- 
riacal,  or  Salnric  Period,  as  it  is  variouely 
:o  com|>Bre  their  civil  year  of  365  days  with 
f  or  Julian  year  of  305J  days.  The  period 
ently  consisted  of  1460  Julian  years,  corres- 
to  1461  Egyptian  years,  after  the  lapse  of 
he  dates  in  Mth  reckonings  coincided.  By 
ng  the  solar  and  lunar  years,  Mcton,  an 
in,  invented  {-(.12  B-C.)  a  lunar  period  of  0910 
lUed  from  biin  the  MeUntir.  Ci/cU  (q.  v.),  also 
lar  CyrU.  About  a  century  afterw.irds, 
le  of  Meton  was  discovered  to  be  an  insiifH- 
>proi>mation  to  the  truth,  and  as  he  hod 
le  solar  year  too  long  by  about  -^th  of  a  day, 
nd  of  i  Metonic  cycles  the  solar  reckoning 
idvance  of  the  litoar  by  about  1  day  6  hours. 
edy  this,  a  new  period,  called  the  Calippic 
was  invented  by  Colippus,  and  consisted  of 
lie  cycles  less  by  1  dny,  or  27,759  days, 
this  period  still  gave  a  difference  of  6  hours 
■  tne  solar  and  lunar  reckonings,  it  was 
■d  by  Hipijarchus,  who  invented  the  Hip- 
Period  of  4  Chippie  periods  less  by  1 
111,035  days,  or  about  304  Julian  years, 
9  an  exceedmgly  close  approximation,  being 
minutes  too  long,  when  measured  by  the 
year;  and  too  short  but  by  an  almost 
ciable  quantity,  when  measured  by  the 
Mvnlli  (see  Month).  The  period  of  Oit 
I    or  Hotar    Cgtie,   after   which  the    r  — 


evident 

that,  at  the  end  of  seven  years,  the  days  of  the 
month  and  week  would  again  correspond ;  but  the 
introductiua  of  an  intercalary  day  into  every  fourth 
year  causes  thia  coincidence  to  recur  at  iir^ulor 
periods  of  6,  11,  6,  and  5  years  successively.  How- 
ever, by  choosing  a  period  such  as  will  preserve  th« 
leap-years  in  the  same  relative  position  to  the  other 
years,  and  at  the  same  time  consist  'Of  an  exact 
number  of  weeks  (both  of  which  objects  are  effected 
by  using  the  number  28,  which  is  the  least  com- 
mon multiple  of  4  and  7),  we  insure  the  rrgutar 
recurrence  of  the  coincidence  between  the  days  of 
the  week  and  of  the  month.  The  solar  cycle  it  sup- 
posed to  have  been  invented  about  the  time  of  the 
Council  of  Nice  (.S-25  a.li.),  but  it  is  arranged  so  that 
the  first  year  of  the  lirst  cycle  correBponds  to  9  B.C. 
In  calculating  the  position  of  any  year  in  the  solar 
cyeie,care  must  betaken  to  allow  for  the  omission  of 
tee  interealary  day  at  the  beginning  of  each  century, 
and  its  insertion  in  the  tiret  year  of  every  fourth 
century.  See  Leaf-vkar.  Thepreeeiit  year  <I8G4) 
is  the  25th  of  the  solar  cycle.  The  Julian  Period  is 
a  cycle  of  cycles,  and  consists  of  7980  (  =  23  x  19  -  15) 
years,  after  the  lapse  of  which  the  solar  cycle,  lunar 
cycle,  and  the  Indiction  (q.  v.)  commence  together. 
The  period  of  its  commencement  has  been  arranged 
BO  that  it  will  exgiire  at  the  same  time  as  the  other 
three  periods  from  which  it  has  been  derived.  The 
year  4713  B.  c.  is  taken  as  the  first  year  of  the  first 
period,  consequently,  1  A.D.  was  the  4714th  of  i1^ 
and  the  present  year  (1864)  the  6577th. 

PERIO'DICAL,  a  publication  which  appeal* 
coutinuDualy  at  regular  intervals,  and  whose  eon- 
tents  may  lie  devoted  to  criticism,  politics,  religion, 
literature,  science,  arts,  amusement,  or  general  and 
DjiacellaneoaB  subjects.  Those  periodicals  which 
consist  of  a  collection  of  critical  essays  are  called 
Reviews. 

The  earliest  periodical  in  Great  Britain  leema  to 
have  been  the  PMioiophicai  Tranmttioru  of  the 
Rvyal  Sodfiy,  which  first  appeared  in  1665,  and 
contained  notices  of  books  as  well  as  original  papers. 
Periodicals  professing  to  notice  the  books  that  were 
being  published  appeared  soon  after  from  time  to 
time  under  the  name  of  ^UUe  trorkio/lAeLeamtd; 
and  in  1692  appeared  the  Oenllement  Journal,  or 
Monthly  MiKfUany,  properly  speaking,  the  first 
English  magazine.  The  W«iHemoB'»  Magaaiu  was 
founded  in  1731  by  Cave  the  printer,  a  periodical 
which  secured  a  fortinne  for  its  proprietor,  and,  after 
surviving  all  ita  competitors,  still  contmues  to 
fiouriah.  The  periodical  litDr:iture  of  Scotland  wa* 
long  represented  by  the  ScoUt  Magazine,  founded  in 
1739.  The  first  English  periodical  that  attempted 
anything  like  cntioiam  was  (he  iloaOdy  RevUa, 
begun  in  1749.  It  was  followed  in  1756  by  the 
Critic!^  Review,  founded  by  Smollett ;  and  these  two 
were  long  t^e  leading  periodicals  of  their  class, 
though  their  criticism  was  but  meagre  and  unsatis- 
factory, according  to  our  present  notions.  Another 
criticd  journal,  called  the  And-Jiaobia,  was  estab- 
lished in  1798.  In  1802,  a  new  era  in  criticism  was 
inaugurated  by  the  establishment  in  Scotland  of  the 
Edinburgh  Eeeiem  (q.  v.) ;  which  was  followed  in 
London  by  the  Qvarlerty  Reviea,  of  about  equal  merit 
and  opposite  politics,  supported  by  Sir  Walter  Scott, 
Southey,  8.  T.  Coleridge,  Heber,  and  at  a  later  period 
by  Hartley  Coleridge,  Lord  Mahon,  and  Gladstone. 
Another  very  important  periodical,  Btackiaoo<C 
Magaane,  sprung  up  in  Edinburgh  in  1817.  under 
the  auspices  of  ,^hn  Wilson  and  Lockhart,  as  much 
■bova  tile  literary  mark  of  fanner  magMdnes,  as  the 


[', 


NH 


f-'i;'!^ 


1  * 


«k 


) 


i     !  '  I- 


i 


I II 


1  .    I 


!■    i 


.ll    ■! 


I  !■! 


•'.:;;|i  ■^;  !-■■  ■ 


^t 


I  , 


1  > 

i  '  ' 


PERIODICAL. 


Edinburgh  «nd  Quarterly  wete  above  the  mark  of 
preceding  leviews,  strongly  devoted  to  the  interests 
of  conservatism,  and,  in  its  early  years,  somewhat 
violent  in  its  politics.  The  review,  in  the  course  of 
time,  became  the  favourite  medium  for  all  parties 
to  disseminate  their  views  on  political,  literary,  or 
theological  subjects.  Among  the  most  important 
periodicals  of  this  class,  besides  the  Edinburgh  and 
Quarterly^  are  the  Westminster  Review^  established 
1824,  characterised  by  freedom  in  handling  philo- 
sophical and  theological  topics,  and  containing  essays 
by  J.  S.  Mill,  Carlyle,  Grote,  John  Sterling,  and  Lord 
Houghton ;  the  Dublin  Review,  Roman  Catholic, 
founded  in  1836 ;  the  North  British  RevieWy  which 
first  appeared  in  Edinburgh  in  1844;  the  NationcU 
Review,  which  began  in  1855;  and  ihe  Home  and 
Foreign  Review,  in  1862  (ceas^  to  appear  in  1864). 
All  these  periodicals  preserve  to  a  great  extent  the 
form  of  their  two  predecessors,  and  like  them, 
appear  four  times  in  the  year.  A  few  reviews  have 
of  late  appeared  monthly,  or  even  weekly :  of  this 
last  class,  the  most  widely-circulated  and  influential 
are  the  Athenceum,  estabhshed  in  1828,  and  the 
Saturday  Review,  in  1856.  The  management  of  a 
review  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  an  editor.  Each 
article  has  at  its  head  the  title  of  a  work  or  works, 
M'hich  either  are  directly  the  subject  of  the 
reviewer's  criticism,  or  at  least  indicate  the  general 
subject  of  the  article.  Review  articles  are  generally 
anonymous. 

The  greater  part  of  magazines  or  periodicals  of  a 
more  miscellaneous  character  appear  monthly,  and 
their  system  of  management  is  somewhat  similar 
to  that  of  reviews;  but  the  articles  are  generally 
shorter,  the  subjects  more  varied,  consisting  often 
of  tales  and  novels,  which  appear  there  as  serials, 
continued  from  number  to  number.  Some  of  the 
most  popular  novels  of  the  present  day  have  first 
been  puolished  in  magazines.  Rlackioood  was  the 
precursor  of  various  monthly  magazines  of  repute, 
the  most  important  being  Eraser's  Magazine^  estab- 
lished in  1830,  which  stiU  preserves  a  high  literary 
character.  The  usual  price  of  these  periodicals  is 
2s.  6d. ;  but  in  1859  and  1860,  several  new  magazines, 
MacmiUafCs  Magazine,  the  Cornhill,  Temple  Bar, 
London  Society,  and  the  St  James's  Magazine,  were 
started  at  the  cheaper  price  of  a  shilling,  under 
favourable  auspices.  In  Great  Britain  there  are 
now  many  weeldy  periodicals,  chiefly  of  an  instruc- 
tive and  amusing  kmd,  price  from  a  penny  to  three- 
pence each.  iSiis  class  of  publications  received 
an  impetus  and  proper  direction  by  the  issue  of 
Ciiambers^s  Journal  and  the  Penny  Magazine  of 
the  *  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Usef  id  Know- 
ledge' in  1832.  To  the  first  mentioned,  which 
still  exists,  have  since  been  added  AU  the  Year 
Round,  conducted  by  Charles  Dickens,  and  various 
others  enjoying  a  high  degree  of  popularity.  It  is 
customary  for  the  publishers  of  these  weekly 
sheets  to  issue  them  accumulatively  in  parts 
monthly  under  a  cover,  wherefore  they  largely 
answer  the  purpose  of  monthly  magazines.  The 
rate  of  payment  for  writing  in  the  higher  class 
reviews  is  usually  £10,  10s.  per  sheet  of  16  demy 
8vo  pages ;  in  the  weekly  periodicals,  half  a  guinea 
to  a  guinea  per  column  is  ordinarily  paid,  but  in 
some  instances  the  price  paid  is  very  much  greater  ; 
such  particularly  is  the  case  as  regards  novels  or 
stories,  given  chapter  by  chapter,  through  a  series 
of  numbers ;  for  some  tales  m  this  form  the  pay- 
ment amounts  to  hundreds,  if  not  thousands  of 
pounds— a  striking  proof  of  the  eager  demand  for 
sensational  fiction. 

At  present,  there  are  in  Britain  about  82  quarterly 
periomcals,  of  which  hardly  more  than  16  come 
under  the  common  idea  of  a  review;  many  are 
404 


devoted  to  special  departments,  literary,  scientific, 
commercial,  or  theological ;  and  some  consist  of  an 
account  of  the  transactions  of  particular  societies, 
literary  or  scientific.  About  400  periodicals  are 
published  monthly,  and  from  50  to  100  weekly. 

France  possessed  as  far  back  as  1665  a  critical 
review  called  the  Journal  des  Savants,  which,  after 
a  lengthened  interruption,  began  again  in  1816,  and 
holds  a  respectable  position  as  a  scientific  joumaL 
A  number  of  literary  and  scientific  journals  8|inmg 
up  in  last  century,  as  the  Nouveau  Joumtd  des 
Savants,  Journal  LuUraire^  Journal  Encyeioptklique^ 
&.C  Among  the  best  was  the  Magazin  Encydo- 
pSdii/ue,  begun  in  1795,  and  from  1819  to  1835, 
combined  with  the  Revue  Encyclopidique.  One  of 
the  most  noted  critical  journals  in  Europe  is  pub- 
lished in  Paris,  the  Revue  des  Deux  Monies,  which 
began  in  1829,  and  has,  since  1831,  appeared  fort- 
nightly. In  it  and  the  other  French  periodicals  of 
the  same  kind,  the  review  form  is  not  so  completely 
preserved  as  with  us :  a  proportion  of  tales,  poetry, 
&C.,  is  admitted,  and  the  names  of  the  contributors 
are  required  to  be  attached  to  their  articles.  The 
Revue  des  Deux  Mondes  has  had  many  shortUved 
imitators,  more  or  less  identified  with  different 
political  parties.  The  principal  French  reviews 
of  more  recent  date  are  the  Revue  Contemporaint, 
Athenceum  Fi'ancals,  and  Revue  d* Europe. 

In  Grermany,  reviews  have  taken  even  a  deeper 
root  than  in  England.  The  G&ttinger  GeUhHe 
Anzeige,  which  is  the  oldest  publication  of  the  kind, 
still  preserves  a  high  character.  German  criticism 
can,  however,  hardly  be  said  to  have  begun  before 
the  time  of  Lessing,  who,  in  conjunction  with 
Nicolai  of  Berlin,  established,  in  1757,  the  BibHothtk 
der  schOnen  Wissenschajlen,  and  afterwards  various 
other  journals,  characterised  by  an  independence  of 
thought  unknown  before.  The  Allgemeine  Lif^ra- 
turzeitung,  founded  at  Jena  in  1785,  was  a  periodical 
of  a  still  higher  character,  having  for  contribntora 
the  most  eminent  literary  men  of  uie  period.  When 
transferred  from  Jena  to  Ualle,  another  journal, 
called  the  Jenaiadte  Allgemeine  ZAteraturzeitung, 
sprung  up  at  the  former  place,  under  the  auspices 
of  the  celebrated  literary  circle  at  Weimar,  of  whom 
Goethe  was  the  centre.  These  two  periodicals 
existed  till  1848.  Of  modern  German  reviews,  the 
Literarische  CentraVblatt,  founded  in  1850,  is  one  of 
the  best  and  most  comprehensive.  Among  periodi- 
cals which  do  not  come  under  the  class  of  reviews, 
may  be  mentioned  Das  Deuisclie  Museum  (1851), 
ana/>a«  Weimarsche  JahrhucK  fur  Deutsche  Sprache, 
Literaiur  und  Kunst,  may  be  favourably  named. 

Italy  possessed  a  critical  journal,  Oiomaie  dei 
Litterati,  as  far  back  as  1710,  conducted  by 
Apostolo  Zeno,  which  continued  for  23  years.  A 
new  journal  of  the  same  name,  founded  at  Pisa  in 
1771,  attained  considerable  repute.  From  1826  to 
1830,  the  Biblioteca  Italiana  and  ArUologia  di 
Firenze,  were  reviews  of  considerable  ability.  The 
scientific  periodicals  of  Italy  are  generally  credit- 
able. In  the  dominions  of  Victor  Emmanuel,  there 
are  at  present  31  literary  and  scientific,  and  10 
miscellaneous  periodicals. 

The  United  States  of  America  possess  a  lar^e 
variety  of  periodicals,  quarterly  and  monthly,  an^i 
in  a  less  degree  weekly,  issuing  chiefly  from  the 
presses  of  Boston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia.- 
The  most  noted  critical  journal  is  the  North  A  mer- 
ican  Review,  established  in  1815.  It  is  to  be 
mentioned  with  regret  that,  owing  to  the  want  of 
an  international  law  of  CJopyright  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  many  of  the  leas  reputable  of  the 
American  periodicals  systematically  incorpc-rsite 
articles  without  x>ermiBsion  or  payment  from  the 
periodicals  of  Great  Britain— a  drcurostaaoe  teiidia^ 


I  1 
*  • » 


PBRIODICITT— PERIOSTEUM. 


If  to  lower  the  jreneral  ah&ncter  nf  the 
IB  trade  in  the  United  StBtee,  Latterly, 
til  kaown,  many  of  the  periodicals,  both 
le  and  America,  have  acquired  an  interest 
iutroductioQ  of  wood-engravingi,  on  the 
ion   of  wliich  large  suma   are    expended, 

ID-ENOItl.VIMa. 

ODl'CITY  (in  Physiology  and  Pathology), 
dency  tnanifeated  by  voriouB  phenomena 
■  in  living  animoU  to  recur,  after  equal,  or 
)ual  intervals  of  time,  is  so  marked,  that 
lie  great  French  anatomist  and  iihyBiologiBt, 
I  it  under  the  title  of  the  Loi  i€ Inla-mitUasx. 
tmatioD  of  sleep  and  waking,  the  pheno- 
DienBtruatinn,  and  the  punctual  return  of 
ire  some  of  the  most'  obvious  instancps  of 
ty  that  con  be  eu^{;^'Btfd  oa  occurring  in 
thy  subject ;  while  less  olivions  examples 
ded  by  the  apparently  re^lar  variations 

9  been  observed  in  the  excretion  of  carbonic 
•a  the  lungs,  and  in  the  number  of  the 
s  of  the  heart  at  different  periods  of  the  24 
\s  is  well  known  by  exiienence,  periodicity 
laefidly  cultivated  and  bied  in  daily  habits, 
rell  exempUlied  in  the  case  of  sleep,  but  in 
pecial  decree  by  the  daily  relieving  oE  the 
t  a  particular  hour,  a  habit  in  which  it  is 
t  thnt,atl  young  persons  should  be  carefully 
d  with  a  view  to  health  and  convenience. 
.-kin  forms  of  diaGnse,  the  law  of  periodicity 
iiasion  is  very  distinctly  seen.  The  re^ridar 
recurrence  of  the  paroiyams  of  intermittent 

aoiie),  is  universally  known,  although  the 
the  periodicity  has  hitherto  bafBed  oil 
Ami>]i>;Bt  those  who  have  tried  to  solve 
tion  may  be  mentioned  Willis,  1U>II,  BaiUy, 
ullun  (wbo  ascribe*  periodicity  to  'a  diamal 
D  affecting  the  animal  economy  '),  and  more 
Laycock.  who  refers  it  to  the  diiimal 
inc  changes  in  relation  to  pressure,  eleC' 

Liften  gives  rise  to  periodic  diseases  which 

10  close  aiialo;:y  to  that  disease^  Thus  it — 
events,  malaria^ — is  a  frequent  cause  of  tic 
lut,  recurring  at  regular  intervals  ;  cases  are 

in  which  periodical  vomiting,  occurring 
ir,  in  one  case,  at  an  interval  of  ten  days, 
ai  be  dne  to  it;  and  Mr  Moore,  Surgeon 
liil<Uesex  Hospital,  has  recently  published 

of  a  woman  who  experienced  a  periodical 
itory    swelling   of   the   riglit   knee,   as  a 

of  that  disomer.  Epilepsy  is  a  disease  in 
e  intervals  (especially  iu  women)  tend  to  a 
eriod.  Sir  Henry  Holland  {iledical  Nola 
'txtioat,  2d  ed.,  page  341)  records  a  case 
1  '  ail  attacks  occurred,  with  intervals  of 
>r  eighteen  minutes  between  ;   so  exactly 


_  jpaamodic  seizure,  more  of  tetanic  than 
character,  occurred  twice  a  day  for  many 
iccessively,  and  almost  exactly  at  the  same 
ich  day.'  For  many  othp.r  examples  of 
or  intermittent  morbid  action,  the  reader  is 
to  a  memoir  by  Henle,  '  On  the  Conrse  snd 
ity  of  Disease.'  in  his  PtiiJLiiof/ixhB  {Tnf^r- 
■ji :  and  to  Sir  Henry  Holland's  essay  (to 
I'e  have  already  referred)  in  his  Medical 
d  JtrJUeliont.  The  most  important  practical 
elation  to  this  class  uf  diseases  is,  that  ' ' 
invariably  yield  to  the  action  of  ci 
»,  especially  bark  and  Biseoic 
isiog  a  beneficial  or  mischievous  infli 
ksa  may  be,  the  habit  of  periodicity  is 
ly  shunned  in  every  instance  likely  to  prove 
or  ptajiically  prejudicial.    No  more  marked 


example  of  tiie  injudiciDiui  onltivation  of  periodidtt 
could  be  given,  than  in  the  evil  practice  of  periodi- 
cal blood-letting,  which  once  prevuled  all  ovei 
Europe,  and  was  only  abandoned  in  recent  times 
as  not  only  uaelesa,  but  in  all  respects  injurious. 

PEBKE'CI  (Or.  PerioOan,  literally,  'dweUers 
round  about,'  L  e.,  round  about  some  particular 
locality  or  city)  was  the  name  given,  in  ancient 
Greece,  to  the  original  Achaion  inhabitants  of 
Lacooia  by  their  Dorian  conquerors.  The  P. 
were  not  slaves,  like  the  Helota  [q.  v.) ;  they 
were  merely  a  vassal  population,  personally  free, 
cultivating  their  own  ground,  and  carrying  on 
most  of  the  home  and  foreign  trade  of  Laconia, 
hut  possessing  do  political  rights,  incapable  of 
interaiarrying  with  the  Dorians  of  Sparta,  or  of 
holding  important  state -oflices,  and  subjected  to 
a  land-tax  in  token  of  their  dependent  condition. 
They  have  been— as  regards  their  political  iioeit ion 
— compared  to  the  Saxons  of  England  after  the 
Norman  oonquest,  and  seldom  has  a  historical 
parallel  been  So  sound.  The  P.  must  havo  been 
erous,  for  they  occupied  at  one  time 
upwards  of  100  cities,  several  of  which  were  on  the 
coast,  whence  the  whole  seaboard  of  Laconia  l>ore 
of  the  Perioikw,  and  they  produced  capital 
sailors,  which  doubtless  accounts  for  the  anomalous 
fact  of  F.  being  occasionally  Invested  with  the 
and  of  the  Spartan  fleet  They  also  formed  a 
i  the  Spartan  army.  At  the  battle  of  Platjea 
(479  B.G1,  there  were  10,000  P.  present  Theae 
dependent  Achaians  were  not  however,  all  on  a  dead 
'  vel  of  vaaenlage  ;  they  lived  in  regularly  organiaed 
immunities,  where  the  social  distinctions  of  rank, 
refinement,  and  wealth  were  as  marked  as  else- 
where.    Xenophon    speaks    of    '  occomplished    and 

dl-bom  gentlemen  '  {kaloi  k'agathm)  among  the  P. 

-ving  as  volunteers  in  the  Sjiartan  army ;  and  such 

artists  and  men  of  culture  as  Lacediemon  produced, 

all  probability  belonged  to   this  class.     P.  ahK> 

existed  in   the  other   Dorian  communities  of  the 

Peloponnesus. 

PERIO'STEUM  (Gr.  feri,  around,  and  oitmm, 
bone),  a  tough  fibrous  membrane  which  surrounds 
ions  bonea.      It   is   highly  vascular,  and   is 

_!aiis   by    which    the   outer   layers    of   the 

shafts  and  the  greater  part  of  the  spongy  portion* 
'  -'  -  '  )nes  are  supplied  with  bloodT  \  From 
lal  surface  of^  the  periosteum  also  is  pro- 
duced a  layer  of  soft  blastema  (or  plastic  fluid  in 
which  cells  ore  developed),  by  means  of  which, 
additions  are  made  to  the  exterior  of  the  growing 
boues.  The  process  of  ossification  going  on  in  the 
inner  port  of  this  blastema,  contributes  to  the 
thickness  of  the  bone,  whde  a  freeh  supply  is  con- 
tinually being  added  to  the  exterior  of  the  blastema, 
through  the  medium  of  the  vessels  of  the  peri- 
osteum.'— Humphry  On  the  Human  SktUt/m,  page 
19.  In  young  bones,  this  membrane  is  thick,  and  in 
consequence  of  the  intervening  blastema,  is  very 
easily  detached  from  the  bone;  but  in  the  bones  of 
the  adult  it  is  less  thick  and  Tsscular,  while  its 
connection  with  the  bone  becomes  closer,  in  conse- 
quence of  the  blastema  being  less ;  while  in  aged 
persons  it  is  very  thin,  its  vessels  are  scanty,  and 
there  is  no  blastema.  Numerous  experiments  shew 
that  the  formation  of  bone  is  essentially  due  to  the 
action  of  this  membrane ;  and  that,  by  taknB|>lanting 
detached  portions  of  [lerioateum  into  muscular  or 
other   tissues,    bony   tissue    is    generated    in  those 

Kts.     In  most  cases  in  which  this  membrane  haa 
ome   detached   in  consequence   of  a  wound  or 
of  disease,  the  exposed  bone  (except  in  the  instance 
of   the    skull,    which  derives  most  of   its   nutrient 
I  matter  from  the  dura  mater)  perishes;  but  this  is 
los 


PERIOSTITIS— peritoneum: 


Dot  iDramblf  the  eaae.     Amoogst  its  other  offices,  | 

it  serve*,  by  uolatina  the  bone  from  tbe  aarrouniluig 
tUaues,  to  preveut  ^e  spread  oF  disease  from  them  , 
to  i).  The  sbia-bone  or  tibia  is  thus  imlebted  to  . 
the  periv^teum  for  ita  ordinary  immunity,  in  cnsea  of  j 
ulcer  ill  that  region.  In  those  pjLrta  in  which  the 
bone  iij  not  so  completely  isolated  from  the  sur- 
rounding tisaues,  as  at  the  ends  of  the  bone*  of  the 
SDH-:n  and  toes,  iuflammntioa  of  the  soft  parts  not 
unfrtquently  extends  to  the  bony  structure.  l 

PBRIOSTITIS,  or  INFLAJIM.\TION  OF 
THE  PERIOSTEUM,  generally  occurs  on  the' 
surface  of  thinly-covereJ  bones,  such  as  the  tibia,  , 
clavicles,  and  cranial  bones.  It*  chief  causes  are  (I)  , 
a  suph'dit'C  taint,  in  vhich  oval  swellings,  called 
2i<iili-a  (q.  r,),  are  produced  ;  (2|  rhfumalitm ;  aud  (3) 
tcnifuia.  In  the  two  latter  cases,  there  is  a  peri- ' 
osteal  swelling  anund  the  whole  cireumforence  or 
surface  of  the  boli&  The  aflection,  esiwcially  when 
due  to  the  first  or  second  of  the  abore  causes.  \% 
usually  accompanied  with  considerable  nocturnal  i 
pnin.  If  the  disease  occurs  in  an  acute  form,  it 
must  be  treated  with  leeches,  fomentation s.  and  the 
other  ordiuary  antiphlogistic  (or  lowerini;)  I'emcdies. 
Wheu  it  becomes  chronic,  tiie  treatment  must  be 
mainly  directed  to  the  cause  which  has  ori^natcd 
it.  In  almost  all  cases,  the  nocturnal  pains  are 
beat  relieved  by  somewhat  large  doses  (live  to  ten 
grains)  of  iodide  of  pot^aainm,  taken  three  times 
a  day  on  an  empty  stomach. 

PERIPATETIC  PHILOSOPHY,  a  designation 
of  the  philosophy  of  Aristotle  (q.  v.)  and  of  his 
foUowen.  It  IB  of  doulicEul  orjjjiu,  being  Bup]>09ed 
t"  have  been  derived  either  from  hia  cuatiim  of 
occasionally  walking  about  [peripatein]  during  the 
delivery  of  his  lectures,  or  from  the  place  in  which 
tliey  wf>re  delivered  having  been  a  shaded  walk  of 
the  Lyceum.  i 

PEllIPNEUHO'NIA,  an  inflammation  of  the 
membrane  which  invests  the  lungs,  accompanied 
with  general  disturiiance  of  the  whole  system ; 
remarkably  prevalent  among  horses  in  South  Africa, 
iu  a  zoue  from  20-  to  27°  S.  lat.  It  is  very  fatal ; 
and  to  its  prevalence  and  virulence,  Dr  Livingstone 
is  disposed  to  ascribe  the  fact  that  bor^^s,  although  so 
abundant  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  Africa,  were 
unknown  in  the  south  till  introduced  by  Europeans; 
this  invisible  barrier  being  more  insurmouotable 
than  mountain  ranges,  deserts,  or  rivers  The 
season  during  which  peripneumonia  prevails  is 
from  December  to  April.  Zebras,  antelopes  and 
oxen  are  liable  to  its  attacks,  but  no  kind  of  i 
quaitniped  suflers  so  much  from  it  as  the  horse,  i 
The  llesh  of  animals  which  die  of  peripneumonia  is 
unwholesome,  and  produces  a  malignant  carbuncle  ; 
in  persons  who  eat  it  1 

PERI'PTEBAL  (Gr.  pm;  and  pifmn,  a  »ing).  a  I 
term  applied  to  temples  or  like  buddings  having 
columns  all  round  the  cella.  I 

PBRISTAXTIC  MOTION.  The  terms  pen-  \ 
ttattic  lUr.  daeping  and  conipretaing)  and  vermicular 
(or  worm-like)  are  ajiplied  to  the  jiecuhar  motion  or 
action  of  the  muscular  coat  of  tlie  intestines,  by 
which  the  substances  coutainad  within  it  are  regu- 
larly moved  onward. 

This  action  of  the  intettiues  ia  readily  teen  on 
0[>ening  an  animal  (a  dog,  cat,  or  rabbit,  for  example) 
immediately  after  it  has  been  killed ;  and  in  theae 
circumstances,  it  is  perhaps  exaggerated,  frem  the 
stimulating  action  of  the  cold  air;  and  it  may  be 
■hewn  in  an  abnormally  active  state,  although  not 
Altered  in  character,  by  subjecting  the  ex^josed 
intestines  to  the  influence  of  the  electro-magnetic 


Todd  and  Bowman,  and  others  on  receni 
animala,  that  the  peristaltic  motion  coau 
the  pyloric  third  of  the  stontach  (see  D 
ORQiNa  OF),  whence  successive  waves  of  ci 
and  relaxation  are  propagated  downwards 
out  the  whole  length  of  the  inteatinal  ca 
examining  a  portiou  of  intestine  at  the  men 
contraction,  we  perceive  a  dilatation  above 
aa  below  it ;  the  latter  being  produced  by 
ttusion  into  it  of  the  contents  of  the  now  c 
|>ortion  of  intestine  ;  the  former  by  the  relf 
a  ]irevioualy  contracted  portion.  The  rapi 
sion  of  these  contractions  and  rehixations  gi 
movements  of  the  intestines  the  ajipcoran 
writbings  of  a  worm,  whence  they  are  dist 
by  the  ajipellation  trermi'cufar.' — 1  odd  and  1 
Phyticat  Aaatumy  of  Alan,  vol.  ii  p.  Z3i 
movements  cau  occasionally  be  observed  d 
in  the  human  subject,  indirectly,  in  cases  o 
attenuation  of  the  abdominal  walls,  and  i 
wounds  of  the  abdomen,  and  during  ccrtaii 
operationa  There  are  diSerences  of  opic 
the  cause  of  the  peristaltic  action  ;  thus, ' 
Buwinan  assert  that '  the  intestina]  mover 
partly  due  to  the  influence  of  the  stimuli 
teiition  uj^ion  the  muscular  tissue,  and  jiar 
rettcx  action  of  the  ganglia  of  the  int<»tm: 
of  the  sympathetic,  atimidated  by  the  c 
tlie  intestinal  contents  with  the  mucous  me 
while  Carpenter  maint-iins  that '  the  iutesi 
from  the  stomach  to  the  rectum  is  not  d 
u|ion  the  nervous  centres  either  for  its  col 
or  for  its  power  of  exercising  it,  but  is  e, 
proi>el  its  contcnta  by  its  own  inherent  pot 

Iiumeroua  observations  tend  to  shew 
motion  has  a  nearly  definite  velocity  in  ( 
viiluaL  Most  comoiooly  the  act  of  d 
takes  phkce  with  jierfect  regularity  every  24 
rarely)  every  12  houra,  the  quantity  dischnr 
almost  constant,  it  the  mode  of  living  does 
Hebenlen  [Oommenl-ayii,  p.  14)  mentions 
who  re;;ularly  had  a  motion  once  a  montt 
way  of  contrast)  another  who  had  t»-elv> 
every  day  during  thirty  years,  and  then  se 
day  for  seven  years,  and  rather  grew 
otherwise.  Footeau  {(Suirret  Fotlhama. 
p.  27)  records  the  case  of  a  young  lady  wl 
stool  for  upwards  of  eight  years,  althou; 
the  lost  year  she  ate  abundantly  of  fruit,  l 
coffee,  milk,  and  tea,  and  broth  with  yelk 
but  she  haii  copious  greasy  sweats.  Such 
this  is  jKissible,  but  far  from  probable. 

That  the  influence  of  e^tpectaM  attattk 
muscular  movements  of  the  intestine  (and 
of  its  lower  portion)  is  very  groat,  is  shewn 
ways.  It  is,  tor  the  most  part,  thus  I 
operates  in  producing  a  readiness  for  defi 
one  special  hour  in  tbe  day,  and  that  I 
and  other  equally  inert  subsbuicea  act  on  i 
if  tbe  patient  believes  them  to  be  pnrgal 
Carpenter,  in  hia  remarks  on  'the  iul 
I  ex|>ectaut  attention  on  muscular  movemei 
I  chapter  of  his  Htimaa  P/igtioto-jif  tre 
Muscular  Movements,'  meutiuna  two  vei 
cases  of  tbe  kind  which  have  fallen  witlii 


PERITONE'UM     (Gr.     perUetitia, 


iind),    , 


1   like 


this  class,  a  shut  sac,  which, 
in    the    female,    is    not    completely    close 
Fallopian  tubes  communicate  with  it  by 
achine.  I  extremities.   The  perjtonenm  more  or  leas  i 

It  ap^tears,  from  the  observations  made  by  Brinton,  j  invests  all  the  viscera  lying  iu  the  abdo 


PERITOS'EUM— PEEITONlTia. 


:  cavities,  aod  a  then  reflected  u^a  the  vuSb 
e  abdomen,  so  that  there  is  a  vuceral  and  a 
jkl  layer.  Niimeroiia  folds  are  formed  by  the 
■al  layer  oa  it  juiseeB  from  one  or^^an  to  another, 
acrve  to  kfild  the  parts  in  poeition,  and  at  the 

time  enclose  vessels  and  nerves.  Some  of 
fulds  are  tormed  Linamenli,  from  their  servina 
pport  the  organs.  Thus,  we  have  ligaments  of 
iver,  spleen,  blndder,  and  utervia  fonned  by 
Ileal  folds.      Others  are  termed    Meaenleria 

the  Gr.  vitmn,  the  middle,  and  ealeran^ 
ine),  nnd  connect  the  intce  tines  with  the  verte- 
I'liimn,  Thi'y  are  the  Mesentery  proper  (q.v.), 
.  has  been  already  described,  the  ascending, 


nie  BeflcctioDB  of  the  Peritoneain : 
dUphruiini :  S.  Ih«  vomirti;  C.  th;  (THn-nrH  coloni 
F  riugirniim;  P,  the  prnicrcu;  I,  IhF  l.nNll  inloslinM; 

whlrh  ihc  "pianiinalKn  iiiiaiiii<De»l.-Fi<u>i  «llwu'. 

'ene,  and  descending  meso-colon,  and  the  mcao- 
a.  (Tbe  mesentery  and  transverse  meao-colon 
leiii^  in  the  figure.)     Lastly,  there  ore  folds 

Omenta,  which  proceed  from  one  viscus  to 
ST.  They  are  three  in  number— viz.,  the 
'  or  Oaitro-liepatic  Oiiuntutn,  which  extends 
the  under-9urface  of  tbe  liver  to  the  lesser 
:ure  of  the  stomach  (No.  4  in  tig.) ;  the  Gaalro- 
:  Omtntiim:  and  the  Greai  (or  OaMro-colic) 
am  (Sob.  5  and  6  in  fig.),  which  oonsiats  of 
,j  ecB  of  peritoDeum,  tbe  two  which  descend  from 
tomach,  aad  the  same  two  returning  upon 
elves,  and  ascending  as  high  as  the  tnuiBVerse 
where  tliey  aeparate,  and  enclose  that  organ. 

seuarate   layers  may   be   easily  seen  in  tbe 

subject,  but  in  the  adult  tbey  are  mora  or 
leudad.  The  great  omentum  always  contains 
adijiose  tissue,  which,  in  persons  inclined  t« 
ency,  often  accumulates  to  an  enonQons 
Its  use  ap{»ara  to  be  (1)  to  protect  the 
□es  from  cold  by  covering  them  anteriorly  as 
an   apron,  and    (2)   to  facilitate   their  move- 

DpoQ   each    other   during    their   vermicular 

>  all  the  aeroui  membranes,  the  peritoneum 

r  takes  on  inflammation  fri>m  various  exulting 

Ihia  inflammatiuu  ia  termed  Peritonitis 


LC  dise: 

Aeale  Peritanili^  generally  presents  well-marked 
symptoms.  It  souietimes  commences  with  a  chill, 
but  severe  pain  in  the  abdomen  is  usually  the  lirrt 
symptom.  The  pain  is  at  first  sometimes  ciinhned 
to  particular  sputa  (usually  in  the  lower  part  of  the 
abdomen),  but  it  soon  extends  over  tbe  whole 
abdominal  region.  It  is  increa.ied,  on  jireasure,  to 
such  on  extent  tint  the  patient  cannot  even  bear 
the  weight  of  the  bedclothes  ;  and  to  avoid,  as  far 
as  possible,  internal  pressure  uiion  tbe  peritoneum, 
he  lies  perfectly  still,  on  his  back,  with  the  legs 
drawn  up,  anil  breathes  by  means  of  the  ribs,  m 
consequence  of  tbe  jiain  oceaaioncd  by  Uie  descent 
of  the  diaphragm  in  inspiration.  Tbe  breathing 
is  naturally  shallow  in  these  cases,  and  less  air  being 
admitted  at  each  movement  of  respiration,  the 
number  of  those  movements  is  increased.  There 
are  perhajis  forty  or  even  sixty  rcs]>irations  executed 
in  a  minute,  instead  of  cij^bteen  or  twenty.  The 
pulse  is  usually  very  frequent,  often  120  or  more 
m  tbe  minute,  and  small  and  tense,  though  occa- 
sionally strong  and  full  at  the  commencement  of 
the  attack.  After  the  disease  has  continued  for  ft 
certain  time,  tbe  t>eliy  becijmes  tense  and  swollen; 
the  enlargement  being  caused  at  first  by  ftatus, 
and  aftei'wards  also  by  the  effusion  of  fluiil,  as  may 
be  ascertained  by  percussion  and  auscultation. 

The  progress  of  the  disease  is  in  geceral  rapid.  In 
fatal  cases,  death  usually  takea  place  vithin  a  week, 
aud  often  sooner.  The  symptoms  indicating  that 
tho  disease  is  advancing  towards  a  fatal  terminatioa 
are  great  distention  of  the  abdomen,  a  very  frequent 
and  feeble  pulse,  a  pinched  and  extremely  auxioua 
api>earance  of  tlie  face,  and  cold  sweats. 

Peritonitis  may  arise  from  any  of  the  ordinary 
causes  of  iuflanimation,  such  as  sudden  change  of 
temperature  (especially  tho  combined  effects  of  cold 
and  wet  on  the  surface  of  the  body),  excessive  use 
ilating  fluids,  tbe  suppression  of  long  stand- 
ing discharges,  translation  of  gi>ut  and  rheumatism, 
fCK.  It  is  frequently  the  result  of  local  violence, 
lud  of  wounds  penetrating  the  peritonea!  sac. 
ncluding  various  surgical  operations.  Besides  the 
above  causes,  there  are  two  which  give  rise  to  sjiecial 
varieties  of  peritonitis,  via,  contagion  or  infeetioa, 
which  often  prevails  epidemically,  and  produces 
great  mortality  amongst  women  after  childbirth, 
giving  rise  to  puerpenC  jieritonitis,  one  of  the  moat 

Iienlons  accompaniments  of  the  awful  disorder 
:nown  as  Puerperal  Fever  (q.  v.) ;  and  pfjforation 
of  the  stomach,  bowels,  gall  bladder,  urinary 
bladder,  &c,  by  which  their  conteuta  are  allowed 
to  escape  inte  the  peritoneal  cavity,  where  they 
excite  the  most  violent  inflammation.  Prrilonilit 
from  ;ier/brii(ion  is  characterised  by  the  sudden- 
>ss  of  tbe  attack ;  inteiiao  pain,  incap.ible  of 
itigation  by  medicine,  all  at  once  arising  in  some 
part  of  the  abdomen,  the  whole  of  which  soon 
becomes  tender  in  every  port.  This  form  of  the 
disease  la  generally  fa^t.  death  usually  ensuing 
within  two  diws,  and  sometimes  within  a  few  hours. 
Perforation  of  the  smalt  intestine,  in  conseqnenca 
of  ulceration  of  its  glands,  ia  of  not  uncommon 
ence  in  continued  (typhoid)  fever,  and  some- 
occurs  in  phthisis.  That  appan'ntly  uselesa 
.ire,  the  vermiform  appentiage  ot  tbe  cajcnm, 
iomparatively  frequent  seat  of  perforation. 
Sometimes  it  ia  the  stomach  which  is  perforated, 
asea  the  patients  are  usually  un- 
married women  (especially  domestic  servants),  who 
had  previously  apjieared  in  good  health,  or  at  most 
had  complainetl  of  sbght  dys^iepsia. 
The  only  disease  with  which  peritonitis  ia  likely 


PERIWINKLE-PEEJURY. 


%n  lie  cunfonnded  by  the  we]) -educated  nractitioaer 
i»  a  uecnliBr  Eorm  of  hysteria ;  but  tbe  age  and 
•ex  of  tlie  patient,  the  preaeiice  of  hvateria  in  other 
tbmiB.  and  the  geDerol  history  of  the  patient  and 
id  her  B^mptoniH,  will  almost  olwayB  lead  to  a 
•xirrect  diagnosis  of  the  dieease. 

The  treatment,  in  an  ordiaary  case  of  peiitonitia 
(aot  oriaing  from  mechanical  injury,  or  perf»rtitioa 
from  diaease,  or  occnrring  in  cooneution  with  puer- 
peral fever),  consists,  if  the  patient  in  oiodcrately 
robust,  in  bleeding  from  the  arm,  till  ■  decided 
impressiun  has  been  made  on  thi^  circuUtirin  ;  after 
which  the  abdomen  should  be  covered  with  twenty 
or  thirty  leeches,  and  tbe  bleeding  from  their  bites 
•hould  be  encouraged  by  fomenting  the  belly  with 
flannels  wruog  out  of  hot  water,  or,  if  the  patient 
can  l>ear  its  weight,  by  the  application  of  a  light 
poultice.  Tbe  system  must,  at  the  same  time,  be 
got  as  speedily  as  possible  under  the  influence  of 
mercury,  by  the  means  described  in  the  treatment 
of  Pericarditis  (q.  v.).     Opium  may  be  given  freely, 


of  the 


-ely  to  guard  against  the  pur;,; 
alomel.  but  with  the  view  of  se- 

the   iriHumed  r 


with  the  view  of  securing  sleep 


braue.  The  patient  must  be  kept  no  low  diet, 
unless  indications  of  sinking  appear.  In  peritonitis 
from  perforation,  tbe  only  remedy  is  opium,  which 
must  be  given  in  large  and  Te]>eated  closes,  so  as 
to  keep  the  bowels  perfectly  at  rest,  in  order  to 
promote  tho  formation  of  adhesion,  by  which  alone 
tbe  jiatient  can  be  possibly  saved.  For  the  same 
reason,  (lerfect  rest  must  uso  be  insisted  on,  and 
even  drinks  forbidilun,  thirst  being  allayed  by  the 
application  of  ice  to  the  tougue. 

Chronic  PeriUmilit  occurs  in  two  forms,  which 
differ  in  their  origin  and  degree  of  fatality,  but  are 
very  similar  in  uieir  Bym])tums.  In  tbe  lirst,  the 
inflanunation  is  of  the  ordinary  character,  and 
although  the  disease  lometimea  originates  spon- 
taneoi^y,  it  is  more  frequently  the  sequel  of  an 
imperfectly  cured  acute  attack ;  in  tbe  second,  it 
depends  upon  granules  |siip]>{ised  by  Louis  and  most 
writers  to  be  tubercles)  lying  in  countless  num- 
bers in  tbe  serous  membrane,  and  serving  as  a 
constant  source  of  irritation.  The  second  fonn  U 
oontined  almost,  if  not  entirely,  to  persons  of  a 
■crof ulcus  constitution. 

Tbe  symptoms  of  chronic  peritiraitia  are  more 
obscure  than  those  of  the  acute  fonn.  There  is 
abdominal  i>ain,  often  slight,  and  not  always  cnn- 
■tant,  which  is  iacreosed  by  pressure,  or  sometimes 
ia  felt  only  when  pressure  is  mad&  The  patit:nt 
complains  of  a  sensation  of  fulness  and  tension 
of  the  belly,  although  its  size  ia  not  visibly 
increased  ;  of  a  loss  of  appetite ;  and  of  nausea 
and  vomiting ;  and  tbe  bowels  are  usually  more 
or  less  out  of  order.  After  a  time,  the  abdomen 
enlarges,  and  becomes  tympanitic,  or  more  or  less 
filled  with  fluid  ;  and  death  gi-ailiially  ensues  from 
debility  and  emaciation,  unlius  the  fatal  issue  is 
accelerated  by  an  acute  inflammatory  attack. 

It  is  not  always  easy  to  determine,  during  life, 
Vbetber  tbe  disease  belongs  to  the  lirst  or  second 
form.  When  its  origin  cannot  be  traced  to  a 
preceding  acute  attack,  to  local  abdominal  inju[y, 
or  to  chronic  affections  of  the  abdominal  viscera, 
there  is  strong  reason  to  believe  it  to  be  of  the 
granular,  or,  as  it  is  commonly  called,  tbe  tuber- 
cular form,  especially  if  tbe  general  coustitution 
and  the  hereditary  tendencies  of  the  patient  point 
in  tbe  same  direction. 

Little  can  be  done  in  the  way  of  treatment, 
CBiiecLally  in  the  tubercular  form,  further  than 
niitignting  the  moat  distressing  symutoms,  and 
possibly  retarding  tbe  final  issue.  The  frequent 
application  of  a  few  leeches  to  the  abdomen,  followed 


by  warm  |>oulticea,  ocoMbnal  blisters,  i 
to  the  bowels,  which,  if  coetive,  should  I 
upon  by  gentle  laxatives,  and  a  mild,  no 
but  onstimulating  diet,  are  more  likely 
service  than  rem^ies  of  a  more  energetic  n 

PERIWI'NKLE  (LiUoHna),  a  genus  o 
opodouB  molluscs  of  the  order  Pedinilirana 
family  Lillorinida,  having  a  proboscis-sha] 
a  foot  of  moderate  size,  a  single  gill,  and 
mentary  sipbonal  canal ;  the  shell  turbina 
with  few  whirls,  and  no  nacreous  lining  ; 
culum  of  few  whirls.  A  very  well-known  i 
the  COHMOK  P.  IL.  lillorea),  a  snad-like 
most  aliundaut  on  rocky  parts  of  the  Britii 
living  in  the  lowest  lone  of  sea-weeds  betw 
marks,  and  feeding  on  fuci,  &c.  It  ia  o' 
No  mnituso  is  more  generally  collected  and 
food.  Children  are  generally  employed  in  ( 
it  It  is  boiled  in  the  sheU,  and  so  sold, 
the  streets,  and  chiefiy  to  the  poorer  classes, 
few  molluscs  are  more  pleasant.  It  is  ci 
that  l!l(K)  tons,  value  £15,000,  are  annus 
sumed  in  London  alone.  It  is  called  Wu 
or  Wliuli  in  Scotland,  but  is  quite  differ 
the  m-elk  (q.  v.)  of  the  English,  notwith 
the  sameucaa  of  name.  Other  species,  L.  i 
and  L.  nidis,  are  common  on  all  rocky  par 
'British  coasts,  but  are  less  esteemed.  L. 
viviparous,  and  tbe  shells  of  the  young  wi 
mantis  of  the  parent  often  make  tt  gri 
unpleasant  to  eat. 

PERIWINKLE  (rinfa),a  genua  of  plan 
natural  oit\i:T  Apoa/naeea,  having  a  S- cleft  ci 
a  salver- shaped  coroUa  bearded  at  tho  thn 
five  obliquely  truncated  segments.  Tbe  le 
opposite  and  evergreen  ;  the  flowers  grow  i 
in  pairs  from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Tht 
P.  ( V.  minor),  a  native  of  many  parts  of 
and  of  the  southern  parts  of  Britain,  gn 
woods  and  thickets,  ia  a  half-shrubby  ]>1: 
tradins;  stems,  rooting  at  their  extremitiei 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  pale-blue — sometim 
or  reddish -puri lie — salver  -  shaiied  flowen 
Greatbr  p.  (i'.  mijor),  whieii  has  muc 
flowers  and  ovato-cordate  ciliated  leaves,  is 
of  the  south  of  Europe,  and  is  found  in  a  fe 
in  tbe  south  of  England.  Both  of  these  sp 
nly  plMited  in  shrubberies  and 


all  seasons  of  the  year,  c 
weather  is  mild.  The  Hbhbaceoom  ¥.  {V.  h 
a  Hungarian  B|)eciee,  is  remarkable  for  tht 
ance  of  its  flowers.  The  Ybllow  P.  (  V.  li 
native  of  the  southern  parts  of  North  Amer 
KosE-coLOUHED  P.  ( V.  rogea],  a  native  o 
coscar,  it  a  favourite  greenhouse  plant. — T 
P.  was  formerly  i'erviinki.  Chaucer  speak 
'fresh  perwink£  rich  of  hue.'  It  is  proba 
tbe  Fctiaeli  perveiujie,  and  that  from  the  IaI 
PE'RJURY  is  the  crime  Committed  by  • 
when  giving  evidence  on  oath  as  a  witn 
court  oi  justice,  or  before  some  constituted  i 
of  the  same  kind,  gives  evidence  which  he  1 
be  false.  But  in  order  to  make  the  giving  of 
evidence  liable  to  criminal  punishment,  it  m 
been  not  only  false  to  the  knowledge  of  tbe 
bat  the  matter  must  have  been  material  to 
rused.  If  the  falsehood  occurred  as  to  som 
or  immaterial  fact,  no  crime  is  committed, 
over,  it  is  necessary,  in  proving  the  crime 
least  two  ]>ersuns  should  be  able  to  testif 
falsehood  of  the  matter,  so  that  there  mij 
majority  of  oaths  on  the  matter — there  be 
two  oaths  to  one.    But  this  rule  is  natisfiei 


PEKKm  WABBECE— PEEUnAlT,  MA6NSSIAN  UMESTONE. 


witDEBMa  do  not  testify  to  one  poi 

ry  muit  also  have  tjtkea  place  before  ^me 

or  tribunal  which  had  power  to  adiuiouter  the 

See  Oath.    Though  in  some  conrta  affinna' 

Hre  &1Idw«1  inatead  of  oaths,  yet  the  puniah- 
for  false  affirmation  ia  mode  precisely  the  Home 
false  swearing.  The  puniBliment  for  perjmy 
>efore  the  Conquest,  sometimes  death  or  cutting 
10  t«ngue  ;  but  latt«rly.  it  was  coatined  to  &a.ti 
mpriaonmeDt,  and  at  present  the  latter  ia  the 
punialiniuDt,  with  the  addition  of  hard  labour, 
crime  of  Subornation  of  FKrjury — i  e.,  the 
»ding  or  procuring  m  ])eiw>n  to  give  false 
[ice,  IS  also  punishable  as  a  distinct  oSence. 
RKIN  WARBECK.  See  Hbnbt  VIL 
KM,  the  most  eastern  goTemment  of  European 
a,  ia  bounded  on  the  K  fay  Siberia,  and  on  the 
7.,  and  S.  by  the  governments  of  VoloEiia, 
^  and  Orenburg  resiiec  lively.  Area,  12S,G23 
e  miles — more  than  twice  the  area  of  England 
Vale*.  Population,  2.117.945.  It  is  dii-ided 
e  Ural  Mountains  into  two  unequal  porta,  of 
I  the  smaller  portion  is  on  the  eoatem  or 
LOn  side  of  the  mountains,  although,  for 
listrative  purposes,  it  is  reckoned  ns  a  part  of 
wBu  Russia.  About  three-fourths  of  the 
nment  are  occupied  by  the  Ural  range,  which 
ae  phices  reaches  the  height  of  40(K)  Teei  ;  but 
1  8lo]>e  BO  gmdu^illy  toward  the  plain,  that  the 
ller  reaches  tlieir  summit  before  he  is  aware 
he  has  made  any  unusual  ascent  About 
birds  of  the  entire  surface,  coniprising  alt 
lortbern  districts,  are  covered  wilh  forests, 
■nth  of  the  area  is  in  meadows,  and  about  the 
extent  is  under  ciUtiration.  The  more  im{>ort- 
vera  belong  to  the  systems  of  the  Volga  and 
bi.  The  Kama,  togetlier  with  the  Tshousovata 
itlier  afHueats  from  the  Ural  Mountains,  flow 
the    Volga,  and    thus   form 


a  of   ( 


1   betwi 


1   the 


g  districta  of  P,  and  Eiiroi"&  The  Tura,  the 
,  and  the  Loava  commiinica(«  with  the  Obi ; 
ccesa  is  opened  up  to  the  White  Sea  aud  the 
;;  Ocean  by  the  rivers  Dwina  and  Petchora. 
timate  is  healthy,  though  somewhat  rigorous, 
le  end  of  July,  the  nights  are  cold;  in  the 
e  of  September,  falls  the  tirst  snow.  In 
nlier,  when  the  whole  face  of  nature  is  covered 
snow,  t)ie  transport  of  goods  by  sledges  is 
'  carried  on  everywhere.  In  January,  the  cold 
great  that  quicksilver  Bomi^timea  freezes.  At 
nd  of  March,  the  snow  begins  to  melt,  and 
I  the  middle  of  May,  although  the  cold  is 
Treat,  the  country  is  clothed  in  the  green 
ly  spring.  The  chief  products  are  gold,  copiier, 
;tio  iron  ore,  rock-crystal,  jasper,  agate,  tn|>aK, 
yrr,  malachitii,  ]>orcelain  clay,  salt  (obtained 
salt  springs),  coal,  alabaster,  marble,  tic.,  and 
mde  in  small  quantities.  The  inhabitants  are 
f  Russians,  but  there  are  also  numbere  of 
n,  Bashkirs,  and  Finns.  The  agricultural  pro- 
of the  government,  consisting  cbieHy  of  corn, 
ibles,  flax,  and  hemp,  is  more  thau  sutiicient  for 
consumption,  and  le  exported  to  some  extent 
e  neighboaring  governments.  The  immoaae 
■  of  the  Muntry  yield  wood  for  fuel,  and 
r  for  the  construction  of  the  barges  which, 
g  summer,  are  floated  down  the  rivers,  freighted 

the  products  of  the  mines.  In  1861.  the 
er  of  works  and  manufactories  in  the  govem- 

amonated  to  1383.  and  employed  1(IO,OI>0 
L     Their  produce  amounted  to  i:tj,000,000  in 

of  which  the  value  of  the  iron  was  £2,000,000, 


to  be  the  richest  in  the  world.  The  iron  of  P.  it 
famous  over  Europe.  The  commerce  of  the  govern- 
ment ia  important.    The  fair  of  Iriiit   (q.  v.)   is. 

after  that  of  Nijui-NovEorod,  the  most  important 
in  the  Ruasian  empire.  The  transit  trade,  however, 
is  much  more  considerable  than  the  local  trade. 
The  great  highway  from  Siberia  to  European  Russia 
passes  through  P.,  and  the  guvemnient  communl- 
catea  by  moans  of  the  Volga,  Petubora,  and  the 
Obi,  with  the  Baltic,  White,  and  Cssiiian  Seas.  The 
central  administration  of  mince  has  its  seat  in 
Ekaterinburg. 

The  goverument  of  P.  once  formed  a  portion  id 
the  ancient  Biarmia,  inhabited  in  the  earliesk 
historical  times  by  Finnish  tribes,  and  even  then 
famous  fur  the  commerce  which  it  carrie<l  on, 
especially  with  Asia.  In  the  llth  c,  it  liecame 
connected  commercially  with  the  princijiality  of 
Novgorod,  which,  little  by  little,  conquered  aud  took 
possession  of  the  country.  At  the  cluse  of  the 
16th  c,  both  it  and  Novgoroil  were  annexed  to  the 
territories  of  the  Prince  of  Moscow,  and  about  the 
same  time  the  Uhristion  religion  was  introduced. 

PERM,  a  town  of  E\iro;«an  Bussia,  capital  of 
the  government  of  the  same  name,  on  the  Kama, 
1357  miles  east- south-east  of  St  Petersburg.  It 
was  founded  in  1729,  under  the  name  of  the 
Egotiuaky  copper-work,  and  was  the  first  colony  in 
the  government  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It 
is  not  in  itself  important  for  its  commerce,  but  it  is  . 
the  seat  of  a  most  extensive  transit  trmle.     Here 

foods  floated  down  the  Tshousovaia  frem  the  Urol 
fountains,  i  are  transferred  to  larger  vessels,  aud 
forwarded  by  the  Kama  and  Volga  past  Nijni- 
Novgorod  ami  Rybinsk,  and  thence  to  St  Petersburg. 
Goods  from  the  sources  of  the  Kama,  metals,  corn, 
tallow,  aud  leathers,  as  welt  as  articles  uf  the 
Siberian  and  China  trade,  are  also  sent  from  P. 
the  Russian  interior,  and  to  Eurojie  generally, 
present  (1864),  a  large  steel  fouudiy  is  in  proi:eea 
of  being  built  fay  government.    Pop.  13,472. 

PERMIAN,  MAGNE'SIAN  LIMKSTOHB,or 
DIAS  group,  i*  the  lower  division  of  the  New  Red 
Sandstone  rocks,  which  were  separated,  chiefly  on 
p^ieoutological  grounds,  from  the  upi>er  portion,  and 
'■-■-',  in  1S41,  without  a  collective  name,  were 
1  Permian  by  Hurehison,  because  he  found 
them  lai^ely  devdoped  in  that  portion  of  Russia 
which  composed  the  ancient  ktut'dum  of  Permia, 
or  Biarmia.  The  name  Magnesiao  iiuiestooe  is  given 
to  them  because  of  the  predominant  deposit  j  and 
Dias  has  been  proiused  by  some  German  geologists, 
to  correspond  with  Trias,  the  name  universally 
accepted  for  the  upper  section  of  the  Mew  Bed 
Sandstone  series. 

The  Permian  strata  occupy  in  Bussia  an  area 
,wice  the  size  of  France,  and  contain  an  abundant 
ind  varied  suite  of  fossils.  They  are  also  loively 
developed  in  Germany,  and  as  they  have  I>c«  i  there 
carciully  studied,  and  described  fay  numeroi'.s  geo- 
logists, the  rocks  of  that  country  may  be  coni'.dered 
as  the  types  of  the  gnmp.  They  have  been  thua 
grouped  i  1.  Bunterschiefer.  2.  Zechsl^n.  3, 
Kupierschiefer  or  Mergel.    4  Rothe-todtliegende. 

Ihe  Bunterschiefer  consists  of  red  and  mottled 
marl  and  sandstone,  which  have  been  separated 
from  the  Triassio  Bunter  Saniistein,  because  of  the 
occurrence  in  them  of  fossils  which  have  a  palieozoia 
facies.  The  Zechstein  is  chiefly  a  comjiact  lime- 
stone with  beds  of  coloured  clays,  and  cellular 
magnesian  limestonK  The  well-known  Sttnkstein 
belongs  to  this  series ;  it  is  a  dark-coloured  and 
highly  bituminous  limeetoue.  which  civee  out  an 
olicnsive  odour  when  struck  or  rubbeiL  The  name 
ZecUstein  (litenJly,  minettone)  was  given  to  these 


PERMUTATIONS  AND  C0MBIKATI0N8— PBRNAMBDCa 


bedl,  beckiue  they  muit  be  mined  or  out  through 
to  reach  the  Kiipferschiefer  beLow.  This  latter  is  a 
loarL  slate,  richly  irapregaated  with  copper  pyrites. 
for  which  it  was  extensively  wrought.  It  contains 
nnmeroui  beautifully  preserved  fossil  fish  beloafi^ng 
to  the  genera  PalicnLscus,  Cielacantbiis,  Platysorui, 
&c  The  BtraaKO  name  of  Rothe-todtliegcnde  (red 
dead-layers)  was  given  to  a  laive  deposit  of  red 
sandstone  and  conglomente,  by  me  miners,  because 
the  co]>per  obtainetl  from  the  bed«  above  died  out 
when  they  reached  these  red  rock*. 

The  succeaBJOD  of  rocks  given  by  Murchison  aa 
occurring  in  Permia,  are  easily  co- related  with  those 
of  Germany.  They  are  (1),  conglomerates  and  saikd- 
Btones,  contaiaing  the  remains  of  plants ;  (2),  red 
•an{Utonea  and  shales,  with  copper  ore  and  ve^tahle 
remains;  and  (3),  eandstonea,  grits,  and  fossiliferoua 
limestones,  with  tuteratratilied  beds  of  marl  and 
gypsum,  the  marls  occasionally  containing  plants, 
•nd  also  seams  of  impure  coaL 

In  England,  the  Permian  rock*  are  eomewhat 
Mteusively  developed  in  Durham,  where  they  have 
been  described  by  Sedgwick  and  King.  From  this 
oonnty,  they  continue  in  a  narrow  strip  bordering 
the  t'arhouiferous  leds  down  the  centre  of  Euglanri, 
until  tliey  ore  lost  near  HuttiiiEhani.  In  Chcahire, 
Sbro[ishire,  Staffonl.  and  Warwick,  they  uniUTlie 
tiia  salt-bearing  thaasic  rocks.  The  Durham  strata 
•le  grouped  as  follow : 

I.  CDDorctionaiT    and    ■nmrphoiu'l 

1.  flr«iTinl»dai)diiMiido-br«cl»l«l  >  =  """'"KWlhr. 

&  FcBilliforou.  limntons.      .         1  _z«h-ieln. 
^  (ajnpAOt  liIDMtuno,         .        k      J 

^''';f£.''!"'°''.'^'r"1   ™^-}=B<.U..-V-lUl.g.'nd.^ 

The  fractured  bones  and  teeth  of  saurians  found 
in  the  basement  bed  of  the  sixth  group,  were 
considered  the  earliest  evidence  of  the  existence  of 
reptiles,  until  the  discnvery  of  the  Arcliegosiurus  in 
the  Carl>oniferous  rocki 

The  known  organic  remwns  of  this  period  are 
neither  remarkable  nor  abundant.  Many  palieozoic 
forms  became  extinct  within  this  pi^riod;  among 
them  are  the  reniarkuible  Sigillaria  ami  the  Neur^ 
opteris  of  the  ooal-be<la,  the  well-known  brachio- 
piiil,  Prodacta,  and  several  genera  of  heteroeercal' 
tailed  fish.  Some  new  forms  appear,  the  most 
important  of  which  are  the  labyrinthodont  reptiles, 
which,  though  beginning  in  the  upper  Carboniferous 
beds,  increaae  in  number  in  the  Permian,  and  reach 
their  maumum  development  in  the  succeeding 
Tria«sic  (iroup. 

PEKHUTATI0N3  and  COMBINA'TIONS. 
A  combination,  in  Mathematics,  iB  a  selection  of  a 
number  of  ol>jects  from  a  given  set  of  objects,  with- 
out any  regard  to  the  onler  in  which  they  are  placed. 
The  objects  are  called  elements,  and  the  combina- 
tioiui  are  di^'ided  into  classes,  according  to  the 
number  n[  elements  in  each.  Let  the  given  element* 
be  the  four  letters  a,b,e,d  ;  the  binary  combina- 
tions, or  selections  of  two,  are  ab,  ue,  ad,  be,  hd,  cd — 
■ii  in  all .  the  combinations  of  three  are  abe,  abd, 
acd,  ftcJ — four  in  all ;  while  there  is  only  one  com- 
bination of  four,  namely,  nbcd. 

Permutation,  again,  has  reference  to  the  order  of 
4iTangement ;  thus,  the  two  elements,  a  and  b,  may 
•tiuid  ab  or  ba,  so  that  every  combination  of  two 
gives  two  permutations ;  the  three  elements,  o,  b, 
and  c,  may  stand  abc,  aii,  hoc,  bca,  cab,  d/a,  one 
combination  of  three  thus  affording  six  permuta- 
tiona.  The  combinations  of  any  ard^  with  all  their 
pennntations  are  called  the  Varialiotu.  Formulas 
an  given  in  works  of  algebra  for  calculnting  the 


nimiber  of  permutations  or  combinations 

fiven  cose;  Suppose  seven  lottery- tickets 
,  2,  3,  to  7,  and  that  two  are  to  be  drawn 
asked,  how  many  possible  pairs  of  numht 
are,  this  is   a  question   of   the  number 


binat 


I    of  e 


)  togetl 


..  found  to  be  -Jl.  If  '  . 
many  times  the  same  seven  persona  could  i 
to  table  together  with  a  different  arrs 
each  time,  this  ia  to  ask  how  many  pern 
seven  objects  admit  of,  and  the  formul 
7x6x5x4x3x2  =  5040.  The  theor 
babilities  is  founded  on  the  laws  of  com 
Thus,  in  the  case  of  drawing;  two  ticket 
seven,  since  there  are  21  possible  pairs,  th 
or  probability  of  drawing  any  jiartioular  pa 
21,  or  jY'  la  working  out  qutations  in  'i 
tions,'  advantage  is  often  taken  of  the  f 
whatever  number  oE  elements  be  (aien  from 
to  form  a  combination,  the  number  left  it 
same  uutuber  uf  combinations ;  thus  the.  ni 
combinations  of  10  elements  lltrte  togethi; 
some  as  that  of  10  elements  Knen  tugeuier, 

PERN.     See  Honey  Buzzabd. 

PERNAMBU'CO,  the  most  eastern  si 
Brazil,  stands  at  the  mouths  of  the  Bibc 
UapelieriljB.  in  lat.  8"  4'  S.,  long.  3*'  57^  W,. 
south  of  Parahiba.  It  is  the  ureatest  siigai 
Brazil,  and  is  the  third  in  commercial  im 
of  the  cities  of  the  empire.  It  consists 
portions,  connected  by  roads  and  bridges 
the  chief  scat  of  commerce,  oD  a  penin 
Aiilonio,  the  middle  district,  on  an  island 
the  peninsula  and  the  maiidand ;  and  B<i 
on  the  mninfand.  The  inner  harbour,  w 
a  deirth  of  from  10  to  30  feet,  i«  formed  1 
which  extends  along  the  coast  at  a 
of  from  a  quBiter  to  half  a  mUe  from  tl 
This  reef  serves  the  purposes  of  a  bre 
Opposite  the  noctliem  extremity  of  the  oi 
oiieuiog  in  the  reef,  resembling  an 
,  nd  forming  a  (inssage  of  sufficient  ^ 
admit  of  the  entrance  uf  vessels  drawing  1 
water.  No  port  is  more  easily  accestfible 
outer  harbour  of  Pemanibiico.  There  is  a  lip 
in  the  harbour,  and  it  is  defended  by  sevc 
Formerly,  the  city  was  extremely  dirty,  th 
uiipaveit,  and  much  inconvenience  was  siiffe 
want  of  a  proiier  supply  of  water.  Of  la 
however,  many  improvements  have  bee 
duced ;  water-works  have  been  erected,  i 
and  spaciouB  quays  formed  along  the  margi 
rivers,  and  the  streets  have,  in  most  iustan 
paved  and  hghtcd.  Nnmeroiis  collfjioa  a 
educational  institutions  have  ]>eea  ostablit 
the  growing  wealth  and  commercial  pr*is| 
the  city  has  been  accompanied  by  an  ii 
degree  of  comfort  and  rehneuicnt.  The 
exports  are  sugar,  cotton,  rum,  hides,  and  dj 
In  1859,  t)54,(i42  tons  of  sugar  were  export 
imports  are  woollen  and  cotton  cloths,  b 
silks,  wines,  and  flour.   Pop.  frem  80,000  to 

PEBNAMBUCO,  a  maritime  province  < 
is  bounded  on  the  south-east,  by  Buhia  and 
and  on  the  north-west  by  Piauhi,  Cn 
Parahiba.  It  oontains  6l,06S  aqnare  m 
has  a  populaUon  of  OoO.OOa  Th*  coast  is 
fringed  with  coral  reefs,  whikh  render  n^ 
dangerous.  The  chief  river  ii  the  San  F 
which  forms  the  aouthem  boundary,  and 
the  greater  portion  of  the  area  of  the 
in  its  basin.  The  banks  of  this  river 
many  rich,  expansive  meadows,  and  here  t 
are  reared  which,  in  the  form  of  Ii 
hides,  form  on  important  article  of  eipoi 


pertjlloal  cure-perpetual  motion. 


these  towers  every  possible  approach  could  be 
commanded,  which  to  a  great  extent  is  true ;  but 
it  must  be  also  remembered  that  the  greater  space 
a  gun  commands,  by  so  much  the  more  is  it  raised 
above  the  plain,  and  rendered  visible.  These 
towers  would  have  little  chance  against  the  rifled 
ordnance  of  the  present  day.  Moutalembert's 
system  was  violently  attacked  by  the  French 
engineers,  but  Carnot  subsequently  adopted  it,  with 
some  modifications,  and  it  enters  largely  into  the 
modern  German  defensive  works.  The  system  has 
never,  however,  found  favour  with  British  engineers. 

PERPETUAL  CURE,  a  form  of  ecclesiastical 
benefice  which  grew  out  of  the  abuse  of  lay  Impro- 
priation (q.  v.),  the  impropriator  appointing  a 
clergyman  to  discharge  the  spiritual  functions  of 
which  he  himself  was  not  capable.  The  substituted 
clergyman,  in  ordinary  cases,  is  appointed  by  the 
bishop,  and  called  a  vicar ;  but  when  no  provision 
is  mskde  for  a  vicar,  the  impropriator  appoints  the 
clergyman,  who  is  called  a  peri)etual  curate.  The 
perpetual  curate  enters  on  his  office  without  induc- 
tion or  institution,  and  requires  only  the  bishop*s 
licence.  Perpetual  cures  are  also  created  by  the 
erection  and  endowment  of  a  chapel  subject  to  the 
principal  church  of  a  parish.  Such  cures,  however, 
are  not  benefices,  unless  endowed  out  of  the  fund 
called  Queen  Anne's  Bounty.  Churches  so  endowed 
are,  by  2  and  3  Vict,  c  49,  recognised  as  benefices. 
The  district  churches  which  have  been  erected 
under  several  recent  acts  are  made  perpetual  cures, 
and  their  incumbents  are  corporations. 

PERPETUAL  MOTION,  The.  According  to 
Newton's  First  Law  (see  Motion,  Laws  of),  all  un- 
resisted motion  continues  for  ever  unchanged.  Thus, 
^friction  could  be  avoided^  a  top  or  a  g3nx)8cope 
spinning  in  vacuo  is  an  instance  of  motion  which 
would  be  unchanged  for  ever,  and  which,  therefore, 
might  be  called  perpetual.  The  motion  of  the  sun 
in  space,  the  earth's  rotation  about  its  axis,  and 
numerous  other  common  motions,  are  in  this  popular 
sense  perpetusd.  [It  is  necessary  to  remark:  here, 
that  even  these  motions  are  subject  to  retardation  ; 
for  instance,  those  of  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system, 
by  the  resistance  of  the  luminiferous  medium,  which 
we  know  to  be  matter,  and  which  fills  all  space. 
This  was  remarked  by  Newton  himself,  for  he  says, 
•the  larger  bodies,  planets  and  comets,  preserve 
their  niotions  longer  (than  terrestrial  objects), 
because  they  move  in  less  resisting  media.*  The 
same  cause  influences  the  motion  of  the  gyroscope, 
but  in  its  case  there  is  another  retarding  influence 
at  W(»rk,  due  to  the  production  of  electric  currents 
by  the  magnetism  of  the  earth.]  But  this  is  not 
what  is  technically  understood  by  the  title  The 
Perpetual  Motion,  It  means  an  engine  which, 
without  any  supply  of  power  from  without,  can  not 
only  maintain  its  own  motion  for  ever,  or  as  long  as 
its  materials  last,  but  can  also  be  applied  to  drive 
machinery,  and  therefore  to  do  external  work.  In 
other  words,  it  means  a  device  for  creating  power 
or  energy  without  corresponding  expenditure.  This 
is  now  known  to  be  absolutely  imj^ssible,  no  matter 
what  physical  forces  be  employed.  In  fact,  the 
modern  physical  axiom,  the  Conservation  of  Energy, 
(see  Force),  founded  on  experimental  bas^3  as  cer- 
tain as  those  which  convince  us  of  the  truth  of  the 
Laws  of  Motion,  may  be  expressed,  in  the  negative, 
thus:  The  perpetual  motion  is  impostible.  Helm- 
holtz's  beautiful  investigations  regarding  Conserva- 
tion of  Energy  (referred  to  in  Force),  are  foimded  on 
this  axiom.  So  is  the  recent  application,  by  Clausius, 
of  Camot's  remarkable  investigation  of  the  *  Motive- 
power  of  Fire '  to  the  true  Theory  of  Heat.  Other 
instanoes  will  be  mentioned  at  the  end  of  the  article. 

4U 


The  complete  statement  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  the  perpetual  motion  with  the  ordinary 
mechanical  arrangements,  in  which  it  was  most 
commonly  sought,  is  to  be  found  in  the  PHnHpia 
(q.  v.),  as  a  deduction  from  Newton's  Third  Law  of 
Motion.  The  equivalent  principle  of  Conservation 
of  Energy  is  there  stated  in  a  manner  which  leaves 
nothing  to  be  desired ;  although  not  given  in  anv- 
thing  like  the  modern  phraseology.  Yet  it  is  usually 
said,  in  works  on  the  Perpetual  Motion,  that  De  La 
Hire  (in  1678)  gave  the  first  proof  of  its  impossibility 
in  ordinary  mechanics.  This  proof,  published  long 
after  Newton's,  is  by  no  means  so  complete,  as  it 
exposes  only  some  of  the  more  patent  absurdities 
wluch  had  been  propounded  for  the  solution  of  the 
problem.  It  is  certain,  and  worthy  of  particular 
notice,  that  Newton  was  far  in  advance  of  the 
great^t  of  his  contemporaries  and  their  immediate 
successors,  in  even  the  fundamental  notions  of 
mechanics.  Thus,  we  find  John  Bernouilli  seriously 
propounding  a  form  of  the  perj)etual  motion,  depend- 
ing  upon  the  alternate  mixture,  and  separation  by  a 
filter,  of  two  liquids  of  different  densities ;  an 
arrangement  which  is  as  preposterous  as  the  very 
common  suggestion  of  a  water-wheel  which  should 
pump  up  its  own  supply  of  water;  and  whose 
absurdity  must  be  evident  to  any  one  acquainted 
with  Newton's  chapter  on  the  Laws  of  Motion. 

It  is  curious  that,  long  before  Newton's  time,  the 
physical  axiom,  that  the  perpetual  motion  is  impos- 
sible, was  assumed  by  Stevinus  as  a  foundation  for 
the  science  of  Statics.  This  is  particidarly  interest- 
ing when  we  compare  it  with  the  magnificent  dis- 
coveries which  have  been  evolved  in  our  own  day 
from  the  same  principle  applied  to  the  phj^sical  forces 
generally,  and  not  to  gravitation  alone,  as  contem- 
plated by  Stevinus.  His  process  is  as  follows  :  Let 
an  endless  chain  of  imif  omi 
weight  be  passed  round  a 
smooth  triangular  prism 
ABC,  of  -which  the  face 
BC  is  horizontal    The  free 

portion  of  the  chain  BDC    B  ^ 5  c 

will  hang  in  a  symmetrical 
curve  (Catenary,  q.  v.), 
and  its  tension  will  there- 
fore be  the  same  at  B  and 
at  C.  Hence  the  other 
portion  BAC  of  the  chain 

will  be  free  to  move,  unless  the  resolved  part  of 
the  weight  of  AB,  acting  down  the  indinea  plane 
AB,  just  balance  that  of  the  corresponding  portion 
of  the  cham  down  AC.  If  these  balance,  the 
parallelogram  of  forces  is  proved;  if  not,  one  side 
will  preponderate,  and  we  shall  evidently  obtain 
the  perpetual  motion. 

We  will  briefly  sketch  the  history  of  the  simpler 
part  of  the  problem,  whe're  mechanical  and  hydro- 
statical  arrangements  alone  are  contemplated,  and 
where  the  impossibihtv  of  procuring  the  perpetual 
motion  had  been  completely  shewn  by  Newton. 

The  leading  features  of  the  various  devices  sug- 
gested as  self-moving  engines  are  three :  1.  The 
machine  being  a  combmation  of  mechanical  powers 
driven  by  weights,  was  to  be  constructed  so  as  con- 
stantly to  wind  up  those  weights  as  they  fell,  and 
therefore  to  be  constantly  in  the  same  circumst-ances 
as  to  power  in  each  successive  complete  revolution. 
The  ideal  of  this,  in  its  simplest  form,  is  that  of  a 
wheel  moving  about  a  horizontal  axis,  and  so  adjust- 
ing certain  heavy^  sliding  piecds  on  its  surface,  as  to 
have  always  a  preponderance  on  one  particular  side 
2.  The  type  of  the  second  class  differs  from  that  of 
the  first  only  in  the  substitution  of  liquids  for  the 
weights  in  the  first  class,  and  the  consequent 
introduction  (often  in  most  extravagant  forms)  of 


PERPETUAL  MOTION. 


by/lrostatica]  laws,  which  tite  invsnton  B«em  to 
conaidtriiii  leaa  certaia  and  more  pliable  thaa  the 
■tem  fftcts  of  commtm  mechuiica.  3.  The  machine 
depeniU  on  some  ontural  power,  Buch  as  rain,  change 
of  temperature,  wind,  fluutu&tiunH  of  the  barometei 
tides,  <l:c.  The  consideration  of  this  third  oluB  J 
Veiy  interesting,  but  we  will  defer  it  for  a  little. 

Of  the  fint  cksB,  the  only  machines  that  seei 
Vrer  to  have  ancceeded  in  permanentlr  deceiTing  any 
but  their  invenWra  are  those  of  the  Marquis  of 
Worcester  and  of  Councillor  Orf^reus.  Contem- 
porary with  the  former  was  Bishop  Wilkins,  who 
candidly  and  ingenioualy  points  out  the  fallacies  of 
various  devic«s  of  his  own,  depending  sevarally  on 
weighte,  on  magnets,  and  on  Archimedea's  screw. 
Hit  first  attempt  seems  to  have  been  closely  allied 
to  that  of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  of  whose  engine 
we  bave  no  drawing,  and  only  a  very  vague  descrip- 
tion.   The  following  figures  give  ua,  however,  sooie 


Kshop  Wilkins'a  Firtt  Form. 


Id  all  three,  the  attempt  is  by  the  sliding  of  tbc 
balls  in  their  celli,  or  by  the  turning  of  the  levers 
to  give  de  prepondenuce  to  the  descending  aide  at 


Merlin's  Ferpetnal  Motion. 

the  wheel  But  even  the  cuts  shew  that,  tiMiiah 
the  weights  on  the  descending  side  are  on  the  whola 
further  from  the  Biia  of  the  wheel  than  those  on 
the  ascending  side,  yet  there  are  more  batU  on  the 
latter  tbaiQ  on  the  former  aide  ;  and  a  careful  exami- 
nation, like  that  made  by  Wilkins,  shews  that  their 
moments  in  opposite  directions  about  the  axia 
balance  each  other.  With  reference  to  the  invention 
of  the  Marquis  of  Worcester — who  ia  otherwise  well 
known  as  one  of  the  first  to  foresee,  and  even  in 
part  to  realise  ejcperimen tally,  the  advantage  of  steam 
as  a  motive-power —we  find  tlie  following  in  his 
CaUvry  of  Inwntiona:  '  An  Advanfagmiu  Change  <^ 
Centers. — To  prouide  and  make  that  all  y*  weights  of 
T*  descending  ayde  of  a  wbeele  shol  be  perpetually 
further  from  y*  center,  then  those  of  y*  mounting 
syde,  and  yett  equall  in  number  and  heft  of  y*  one 
Hyde  as  y*  other.  A  most  incredible  thing  if  not 
seene,  butt  tryed  before  y*  late  King  of  happy 
and  glorious  memorye  in  y*  Tower  by  my  directions, 
two  Eitraordnary  Embassadors  accompanying  his 
Ma"*  and  y*  D.  of  Richmond,  D.  HamilUtn,  and 
X  part  of  y*  Court  attending  him.  The  wbeele 
U  foots  ouer,  and  40  weights  of  SO  p''  apiece ; 
"— n  Lieu'  Oi  y*  Tower,  and 
irith  seueraL  utbers ;  They 
•  these  great  weights  passed 
'  '  '  "  y  bung  a 
r  pasMd 

the  Diameter  Line  of  the  lower  syde.  butt  they  hang 
a  foote  nearer ;  bee  pleased  to  ]adge  y*  consequence.' 

The  machine  of  Orlfyreus,  by  which 'S  Gravesande 
was  completely  taken  in,  so  much  so  that  he  wrote 
to  Newton  elpresaing  his  belief  that  the  perpetual 
motion  was  roilly  found,  consisted  of  a  large  wheel 
or  drum  covered  with  canvas,  to  prevent  the  interior 
from  beingseen,  and  rotating  about  a  thick  horizon- 
tal aile.  This  machine,  when  set  agoing  in  either 
direction,movedwithacceleratedspeedtiU  it  reached 
d  rate  of  twenty-five  turns  in  a  minute ;  and  on  one 
occasion  was  sealed  up  by  the  HUector  of  Cassel  for 
two  months,  and  at  the  expiratiou  uf  that  time  found 
to  be  moving  as  ra[iid]y  as  ever.  This,  like  the  cele- 
brated automaton  chess-player,  was  evidently  a  case 
of  clever  imposition  ;  and  but  for  its  strange  effect 

*  See  Harleian  H3.,  No.  21S8,  in  the  Britdih  Hoseom. 


PERPETUAL  MOTION. 


en  "8  Onvesande,  would  probably  h&ve  been  for 
fatten  long  kgo.  Tricka  of  thU  kind,  more  or  leai 
ineenioiu,  aueh  u  that  of  Spence  of  Linlithgon 
(iSlS).  which  nuinf  of  oar  readen  maj  recollect 
ue  itill  cammaD,  especially  in  America. 

Bialiop  Wiikina'g  third  form  a  a  good  eiampli 
of  the  second  clasa  of  contriTancei  above  meq- 
tunted.    Its  constnictioD  will  be  readily  underatood 


Biahop  WiUdns'i  Third  Fomu 

from  the  annexed  out.  The  water-wheela,  driven 
by  the  deecending  water,  are  intended  to  tarn  the 
Archimedean  screw,  bo  as  conatantly  to  repleniah 
the  tank  above.  Wilkina's  calm  investigation  of 
tbe  reaaona  why  his  device  will  not  saoceed,  is 
veiy  interesting  and  creditable. 

Al  a  contrait,  let  ng  take  a  oaoe  of  special 
•iMurdity,  that  of  Horwood.  In  the  figure,  it  ii 
•upposed   that,  as   the  weight    of   the  water   or 


remove  or  annihilate  (without  expenditure  of  w 
the   action  of  the   loadstone  during  the  € 
Unfortunately,  the  law  of  m 


Biahop  Wilkina's  aeoond  Form. 

■ame  as  that  of  gravitation,  and  what  ia  impossible 
with  the  one,  must  be  equally  so  with  Hie  other. 
A  good  illustration  of  this  is  Addcloy's  Perpetual 
Motion,  represeated  in  the  annexed  sketch.  The 
spokes  projecting  from  tlie  wheel  are  magnets, 
whose  south  pules  are  all  turned  from  the  centra. 
These  are  attracted  by  the  north  poles  (N),  and 


Norvood'a  Peipetual  MotiozL 

■lercniy  in  the  lar^je  vessel  immensely  exceeds  that 
in  the  necli,  it  will  preponderate,  and  drive  the 
liquid  thniueh  the   apout    into   the   vessel   again; 
thereby  furnishing,  not  only  an  admirable  perpetual 
motion,  but  a  conclusive   dtaproof  of  one  oE  the 
fundamental  laws  of  Hydroatatics. 

The  second  of  Wilkina's  cases  is  an  instructive  one. 
It  dep     " 

from  tl .  ....._ 

draws  the  iron  ball  C  up  the  inclined  plane  to  E, 
where  there  is  a  hole  through  which  tite  bal!  'alls 
down  the  carved  incline,  pushes  open  a  trap  at  F, 
and  is  dragged  again  np  the  plane  by  the  loadstone. 
The  error  of  this  ia  the  neglect  of  the  action  of  the 
loadstone  on  the  fiJling  lull  There  wonld  be  an 
admirable  case  of  the  perpetual  motion  if  we  ooold 


Addeley's  Perpetual  Motion. 

repelled  by  the  south  pales  (S)  of  four  fixed  mag- 
nets ;  and  blotiks  of  wood  (A)  are  interposed,  to 
prevent  magnetic  action  where  it  would  tend  to  stDp 
the  machine  1  If  it  were  possible  to  find  a  sub- 
stance which  would  deal  witb  gravitation  or  mag- 
netism as  an  o|)aque  liody  does  wit)i  light  (casting  a 
shadow),  the  perpetual  motion  would  be  obtained 
with  the  greatest  case. 
A  tedioua 

ception  of  their  laws  has  led  to  hundreds  of  ]>at«nted 
schemes  for  tbe  production  of  perpetual  motion. 
We  may  merely  hint  at  magneto-electric  machines 
turned  by  electro- magnetic  engines,  to  which  they 
supply  the  electric  cuirente ;  electric  machines, 
driven  by  a  gaa-engine,  the  fuel  for  which  is  supplied 
by  tbe  decomposition  of  water  by  the  electricity 
produced,  Ac  ;  the  abaurditrj'  of  all  of  which  may 
be  imagined  from  the  perfectly  analogous  case  of  a 
Steam-engine  to  which  heat  might  be  supposed  li 


PERPETUAL  MOTION— PERPETUITIES. 


be  snpplied  by  the  friction  of  bodies  driven  by  the 
en^ne  itself.  An  excellent  example  of  this  absurdity 
is  famished  by  the  writings  of  one  of  oar  ablest 
geologists.  He  considers  that  the  internal  heat  of 
the  earth  may  be  due  to  chemical  combination,  that 
the  heat  so  produced  ma^  develop  thermo-electric 
currents,  ana  that  these  m  their  turn  may  decom- 
pose the  compounds  formed,  so  that  the  process 
may  go  on  indefinitely. 

But  the  third*  class  of  attempts  above  described 
merits  a  few  words.  It  certainly  does  not  give  the 
perpetual  motion,  but  it  is  capable  of  fnmishinir 
prime-moyers  which  wiU  work  nointerraptedl^  for 

Serhaps  hnndreds  of  thousands  of  years.  Tms  is 
one,  nowever,  as  we  should  expect,  at  the  expense 
of  other  stores  of  energy  in  the  universe.  Thus, 
the  tide- wheel,  or  tidal  engine,  a  little- used  but 
most  effective  source  of  power,  derives  its  energy 
entirely  from  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation.  £h)gines 
driven  by  collected  rain-water,  such  as  mill- wheels, 
Ac.,  and  others  driven  by  power  stored  up  from 
winds,  &c.,  depend  upon  energy  radiated  from  the 
sun,  mainly  in  the  form  of  heat.  None  of  these 
can,  therefore,  in  strictness  be  called  the  perpetual 
motion,  since  the  energy  of  the  earth's  rotation,  or 
of  the  sun's  heat,  is  drawn  upon  in  their  production. 

But  the  complete  proof  of  the  impossibility  of 
procuring  the  perpetual  motion  by  any  arrangement 
whatever,  involving  any  known -forces,  was  arrived 
at  mainly  by  the  experiments  of  Joule  (q.  v.),  who 
shewed  that  the  principle  of  the  Conservation  of 
Elnergy  extends,  not  alone  to  the  forces  for  which  it 
was  enunciated  by  Newton,  but  to  every  known 
form  of  physical  action.  The  date  1840 — 1845 
may  thus  be  said  to  have  finally  settled  this  long- 
disputed  question ;  at  all  events,  until  new  forms  of 
physical  forces  may  happen  to  be  discovered;  and 
we  are  now  in  a  position  to  do  generally,  what  was 
wisely  done  by  the  French  Academy  in  1775  for 
ordinary  mechanical  contrivances  alone — ^viz.,  refuse 
to  consider  any  scheme  whatever  which  pretends  to 
give  work  without  corresponding  and  equivalent 
exx)enditure.  The  lan^age  in  which  this  decision 
of  the  French  Academy  is  recorded  [Histaire 
de  VAcadSmie,  1775)  is  well  worthy  of  being  quoted, 
for  its  calm  scientific  clearness  and  brevity,  and 
for  its  present  applicability  to  physical  science  in 
general :  *  The  construction  of  a  perpetual  motion  is 
mipossible.  Even  if  the  effect  of  the  motive-power 
were  not  in  the  long  run  destroyed  by  friction  and 
the  resistance  of  the  medium  [in  which  the  motion 
takes  place],  this  power  conld  produce  merely  an 
effect  equivalent  to  itself.  In  order,  therefore,  to 
produce  a  perpetual  effect  from  a  finite  cause,  that 
effect  must  be  infinitely  small  in  any  finite  time. 
Neglecting  friction  and  resistance,  a  body  to  which 
motion  h^  been  given  will  retain  it  for  ever ;  but 
only  on  condition  of  its  not  acting  on  other  bodies, 
and  the  only  perpetual  motion  possible,  on  this 
hypothesis  (which,  oesides,  cannot  occur  in  nature), 
would  be  useless  for  the  object  which  the  devisers 
of  perpetual  motions  have  in  view.  This  species  of 
research  has  the  inconvenience  of  being  costly;  it 
has  ruined  many  a  family ;  and  numerous  mechanics, 
who  might  have  done  great  service,  have  wasted  on 
it  their  means,  their  time,  and  their  talents. 

*  These  are  the  principal  motives  which  have  led 
the  Academy  to  its  decision.  In  resolving  that  it 
will  no  longer  notice  such  speculations,  it  simply 
declares  its  opinion  of  the  uselessness  of  the  labours 
of  those  who  are  devoted  to  them.' 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  infatuation  of  the 
perpetual  motionists,  who  (as  may  be  seen  by  a 
glance  at  the  specifications  of  patents  in  Britain, 
France,  Belgium,  America,  ftc)  are  perhaps  more 
aomexoiis  now  than  ever   is  dae  to  two  causes — 


one,  the  idea  that  the  perpetual  motion  is  a  lost 
but  recoverable  invention;'  the  other,  that  some 
immense  government  reward  has  been  for  years  laid 
aside  for  tne  successful  discoverer.  But,  unhappily, 
these  ideas  are  as  fallacious  as  the  grand  delusion 
itself ;  and  an  v  one  who,  in  the  present  state  of  science, 
allows  himself  to  be  carried  away  by  this  fascinat- 
ing inquiry,  loses  his  time  and  wastes  his  talents, 
more  hopelessly  than  even  a  '  squarer  of  the  circle.' 

In  conclusion,  we  may  mention  a'  few  of  the 
cases  already  hinted  at,  in  which  the  impossibiliiy 
of  the  perpetual  motion  formed  the  basis  of  an 
investigation.  These  will  shew  the  great  use 
which  may  be  made  of  even  a  negative  proposition. 
Helmholtz  has  shewn  from  it  that  the  ultimate 
particles  of  matter  must  exert  upon  each  other  forces, 
whose  direction  is  that  of  the  Une  joining  each  pair 
of  particles,  and  whose  magnitude  depends  solely  on 
their  distance.  J.  Thomson  employed  it  to  shew  that 
the  freezing-point  of  water  is  lowered  by  pressure, 
as  otherwise  work  might  be  created  by  the  freezing 
of  ice-cold  water.  W.  Thomson  has  employed  it 
to  shew  that  a  diamagnetic  (see  Diamaonetism) 
body  does  not  take  the  opposite  magnetism  to  iron, 
when  in  similar  circumstances ;  for  if  it  did,  and 
if,  like  iron,  it  took  time  for  the  full  development 
of  the  action,  a  perpetual  motion  might  be  produced. 

The  literature  of  this  subject  is  very  extensive, 
but  scattered  mainly  through  Patent  Records  and 
ephemeral  pamphleto.  The  Journal  des  Savants, 
and  Montucla's  Histoire  des  Malhematiques  may  be 
consulted ;  but  especially  we  would  refer  the  curious 
reader  to  a  recent  work  by  Mr  Dircks  (of  Patent- 
Ghost  notoriety)  entitled  Perpetuum  MobiU  (Spon, 
London,  1861) ;  to  which  we  have  been  indebted  for 
some  of  our  historical  notices.  The  tenor  of  the 
work  is  such  that  we  cannot  easily  discover  whether 
the  author  is  a  perpetual-motionist  or  not;  but, 
however  this  may  be,  it  is  extremely  complete  and 
interesting  as  a  history.  ^ 

PERPETUITIES,  Law  against,  consists  in  a 
rule  adopted  in  England  to  the  effect  that  property 
cannot  be  tied  up  for  a  period  longer  tnan  the 
lives  of  some  parties  already  in  exis&nce,  and  21 
years  more.  Those  who  have  the  power  of  disiK)sing 
of  their  property  have  often  attempted  to  regulate 
the  succession  of  their  estate  at  distant  periods. 
Such  was  the  object  of  the  original  practice  of 
entailing  property,  and  so  enforcing  the  devolution 
of  property  on  a  certain  series  of  heirs  to  th^ 
remotest  generations.  This  power  of  testators  was 
always  looked  upon  with  jealousy,  as  tending  to 
embarrass  future  dealings  with  the  property,  and 
frustrate  the  purposes  for  which  property  is  estab- 
lished. So  early  as  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  a 
decision  was  come  to  by  the  courts  in  Taltarum's 
case,  which  had  the  effect  of  allowing  the  first 
tenant  in  tail  in  remainder,  on  arriving  at  majority, 
to  disentail  the  estate  at  discretion.  Hence,  in 
England,  there  has  been  ever  since  no  mode  of 
settling  property  in  any  way  so  as  to  tie  it  up 
beyond  the  life  of  the  nrst  who  takes  an  estate  of 
freehold,  and  the  nonage  of  the  tenant  in  tail  next 
in  remainder — L  e.,  the  uves  of  persons  in  existence, 
and  21  years  more.  This  principle  applies  not  only 
to  land,  but  to  personal  property.  As  to  the 
accumulation  of  the  income  of  property,  an  attempt 
was  made  by  the  late  Mr  Thdlusson  to  create  an 
immense  fortune  by  directing  the  income  of  his 
property  to  be  aocumtdated  during  the  lives  of 
all  his  children,  grandchildren,  and  great-grand- 
children, who  were  living  at  the  time  of  his  death,- 
for  the  benefit  of  some  future  descendants,  to  be 
living  at  l^e  death  of  the  survivor.  The  probable 
amount  of  the  accumulated  fund  was  expected  to 

be  19  millions.     The  will  was  in  great  measur* 

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PERPIGNAN— PERSECUTIONS. 


defeated  by  the  existing  law,  but  in  consequence  of 
80  conspicuous  an  attempt,  an  act  of  parliament 
was  passed,  oalled  the  Thellusson  Act  (39  and  40 
Geo.  IJL  c  98),  which  in  future  forbids  the  accumu- 
lation of  income  for  any  longer  time  than  the  life 
of  the  granter  or  settler,  or  21  years  from  his  death. 
In  Scotland,  so  far  from  the  above  doctrines  having 
been  early  adopted,  the  contrary  doctrine  was 
established.    See  Entail. 

PERPIGNAN,  a  town  of  France,  and  a  fortress 
of  the  first  rank,  cajiital  of  the  department  of 
Pyr§n6es-0rientales,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river 
Tet,  5  miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  40  miles 
by  railway  south  of  Narbonne.  It  commands  the 
passage  by  the  Eastern  Pyrenees  from  Spain  into 
France,  and  is  defended  on  the  south  by  a  citadel 
and  by  ramparts  flanked  with  bastions,  and  pro- 
tected by  raised  works.  The  works  underwent  a 
thorough  repair  in  18*23,  and  P.  now  ranks  as  one 
of  the  first  strongholds  in  France.  Its  appearance 
is  exceedingly  picturesque.  From  a  distance,  its 
houses  are  seen  in  the  midst  of  a  forest  of  orchards ; 
and  a  closer  examination  shews  a  collection  of 
narrow  streets,  covered  with  awnings;  houses  of 
semi-Moresque  construction,  with  wooden  balconies 
and  courts,  and  other  evidences  of  Spanish  influence. 
The  cathedrid,  a  massive  building,  oegun  in  1324; 
the  belfry  of  St  Jacques  and  the  Castiller  (now 
used  as  a  military  prison),  with  its  battlements  and 
machicolations,  give  character  to  the  town.  P. 
contains  barracks  for  5000  men,  a  council-house, 
palace  of  justice,  mint,  a  college,  numerous  schools, 
museums,  and  scientific  societies.  Good  vin  ordinaire 
(red)  is  grown  in  the  vicinity;  woollen  cloths, 
playing-cards,  leather,  &c.,  are  manufactured,  and 
there  is  a  good  trade  in  wine,  brandy,  wool,  and 
silk.    Pop.  18,199. 

P.,  as  capitsd  of  the  former  county  of  Roussillon, 
remained  long  in  the  hands  of  the  kin^  of  Aragon, 
and  in  1349,  King  Pedro  founded  a  university  here. 
In  1642,  it  was  taken  by  Louis  XIII. ;  and  since 
that  time,  the  town  itself,  together  with  the  county 
of  Roussillon,  has  remained  in  the  possession  of  the 
French. 

PBRRAULT,  Charles,  a  French  writer,  bom 
at  Paris,  12th  January  1628,  was  the  son  of  an 
advocate,  and  received  a  good  education.  In  1651, 
he  became  a  member  of  the  Paris  bar,  and  obtained 
a  considerable  measure  of  success  as  a  pleader; 
f>ut  having  made  the  acquaintance  of  the  minister 
Colbert,  he  was  erelong  diverted  from  the  practice 
of  his  profession  by  receiving  the  appointment  of 
Controller-general  of  the  Royu  Buildings.  In  1671, 
the  influence  of  Colbert  procured  for  him  an  en- 
trance into  the  French  Academy,  into  which  learned 
body  he  introduced  several  important  reforms. 
What  first  made  his  name  well  known  was  his 
famous  controversy  with  Boileau  regarding  the 
comparative  merits  of  the  ancients  and  moderns, 
which  criminated  in  a  poem  of  P.*s,  entitled  Le  Siicle 
de  Louis  le  Orandy  read  before  his  confreres  of  the 
Academy,  and  intended  to  prove  that  modem  authors 
were  superior  to  Homer,  Herodotus,  Plato,  Aristotle, 
Virgil,  &c.  It  was  followed  up  by  an  elaborate  and 
methodically  written  ParallUe  ae»  Anciens  et  des 
Modernea  (4  vols.  1688—1698),  which,  though  an 
able  and  learned  performance,  is  a  complete  failure 
in  its  logic  Boileau  was  his  keenest  opponent,  and 
fiercely,  not  to  say  rudely,  assailed  him  in  his 
Biflexians  eur  Longin,  to  which  P.  replied  with 
equal  acrimony,  but  not  with  equal  wit,  in  his 
Apologie  des  Femniea  (1694).  One  ^ood  efiect  of 
this  quarrel  was  to  turn  P.'s  attention  still  more 
closely  and  critically  to  his  contemporaries,  the 
result  of  which  was  an  admirable  work,  Hommes 


lUwAres  du  Si^de  de  Louts  XIV.,  containing  200 
critical  biographies.  But  the  work  that  has  far 
more  than  any  other  preserved  his  name  is  his  CorUe$ 
des  FSeSf  or  Fairy  Tales.  See  Noveia  The  erace, 
liveliness,  and  ingenious  child-like  fancy  disjilayed 
in  these  charming  compositions,  are  beyond  all 
praise,  and  when  we  remember  that  their  author 
was  far  advanced  in  years  when  he  wrote  them, 
the  feat  seems  miraculous.  '  Second  childhood '  ia 
not  always  so  like  the  '  first,'  as  that  of  P.  seems 
to  have  been.    P.  died  16th  May  170a 

PERRY,  an  agreeable  beverage  made  by  ferment- 
ing the  juice  of  pears.  It  is  extensively  made  in 
Worcestershire,  Gloucestershire,  Herefordshire,  and 
Devonshire,  and  forms,  with  cider,  the  chief  diet- 
drink  of  those  districts.  It  contains  from  five  to 
nine  per  cent,  of  alcohol  The  best  pears  for  making 
perry  are  those  which  from  their  rough  taste  are 
least  agreeable  for  eating. 

PE'RSEA.    See  Avocado  Peab. 

PBRSECU'TIONS,  The  Ten,  of  the  Christian 
Church,  is  the  name  by  which  are  known  in  eccle- 
siastical history  certain  periods  of  special  seventy 
exercised  towards  the  rising  community  of  Christians, 
for  the  purpose  of  comi)elling  them  to  renounce  their 
new  creed,  and  to  conform  to  the  established  religion 
of  the  empire.  The  Christian  community  were  at 
all  times  regarded  with  suspicion  and  dislike  in  the 
Roman  empire— the  constitution  of  Rome  not  only 
being  essentially  intolerant  of  those  new  religions 
whicn,  like  the  Christian,  were  directly  aggressive 
against  the  established  religion  of  the  state,  but 
being  particularly  hostile  to  private  associations 
and  private  assemblages  for  worship,  such  as  those 
whicn  every  Christian  congregation  by  its  very 
nature  presented;  and  thus  there  are  Tery  fev 
periods,  during  the  first  three  centuries,  in  which  it 
can  be  said  that  the  church  enjoyed  everywhere  a 
complete  immunity  from  i)ersecution.  But  the 
name  is  given  particularly  to  certain  periods  when 
either  new  enactments  were  passed  against  Chris- 
tianity, ot  the  existing  ones  were  enforced  with 
unusual  rigour.  The  notion  of  ten  such  periods  is 
commonly  accepted  almost  as  an  historical  axiom; 
and  it  is  not  generally  known  that  this  precise 
determination  of  the  number  is  comparatively  recent 
In  the  4th  c,  no  settled  theory  of  the  number  of 
persecutions  seems  to  have  been  adopted.  Lac- 
tantius  reckons  up  but  six  ;  Eusebiiis  does  not  state 
what  the  number  was,  but  his  narrative  supphes 
data  for  nine.  Sulpicius  Severus,  in  the  5th  c.,  is 
the  first  who  expressly  states  the  number  at  ten; 
but  he  only  enumerates  nine  in  detail,  and  in 
completing  the  number  to  ten,  he  adds  the  general 
persecution  which,  at  the  coming  of  Antichrist, 
IS  to  precede  the  end  of  the  world.  The  fixing  of 
ten  as  the  number  seems  to  have  originated  in  a 
mystic  allusion  to  the  ten  horns  of  the  beast  in  the 
Apocalypse  (xvii.  12). 

It  need  hardly  be  said,  however,  that  this  is  only 
a  question  of  words,  the  diversity  of  eniuneratioa 
arising  from  the  different  notions  attached  by  the 
several  historians  to  the  designation  ^neroL  If 
taken  quite  strictly  to  comprise  the  entire  Roman 
empire,  the  number  must  fall  below  ten ;  if  used  more 
loosely  of  local  persecutions,  the  number  might  be  very 
largely  increased.  The  ten  persecutions  commonly 
regarded  as  general  are  the  following :  the  persecu- 
tion under  Nero,  64  A.D. ;  under  Domitian,  95  a.d.  ; 
under  Trajan,  107  a.d.  ;  under  Hadrian,  125  a.ix  ; 
imder  Marcus  Aurelius,  165  a.d.  ;  under  Septimius 
Severus,  202  a.d.  ;  under  Maximinus,  235  a.d.  ; 
under  Decius,  249  A.D. ;  under  Valerianus,  257  a.i>.  ; 
under  Diocletian,  303  A.D.  The  extent  and  iii» 
duration  of  some  of  these  have  been  the  subject  of 


sble  controTtmy,  Mid  indeed  aq  kuim&ted 
m  VIM  nuintkined  '  -   <   .     . . 

Mble  tot4l  number 
ioDB  Ot  the  chorch.  Such 
the  (copt  of  thi«  pablicatioa.  It  is  quite 
th&t  there  htve  been  exaggention*  un  the 
iL  u  veli  us  oQ  the  adverae  aide  ;  but  it  h^a 
i»]]  beyond  the  pouibility  of  doubt,  and  the 
wnt  expJoratioiu  have  continued  the  iga- 
Jiat  the  datk  on  which  the  estimates  of 
and  QibboD,  the  most  prominent  advocstea 
heoiy  of  the  Bmall  number,  were  founded, 
«rtaui,  and  even  faUacioua  ;  and  that,  not  to 
the  many  victiras  of  the  eooatantiy  rnour. 
il  violencei,  the  number  who  fell  in  each  of 
ce-usined  penecutioni  was  both  large  in 
d  spread,  Id  moat  caaea,  over  a  considerable 
£  the  Koroan  erapira.  The  nioet  violent,  aa 
he  moat  widely-apreod  of  these  ^reecutiana, 
«e  under  Nero,  Trajan,  Mazimiuus,  Decius, 
detian.  The  last-named,  thoujtb  called  bv 
id's  name,  wm  in  reality  far  less  the  work 
imperor  than  ot  his  colleague  Galeriaa  ;  but 
itremely  cruel,  and,  with  occasional  inter- 
continued  from  the  year  303  down  to  the 
if  Conatantine  over  Maieutius — a  period  of 
in  yeara. 

ETOLIS  (Persian  City),  the  Oreelt  trana- 
the  lost  name  of  the  capital  of  ancient 
Paraa-Kartal),  waa  situated  on  the  river 
Bendemir),  to  the  east  of  the  river  Mediu  r 
or  River  ot  Murghab),  in  the  plain  of 
t,  About  36  milea  to  Uu   north-eatt    of 


Sbirai,  oo  the  road  to  Ispahan.  A  certain  number 
of  moat  remarkable  ruins  is  all  that  now  remains  ol 
that  city,  with  which,  according  to  ancient  writer*, 
'no  other  city  oould  be  compared  either  in  beauty 
or  in  wealth,  and  which  waa  generally  designated 
'The  Glory  of  the  East.'  Darius  Hystaapea, 
Xerxesf  Artaxerzea,  and  other  Achiemeniaes,  each 
in  hii  turn  contributed  towards  ita  a^Ki^ndisemeot. 
Alex^Lnder  the  Great,  in  his  march  ot  conquest,  ia 
Slid  to  have  destroyed  P.  completely ;  but  this 
must  probably  only  be  understood  to  apply  to  soma 
of  the  chief  palaces.  It  may  also  be  presumed  that 
after  the  fall  of  the  Achtemenidet,  that  extension  of 
the  original  town  (afterwards  known,  and  important 
in  history  up  to  within  a  recent  period,  as  Istakhar), 
on  which  were  situated  the  royal  edihces  and 
temples  used  as  the  royal  treasuries  up  to  the  time  of 
Epiphanes,  gradually  fell  into  decay.  The  situation 
of  these  structuree,  overlooking  the  vast  luxuriant 
plain  of  Merdusht,  Ii  described  in  terms  of  rapturous 
euthusiasm  by  every  traveller  from  Chardin  to  our 
own  day.  Three  groups  are  chieSy  distinguishable  in 
the  vast  ruins  existing  on  the  spot.  First,  the 
Chehel  Min&r  (Forty  PUlars),  with  the  Mountain  of 
the  Tombs  (Rachmed).  also  called  Takht-i-Jamshtd 
or  the  structure  of  Jamahld,  aft«r  twme  fabnlous 
ancient  king,  popularly  supposed  to  be  the  founder 
of  Persepolil,  The  next  in  order  is  Nakah-i. 
Buatam,  to  the  north-west,  with  its  tombs;  and  the 
last,  the  building  called  the  Haram  of  Jamshtd. 
The  most  important  ia  the  firat  group,  situated  on 
a  vast  terrace  of  cyulopean  masonry  at  the  foot  of 
» loft7  monntain-iange,     The  extent  of  this  tartkc* 


SOO  feet  Dorth-by-Bouth,  and  about  SnO  esat- 
and  it  waa,  according  to  Diodorua  Sicnlua, 
■oonded  by  a  tripU  wall  ot  16,  .12,  and  60 
spectively  in  height^  for  the  triple  purmae 
atreogth,  inipinng  awe,  and  defence.  The 
temaf  area  la  further  divided  into  three 
-the  loweat  towarda  the  aouth;  the  central 
I  feet  square,  and  rising  45  feet  a1>ove  the 
id  the  third,  the  northern,  about  5S0  feet 

35  feet  high.  No  traces  of  structures  are 
rood    on    the   loweet   platform  ;    on   the 

only  ttia  ao-called  '  Propylea '  of  Xerxes  ; 
aitral  platform  aeems  to  have  been  occupied 
iremoat  atmcturea,  which  again,  however, 
1  ^pear  to  have  atood  on  the  same  level. 
I  distinguished  here  the  so-called 'Great  Hall 
I'DaUtdiChehalMinftr,  by  way  of  eminence), 
X  of  Xerxea,  and  the  Palace  of  Darius, 
one  above  th«  other  in  Buccessive  elevation  , 
ground.    IIib  atone  used  for  the  buildings  ; 


ia  dark-gray  marble,  cut  into  gigantic  square  blocks, 
and  in  many  cases  eiquisitely  (mlished.  The  ascent 
from  the  plain  to  the  great  northern  pUtforra  i« 
formed  by  two  doable  flights,  the  Btcna  of  which 
are  nearly  22  feet  wide,  ^4  iochea  high,  and  IS 
inches  in  the  tread,  so  that  several  travellerB  bar* 
been  able  to  ascend  them  on  horseback.  What 
are  called  the  Propyliea  of  Xenes  on  this  platform 
are  two  masses  of  atone- work,  which  probably  formed 
an  entrance-gateway  for  foot -passengers,  paved  with 
gigantic  slabs  of  polished  marble.  Portals,  still 
standing,  bear  figures  of  animals  15  feet  high,  closely 
resembling  the  Assyrian  bulls  of  Nineveh.  The 
bnilding  itaelf,  conjectured  to  have  been  a  hall  82 
feet  square,  is,  according  to  the  oaneitorm  inscrip- 
tions, *a  interpreted  by  RawUnson,  tbe  Work  of 
Xerxes,  and  reads  as  follows  : 

'The  great  god  Auramajda,  he  it  is  who   has 

Even  this  world,  and  who  has  given  life  to  man- 
nd,  who  has  made  Xerxes   king,  both  king  and 


PERSEUS— PERSIA. 


lawgiver  of  the  peopla  I  am  Xerxes  the  king,  the 
great  king,  the  king  of  kings,  the  king  of  the  many- 
pec  pletl  countries,  the  supporter  also  of  the  great 
wond,  the  son  of  King  Darius,  the  Achiemenian. 

'  Says  Xerxes  the  king,  hy  the  grace  of  Auramajda, 
I  have  made  this  gate  of  entrance ;  there  is  many 
another  Aobler  work  besides  this  Persepolis  which  I 
have  executed,  and  which  my  father  has  executed ;  *  See, 

An  expanse  of  162  feet  divides  this  platform  from 
the  central  one,  which  still  bears  many  of  those 
columns  of  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  from  whicn  the  ruins 
have  taken  their  name.  The  staircase  leading  up  to 
the  Chehel  Min4r,  or  Forty  Pillars,  is,  if  possiole, 
still  more  magnificent  than  the  first ;  and  the  walls 
are  more  8Ui)erbly  decorated  with  sculptures,  repre- 
senting colossal  warriors  with  spears,  gigautic  bulls, 
combats  with  wild  beasts,  processions  and  the  like; 
while  broken  capitals,  shaits,  ]>illar8,  and  countless 
fragments  of  buildings,  with  cuneiform  inscriptions, 
cover  the  whole  vast  space  of  this  platform,  350 
feet  from  north  to  south,  and  380  from  east  to  west. 
The  Great  Hall  of  Xerxes,  perhaps  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  structure  the  world  has  ever  seen, 
is  computed  to  have  been  a  rectangle  of  about  300 — 
350  feet,  and  to  have  consequently  covered  105,000 
square  feet,  or  2^  acres.  The  pillars  were  arranged 
in  four  divisions,  consisting  of  a  centre  group  six 
deep  every  way,  and  an  advanced  body  of  twelve 
in  two  ranks,  the  same  number  flanking  the  centre. 
Fifteen  columns  are  all  that  now  remain  of  the 
number.  Their  form  is  very  beautiful.  Their 
height  is  60  feet,  the  circumference  of  the  shaft  16, 
the  length  from  the  capital  to  the  torus,  44  feet. 
The  shaft  is  finely  fluted  in  52  divisions;  at  its 
lower  extremity  begin  a  cincture  and  a  toms,  the 
first,  two  inches  in  depth,  and  the  latter,  one  foot, 
from  whence  devolves  the  pedestal,  shaped  like  the 
cup  and  leaves  of  the  pendent  lotus,  the  capitals 
having  been  surmounted  by  the  double  semi-bull. 
Behind  the  Hall  of  Xerxes  was  the  so-called 
Hall  of  Hundred  Columns,  to  the  south  of  which  are 
indications  of  another  structure,  which  Fergusson 
terms  the  Central  Edifice.  Next  along  the  west  front 
stood  the  Palace  of  Darius,  and  to  the  south  the 
Palace  of  Xerxes,  measuring  about  86  feet  square, 
similarly  decorated,  and  of  similar  grand  proportions. 
— For  a  further  and  more  minute  description,  we 
refer  to  the  travels  of  Niebuhr,  Ker  Porter,  Kich,  and 
other  travellers ;  to  Fergusson's  Palaces  of  Nineveh 
and  Persepolis  Restored,  and  to  Vaux's  Nineveh  and 
Persepolis,  See  also  the  articles  Cyrus,  Darius, 
Xerxes,  Cuneiform,  and  Persian  Architecturb. 

PE'RSEUS,  also  Perses,  the  last  kins  of  Mace- 
donia, was  the  eldest  son  of  Philip  V.,  and  was  bom 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  3d  c  B.a  He  was  trained 
to  a  military  life  from  his  earliest  years,  and  after 
bringing  about  the  death  of  his  younger  brother, 
Demetnus,  who  was  a  favourite  both  with  the 
Blacedonians  and  the  Romans,  he  succeeded  hif 
father  on  the  throne  179  B.C.  Philip  had  long 
foreseen  that  a  contest  between  Rome  and  Macedon 
was  inevitable,  and  he  had  carefully  prepared  for  it, 
so  that  P.,  on  his  accession,  found  himself  fore- 
armed. Meanwhile,  he  governed  Macedon  with  great 
prudence  and  moderation,  and  became  decidedly 
popular  with  his  subjects  and  neighbours.  Seleucus 
i  v.  (Philopator)  gave  him  his  daughter  Laodice  in 
•marriage  ;  Prusias,  the  Bithynian  king,  married  his 
sister ;  the  Greek  states  looked  favourablv  on  his 
projects,  and  his  envoys  were  well  received  even  at 
CaHhage.  The  Romans  took  the  alarm,  and — after 
some  delusive  negotiations — sent  an  army  into 
Thessaly  (171  B.a).  The  war  lasted  four  years  ;  in 
the  first  three,  the  advantages  were  so  little  on  the 
tide  of  the  Romans,  that  tiiere  was  a  widespread 
feeling  in  P.*8  favour  in  the  oountries  bordering  on 


the  Levant  and  the  Archipelago.  In  the  be^nning 
of  the  fourth  campaign  (168  B.a),  L.  .Emilias 
Paulus  arrived,  and  took  command  of  the  Roman 
forces.  A  great  battle  was  fought  at  Pydna  (June 
22),  in  which  the  army  of  P.  wm  utterly  routed. 
The  king  himself  was  soon  afterwards  forced  to 
surrender,  and  conveyed  to  Rome,  where  he  adorned 
the  triumph  of  the  conqueror.  He  died  in  captivity 
at  Alba,  a  few  years  later. 

PERSEUS,  in  Grecian  Mythology,  the  son  of 
Zeus  and  DanaS  (q.  v.),  and  grandson  of  Acrisiua. 
He  was  brought  up  at  Seriphos,  one  of  the  Cyclades, 
where  Polydectes  reigned,  who,  wishing  to  get  rid 
of  him  for  private  reasons,  sent  him,  when  yet  a 
youth,  to  bring  the  head  of  the  Gorgon  Medusa,  on 
the  pretence  tnat  he  wanted  to  present  it  as  a  bridal 
gift  to  Hippodamia.  P.  set  forth  under  the  protec- 
tion of  Athene  and  Hermes,  the  former  of  whom 
gave  him  a  mirror,  by  which  he  could  see  the 
monster  without  looking  at  her  (for  that  would  have 
changed  him  into  stone) ;  the  latter,  a  sickle ;  while 
the  nymphs  provided  him  with  winged  sandals,  and 
a  helmet  of  Hades,  or  invisible  cap.  After  uimierons 
wonderftd  adventures,  he  reached  the  abode  of 
Medusa,  who  dwelt  near  Tartessus,  on  the  coast  of 
the  ocean,  and  succeeded  in  cutting  off  her  head, 
which  he  put  into  a  bag,  and  carried  off.  On  his 
return,  he  visited  Ethiopia,  where  he  liberated  and 
married  Andromeda,  by  whom  he  subsequently  bad 
a  numerous  familv,  and  arrived  at  Seriphos  in  time 
to  rescue  his  mother  from  the  annoyance  of  the  too 
ardent  addresses  of  Polydectes,  whom,  along  with 
some  of  his  companions,  he  changed  into  stone. 
After  this,  he  went  to  Argoe,  from  which  Acrisius 
fled  to  Thessaly,  and  P.  assumed  the  vacant  throne. 
But  this,  like  many  other  details  of  the  myth,  is 
differently  narrated.  P.  was  worshipped  as  a  hero  in 
various  parts  of  Greece,  and,  according  to  Herodotus, 
in  Egypt  too.  In  ancient  works  of  art,  the  figure  of 
P.  much  resembles  that  of  Hermes. 

PERSEVE'RANOB  OF  SAINTS,  a  doctrine 
necessarily  resulting  from  the  most  essential  parts 
of  the  Calvinistic  system,  and  therefore  held  by 
almost  all  who  adopt  the  Calvinistic  or  Augustinian 
doctrines.  It  is  advocated  not  only  by  arguments 
from  other  doctrines,  as  those  of  election,  atone- 
ment, the  intereession  and  mediatorial  dominion  of 
Christ,  imputed  righteousness,  and  regeneration, 
but  also  from  many  texts  of  Scripture,  as  those 
which  declare  eternal  life  to  be  always  connected 
with  believing,  and  those  which  encourage  the 
believer  to  depend  on  the  faithfulness,  love,  and 
omnipotence  of  God.  To  an  objection  very  com- 
monly urged  against  it,  that  it  tends  to  make  men 
careless  concerning  virtue  and  holiness,  its  advocates 
reply,  that  this  objection  is  only  valid  against  a 
doctrine  very  different  from  theirs,  the  true  doctrine 
of  Perseverance  of  Saints  being  one  of  perseverance 
in  holiness,  and  giving  no  encouragement  to  a  con- 
fidence of  final  salvation  which  is  not  connected 
with  a  present  and  even  an  increasing  holiness. 

PE'RSHORB,  a  market-town  in  the  county  of 
Woreester,  and  9  miles  south-east  of  the  city  of 
that  name,  on  the  Avon.  It  contains  two  churches — 
that  of  St  Andrew's,  small  and  ancient;  and  the 
ohuroh  of  the  Holy  Cross,  in  Norman  and  Early 
English,  with  a  lofty  sqnare  tower.  This  church  is 
the  only  remaining  portion  of  the  ancient  abbey- 
church  of  the  same  name.  Popi  (1861)  2905,  who 
are  employed  in  wool-staplinjB^  in  manufacturing 
agricultural  implements,  and  in  raising  fruits  and 
vegetables  for  the  markets  of  the  large  manofactor- 
ing  towns  in  the  vicinity. 

PE'RSIA,  called  by  the  natives  Irax  (sm 
AiiYAN  Rac2E),  the  most  extensive  and  pctrerfni 


PERSIA. 


QfttiTe  kingdom  of  Westeni  Asia,  is  bounded  on  the  '  consisfc  either  of  ^yel  which  has  been  washed  down 
N.  by  the  great  plain  of  Khiva,  the  Caspian  Sea,  from  the  monntam  slopes  or  accumulated  into  deep 
and  the  Trans-Caucasian  proyinoes  of  Russia ;  on  and  extensive  beds  during  some  former  revolntiop 
the  E.  by  Bokhara,  Afghanistan,  and  Beluchistan;  I  of  nature,  or  of  a  hard  dry  clay.  To  Rnder  such  a 
on  the  S.  by  the  Strait  of  Ormuz  and  the  Persian  '  country  fertile,  requires  the  presence  of  abundant 
Gulf ;  and  on  the  W.  b^  the  Shat-el-Arab  and '  water ;  but  unfortunately  for  P.,  nature  has  been 
Asiatic  Turkey.  It  oontams  about  54ft,000  English  |  remarkably  sparing  in  this  respect  The  whole  of 
•quare  miles,  and  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a  the  east  and  centre  of  the  country  is  entirely  des- 
great  tableland  or  elevated  plateau,  which  in  the  titute  of  rivers;  the  country  south  of  the  Kerman 
oentre  and  on  the  east  side  is  almost  a  dead  level ;  j  Mountains  is  very  meagrely  supplied,  the  rivers, 
but  on  the  north,  west,  and  south,  is  covered  with  such  as  they  are,  being  almost  wnolly  confined  to 
a  broad  belt  of  mountain-region,  here  and  there  the  western  and  the  Caspian  provinces, 
interspersed  with  tracts  of  desert  and  small  fertile  Almost  the  whole  of  Khorassan  (q.  v.),  the  nortii 
pUuna.  The  mountain-system  of  P.  has  its  root  half  of  Kerman  (q.  v.)f  the  east  of  Irak-Ajemi 
in  the  -north- west  comer  of  the  kingdom,  and  is  (q.  v.),  which  form  the  ereat  central  plain,  and 
a  continuation  of  the  Taurus,  Armenian,  and  .  detached  portions  of  all  uie  othei^  provinces,  with 
Caucasian  chains.  The  Taurus  chain  enters  P.  a  the  exception  of  those  on  the  Caspian  Sea,  forming 
little  to  the  north-east  of  Lake  Van  (q.  v.),  and  '  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  P.,  are 
then  turns  in  a  south-easterly  direction,  ramifying  '  desert  In  some  parts  of  this  waste,  the  surface 
into  numerous  parallel  chains,  which  traverse  the ,  is  dry,  and  produces  a  scanty  herbi^e  of  saline 
west  and  south  of  the  cotmtry,  covering  it  for  a  |  plants ;  in  other  parts,  it  is  covered  with  salt 
width  of  from  100  to  330  mile&  At  its  south- '  marshes,  or  with  a  dry,  hard,  salt  crust,  sometimes 
eastern  extremity,  this  chain  joins  the  Jebel-  '  of  considerable  thickness,  which  glitters  and  flashes 
Abad,  which  runs  eastward  through  the  centre  of !  in  the  sunlight,  forcing  the  traveller  on  these 
the  province  of  Kerman,  and  forms  the  southern '  inhospitable  wastes  to  wear  a  shade  to  protect  his 
boundary  of  the  plateau.  The  range  is  generally  '  eyes ;  but  by  far  the  greater  portion  of  this  region 
limestone,  and  like  all  other  mountains  of  the  same  ,  consists  of  sand,  sometimes  so  light  and  impalpable 
character,  presents  many  caves  and  grottoes.  The  '  as  to  be  shifted  hither  and  thither  by  the  shgntest 
province  of  Azerbijan,  in  the  north-west,  is  almost  breeze.  This  great  central  desert  contains  a  few 
wholly  mountainous.  On  the  east  side  of  Azerbijan,  oases,  but  none  of  great  extent  The  largest  of  the 
a  spur  of  the  Caucasus,  separated  from  it,  however,  salt  deserts  of  P.  is  the  *  Dasht  Beyad,*  conunonly 
by  the  valley  of  the  Knr  and  Araxes,  runs  south-  known  as  the  Great  Salt  Desert  of  Khorassan, 
wards  at  some  little  distance  from,  and  parallel  to, ;  which  lies  in  the  north-west  of  that  province,  and 
the  shore  of  the  Caspian,  at  the  south-west  comer  .  is  400  miles  in  length,  by  250  miles  in  breadth, 
of  which  it  becomes  more  elevated,  and  as  the  '  Some  parts  of  P.,  however,  are  of  exceeding 
majestic  range  of  the  Elburz  takes  an  easterly  direc-  fertility  and  beauty  ;  the  immense  vaUeys,  some 
tion,  following  the  line  of  the  Caspian  coast  at  a  of  them  100  miles  in  length,  between  the  various 
distance  varying  from  12  to  60  miles^  On  reaching  ranges  of  the  Kerman  Mountains,  abound  with  the 
Astrabad,  it  divides  into  three  great  parallel  ranges  rarrat  and  most  valuable  vegetable  productions; 
of  somewhat  inferior  elevation,  whica  pursue  first  great  portions  of  the  provinces  of  Fars,  Khuzis- 
an  east,  and  then  a  south-east  direction,  joining  the  tan,  Ardelan,  and  Azerbijan,  have  been  lavishly 
Paroparoisus  in  Afghanistan.  Many  of  the  hius  in  endowed  by  nature  with  the  most  luxuriant  vefleta- 
the  Elburz  are  covered  with  perpetual  snow  ;  and  tion ;  while  the  Caspian  provinces,  and  the  soutnem 
the  highest  peak,  Mount  Bemavend,  is  more  than  '  slopes  of  the  Elbiurz,  are  as  beautiful  as  wood,  water, 
20,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  Persian  mountains  are  and  a  fine  climate  can  make  them — ihe  mountain- 
mostly  of  a  primitive  character ;  granite,  porphyry,  sides  being  clothed  with  trees  and  shrubs,  and  the 
fel.<«par,  and  mountain  limestone  enter  largely  mto  plains  studded  with  nature's  choicest  products, 
their  composition ;  thej  also,  in  great  part,  exhibit '  Rivera. — P.  has  hardly  one  river  that  can  properly 
indications  of  volcanic  action— Demavend  itself  be  termed  navigable,  though  some  of  them  are 
being  evidently  an  extinct  volcano ;  and  the  destruc-  •  several  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  of  great  width 
tive  earthquakes  which  are  still  of  frequent  occur-  I  and  volume  of  water ;  the  few  that  are  of  sufficient 
rence  in  tne  north  and  north-west  of  P.,  indicate   im])ortance  to  deserve   mention  are— the  Karun, 


the  presenco  of  subterranean  tires.  The  Elburz 
on  the  north,  the  Zagros  on  the  west,  the  Kerman 
Mountains  on  the  south,  and  Afghanistan  on  the 


which  rises  in  the  mountains  to  the  south  of 
Ispidian,  flows  first  west,  and  then  south-south* 
west   receiving   many    tributaries    in    its  couree, 


east   &re  the  boundaries  of  the  Persian  plateau,  i  and  falls  into  the  Shat-el-Arab  (q.  v.),  near  Mohan^ 
which  ranges  from  2000  to  5000  feet  above  sea- '  merah ;   the  Kerkhah  (or  Karasu  of  the  Turks), 


level,  the  lowest  portion  being  the  Great  Salt  Desert, 
in  the  north-west  of  Khorassan,  which  has  2000  feet 
of  elevation  above  the  sea ;  while  the  average  eleva- 


nearly  equal  to  the  Karun  in  size,  and  rising  in  the 
same  range,  which  flows  first  westward,  and  then 
south-south-east,  watering  the  west  side  of  Luristaa 


tion  of  the  whole  plateau  above  the  sea  is  about .  and  Khuzistan,  and  joins  the  Tigris  a  little  abovia 

3700  feet    The  lower  level,  out  of  which  the  upland  ■  its  junction  with  the  Euphrates ;  the  Kizil-Uzun,  or 

rises,  is  called  the  DusfUutant  or  *  Level  Cotmtry,'  Sefid-Rud  (*  White  River'),*  which  springs  from  the 

and  stretches  along  the  coast  of  the  Persian  Gulf  Sahund  range,  and  flows  in  an  easterly  direction, 

and  Gulf  of  Ormuz,  south  of  the  Bakhtiyari  and  falling  into  the  Caspian  Sea  a  little  to  the  east 

Kerman  ranges,  and  also  along  the  Caspian  Sea,  of  Resht    The  Aras,  or  Araxes  (q.  v.),  is  by  far  the 

between  it  and  the  Elbnr&     The  aspect  of  the  largest  river  in  P. ;  but  it  can  scaroely  be  considered 

plateau,  diversified  as  it  is  for  the  most  part  with  a  Persian  river,  as  it  never  enters  the  country,  but 

hills  and  vidleys,  mountain  and  plain,  is,  contrary  merely  forms,    for  some   distance,   the    northern 

to  what  might  naturally  be  expected,  dreary  and  boundary  towards  Russia.    The  rivers  which  flow 

forbidding.    The  interior  mountains  are  everywhere  to  the  southwards  receive,  in  the  latter  part  of 

bare  and  arid,  unrelieved  by  trees  or  shrubs,  and  their  course,  few  tributaries,  and  fertilise  only  a 

present  the  apijearance  of  huge  masses  of  gray  narrow  strip  of  land  on  each  side  of  then),  except 

rock  piled  one  on  the  other,  or  starting  in  abrupt  when  their  waters  are  applied,  by  means  of  canals 

ridges  from  the  level  plain.    The  plains  are  equally  or  other  works,  to  the  artificial  irrigation  of  the 

■nattractive ;    and  those  which  are   not   deserts,  soil    This  mode  of  increasing  and  extending  the 


pnctiee,  and  most  oi  tbese  ■pecinieiu  of  the 
iiteetaxti  (kill  tod  Uboriou   induitry  of  the 


iriog.     The 
le  plateau. 


arclu(«ctii»l 

•odeiit  PeniaiM,  »rB  now  la  a  ininoiu  ooadition. 
IThe  Caapiao  pTOvincea  aboiuiil  in  riTere,  bat  the 
greater  nnmli^  of  them,  from  the  proximity  of 
the  Elbnn  MooDtains  to  the  Caapian,  ate  mere 
BioDiitaiii  totreala,  which  beciMne  dry  in  tammer. 

Laiet. — F.,u  *■  natanl  coiuea^aeiice  of  the  natura 
and  aitdBtiaQ  uf  ita  aurface,  aboonda  with  aahne  lakes, 
aa  J  there  ore  neaiiy  thirty  of  them  havinK  do  visible 
iiutleta.  The  <d)ief  lake  u  I^e  Urainiah  (q.  v.),  in 
Azerbijan.  Lake  Bakhtegui,  in  the  oat  of  Fan,  the 
receptacle  for  the  dninage  of  the  tiorthem  half  of 


very  vaHed.  What  the  Yoanger  Cynu  ia  reported 
to  nave  said  to  Seoophim  regajiling  the  climate, 
'  that  people  perish  with  cold  at  the  one  extremity, 
while  tbey  are  suffocated  with  heat  at  the  other,'  is 
literally  biie.  P.  may  be  conaidered  to  possess 
three  climates — that  of  the  aoDthem  Duahtistan, 
of  the  ekrated  plateau,  and  of  ^le  Caapian  pro- 
vittoes.  In  the  Dushtistan,  the  autuouial  heota 
•re  excessive,  those  of  sammer  more  tolerable, 
while  in  winter  and  spring  the  climate  is  delight' 
fuL  The  cold  is  never  intense,  and  snow  seldom 
fails  on  the  soatbern  slope  of  the  Kennan  range. 
The  nuoa  are  nob  heavy,  and  occnr  in  winter  and 
The  district  is  extremely  onhealtby.  On 
eau,  the  climate  of  Fara  is  temperate,  and 
aa  we  proceed  northwards,  the  chmat«  improves, 
attaining  ita  greatest  perfection  about  IspafanQ. 
Here  the  winters  and  summen  are  equally  mild, 
and  the  regularity  of  the  aeasooB  appears  remark- 
able to  a  stranger.  To  the  north  and  north-west  of 
this,  the  wintera  are  severe ;  and  in  Eurdistaa,  the 
greater  part  of  Axerbijan,  and  the  region  of  the 
Elbore,  the  dimate  ia  quite  alpin&  The  desert 
region  of  the  centre  and  east,  and  the  country  on 
its  border,  endure  most  oppressive  heat  during 
summer,  and  piercing  cold  in  winter.  The  Caspian 
provinces,  bom  their  general  depression  below 
the  sea-level,  are  exposed  to  a  degreiB  of  heat  in 
Bummer  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  ^est  ludiea, 
and  their  winters  are  mild.  Bains,  however,  are 
frequent  and  heavy,  and  numy  tracts  of  low  oountry 
are  marshy  and  extremely  unhealthy.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Caspian  provinces,  the  atmosphere 
of  F.  is  remarkable  above  that  of  all  other  conntria 
for  its  di^ess  and  purity,  a  fact  freqaently  proved 
by  expoiins  pteoea  of  polished  iron  to  the  action  of 
the  air,  and  finding  whether  or  not  they  rust. 

The  cultivated  portions  of  P.,  when  suppLed 
with  moisture,  ore  very  fertile,  producing  an 
immense  variety  of  crops.  The  chief  cultivated 
prodnct*  are  wheat  (the  best  in  the  world),  barley, 
and  Other  cereals,  cotton  (of  which,  according 
to  the  statement  of  the  Peniaa  ambassadco'  at 
London  in   1861,  enough  could  be  grown  in  ihe 


vine  floiuishea  m  sevenU 
Shiraz  ore  oelebrated  in  £^islem  poetry.  Mulbenies 
are  also  largely  cultivated,  and  silk  is  one  ai  the 
moat  important  products  of  the  kingdom.  The 
foiesti  on  tiie  alopea  of  the  Elbnrz  abound  with  wild 
animals,  m  wulve«,  tigen,  jadtoU,  boan,  bnfhlaes, 
foxes,  and  the  Caspian  oal    Lions  and  leopards  also 

the  horse  and  camd   hold  the  first  place.      The 
horses  have  always  been  celebrated  aa  the  finest 


in  the  East  They  are  larger  and  man  hudsnn 
bnt  less  fleet  than  the  Arabian  horsea  Immeni 
herds  irf  aheep  a>d  goate  feed  apon  the  mosntai 
alopBS  of  the  aoatheni  proviucea,  and  yield  the 


is  span  into  varioos  fabrics,  which,  in  aoftos 
and  beanty,  almost  vie  with  those  si  CaahmeT 
The  Casjiian  rivera  abound  with  fish,  especial! 
sturgeon,  gnat  qoaotitiee  of  which  are  enrol  an 
exported  to  Bnasia.  The  mineral  products  of  1 
■re  insiftuificant,  with  the  sole  eiception  of  sal 
None  of  the  predous  metals  are  fooncL  Iron 
abundant  in  Azerbijan,  bnt  is  little  worked  ;  oopp 
occurs  in  considerable  quantity  in  thn  moontai^ 
of  Hozandenui  and  Kerman;  and  lead,  antimon 
snlphur,  and  naphtha  also  abound.  Bnt  the  mo 
celebrated  mineral  product  of  P.  is  the  torqnoi! 
which  ia  found  in  the  Fironz  Koh,  one  of  tJ 
Elbui3  Mountoina,  and  in  a  hill  40  miles  wet 
north-west  of  NiahapOr.  The  former  mine  is  a 
now  worked,  but  the  mine*  in  the  Utter  fiace  at, 
yield  these  gems  in  abundance ;  and  if  they  we 
OToperly  worked,  the  yield  might  be  greatly  iDcreaae 
The  gems,  however,  are  gen^^ly  defaced  by  flan 
and  do  not  possess  a  high  mercantila  vali 
Marble  of  different  kinds,  coal,  freestone,  and  alai 
ars  found  in  various  places.  At  Dolki.  in  Fkia,  ■ 
two  fountains  of  bitumen  or  black  naj^tba. 

InhabtiaaU.—Tbs  population  of  P.  ia  natoral 
diviaible  into  two  ctassea,  the  settled  and  the  noma 
The  settled  nopulation  are  chiefly  Tajiks,  t 
descendants  of  the  ancient  FersiaD  race,  with  i 
intermixture  of  foreign  blood — Turkish,  Tarti 
Arab,  Armenian,  or  Creorgian.  To  this  claaa  belo 
the  ogriculturiala,  merchanta,  artisans,  ftc  Frc 
having  long  been  a  subject  raoe,  they  have  to 
large  extent  lost  their  natural  independence  ai 
mainlines*  of  character,  and  acquired,  inatei 
habits  of  dishonest;,  auTiliU,  and  cunning.  T 
Tajiks  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiit«  aect,  «i 
the  exception  of  the  few  remaining  Pareees 
Guebres  (q.  v.),  who  are  found  in  Kennan  and  Fa 
and  still  retain  their  purity  of  race  and  religto 
faith.  The  nomad  or  pastoral  tribes,  or  eylats  ieyi 
clan),  are  of  four  distinct  races— TurhomaoH,  Knri 
LUura,  andArabs.  Their  organisation  is  very  eimi 
to  that  which  formerly  siibsiated  among  the  Highla 
dans  of  Scotland,  with  the  exception  that  the  Tom 
are  nomad,  while  the  latter  inhabited  a  fixed  locali 
Each  tribe  is  ruled  by  its  hereditary  chief  {icjait .  a 
under  him  hy  the  heads  of  the  cadet  branches  {tire 
of  his  family.  Of  the  four  races,  the  Turkoman 
by  far  the  moat  ntmieroua,  and  forms  at  the  prese 
day  the  ruling  race  in  Persia,  The  Eutda  are  fi 
in  number,  the  greater  part  of  their  country  a 
race  being  under  the  away  of  Turkey.  The  Art 
are  also  few  in  number,  and  at  the  preaent  day  c 
hardly  be  distiuguished  from  the  Peraiana,  havi 
adopted  both  their  manneis  aud  language.  1 
LQur«  are  of  nearly  pure  Persian  blood.  The  una: 
races,  especially  the  Turkomans,  profess  the  Sui 
creed ;  they  are  distinguished  from  the  Tajiks 
their  courage,  manliness,  and  independeoc«  at  A 
acter ;  but  they  are  inveterate  robbers,  aud  sii 
their  entrance  into  the  country  in  the  Ittth  c,  it  I 
been  continually  distracted  by  civil  wan  and  re 
lutions.  The  whole  population  otF.ia  estsmaterl 
round  numben  at  1U,000,000,  of  whom  3.0(X>,I 
are  nomads  (aoo.OUO  of  these  being  Arabs).  COaa: 
according  to  their  religious  belief,  they  stand  thi 
7,500,000  are  Shiitee ;  500,000  are  Shutea  i 
ortiiodox  ;  l,SOO,0O0  are  Suonitea  ;  while  i 
remaining  500,000  is  made  up  of  ChristiaiM  of 
denominations  (including  200,000  Armeniaoa,  100,( 
NestorianaJ,  along  with  Jewk  Giubres,  tut^ 


tlutuidiDg  ita  uieUBt  dviliratioa,  almort 
!  barbarum  now  prevuli  in  P.  u  in  otber 
tedsQ  countries,  and  few  trace*  remai 
lectual  culture  which  in  ancient  timea 
m1  the  country.  The  inaecnrity  of  property 
ented  the  improTemeat  of  Uod,  the  extea- 
rade,  and  pnblic  works  of  every  kind.  The 
B  Utterly  neglected.  The  boiuea,  those  of 
.Ithieit  people  not  excepted,  appear  con- 
E,  being  i^nerally  built  of  earth  or  mad, 

gmnped  together,  even  in  the  principal 
ith  little  attention  to  either  nniformity  or 

their  arrangement.  They  Hcarcsly  ever 
ae  (tory  in  hei^t,  and  tbey  are  Biuronnded 
blank  walls.  The  public  buildiu)^.  such  as 
,  colleges,  and  caravansaries,  are  of  similar 
ice  to  the  ordinary  houses,  and  built  of  the 
ateriala  The  interior,  however,  of  the 
I  the  rich  are  sometimea  perfect  paradiies  of 
nd  elegance  ;  and  however  njocli  dwellings 
ied  of  mud  may  offend  a  European  eye,  it 
onable  whether,  with  all  its  disadvantages. 
lot  a  better  building  material  than  wood 

in  a  country  possessing  such  a  climate 
a.     The  miserable  look  of  the  towns  is. 

greatly  improved  by  the  beanty  of  the 
irfiicb  surround  them.  These  gardens  are 
rith  forest  and  fruit  trees,  and  some  of  them, 
I  in  Irak  and  Kerman,  are  of  rare  beauty. 
aeturet  and  IVtufK^The  trade  of  P.  is 
ively  of   little   importance.     Silk  ii   the 


hawls,  carpets,  and  felts  are  largely  manu- 
for  use  and  export  in  Khnntssan.  The 
>,  which  consist  of  satin,  sarcenet,  brocades, 
«.,  and  are  made  exceedingly  strong  and 
are  of  inferior  quality,  and  are  chiefly 
to  Turkey  and  Russia.  Trade  is  carried  ou 
IDS  with  the  interior  of  Asia  and  the  chief 

P.,  such  •■  Tebriz,  Abu-Shehr,  Ispahan, 
Feheran,  and  Kazbin.  These  caravans 
I  the  products  of  P.  for  muslin,  leather, 
nkeen,  china,  glass,  hardware,  gums,  dye- 
d  apices.  The  trade  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is 
Red  by  the  Russians,  who  visit  perioiiically 
porl«  of  ICnzelli,  BalEumstsh,  and  Astrabad. 
Bassorah,  and  Qombroon  are  the  porta  in 
an  Oulf  throo^  which  trade  with  India 
>l^er  countries  on  the  shores  of  the  Indian 

carried  on.  The  exports  to  India  coo- 
ly  of  horsea,  dried  fruit,  and  drugs;  and 
irts  from  that  counti^  and  Europe,  of 
ths,  cotton  goods,  jewellery,  arms,  cutlery, 
earthen  glass,  and  metal  wares,  Ac.  The 
imports  and  exports  for  the  last  few 
f  the  western  frontier,  imports,  £1,S76,SI2; 

£1,913,04%  By  the  eastern  frontier, 
£1,169,420;  exports,  £1,101,400.  Total, 
£.^,036,2.12 ;  exports,  £3,014,493. 
ntnt.  Taxation,  Hdacation,  ite. — The 
•at  of  P.  is  a  pure  despotism,  limited 
donteetio  intrignes,  dread  of  private  ven- 
itd  aa  occasional  insurrection.  The  last- 
the  prindpul  check  against  nnjnst  govem- 
tiie  part  of  the  monarch,  while  the 
ler  operate  as  powerfnl  restraints  on  his 
,  The  monarch,  who  has  the  title  of 'Shah' 
lishah,'  poaaesses  abe<dute  authority  over 
■ad  property  of  hia  subjects  ;  and  his 
tti«  governors  of  provinces  and  districts, 
imilar  anUiort^  over  those  under  them  ; 
oat  are,  however,  liable  to  revision  by  the 
o  may  snmmarily  inttiot  any  punishment 
m  for  real  or  alleged  miseovemment. 
HI  of  Oie  workhig  aad  maroantile  clssafs  is 


almost  a  necessity  of  soch  a  form  of  government. 
The  capitalists  of  the  conntry,  a  nnoieroiia  class. 
dare  not  exhibit  their  wealth,  macb  less  invest  il 
in  any  mercantile  trajisoctions,  lest  they  should 
there%  excite  the  onpidity  of  aome  rapacioug 
governor.  The  central  government  consists  of 
the  Sadri-Ateni,  or  Grand  Vizier,  who  is  inferior 
in  authority  to  ths  Uhah  alone;  the  Itiniadod- 
Dmclei,  or  Minister  for  Forci^  Affairs ;  the  Emiart- 
Doahl,  or  Minister  of  Fmance;  the  ffixamrd- 
DotnUt,  or  Minister  of  the  Interior ;  the  LeAirr' 
nourcis,  or  War  Minister;  and  various  sujieriuteu- 
dents  of  the  administration  of  jnatice,  of  commerce 
^riciilture,  industry,  and  public  works,  the  oom- 
maoder- in- chief,  and  the  master  of  the  ceremonies. 
The  law,  which  in  civil  cases  is  administered  by 
Hollaha  (q.  v.),  in  criminal  cases  by  a  state  court, 
is  founded  on  the  Koran  and  on  tradition.  The 
punishment*  commonly  inflicted  are  fines,  flowing 
(the  bastinado),  and  death,  either  by  decapitation, 
stabbing,  or  torture.  The  governors  of  provinces, 
who  are  always  chosen  from  the  governing  race,  the 
Turkomans,  and  are  generally  of  the  blood-royal, 
though  they  ojifress  to  the  utmost  the  poor  Tajiks, 
are  aeldom  able  to  protect  their  provinces  from  the 
rav^es  of  the  predatory  eytat  bordea,  who,  though 
nominally  subject  to  the  Shah,  are  governed  uv 
their  own  khans,  and  are  really  iadepeniient.  The 
revenue  is  derived  from  a  tax  on  the  gross  pro- 
duce of  land,  which  varies  from  10  to  20  jier 
cent,  on  the  whole;  from  the  crown-lands  (which 
are  being  constantly  increaaed  by  conflscatioaB) ; 
from  the  church-lands — which  since  the  time  of 
Nadir  Shah  (q,  v.)  have  been  in  the  hands  of 
the  Shab ;  from  a  tax  ini  cattle,  flocks,  and  even 
bees,  and  many  other  imposts.  There  is  also 
^  heavy  property  and  income  tax ;  and  the 
various    duties    which    are    levied    on    imports    m 

le  almost  numberless.  Besides  all  these, 
capitation  and  door-taxes  are  levied  specially  on 
Armenians,  Jews,  and  Ouebrea.  Tbe  revenue 
derived  from  these  exactions  is  greatly  increased 
by  presents,  which  all  those  who  ar«  in  any  way 
dependent  on  court-favour  are  bound  to  make  to  the 
Ihah  on  certain  days,  and  which  amount  annually 
«  nearly  £l,U00,00a  The  revenue  is  divided  into 
;wo  portions,  one  of  which  goes  into  tbe  '  Spiritual 
Treasnry,'  or  Btii-ui-M^  and  is  expended  on 
mosques,  payment  of  judges  and  clergy,  assistance 
-I Moslems,  public  works   aitd  institutions, 

roads,  bridges,  schools,  Ac,  subsidies  to 
pilgrims  to  holy  ^ace*.  and  to  the  Prophet's 
descendants,  ftc ;  Uie  other,  which  is  by  far  the 
larger,  goes  into  the  crown  treasury,  which  is 
charged  with  the  maintenance  of  the  Shab.  his 
family,  aervants,  and  court,  and  the  defraying  of 
all  puhlie  expenses,  salaries,  Ac,  unconnected  with 
reUgion.  The  receipts  for  the  year  18A8  were, 
"  the  spiritual  treasury.  2.000,000  tomans  = 
150,000;  to  the  crown  treasury  (not  including 
the  gifts  to  the  Sbah),  7,000,0011  tomans  =  £3,000,000. 
There  is  no  public  debt,  and  all  extra  expenses  are 
'     ~      ~iet  by  extra  taxation.     The  proportion  of 

lue  which  is  applied  to  the  support  nf 
school*  for  publio  instruction,  is  small,  and  educa- 
tion is  thus  aeoeaaarily  in  a  very  low  state,  'ilie 
sciences  of  astronomy,  metaphysics,  physics,  and 
mathematics,  are  nominally  studied;  but  tbe  astro- 
nomy consisU  of  the  Ptolemaic  system,  largely 
intermixed  with  astrology,  and  the  other  sciences 
aa  taught  are  similsily  composed  of  the  debris  of 
effete  systems  and  ancient  superstitions. 

Political  DivinoHS,  itc — Prom  the  earliest  times 
down  to  the  present  century,  P.  was  divided  into 
seven  or  eight  great  divisions ;  but  about  the  time 
when  it  waa    attempted   to   introduce   iCuropean 


PERSIA. 


civilisation  into  fche  country,  and  discipline  into 
Vie  army,  the  coantry  was  anew  divided  into  25 
proTinooB— vis.,  the  three  Caspian  provinces  of 
uhilan,  Mazanderan,  and  Astrabad,  in  the  north; 
Azerbijan,  Ardelan  or  Persian  Kurdistan,  Luristan, 
and  Khnzistan,  in  the  west;  Fars,  Lanstan,  and 
Kcrman  witii  Mogistan,  in  the  sonth;  whUe  the 
ffreat  province  of  Irak-Ajemi  in  the  centre  was 
divided  into  Khamsah,  Kasbin,  Teheran,  Hamadan, 
Kdm,  and  Ispahan ;  and  that  of  Khorassan  in  the 
east  into  Yezd,  Tabas,  Ghayn  and  Birjun,  Turahiz, 
Me£  hid,  Damghan,  Semnun,  and  the  Dasht  Beyad, 
or  the  Great  Salt  Desert  The  western  and  northern 
provinces  are  well  sprinkled  with  towns  and  large 
villages,  but  the  most  of  the  others  consist  of  little 
more  than  the  chief  town  and  its  suburbs,  the  rest 
being  either  desert,  or  in  the  hands  of  the  wild 
pastoral  tribes.  There  are  many  interesting  ruins  of 
ancient,  populous,  and  celebrated  cities  in  Persia,  for 
example,  Persepolis  (q.  v.),  Khages  or  £h^  Shahpur. 
Istakhar,  TAs,  Merv,  Shushan,  Hamadan,  &c. ;  and 
the  monuments  and  iuscrijitionB  found  at  some  of 
these  places  form  a  highly-interesting  study  to  the 
historian  and  the  antiquary.  See  BsHiaruN.  In 
modern  times,  Tabriz  or  Tauris,  Razbin,  Ispahan, 
and  Shiraz,  have  been  in  succession  the  seats  of 
royalty,  and  at  present  Teheran  is  the  favoured  city. 

^rm^. —The  aimy  consists  (1860)  of  80,000 
regular  infantry,  4000  regular  cavalry,  2000  engi- 
neers and  artillerymen,  and  a  large  body  of 
irregular  cavalry,  which  generally  numbers  about 
30,000  men,  and  is  contributed  by  the  nomad  tribes, 
being  almost  their  sole  acknowledgment  of  sub- 
jection to  the  Shah.  This  irregular  cavalry,  which 
forms  the  bravest  portion  of  vie  Persian  army,  is 
equal  to  the  Cossacks  in  the  Russian  army,  and 
much  superior  to  the  Turkish  Sultan's  Bashi- 
Bazouks.  Abbas  Pasha,  the  grandfather  of  the^ 
present  Shah,  attempted  to  organise  a  portion  of 
the  army  according  to  European  tactics,  but  he  was 
nnsuccessfid. 

History, — According  to  the  Shah  Nameh  of 
Firdnsi  (q.  v.),  the  history  of  P.  begins  some  thou- 
sands of  years  before  the  Christian  era.  Little 
has  yet  been  done  towards  extracting  the  grains  of 
hitrtiorical  tru^  that  may  be  contain^  in  tne  mass 
of  fable  that  constitutes  the  native  Persian  annals ; 
although  hopes  are  cherished  that  by  aid  of  the 
many  inscriptions  and  monuments  that  are  being 
daily  discovered,  light  may  yet  be  thrown  u)>on 
many  points.  In  the  meantime,  we  must  rest 
contented  with  the  accounts  derived  from  Greek 
writers.  The  north-western  part  of  Iran,  anciently 
called  Media  (q.  v.),  was,  at  the  earliest  period  known 
to  the  Greeks,  a  part  of  the  Assyrian  empire,  but 
the  Medes  revolted,  and  (708  B.C.),  under  Dejoces, 
established  an  empire  which  subdued  both  that  of 
Assyria  and  their  own  kindred  tribes  of  Persis.  See 
Media.  About  537  B.  c.,  the  Persians  under  Cyrus 
(q.  V.) — the  Eai-Khusni  of  the  Persians — (559— 
5*29  B.  a)  rebelled,  subdued  their  former  masters,  the 
Medes  (who  from  this  time  became  amalgamated 
with  them),  and  established  a  mighty  empire,  which 
included,  besides  P.,  as  far  as  the  Oxus  and  Indus, 
Asia  Minor,  Syria,  Palestine,  and  Mesonotamia. 
His  son,  Cambysbs,  a  most  ferocious  and  blood- 
thirsty tyrant  (529—522  B.  a),  subdued  Tyre, 
Cyprus,  and  Egypt.  After  the  brief  rule  of  the 
usurper  SinsRDU  (522—521  B.  a),  Daritjb  L  (q.  v.), 
snmamed  HYsrasPia— the  Gnshtasp  of  the  Persians 
— (521 — 485  B.O.),  mounted  the  throne.  He  was  a 
politic  and  energetic  prince,  and  succeeded  in  iirmly 
establishing  his  dynasty,  and  adding  Thrace  and 
Macedonia  to  his  empire ;  bat  his  two  attempts  to 
Bubdue  Greece  were  completely  foiled,  the  firat  by 
the  Thiaciaiia,  and  the  second  by  the  Athenians  at 


Marathon  (490  B.  a).  His  son,  Xbrzeb  L  (485-465 
B.  c.) — the  Isfundear  of  the  Persians — renewed  tibi 
attempt  to  subdue  the  Greek  states,  and  thou^  ak 
first  successful,  the  defeats  of  Salamis  and  Pktsi 
compelled    him  to  limit    himself   to  a  deieiuT« 
warfare,  which   exhausted   the   resouroes  of  bii 
kingdom.      His   son,   Abtaxkrxbs   I.    (465—425 
B.  a),   Burnamed    Lonoimakus    (tiie   Bahouui  d 
the   Persians,  better   known   as   Ardeshir  Diiu- 
dust),  was  a  valiant  prince,  but  he  was  unable  to 
stay  the  decadence  of  P.,  which  had  now  com- 
menced.     He,    however,    crushed    a    fonuidable 
rebellion    in    Egypt,  though    his  wars  with  the 
Greeks  and  lonians  were  unsuccessfuL    The  empire 
now  became  a  prey  to  intestine  dissensioaa,  which 
continued    during    the    reigns    of    his   succeiiaon, 
Xerxes  IL,  Sogdianns,  Darius  II.,  Artaxerxee  IL, 
and  Artaxerxes    IIL     Darius  IIL  CoDOMA]iKr9 
(336—329)   (the  Darab   II.  of   the  Persians),  the 
last  of  the  dynasty,  was  compelled  to  yield  bii 
throne    to   Alexander  (q.  v.)  the    Great,  king  iA 
Macedon  (known  as  Secunder  by  the  Persians),  who 
reconqnered  all  the  former  provinces  of  P.,  and 
founded  a  vast   empire,   which,   at   his  death  in 
324   B.  a,  was  divided   into  four  parts,  P.  along 
with  Syria  falling  to  the  share  of  the  Seleucidc 
(q.  v.),    and    its    old    dependency,  Egypt,  to  the 
Ptolemies  (q.  v.).    The  Seleucidse  soon  lost  Bactiia 
(now  Balkh),  which  became  inde^jendent  under  a 
series  of  Greek  sovereigns ;   and  about  246  B.  c, 
Parthia    (q.    v.) — now  Northern    Khorassan— also 
rebelled  under  Arsaces  I.  (the  Ashk  of  the  Persian 
WT^iters),  who  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Arsacidc, 
under  whom  the  greater  part  of  P.  was  wrested 
from  the  Greeks,  and  maintained  againat  both  the 
Greeks  and  Komans.    The  Greek  empire  of  Bactria, 
which  is  said  to  have  included  a  great  part  of 
Hindustan,  was  ovei'vhrown  by  an  influx  of  nomad 
tribes  from  Turkestan,  and  these  invaders  having 
been  driven  out  by  the  Parthians,   Bactria  was 
added  to  their  empire.     But  the  dynasty  of  the 
Arsacidte  was  brought  to  an  end  by  a  Persian 
named  Ardeshir  Baoegan,  who  managed  to  gain 
possession  of  Pars,  Kerman,  and  nearly  the  whole 
of  Irak,  before  Arduan,  the  Parthian  king,  took  the 
field  against  him.     At  last,   a  n'eat  battle  was 
fought  (218  A.  D.)  on  the  plain  of  Hormuz,  in  which 
the  Persians  were  completelv  victorious.    Babegsn 
was  now  hailed  as  Ardeshir,  king  of  P.,  and*Shanan 
Shah,'  or  king  of  kings.    The  history  of  this  dynasty 
will  be  found  under  the  head  of  Sassanida    The 
Sassanian  kings  raised  P.  to  a  height  of  power  and 
prosperity  such  as  it  never  before  attained,  and 
more  than  once  perilled  the  existence  of  the  Eastern 
Empire.    The  la^t  king  was  driven  from  the  throne 
by  the  Arabs  (636  A.  ix),  who  now  began  to  extend 
their  dominion  in  all  directions ;   and  from  this 
period  ma^  be  dated  the  gradual  change  of  character 
m  the  nanve  Persian  race,  for  thev  have  been  from 
this  time  constantly  subject  to  the  domination  of 
alien  races.    During  the  reigns  of  Omar  (the  Urst 
of  the  Arab  rulers  of  P.),  Othman,  Ali,  and  the 
Ommiades  (634—750),  P.  was  regarded  as  an  out- 
lying province  of  the  empire,  and  was  ruled  by 
deputy  governors ;  but  after  the  accession  of  the 
Abbaside  dynasty  (750  A.  D.),  Bagdad  became  the 
capital,  and  Khorassan  the  favourite  province  of  the 
early  and  more  enei^tio  rulers  of  tins  race,  aud  P. 
consequeutlv  came  to  be  considered  as  the  centre  and 
nucleus  of  the  califate.  But  the  rule  of  the  califs  soon 
became  merely  nominal,  and  ambitious  ^veroors, 
or  other  aspinug  individuals,  established  uidepend- 
ent  principalities  in  various  parts  of  the  country. 
Many  of  these  dynasties  were  transitory,  others 
lasted  for   centunes,  and   created   exteuMve  and 
powerful  empires.    The  chief  were  the  l4iURira 


P£RSIA. 


(820—872),  a  Turkish  dynasty  in  Ehorassan;  the 
SoFFARiDES  (Persian,  869—903),  in  Seistan,  Fars, 
Irak,  and  Mazanderau;  the  Samani,  in  Transoxiana, 
Khorassau,  and  Seistan ;  the  Bileui  (Persian,  933 
— 1056),  in  Western  Persia;  and  the  Ghiznbvides 
{q.v.),  in  Eastern  Persia.  These  dynasties  sup- 
planted each  other,  and  were  finally  rooted  out  by 
the  Seljuks  (q.  v.),  whose  dominion  extended  from 
the  Hellespont  to  Afghanistan.  A  branch  of  this 
dynasty,  which  ruled  in  Khaurezm  (now  Khiva,  q.  v.) 
gradually  acquired  the  greater  part  of  Persia,  driving 
out  the  Ghiznevides  and  uieir  successors,  the 
Ghu AIDES  (q^v.) ;  but  they,  alone  with  the  numerous 
petty  dynasties  which  had  established  themselves  in 
the  south-western  provinces,  were  all  swept  away 
by  the  Mongols  (q.v.)  under  Genohis-Khan  (q.v.) 
and  his  grandson,  Hulaku-khan,  the  latter  of 
whom  founded  a  new  dynasty,  the  Pebso-Monool 
(1253—1335).  This  race  becoming  effeminate,  was 
supplanted  by  the  Eylkhanians  in  1335,  but  an 
irruption  of  the  Tartars  of  Turkestan  under  TiidxB 
(q.  V.)  asain  freed  P.  from  the  petty  dynasties  which 
misniled  it  After  the  denth  of  TimCir^s  son  and 
successor.  Shah  Bokh,  the  Turkomans  took  posses- 
sion of  the  western  part  of  the  country,  which, 
however,  they  rather  preyed  upon  than  governed ; 
while  the  eastern  portion  was  divided  and  sub- 
divided among  Tim(ir's  descendants,  till,  at  the 
dose  of  the  15th  c,  they  were  swept  away  by  the 
Uzbeks  (^.  v.),  who  joined  the  whole  of  Eastern 
P.  to  iheir  newly-fouuded  khanate  of  Khiva.  A 
new  dynasty  now  arose  (1500)  in  Western  P.,  the 
first  prince  of  which  (Ismail,  the  descendant  of 
a  long  line  of  devotees  and  saints,  the  objects  of 
the  m^zhest  reverence  throughout  Western  P.), 
having  Decome  the  leader  of  a  number  of  Turkish 
tribes  who  were  attached  by  strong  ties  of  crati- 
tude  to  his  family,  overthrew  the  power  of  the 
Turkomans,  and  seissed  Azerbijan,  i^ch  was  the 
seat  of  their  power.  Ismail  rapidly  subdued  the 
western  provmces,  and  in  1511  took  Khorassau 
and  Balkh  from  the  Uzbeks ;  but  in  1514,  he  had 
to  encounter  a  much  more  formidable  enemy — to 
wit,  the  miehty  Selim  (q.  v.),  the  Sultan  of  Turkey, 
whose  zeal  for  conquest  was  further  inflamed 
by  religions  animosity  against  the  Shiites,  or  *  Sec- 
taries,' as  the  followers  of  Ismail  were  termed. 
The  Persians  were  totally  defeated  in  a  battle  on 
the  frontiers ;  but  Seiim  reaped  no  benefit  from  his 
victory,  and  after  his  retreat,  Ismail  attacked  and 
subdued  Georgia.  The  Persians  dwell  with  rapture 
im  the  character  of  this  monarch,  whom  they  deem 
not  only  to  be  the  restorer  of  P.  to  a  prosperous 
condition,  and  the  founder  of  a  great  dynasty,  but 
the  estabUsher  of  &e  iaith  in  which  they  glory  as 
the  national  religion.  His  son  Tamasp  (1523 — 
1576),  a  prudent  and  spirited  ruler,  repeatedly 
drove  out  the  predatory  Uzbeks  from  Khorassau, 
sustained  without  loss  a  war  with  the  Turks,  and 
assisted  Homayun,  the  son  of  Baber,  to  regain  the 
titrone  of  Delhi  After  a  considerable  period  of 
internal  revolution,  during  which  the  Turks  and 
Uzbeks  attacked  the  empire  without  hinderance, 
Shah  Abbas  L  the  Great  (1585^1628),  ascended 
the  throne,  restored  internal  tranquillity,  and 
repelled  the  invasions  of  the  Uzbeks  and  Turks. 
In  1605,  he  inflicted  on  the  Turks  such  a  terrible 
defeat  as  kept  them  quiet  during  the  rest  of  his 
reign,  and  enabled  him  to  recover  the  whole  of 
Kurdistan,  Mosul,  and  Biarbekir,  which  had  for 
a  long  time  been  separated  from  P. ;  and  in  the  east, 
Candahar  was  taken  from  the  Great  MoauL  Abbas's 
government  was  strict^  but  just  and  equitable ; 
roads,  bridges,  caravansaries,  and  other  conveniences 
for  tiade,  were  constructed  at  immense  expense,  and 
tlia  improvement  and  ornamentation  of  the  towns 


were  not  neglected.  Ispahan  more  than  doubled 
its  population  during  his  reign.  His  tolerance  was 
remarkable,  considering  both  the  opinions  of  his 
ancestors  and  subjects ;  for  he  encouraged  the 
Armenian  Christians  to  settle  in  the  country,  well 
knowing  that  their  peaceable  and  industrious  habits 
would  help  to  advance  the  prosperity  of  his  king- 
dom. His  successors.  Shah  Sufi  (1628  -1611),  ShSL 
Abbas  IL  (1641—1666),  and  Shah  Soliman  (1666— 
1694),  were  undistiugnished  by  any  remarkable 
talents,  but  the  former  two  were  sensible  and  judi- 
cious rulers,  and  advanced  the  prosperity  of  their 
subjects.  Buring  the  reign  of  Sultan  Hussein  (1694 
— 1722),  a  weak  and  bigoted  fool,  priests  and 
slaves  were  elevated  to  we  most  important  and 
responsible  offices  of  the  empire,  and  all  who 
rejected  the  tenets  of  the  Shiites  were  persecuted. 
The  conse<|lience  was  a  general  discontent,  of  which 
the  Afghans  (q.  v.)  took  advantage  bv  declaring 
their  independence,  and  seizing  Candahar  (1709). 
Their  able  leader,  Meer  Vais,  died  in  1715;  but  his 
successors  were  worthy  of  him,  and  one  of  them* 
Mahmud,  invaded  P.  (1722),  defeated  Hussein's 
armies,  and  besieged  the  king  in  IspaJian,  tUl  the 
inhabitants  were  reduced  to  the  extremity  of  dis- 
tress. Hussein  then  abdicated  the  throne  in 
favour  of  his  conqueror,  whs,  on  his  accession, 
immediately  devoted  his  energies  to  alleviate  the 
distresses  and  gain  the  confidence  of  his  new 
subjects,  in  both  of  which  objects  he  thoroughly 
succeeded.  Becoming  insane,  he  was  deposed 
in  1725  by  his  brother  Ashraf  (1725—1729) ;  but 
the  atrocious  tyranny  of  the  latter  was  speedily  put 
an  end  to  by  the  celebrated  Nadir  Shah  (q.  v.),  who 
first  raised  Tamasp  (1729—1732)  and  his  son,  Abbas 
IL  (1732—1736),  of  the  Suffavean  race,  to  the  throne, 
and  thqn,  on  some  frivolous  pretext,  deposed  him, 
and  seized  the  sceptre  (1736—1747).  But  on  his 
death,  anarchy  again  returned ;  the  country  was 
horribly  devastated  by  the  rival  claimants  for  the 
throne;  Afghanistan  (q.v.)  and  Beioochistan  (q.v.) 
finally  separated  from  P.,  and  the  country  was  split 
up  into  a  nulhber  of  small  independent  states  till 
1755,  when  a  Kurd,  named  Kerim  Khan  (1755 — 
1779),  abolished  this  state  of  affairs,  re-established 
peace  and  unity  in  Western  Persia,  and  by  his 
wisdom,  justice,  and  warlike  talents,  acquired  the 
esteem  of  his  subjects,  and  the  respect  of  neigh-^ 
bourin^  states.  After  the  usual  contests  for  the 
succession,  accompanied  with  the  usual  barbarities 
and  devastations,  Kerim  was  succeeded  in  1784 
by  Ali-Murad,  Jaafar,  and  Luft-Ali,  during  whose 
reigns  Mazanderan  became  independent  under 
Aga-Mohammed,  a  Turkoman  eunuch  of  the  Kajai 
race,  who  repeatedly  defeated  the  royal  armies,  and 
ended  by  depriving  Luft-Ali  of  his  crown  (1795). 
The  great  eunuch-king  (as  he  is  frequently  called), 
who  founded  the  present  dynasty,  on  his  accession 
announced  his  intention  of  restoring  the  kingdom 
as  it  had  been  established  by  Kenm  Khan,  and 
accordingly  invaded  Khorassau  and  (xeorgia,  sub- 
duing the  former  country  almost  without  effort. 
The  Georgians  besought  the  aid  of  Russia ;  but  tiie 
Persian  monarch,  wiUi  terrible  promptitude,  poured 
his  army  like  a  torrent  into  the  country,  and  devas- 
tated it  with  fire  and  sword ;  his  conquest  was, 
however, hardly  completed,  when  he  was  assassinated. 
May  14,  1797.  His  nephew,  Futteh-Ali  (1797— 
1834),  after  numerous  conflicts,  fully  established  his 
authority,  and  completely  subdued  the  rebellious 
tribes  in  Khorassau,  but  the  f^eskt  commotions  in 
Western  Europe  produced  for  mm  bitter  fruits.  He 
was  dragged  into  a  war  with  Kussia  soon  after  his 
accession,  and  by  a  treaty,  concluded  in  1797, 
surrendered  to  that  power  Derbend  and  several 
districts  on  the  Kur.    in  1862,  (Borgia  was  declared 


PERSIA-PEBSIAN  ABCHITECrUBE. 


f\ 


■M 

ill 

m 


i  by  P.,  ftt  the  initig»tion  of  Pruice; 
ftnd,  tH^  two  Jetn  of  conflicts  diBBatrooii  to  the 
PeraiuiB,  the  treaty  of  Gulixtan  (October  12,  1613) 
gave  to  Russia  all  the  Fenian  poamasioDS  to  the 
B(»th  of  Armenia,  and  the  right  of  naTigatioo  in 
the  Caapian  Sea.  In  1826,  a  third  war,  eqiiitlly 
natortunate  (or  P.,  was  commenced  with  the  same 
power,  and  coat  P.  the  remainder  of  its  poaaeasiooa 
in  Armenia,  with  Erivan,  and  a  tnm  of  18,000,000 
rubles  for  the  expensea  of  the  war.  The  severitj 
exercised  in  procaring  thia  sum  by  taxation,  ao 
eiBsperated  the  people,  that  they  roae  in  insurrection  ' 
(October  12,  1829],  and  munierad  the  Ruasian 
ambaaaador,  hia  wife,  and  almoat  all  who  belonged, 
to,  or  were  connected  with  the  Rusaian  legation. 
The  moat  humiliating  conceaaiona  to  Riiasia,  and  ^e 
piLuishment  hj  mutilation  of  1600  of  the  riotera, 
alone  averted  war.  The  death  of  the  crown-prince, 
Abbas-Mirza  (q.  t.),  in  1833.  seemed  to  give  the  final 
blow  to  the  declining  fortunes  of  P.,  for  he  was  the 
only  man  who  senoiisly  attempted  to  raise  hia 
countiy  from  the  state  of  aboaement  into  which  it 
bad  fallea  By  the  Bnistance  of  Rnssia  and  Britain, 
Mohammed  Shah  (1831—1848),  the  son  of  Abboa- 
Mirza,  obtained  the  crown,  but  the  rebellions  of 
hia  unclea,  and  the  rivalry  of  Russia  and  Britain 
(the   former   being    generally    aucceasful)    at    the 

Persian  court,  hastened  the  demoralisation  of  the  !  Persepolia,  we  And  the  Terv  parte  preserve 
country.  Mohammed  was  compelled  to  grant  ,  at  Nimrood  and  Khoraabad  are  awanting  -. 
(1346)  to  Riiasia  the  privilege  of  building  ahipa  of   there  is  abundance  of  stone,  and  the  pifl: 

war   at    Resht   and   Aatrabad,   and    to   ag —    '-    '- ■■■    '—'---'-    --  ■^' -     -• 

sairender   all  Rossian   deserteia,   and    P. 
thus  more   and  more  dependent  on  its  powerful    i 
neighbour.     Nazir-uddin  ancceeded  to  the  throne 
on  his  father's  death  in  1S48 ;  and  the  new  govern- 
ment  announced   energetic   reformi,   redaction   of   l 
impoBtSiftc,  but  limited  itself  to  these  tine  promises,    t 
and  on  the  contrary,  augmented  the  taxes,  suffered   t 
the  roads,  bridge*,  and  other  public  works  to  go  to    1 
ruin,  squandered  the  public  money,  and  summarily 
disposed  of   aU  who   protested   against  their  acta.    ' 
Id  October  1856,  the  Persians  took.  Herat  (q.  t.,. 

3  permanent  possession  of  which  they    i 


which,  as  the  later  Penian  bmldinga  expli 
the  Assyrian  palaces  were  covered.  The  eip 
of  Layard  and  Botta,  and  the  specimens 
home  by  tbe  former,  and  now  in  the  British  1 
have  made  these  scnlpturea  familiar  to  ii 
subjecia  usually  are  lar^e  bnlla  with  human 
heada ;  priesta  with'  human  bodies,  and  e 
lioaa'  heads,  performing  religions  service  b( 
*  aacred  tree.  The  Assyrian  remains  ar 
palace-tomplee,  buildings  somewhat  reBeml 
Egyptian  temples  (which  were  alao  palaci 
many  of  the  scolpturea  represent  the  eiploii 
king  in  war  and  in  peace.  The  palaces  an 
raised  on  loft;  artibcial  mounds,  and  ^| 
by  magniScent  flights  of  steps. 

The  Duildiugs  of  Assyria  extend  over  a  t 
period,  the  oldest  at  Nimroud  being  !n 
to  800  B.C.,  and  the  more  Koent  at  Khorsa 
Koyunjik  from  800  to  600  B.C.  To  these  si 
Babylon  iu  tbe  reign  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Biis  Kimroud  ;  but  theae  are  mere  masses  o 
posed  brickwork,  without  any  sculptures  o 
materiaL 

After    Babylon    came    Pasargads— wh< 

splendid  palaces  of  Cyrus  and  Cambyaes  |1 

in  roins—aod  Persepolia,  the  capital  of  Di 

Xerxes  (S60 — 623  B.C.),  and  aoraa  remuns 

be  found  at  Susa,  Ecbatana,  and  Tehei 


had  striven  for  a  long  aenes  of  years ;  and  having 
thus  violated  the  terma  of  a  treaty  with  Britain, 
war  was  declared  against  them,  and  a  British  army 
woa  landed  on  the  coast  of  the  Gulf, 
which,  under  Generals  Oatram  and 
Bavelock,  repeatedly  defeated  the 
Persians,  and  compelled  them  to 
restore  Herat  (July  1857).  Since  thia 
time,  treaties  of  commerce  have  been 
concluded  with  tbe  leading  European 
powers :  and  Russia.  Great  Britain, 
Turkey,  France,  and  Italy,  have 
consuls  in  the  chief  towns,  and,  with 
the  exception  of  Italy,  are  represented 
by  ministers  at  the  court  of  Teheran. 
PB'RSIAN  ARCHITBGTORK 
The  architecture  of  Persia  is  of  con- 
■iderable  interest,  both  on  its  own 
account,  and  as  supplementary  to  and 
explanatory  of  that  of  Assyria,  which, 
together  with  the  similar  ediflces  in  E^ypt,  is  tbe 
earliest  architecture  of  which  we  have  any  know- 
ledge. The  buildings  of  Persia  and  Assyria  closely 
resemble  one  another,  and,  owing  to  the  mode  and 
the  materials  in  which  they  were  constructed,  their 
remains  serve  to  illustrate  and  complete  each  other'a 
hiatory.  In  Aasyria,  where  no  solid  building- 
materials  exist,  the  walls  are  composed  of  masaea  of 
■Qn.dried  brickwork,  lined  on  the  inside,  to  a 
certain  height  from  the  floor,  with  large  sculptured 
slabs  of  alabaster.  These  have  been  preserved  to 
na  l)y  the  falling  in  of  the  heavy  earthen  roofs,  with 


lys.  A*,  (which,  in  tlie  early  e ,. 

lo  doubt  of  wood,  and  have  decayed),  being 
,re  still  preserved.  This  has  enabled  Mr  Fi 
to  'restore'  these  buildings,  and  to  prodn 
interesting  designs,  shewing  iu>t  only  I: 
palaces  of  Peraia  were  constructed  and  ligk 
from  them  to  suggest  how  the  arrangemen 
the  ancient  arehiCecture  of  Egypt  and  Syi 
have  been  designed. 

The  halls  at  Persepolia  were  square  i 
having  an  equal  number  of  pillars  in  each  i 
for  the  support  of  the  roof,  which  was  fiat 
centre,  a  portion  was  left  open  for  the  adm 
light,  and  sheltered  by  another  roof  raisi 
-0.  ipanying  section  (fit  1 
■^  -* 'sfiof 


A  Hall  of  Xerxes  [from  F 


Rg.  L— Bsotion  <rf  Hill  of  Zenea  at  Peraspolts. 

ArchiUcturt)  win  explain  this  arrangemen 
hall  is  the  most  Bpleudid  building  whose 
exist  in  this  part  of  the  world.  The  remaii 
72  columns  with  which  it  was  adorned  . 
extant  (flg.  2).  The  hall  had  38  columns,  six 
side,  and  on  three  sides  had  an  external  port 
with  two  rows  of  six  colnmna.  These  ooln 
capitals,  composed  of  bulla'  heads  and  s 
(tig.  3),  between  which  the  beams  of  the  roo 
while  others  were  ornamented  with  scrolls 


PEBBIAN  GDLF— PERSIAN  LANGUAGE  AND  UTERATUEE. 


by  300,  mA  covered  more  gioiind  tlum  any 
lar  buildinfjB  ot  •ntdquity,  or  any  mediavd 
«dnl  except  tb«t  of  MUbil     The  palBon  of 


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Ui 

of  then  ialuidi  are  Ormm  [q.  ▼■)>  st  the  maath. 
Kiahm,  SIO  ■qnare  milea  ia  eit«Dt ;  and  the  Bahrein 
lalands  (q.  v.),  chief  of  which  ii  8amak.  The 
Qieat  Pearl  Bank  stictchei  along  the  weatem  tida 
from  Ria  Haaaan  to  nearly  half-iray  np  the  gulf. 
The  coaat  ii  moetly  formed  of  calcareona  rocks.  On 
the  Arabian  aide,  it  ia  low  and  sandy,  occaeionaUy 
broken  by  moontaint  ftnd  clifit ;  while,  on  the 
Fenian  aide,  it  it  higher  and  abrupt,  with  deep 
water  ck»e  inshore,  owing  to  the  mountoia-ranRea 


partly  of  ironstone,  and  are  generally  destitnte  of 
apringt,  barren,  desolate,  and  presenting  nnmerona 
traces  of  volcanic  eruptions,  with  the  exception 
of  the  8hat-el-Arab  (q.v.),  the  P.  Q.  receives  only 
ineignilicaDt  streama.      Ita   eastern   side   preaenta 


f.  1— Han  of  Grsat  Hall  of  Xerzea  at  Penepolla, 

pepolis  stand  on  lofty  platforms,  built  with  walls 
^clopean  masonry,  and  approached  by  magnifi- 
;  fligtita  of  stairs,  adorned,  hke  the  palaoea,  with 


(fbires  somewhat  umilar  to  thoae  of  Anuria. 
interiors  were  omarnented  with  paintings. 
sae  of  tbe  arch  waa  known  in  Assyria,  aa  nai 
1  ahewn  by  the  subterranean  arched  conduits 
avered  by  Layiu^i,  and  the  gates  of  Khoraabad 
oT«red  by  M.  Place.  The  arehea  of  the  latter 
as  from  the  backs  of  acolptured  bolls,  and 
(tif oily  omaoieated  with  enamelled  bricks. 
ERSIAN  OtTLP,  an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
ch  penetrates  between  Arabia  and  Persia  to  the 
tnt  of  SSO  English  miles  in  a  general  north- 
terly  diraetitm.  Its  breadth  Taries  from  66  miles 
he  moath  to  260  miles,  and  the  area  i«  estimated 
117,300  sqoare  lni1«B,  from  which  aboot  1930 
tre  mill*  most  be  sabtncted  tor  the  islands, 
eh  are  scattered  over  the  weatern  half,  or  lie 
e  inshore   along  the  eastern  nde>     The  ohief 


^X 


abundance  of  good  anchorage,  either  ii. 

baya  or  in  the  lee  of  islands.  The  greater 
portiDD  of  its  shorea  now  belonee  to  the  Imaum  of 
Muscat.  The  coasts  of  the  galf  nave  been  explored 
by  successive  British  expeditions,  the  last  of  which, 
'""1—1826,  made  a  comfjete  trigonometric 
of  the  Arabian  shore.  Tbs  order  of  the 
this  gulf  is  precisely  the  reverse 
of  that  of  the  Ked  Sea  (q.v.)  currents,  aa  they 
ascend  from  May  to  October,  and  descend  from 
October  to  May. 

Oriental  geographers  give  to  this  golf  the  name  of 
the  '  Oreen  9ea,'  from  a  remarkable  strip  of  water, 
of  a  green  colonr,  which  lies  along  the  Arabiaa 
coast.  It  is  stiange  that  from  the  time  of  Nearchns, 
the  admiral  of  Meiaoder  the  Great,  who  was  the 
ftnt  to  make  the  P.  Q.  known  to  Europeans,  the 
Persians  have  never  rnled  supreme  over  its  sarfaoe. 
PERSIAN  LANGUAGE  ahp  LITERATURE. 
The  ancient  and  modem  idioms  of  Persia,  which 
aT«  in  general  designated  as  Iranian  or  West  Aryan, 
belong  to  the  great  class  of  the  Indo-Germanio 
'  ;es ;  but  me  term  Peteisn  itself  applies  more 

larly  to  the  language  as  it  is  now  spoken, 
with  a  few  exceptions,  throughout  Persia,  and  in  a 
few  other  places,  formerly  under  Persian  dominion, 
like  Bokhara,  Ao,  The  mora  important  and  better^ 
known  of  the  ancient  idioms  are  (1)  the  Zend  (the 
East  Iranian  or  Bactrian  langu^e,  in  two  dialecta 
— the  '  Uatha  idiom,'  and  the  *  ancient '  or  '  classical 
Zend'),  which  died  out  in  the  3d  c  B.  o.— one  of 
the  most  highly -developed  idioms,  rich  in  inflec- 
tions, in  the  verbs  as  well  as  in  the  nouns,  and  in 
the  former  almost  completely  agreeing  with  Vedio 
Sanscrit;  yet  such  aa  we  find  it  in  the  small  remuns 
which  have  inrTived,  it  is  no  longer  in  the  full 
vigour  of  life,  but  almost  decaying,  and  gramma- 
tically somewhat  neglected ;  it  ia  in  fact  netd  by 
■  great  sutJiority  on  the  subject  (Hang),  that  the 
grammar  was  never  fixed  in  any  way  by  mica.  To 
increase  the  difficulty  etiU  more,  the  texts— the 
Zoroastrian  books — never  seem  to  have  been  copied 
with  proper  care,  or  by  men  who  had  any  correct 
knowledge  of  the  language ;  so  that-  the  critical 
restoration  of  the  literary  remains  is  matter  of 
extreme  difficulty,  and  Zend  studies  in  general 
may  be  said  to  be  in  their  infancy  yet.  Ueographi- 
cally,  this  idiom  may  bejtiaced  in  Northern  Persia. 
Its  alphabet  is  of  Semitic  origiu,  and  the  writing 
goes  irom  right  to  left  (see  Zims,  ZsNU-AvmA). 
(2)  Andtnt  i^«ian,  the  chief  remnanta  of  which  are 
found  in  the  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  the  time  at 
the  Achffimenidea,  discovered  m  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis,  on  the  rock  of  Behistun,  and  some  othw 
places  of  Persia  (see  Ocnbuobm).  Some  rehca,  chiefly 
consisting  <rf  proper  names  for  gods  and  men,  and 
terms  for  vessels  and  garments,  have  survived  in 
the  writings  of  the  obssical  period,  and  in  the 
Bible,  oliiefly  in  DanieL       Ttu*   idiom   is   much 


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PEBSIAK  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


neartr  to  Zend  and  Sanscrit  than  to  modem 
Persian.  It  baa  still  the  structure  of  an  ancient 
organic  Indo-6ermanic  language,  with  the  distinct 
peculiarities  of  an  Iranio  tongu&  (3)  Pehleoi  (q.  v.) 
(West  Iranian,  Median,  and  Persian),  ia  use  during 
the  period  of  the  Sassanides  (3d  to  7th  c  a.d.)i 
an  ioiom  largely  mixed  with  Semitio  words,  and 
poorer  in  inflections  and  terminations  than  Zend. 
Its  remnants  consist  of  a  certain  number  of  books 
relating  to  the  Zoroastrian  religion,  of  coins  and 
inscriptions ;  and  the  language  is  not  quite  the 
same  m  all  cases — according  to  the  larger  or  smaller 
infusion  of  foreign  words.  The  non-Iranian  element 
is  known  as  Huzvareah,  and  is  'iuiply  Ghaldee; 
while  the  Iranian  element  is  but  little  dinerent  from 
modern  Persian.  There  are  three  distinct  idioms  to 
be  distinguished  in  Pehlevii  and  the  writing  varies 
accordingly,  yet  it  is  not  certain  whether  the 
difference  arises  from  their  belonging  to  different 
districts  or  periods.  When,  however,  Pehlevi  ceased 
to  be  a  living  language,  and  the  restoration  of  the 
pure  Iranian  had  begun,  people,  not  daring  to 
change  the  writings,  chiefly  of  a  sacred  nature,  as 
they  had  descended  to  them  from  the  Sassanian 
times,  began  to  substitute,  in  reading,  the  Persian 
equivalents  to  the  Huzvaresh  word&  At  last  a 
new  form  of  commentaries  to  the  sacred  writings 
sprang  up,  in  which  more  distinct  and  clear  Zend 
characters  were  used,  where  each  sign  has  but  one 
phonetical  value,  and  where  all  the  foreign  Huzvaresh 
words  were  replaced  by  pure  Persian  ones ;  and  this 
new  form  was  called  (4)  Fdzend,  ^he  transition 
from  the  ancient  to  the  modem  Persian  is  formed 
by  the  Parsee,  or,  as  the  Arabs  call  it,  Farn^  in  use 
from  700  to  1100  A.D.,  once  the  lanp^uage  purely  of 
the  south-western  provinces,  ana  oistmguished 
chiefly  by  a  peculiarity  of  style,  riffid  exclusion 
of  Semitic  words,  and  certain  now  obsolete  forms 
and  words  retained  in  liturgic  formulas.  It  is  the 
Persian  once  written  by  the  Parsees  or  flre-wor- 
shippers,  and  is  in  other  respects  very  similar  to 
the  present  or  modern  Persian,  the  language  of  J&mi, 
Kiz&mi,  and  Hdtiz— from  1100  to  the  present 
time — with  its  numerous  dialects.  The  purest 
dialect  is  said  to  be  that  spoken  in  Shiraz  and 
Ispahan  and  their  neighbourhood.  In  general, 
the  language  is  pronounced  by  universal  consent 
to  be  the  richest  and  most  elegant  of  those  spoken 
in  modem  Asia.  It  is  the  most  sonorous  and 
muscular,  while  at  the  same  time  it  is  the  most 
elegant  and  most  flexible  of  idioms ;  and  it  is  not 
to  be  wondered  at,  that,  throughout  the  Moslem 
and  Hindu  realm,  it  should  nave  become  the 
court  lansniage,  and  that  of  the  educated  world 
in  general;  holding  a  position  somewhat  similar 
to  that  which  the  French  language  held  up  to 
within  a  recent  period  in  Europe.  Its  chief 
characteristic,  however,  is  the  enormous  intermix- 
ture of  Arabic  words,  which,  indeed,  almost  make 
up  half  its  vocabulary.  Respecting  its  analytical 
and  grammatical  structure,  it  exhibits  traces  only 
of  that  of  the  ancient  dialects  of  Zend  and  Achas- 
menian,  of  which  it  is  a  direct  descendant.  The 
elaborate  system  of  fonns  and  inflections  charac- 
teristic of  those  dialects  has  been  utterly  aban- 
doned for  combinations  of  auxiliary  words,  which 
form  independent  connective  links,  and  which 
impart  fulness  and  an  incredible  ease  to  speech 
and  composition,  but  which,  at  the  same  time, 
correspond  as  Uttle  to  the  classical  notion  of 
inflection.  The  grammar  of  the  Persian  lan- 
^;uage  has  been  called  'regular;'  but  the  fact 
IB,  that  iaere  is  hardly  any  grammar  worth 
mentiohing — ^at  all  events,  no  grammar  the  rules 
of  which  could  not  be  mastered  in  the  briefest 
possible  period*    To  begin  with :  there  is  no  gender 


distinguished  in  declension ;  the  plural  is  always 
formed  in  the  same  manner,  the  only  distinc- 
tion consists  in  animate  beings  receiving  the  affix 
dn,  while  the  inanimate  are  terminated  in  M; 
further,  that  instead  of  the  inflection  in  the  differ- 
ent cases  found  in  the  ancient  laujzuages,  either 
a  mar  (hitherto  unexplained)  is  prenxed,  or  a  rd 
{rdh  a  way,  by  reason  of,  Pehlevi,  Parsi)  is  affixed. 
Between  the  genitive  and  the  word  which  governs 
it,  also  between  a  noim  and  its  following  adjective, 
an  i  is  inserted.  This  is  the  whole  declension,  not 
only  of  the  noun,  but  also  of  the  adjective  aod 
pronoun.  The  comparative  it  formed,  as  in  the 
mother-tongues,  by  tne  addition  of  ter;  the  super- 
lative adds  terin,  which  is  New-Persian  exclusively. 
Not  even  the  pronouns  have  a  gender  of  their  own ; 
the  distinction  between  masculine  and  feminine 
must  be  expressed  by  a  special  word,  denoting  male 
or  female.  There  is  no  article,  either  definite  or 
indefinite.  Singularity  of  a  noun  is  expressed  by 
an  appended  S,  a  renmant  of  aSva,  on&  The  flection 
of  the  verb  is  equally  simple.  There  is  a  set  of 
l>er8onal  terminations  for  zul  tenses : — am,  t,  ad  or 
ast;  Sm,  id,  nd;  the  infinitive  ends  in  tan  or  das^ 
the  past  participle  in  tah  or  dnh.  The  aorist  is 
formed  by  adding  to  the  root  the  terminations  am,x, 
ad  ;  em,  edi  and  ;  the  preterite  by  dropping  the  n  of 
the  infinitive,  and  substituting  the  usual  terminations. 
The  prefix  mi  or  hami  (Parsi  and  Huzvaresh  = 
always)  transforms  the  preterite  into  the  iinerfect ; 
while  the  prefix  bi  or  oih  (the  present  of  the  veih 
Ho  will*)  alters  the  aorist  into  the  simple  future. 
The  other  tenses  are  compounds  of  the  past  parti- 
ciple and  auxiliary  verbs,  as  in  the  Teutonic  and 
other  modem  tongues.  The  passive  is  formed 
by  the  various  tenses  of  the  verb  ^udari,  <to 
oe^  ^  gOf  to  beware,*  beiuff  placed  after  the  \vs% 
participle.  As  to  syntax,  there  is  none,  or,  at  all 
events,  none  which  would  not  come  almost  instinc- 
tively to  any  student  acquainted  with  the  general 
laws  of  speech  and  composition.  As  the  time  of  its 
greatest  brilliancy  may  oe  designated  that  in  which 
f^irdusi  wrote,  when  Arabic  words  had  not  swamped 
it  to  the  vast  degree  in  which  it  is  now  found,  and' 
were  still,  as  far  as  they  had  crept  in,  amenable 
to  whatever  rules  the  Persian  grammar  imposed 
upon  the  words  of  its  own  language. 

In  the  history  of  the  Persian  writing,  tbree  epochs 
are  to  be  distinguished.  First,  we  have  the  Cunei- 
form (q.v.),  by  the  side  of  which  there  seems, 
however,  to  have  been  in  use  a  kind  of  Semitic 
alphabet  for  common  purposes.  This,  in  the  second 
period,  appears  to  have  split  into  several  alphabets, 
all  related  to  each  other,  and  pointiuff  to  a  common 
Syriac  origin  (such  as  the  different  kmds  of  Pehlevi 
characters  and  the  Zend  alphabet)  cleverly  adapted 
to  the  use  of  a  non-Semitic  language.  In  the  toird 
period,  we  find  the  Arabio  alphabet  enlarged  for 
Persian  use  by  an  addition  of  (uacriticai  points  and 
signs  for  such  sounds  as  are  not  to  be  found  in 
Arabic  (p,  ch,  zh,  g).  The  characters  are  written  in 
a  somewhat  more  pending  manner  ffalik)  in  Persian, 
and  the  writing  is  thus  slightly  different  from  the 
usual  Arabic  Neskhi. 

The  muoh-spoken-of  close  connection  between 
German  and  Persian — both  of  Indo-Grermanic  kin 
— is  neither  more  nor  less  than  a  popular  fallacy, 
caused  by  a  misunderstood  dictum  of    Leibnitz: 

*  Integri  versus  Persice  scribi  possunt  qaos  Germanus 
intelligat,'  which  was  enthusiastically  taken  up  and 

*  provra '  by  Adelung,  Hammer-Purgstall,  and  oihere, 
and  which  has  even  led  to  the  assumption,  that  tb.« 
Grermans  came  direct  from  Persia,  or  uiat  the  GoUu 
once  were  mixed  with  the  Persians.  We  only  m-'&* 
tion  it  as  a  philological  absurdly  of  bygone  daya 

Of  the  Literatui-e  of   the  Persiaoa  before  Ihi 


PEBaiAN  LAHQUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 

unmedan  conquest,  we  ahall  not  aiiekk  here,  but  of  the  older  mjatic  poets  of  that  period  is  Sensvi 
'  tn  the  apeciiL]  articles  Zend.  Pehlevi,  PAitiiEis,  '  sutbor  of  30,000  diiticha,  who  for  big  poem  JJaili- 
Tbs  lit«rsry  period  now  under  conmderatiou  |  iot  WMUominatedaliicialiiDKerof  tbe  Suds.  Nizajui 
istiagiiisbable  by  the  sbove-meationed  infusion  :  {sbout  1200)  is  founder  of  Uie  rom&nCie  epos ;  the 
rabic  words  into  the  Persian  Unguue,  imported  greater  part  of  bis  Cha^ruhf,  or  collection  (if  five 
ther  witii  the  Koran  and  its  teachiii)^  The  romantic  poems  IChotru  and  S/tinn.  Jdgnun  and  - 
ers  are,  in  fact,  one  and  all,  Mobamm«laiia. :  Leila,  &c),  beins  ohnost  as  well  known  iu  Europe 
lithe  fanaticism  peculiar  to  coaqueriQg  religions,  i  as  il  is  in  the  Eostj  and  to  whom  KiadarsJan  the 
i  particularly  to  Islam,  all  the  representatives  king  preseuted  for  one  of  these  poems  no  less 
lid  Persian  literature  and  science,  men  and .  tl)an  fourteeo  estates.  His  grave  at  Geudsheh 
ier,werenlthlesBlyperBecutedb;  Omar's  general, .  is  still  visited  by  many  a  piuus  pilcrim.  And 
1  Ibn  Abi  Wakkos.  Tbe  coDst^quence  was,  that .  here  we  must  mention  that  the  branch  of  eaatem 
he  Urst  two  or  three  centuries  after  tbe  con-  theosophical  literature  pre-eminently  cultivated  in 
t,  all  was  silence.  The  scbolars  and  priests  who  Persia  is  the  mystic  (Suhatic)  poetry,  wbicb.  under 
!(i  not  bow  to  Allah  and  his  Prophet  and  to  Anacreontic  .allegori«8,  in  glowing  Eon^g  of  wins 
new  order  of  things,  and  who  had  found  means  and  love,  represented  the  mystery  of  divine  lore 
migrate,  took  with  them  what  had  not  been  and  of  the  onion  of  the  soul  with  God  (ges 
royed  of  the  written  monuments  of  their  Surisu).  In  this  province  we  find  diieSy  emiuHat 
ent  culture  ;  while  those  that  remained  at  home  '  poeta  like  Sen6ji  (about  beginning  of  13th  c), 
I  forced  to  abandon  tbeii  wonted  studies.  '  and  Ferid  Eddin  Attar  (bom  1^1G|,  the  renowned 
by  slow  degrees,  aa  is  invariably  the  csoe  author  of  Pend  Nameh  (Book  of  Oounecl).  a  work 
■r  each  circumstaiices,  the  conquered  race  containing  tbe  biugrapbies  oi  saints  up  to  bis  day. 
sformed  tbe  culture  of  the  conquerors  to  such  His  principal  strength,  however,  lay  in  his  mystio 
'grce,  that  native  influence  soon  became  para- .  poems;  and  such  is  the  depth  and  hidden  meaning 
nt  in  Persia,  even  in  the  matter  of  tLeo-  of  his  rhymes,  that  fur  centuries  after  him,  the 
— the  supreme  science.  It  is  reodUy  granted  whole  Muslem  world  has  busied  itself  with  com- 
later  Mohammedan  wKtera.  that  it  wan  out  mentaries  and  conjectures  on  the  meaning  of  a 
He  body  of  the  Persians  exclusively  tbst  spranjt  great  part  of  his  sacred  poetry.  He  died  about 
foremost,  if  not  all,  the  greatest  scholars  and  1330,  more  than  a  hundred  years  old,  as  a  martyr. 
lors  on  religious  M  well  as  grammatical  sub-  Greater  still,  in  this  peculiar  field,  is  Djulal  Eddin 
I.  historians  and  poets,  philosophers  and  men  of  Rumi.  born  at  Balkh  (died  12G6),  the  founder  of 
ice;  and  the  only  concession  they  made  con-  a  still  eiisting  moat  popular  order  of  dervishe* 
id  in  their  use  of  the  newly-imported  Arabic  (Mewlewi).  lEs  poem  ou  Coab-ii^ilaUve  Ltfe  haa 
ue.  A  further  step  was  taken  when,  after  the  made  him  the  orade  of  oriental  mysticism  up  to 
31  sway  bad  ceased,  the  Persians,  under  upstart  this  day.  Ha  wrote  also  a  great  number  of  lyrical 
ve  dynasties,  returned  ahK>  to  the  ancient  Ian-  poems,  which  form,  aa  far  as  they  have  been  col- 
■e  of^their  fathers  during  the  first  centuries  of  lected  for  this  special  purpose,  a  breviary  for  the 
lammedanism.  The  revived  national  feeling,  faithful  Sufi.  Anhadi  of  Meroga  (died  129T)  also 
:h  must  have  been  stirring  for  a  long  time  pre-  ,  deserves  mention. 

sly  among  the  mosses,  then  suddenly  burst  forth  I  The  13th  c  cannot  better  be  closed  than  with 
rose  and  in  verse,  from  the  litis  of  a  thousand  Sheik  Muslib  Eddin  Sodi  of  Shiraz  (died  1291), 
era  and  writers.  Tbe  literary  life  of  Persia,  the  tbe  first  and  unrivalled  Persian  didactic  poet.  Hia 
meucement  of  which  is  thus  to  be  placed  in  Boslaa  and  GulUlan  (Rose-  and  Fruit-Garden)  are 
9th  c  A.D.,  continued  to  Qouriah  with  unabated  not  only  of  Eastern  but  also  of  European  celebrity, 
thy  vigour  for  five  centuries,  and  produced  a  and  most  deservedly,  embodying  as  they  do  all  the 
.  of  writers  in  every  branch  of  science  and  mature  wisdom,  the  grace  and  bappiuesa  of  com- 
^-lettres,  of  whom  we  can  only  here  give  tbe  position  of  a  true  poet,  ripe  in  years  aa  in  exgierienca. 
t  rapid  of  surveys,  referring  for  tbe  most  impor-    At  the  beginning  of  the  14th  c,  we  meet  aevertd 

names  to  the  special  articles  throughout  this  meritvrioua  imitators  of  Sadi  in  didactic  poetry. 
k.  Beginning  with  poetry,  we  hear,  under  the  But  far  above  all  these,  as  above  all  other 
of  the  third  of  the  Samanides,  Naar  (about  952),  Persian  lyrical  and  erotic  poets,  shines  lUfiz 
tbul  Hasan  Rudegi,  the  blind,  who  rose  by  the  (q.  v.),  the  'Sugar-lip,'  who  sang  of  wine  and 
r's  favour  to  auch  an  eminence  that  be  bod  200  love,  and  nlshtingales  and  flowers,  and  who  so 
ea  to  wait  upon  him.  But  little  has  remained  offended  mock-piety,  that  it  even  would  have  tried 
is  1,300,000  distichs.  and  of  his  metrical  tran-  to  refiiae  him  a  piogjer  burial,  had  not  the  oracle 
on  of  Bidjiai's  Fables.  About  1000  A.i>.,  we  of  the  Koran  interposed.  After  him,  the  full  dory 
'  of  Kabus,  tbe  Dilemite  prince,  aa  the  author  of  Persian  poetry  begins  to  wane.  Among  tbOM 
"he  Per/Ktion  of  Rhetoric,  and  Poems.  In  the  that  came  after  him,  stands  highest  DjAmi,  who 
!  of  tiie  Gasnevides,  chiefly  under  Mahmud.  died  in  K92,  a  poet  of  moat  varied  genius,  second 
aorrounded  himself  with  no  less  than  400  only  in  every  one  of  the  manifold  branches  to  its 
t-poets,  we  find  those  stars  of  Persian  song,  chief  master— in  pauccyric  to  Enveri.  in  didactic  to 
an  (1039),  the  author  of  Wajoik  and  Aira,  and  Sftdt,  In  romance  to  Niiaipi,  in  mysticism  to  Jelal- 
IW  other  distichs  and  KaaaidahB  in  honour  and  ed-din,  in  lyric  to  Sftdi ;  and  he,  with  these  and 
ie  of  tbe  king;  further,  Ferruchi,  who,  besides  Firdnsi,  form  the  brighteBt  representatives  of 
own  poems,  also  wrote  the  first  work  on  the  Persian  poetry.  Most  brilliant,  however,  is  Djftml  sa 
I  of  the  Peraian  metrical  art;  and  above  all  a  romantic  poet.  Of  prose  works,  we  have  by  him 
Lusi  (q.  v.),  that  greatest  epic  poet,  the  author  of  a  history  of  Sufis,  and  an  eiceeriingly  valuable 
ShoA-Nanuh,  or  Book  of  Kings ;  who  led  one  collection  of  epiatolory  modela  Befure  concluding 
he  most  briUiant  and  romantic  lives  that  ever  this  branch  of  literature,  wo  must  take  notice  of  the 
to  the  lot  of  genius,  and  ended  it  forgotten  dramatic  poetry  of  tbe  Persians,  which  is  not  with- 
in misery.  With  hina,  but  darkened  by  his  out  merit,  but  of  small  eitent.  and  to  be  compared 
htneos,  flourished  Eecdi,  his  countryman,  from   principally  with  the  ancient  French  mysteriea. 

Among  tbe  poeta  who  flourished  under  the  1  The  nunieroua  tales,  atoriea,  novels,  anecdotea, 
oek  dynasty,  we  find  that  most  brilliant  Persian  anthologies,  and  all  the  miacellaneoua  entertaining 
^gyrist,   Anhad  Addin   Enweri,  v'  ■'    ■'     '■  :_  _l;.i.  n._..-.  .v..._j-    ._j  „i  „i.:„i.  .u. 


PERSIAN  POWDER-PERSIGNY. 


Ni:r'^i 


111 


Si"! 

1  1 

1     i 

i     , 

1*! 
■ 

i!jH 

I 

> '  . 

•1!' 

M 

. 

■Mv 

I'l 

1 

'It: 

Tables ;  Anvari  SuheUi^  by  Hnsein  Vais  Kasbifi ;  the 
2\Uinameh^  or  Book  of  Parrots,  a  collection  of  fairv 
tales,  by  Nechshebi ;  the  BeJiari-DanUik,  by  Inajeth 
Allah,  Ac. — form  a  fit  transition  from  poetry  to 
prose,  for  little  more  is  to  be  said  of  Persian  poetry 
after  the  15th  century.  Modem  imitations  of 
ancient  classical  works,  snch  as  the  New  Book  of 
Kings,  the  Shahinsfuih-Nam^,  which  treats  of  modem 
Persian  history;  the  Oeorge  Namlh^  which  sings 
the  English  conquests  in  India,  Ac,  are  hardly 
worth  pointing  out  in  so  brief  a  summair  as  ours. 
Of  native  writers  on  the  poets,  are  to  be  named 
Dewlet  Shah  (who  describes  the  poets  from  the  10th 
to  the  15th  centuries),  Sam  Mirsa  (the  poets  of  the 
16th),  and  Luft  All  Beg  (the  poets  of  modem  time). 
In  prose,  it  is  chiefiv  history  which  deserves  our 
attention.  Able  rivals  of  the  great  Arabic  historio- 
graphers sprang  up  at  an  early  period.  For  the 
mythical  times,  or  those  of  which  no  knowledge, 
save  through  a  medium  of  half-legend,  has  reached 
later  generations,  Firdusi's  gigantic  epos  remains 
the  only  source.  But  after  the  chroniclers  we  find 
Fadhl  Allah  Reshid  Eddin,  the  vizier  of  Ghazan, 
bora  1247  at  Hamadan,  who  was  executed  in 
1320.  He  wrote  the  Collector  of  Historu'Sf  in  three 
volumes,  to  which  he  afterwards  added  a  fourth 
geographical  volume :  a  summary  of  the  history 
of  all  Mohammedan  countries  and  times,  containing 
besides  a  complete  history  of  sects.  Worthy  and 
contemporaneous  rivals  are  Fachr  Eddin  Moham- 
med Bina  Kiti,  author  of  a  universal  history; 
and  Khodja  Abdallah  Wassaf,  the  panegyrist, 
the  model  of  grand  and  rhetorical  style.  His 
moat  successful  imitator  in  the  14th  c.  is  Abdel 
Kessak;  and  in  the  15th,  Sheref  Eddin  Ali  Yezdi, 
who  wrote  the  history  of  Timtir.  Up  to  that  period, 
pomposity  of  diction  was  considered  the  principal 
beauty,  if  not  the  chief  merit,  of  a  classical  Persian 
history.  From  the  15th  c.  downwards,  a  healthy 
reaction  set  in,  and  simplicity  and  the  striving  after 
the  real  representation  of  facts,  became  the  pre- 
dominant fashion.  As  the  facile  princeps  among 
these  modem  historians  is  to  be  mentioned  Mirk- 
hond,  whose  Universal  History  {Banset  Esaa/a)  com- 
prises the  period  from  creation  to  the  reign  of  Sultan 
Hasan  Beikara,  in  seven  books.  After  him  are  to 
be  mentioned  his  son  Khondemir,  Gaffari,  Moslih 
Eddin  Mohammed  Lari,  and  Abu  Tahir  of  Tortosa 
in  Spain,  who  wrote  the  Derah  Nameh,  a  biographi- 
cal work  on  the  Persian  and  Macedonian  kings,  and 
the  ancient  Greek  phjrsicians  and  philosophers. 

Among  Indian  historians — and  they  form  a  most 
important  class — who  wrote  in  Persian,  we  have 
Mohammed  Kasim  Ferishtah  (1640),  who  wrote  the 
ancient  history  of  India  up  to  the  European  con- 
quest ;  Mohammed  Hashim,  Abul  Fadel  Mobarrek 
{Akbar  Nameh) ;  further,  Abdel  Ressak  {History  of 
the  Padishahs),  Mirza  Mehdi,  Gholam  Hussein  Khan, 
and  others.  One  of  the  most  recent  works  of  this 
description  is  the  Measiri  SiUtaniye,  which  contains 
the  history  of  the  present  dynasty  of  Persia,  and 
which  was  published  in  Teheran,  1825,  and  Ixans- 
^ted  by  Bridges  (Lond.  1833). 

Biographies,  legends,  histories  of  martyrs,  and  the 
like  are  legion.  Most  of  the  biographies  of  the 
Prophet,  however,  are  taken  from  the  Arabic. 

Little  is  to  be  said  of  Persian  productions 
on  special  branches  of  exact  science.  There 
are  a  few  works  on  geography — ^more  generally 
treated  together  with  nistory— such  as  those  of 
Mestafi,  Ahmtn  Ahmed  Rasi,  Berdshendi,  Ac.  In 
theology,  little  beyond  translations  of  the  Koran, 
and  a  few  commentaries  on  single  chapters,  and  of 
some  portions  of  the  Traditions  (Sunnah),  has  been 
produced— the  Arabic  works  being  completely  sufii- 
eient,  in  religious  matters,  for  lul  Monammedans. 
i28 


For  the  history  of  early  Persian  religion  are  of 
importance  the  Ulcmai  islam  and  the  Dabirian^  a 
description  of  all  the  creeds  of  the  East  Juris- 
prudence has  likewise  to  shew  little  that  is  original, 
and  not  mere  translation,  partial  commentai^,  or 
adaptation  in  Persian.  The  JTedadsfiaA,  the  Inad' 
shoL  the  Futawa  Alemgiri,  are  the  most  important 
legal  works  to  be  mentioned  here.  A  great  deal 
has  been  done  in  the  field  of  medicine,  surgeir, 
pharmacy,  physical  sciences,  by  Persians ;  but  nearly 
all  their  cmef  works  being  written  in  Arabic,  they 
do  not  concern  us  here.  Mathematics,  astronomy, 
and  philosophy,  have  received  due  attention ;  ihetoric, 
the  art  of  letter-writing,  metrical  and  poetical  arts, 
have  likewise  been  cultivated  with  great  assiduity, 
but  few  standard  works  are  to  be  enumerate 
Grammar  and  lexicography  found  their  principal 
devotees  in  India ;  and  of  dictionaries,  the  Perhengi- 
Shiuri,  Burhani  Katiu^  and  principally  the  H^ 
Kulzum  (the  Seven  Seas),  by  the  Sultan  of  Oude, 
deserve  attention.  Translations  from  Greek,  Indian, 
Arabic,  Turkish,  and  other  works  into  Persian, 
exist  in  great  abundance,  and  some  of  them  have 
paved  the  way  to  the  knowledge  of  the  original 
sources  in  Europe. — Chief  authorities  and  writers 
on  the  subject  of  Persian  Language  and  Literature, 
are  Meninsky,  Richardson,  Lumsden,  Forbes,  Ibra- 
him Be  Lacy,  Hammer-Furgstall,  Briggs,  Jones, 
Duperron,  Stewart,  Quatremere,  Wilken,  DefrSmery, 
Vullers,  Iken,  Kosegarten,  Ouseley,  Chodzko^ 
Bland,  Sprenger,  Graff,  Brockhaus,  Born. 

PERSIAN  POWDER,  a  preparation  of  tlie 
flowers  of  the  composite  plant,  PyretArum  earneum 
or  roseuniy  which  are  <lned  and  pulverised.  This 
powder  has  wonderful  efficacy  in  destroying 
noxious  insects,  and  is  extensively  used  for  that 
purpose  in  Russia,  Persia,  and  Turkey.  It  has 
lately  been  introduced  into  France  and  Britain, 
and  promises  to  be  of  great  use,  not  only  in  ridding 
houses  of  their  insect  pests,  but  in  aiding  Uie 
horticulturist  in  protecting  his  plants.  The  plant 
is  a  native  of  the  Caucasus,  where  the  flowers  are 
gathered  wild,  and  sent  to  be  manufactured  chiefly 
at  Teflis.  It  mi^ht  readily  be  cultivated  in  tfa^ 
country,  where  its  value  for  destroying  moths 
alone  would  render  it  a  profitable  crop^  Its  habit 
is  very  similar  to  that  of  camomile. 

PERSIGNTT,  Jean  Gilbert  Victor,  Coutb  pe, 
whose  proper  name  is  Fialin,  a  noted  adherent 
of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III.,  was  bom  at  Saint- 
Germain-Lespinasse,  in  the  department  of  Loire, 
nth  January  1808,  entered  the  JiJcole  de  CavaUrie  at 
Saumur  in  1826,  and  obtained  an  appointment  to 
the  4th  regiment  of  hussars  in  1828.  At  this  period, 
Fialin  was  royalist  in  his  politics ;  but  he  soon 
changed  to  a  liberal,  and  took  an  active  part  in  the 
July  revolution.  Insubordination,  however,  led  to 
his  final  expulsion  from  the  army  in  1833.  After  a 
brief  trial  of  Saint-Simonianism,  Fialin  was  con- 
verted to  the  Bonapartist  cause,  dropped  the  name 
of  Fialin,  and  took  up  that  of  P.  (from  an  *  hereditary 
estate  *),  with  the  title  of  Vicomte.  Introduced  to 
Louis  Napoleon  by  the  ex-king  Joseph,  he  at  once 
formed  the  most  intimate  relations  with  the  Prince, 
and  commenced  a  career  of  Bonapartist  propagan- 
dism  throughout  France  and  Germany,  in  wluch  he 
displayed  extraordinaiy  energy,  pertinacity,  and 
fertility  of  resource.  lie  had  the  cnief  hand  in  the 
affair  of  Strasburg,  and  subsequently  apologised  for 
its  humiliating  failure  in  a  pamphlet  entitled  jRelo' 
lion  de  V Enterprise  du  Prince  Napoleon  Louis  (Lond. 
1837),  in  which  he  throws  the  blame  of  the  disaster  on 
*  Fate.'  He  also  took  part  in  the  descent  on  Boalogn<», 
where,  like  his  master,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  le 
captured,  and  was  condemned   to  twenty  years' 


PEESONNEL— PERSPECTIVE. 


Charity,  are  often  personified  in  the  gravest  and 
most  argumentative  compositions. 

PERSONNEL,  in  speaking  o£  an  army,  repre- 
sents the  officers  and  soldiers,  as  opposed  to  the 
matSrid,  in  which  are  comprised  the  guns,  provisions, 
wagons,  and  stores  of  eve^  description. 

PERSPE'GTI  YE  (Lat  pergpido,  I  look  through), 
is  the  art  of  representing  natural  objects  upon  a 
plaue  surface  in  such  a  manner  that  the  represen- 
tation shall  affect  the  eye  in  the  same  way  as  the 
objects  themselves.  The  distance  and  position  of 
objects  affect  both  their  distinctness  and  apparent 
form,  giving  rise  to  a  subdivision  of  perspective' 
into  linear  pergpective^  which,  as  its  name  denotes, 
considers  exclusively  the  effect  produced  by  the 
position  and  distance  of  the  observer  upon  the 
apparent /(Trm  and  grouping  of  objects ;  while  aerial 
perspective  confines  itself  to  their  distinctness^  as 
modified  by  distance  and  light.  The  necessity  of 
attending  to  the  principles  of  perspective  in  all 
pictorial  drawing  is  apparent  when  we  consider, 
tor  instance^  that  a  circle,  when  seen  obliquely, 
appears  to  be  not  a  circle,  but  an  ellipse,  with  its 
shortest  diameter  in  line  with  the  spectator,  and 
its  longest  at  right  angles  lo  this.  A  square, 
when  looked  at  from  a  position  opposite  the  centre  \ 
of  one  of  its  sides,  appears 
as  a  trapezoid,  the  sides 
which  are  })erpeDdicular 
to  the  direction  of  vision 
appearing  to  be  parallel, 
while  the  other  two  appear 
to  converge  to  a  point  in 
front  of  the  spectator,  &c. 
For  the  same  reason,  two 
rows  of  parallel  pillars  of 
equal  height,  seen' from  a 
point  between   and    equidistant    from    each 


taken,  from  an  eminence ;  bat  when  the  station  is 
on  a  level,  either  actual  or  assumed,  as  is  the 
case  when  a  statue  or  a  mountainous  landscape  is 
figured,  the  horizontal  line  must  be  low.  The 
horizontal  line  in  nearly  all  cases  is  supposed  to 
be  level  with  the  spectator's  ey&  3.  The  vertical 
line,  which  is  drawn  from  the  supposed  position 
of  the  sketcher,  perpendicular  to  the  ground  and 
horiz&ntal  lines,  meetmg  the  latter  in  a  point  which 
is  called  the  point  of  sight,  or  centre  of  the  picture. 
The  vertical  line  has  no  representative  in  nature, 
and  is  merelv  a  mechanical  adjunct  to  the  con- 
struction of  the  picture,  all  verticiEd  lines  in  nature 
being  parallel  to  it  in  the  picture.  The  point  of 
sight  being  the  point  directly  opposite  to  the 
observer,  is  properly  placed  in  the  centre  of  the 

Eicture,  for  it  is  most  natural  that  the  view  should 
e  symmetrically  on  each  side  of  the  principal 
visual  line ;  but  this  is  not  by  any  means  a  univer- 
sal rule,  for  we  very  frequently  find  it  on  the 
right  or  left  side,  but  always,  of  course,  on  the 
horizontal  line.  All  lines  which  in  nature  are 
perpendicular  to  the  ground  line,  or  to  a  vertical 
plane  which  is  raised  u{)on  it  as  a  base,  meet  in  the 
point  of  sight,  which  is  thus  their  vanisfiing  point  (see 
the  line  of  the  tops  and  bottoms  of  the  pillars  in 
fig.  1).    The  points  of  distance  are  two  points  in  the 


Kg.  1. 
Illastrating  tbe  more  Important  points  and  lines ;  PVB  is  the  principal  visual  nj. 


row,  horizontal  line  on  each  side  of  the  point  of  sight; 

ap|)ear  not  only  to  converge  at  the  further  end,  but  and  in  a  'direct'  sketch  are  at  a  distance  from  it 

to  become   gradually  smaller   and    smaller.      An  equal  to  the  horizontal  distance .  of  the  sketcher's 

excellent  idea  of  a  perspective  plan  can  be  easily  eye  from  the  ground  Une.    The  equality  of  distance 

obtained  by  interposing  a  vertical  transparent  plane  of  these   ix)int8  from  the  point  of  sight  is  no^ 

(as  of  glass — a  window,  for  instance)  between  the  however,  necessary,  as   it    occurs    only  in   those 

observer  and  tile  objects  of  his  vision,  and  supposing  cases  where  the  lines,  of  which  the  points  of  distance 

that  the  objects  he  sees  are  not  seen  through  the  are  the  vanishing  points,  are  inclined  (in  nature) 

glass,  but  painted  on  it.    A  sketch  made  on  a  glass  at  an  angle  of  45^  to  the  base  line ;  but^  in  aU  cases^ 

plane  in  this  position  by  following  with  a  iiencU  all  the  two  points  of  distance  are  about  twice  as  far 

the  lines  and  shades  of  the  objects  seen  through  it,  apart  as  the  eye  is  from  the  picture.    One  important 

the  eye  being  all  the  time  kept  quite  steady,  would  use  of  the  points  of  distance  is  to  define  the  distanos 

form  a  picture  in  perfect  perspective.    In  practice,  of  objects  in  a  row  (fig.  1)  from  each  other.     For 

however,  it  is  founa,  unfortunately,  that  glass  is  not  this  purpose,  two  points  of  distance  are  not  neces- 

a  suitable  material  for  sketching  on,  and  that  the  sary,  as,  when  the  position  of  one  pillar  is  found, 

vertical  position  is  not  the  most  convenient;  it  is  that  of  ihe  one  opposite  is  at  once  obtained  by 

therefore  preferable  to  make  a  careful  study  of  the  drawing  a  line  parallel  to  the  base  or  ground  line, 

effects  produced  by  change  of  position  and  distance  We  have  seen  that  the  point  of  sight  is  the  vanish* 
on  the  appearance  of  objects  in  nature,  and  from '  ing  point  of  all  level  lines  which  meet  the  ground 
the  results  of  this  to  comple  a  body  of  rules,  by '  line  or  a  vertical  plane  on  it  at  right  angles,  and 

the  observance  of  which  painters  may  be  enabled  to  that  the  points  of  distance  (in  a  direct  picture)  are 

produce  an  effect  true  to  nature.    After  the  '  scope '  the  vanishing  points  of  all  lines  which  cut  the 


(L  e.,  the  number  of  objects  to  be  introduced,  and 
l^e  distance  at  which  they  are  to  be  viewed)  of 
the  picture  has  been  determined,  and  before  the 
design  is  commenced,  it  is  necessary  to  draw  upon 
the  perspective  plan  three  lines :  1.  The  base  line, 
or  ground  line,  which  limits  the  sketch  towards 
the  operator,  and  is  the  base  line  of  the  picture. 
2.  The  horizontal  line,  which  represents  the  ordinary 
position  of  the  sensible  horizon.  The  height  of  the 
horizontal  line  is  about  one-third  of  the  height  of 
the  picture,  when  the  sketcher  is  placed  at  or  little 
above  the  level  of  the  horizon ;  but  it  may  rise  in 
a  dewree  corresponding  to  his  increase  of  elevation 
till  it  reaches  near  to  the  top  of  the  perspective 
plan.  The  general  rule  is  to  have  a  high  horizontal 
&ne  when  the  view  is  taken,  or  supposed  to  be 
490 


ground  line  at  an  angle  of  45° ;  but  there  are  many 
other  ffroups  of  {Hurallel  lines  in  a  picture  which 
have  different  sitiuitions,  and  therefore  different 
vanishing  points.  Such  lines  with  their  vanishing 
points  (called,  for  distinction's  sake,  aocidentM 
points)  are  represented  in  fig.  2.  If  the  accidental 
point  is  above  the  horizontal  line,  it  is  called  tiie 
aecidentai  point  atrial — ^if  below,  the  ax:cidental  point 
terrestricU;  and  a  little  coDsideration  makes  it 
evident  tiiat  these  points  may  or  may  not  be 
situated  within  the  plane  of  the  picture.  Such  are 
the  points  and  lines  neoessary  for  the  construction  of 
a  plan  in  true  perspective;  and  from  the  above 
explanation,  we  may  deduce  the  two  general  prin- 
ciples ;  1.  That  all  parallel  straight  lines  in  nature 
are   no   longer   panllel   when*  inojected   •m  tb« 


PERSPIRATIOK— PERTH. 


perspective  plane,  but  meet  in  a  point  which  is 
called  the  vanishing  point,  and  is  some  one  of  the 
three  above  described,  unless  these  lines  happen  to 
be  also  parallel  to  the  ground  line  or  the  vertical  line, 
in  whicn  case  they  remain  parallel  when  transferred 


.CJ^ 


.     ,       ,    . \.-i!.t ----:£§ 

..-====.. 1   ill  \i  ..--A-'r.--'" 


Kg.  a 

The  lines  O  O  oonTerge  to  tbe  accidental  point  aerial,  and  P  P  to  the  accidental  point  terrestrial. 


to  the  picture ;  and  2.  That  since  the  bodies  drawn 
below  the  horizontal  line  are  seen  as  if  from  above, 
those  above  as  if  from  below,  and  those  to  the  right 
and  left  of  the  point  of  sight  as  if  observed  from  tbe 
left  and  right,  it  follows,  that  straight  lines  which 
in  the  picture  are  above  the  horizontal  line  lower 
themselves,  those  below  raise  themselves  to  it; 
those  to  the  left,  following  the  same  law,  direct 
themselves  to  the  right,  and  vice  i«r«d. 

Aerial  perspective^  consists  in  a  modulation  of 
the  brightness  and  colours  of  objects  in  accord- 
ance with  the  state  of  the  atmosphere,  the  depth 
of  the  body  in  the  perspective  plane  (i.  e.,  distance 
in  nature  from  the  ground  line),  and  other  accidents 
of  place  and  time.  As  the  distance  of  objects 
increases,  their  illuminated  parts  are  made  less 
brilliant,  and  their  shaded  parts  more  feeble.  The 
bluish  tint  imparted  by  a  large  mass  of  the  atmos- 
phere to  the  bodies  seen  through  it,  is  frequently 
imitated  by  the  mixing  of  a  slight  tint  of  blue  with 
the  colours  to  be  applied ;  a  yellow  object  thus 
assumes  a  greenish  tint ;  a  red  one,  a  violet  tint, 
&C.  The  air,  when  charged  with  vapour,  is  repre- 
sented by  a  diminution  of  the  brightness  of  colours, 
and  by  the  grayish  tint  imparted  to  them.  But  in 
this  part  of  the  subject,  rules  are  of  little  avail,  for 
experience  alone  can  guide  the  painter  in  faithfully 
copying  the  myriad  aspects  presented  by  nature. 

A  thorough  knowledge  of  perspective  is  a  sine 
gud  non  to  the  painter  or  designer,  and  though 
many  are  inclined  to  think  it  a  superfluity,  and 
that  the  sketcher  has  only  to  make  use  of  his  eyes, 
and  copy  justly,  the  very  fact  that  such  ia  their 
opinion,  shews  that  they  have  never  made  the 
attemx>t;  for  it  is  impossible  for  the  painter,  and 
much  more  so  for  the  designer,  to  execute  a  copy  of 
nature  with  sufficient  accuracy  by  the  sole  aid  of 
the  eye  and  hand,  a  fact  that  is  unfortunately  much 
too  n^qnently  proved  by  many  of  the  sketches 
exhibited  in  fine-art  collections.  Perspective  was 
known  to  the  ancients,  but  seems  to  have  become 
extinct  during  the  disturbances  that  convulsed 
Italy,  and  was  revived  by  Albert  Bilrer,  Pietro 
del  Borffo,  and  Bramantino  of  Milan  (1440),  whose 
body  of  rules  was  extended  and  completed  by 
Peruzzi  and  Ubaldi  about  16(K)l  Dr  Brook  Taylor 
was  the  first  Endishman  who  discussed  the  subject 
scientifically.  Works  on  perspective  are  now 
%bundant  in  every  language. 

PSRSPIBA'TION.    SeeSwvAT. 


PBRTH,  a  dty,  royal,  municipal,  and  parliamen- 
tary burgh,  and  capital  of  the  county  of  the  same 
name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tay, 
45  miles  north-north-west  of  Edinburgh  by  rsdl- 
way  (through  Fife).    The  charming  scenery  of  the 

immediate     vid- 
yo    ^.^  nity;  the  Tay,  a 

broad  and  noble 
river,  sweeping 
southward  along 
its  eastern  side; 
and  the  superb 
background  of  the 
Grampians  on  the 
north,  render  the 
site  of  the  *Fair 
City*  exceedingly 
interesting  and 
beautiful ;  while 
its  rank  as  in 
some  sort  the 
ancient  metro- 
polis  of  Scotland, 
the  important  rd£8 
it  has  played  in 
the  history  of  the 


•\ — 


o^_    V 


-*«  V 


•.^*t. 


.P. 


country,  and  the  picturesque  associations  with 
which  history  and  fiction  have  invested  it,  claim  for 
it  a  high  rank  among  the  cities  of  Scotland.  A 
handsome  bridge  of  nine  arches,  880  feet  in  length, 
and  stretching  over  a  water-way  590  feet  in  width, 
connects  the  town  with  the  suburb  of  Bridgend, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  river.  Further  down,  the 
Perth  and  Dundee  Railway  crosses  the  river  on 
a  tine  stone  and  iron  bridge  (opened  in  1864),  which 
also  admits  foot-passengers.  The  appearance  of 
P.  is  much  enhanced  by  two  beautiful  public  parks, 
called  the  North  and  South  Inches.  The  water- 
supply,  obtained  from  the  Tay,  is  filtered,  rais^  by 
steam  into  two  elevated  reservoirs,  and  thence  dis- 
tributed over  the  town,  rising  to  the  upper  stories 
of  the  highest  houses.  Among  the  most  interest- 
ing public  buildings  are  the  church  of  St  John,  an 
ancient  structure  in  the  Pointed  Style,  surmounted 
by  a  massive  square  tower ;  the  County  BuildingB, 
a  Grecian  edifice ;  the  local  prison,  and  the  Peniten- 
tiary or  General  Prison,  formerly  used  as  a  d6pdt  for 
French  prisoners,  and  now  one  of  the  largest  build- 
ings of  the  kind  in  Scotland  The  Penitentiaiy  is 
the  General  Prison  for  Scotland,  and  all  criminals 
sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  long  periods  are  con- 
fined here.  The  town  also  contains  a  statue  of  the 
late  Prince  Consort,  erected  in  1864;  MarshiJl's 
Monument,  erected  in  honour  of  a  former  lord 
provost,  and  containing  a  public  library  and  the 
Museum  of  the  Antiquarian  and  Natural  History 
Society ;  Sharp's,  and  other  educational  institutioiUL 
The  river  is  navigable  to  P.  for  vessels  of  con- 
siderable burden.  Wincev  and  striped  shirting  are 
manufactured;  gloves,  wnich  at  one  time  were  a 
staple  manufacture,  are  no  longer  made.  There  are 
dye-works,  iron-foundries,  breweries,  &c. ;  and  ship- 
building is  also  carried  on.  The  salmon-fishery 
on  the  Tay  is  very  valuable  (250  tons  of  fish  beinff 
exported  annually  to  London  alone).  In  1863,  372 
vessels,  of  25,3i>l  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 
Five  fairs  are  held  annuallv,  and  horse-races  take 
place  every  year  on  the  North  Inch.  P.  has  a 
charter  as  a  royal  burgh  from  King  William  the 
lion  (1165 — 1214).  It  returns  a  member  to  the 
House  of  Commons.  Pop.  (1861)  of  royal  burgh, 
13,814 ;  of  parliamentary  burgh,  25,250. 

PERTH,  THE  Fivx  A&TiCLES  or,  memorable  in 

the    ecclesiastical   history  of    Scotland,  were  five 

articles  agreed  upon  in  a  meeting  of  the  Creneral 

Assembly  of  the  Church  of  ScotSind,  convened  at 

43] 


PERTHES— PERTHSHIBR 


Peitli,  hy  command  of  Jamee  VL,  on  25th  August 
1618.  These  Articles  enjoined  kneeling  at  the  Lord*8 
Supper,  the  observance  of  Christmas,  Good  Friday, 
Easter,  and  Pentecost,  and  confirmation,  and  sano* 
tioned  the  private  administration  of  baptism  and  of 
the  Lord's  supper.  They  were  highly  obnoxious  to 
the  Presbyterians  of  Scotland,  not  only  on  their 
own  account,  but  as  part  of  an  attempt  to  change 
the  whole  constitution  of  the  church ;  and  because 
they  were  adopted  without  free  discussion  in  the 
Assembly,  and  in  mere  compliance  with  the  will 
of  the  king,  who  was  also  regarded  as  having  unduly 
interfered  with  the  constitution  of  the  Assembly 
itsell  They  were,  however,  ratitied  by  the  parlia- 
ment on  4th  August  1621 — a  day  long  remembered 
in  Scotland  as  Slack  Saturday — were  enforced  by 
the  Court  of  High  Qommission,  and  became  one  of 
the  chief  subjects  of  that  contention  between  the 
king  and  the  people,  which  produced  results  so 
ffirave  and  sad  tor  both,  in  the  subsequent  reign. 
The  General  Assembly  of  Glasgow,  in  1638,  declarod 
that  of  Perth  to  have  been  '  tmfree,  unlawful,  and 
null,'  and  condemned  the  Five  Articles. 

PERTHES,  pRiSDitiCH  CHBiSTOPir,  an  eminent 
German  publisher,  distinguished  not  only  in  his 
professional  capacity,  but  for  his  sincere  piety  and 
ardent  patriotism,  was  born  at  Rudolstadt,  21st 
April  1772.  In  his  15th  year,  he  was  apprenticed 
to  a  Leipzig  bookseller,  with  whom  he  remained 
six  jrears,  devoting  much  of  his  leisure  time  to  the 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  In  1793,  he  passed  into 
the  establishment  of  Hoffmann,  the  Hamburg  book- 
seller; and  in  1796,  started  business  on  his  own 
account ;  and,  by  his  keen  and  wide  appreciation  of 
the  public  wants,  his  untiring  diligence,  and  his 
honourable  reputation,  he  ultimately  made  it  the 
most  extensive  of  the  kind  in  modem  Germany. 
During  the  first  few  years  or  so  of  his  Hamburg 
apprenticeship,  his  more  intimate  friends  had  been 
eitJier  Kantian  or  sceptical  in  their  opinions,  and  P., 
who  was  not  distinguished  for  either  learning  or 
speculative  talent,  ^l  learned  to  think  with  his 
friends ;  but  a  friendship  which  he  subsequently 
formed  with  Jacobi  (q.v.),  and  the  Holstein  poet 
and  humorist,  Matthias  Claudius,  led  him  into  a 
serious  but  liberal  Christianil^.  The  iron  rule 
of  the  French  in  Northern  Germany,  and  the 
prohibition  of  intercourse  with  England,  nearly 
ruined  trade,  yet  P.,  even  in  this  great  crisis  of 
affairs,  found  ways  and  means  to  extend  his.  He 
endeavoured  to  enlist  the  intellect  of  Germany 
on  the  side  of  patriotism,  and  in  1810  started 
the  National  Museum,  with  contributions  from  Jean 
Paul  Richter,  Count  Stolberg,  Claudius,  Fouqu6, 
Heeren,  Sartorius,  Schlegel,  G&rres,  Amdt,  and 
other  eminent  men.  Its  success  was  far  beyond  P.*s 
expectations,  and  encouraged  him  to  continue  his 
patriotic  activity,  till  Hamburg  was  formally  incor- 
porated with  the  French  empire.  He  subsequently 
took  a  prominent  part  in  forcing  the  French  garrison 
to  evacuate  Hamburg,  12th  March  1813 ;  and  on  its 
re-occupation  by  the  French,  he  was  one  of  the  ten 
Hamburgers   who    were    8i)eciaUy    excepted   from 

rlon.  After  peace  had  been  restored  to  Europe, 
steadily  devoted  himself  to  the  extension  of 
his  business,  and  to  the  consolidation  of  the  sen- 
timent of  German  national  unity,  as  far  as  th|it 
could  be  accomplished  by  literature  and  speech. 
In  182^  he  removed  to  Gotha,  transferring  his 
Hamburg  business  to  his  partner  Besser.  Here 
he  laid  himself  out  mainfy  for  the  publication 
of  great  historical  and  theological  works.  His 
subsequent  oorrespondenoe  with  literary,  political, 
and  theological  notabilities — such  as  NiebUhr  tone 
of  hii  dearest  friends),  Neander,  Schleiermacner, 
LUcke,  Nitszch,  Tholuck,  Schelling,  and  Umbreit — 
i32 


is  extremely  interesting,  and  throws  a  rich  l^it 
upon  the  recent  inner  life  of  Germany.  He  £ed 
18th  May  1843.— See  Friedrkh  Pertkuf  Lthen,  (12th 
edit  1853),  written  by  his  second  son,  Clemens 
Theodor  Perthes,  Professor  of  Law  at  Bonn.— The 
uncle  of  Friedrich  Christoph  P.  was  Johann  Geor. 
Justus  Perthes,  who  estskblished  a  pnblishing  and 
bookselling  house  at  Gotha  in  1785,  which  has 
acquii^  in  the  hands  of  his  sons,  a  great  reputa* 
tion,  and  from  which  issues  the  famous  Almoiiacli 
de  OotluL 

PE'RTHSHIRE,  one  of  the  most  important 
counties  in  Scotland,  is  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
the  shires  of  Stirling  and  Clackmannan;  on  the 
N.  bv  Inverness  and  Aberdeen ;  on  the  W.  by 
Argyle  and  Dumbarton ;  and  on  the  K  by  Forfar, 
Fife,  and  Kinross.  It  extends  from  east  to  west 
about  70  mUes,  and  from  north  to  south  about  66 
miles.  Its  area  iz  2834  miles,  or  1,814,063  a-'^res,  uf 
which  above  32,000  are  covered  with  wate  It 
is  divided  into  the  Highland  and  Lowland  disi  'cts, 
the  former  occupying  much  the  larger  sunJMx, 
and  these  are  subdivided  into  10  divisions— viz., 
Menteith,  Strathearo,  Gowrie,  Stormont,  Stoith- 
ardle,  Glenshee,  Athole,  Breadalbane,  Ranno(^  and 
Balquidder.  P.,  from  its  insular  position  and  other 
advantages,  has  a  comparatively  mild  dimate ;  and 
the  soil,  in  Stratheam,  Carse  of  Gowrie,  and  other 
less  extensive  tracts,  being  mostiy  composed  of  a 
rich  loam,  crops  of  all  kinds  are  brought  to  tiie 
utmost  perfection.  These  districts  are  also  famed 
for  their  fruit  and  floral  productions.  P.  is  not  leas 
distin^;uished  for  its  magnificent  mountain,  lake, 
and  nver  scenery.  The  Grampians  h&ce  attain  to 
nearly  their  maximum  height,  Ben  Lawers  being 
within  a  few  feet  of  4000  in  altitude ;  while  Ben 
More  is  3818 ;  and  several  others  above  3000l  The 
lakes  are  numerous,  the  principal  of  which  are 
Lochs  Tay,  Ericht,  Rannoch,  Tummel,  Lydock, 
Garry,  Lyon,  and  Dochart.  There  are  several 
streams  of  note,  the  principal  being  the  Tay,  which 
is  fed  by  numerous  other  streams,  and  is  said  to 
discharge  as  much  water  into  the  sea  as  any  other 
river  in  the  kingdom.  These  lakes  and  streams 
afford  excellent  fishing,  and  the  Tay  is  valuable  for 
its  salmon,  yielding  in  rent  about  J£12,000  a  year. 

According  to  the  last  agricultural  statistics,  taken 
in  1857,  the  number  of  occupants  was  3616,  and 
the  acreage  under  rotation  of  grass  and  hay  was 
99,656,  and  under  crops  267,397 ;  of  which  there 
were  in  wheat,  25,638  acres,  averaging  25  bushels 
34  pecks  per  acre;  in  barley,  18,802  acres,  aver- 
aging 31  bushels  i  peck  per  acre ;  in  osta,  64^084 
acres,  averaging  35  bushels  f  peck  per  acre;  in 
here,  655  acres,  averaging  30  bushels  3|  pecks 
per  acre ;  in  beans  and  peas,  4250  acres,  averaging 
21  bushels  3^  pecks  per  acre;  in  turnips,  33,313 
acres,  averaging  13  tons  per  acre;  in  potatoes, 
17,482  acres,  averaging  2  tons  II4  cwt.  per  acre. 
Of  live  stock  there  were — ^horses,  15,953;  cattle, 
80,716;  sheep,  544,742;  swine,  9369.— Total  stock, 
650,780. 

The  above  statistics  shew  that  there  are  mors 
occupants  or  tenants  in  this  coxmty  than  in  any 
other  in  Scotland  with  the  exception  of  Aberdeen, 
where  there  are  more  than  double  the  number: 
that  the  acrea^  under  crop  is  also  greater,  witii  the 
above  exception;  while  the  average  produce  of 
wheat,  barl^,  and  turnips  is  less  than  in  24  out  ol 
the  32  counties.  Of  oats  the  average  is  lees  than  in 
14  counties,  and  of  potatoes  less  than  in  22L  The  live 
stock  exceeds  in  value  any  other  county,  Aberdeen 
excepted,  and  outnumbers  all  except  Arayle,  which 
possesses  827,000  sheep.  The  old  valued  rental 
was  £28,330;  the  new  valuation  for  1862— lS63f 
was  £732,766,  exclusive  of  railways;    The  rate  ol 


PEBTINAX— PERTUEBATI0N3. 


^DtB  on  the  luiJ  fir  1803—1864  smouoted 

d.  per  £100. 

Id  Red  Sandstone,  gmute,  nnd  alatu  abound, 
county  are  situated  Bome  oi  Vii  stateliest 
i  m  Scotland,  but,  exctpt  Scone  I'^ia"'.  none 

contain  any  hiBtorical  raemoriala  ;  auJ  the 
)f  interest  to  the  antiquarian  are  confined  to 
edrals  of  Dnnblane  and  Dunkeld,  the  Abbey 
M,  and  a  few  Dniidical  and  Konian  remuna. 
■e  two  royal  burghs,  Perth  and  CuIrosB, 
rMth  there  are  several  villages  of  consider- 
;  where  trade  ic  flax,  to.  is  carried  on  to 
4:nt.  The  population  in  ISGl  was  133, 
1    houses,    22,035 ;     parliamentary   cDi 

18C3,  wu  3541. 


olony  of  Liguria,  August  1,  126  A. 

a  good  education,  and,  entering  the  military 

n>se   Uirough  the   variaua  grades   till   he 

the  conunand  of  the  first  legion,  at  the 
rhich  he  signalised  himself  in  llb.'etia  and 

against  the  native  tril>ea.  In  179,  lie 
•nsul,  aided  to  lepreas  the  revolt  of  Avitus 
,  and  waa  sovetnor  succeuively  of  the 
I  of  Mteaia,  Dacia,  and  Syria.  Being  sent 
jmperor  Commodua  to  take  the  command 
urhnlent  legions  in  Britain,  these  troops, 
ifl  will,  proclaimed  him  emperor;  on  which 
ted  to  be  recalled,  arid  was  appointed 
I  of  Africa,  prefect  of  itome,  and  ooqbuI 
I  time)  in  192.  On  the  death  of  Com- 
lia  aBBaasins  almost  forced  P.  to  accept 
irple,  which  with  great  hesitation  lie  did  ; 

Cite  of  his  pfomise  of  a  large  donation,  he 
le  to  gam  over  the  pnetorian  guard. 
iteion  was,  however,  hailed  with  delight 
lenate  and  people,  who  were  rejoiced  to 
ruler,    an    able    captain,    insteiid   of   a 

debauchee  ;  and  P.,  encoiir^ed  b^  this 
e  reception,  announced  bu  mtention  of 
uiit  an  extensive  scries  of  reforms,  having 
cbiedy  t«  the  army,  in  which  he  hoped  to 
:>h  the  ancient  Koman  discipline.  Uufor- 
(ir  his  reforms  and  himself,  he  was  attacked 
1  of  the  rebellious  prsitorians,  two  months 
ity-seven  days  after  his  accession  ;  and 
j  to  flee,  waa  slain,  and  his  head  carried 
i  streets  of  Rome  in  triumph.  From  his 
nothing   can  bo  gathered   reapecting  his 

and  talents  (except  la  military  afiairs) ; 
-espect  and  esteem  in  which  he  was  held 
inate  and  people  of  Home,  argue  well  in 
his  disposition. 

[TRBA'TIONS,  in  Physical  Astronomy,  are 
rbances    prodaced   in  the   simple    elliptic 

one  heavenly  body  alwut  anoUier,  by  the 
a  third  body,  or  by  the  non-sphcricity  of 
ipol  body.    Thus,  for  iiietance.  were  there 

m  apace  except  the  earth  and  moon,  the 
ltd  d^cribe  accurately  an  ellipse  about  the 
ntre  as  focus,  and  its  radius-vector  would 

equal  aieas  in  equal  times ;  but  only  if 
es  be  homogeneous  and  truly  spherical,  or 
r  conitituent  matter  otherwise  so  arranged 
'  may  attract  each  other  aa  if  each  were 
at  some  definite  point  of  its  mass.    The 

jof  f  

iona  in  what  won 
bit  of  the  moon.  Again,  when  we  consider 
action,  it  is  obvious  that  in  no  position  of 
can  the  sun  act  equally  upon  hoth  earth 


—that  is,  the  dlfereiice  of  the  anu's  ftctlons  on  th* 
earth  and  moon  is  equivalent  to  a  force  tending  to 
draw  the  moon  away  from  the  earth.  At  full  nicon, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  earth  (in  proportion  te  its 
mass]  a  more  attracted  than  the  moon  is  by  Uie 
BUD ;  and  the  perturbing  inUueuce  of  the  sun  ia 
nsiidn  of  the  nature  of  a  Force  tending  te  ae])anita 
the  earth  and  moon.  About  the  quarters,  on  the 
other  hnnd,  the  sun's  attraction  (mass  for  mass)  ia 
nearly  the  same  in  amount  on  the  earth  and  moon, 
but  the  dirtction  of  its  action  is  not  the  same  on  the 
two  bodies,  and  it  is  easy  to  see  that  in  tiiis  case  the 
perturbing  force  tends  to  bring  the  earth  and  moon 
nearer  to  each  other.  For  any  given  position  of  the 
moon,  with  reference  te  the  earth  and  sua,  the 
diference  of  the  accelerating  effects  of  the  sun  on 
the  earth  and  moon  is  ailiaturbing  force  ;  and  it  ia 
to  this  that  the  perturbations  of  the  moon's  orliit, 
which  are  the  most  important,  and  amongst  the 
most  considerable,  in  the  solar  ajatem,  are  due. 
[By  the  word  diffrreticf,  just  employed,  we  are  of 
course  to  understand,  nut  the  arithmetical  ditference, 
but  the  resultant  of  the  sun's  direct  acceleration  of 
the  moon,  comYiined  with  that  on  the  earth  reversed 
in  direction  and  magnitude ;  as  it  is  oidy  with  the 
relalitK  motions  nf  the  earth  and  moon  that  we  are 
concerned]  This  disturbing  force  may  be  resolved 
inte  three  comiwnents  ;  for  instance,  we  may  have 
one  in  the  line  joining  the  earth  and  moon,  another 
parallel  to  the  plane  ofthe  ecUptic,  and  peq^enilicular 
te  the  moon's  radius- vector,  and  a  third  jierpendicular 
te  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic  The  first  comiKinent, 
as  we  have  already  seen,  tends  to  separate  the 
earth  and  moon  at  new  and  full,  and  to  bring 
them  closer  at  the  quarters  ;  but  during  a  whole 
revolntion  of  the  moon,  tho  latter  tendency  ia  more 
than  neutralised  by  ths  former;  that  is,  in  couse- 
quence  ot  the  sun's  disturbing  force,  the  moon  i* 
virtually  less  attracted  by  the  earth  than  it  would 
have  been  had  the  sun  been  absent.  The  second 
component  mainly  tends  te  accelerate  the  moon'* 
motion  in  some  ports  of  its  orbit,  and  te  retard  it  at 
others.  The  third  component  tends,  on  the  whole, 
te  draw  the  moon  tewards  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic 
We  cannot,  of  course,  enter  here  inte  even  a  com- 
plete sketeh  of  the  analysis  of  soch  a  question  aa 
this ;  but  we  may  give  one  or  two  \-'ry  simple 
considerations  which  will,  at  all  evcnte,  indicate 
the  nature  of  the  grand  proLlem  of  perturbations. 

The    method,  originally  suggested    by  Newton, 
which  is  found  on  &o  whole  to  be  the  most  satis- 
factory in  these  mveatigations,  ia  what  is  called  the 
alion  of  Parametn'),  and  admite  of  very  simple 
explanation.      The  path  which  a  distiubi^d  body 
~"rsues  is,  of  course,  no  longer  an  ellii>ee.  nor  it  it 
general  either  a  plane  curve  or  re-entrant     But. 
may  be  considn-fd  to  bf.  an  rliipsf  vjhKh  is  undeT' 
'ag  etoiB  ■aiodijkalions  in/omi,  poailian,  and  dinien- 
ni,  by  the  aiJiiicy  of  Uie  diiturbing /oreei.     In  fact,, 
is  obvious  that  any  small  arc  of  the  actual  orbit 
.  a  portion  of  the  ellijjtic  orbit  which   the  body 
would  pursue  forever  siterwards,  if  the  disturbing 
forces  were  suddenly  te  cease  aa  it  moved  in  that 
arc     The  /Jammeipr*,  then,  are  the  elements  of  the 
orbit ;   that  is.  its  major  axis,  eccentricity,  longi- 
tude of  apse,  longitude  of  node,  inclination  to  the 
ecliptic,  and  ei>och ;  the  latter  quantity  indicating 
the  time  at  which  tlie  body  passed  tlirough  a  parti- 
cular point,  as  the  apae,  of  ita  orbit.    If  these  be 
;iven,    the   orbit   is    completely    known,   with   ths 
lody's  position  in  it  at  any  given  instant     If  there 
le  no  disturbing  forces,  all  these  quantities  are 
constent ;  and  therefore,  when  the  disturbing  force*, 
taken  into  acconnt,  they  change  very  slowly^ 
...   the   disturbing  forces  are  in   moat  cases  very 
small     To  cive  an  instance  of  the  nature  of  their 
at 


PERTURBATTONa 


changes,  let  us  roughly  consider  one  or  two  simple 
cases.  First,  to  find  the  nature  of  some  of  the 
effects  of  a  disturbing  force  acting  in  the  radius- 
vector,  and  tending^  to  draw  the  disturbed,  from 
the  central,  body.  Let  S  be  the  focus,  P  the  nearer 
apse,  of  the  undisturbed  elliptic  orbit.  When  the 
moving  body  passes  the  point  M,  the  tendency  of 
the  disturbing  force  is  to  make  it  describe  the 
dotted  curve  m  the  figure— i  e.,  the  new  direction 


Rg.1- 

of  motion  will  make  with  the  line  MS  an  angle 
more  nearly  eoual  to  a  right  angle  than  before; 
and  therefore  tne  apse  Q  in  the  disturbed  orbit  will 
be  sooner  arrived  at  than  P  would  have  been  in  the 
undisturbed  orbit — that  is,  the  apse  regredes^  or 
revolves  in  the  contrary  sense  to  that  of  M's  motion. 
Similarly,  the  effect  at  M^  is  also  to  make  the  apse 
regrede  to  Q^  ^  At  Mj  and  M3,  on  the  other  hand, 
the  tendency  is  to  make  the  apse  progrede.  Also, 
as  the  velocity  is  scarcely  altered  oy  such  a  force, 
the  major  axis  remains  unaltered-  Thus  at  M 
the  eccentricity  is  diminished,  and  at  Mj  increased, 
since  the  apsidal  distance  is  increased  at  M,  and 
diminished  at  M^. 

Next,  consider  a  tangential  accelerating  force. 
Here  the  immediate  effect  is  to  increase  the  velo- 
city at  any  point  of  the  orbit,  and  therefore  to  make 
it  correspond  to  a  larger  orbit,  and,  consequently, 
a  longer  periodic  time.  Conversely,  a  retarding 
force,  such  as  the  resistance  of  a  medium,  diminishes 
the  velocity  at  each  point,  and  thus  makes  the 
motion  correspond  to  that  in  an  ellipse  with  a  less 
major  axis,  and  therefore  with  a  dimmished  periodic 
time.  This  singular  result,  that  the  periodic  time 
of  a  body  is  diminished  by  resistance,  is  realised  in 
the  case  of  Encke*s  comet,  and  this  observed  effect 
furnishes  one  of  the  most  convincing  proofs  of  the 
existence  of  a  resisting  medium  in  interplanetary 
space.  \ 

^  Again,  the  effect  of  a  disturbing  force  continually 
directed  towards  the  plane  of  the  ecliptic,  is  to 
make  the  node  regrede.     Thus,  if  N'N  represent 

the   ecliptic,  NM 
Q  a  portion  of  the 

orbit,  the  ten- 
dency of  the 
disturbing  force 
at  M  is  to  make 
MQ  the  new  orbit, 
and  therefore  N' 
the  node.  Thus 
the*  node  regredes, 
and  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  orbit 


Fig.  2. 


to  the  ecliptic  is  diminished,  when  the  nlanet  has 
just  passea  the  ascending  node.  In  tne  second 
figure,  let  M^  be  a  position  of  the  planet  near  the 
descending  node  N^.  The  effect  of  the  disturbing 
force  is  to  alter  the  orbit  to  MN/.    Thus,  again, 


the  node  r^redes,  but  the  inclination  is  increased. 
If  NN'  and  NjN^'  in  these  figures  represent  the 
earth's  equator,  the 
above  rough  sketch 
applies  exactly  to 
the    case    of    the 

disturbed      ^""-^.^      "'^sw  fj. 


moon  as 

by  the  oblatenett 
of  the  earth.  The 
reaction  of  the 
moon  on  the  earth 


Fig.  a 


gives  rise  to  the  Precession  of  tbe  Equinoxes  (q.  v.). 

By  processes  of  this  nature,  Newton  subjected  the 
variation  of  the  elements  of  the  moon's  orbit  to 
calculation,  and  obtained  the  complete  explanation 
of  some  of  the  most  important  of  the  lunar  inequali- 
ties. See  Moon.  Others  of  them— for  instance, 
the  rate  of  progression  of  the  apse— <»nnot  be 
deduced  with  any  accuracy  by  these  rough  investi- 
gations, but  tax,  m  some  cises,  the  utmost  resources 
of  analysis.  Newton's  calculation  of  the  rate  of 
the  moon's  apse  was  only  about  half  the  observed 
value ;  and  Clairau^  was  on  the  point  of  pubiishine 
a  pamphlet,  in  whic^h  a  new  form  was  suggested 
for  the  law  of  gravitation,  in  order  to  accoimt  for 
the  deficiency  of  this  estimate ;  when  he  found,  by 
carrying  his  analvsis  further,  that  the  expression 
sought  IS  obtainable  in  the  form  of  a  slowly  con- 
verging series,  of  which  the  second  term  is  nearly 
as  large  as  the  first.  The  error  of  the  modem 
Lunar  Tables,  founded  almost  entirely  on  analysis, 
with  the  necessary  introduction  of  a  few  data  from 
observation,  rarely  amounts  to  a  second  of  arc ;  and 
the  moon's  place  is  predicted  four  years  beforehan^l, 
in  the  Natdical  Almanac,  with  a  degree  of  precision 
which  no  mere  observer  could  attain  even  from 
one  day  to  the  next.  This  is  the  true  proof,  not 
duly  of  the  law  of  gravitation,  but  of  the  Laws  of 
Motion  (q.  v.),  upon  which,  of  course,  the  analytical 
investigation  is  based. 

With  respect  to  the  mutual  perturbations  of  the 

Slanets,  we  may  merely  mention  that  they  are 
ivisible  into  two  classes,  called  periodic  and  secular. 
The  former  depend  upon  the  configurations  of  the 
system — such,  for  instance,  is  the  diminution  of  the 
inclination  of  the  moon's  orbit,  after  passing  the 
ascending  node  on  the  earth's  equator,  already 
mentioned,  or  its  increase  as  the  moon  comes  to  the 
descending  node.    The  secular  perturbations  depend 

Xn  the  period  in  which  a  complete  series  of  such 
mations  have  been  gone  through,  and  have,  in 
the  case  of  the  planets,  complete  cycles  measured 
by  hundreds  of  years. 

A  very  curious  kind  of  perturbation  is  seen  in 
the  indirect  action  of  the  planets  on  the  moon. 
There  is  a  secular  change  of  the  eccentricity  of  the 
earth's  orbit,  due  to  planetary  action,  and  this 
brings  the  sun,  on  the  average,  nearer  to  the  earth 
and  moon  for  a  long  period  of  years,  then  for  an 
equal  period  takes  it  further  off.  One  of  the  effects 
of  the  sun's  disturbing  force  being,  as  we  have  seen, 
to  diminish,  on  the  whole,  the  moon's  gravity 
towards  the  earth,  this  diminution  will  vary  in 
the  same  i)eriod  as  the  eccentricity  of  the  earth's 
orbit ;  and  therefore  the  moon's  mean  motion  will 
be  alternately  accelerated  and  retarded,  each  process 
occupying  an  immense  period. 

With  special  reference  to  the  planetary  motions,  we 
ma.^  notice  that  the  major  axis  of  each  pkmetaiy 
orbit  is  free  from  all  secular  variations ;  and  thoM 
affecting  the  inclination  and  eccentricity  are  con- 
fined within  small  Hmits,  and  ultimately  compensate 
themselves.  These  facts,  which  have  been  clearly 
and  beautifully  I  demonstrated  bv  Laplace  and 
Lagrange,  assure  ii^e  stability  of  the  planetary 
orbits,  if  we  neglect  the  effects  of  resistanoe  due  to 


FBRU. 


the  interplanetanr  matter;  which,  however,  must, 
in  the  long  run,  orins  all  the  bodies  of  the  system 
into  collision  with  the  sun,  and  finally  stop  the 
rotation  of  the  sun  itself. 

Newton  commenced  the  investigation  of  perturba- 
tions bv  considering  those  of  the  moon;  £uler 
followed  with  a  calciuation  of  Saturn's  inequalities ; 
while  Clairaut,  D^Alembert,  and  others  successively 
gave  those  of  the  other  planets. 

JSvery  one  knows  that  it  was  by  observing  the 
perturbations  of  Uranus,  and  thence  discovering  the 
direction  of  the  disturbing  force,  that  Adams  and 
Leverrier  were  led  to  their  great  and  simultaneous 
discovery  of  the  planet  Neptune. 

PEHXJ',  an  important  maritime  republic  of  South 
America,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ecuador,  on  the 
W.  by  the  Pacific,  on  the  S.  and  S.K  by  Bolivia, 
and  on  the  R  by  Brazil.  It  lies  in  kt.  3**  25  — 
2r  30'  a,  and  in  long.  68*'— 8r  20'  W.  The  ceneral 
outline  resembles  a  triangle,  the  base  of  'w^ich  is 
formed  by  the  boundary-line  between  P.  and 
Ecuador  on  the  north.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
upwards  of  500,000  square  miles ;  and  its  population 
at  2,200,000.  The  area  of  P.,  however,  can  only 
be  ffiven  approximately,  as,  on  the  east  side  of  the 
Andes,  and  between  the  Amazon  and  the  Purus, 
there  is  a  wide  and  unex])lored  expanse  of  country, 
upon  which  both  P.  and  Brazil  Irave  claims,  which 
have  not  yet  been  determined.  The  country  is  1100 
miles  in  len^h,  780  miles  in  extreme  breadth  along 
the  northern  boundary,  but  is  little  more  than  50  miles 
wide  in  the  extreme  south.  Following  the  general 
direction,  and  not  includin;?  windings,  the  coast-line 
is  1660  miles  in  length.  The  shores  are  in  general 
rocky  and  steep;  in  the  south,  lofty  cliffs  rise 
from  the  sea,  and,  in  some  places,  the  water  close 
inshore  has  a  depth  of  from  70  to  80  fathoms. 
Further  north,  however,  sandy  beaches  occur,  and 
in  the  extreme  north,  the  shores  are  often  low  and 
sandy,  and  covered  with  brushwood.  Owing  to  the 
comparative  unfreqiiency  of  bays  and  inlets  along 
the  coast,  the  harbours  are  few  and  unim}X>rtant. 
Those  of  Ccdlao  (the  port  of  Lima)  and  Payta  afford 
the  most  secure  anchorage,  and  the  others  are 
Tr»ijillo,  Canete,  Pisco,  CamanS,,  Islay,  Ilo,  Arica, 
and  Inquique.  Landing  by  boats  is  always  danger- 
ous, on  account  of  the  dreaded  surf,  occasioned  by 
the  swell  of  the  Pacific,  which  perpetually  beats 
uiK>n  the  coast;  and  when  goods  or  passengers 
require  to  be  lande<l  on  unsheltered  shores,  recourse 
is  had  to  the  primitive  balsas,  or  rafts,  worked  by 
the  natives,  and  capable  of  carrying  two  or  three 
persons. 

Islands. — The  islands  on  the  Peruvian  coast, 
although  valuable,  are  extremely  few  in  number,  and 
small  in  extent.  In  the  north,  are  the  Lobos  (i.  e., 
Seat)  Islands,  forming  a  group  of  three,  and  so 
called  from  the  seals  which  frequent  them.  The 
largest  of  them,  Lobos  de  Tierra,  is  5  miles  long  by 
2  miles  broad,  and  the  others,  l}[ing  30  miles  south- 
west, are  much  smaller.  On  their  eastern  and  more 
sheltered  sides,  they  are  covered  with  guano,  and 
the  quantity  on  the  whole  group  is  stated  at 
4,000,000  tons.  The  Ghincha  Islands,  famous  as  the 
source  from  which  Euroj[)e  has  been  supplied  with 
Peruvian  euano  (see  Guano)  since  1841,  also  form 
a  group  of  three,  and  are  situated  in  the  Bay  of 
Pisco,  about  12  miles  from  the  mainland,  and  in 
Ut  13**— 14*  a,  long.  76—77'  W.  They  lie  in  a 
line  running  north  and  south,  and  are  called  the 
Korth,  MidSe,  and  South  Islands  respectively.  They 
closely  resemble  each  other  in  size,  formation,  and 
general  character.  Each  island  presents,  on  the 
eastern  side,  a  wall  of  precipitous  rock,  with  rocky 
pinnacles  in  the  centre,  and  with  a  general  slope 
towards    the  western   shore.      The    cavities   and 


inequalities  of  the  surface  are  filled  with  guano,  and 
this  material  covers  the  western  dopes  of  the  islands 
to  within  a  few  feet  of  the  water's  edge.  There  is 
no  vegetation.  The  North  Island  has  an  area  of  20S 
acres.  It  is  formed  of  felspar  and  quartz,  and  v^ 
slowlv  but  certainly  decreasing  in  size.  This 
island  is  wholly  covered  with  thick  layers  of 
guano,  which  is  quarried  in  some  places  to  a  depth 
of  80  feet.  Two  himdred  convicts  are  employed 
here  in  cutting  the  guano  and  loading  the  vessels. 
The  Middle  Island,  on  which  there  are  140  acres 
occupied  by  guano,  has  been  worked  to  some  extent, 
and  m  this  case  the  labourers  are  Chinese.  It  was 
estimated  that  in  1861,  there  were  still  lying  on 
the  islands  about  9,538,735  tons  of  guano,  which, 
at  the  present  rate  of  consiunption,  will  last  until 
the  year  1883.  The  island  of  San  Lorenzo  forms 
the  harbour  of  Gallao. 

The  grand  physical  feature  of  the  country,  and 
the  source  of  all  its  mineral  wealth,  is  the  great 
mountain  system  of  the  Andes.  A  general  descrip- 
tion of  the  formation  and  character  of  the  Peruvian 
Andes  is  given  under  the  article  Andes  (q.  v.). 

Surface,  Soil,  and  Climate. — The  surface  of  P.  is 
divided  into  three  distinct  and  well-defined  tracts 
or  belts,  the  climates  of  which  are  of  eveiy  variety 
from  torrid  heat  to  arctic  cold,  and  the  productions 
of  which  range  from  the  stunted  herbage  of  the  high 
mountain-slopes,  to  the  oranges  and  citrons,  the 
sugar-canes  and  cottons,  of  the  luxmiant  tropical 
valleys.  These  three  regions  are  the  Coast,  the 
Sierra,  and  the  Montana^ — The  Coast  is  a  narrow 
strip  of  sandy  desert  between  the  base  of  the 
Western  Cordillera  and  the  sea,  and  extending  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  country.  This  tract,  varying 
in  breadth  from  30  to  60  miles,  slopes  to  tiie  shore 
with  an  uneven  surface,  marked  by  arid  ridges  from 
the  Cordillera,  and  with  a  rapid  descent.  It  is  for 
the  most  part  a  barren  waste  of  sand,  traversed, 
however,  by  numerous  valleys  of  astonishing  fertility, 
most  of  which  are  watered  by  streams,  that  have 
their  sources  high  on  the  slopes  of  the  Cordillerdi 
Many  of  the  streams  are  dry  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year.  Between  thtae  valleys  extend  deserts, 
which  are  sometimes  90  miles  in  width.  These  are 
perfectly  trackless,  being  covered  with  a  fine,  shift- 
ing, yellow  sand,  which  is  often  carried  about  by 
the  wind  in  pillars  of  from  80  to  100  feet  in  height. 
In  the  coast-region,  properly  so  called,  rain  is 
unknown.  This  is  caused  by  the  coast  of  P.  being 
within  the  region  of  perpetual  south-east  trade- 
winds.  These  winds,  charged  with  vapours  from  the 
Atlantic,  strike  upon  the  east  coast  of  South 
America,  and  traverse  that  continent  obliquely, 
distributing  rains  over  Brazil  But  their  vapour 
is  thorougUy  condensed  by  the  lofty  Cordilleras,  and 
their  last  particles  of  moisture  are  exhausted  in 
powdering  the  summits  of  these  ranges  with  snow, 
after  which  they  fall  down  upon  the  coast  of  P.,  cool 
and  dry.  The  want  of  rain,  however,  is  com- 
pensate for  to  some  extent  by  abundant  and 
refreshing  dews,  which  fall  during  the  night.  The 
climate  of  the  coast  is  modified  by  the  cool  winds. 
In  the  valleys,  the  heat,  though  considerable,  is 
not  oppressive.  The  highest  temperature  observed 
at  Lima  in  summer  is  85°,  the  lowest  in  winter 

is  or  F. 

The  Sierra  embraces  all  the  mountainous  region 
between  the  western  base  of  the  maritime  Cordillera 
and  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes,  or  the  Eastern 
Cordillera.  These  ranges  are,  in  this  country,  about 
100  miles  apart  on  an  average,  and  have  been  estim- 
ated to  cover  an  area  of  200,000  square  miles. 
Transverse  branches  connect  the  one  range  with  the 
other,  and  high  plateaux,  fertile  plains,  and  deep 
tropical  valleys  lie  between  the  lofty  outer  barriers. 


The  anperiori^  in  devatioa  alternatet  between  the 
two  pnocipal  ranges.    The  eut  raage,  or,  aa  it  U 

e^iieraltf  called,  Uie  Andes,  has  tha  superiority  in 
ei^ht  in  the  southern  half  of  thia  mountain 
system.  It  abuts  upon  tlie  plain,  froni  the  Boli> 
vinn  frontier,  in  s  majestic  miss,  surmounted  by 
ntupendous  pinDaclea,  ni^^-d  in  outliae.  and  moat 
frequently  risiug  in  splintered  needle-like  peaks, 
Ciivered  with  snow.  Sorth  of  bt  13°  S.,  however, 
the  Western  Cordillera  assimies  the  grander  char- 
acter, and  preserves  it  until  it  crosses  the  nortbem 
fnmtier.  The  scenery  of  the  Western  Cordillera  U 
liraader  and  more  massive  in  character,  and  itd 
Biimmiti  less  pointed  than  those  of  the  Andes. 
Rugged  paths,  sometimes  so  narrow  as  barely  to 
ad'iird  footing  to  the  mules  which  are  invar- 
ialily  tiscd  ia  such  ascents,  lead  up  its  steep 
sides.      Occasionally,    from   these 


traveller,  and  the  prospect  is  rendi 

hitienua  by  the  distant  roar  of  a  torrent,  hidden  by 
mists,  at  the  bottom  of  the  ravine.  Occasionally, 
also,  the  mountain  route  leads  over  abysses  500  feet 
in  depth,  across  which,  by  way  of  bridge,  a  few 
piles  are  thrown,  which  roll  about  in  an  uncomfort- 
a'lle  manner  under  the  feet.  In  traveraing  these 
d:mgerou«  pjisses,  which  line  the  huge  rocKS  like 
airial  threads,  tha  traveller  often  comes  njion 
suenery  of  the  uiost  picturesque  and  beautiful 
degcriptinu.  The  clefts  and  sides  of  the  hills,  even 
at  altitudes  which  might  be  called  alpine,  are  clothed 
with  wild-flowers,  many  of  which,  now  lone  cultiV' 
ated  in  Britain,  have  become  highly  prized  among 
us  as  garde  a -plants.  Verbenas,  lupines,  blue  and 
scarlet  salvias,  fuchsias,  calceolariris,  and  the  fragrant 
heliotrope,  add  a  sense  of  beauty  to  the  sense  of 

1  lower  which  the  stupendous  scenery  imi)arts.  The 
allowing  are  tha  most  striking  and  distinctive 
physical  features  of  the  Sierra,  beginning  from  the 
south :  1.  The  plain  of  Titicaca,  partly  in  P.,  and 
partly  in  Bolivia,  is  enclosed  between  the  two  main 
ridges  of  the  Andes,  and  ia  said  to  have  an  area  of 
30,000  miles-greater  than  that  of  Ireland.  In  its 
centre  is  the  great  Lake  Titicaca,  12,S46  feet  aWve 
sea-level,  or  IGOO  feet  above  the  l<iftie$t  mountain 
pass  (the  Col  of  Mont  Cervin)  of  Europe.  The  lake 
IS  Its  miles  long,  from  3<l  to  CO  miles  broad,  from 
TU  to  ISO  feet  deep,  and  400  miles  in  circumference. 
Its  shape  is  irregular ;  it  contains  many  islands, 
and  several  peninsulas  abut  niton  its  waters,  2. 
The  Knot  of^Cuzco,  The  monntiun -chains  which 
gii-dle  the  plain  of  Titicaca  trend  toward  the  north- 
west, and  form  what  is  called  the  Knot  of  Cuzco- 
Tlie  Knot  comprises  sii  minor  mountain -chains,  and 
has  an  area  thrice  larger  than  that  of  Switzerland. 
Here  the  valleya  enjoy  an  Indian  climate,  and  are 
rich  in  tropical  productions ;  to  the  north  and  east 
of  the  Knot  extend  luxuriant  tropical  forests,  while 
the  numberless  mouutain-alopes  are  covered  with 
waving  crops  of  wheat,  barley,  and  other  cereals, 
and  with  potatoes;  and  higher  up,  extend  pasture- 
lands,  where  the  vicuna  and  alpaca  feed.  3.  The 
valley  of  tha  Apurimac, .%  miles  in  average  breadth, 
and  extending  north-west  for  about  .100  miles.  This 
valley  is  the  most  popalous  region  of  Peru.  4.  The 
Knot  of  Pasco.  From  Cuzco  proceed  two  chains 
ti>ward  tha  north-west ;  they  unite  again  in  the 
Knot  of  PsMo.  This  Knot  contains  the  table-bnd 
of  Bombon,  12,300  feet  above  sea-level ;  as  well  as 
otiier  table-lands  at  a  height  of  14,000  feet,  the 
highest  in  the  Andes ;  otherwise,  however,  the  phy- 
sical features  of  the  country  resemble  those  of  tbe 
vicinity  of  Cuzco.  6.  The  vale  of  the  river  Maranon. 
This  valley,  which  is  upwards  of  300  miles  in  length, 
is  narrow,  dwy,  and  nearer  tha  equator  than  any 


wonderful  deacriptton.  After  tbe  table- 
Tibet,  those  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  are  thi 
in  the  world ;  but,  uulike  those  of  Tibe 
ore  mere  grassy  uplands,  the  table-lands  i 
the  seat  of  a  comparatively  high  civilisai 
are-  studded  over  with  towns  and  villa^ea 
"  -  "  -'  -  ■■-n  thesumm 
etterhoru.  Nor  are  au 
eyries  of  minen  who  arc  tempted  I 
thus  high  in  search  of  tbe  precious  met 
even  at  this  elevation,  the  climate  is  ple-u 
wheat,  maize,  barley,  rye,  and  potatoe: 
well  The  city  of  Cuzco.  situated  in  a  i 
rare  beauty,  and  enjoying  a  temperate  cli 
1 1,380  feet  above  sea-leveC  or  2000  feet  hie 
the  Great  St  Bernard.  Tha  climate  of  th 
however,  is  not  always  so  charming.  In 
terms,  it  may  be  described  as  mild  and 
with  mmicrate  rains.  In  the  district  of 
tainlH).  rain  falls  300  days  in  the  year,  A 
however,  of  auch  au  uneven  surface,  of  snow 
peaks  and  tropical  valleys,  embraces  ever] 
of  climate.  In  all  the  lower  re);ions  of  the 
the  climate  is  warm,  but  healthy  >  in  the 
and  on  the  highest  plateaux,  it  is  often  in 
Violent  storms  beat  upon  the  plab  of  Titio. 


Pasco  (q.  v.);  where,  indeed,  the  climate  is 
that  but  for  the  mines,  which  have  attract« 
a  numerous  population,  this  region  mig 
remained  uninhabited.  At  the  height  of  !^ 
above  sea  level,  the  mean  temiierature  is  6< 
and  the  variation  throughout  tfle  year  is  ni 
The  highest  peaks  of  the  country  reach  to 
of  22,000  feet,  and  many  peaks  in  both  mi 
from  17,000  to  20,000  feet  high.  In  the 
Cordillera,  and  in  the  south  of  the  coun 
four  volcanoes— Candarave,  Ubinas,  Cms 
Arcqni|ia.  The  soil  of  the  Sierra  is  of  great 
but  wherever  it  is  cidtivated,  it  ia  producti' 
The  itontaM,  forming  two-thirtla  of  th 
area  of  the  country,  stretches  away  for  hue 
leagues  eastward  from  the  Andes  to  the  coi 
Br.iziL  On  the  N..  it  is  bounded  by  the  . 
un  the  S.  by  Bolivia.  It  consists  of  vast 
trable  forests  and  alluvial  plains,  is  rich  ii 
iroductions  of  tropical  latitndes,  is  of  inexl 
ertility,  and  teems  with  animal  and  veget) 
t  is  atill,  however,  almost  wholly  unprodt 
Dan.  Tbe  silence  of  its  central  forests  h. 
been  diaturlied  by  the  civilised  explorer,  and 
human  inhabitants  are  a  few  scattered  1 
Indians.  The  Montana  is  watered  by  nu 
streams,  and  by  a  large  number  of  importar 
It  belongs  wholly  to  the  basin  of  the  . 
Along  the  head-waters  of  the  Pujus,  which 
throHijh  beautiful  forest -covered  plains,  ap 
to  wifliiu  60  miles  of  Cuzco,  there  were  at  < 
numerous  Spauish  farms,  where  great  t 
forests  had  been  cleared,  and  where  crops 
oicoo,  sugar,  and  other  tropical  prodnotio 
regvUarly  raised.  These  fanna  have  ainco  I  i 
abandoned,  and  the  encroaching  forest  hac 
obliterated  their  sites.  The  upper  water 
Purus  are  the  heailquartera  of  a  savage  i 
baroosly  cruel  tribe  of  wild  Indiana  called  C 
These  untamable  savages  have  shewn  the 
hostility  to  the  advance  of  civilisation, 
murdered  the  settlers,  or  drove  them  tj  til 
in  some  less  advanced  settlement.  W 
Markbom  visited  this  region  in  IS,' 3.  »  f< 


PERU. 


itUl  existed  ;  from  a  paper,  however,  which  he  com- 
niimicates  to  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical 
Society^  and  which  is  dated  1861,  it  would  appear 
that  the  Chiinchos  have  finished  their  barbarous 
Work,  for  the  settlers  have  either  all  been  massacred 
or  driven  back  from  the  forest,  so  that  now  not  a 
Bin^rle  settlement  remains.    The  rich  valleys  of  Pau- 
caitalnbo,  ^iice  covered   with  flourishing  S])anish 
farms,  have  again  become  one  vast  tropical  forest. 
The  virgin    soil  of    the  Montana    is  of    amazing 
fertility ;  while  its  climate,  though  not  oppressively 
hot,  is  healthy.    The  forests  consist  of  huge  trees, 
of  which  some  are  remarkable  for  the  beauty  of 
their  wood,   others  for  their  valuable  gums  and 
resins,  and  others  as  timber  trees.    A  rank  under- 
growth of  vegetation  covers  the  country,  and  the 
trees  are  often  chained  together  and  festooned  with 
parasites   and   closely- matted    creepers.       In   this 
region,  for  the  most  part  undisturbed  by  the  voice 
of  man,  civilised  or  sava^^e,  animal  life  flourishes  in 
eu.lless  variety,  and  birds  of  the  brightest  plumage 
tilt  among  the  foliage.     Among  the  pi-oducts  which 
are  yielded  here  in  spontaneous  abundance,  are  the 
inestimable  Peruvian  bark  (see  CiKCnoNA),  India- 
nibber,  ^um-copal,  vanilla,  indigo,  copaiba,  balsam, 
cionamou,  sarsaparilla,  ipecacuanha,  vegetable  wax, 
&c    On  the  western  fringe  of  the  Montana,  where 
there  are  still  a  few  settlements,  tol>acco,  sugar, 
coffee,  cotton,  and  chocolate,  are  cultivated  with 
complete  success. 

Ihjdmgraphii. — The  hydrography  of  P.  may  be 
Baid  to    be  divided  into   three   systems — those  of 
Lake  Titicaca,  the  Pacilic,  and  the  Amazon.     The 
streams  that  flow  into  Lake  Titicaca  are  few  and 
inconsiderable.      The    rivers    which,    having    their 
sources  in  the  Western  Cordillera,  flow  west  into 
the  Pacific,  are  about  60  in  number;  but  many  of 
them  are  dry  in  summer,  and  even  the  more  import- 
ant are  rapid  and  shallow,  have  a  short  course,  are 
not  navii^able  even  for  canoes,  and  are  mainly  used 
for  the  purpose  of  irrigation.     All  the  great  rivers 
of   Peru    are    tributaries    of    the    Amazon.      The 
Maranon,  risinc  between  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Cordilleras,  and   flowing  tortuously  to  the  north- 
north-west,  is  generally  considered  to  be  the  head- 
water of  the  Amazon  (q.  v.).     'i'he  Huallaga  rises 
near  the  town  of  Huanuco,  and  flows  northward  to 
the  Amazon.     It  is  navigable  for  600  miles,  the 
head  of  its  navigation  (for  canoes)  being  at  Tingo 
Maria,  within  100  miles  of  its  source.     The  Yuea- 
yali,  or  L^cayali,  an  immense  river,  enters  the  Amazon 
210  miles  below  the  Huallaga.     Its  tributaries  and 
upper- waters,  among  which  are  the  Pampas  and  the 
Apurimac,  drain  the  greater  portion  of  the  Peruvian 
Sierra.     The  Purus,  which  reaches  to  the  valleys  of 
Paucartainbo,  within  60  miles  of  Cuzco,  has  not  yet 
been  explored.     We  know  several  of  its  sources, 
and  that  it  enters  the  Amazon  by  four  mouths,  a 
httle  above  Barra.     It  flows  through  what  is  per- 
haps the  richest  and  most  beautiful  region  of  Peru. 
Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  explore  this 
river,  none  of  which,  however,  down  to  1802,  appear 
to  have  met  with  any  success.    The  facilities  which 
it  seems  to  afibrd  for  the  transport  of  most  valuable 
products,   have   long   been  acknowled;^ed   by  the 
teruNTan  government.    One  of  the  chief  nead- waters 
of  the  Purus  is  the  Madre  de  Dies.     In  1861—1862, 
an  expedition,  consisting  of  a  company  of  youn^  men 
of  the  city  of  Cuzco,  was  organised,  with  the  view  of 
penetrating  to  the  Madre  de  Dios,  and  establishing 
a  system  of  navigation  thence  by  the  Purus  to  the 
Amazon.     Should  they  meet  with  success  in  their 
endeavour  to  open  up  the  great  fluvial  highways 
•f  this    region,  most   important  agricultural   and 
commercial  r^ilta  may  be  expected. 
FroductiorUf  Exports  and  ImxyorU,  Becenue^  dsc-^ 


The  wealth  and  resources  of  P.  oonsist,  not  in  mann 
factures,  but  entirely  in  mineral,  vegetable,  and 
animal  products.  As  no  statistics  are  taken  in  tho 
country  it  is  impossible  to  give  the  quantity  and 
value  of  the  productions,  and  of  the  exports  and 
imports,  even  approximately.  Of  the  precious 
metals,  the  production  has  greatly  fallen  off  since 
P.  became  an  independent  state ;  and  this  country, 
which  once  stood  in  the  same  relation  to  Spain  that 
Australia  does  to  Great  Britain,  now  contributes 
little  to  the  metallic  wealth  of  the  world.  The 
immense  stores  of  gold  and  silver  found  here  by  the 
Spanish  invaders  represented  the  accumulation  of 
centuries,  and  that  among  a  people  who  used  the 
precious  metals  only  for  the  purposes  of  ornamenta- 
tion. Nevertheless,  P.  possesses  vast  metallic  riches. 
The  Andes  abound  in  mines  of  gold,  silver,  copper, 
lead,  bismuth,  &c. ;  and  in  the  Montana,  gola  is 
said  to  exist  in  abundance  in  veins  and  in  pools  on 
the  margins  of  rivers.  The  export  of  specie,  of 
which  a  portion  consisted  in  coined  money  and 

Elate,  amounted  in  1859,  according  to  Mr  Mark- 
am,  to  only  £200,000.  This  comparatively  insig- 
nificant amount  of  produce  in  a  country  so  rich  in 
the  precious  metals,  is  to  be  accounted  for  chiefly 
by  the  unscientitic  and  improvident  manner  in 
which  the  mining  operations  are  carried  on.  A 
grievance,  from  which  this  republic  suffers  much,  is 
the  want  of  good  coinage.  It  can  hardly  be  said 
that  Peruvian  coinage  exists,  inasmuch  as  that  in 
circulation  is  from  the  mint  of  BoUvia.  The  British 
acting-consul  at  the  Peruvian  port  of  Islay,  writing 
in  1863,  says,  however,  that  a  new  Peruvian  coinage 
is  in  contemplation,  and  will  no  doubt  be  promptly 
introduced.  But  besides  the  precious  metals,  P. 
possesses  other  most  important  mineral  resources. 
In  addition  to  the  guano  to  which  allusion  has 
already  been  made,  another  important  article  of 
national  wealth  is  nitrate  of  soda,  which  is  found  in 
immense  quantities  in  the  province  of  Tarapaca. 
This  substance,  which  is  a  powerful  fertiliser  (see 
Nitre),  is  calculated  to  cover,  in  this  province 
alone,  an  area  of  50  square  leagues,  and  the  quantity 
has  been  estimated  at  63,000,000  tons.  In  1860 
(from  the  port  of  Inquique  alone),  1,370,248  cwts. 
were  exported.  Here  also  great  quantities  of 
borax  are  found.  The  working  of  tliis  valuable 
substance,  however,  is  interdicted  by  government, 
which  has  made  a  monopoly  of  it,  as  it  has  of 
the  guano ;  but  such  small  parcels  of  it  as  have 
been  exported  bring  about  £30  per  ton  in  the 
English  market. 

The  vegetable  productions  of  P.  are  of  every 
variety,  embracing  all  the  products  both  of  temper- 
ate and  tropical  climea  The  European  cereals 
and  vegetalues  are  grown  with  peitect  success, 
together  with  maize,  rice,  pumpkins,  tobacco, 
coffee,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  &c.  Fruits  of  the  most 
deUcious  flavour  are  grown  in  endless  variety. 
Cotton,  for  which  the  soil  and  climate  of  P.  are 
admirably  adapted,  is  now  produced  here  in  gradu- 
ally increasing  quantity.  The  land  suited  to  the 
cultivation  of  this  plant  is  of  immense  extent,  and 
the  quality  of  the  cotton  grown  is  excellent.  The 
animals  comprise  those  of  Europe,  together  with 
the  Lama  (q.  v.)  and  its  allied  species.  In  1859, 
2,501,631  lbs.  of  lama  and  alpaca  wool  were  im- 
ported into  Great  Britain.  Although  P.  produces 
so  much  excellent  wool,  almost  the  whole  of  the 
woollen  fabrics  used  as  clothing  by  the  Indians  are 
manufactured  in  Yorkshire,  England. 

Ancient  Civilisation  and  History. — P.,  the  origin 
of  whose  name  is  unknown,  is  now  passing  through 
its  third  historical  era,  and  is  manifesting  its 
thurd  phase  of  civilisation.     The  present  era  may 

be  said  to  date  from  the  conquest  of  the  country 

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the  earliest  en,  about  which  exceediaely  little  is 
known,  ]>  t^at  Pre-Incarial  period,  of  Qnki 
duration,  during  which  a  nation  or  natioui  livi: 
large  cities  flonriBhed  in  tbe  cuuntry,  and  h 
civmivitiuii,  a  language,  and  a  religion  diffi^rent,  and 
perhaps  in  some  cases  even  more  advanced  '''-~~ 
those  of  the  Jnoa  who  succeeded  them,  and  ov 
their  territories.  Whence  these  Pre-Iiicarial  at 
came,  and  to  what  branch  of  the  human  family 
thejF  belonged,  still  remaiu  ananawered  questions. 
Their  eitiatenoe,  however,  is  clearly  attested  by 
the  architectural  remains,  sculiiturea,  caivings,  ftc, 
nbich  they  have  left  behind  them.  Ruius  of  cdiRcca 
construct^  both  before  the  advent  of  the  lacas, 
and  contemporary  with,  aud  independently  of,  them, 
are  found  everywhere  throughout  the  country.  On 
the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  for  example,  are  the 
ruins  of  Tia-Huanacu,  consisting  of  sculptured 
mouolitbio  doorways,  one  of  which  is  10  feet  hi^b, 
and  13  feet  wi<le ;  of  pilUra,  21  feet  high,  placed  in 
lines  at  regular  distaDces ;  and  of  immense  masses  of 
Lcwn  stone,  some  38  feet  lon^  by  18  bn)ad.  Id 
1846,  Bever.-il  colossal  idols  were  excavated,  aorae 
b«iD^  30  feet  long.  18  wide,  and  G  thick.  The  idols 
are  m  the  form  of  statues,  and  the  ears  are  not 
enlarjled  by  the  insertiua  in  the  lobes  of  silver 
rings,  as  those  of  sculptured  figures,  executed 
in  Incarial  times  invariably  ore.  The  ancient 
frai-mcnts  of  buildings  on  these  shores  were  beheld 
with  astoniahtncnt  by  the  earliest  of  the  Incas, 
who.  by  their  own  coofe^on,  accepteil  them  as 
Dioilels  for  their  own  architecture.  Tbe  name 
Tia-Huanacu  is  comparatively  uio<!cm,  haviug  been 
conferred  by  one  of  tho  Incas;  neither  histoiy  nor 
tr.idition  has  handed  down  tbe  original  name.  The 
ruins  stand  at  a  height  of  1-2,030  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  one  of  the  many  mysteries  which  have  crowded 
around  this  ancient  site  is,  that  this  slut,  in  tbe 
midst  of  what  is  now  geaemlly  a  frozen  desert,  and 
where  the  rarity  of  the  air  must  be  ho  great  as  to  be 
hurtfi:!,  should  have  been  chosen  M  the  seat,  as  it 
is  generally  believed  to  have  been,  of  aa  ancient 
g  jvcrnmeDt.  Of  the  character  and  decree  of  the 
civilisation  of  the  Pre*  Incarial  races,  almost  nothing 
is  known.  It  is  worthy  of  note,  however,  that  at 
Fachacamac,  25  miles  south  of  Lima,  where  there 
are  the  remains  of  a  now  wholly  deserted  city,  and 
of  a  great  temple,  the  religion  seems  to  have  been  a 
pure  Theism ;  for  when  the  Peruvians  of  Ciiico 
carried  their  victorious  anus  across  the  Cordilleras 
to  this  district,  they  beheld  this  temple  (the  doors 
of  which  are  said  to  have  been  of  gold  inlaid  with 
precious  stones)  with  astonishment,  not  only  because 
ic  rivalled  if  not  surpassed  in  splendour  the  famous 
Temple  of  the  Sun  at  Cuzco,  but  because  it  contained 
no  image  or  visible  symbol  of  a  god.  It  was  raised 
iiiboniiurofau  invisible  and  mysterious  deity,  whom 
tbe  ir.habitants  called  Pachacamnc,  tJie  Crcatiir  of 
the  World  (from  two  words  of  the 


not  dare  to  destroy  this  temple,  but  cootcnted 
themselves  with  building  by  its  side  a  Temple  of 
the  Sun,  to  tho  worship  of  which  tlie;r  gradually 
won  over  the  inhabitants. — For  further  inhirmation 
regarding  Pre-Incarial  times  and  races,  see  W. 
Bull.iert's  AnHquUiea,  EUmoiogi/,  ix.  o/ Soi^i  America 
(Load.  1360). 

Eegording  the  origin  of  the  Incas,  nothing  definite 
con  l»  said.  We  have  no  authorities  on  the  subject 
lave  the  traditions  of  the  Indiana,  and  theae,  beaidca 
being  outrageously  fabulous  in  character,  are  also 
confiicting.  It  appears,  however,  from  all  the 
traditions,  that  M^ico,  the  first  luc^  first  apjicared , 


OD  the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  with  his  i 
Ocllo.  He  announced  that  he  and  his 
cluldren  of  tbe  Sun,  and  were  sent  by  th 
Inti  |the  Sun)  to  instruct  the  simple  trib 
said  to  have  carried  with  him  a  golden 
as  it  is  sometimes  calleil,  a  wand.  Whe 
wedge,  on  being  struck  ujiod  the  groni 
sink  into  the  earth,  and  disappear  far  e 
it  was  decreed  Manco  should  build  hi 
Marching  northward,  he  came  to  the  plain 
where  the  wedge  disapiieared.  Here  h< 
the  city  of  Cuzco,  became  the  first  Inc: 
said  to  be  derived  from  the  Peruvian  woi 
Sun),  and  fou'ided  the  Peruviaa  race,  p 
called.  Manco,  or  Manco  Capac  {i.  e.,  fi 
Killer),  instructed  tho  men  id  agricultun 
arts,  gave  them  a  comparative!^  pure  rel 
a  social  and  national  orgaaisatian  ;  wlidc 
Mama  Ocllo,  who  is  also  represented  as 
sister,  tau!;ht  the  women  to  sew,  to  spi 
weave.  Thus,  tbe  Inca  was  not  only  ni 
people,  but  also  the  father  ancl  the  hi 
The  territory  held  by  Manco  Capac  w 
extending  about  60  miles  from  east  to 
about  80  miles  from  north  to  south.  Al 
ducing  laws  among  his  pco|ile,  and  brin^ 
into  regularly  org^inised  coDimunities,  'he 
to  his  father,  tlie  Sun.'  Tbe  year  generallj 
as  that  of  his  death,  after  a  reign  oC  fort< 
1UG2  A.D.  The  progress  of  the  Femi 
at  first  so  slow  as  to  be  almost  iuip< 
Gradually,  however,  by  their  wise  and  i 
policy,  they  won  over  the  neighbouring  ti 
readily  appreciated  the  bcuelits  of  a  pow 
fostering  government.  Little  is  clearly  at 
re^rdiui' the  early  hbtory  of  the  Peruvian 
and  the  lists  given  of  its  early  sovcreigi] 
no  means  to  be  trusted.  They  invented  no 
and  therefore  could  keep  no  written  rocon 
aETairs,  so  that  almost  alt  we  can  know 
early  history  is  derived  from  the  traditio 
people,  collected  by  the  early  Spaniards.  M 
wero  indeed  kept  by  tho  Peruvians,  and,  i 
even  full  historical  records,  by  means  of  t 
a  twisted  wooRen  cord,  u]Kin  which  othe 
cords  of  different  colours  were  tied.  Of  tl 
threads,  the  colour,  the  length,  the  nombei 
opon  them,  and  the  distance  of  one  from 
all  hod  their  significance  ;  but  after  the  ii 
the  S]ianLirds,  when  the  whole  Peruvian 
government  and  civilisation  underwent 
tion,  the  art  of  reading  the  quipus,  seei 
to  have  been  lost,  or  was  effectually  i 
Thus  it  is  that  we  have  no  exact  kuoi 
Peruvian  history  further  bock  than  a1 
century  before  the  coming  of  the  Spani: 
146.1,  TDpsn  luca  Yuiiani^ui,  tbe  eletei 
according  to  the  list  given  by  Gorcilat 
Ver^  greatly  enlargea  bis  uread?  wi 
dominions.  Be  led  his  armies  southwarc 
into  Chili,  marched  over  the  terrible 
Atacama.  and  [>enetratiDg  as  far  sonth  as 
Mnule  (lat  36°  6.),  fixed  there  the 
boundary  of  Pcra  Jletuniing,  bs  en 
Chiliaa  Andes  by  a  pnss  of  unequalled  da 
difficulty,  and  at  length  regained  bin  capil 
he  entered  in  triumph.  While  tlius  eoi 
snn,  the  voung  Huayna  Capac,  heir  to  tin 
well  as  'the  throne  of  his  father,  had 
northward  to  the  Amazon,  orosseil  thai 
and  conquered  tbe  kingilom  of  QuitOL 
Huayna  Capac  ascended  tlie  throne,  and  u 
the  empire  of  the  Incas  attained  to  its 
extent,  and  the  height  of  its  {{loiy.      1 


FBBTT. 


nady  shoree  of  the  Pacific  to  the  marshy  sources 
of  the  Paraguay.  Of  this  immense  territory,  Gozco, 
as  its  name  implies  (the  word  signifies  navel),  was 
the  great  centre ;  great  roads  branched  off  from  it 
to  the  north,  souui,  east,  and  west,  and  ramified 
through  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  The  greatest 
highway  of  the  country  was  that  which  led  from 
Quito  through  Ouzco  into  the  Chilian  dominions. 
In  its  construction,  galleries  were  cut  for  leagues 
through  the  living  rock;  rivers  were  crossed  by 
bridges  of  plaited  osiers,  that  swung  in  the  air; 
precipices  were  ascended  by  staircases  artificially 
cut,  and  valleys  were  filled  up  with  solid  masonry. 
It  was  from  1500  to  2000  miles  long,  was  about  20 
feet  broad,  and  was  built  of  heavy  tUgs  of  freestone. 
Upon  all  the  great  routes  were  posts  or  small 
buildings,  about  five  miles  apart,  attached  to  which 
were  a  number  of  runners,  whose  business  it  was 
to  carry  forward  the  dispatches  of  government. 
By  means  of  these  messengers,  fresh  fish  caught 
on  one  day  at  Liuin,  on  the  JPacific,  is  said  to  have 
been  eaten  the  next  day  at  Cuzco.  The  distance 
between  these  places  is  300  miles,  and  the  road 
traverses  the  wildest  and  most  mountainous  country 
in  the  world.  Order  and  civilisation  accompanied 
conquest  among  the  Peruvians,  and  each  tribe  that 
was  vanquished  found  itself  imder  a  careful  paternal 
government,  which  provided  for  it,  and  fostered  it 
m  every  way. 

The  government  of  P.  was  a  pure  but  a  mild 
de55j)otism.     The  Inca,  as  the  representative  of  the 
Sun,  waa  the  head  of  the  priesthood,  and  presided 
ac  the  great  religious  festivals.     He  imposed  taxes, 
made  laws,  and  was  the  source  of  all  dignity  and 
power.     He  wore  a  peculiar  head-dress,  of  which 
tiie    tosselled    fringe,    with    two    feathers    placed 
upright  in  it,  were  the  proper  insignia  of  royalty. 
Of  the  nobUity,  all  those  descended  by  the  male 
line  from   the  founder  of   the  monarchy,  shared, 
in  common  with  the  ruling  monarch,  the  sacred 
name  of  Inca.     They  wore  a  peculiar  dress,  enjoyed 
special  privileges,  and  lived  at  court ;  but  none  of 
them  could  enter  the  presence  of  the  Inca  except 
with  bare  feet,  and  bearing  a  burden  on  the  shoul- 
ders,  in  token  of  allegiance  and  homa^^e.     lliey 
formedL,   however,  the  real  strength  of  the  empire, 
and,  being  superior  to  the  other  races  in  intellectual 
power,  they  were  the  fountain  whence  flowed  that 
ci\^satic>n  and  social  organisation  which  gave  P.  a 
position  aliove  every  other  state  of  South  America. 
Prior  to  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards,  P.  contained 
a  X)opulation  of  30,000,000— twelve  times  greater 
than   it   is  at  the  present  dav.    The  empire  was 
divide<i  into  four  parts,  into  each  of  which  one  of  the 
great  roads  brancned  from  Cuzco.    Each  of  the  four 
prt>vince8  was  administered  by  a  viceroy  or  governor. 
The   nation   was  further   subdivided  into   depart- 
ments of  10,000  inhabitants,  each  also  administered 
by  a  governor ;  and  there  were  other  subdivisions 
into  varions  numbers,  the  lowest  of  which  was  ten, 
and  every  one  of  which  was  ruled  by  head-men,  who 
were  responsible  for  offenders,  and  were  required 
to  see  that  those  under  them  enjoyed  the  rights  to 
which  they  were  entitled.     The  governors  and  chief 
rulers  were  selected  from  the  Inca  aristocracy.    The 
laws  related  almost  wholly  to  criminal  matters,  and 
were  few,  and  remarkably  severe.     Theft,  adultery, 
mnrdcr,  blasphemy  a^nst  the  Sun,  and  burning  of 
bridges,  were  all  capital  crimes.    The  territory  of 
the  empire  was  divided  into  three  portions,  and  m>m 
these  portions  were  derived  the  revenue  that  suj)- 
ported  the  JSun^  the  /tico,  and  the  people  respectively. 
Yhe  nuxaeroos  priesthood,  and  the  costly  ceremonial 
of  the    national  worship,  were  supported  by  the 
lirst  ;    the   royal  houaehbld  and  the  government 
expenditure  were  defrayed  out  of  the  second ;  and 


the  people,  at  so  much  per  head,  divided  the  third 
of  these  portions.  There  was  a  new  division  of  the 
soil  every  year,  and  the  extent  of  land  apportioned 
to  each  householder  was  regulated  by  the  nmnbers 
in  his  family.  It  might  be  supposed  tbat  this 
arrangement  would  be  fatal  to  improvement  of  the 
soil,  and  to  the  pride  in  and  love  of  home ;  but  this 
was  not  the  case ;  and  it  is  probable  that  at  each 
partition  of  the  soil,  the  tenant  was,  as  a  rule, 
confirmed  in  his  occupation.  The  three  divisions 
were  cultivated  by  the  people,  the  territory  appor- 
tioned to  the  Sun  being  attended  to  first,  that 
belonging  to  the  people  themselves  next,  and 
lastly,  the  division  belonging  to  the  Inca.  The 
labour  on  the  Inca's  sliare  of  the  land  was 
engaged  in  by  the  whole  population  at  the  same 
time,  and  the  work  was  lightened  by  the  national 
songs  and  ballads,  and  the  scene  made  picturesque 
by  the  holiday  attire  of  the  workers.  The  manu- 
factures of  the  country  were  managed  in  the  same 
way,  the  people  labouring  first  in  making  clothes 
for  tihemselves,  and  afterwards  giving  their  work  to 
the  Inca.  The  mines  were  worked  by  the  people, 
but  no  one  gave  more  than  a  certain  amoimt  of  time 
to  the  government  service  (during  which  time  he 
was  maintained  at  the  government  expense),  and 
after  discharging  the  stipulated  amount  of  duty,  he 
was  succeeded  by  another.  Money  was  unknown 
among  the  Peruvians.  They  were  a  nation  of 
workers,  but  the^  wrought  as  the  members  of  one 
family,  labour  bemg  enforced  on  all  for  the  benefit 
of  all 

The  national  policy  of  the  Peruviana  had  its 
imperfections  and  drawbacks,  and  though  capable 
of  imlimited  extension,  it  was  not  capable  of 
advancement.  It  was  in  the  last  degree  conserva- 
tive, and  was  of  such  a  nature  that  the  introduction 
of  reform  in  any  vital  particular  must  have  over- 
turned the  whole  constitution.  Nevertheless,  the 
wants  of  the  people  were  few,  and  these  were  satis- 
fied. Their  labour  was  not  more  than  they  could 
easily  perform,  and  it  was  pleasantly  diversified 
with  frequent  holidays  and  festivals.  They  lived 
contenteoly  and  securely  under  a  government 
strong  enough  to  protect  them;  and  a  sufficiency  of 
the  necessaries  oi  life  was  obtained  by  every  indi- 
vidual Still,  in  the  valleys  of  the  Cordilleras  and 
on  the  plain  of  Ciusco,  may  be  heard  numberless 
songs,  in  which  the  Peruvian  mourns  the  happy  da^rs 
of  peace,  security,  and  comfort  enjoyed  by  ms 
ancestors.  Further,  they  revered  and  loved  their 
monarch,  and  considered  it  a  pleasure  to  serve  him. 
With  subjects  of  such  a  temper  and  inclination,  the 
Incas  might  direct  the  entire  energies  of  the  nation 
as  they  chose ;  and  it  is  thus  that  they  were  able  to 
construct  those  gigantic  public  works  which  would 
have  been  wonderml  even  had  they  been  performed 
with  the  assistance  of  European  machmery  and 
appliances. 

The  Peruvian  system  of  agriculture  was  brought 

to  its  highest  perfection  only  by  the  prodigious 

labour  of  several  centuries.      Not  only  was  the 

fertile  soil  cultivated  with  the  utmost  care,  but 

the  sandy  wastes  of  the  coast,  imvisited  by  any 

rains,  and  but  scantily  watered  by  brooks,  were 

rendered  productive  by  means  of  an  artificial  system 

of  irri^tion,  the  most  stupendous,  perhaps,  that  the 

world  nas  ever  seen.    Water  was  collected  in  lakes 

among  the  mountains,  led  down  the  slopes  and 

through  the  sands-  of  the  coast,  apparently  doomed 

to  sterility,  by  canals  and  subterranean  passages 

constructed  on  a  vast  scale,  and  the  ruins  of  which, 

to  be  seen  at  the  present  day,  attest  the  industry, 

ingenuity,  and  admutible  patience  of  the  Peruvians. 

The   aqueducts,   which  were    sometimes   between 

400  and  500  miles  in  length,  were  in  some  cases 

439 


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1  •  • ' . 

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PERU. 


tannelled  through  massiTo  rocks,  and  carried  across 
riyers  and  marshes.  The^  were  constructed  of 
lar^e  dabs  of  freestone,  fitting  so  closely  as  to 
require  no  cement,  and  answering  perfectly  the 
purpose  for  which  they  were  intend^  for  the  sandy 
wastes  were  converted  into  productive  'fields  and 
rich  pasture-lands,  and  the  coast  teemed  with  indus- 
trious inhabitants.  In  the  valley  of  Santa,  there 
were  once  700,000  inhabitants ;  tnere  are  now  only 
12,000:  in  that  of  AncuUama,  there  were  90,000 
individuals ;  there  are  now  only  425.  The  fields  on 
the  coast  were  also  enriched  with  the  manure  of 
sea-fowls,  which  has  since  come  to  be  known  as 
guano.  Fragments  of  the  aqueducts  still  remain, 
and  are  surveyed  vrith  astonishment  by  the  traveller, 
who  wonders  that  such  works  could  nave  been  con- 
structed by  a  people  who  appear  to  have  employed 
no  machiuery,  had  no  beasts  of  burden,  who  did  not 
know  the  secret  of  the  true  arch,  and  who  did  not 
use  tools  or  instruments  of  iron.  But  the  triumphs 
of  industry  were  not  more  decided  on  the  coast 
than  they  were  in  the  Sierra.  Here,  at  elevations 
visited  now  only  by  the  eagle  and  the  condor,  the 
rocky  heights,  riven  by  innumerable  chasms  and 
deeply-cut  jirecipices,  were  crowned  with  waving 
croi)s  of  wheat^and  maize.  Where  the  mountain- 
slopes  were  too  steep  to  admit  of  cultivation,  terraces 
were  cut,  soil  was  accumulated  on  them,  and  the  level 
surfaces  converted  into  a  species  of  hanging-gardens. 
Large  flocks  of  lamas  were  grazed  on  the  plateaux ; 
while  the  more  hardy  vicunas  and  alpacas  roamed 
the  upper  heights  in  freedom,  to  bo  driven  together, 
however,  at  stated  periods,  to  be  shorn  or  Killed. 
The  wool  yielded  by  these  animals,  and  the  cotton 
grown  in  the  plains  and  valleys,  were  woven  into 
fabrics  equally  remarkable  for  fineness  of  texture 
and  brilliancy  of  colour. 

The  character  of  the  architecture  of  the  Peruvians 
has  already  been  alluded  to.  The  edifices  of  Incarial 
times  are  oblong  in  shape  and  cyclopcan  in  constnio- 
tion.  The  materials  used  were  granite,  porphyry, 
and  other  varieties  of  stone ;  but  in  the  more  rainless 
regions,  sun-dried  bricks  were  also  much  used.  The 
walls  were  most  frequently  built  of  stones  of  irre- 
gular size,  but  cut  with  such  accuracy,  and  fitting 
into  each  other  so  closely  at  the  sides,  that  neither 
knife  nor  needle  can  be  inserted  in  the  seams. 
Though  the  buildings  were  not,  as  a  rule,  more 
than  from  12  to  14  feet  high,  they  were  characterised 
by  simplicity,  symmetry,  and  solidity.  The  Peruvian 
architects  cUd  not  indulge  much  in  external  decor- 
ation ;  but  the  interior  oi  all  the  great  edifices  was 
extremely  rich  in  ornament.  In  the  royal  palaces 
and  temples,  the  most  ordinary  utensils  were  of 
silver  and  gold;  the  walls  were  thickly  studded 
with  plates  and  bosses  of  the  same  metals ;  and 
exquisite  imitations  of  human  and  other  figures,  and 
also  of  plants,  fashioned  with  perfect  accuracy  in 
gold  and  silver,  were  always  seen  in  the  houses  of 
the  great.  Hidden  among  the  metallic  foliage,  or 
creeping  among  the  roots,  were  many  brilliantly- 
coloured  birds,  serpents,  lizards,  &c.,  made  chiefly  of 
precious  stones  ;  while  in  the  gardens,  intersj^ersed 
among  the  natural  plants  and  flowers,  were  imita- 
tions of  them,  in  gold  and  silver,  of  such  truth  and 
beauty  as  to  rival  nature.  The  Temple  of  the  Sim 
at  Cuzco,  called  CorvcanchOy  or  *  Place  of  Gold,*  was 
the  most  magnificent  edifice  in  the  empire.  On  the 
western  wall,  and  ox>posite  the  eastern  portal,  was  a 
splendid  representation  of  the  Sun,  the  god  of  the 
nation.  It  consisted  of  a  human  face  in  gold,  with 
innumerable  golden  rays  emanating  from  it  in  every 
direction ;  and  when  the  early  beams  of  the  morning 
sun  fell  upon  this  brilliant  golden  disc,  they  were 
r^ected  from  it  as  from  a  mirror,  and  again  reflected 
throughout  the  whole  temple  by  the  numberless 
440 


plates,  oomioes,  bands,  and  images  of  sold,  nntO 
the  temple  seemed  to  glow  with  a  sanuiine  mors 
intense  than  that  of  nature. 

The  religion  of  the  Peruvians,  in  the  later  ages  of 
the  empire,  was  far  in  advance  of  that  of  most 
barbarous  nations.  They  believed  in  a  Great  Spirit, 
the  Creator  of  the  universe,  who,  being  a  spirit, 
could  not  be  represented  by  any  image  or  symbol, 
nor  be  made  to  dwell  in  a  temple  made  with  hands. 
They  also  believed  in  the  existence  of  the  soul 
hereafter,  and  in  the  resurrection  of  the  body.  The 
after-life,  they  considered  to  be  a  oomlition  of  ease 
and  tranquillity  for  the  good,  and  of  continual 
wearisome  labour,  extending  over  ages,  for  the 
wicked.  But  while  they  Imieved  in  the  Creator 
of  the  world,  they  also  believed  in  other  deities, 
who  were  of  some  subordinate  rank  to  the  Great 
Spirit  Of  these  secondary  gods,  the  Sun  was  the 
chief.  They  reverenced  tne  Sun  as  the  source  of 
their  royal  dynasty ;  and  everywhere  throughout  the 
land,  altars  smoked  with  oneiings  bum«i  in  hia 
worship. 

About  the  year  1516,  and  ten  years  before  tiie 
death  of  Huayna  Capac,  the  first  white  man  had 
landed  on  the  western  shores  of  South  America ;  bat 
it  was  not  till  the  year  1532,  that  Pizarro  (q.  v.),  at 
the  head  of  a  small  band  of  Spanish  adventarera, 
actually  invaded  Peru.    On  his  death-bed,  the  great 
Inca  expressed  a  wish  that  the  kincdom  of  Quito 
should  pass  to  Atahualpa,  one  of  nis  sons  by  a 
princess  of  Quito  whom  he  had  received  among  his 
concubines,  and  that  all  his  other  territories  should 
fall  to  his  son  Huascar,  the  heir  to  the  crown,  and 
who,  according  to  the  custom  of  the  Incas,  should 
have  inherited  all  its  dependencies.     Between  these 
two  princes,  quarrels,  resulting  in  war,  arose;  and 
when  Pizarro  entered   P.,  he  found  the  countiy 
occupied  by  two  rival  factions,  a  circumstance  of 
which  he    took  full   advantage.      Atahualpa  had 
completely  defeated  the  forces  of  his  brother,  had 
taken  Huascar  prisoner,  and   was   now  stationed 
at  Caxamalca,  on  the  eastern  side  of  the   Andes, 
whither,  with  a  force  of  177  men,  of  whom  27  were 
cavalry,  the  dauntless  Spanish  leader,  in  September 
1532,  set  out  to  meet  him.    For  the  capture  of 
Atahualna  by  the  Spaniards,  his  subsequent  life  and 
violent  death,  see  article  Atahualpa.  Shortly  after 
the  execution  of  the  Inca  at  Caxamalca,  the  adven- 
turers  set   out   for  Cuzco.      Their    strength  had 
been  recently  increased  by  reinforcements,  and  they 
now  numbered  nearly  5(K)  men,  of  whom   abont 
a  third  were  cavalry.     They  entered  the  Peruvian 
capital,  15th  November  1533,  having  in  the  cours 
of  their  progress  toward  the  city  of  the  Incas,  had 
many  sharp,  and  sometimes  serious  encountens  with 
the  Indians,  in  all  of  which,  however,  tiieir  armour, 
artillery,  and  cavalry  gave  them  the  advaDtajr& 
At  Cuzco  they  obtained  a  vast  amount  of  gold, 
the  one  object  for  which  the  conquest  of   P.  was 
undertaken.    As  at  Caxamalca,  the  articles  of  gold 
were  for  the  most  part  melted  down  into  ingots, 
and  divided  among  tne  band.    Their  sudden  wealth, 
however,  did    many    of    them    little    good,  as   it 
afforded  them  the  means  of  gambling,  and  many 
of   them,   rich  at  night,  found   themselves  a;^n 
jpenniless  adventurers  in  the  morning.    One  cavalier 
having  obtained  the  splendid  golden  image  of  the 
Sun  as  his  share  of   the  booty,  lost  it    in  play 
in  a  single  night.     Aft-er  stripping  the  palaces  and 
temples  of  their  treasures,  Rzarro  placed  Manoo* 
a  son  of  the  great  Huajma  Capac,  on  the  thrftne  d 
the  Incas.     Leaving  a  garrison  in  the  ca]iitaJ,  bs 
then    marched  west   to   the  sea-coast,  -with    the 
intention  of  building  a  town,  from  which  he  cooU 
the  more  easily  re()el  invasion  from  without,  and 
which  should'  be  the  future  capital  of  the  kiojcdoa. 


I^ril, 


• '  1 


!ii 


PERU. 


Ghoosing  the  banks  of  the  river  Bimac,  lie  founded, 
about  nx  miles  from  its  mouth,  the  Oiudad  de  los 
Reyea^  '  City  of  the  Kings.'  Subsequently,  its  name 
was  changed  into  Lima»  the  modified  form  of  the 
name  of  the  river  on  which  it  was  placed.  But 
the  progress  of  a  higher  civilisation  thus  begun, 
was  mtemipted  by  an  event  which  overturned  the 
plans  of  the  general,  and  entailed  the  severest 
sufferings  on  many  of  his  followers.  The  Inca 
Manco,  insulted  on  every  hand,  and  in  the  most 
contemptuous  manner,  by  the  proud  Oastilian 
soldiers,  effected  his  escape,  and  headed  a  formidable 
rising  of  the  natives.  Gatherinff  round  Cuzco  in 
immense  numbers,  the  natives  laid  siege  to  the 
city,  and  set  it  on  fire.  An  Indian  force  also 
invested  Xanxa,  and  another  detachment  threatened 
Lima.  The  siege  of  Cuzco  was  maintained  for  five 
months,  after  which  time  the  Peruvians  were  com- 
manded by  their  Inca  to  retire  to  their  farms,  and 
cultivate  the  soil,  that  the  country  might  be  saved 
from  famine.  The  advantages,  many,  though  un- 
important, which  the  Inca  gained  in  the  course  of 
this  siege,  were  his  last  triiuuphs.  He  afterwards 
retired  to  the  mountains,  where  he  was  massacred 
by  a  party  of  Spaniards.  More  formidable,  how- 
ever, to  Pizarro  than  any  rising  of  the  natives, 
was  the  quarrel  between  himself  and  Almagro, 
a  soldier  ot  generous  disposition,  but  of  fiery  temper, 
who,  after  Pizarro,  heJd  the  highest  rank  among 
the  conquerors.  For  the  insurrection,  trial,  and 
execution  of  this  chief,  see  article  Almaoro.  The 
condition  of  the  country  was  now  in  every  sense 
deplorable.  The  natives,  astonished  not  more  by 
the  appearance  of  cavalry  than  by  the  fiash,  the 
sound,  and  the  deadly  execution  of  artillery,  had 
succumbed  to  forces  which  they  had  no  means  of 
successfully  encountering.  Meantime,  the  Almagro 
faction  had  not  died  out  with  the  death  of  its  leader, 
and  they  still  cherished  schemes  of  vengeance  against 
the  Pizarros.  It  was  resolved  to  assassinate  the 
General  as  he  returned  from  mass  on  Sunday,  26th 
June  1541.  Hearing  of  the  conspiracy,  but  attach- 
ing little  importance  to  the  iiiiormation,  Pizarro 
nevertheless  deemed  it  prudent  not  to  go  to  mass 
that  day.  His  house  was  assaulted  by  the  con- 
spirators, who,  murdering  his  servants,  broke  in 
u|K)n  the  great  leader,  overwhelmed  him  by  numbers, 
and  killed  him  (see  Pizarro).  The  son  of  Almagro 
then  proclaimed  himself  governor,  but  was  soon 
defeated  in  battle,  and  put  to  death.  In  1542, 
a  council  was  called  at  Valladolid,  at  the  instigation 
of  the  ecclesiastic  Las  Casas,  who  felt  shocked  and 
humiliated  at  the  excesses  committed  on  the  natives. 
The  result  of  this  council  was,  that  a  code  of  laws 
was  framed  for  P.,  according  to  one  clause  of  which, 
the  Indians  who  had  been  enslaved  by  the  Spaniards 
urere  virtually  declared  free  men.  It  was  also 
enacted  that  the  Indians  were  not  to  be  forced  to 
labour  in  unhealthy  localities,  and  that  in  whatever 
cases  they  were  desired  to  work  in  any  particular 
locality,  they  were  to  be  fairly  paid.  These  and 
similar  clauses  enraged  the  adventurers.  Blasco 
Knnez  Vela,  sent  from  Spain  to  enforce  the 
new  laws,  rendered  himself  unpopular,  and  was 
seized,  and  thrown  into  prison.  He  had  come 
from  Spain,  accompanied  by  an  'audience'  of 
four,  who  now  undeitook  the  government.  Gonzalo 
Pizarro  (the  last  in  this  country  of  the  family 
of  that  name),  who  had  been  elected  captain- 
gener^  of  P.,  now  marched  threateningly  upon 
lima.  He  was  too  powerful  to  withstand,  and 
the  audience  received  him  in  a  friendly  manner, 
and  after  the  administration  of  oaths,  elected  him 
covemor  as  well  as  captain-general  of  the  country. 
llie  career  of  this  adventurer  was  cut  short  by 
Pedro  de  la  Gasca^  who,  invested  with  the  powers 


of  the  sovereign,  arrived  from  Spain,  collected  s 
large  army,  and  pursued  Pizarro,  who  was  eventually 
taken  ana  executed. 

A  series  of  petty  ^  quarrels,  and  the  tiresome 
story  of  the  substitution  of  one  ruling  functionary 
for  another,  make  up  a  great  part  of  the  subse* 
quent  history.  The  country  became  one  of  the 
rour  vice-royalties  of  Spanish  America,  and  the 
Spanish  authority  was  fully  established  and  admin- 
istered by  successive  viceroys.  The  province  of 
Quito  was  separated  from  P.  in  1718 ;  and  in  1788, 
considerable  territories  in  the  south  were  detached, 
and  formed  into  the  government  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
At  the  outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence  in  South 
America,  the  Spanish  government,  besides  having 
much  declined  m  internal  strength,  was  distracted 
with  the  dissensions  of  a  regency,  and  torn  by  civil 
war ;  nevertheless,  in  1^20,  the  Spanish  viceroy  had 
an  army  of  23,000  men  in  Peru,  and  all  the  large 
towns  were  completely  in  the  hands  of  Spanish 
officials.  P.  was  the  last  of  the  Spanish  South 
American  possessions  to  set  up  the  standard  of 
independence.  In  August  1820,  a  rebel  army,  under 
General  San  Martin,  one  of  the  liberators  of  Chili, 
sailed  for  P.,  and  after  a  number  of  successes  both 
on  sea  and  land,  in  which  the  patriots  were  most 
efi'ectively  assisted  by  English  volunteers,  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country  was  proclaimed  28th  July 
1821,  and  San  Martin  assumed  the  protectorate  of 
the  young  republic  From  this  date  to  the  year  1860, 
21  rulers,  under  various  titles,  have  held  sway.  For 
the  first  24  years  of  its  existence  as  an  independent 
republic,  the  country  was  distracted  and  devastated 
by  wars  and  revolutions.  In  1845,  Don  Kamon 
Castilla  was  elected  president ;  and  under  his  firm 
and  sagacious  guidance,  the  country  enjoyed  an 
unwonUMi  measure  of  peace,  and  became  regularly 
organised.  Commerce  oegan  to  be  developed,  and 
important  public  works  were  undertaken.  The  term 
of  his  presidency  ended  in  1851,  in  which  year 
General  Rufino  tfosS  Echenique  was  elected  presi- 
dent. The  country,  however,  was  discontented 
with  his  government,  and  Castilla,  after  raising  an 
insurrection  in  the  south,  again  found  himself  in  1855 
at  the  head  of  affairs.  Slavery,  which,  although  abol« 
ished  by  the  charter  of  independence,  still  existed, 
was  put  an  end  to  by  a  decree  dated  October  1854. 
In  August  1863,  a  quarrel  had  taken  place  at  the 
estate  of  Talambo,  in  the  north,  between  some  Basque 
emigrants  and  the  natives,  in  which  several  of  the 
disputants  were  killed  or  wounded.  Taking  advan- 
tage of  this  occurrence,  the  Spanish  government  sent 
out  a  'special  commissioner'  in  the  spring  of  1864,  who 
delivered  a  memorandum  to  the  Peruvian  minister, 
complaining  of  injuries  sustained  by  the  Spaniards, 
and  accompanied  by  a  letter  threatening  prompt  and 
snergetic  reprisals,  should  Spain  be  insulted  or  her 
flag  disgraced.  The  'commissioner'  left  Lima  on 
the  12th  April,  the  day  on  which  his  memorandum 
and  letter  were  delivered;  and  on  the  14th,  a 
Spanish  squadron,  under  Admiral  Pinzon,  who  had 
been  joined  by  the  'commissioner,*  took  forcible 
possession  of  the  Chincha  Islands,  the  principal 
source  of  the  revenue  of  Peru.  The  quarrel  has  not 
yet  (August  1864)  come  to  a  termination. 

The  covernment  of  P.  is  republican ;  but  hitherto 
it  has  borne  for  the  most  part  the  character  of  a 
military  despotism.  Its  president  is  elected  for  a 
term  ot  six  years.  He  is  assisted  by  a  Senate,  con- 
sisting of  two  members  from  each  province,  and  a 
House  of  Kepresentatives,  of  whom  there  is  one 
member  for  every  20,000  inhabitants.  In  1863, 
General  Pezet  succeeded  to  the  presidency.  The 
ministers,  together  with  senators  chosen  by  the 
congress,  form   the  cabinet    In  1860,  the  Senate 

consisted  of   36  members,  and  the  House  of  86 

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PERUGIA-PERUVIAN  BARK. 


members.  The  receipts  in  1861  amoanted  to 
21,245,832  doUaxs,  of  which  16,921,751  dollars  were 
derived  from  the  sale  of  guano ;  the  expenditure  for 
the  same  year  amounted  to  21,446,466  dollars.  The 
public  debt  in  1862  amounted  to  23,458,761  dollars. 
The  army  in  the  same  year  consisted  of  16,000  men, 
and  the  navy  of  17  vessels,  carrying  84  guns.  The 
country  is  divided  into  11  departments,  and  two 
provinces  with  the  constitution  of  departments; 
and  the  departments  are  subdivided  into  provinces, 
the  provinces  into  districts,  and  the  districts  into 
parishes.  Of  the  whole  pop.,  240,000  are  whites, 
300,000  Mestizos  and  dark,  40,000  Negroes,  and 
1,620,000  Indiana 

PERU'GIA,  a  city  of  Central  Italy,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  a  lofty 
elevation,  800  feet  high,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tiber,  ten  miles  east  of  the  lake  of  the  same  name 
(ancient  Locus  Trcunmenus)^  and  84  miles  north  of 
Rome.  It  is  surrounded  with  walls  pierced  with 
numerous  gates,  of  which  the  Arch  of  Aurpxstua  (so 
called  from  the  inscription  Augusta  Ferusia  over  it, 
inscribed  by  Augustus)  is  the  finest.  It  is  the  see 
of  a  bishop,  and  contains  upwards  of  100  churches, 
and  about  50  monastic  establishments.  Its  streets 
are  wide,  and  there  are  several  squares  lined  with 
massive  buildings.  The  broad  Corso,  which  contains 
the  finest  edifices,  unites  two  squares,  one  of  which  is 
occupied  by  the  Duomo,  or  cathedral,  dedicated  to 
San  Lorenzo,  and  dating  from  the  end  of  the  15th 
century.  It  is  in  a  fine  Dold  Gothic  style,  and  con- 
tains many  excellent  paintings,  carvings,  &c.  Many 
of  the  churches  and  convents  are  noble  Gothic 
structures,  and  all  of  them  are  more  or  less  famous 
for  their  pictures,  some  of  which  are  by  Raphael, 
Perugino,  and  other  great  masters.  In  the  vicinity 
of  the  city,  a  number  of  tombs,  supposed  to  mark  the 
site  of  the  necropolis  of  ancient  P.,  were  discovered 
in  1840.  The  tombs  contain  numerous  beautiful 
cinerary  urns,  in  marble  and  travertine ;  and  lamps, 
vases,  brouze  armour,  ornaments,  patene,  &c,  were 
also  found,  but  have  .for  the  most  part  been  re- 
moved to  a  neii^hbouring  villa.  The  university  of 
P.,  founded  in  1320,  and  liberally  endowed,  contains 
a  botanic  garden,  a  cabinet  of  mincralouy,  a  museum 
of  antiquities,  and  a  library  of  30,000  vols.,  with 
some  valuable  manuscripts.  It  is  attended  by  from 
300  to  400  students.  Besides  the  picture-gallery  of 
the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts,  there  are  numerous 
private  art-collections.  P.  contains  also  many  inter- 
esting palaces,  a  beautiful  fountain,  an  exchange, 
theatres,  &c  Velvets,  silk-stufTs,  woollen  goods, 
Boap,  brandy,  and  liqueurs  are  manufactured;  and  a 
considerable  trade  is  carried  on  ill  corn,  oil,  wool, 
wine,  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1862),  inclusive  of  suburbs, 
44,130. 

P.,  the  ancient  Perusia,  was  one  of  the  twelve 
Etrurian  republics.  It  became  tributury  to  Rome 
294  B.a  During  the  war  between  Mark  Antony 
and  Augustus,  it  was  taken  by  the  latter,  and  was 
burned  down.  It  was  captured  by  the  Goths  under 
Totila  at  the  fall  of  the  Western  Empire.  Under 
Pope  Paul  III.,  it  was  united  to  the  Papal  States. 
In  1860,  it  became  a  part  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy 
under  Victor  EmmanueL 

PERUGIA,  Lake  of.    See  TBAsocEin7S'LACD& 

PERUGINO,  a  celebrated  Italian  painter,  whose 
real  name  was  Pietro  Vannucci,  was  bom  at  Gitta 
della  Pieve  in  Umbria,  about  1446,  but  having  after- 
wards established  himself  in  the  neighbouring  and 
more  important  city  of  Perugia,  where  he  had  the 
ri|g;ht  of  citizenship,  he  is  commonly  called  II  Peru- 
cmo.  It  is  generally  thought  that  he  studied  under 
Andrea  Verocchio  at  Florence.  He  executed  numer- 
ous excellent  works  in  vwioaa  cities,  particularly  in 

44S 


Florence,  Siena,  Pavia,  Naples,  Bolo^a,  Rome,  and 
Perugia.  Sixtus  IV.  employed  him  m  the  Cappella 
Sistina;  and  his  fresco  of  *  Christ  giving  the  Keys 
to  Peter '  is  by  far  the  best  of  those  painted  on  the 
side- walls  of  that  chapeL  He  also,  along  with  other 
contemporary  painters,  decorated  the  Stanze  of  the 
Vatican ;  and  his  works  there  are  the  only  frescoes 
that  were  spared  when  Raphael  was  conunissioned 
to  substitute  his  works  for  those  formerly  painted 
on  the  walls  and  ceilings.  The  fact  of  his  having 
had  Raphael  for  his  pupO,  has  no  doubt  in  one  way 
increased  the  reputation  of  P.,  but  it  has  also  in 
some  degree  tended  to  lessen  it,  as,  in  many  of  P.'s 
best  productions,  the  work  of  Raphael  is  confidently 
pointed  out  by  connoisseurs,  and,  indeed,  many 
miportant  pictures,  at  one  time  acknowledged  as  bis, 
are  now  ascribed  to  his  great  pupiL  His  high 
standing  as  a  painter,  however,  is  established  by 
many  admirable  works,  in  which  no  hand  sui>erior 
to  his  own  could  have  operated;  and,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  Francia,  who  in  some  respects 
is  esteemed  his  equal,  he  is  now  acknowledged  as 
the  ablest  of  the  masters  of  that  section  of  the 
early  Italian  school  in  which  religious  feeling  is 
expressed  with  great  tenderness,  in  pictures  remark- 
able  for  delicate  execution.  P.'s  works  are  also 
distinguished  by  rich  and  warm  colouring.  An 
excellent  example  of  this  master's  work  may  be 
studied  in  the  collection  of  the  National  Gallery, 
London — *  No.  288b  The  Virgin  Adoring  the  Infant 
Christ'  P.'s  reputation  was  high,  when  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cinquecento  style,  by  Leonardo  and 
Michael  Angelo,  tended  to  throw  into  the  shade 
the  art  of  the  earlier  masters.  Disputes  ran  high 
between  the  leaders  of  the  old  and  new  styles, 
and  Michael  Angelo  is  said  to  have  spoken  con- 
temptuously of  jr.'s  powers.  This,  of  course,  has 
biassed  Vasari's  opinion  in  his  estimate  of  the 
op{>onent  of  his  idol,  but  P.'s  reputation  now 
stands  very  high,  and  his  works  are  greatly 
esteemed.  Raphael  was  about  twelve  years  of 
age  when  he  was  entered  as  a  pupil  with  P., 
wno  was  then  (1495)  engaged  on  the  frescoes  in 
the  Sala  del  Gambia  (the  Exchange)  at  PenigiiL 
P.  died  at  Castcllo  di  Fontignano,  near  Perugia,  in 
1524 

PERU'VIAN  ARCHITECTURE.  Although 
the  buildings  of  Peru  were  erected  probably  about 
the  12th  c  A-D.,  they  ])08sess  an  extraordinary  like- 
ness to  those  of  the  Pelasgi  in  Europe;  This  resem- 
blance in  style  must  be  accidental,  arising  probably 
from  the  circumstance,  that  both  nations  used 
bronze  tools,  and  were  unacquainted  with  iron.  The 
Peruvian  walls  are  built  with  large  polygonal  blocks 
of  stone,  exactly  like  what  we  call  *  Cyclopean 
masonry.'  The  jambs  of  the  doorways  slope  inwards, 
like  those  of  Etruscan  tombs,  and  have  similar 
lintels.  The  walls  of  Cuzco  are  good  examples  of 
this  style.  It  is  further  remarkable,  that  these 
walls  are  built  with  re-entering  angles,  like  tiie 
fortifications  which  were  adopted  in  Europe  only 
after  the  invention  of  gunpowder. 

PERUVIAN  BARK.  See  Cinchona.— But 
whilst  the  article  Cinchona  was  passing  through 
the  press,  an  important  event  was  taking  place  in 
the  mtroduction  of  cinchonas,  or  Peruvian  Bark 
trees  into  British  India.  This  had  long  been  urged 
on  the  East  India  Company  by  Br  Royle,  but  was 
not  undertaken  till  after  his  death.  The  same  thing 
had  been  attempted  a  year  or  two  before  by  the 
Dutch  in  Java,  on  the  urgent  representations  of  the 
botanist  Blume,  but  wim  very  imperfect  success, 
owing  to  their  having  procured  chiefly  plants  of  a 
species  which  produces  bark  of  very  inferior  quality, 
and  yields  little  quinine.    But  Mr  Marlrhitm^  -y^ 


PERUVIAN  GOOSEBERBT--PESHITa 


sent  to  South  AmericA  by  the  East  India  Com- 
IMUiy  to  procure  seeds  and  plants,  was  successful 
in  introducing  into  British  India,  in  the  latter  part 
of  1801,  a  number  of  the  very  best  species,  which 
were  planted  chiefly  on  the  2}eilgherrv"  Hills,  and 
partly  also  on  the  mountains  of  Ceylon  and  the 
Himalaya,  and  from  these  stations  have  begun  to 
be  diffused  so  that  their  cultivation  for  economical 
use  has  fairly  begun.    Young  trees  are  already  sold 
by  thousands;    and  there  is  every  prospect  that, 
ere  many  years  have  elapsed,  an  abundant  supply  of 
Peruvian  bark,  and  consequently  of  quinine,  will  be 
secured  at  a  very  moderate  price,   and  yet  with 
profit  to  the  East  Indian  cultivator.     In  procuring 
the  young  trees  and  seeds  which  he  conveyed  to 
India,  Mr  Markham   experienced  great  difficulty 
from  the  jealousy  of  the  South  American  govern- 
ments, anxious  to  maintain  a  rigid  monopoly  in  this 
precious  commodity,  and  yet  taking  no  effectual 
means  to  prevent  the  rapidly-extending  waste  of 
the  trees  in  their  native  forests ;  whilst  such  is  the 
want  of    enterprise    among  the   people,  that  Mr 
Markham  in  all  his  travels  saw  only  one  Peruvian 
IBark  tree  which  had  been  planted  by  the  hand  of 
man.     (See  Markham's  Travels  in  Peru  and  India, 
Lond.  1862.) 

PERUVIAN  GOOSEBERRY.    See  Physalis. 

PESA'RO  (the  ancient  Plsaurum)^  a  town  of 
Central  Italy,  capital  of  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  on  a  rocky  wooded  hill,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Foglia,  and  one  mile  from  the  mouth  of  that 
river  in  the  Adriatic— 20  miles  north-east  of 
Urbino.  Its  streets  are  broad,  and  it  is  surrounded 
by  walk  and  defended  by  a  citadeL  It  is  a  bishop's 
seat,  and  contains  a  cathedral  and  other  churches. 
The  country  in  the  vicinity  is  fruitful  and  beautiful ; 
the  figs  of  the  district  being  esteemed  the  best  in 
Italy.  The  port  cannot  now  accommodate  vessels 
of  more  than  70  tons  burden ;  but  is  large  enough 
to  contain  200  vessels  of  light  draught  Silks,  pot- 
tery, glass,  and  leather  are  manufactured ;  and  an 
active  trade  in  silk,  hemp,  and  woollen  goods  is 
carried  on.    Pop.  20,000. 

PBSCHIE'RA,  a  frontier  town  and  fortress  of 
Austrian  Italy,  and  a  member  of  the  famous  Qiuidri- 
lateral  (q.  v.),  stands  partly  on  an  island  in  the 
channel  of  the  Mincio,  and  partly  on  the  right 
bank  of  that  river,  at  its  outlet  from  the  Lake  of 
Garda.  The  town  itself  is  a  poor  place  of  less  than 
2000  inhabitants.  P.  commands  the  right  bank 
of  the  river,  and  in  connection  with  it  is  the 
extensive  work  called  the  'Salvi,*  which  covers 
the  approaches  of  the  river  in  that  direction. 
During  the  French  republican  war,  P.  was  a  simple 
pentagon.  Its  fortifications,  however,  have  been 
greatly  strengthened  by  the  Austrians.  It  is 
defenaed  by .  walls  and  by  forts,  lunettes,  fosses, 
and  a  covered-way ;  and  the  purpose  which  it  is 
mainly  intended  to  serve,  besides  that  of  forming 
an  entrenched  camp  capable  of  accommodating  a 
considerable  number  of  troops,  is  to  harass  an  army 
attempting  to  cross  the  Mincio  by  Goito  or  Valeggio. 
In  the  island  portion  of  the  town  are  exte^ive 
barracks,  forming  three  sides  of  a  square.  P.  is  a 
station  on  the  Milan  and  Venice  Railway,  and  is 
also  a  station  of  the  Austrian  government  steamers 
that  ply  on  the  Lake  of  Garda.  P.  was  taken  by 
the  x*iedmontese  under  King  Charles  Albert  in 
1848,  and  was  again  invested  by  them  in  June  1859, 
after  the  battle  of  SoHerina  The  conclusion  of 
the  treaty  of  Villafranca^  however  (July  11,  1859), 
relieved  ]P.  from  a  siege.  ' 

PESHAWER,  or  PESHAWUR,  an  important 
towc,  oc  the  north-west  frontier  of  India,  capital 
of  a  province  of  the  same  name,  18  miles  east  oi  the 


eastern  extremity  of  Khyber  Pass,  and  150  miles 
east-south-east  of  CabuL  It  is  defended  by  a 
bastioned  wall,  and  commanded  by  a  fort,  the  foar 
of  which  prevents  internal  disturbances.  At  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  P.  had 
100,000  inhabitants.  Under  the  stem  rule  of  the 
Sikhs,  however,  its  trade  languished,  and  its  splendid 
mosques,  many  of  them  in  the  richest  style  of 
oriental  architecture,  fell  into  decay.  It  is  on  the 
route  from  Hindustan  to  Cabul  and  Khorassan  by 
the  Elhyber  Pass,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  British 
garrison,  maintained  here  for  the  purpose  of  pre- 
serving the  security  of  the  route.  Under  British 
protection,  the  town  is  reviving,  trade  is  becoming 
more  ^active,  and  the  appearance  of  the  suburbs 
and  environs  is  improved.  Pop.  53,295.  The 
province  of  P.,  included  in  the  Punjab,  and  formerly 
forming  a  portion  of  Afghanistan,  is  about  2300 
square  miles  in  extent,  and  has  450,000  inhabitants. 
It  is  exceedingly  fruitful.  It  is  well  watered,  and 
produces  rice  and  fruits  of  the  finest  quality,  and  in 
the  gi-eatest  abundance. 

PESHI'TO,  or  rather  PESHIT*TO  (Syr.,  not,  as 
generally  supposed,  *  simple,'  *  faithful,'  sciL  Version, 
but  the  '  explained,'  i  e.,  translated,  Bible),  is  the 
name  giyen  to  the  authorised  Syriac  Version  of  the 
Old.  and  the  greatest  part  of  tiie  New  Testamenl* 
This  version  holds  among  the  Syrian  Christians  the 
same  place  as  the  Vulgate  in  the  Roman,  and  the 
*  Authorised  Version '  in  the  English  Church  Many 
are  the  traditions  about  its  origin.  Thus,  the 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament  is  supposed  to 
date  from  the  time  of  Solomon  and  Hiram ;  or  to 
have  been  done  by  Asa,  the  priest ;  or,  a/:;ain,  that 
it  belongs  to  the  time  of  the  Apostle  Thadd^eus 
(Adseus),  and  Abgar,  the  king  of  Osrhoene,  in  the 
1st  c.  after  Christ.  To  the  same  period  is  also 
supposed  to  belong  the  translation  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  is  ascribed  to  Achsdus,  a  disciple 
of  Thaddasus,  the  first  Edessian  bishop  and  martyr. 
Recunt  investigation  has  not  as  yet  come  to  any 
nearer  result  man  to  place  the  latter  vaguely  in 
the  2d,  and  the  former  in  the  3d  c,  and  to  make 
Judaic-Christians  the  authors  of  both.  Ephrsem 
Syrus  (q.  v.),  who  wrote  in  the  4th  a,  certainly  speaks 
ot  the  r.  as  Our  Version,  and  finds  it  already 
necessary  to  explain  some  of  its  terms,  which  had 
become  obsolete.  Five  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment (the  Apocalypse  and  four  of  the  Epistles)  are 
wanting  in  all  the  MSS.,  having  probably  not  yet 
formed  part  of  the  canon  when  the  translation  was 
made.  The  version  of  the  Old  Testament  was  made 
direct  from  the  Hebrew,  and  by  men  imbued 
with  the  Palestinian  mode  of  explanation.  It 
is  extremely  faithful,  and  astonishingly  free  from 
any  of  those  paraphrastic  tendencies  which  pervade 
more  or  less  all  the  Taigums  or  Aramaic  versions. 
Its  renderings  are  mostly  very  happy,  and  coin- 
cide in  many  places  with  those  of  the  Septuagiut,  a 
circumstance  which  has  given  rise  to  the  erroneous 
supposition,  that  the  latter  itself  had  been  drawn 
upon.  Its  use  for  the  Old  Testament  is  more  of  an 
exegetical,  for  the  New  Testament,  more  of  a  critical, 
nature.  Anything  like  an  edition  of  the  P.  worthy 
of  its  name,  is  stm  as  much  a  desideratum  as  is  a 
critical  edition  of  the  Septuagint  or  the  Targums, 
and  consequently  investigators  have  as  yet  been 
unable  to  come  to  anyl£ing  but  very  hazy  con- 
clusions respecting  some  very  importsmt  questions 
connected  with  it.  The  ediUo  prtnceps  of  the  New 
Testament  part  dates  Vienna  1555,  that  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  contained  in  the  Paris  Polyglot 
of  1645.  Several  portions  of  the  P.  have  been 
translated  again  into  Arabic  The  Syriac  trans- 
lation of  those  parts  of  the  New  Testament  which 
are   not  to   be  found  in   the   P.,  but  are   now 


PESTALOZZI— PESTILENCE. 


looorporated  into  our  Syriac  Bibles,  are  of  late  and 
uncertain  date. 

PESTALOZZI,  JoHANN-HicnnticH,  was  bom  at 
Ziirich,  12th  January  1745.  His  family  belonged  to 
the  middle-class  gentry.  He  was  destined  for  the 
Christian  ministry,  but  turned  aside,  however,  from 
this  profession,  and  betook  himself  to  the  study  of 
law.  To  this  piu*suit  he  did  not  lon^  remain  con- 
etantw  The  perusal  of  Kousseau's  JbniUe,  and  the 
unsatisfactory  political  condition  in  which  he  found 
Europe,  united  to  dis^st  him  with  the  artificial  life 
of  cities,  and  he  accordingly  removed  to  the  country, 
to  devote  lus  life  to  farming.  Purchasing  some 
waste  land  (after  he  had  acquired  the  necessary 
experience),  he  applied  himself  successfully  to  its 
cultivation,  marrying  about  the  same  time  the 
daughter  of  a  wealtny  merchant.  His  mind  con* 
tinumg  to  be  afflicted  by  the  contemplation  of  the 
unhappy  condition  of  the  masses  of  the  people,  he 
devoted  himself,  during  the  intervals  of  nis  work, 
to  the  consideration  of  the  means  best  suited  to 
promote  their  elevation.  He  was  convinced  that, 
by  means  .of  a  sound  education,  a  remedy  might 
be  found  for  the  many  evils  by  which  he  was 
surrounded,  and  by  which  society  was  infected. 
To  give  eifect  to  his  theories,  he  converted  his  own 
house  into  an  orphan  asylum,  and  endeavoured, 
by  a  judicious  blending  of  industrial,  intellectual, 
and  moral  training,  to  afford  a  specimen  of  sound 
education,  and  one  so  contrived  as  to  be  practic- 
able as  a  national  scheme.  Meanwhile,  the  pur- 
suit of  his  benevolent  enterprises  involved  nim, 
after  the  lapse  of  fifteen  years  (1775 — 1790),  in 
bankruptcy.  The  failure  of  his  plans,  and  the 
democratic  tendency  of  his  opinions,  brought 
upon  him  a  good  deal  of  contempt  and  opposition. 
His  only  consolation  was  having  saved  from 
degradation  and  neglect  upwards  of  100  children, 
and  having  issued  several  volumes  on  education, 
containing  the  results  of  his  ex|)crience,  and  his 
ho|)es  for  the  future  of  the  massea  Many  sub- 
sequent attempts  to  foimd  schools  and  to  give  a 
specimen  of  rational  scholastic  training,  were  made 
by  P.,  ^'ith  varying  educational  success,  but  with 
invariable  pecuniary  embarrassment.  His  writings, 
meanwhile,  increased  in  number  and  importance. 
Tho  great  idea  which  lay  at  the  basis  of  his  method 
of  intellectual  instruction  was,  that  nothing  should 
be  treated  of  except  in  a  concrete  way.  Objects 
themselves  became  in  his  hands  the  subject  of  lessons 
tendina;  to  the  development  of  the  observing  and 
reasoning  powers — not  lessons  about  objects.  In 
arithmetic,  he  began  with  the  concrete,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  abstract;  and  into  the  teaching  of 
writing,  he  for  the  first  time  introduced  graduation. 
His  special  attention,  however,  was  directed  to  the 
moral  and  religious  draining  of  children,  as  distinct 
from  their  mere  instruction;  and  here,  too,  ^adua- 
tion  and  a  regard  to  the  nature  and  susceptibilities 
of  children,  were  conspicuous  features  of  his  system. 
Almost  all  P.'s  methods  are  Uij'w  substantially 
adopted  by  tlin  instructors  of  elementary  teachers 
in  the  Normal  Schools  of  Europe,  and  to  no  man 
perhaps  has  primary  instruction  been  so  largely 
indebted.  He  died  in  1827  at  Brugg,  in  the  canton 
of  Basel,  overwhelmed  with  mortifications  and 
disapx)ointments. 

PESTH,  the  most  populous  and  important  com- 
mercial city  of  Hungary,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  opposite  Buda  (q.  v.),  and  171  miles  east- 
south-east  of  Vienna  by  railway.  It  occupies  a  low 
and  level  site,  and  contrasts  strongly  with  the  antique, 
pictures<^ue,  and  rock-built  Buda,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  nver.  The  two  cities  are  connected  by  a 
magnificent  suspension-bridge,  erected  in  1849,  and 
4U 


which  spans  a  water-way  of  about  1500  feet.  Com- 
munication is  also  facilitated  by  steam-ferries,  which 
cross  the  river  every  hour.  Along  the  P.  side  of  the 
river  runs  a  wide  quay,  paved  and  terraced,  and 
backed  by  a  handsome  row  of  buildings,  1^  miles 
long.  The  city  consists  of  five  divisions — the  Inner, 
Leopold,  Theresa,  Joseph,  and  Francis  towna  The 
Inner  town,  on  the  bank  of  the  Danube,  is  the 
oldest,  and  the  other  divisions  surround  it  in  the 
form  of  a  semicircle.  P.  is  the  seat  of  the  chief 
judicial  courts  of  Hungary.  Its  university,  founded 
at  Tymau,  was  transferred  to  Buda  in  1780, 
and  thence  was  removed  hither  in  1784.  It  ia 
attended  by  upwards  of  1000  students,  who  are 
taught  by  50  professors,  and  is  richly  endowed. 
Attached  to  it  are  a  museum,  a  botanic  garden,  an 
observatory,  and  a  library  of  75,000  volumes.  Of 
the  chief  buildings  and  institutions,  the  principal 
are  the  synagogue,  a  lai^  and  beautiful  structure, 
completed  in  1857 ;  the  New  Buildings  {Neugtbdiule) 
— an  immensQ  edifice,  now  used  as  barracks  and  as 
an  artillery  d^pdt ;  the  gymnasium ;  military  school ; 
academy  of  arts ;  national  museum,  with  a  library 
of  120,000  volumes,  and  valuable  collections  of 
coins,  medals,  and  antiquities ;  veterinary  school ; 
the  national  and  other  theatres ;  and  the  Hungarian 
scicntitio  society.  The  town  contains  several  im- 
portant silk-spinning  factories,  and  the  principal 
articles  of  manufacture  are  silk,  cotton,  leather, 
jewellery,  and  musical  instrumentB.  The  distillinf 
of  brandy,  and  the  grinding  of  grain  into  meal  and 
fiour,  are  among  the  most  important  branches  of 
industry.  There  are  168  flour-mills  driven  by 
water,  8  driven  by  wind,  and  4  by  steano.  Four 
great  fairs  take  place  here  annually,  which  draw 
together  a  concourse  of  more  than  30,000  strangers, 
and  at  which  exchanges,  amounfing  in  value  to 
upwards  of  32,000,000  florins,  are  made.  In  the 
course  of  the  year,  about  SOOO  barges  unload  at  the 
quay,  and  the  trade  is  chiefly  in  wines,  raw  bides, 
honey,  wax,  and  an  inferior  spirit  made  from  plums. 
After  Vienna,  P.  has  the  greatest  trade  of  any  city 
on  the  Danube.  Pop.  130,000,  made  up  of  the  most 
various  nationalities — Germans,  Magyars,  Slovaks, 
Greeks,  and  Turks — ^the  majority  of  whom  axe 
Roman  Catholics. 

P.  is  mentioned  for  the  first  time  in  the  12th  c. ; 
but  although  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  Hungary, 
its  importance  dates  only  from  the  reigns  of  Mana 
Theresa  and  Joseph  II.  It  was  desolated  by  the 
Mongols  in  the  13th  c. ;  and  after  the  battle  of 
Mohacs  (q.  v.),  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Turks, 
who  held  it  till  1686.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  c,  it  was  an  inconsiderable  town,  and  ha« 
only  risen  into  importance  within  the  last  100  years. 
It  nas  suffered  much  from  inundations  of  the 
Danube  on  several  occasions,  on  one  of  which,  in 
1838,  2280  houses  were  destroyed.  In  May  1849, 
while  Gorgei,  with  an  army  of  40,000  Hungarians, 
occupied  the  heights  above  Buda,  and  bombarded 
the  fortress,  which  was  held  for  the  imperial 
government  by  General  Hentzi,  the  latter  general 
retaliated  by  oombarding  P. ;  but  on  the  night  of 
the  20th  May,  the  Hungarians  stormed  and  took  the 
fortress ;  and  on  the  following  morning,  raised  a1x>ve 
its  battlements  the  standara  of  revolt  On  the 
field  of  K&kos,  in  the  vicinity,  •where  the  great 
national  assemblies  of  the  Magyars  used  to  be  held, 
horse-races,  on  the  English  mod^  now  take  place 
annually. 

PE'STILENCE.  The  terms  Plague  and  Pesti. 
lence,  corresponding  to  the  Greek  Loimos  and  the 
Latin  PeMis,  have,  until  recent  times,  been  used 
indiscriminately  to  denote  any  diseases  of  an  epid- 
emic character  which  affected  large  masses  of  the 
community,  and  were  remarkable  for  their  fatality. 


PESTO— PETER. 


■nch.aB  the  oriental  placue,  the  sweating  aicknefis, 
cholera,  certain  virulent  tormB  of  fever,  &c.  '  Thus/ 
Bays  Dr  Craigie,  in  his  learned  work  on  The  Practice 
of  PhvHc  (voL  L  p.  349),  'the  term  Loimos  was 
applied  by  the  Greeks  to  deeicnate  a  species  of 
epidemic  remittent  fever ;  and  the  plague  of  Athens 
described  by  Thiicydides  is  manifestly  an  epidemic 
form  of  the  same  disease,  which  has  been  at  all  times 
in  the  summer  season  endemial  on  the  ooasts  and 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Archipelago.  The 
instances  of  Loimoa,  so  frequently  mentioned  by 
Bionysius  of  Halicamassus,  and  of  PestiSf  so  often 
mentioned  by  livy  and  other  Koman  historians  in 
the  early  mstory  of  Rome,  are  manifestly  the 
remittent  or  remittent-continuous  fever,  which  has 
been  at  all  times  the  native  product  of  that  district, 
and  which  acquired,  after  iniudations  of  the  Tiberi 
or  a  certain  train  of  weather,  the  characters  of  a 
very  generally  difiused,  a  very  malignant,  and  a 
very  mortal  distemper.  Numerous  instances  of  a 
similar  inaccurate  mode  of  expression  occur  in 
designating  the  remittent  fevers  of  the  middle  ages 
and  of  modem  times ;  and  we  find,  even  in  the  early 
history  of  the  colonisation  of  the  West  Indian 
Islands  and  the  United  States,  frequent  examples  of 
the  term  plague  beinff  applied  to  the  remittent  fever 
of  these  regions,  and  especially  to  epidemic  attacks 
of  yellow  fever.'  During  the  middle  ages,  we  find 
the  term  Pegtia  applied  to  numerous  disorders,  such 
as  syphilis,  small-pox,  erysipelas,  epidemic  sore 
throat,  petechial  fever,  the  sweating  sickness, 
gangrenouspneumonia,  ergotism,  &a 

Several  Hebrew  words  are  translated  pestilence  or 
plaguey  in  the  authorised  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Some  of  these  pestilences  were  sent  as 
speciid  judgments,  and  are  beyond  the  reach  of 
inquiry ;  others  have  the  characteristics  of  modem 
epidemics,  in  so  far  as  their  action  was  not  unnatur- 
ally rapid,  and  they  were  general  in  their  attacks. 
Sufficient  data  are  not  in  our  possession  to  enable 
US  to  identify  with  certainty  any  of  these  epidemic& 
It  has  been  supposed  by  some  critics  that  in  some 
of  these  cases  (as  in  Deuteronomy,  xxviiL  27; 
Amos,  iv.  10 ;  and  Zechariah,  xiv.  18 ;  and  in  the 
case  of  Hezekiah)  the  oriental  plague  is  referred  to ; 
but  Mr  Poole  (Smith's  Dictionary  of  the  Biblcy  yoi 
ii  p.  883)  is  of  opinion  that  there  is  not  any  distinct 
notice  of  this  disease  in  the  Bible. 

PE'STO.    See  PAEannL 

PE'TAIi.    See  Corolla. 

PETA'BD,  an  instrument  for  blowing  open  gates, 
demolishing  palisades,  &c.  It  consists  of  a  half- 
cone  of  thick  iron  fillcKl  with  powder  and  ball ;  this 
is  firmly  fastened  to  a  plank,  and  the  latter  is  pro- 
vided with  hooks,  to  allow  of  its  being  attacned 
securely  to  a  gate,  &c  The  engineers  attached  the 
petard,  lighted  tiie  slow-mateh  by  which  it  was  to 
be  fired,  and  fled.  When  the  explosion  took  eff<r^ct, 
a  supporting  column  charged  through  the  breach, 
while  the  dSenders  were  yet  in  consternation.  The 
petard  has  been  iJmost  universally  superseded  by 
the  use  of  powder-bags.  Large  petaros  contained 
as  much  as  13  lbs.  of  powder. 

PB'TOHABY,  the  popular  name  of  a  number  of 
species  of  the  genua  Tyrannu8y  sometimes  ranked 
with  the  Shrikes  {Laniadoi),  and  sometimes  with  the 
Fly-catchers  {Musdcapidce),  The  name  seems  to 
be  derived  from  the  cry  of  the  Gray  P.  {T.  Domini- 
tends)  ^  a  bird  very  common  in  the  warm  parts  of 
America  and  in  some  of  the  islands  of  the  West 
Indies,  gregarious  and  migratory,  spending  the 
spring  and  summer  in  the  islands,  ana  retinne  to 
the  hottest  parts  of  the  mainland  from  the  end  of 
September  to/the  beginning  of  January.  Ite  cry  is 
ft  kind  of  shriek,  consisting  of  three  or  four  shrill 


notes,  incessantly  repeated.  The  entire  length  ol 
the  Gray  P.  is  about  94  inches.  It  is  a  very  bold 
and  strong  bird,  and  in  defence  of  its  young,  will 
maintain  the  battle  against  any  hawk.  It  feeds 
partly  on  insects,  sometimes  on  humming-birds,  and 
partlv  on  berries.  When  fat,  it  is  much  esteemed 
tor  tne  table,  and  great  numbers  are  shot  on  this 
account. — The  Coumon  P.  {T,  cavdi/asciatus)  is  one 
of  the  most  common  birds  of  the  West  Indies.  At 
certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  ver^  fat,  it  is  in 
great  request  for  the  table.  This  bird  has  been 
observed  to  play  with  a  large  beetle,  as  a  cat  does 
with  a  mouse,  letting  it  drop,  and  catehing  it  before 
it  can  reach  the  ground.  It  is  a  very  bold  bird,  and 
does  not  scruple  to  attack  a  dog  passing  near  its 
nest. 

PETOHO'RA,  a  large  river  in  the  north  of 
European  Russia,  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Ural  Mountains,  flows  north  through  the  eastern 
parts  of  the  govemmente  of  Vologda  and  Archangel 
to  about  66*"  25'  N.,  then  south-east  for  about  150 
miles,  and  finally  sweeping  toward  the  north, 
and  expanding  into  an  estuary  30  miles  wide  and 
full  of  islancb,  faUs  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  after 
a  course  of  940  miles.  It  is  said  to  be  navigable 
for  large  river-boate  for  upwards  of  700  miles. 
The  estuary,  which  is  open  from  the  middle  of 
June  till  the  middle  of  September,  has  a  depth  of 
from  20  to  30  feet  The  country  through  whick 
this  river  flows  is  still  (|uite  uncultivated;  dense 
forests  extend  on  both  sides,  and  the  character  of 
the  scenery  is  wild,  sombre,  and  melancholy.  The 
forests  abound  in  larchwood,  now  largely  used  in 
the  construction  of  iron-clad  vessels.  Within  recent 
years,  a  colony  has  settled  at  the  mouth  of  the  P., 
for  the  purpose  of  felling,  dressing,  and  exporting 
timber. 

PBTE'OHI-ffi.  This  term  is  given  to  spots  of  a 
dusky  crimson  or  purple  colour,  quite  flat,  with  a 
well-defined  margin,  and  unaflected  by  pressure, 
which  closely  resemble  flea-bites.  These  spots 
result  from  a  minute  extravasation  of  blood  beneath 
the  cuticle.  They  occur  most  frequently  on  the 
back,  at  the  bend  of  the  elbow,  and  in  the  groin. 
They  indicate  ah  altered  state  of  the  blood,  and  are 
often  symptoms  of  very  serious  diseases,  as  of 
typhus  fever,  plague,  scurvy,  &c.  They  likewise 
occur  in  very  severe  cases  of  small-pox,  measles,  and 
scarlet  fever,  when  their  presence  must  be  regarded 
as  indicative  of  extreme  danger. 

PETER,  St,  apostle,  named  originally  Simon,  was 
a  native  of  Bethsaida,  on  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret 
[  His  fatiier  was   called  Jonas ;   and  the  name  by 
j  which  P.  is  known  in  Christian  history  was  given  to 
'  him  by  our  Lord,  %v  ho  changed  his  name  oi  ori^n 
'  (Bar-Jona)  into  Cephas^  a  Syro-Chaldaic  word,  which 
;  means  *  rock '  or  stone,  and  for  which  Petra^  or,  in 
I  the  masculine  form,  Petros,  is  the  Greek  equivalent, 
I  He  was  a  fisherman  by  occupation,  and,  together 
1  with  his  brother  Andrew,  was  actually  engaged  in 
this  occupation  on  the  Sea  of  Galilee  when  our 
Lord  called  both  to  be  his  disciples,  promising  to 
'make  them  fishers  of  men.'    For  tiiis  invitation 
they  had  been  prepared  by  the  preaching  of  John 
the  Baptist,  and  they  accepted  it  without  hesitation* 
For  the  incidente  recorded  of  P.'s  life  as  a  disciple^ 
we  must  refer  to  the    gospel   narrative.      These 
incidente  all  chiefly  evince  a  warm  and  impulsive 
character,  even  down  to  the  hour  of  weakness  in 
which  he  denied  his  Master.      It  is  plain  from 
the    gospel   narrative  that  he  was    regarded   by 
our  Lord  with  special  favour  and  affection,  and 
the  evente  which  followed  the  ascension  of  our 
Lord  fall  in  with  this  inference  from  that  nar- 
rative.   He  was  the   first  mover  of  the  election 

4tf 


PETER— PETER-PENCE. 


of  a  new  apostle  in  the  room  of  Judas  Iscariot; 
he  was  the  spokesman  of  the  rest  on  the  day  of 
Pentecost ;  he  it  was  who  answered  to  the  charges 
when  they  were  brought  before  the  council;  ne 
is  the  chief  actor  in  the  tragic  scene  of  the  death 
of  Ananias  and  Sapphira ;  he  was  the  first  to 
break  down  the  wait  of  the  prejudice  of  race  by 
receiving  a  Gentile  convert  into  the  church ;  he 
was  the  first  to  propound  in  the  council  of 
Jerusalem  the  question  to  be  discussed  as  to 
the  obligation  of  tlie  Mosaic  observances.  The 
last  incident  of  P.*s  life  supplied  by  the  Scrip- 
.ture  narrative  is  his  presence  in  the  council  of 
Jerusalem,  49  A.D.  Oi  his  subsequent  career,  our 
only  knowledge  is  derived  from  tradition.  His 
special  mission  was  to  the  Hebrew  race,  as  Paul's 
to  the  Gentile ;  and  he  is  supposed  to  have  preached 
through  Pontus,  Galatia,  Cappadocia,  Asia,  and 
Bithynia,  chiefly  to  those  of  ins  own  nation  dis- 
persed in  these  countries,  all  which  are  named 
m  the  address  of  the  first  of  the  two  Epistles 
which  he  has  left  Another  tradition  which,  until 
the  16th  c,  met  general  accei)tance,  reports  that  he 
preached  at  Rome,  that  he  took  up  his  residence 
there  as  bishop,  and  that  he  there  suffered  martyr- 
dom. This  tradition  is  the  main  foundation  of  the 
Roman  claim  to  supremacy  in  the  church.  It  early 
encountered  the  opposition  of  the  reformers;  its 
first  antagonist  bein.a  a  writer  named  Velerius, 
whose  work  was  pu]>lishe<l  in  1520,  and  who  was 
followed  by  Flacniius,  Salmasius,  and,  above  aU, 
Spanheim.  This  view  lias  found  a  few  supporters 
even  down  to  our  own  time ;  but  the  whole  current 
of  scholarahip,  Protestant  as  well  as  Catholic — from 
Scaligcr,  Casaubon,  Usher,  Pearson,  Cave,  &c., 
down  to  Neander,  Gieseler,  Bertholdt,  Olshausen, 
and  others  in  our  own  country — has  accepted 
the  Roman  tradition  without  hesitation.  The  time 
of  his  going  to  Rome  has  also  been  the  subject  of 
much  discussion.  By  some,  he  is  alleged  not  to 
have  gone  to  Rome  tul  the  year  63,  or,  at  all  events, 
a  short  time  before  his  martyrdom ;  others  date  his 
first  visit  as  early  as  42  or  43,  without,  however, 
8up])08ing  his  residence  after  this  date  to  have  been 
continuous.  In  his  first  Epistle,  it  is  implied  that 
at  the  time  of  writing  it  he  was  at  Babylon ;  and 
the  name  Babylon  is  by  many  critics  held  to  be 
employed  as  a  mystic  designation  of  Rome,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  practice  not  unusual  with  the  Hebrews 
and  other  orientals ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  fix  very 
conclusively  the  date  of  this  Epistle.  He  is  held  by 
Roman  Catholic  writers  to  have  fixed  his  see  at 
Antioch  before  his  coming  to  Rome ;  but  of  this 
supposed  event  also,  the  date  is  uncertain.  His 
martyrdom  is  fixed  in,  with  much  probability,  the 
year  66,  and  is  supposed  to  have  been  at  the  same 
time  and  place  with  that  of  St  PauL  P.  was  sen- 
tenced to  be  crucified,  and,  according  to  the  tradition 
(preserved  by  Eusebius  from  Origen),  prayed  that 
he  might  be  crucified  with  his  head  downwards, 
in  order  that  his  death  might  exceed  in  ignominy 
that  of  his  Divine  Master. 

PETER,  EpiOTLiES  Genbral  of,  the  name  given 
to  two  E})istles  contained  in  the  canon  of  the  New 
Testament.  They  are  called  general^  because  they 
are  not  addressed  to  particular  churches  or  persons, 
like  those  of  St  Paul  ;  but  (as  in  the  case  of  the 
Ist  Epistle)  to  all  the  Christians  scattered  throughout 
Asia  3linor,  or  (as  in  the  case  of  the  2d)  to  the 
entire  body  of  Christians  without  exception.  The 
objects  of  the  1st  Epistle  are  to  strengthen  believers 
under  trials ;  to  exhort  them  to  the  earnest  perform- 
ance of  all  duties — personal,  social,  and  domestic ; 
and  to  demonstrate  how  thoroughly  that  performance 
depends  on  a  spiritual  recognition  of  Christ  and  his 
work.     There  is  a  strong  eschatological  tendency 


in  the  Epistle ;  the  apostle  seems  to  grow  more 
intensely  serious,  under  the  conviction  that  *  the  end 
of  all  tilings  is  at  hand*  (chap.  iv.  7).  That  the 
Epistle  is  the  composition  of  Peter  is  very  gener- 
ally admitted.  The  external  evidence  is  sin^larly 
strong;  while  the  internal,  derived  from  a  con- 
sideration of  style,  sentiment,  and  doctrine,  is  equally 
so.  We  see  in  every  sentence  the  ardent,  impas- 
sioned, practical,  unspeculative  character  of  Peter, 
who  held  with  a  fine  Hebraic  vehemence  of  faith 
the  great  facts  and  principles  of  Christianity,  but 
could  not,  like  the  more  subtle  and  logical  Paul, 
give  them  a  systematic  representation.  Many 
critics  have  warmly  praised  the  beauty  and  strength 
of  the  language. — The  Second  EpisUe  stands  in  a 
very  different  ^ition  from  the  first.  So  far  as 
external  authonty  is  concerned,  it  has  hardly  any. 
The  most  critical  and  competent  of  the  Fathers 
were  suspicious  of  its  authenticity ;  it  was  rarely 
if  ever  quoted,  and  was  not  formally  admitted  into 
the  canon  till  the  Council  of  Hippo,  393  a.  d.  The 
internal  evidence  is  just  as  unsatisfactory.  The 
great  difference  of  style  between  it  and  the  Ist 
Epistle  is  universally  ailmitted.  Bunsen,  Ullmtann, 
and  Lange  hold  indeed  that  the  second  chapter  is 
an  interpolation,  but  consider  the  first  and  third 
genuine.  Many  of  the  ablest  critics,  however,  regard 
the  whole  Epistle  as  a  fabrication,  and  believe  that 
its  contents  prove  it  was  meant  as  an  attack  on 
the  Gnosticism  of  the  2d  century.  [See  the  remarks 
on  the  Second  Epistle  of  Peter  in  Neander's  Gff&- 
chkJUe  der  Pflanzung  tind  Leitung  der  Kirch*  dvreh 
die  AposteL]  The  principal  arguments  adduced  for 
maintaining  its  apostolic  character  are— 1»  that  its 
rejection  would  endanger  the  authority  of  the 
canon ;  2,  that  it  is  inexplicable  how  the  church 
should  have  received  it  if  it  had  not  thought  that 
Peter  was  the  author. 

PETER  LOMBARD.    See  Lombard,  Peter. 

PETER-PENCE,  the  name  given  to  a  tribute 
which  was  collected  in  several  of  the  western  king- 
doms, and  offered  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  in  reverence 
of  the  memory  of  St  Peter,  of  whom  that  bishop 
was  believed  to  be  the  successor.  From  an  early 
period,  the  Roman  see  had  been  richly  endowed; 
and  although  its  first  endowments  were  chiefly  local, 
yet  as  early  as  the  days  of  Gregory  the  Great,  large 
estates  were  held  by  the  Roman  bishops  in  Cam- 
pania, in  Calabria,  and  even  in  the  island  of  Sicily. 
The  first  idea,  however,  of  an  annual  tribute  appears 
to  have  come  from  England,  and  is  by  some  ascribed 
to  Ina  (721  A.D.),  king  of  the  Weert  Saxons,  who 
went  as  a  pilgrim  to  Kome,  and  there  founded  a 
hospice  for  Anglo-Saxon  pilgrims,  to  be  maintained 
by  an  annual  contribution  from  England ;  by  others, 
to  Offa  and  Ethelwulf,  at  least  in  tne  sense  of  their 
having  extended  it  to  the  entire  of  the  Saxon 
territory.  But  this  seems  very  uncertain;  and 
although  the  usage  was  certainly  lon^  anterior 
to  the  Norman  Conquest,  Dr  lingard  is  disposed 
not  to  place  it  higher  than  the  time  of  Alfred. 
The  tribute  consisted  in  the  payment  of  a  silver 
penny  by  every  family  possessing  land  or  cattle 
of  the  yearly  value  of  30  pence,  and  was  collectt^d 
in  the  five  weeks  between  St  Peter's  and  St  Paul's 
Day  and  August  1.  In  the  time  of  King  John,  the 
total  annual  payment  was  £199,  S&,  contributed 
by  the  several  dioceses  in  ])roportion,  which  will  be 
found  in  Lingard*s  History  of  England^  vol  iL  p.  330. 
The  tax  called  Romescot,  with  some  variation,  con- 
tinued to  be  paid  till  the  reign  of  Heniy  VIIL, 
when  it  was  abolished.  By  Gregory  VIL,  it  wm 
sought  to  establish  it  for  France ;  and  other  partial 
or  transient  tributes  are  recorded  from  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway,  and  Poland.    This  tribute^ 


PETER  THE  HERMIT— PETER  THE  CRUEL. 


however,  la  quite  diiferent  from  the  payments  made 
aonually  to  Rome  by  the  kingdoms  which  were 
held  to  be  feudatory  to  the  Roman  see — as  Naples, 
Aragon,  England  under  the  reign  of  John,  and 
oeveral  other  kingdoms,  at  least  for  a  time. 

The  pope  having  suffered  a  considerable  diminu* 
Hon  of  ms  own  revenue  since  the  revolution  of  1848, 
an  effort  has  been  made  in  several  parts  of  Europe 
to  revive  this  tribute.  In  some  countries,  it  has 
been  very  successful,  and  the  proceeds  have  been 
among  the  chief  of  the  resources  by  which  Pins  IX. 
has  been  enabled  to  meet  the  pressure  of  pecuniary 
embarrassments  under  which,  with  his  diminished 
territorial  possessions,  it  was  supposed  that  he  must 
necessarily  have  succumbed. 

PETER  THE  HERMIT,  the  first  mover  of  the 
great  medieval  drama  of  the  Cbusades  (q.  v.),  was 
of  gentle  birth,  and  a  native  of  Amiens,  where  he 
was  bom  about  the  middle  of  the  Uth  century. 
Having  been  educated  at  Paris,  and  afterwards  m 
Italy,  he  became  a  soldier.  After  serving  in  Flanders 
without  much  distinction,  he  retired  from  the  army, 
married,  and  had  several  children ;  but  on  the  death 
of  his  wife,  he  became  a  monk,  and  ultimately 
a  hermit.  In  the  course  of  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy 
Land  about  1093,  he  was  moved  by  observing  that 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Inlidel,  as  well  as  by  the  oppressed  condition  of  the 
Christian  residents  or  pilgrims  under  the  Moslem 
rule;  and  on  his  return,  spoke  so  earnestly  on  the 
subject  to  Pope  Qrban  II.,  that  that  pontiff  warmlv 
adopted  his  views,  and  commissioned  him  to  preach 
throughout  the  West  an  armed  confederation  of 
Christians  for  the  deliverance  of  the  Holy  City. 
Mean  in  figure,  and  diminutive  in  stature,  his  enthu- 
siasm lent  him  a  power  which  no  external  advant- 
ages of  form  could  have  commanded.  *  He  traversed 
Italy,'  writes  the  historian  of  Latin  Christianity, 
•  crossed  the  Alps,  from  province  to  province,  from 
city  to  city.  He  rode  on  a  mule,  with  a  crucifix  in 
his  hand,  his  head  and  feet  bare ;  his  dress  was  a 
long  robe,  girt  with  a  cord,  and  a  hermit's  cloak  of 
the  Qoarsest  stuffl  He  preached  in  the  pulpits,  on 
the  roads,  in  the  market-places.  His  eloquence  was 
that  which  stirs  the  heart  of  the  people,  K)r  it  came 
from  his  own — ^brief,  figurative,  full  of  bold  apos- 
trophes ;  it  was  mingled  with  his  own  tears,  with 
his  own  groans  ;  he  beat  his  breast :  the  contagion 
spread  throughout  lus  audience.  His  preaching 
appealed  to  every  passion — to  valour  and  shame,  to 
indignation  and  pity,  to  the  pride  of  the  warrior,  to 
the  compassion  of  the  man,  the  religion  of  the 
Christian,  to  the  love  of  the  brethren,  to  the  hatred 
of  the  unbeliever  aggravated  by  his  insulting  tyranny, 
to  reverence  for  the  Redeemer  and  the  saints,  to  the 
desire  of  expiating  sin,  to  the  hope  of  eternal  life.' 
The  results  are  well  known,  as  among  those  moral 
marvels  of  enthusiasm  of  which  history  presents 
occasional  examples.  All  France,  especially,  was 
stirred  from  its  very  depths ;  and  just  at  the  time 
when  the  enthusiasm  of  that  country  had  been 
already  kindled  to  its  full  fervour,  it  received  a 
sacretlness  and  an  authority  from  the  decree  of  a 
council  held  at  Clermont,  in  which  Urban  himself 
was  present,  and  in  which  his  celebrated  harangue 
was  but  the  signal  for  the  outpouring,  through 
all  Western  Christendom,  of  the  same  chivalrous 
emotions  by  which  France  had  been  borne  away 
nnder  the  rude  eloquence  of  the  Hermit.  For  the 
details  of  the  expedition,  we  must  refer  to  the 
article  Crusades;  our  sole  present  concern  being 
with  the  personal  history  of  Peter.  Of  the  enor- 
mous  but  undisciplined  army  which  assembled  from 
all  parts  of  Europe,  one  portion  was  committed  to 
his  conduct ;  the  other  being  under  the  command  of 
ft  f&r  more  skilful  leader,  Walter  the  Pennyless.    P. 


placed  himself  at  their  head,  mounted  upon  his  aas, 
with  his  coarse  woollen  mantle  and  his  rude  sandala. 
On  the  march  through  Hungary,  they  became 
involved  in  hostilities  with  the  Hungarians,  and 
suffered  a  severe  defeat  at  Semlin,  whence  they 
proceeded  with  much  difficulty  to  Constantinople. 
There  the  Emperor  Alexis,  filled  with  dismay  at 
the  want  of  discipline  which  they  exhibited,  was 
but  too  happy  to  give  them  supplies  for  their  onward 
march  ;  ana  near  Nice,  they  encountered  the  army 
of  the  Sultan  Solynian,  from  whom  they  suffered  a 
terrible  defeats  P.  accompanied  the  subsequent 
expedition  under  Godfrey ;  but  worn  out  by  the 
delays  and  difficulties  of  the  siege  of  Antioch,  he 
was  about  to  withdraw  from  the  expedition,  and 
was  only  retained  in  it  by  the  influence  of  the  other 
leaders,  who  foresaw  the  worst  results  from  his 
departure.  Accordinj^ly,  he  had  a  share,  although 
not  marked  by  any  smnal  distinction,  in  the  siege 
and  capture  of  the  Holy  City  in  1099,  and  the 
closing  incident  of  his  history  as  a  crusader  was  an 
address  to  the  victorious  army  delivered  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  He  returned  to  Europe,  and 
foimded  a  monastery  at  Huy,  in  the  diocese  of 
Liege.     In  this  monastery,  he  died,  Julyl^,  1115. 

PETER  (DDK  Pedro)  THE  CRUEL,  King  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  was  the  son  of  Alfonso  XI.  and 
Maria  of  Portugal,  and  was  born  at  Burgos,  30th 
August  1334.  On  his  father's  death  (1350),  P. 
succeeded  to  the  throne  without  opposition,  but  left 
the  whole  exercise  of  power  to  his  mother,  Donna 
Maria,  and  Albuerqne,  his  father's  prime  minister 
and  chancellor.  But  by  the  instigation  of  his 
mistress  (afterwards  his  queen),  Marie  de  PadiUa, 
P.  emancipated  himself  (1353)  from  the  guidance 
of  the  queen-mother  and  her  coadjutor  Albiierque, 
taking  the  reins  of  government  in  his  own  hands. 
His  rule  being  much  more  impartial  than  that  of 
the  regency,  obtained  exceeding  popularity,  which 
was  increased  by  his  affable  manner  towards  the 
mass  of  his  subjects ;  but  the  strict  justice  with 
which  he  decided  all  causes  between  the  rich  and 

Eoor,  the  clergy  and  the  laity,  combined  with  a 
aughty  and  imperious  carriage  towards  them, 
alienated  from  him  the  nobles  and  cler<;y.  The 
plottings  of  Albuerqne,  who  had  fled  to  Portugal, 
Laving  culminated  (1354)  in  an  outbreak  in  the 
province  of  Estremadura,  P.  marched  against  the 
rebels,  but  was  betrayed  by  his  brotlier,  Henry  of 
Trastamare,  and  taken  prisoner  (December  1354). 
Popular  opinion  now  declared  loudly  in  his  favour ; 
ana  having  escaped  from  prison,  he  found  himself 
speedily  at  the  head  of  a  powerful  army,  with  which, 
despite  the  excommunication  of  the  pope,  he  speedily 
reduced  his  opponents  to  submission.  But  this 
episode  in  his  career  had  a  disastrous  influence  on 
his  character  for  the  rest  of  his  life.  Betrayed  by 
his  relatives,  and  even  by  his  mother,  he  became 
suspicious  of  every  one ;  and  ha^ang  experienced  to 
the  full  the  power  of  his  enemies,  ne  scrupled  not 
as  to  the  weapons  to  be  employed  against  them. 
The  rest  of  his  reign  was  devoted  to  the  destruction 
of  the  power  of  the  great  vassals,  the  establishment 
of  his  own  authority  on  the  ruins  of  their  feudal 
tvranny,  and  long  continued  and  bloody  wars  with 
the  kingdoms  of  Aragon  and  Granada.  As  the 
people,  howler,  were  in  general  well  and  justly 
governed,  it  is  not  improbable  that  he  might 
have  retained  his  throne  in  spite  of  his  numerous 
enemies,  had  not  the  heavy  taxes  which  were 
imposed  to  maintain  the  cost  of  his  long  wars 
with  Aragon  and  Granada  dissipated  his  popu- 
larity. Henry,  who  had  fled  to  France,  now  seizing 
the  favourable  opportunity,  returned  (1366)  at 
the  head  of  a  body  of  exiles,  backed  by  Bertrand 
du  Guesclin  (q.  v.)  with  an  army  of  mercenaries^ 


PETER  L 


and  aickd  hy  Ara^n,  France,  and  the  pope.  P., 
however,  by  promising  to  England  the  sea-board 
of  Biscay,  with  the  provinces  of  Guipuzcoa  and 
LoffTono,  and  supplying  a  contribution  of  56,000 
flonns,  prevailed  upon  Edward  the  Black  Prince 
to  espouse  his  cause.  Edward  invaded  Castile  in 
the  sprint  of  1367,  totally  defeated  Henry  and 
Bu  Guesdin  at  Navarette  (Apiil),  taking  the  latter 
prisoner  (releasing  him  almost  immediately  after), 
and  speedily  restoring  P.  to  the  throne.  But  the 
king  disgusted  his  chivalrous  ally  by  his  cruelty  to 
the  vanquished,  and  paid  no  heed  to  his  remon- 
strances ;  Edward  accordingly  repassed  the  Pyrenees, 
and  left  the  misguided  monarch  to  his  fate.  The 
whole  kingdom  groaned  under  his  cruelties  ;  rebel- 
lions broke  out  everywhere ;  and,  in  autumn  1367, 
Hen  IT  returned  with  400  lances,  the  people  imme- 
diately flocking  to  his  standard.  P.'s  scanty  and 
ill-disciplined  forces  were  routed  at  Montid  (14th 
March  1369),  and  himself  compelled  to  retire  for 
safety  within  the  town,  whence  he  was  treach- 
erously decoyed  and  captured  by  Du  Guesclin. 
He  was  carried  to  a  tent,  where  a  single  combat 
took  place  between  him  and  Henry,  in  which  the 
latter  wouUl  have  been  slain,  had  not  some  of  his 
followers  come  to  his  aid,  and  slain  the  unfortunate 
P.,  23d  March  1369. 

PETER  I.,  ALEXIEVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia, 
generally  denominated  Peter  the  Great,  was  the 
son  of  the  Czar  Alezei  Mikailovitch  by  his  second 
wife,  Natalia  Naryskine,  and  was  bom  at  Moscow, 
9th  June  1672.  His  father,  Alexei,  died  in  1676, 
leaving  the  throne  to  his  eldest  son,  Feodor,  P.'s 
half-brother.  This  prince,  however,  died  in  1682 
without  issue,  after  naming  P.  as  his  successor,  to  the 
exclusion  of  his  own  full  brother,  Ivan.  This  step 
immediately  provoked  an  insurrection,  fomented  by 
the  children  of  the  Czar  Alexei's  first  marriage,  the 
most  prominent  among  whom  was  the  grand-duchess 
Sophia,  a  woman  of  great  ability  and  energy,  but  of 
unbounded  ambition.  Disdaining  the  seclusion 
customary  among  the  females  of  uie  royal  family, 
she  shewed  herself  to  the  Strditz  (q.v.),  excited  them 
to  fury  by  an  ingenious  story  of  the  assa:ssination  of 
her  brother  Ivan,  and  then  let  them  loose  on  the 
supporters  of  P.'s  claims.  After  a  carnage  of  three 
days,  during  which  more  than  sixty  members  of  the 
most  noble  families  of  Russia  were  massacred,  she 
succeeded  in  obtaining  the  coronation  (July  1682)  of 
Ivan  and  P.  as  joint  rulers,  and  her  own  appoint- 
ment as  regent.  Up  to  P.'s  coronation  his  educa- 
tion had  l^en  greatly  neglected,  but  after  this 
time  he  became  ac^uamted  with  Lieutenant  Franz 
Timmerman,  a  native  of  Strasbur^,  who  gave  him 
lessons  in  the  military  art  and  in  mathematics; 
after  which  he  had  the  good  fortune  to  fall  under 
the  guidance  of  Lefort  (q.  v.),  a  Genoese,  who 
initiated  him  into  the  sciences  and  arts  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  by  shewing  him  how  much  Muscovy  was 
in  these  respects  behind  the  rest  of  Europe,  influenced 
the  whole  of  his  future  career.  Lefort  also  formed 
a  small  military  company  out  of  the  young  men 
of  noble  family  who  attended  P.,  and  caused  P. 
himself  to  pass,  by  regular  steps,  from  the  lowest 
(that  of  drummer)  to  the  highest  grade  in  it,  renderw 
ing  him  all  the  while  amenable  to  strict  discipline. 
Tms  conrse  of  training,  in  all  probability,  saved  P. 
from  becoming  the  mere  savage  despot,  which  his 
brutal  and  passionate  disposition,  and  indomitable 
energy  inclined  him  to  be ;  it  also  protected  him  from 
the  jealousy  of  his  half-sister,  the  regent  Sophia,  who, 
seeing  him  absorbed  in  military  exercises  and  other 
studies,  imagined  that  he  had  wholly  given  himself 
up  to  amusement  She,  however,  soon  discovered 
her  error,  for  P.,  contrary  to  her  wishes,  married 
(February  1689),  by  his  mother's  advice,  Eudozia 


Feodorowna,  of  the  family  of  Lapoukin ;  and  in 
October  of  the  same  year,  called  upon  hia  sister  to 
resign  the  government.  In  the  ensuing  contest, 
P.  was  at  fust  worsted,  and  compelled  to  flee  for 
his  life ;  but  he  was  speedilv  joined  by  the  foreignen 
in  the  Russian  service,  with  a  Scotchman  named 
Patrick  Gordon  (q.  v.)  and  the  Swiss  Lefort  at 
their  head;  and  the  Strelitz,  who  were  his  antag- 
onist's mainstay,  flocking  to  his  standard,  she 
resigned  the  contest,  ana  was  shut  up  in  a  con- 
vent, whence,  till  her  death,  in  1704,  she  did  not 
cease  to  annoy  him  by  her  intrigues.  On  October 
11,  1689,  P.  made  his  public  entry  into  Moscow, 
where  he  was  met  by  Ivan,  to  whom  he  gave 
the  nominal  supremacy  and  precedence,  reserving 
the  sole  exercise  of  power  for  himself.  Ivan  only 
enjoyed  his  puppet  sovereignty  till  1696.  Though 
P.  was  all  his  Ufe  under  the  dominion  of  ungovern- 
able passions  and  sensual  habits,  yet  during  great 
part  of  his  reign  he  was  so  exclusively  engag^  in 
projecting  and  carrying  out  his  schemes  for  the 
regeneration  of  Kussia^  that  his  ^oss  animal  nature 
had  little  opportunity  of  displaying  itself. 

His  first  care,  on  assuming  the  government,  was 
to  form  an  army  disciplined  according  to  European 
tactics,    in    which    labour  he    was   greatly   aided 
by  the  valuable  instructions  of  Gordon  and  Lefort, 
both  of  whom  were  military  men,  and  had  served 
in  some  of  the  best  disciplined  armies  of  Western 
Europe.      He    also  laboured   to   create    a    navy, 
both  armed  and  mercantile;  but  at  this    period 
Russia  presented  few  facilities  for  such  an  attempt, 
for  she  was  shut  out  from  the  Baltic  by  Sweden  and 
Poland   (the  former  of    whom  possessed  Finland, 
St  Petersburg  (then  called  Ingna),  and  the  Baltic 
provinces),  and  from  the  Black  Seok  by  Turkey,  which, 
extending  along  the  whole  of  the  north  coast,  had 
reduced  that  sea  to  the  rank  of  an  inland  lake; 
leaving  only  the  White  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
with  the  solitary  port  of  Archangel,  available  for 
the  Russian  navy.    P.  thinking  the  possession  of  a 
portion  of  the  Black  Sea  would  best  supply  the 
required  facilities  of  accessible  sea-board  and  port, 
decUred  war  against  Turkey,  and  took  (1696)  the 
oity  of  Azof  at  the  mouth  of  the  Don,  after  a  long 
siege,  which  the  ineffective  condition  of  his  newly- 
disciplined  army  compelled  him  to  convert  into  a 
blockada    Skilled  engineers,  architects,  and  artil- 
lerymen  were  now  invited  from  Austria,  Venice, 
Prussia,  and  Holland;  ships  were  constructed ;  the 
army  further  improved  both  in  arms  and  discipline ; 
and  many  of  the  young  nobility  ordered  to  travel  in 
foreign  countries,  chiefly  in  HoUand  and  Italy,  for 
the  purpose  of  acquiring  such  information  as  might 
be  useful  in  the  modernisation  and  civilisation  of 
tiieir  country.    They  were  ordered  to  take  special 
notice  of  all  matters  in  connection  with  ship-build- 
ing and  naval  equipments.    Others  were  sent  to 
Germany  to  stuay  the  military  art     Not   quite 
satisfied  with  this  arrangement,  P.  was  eager  to  see 
for  himself  the  countries  for  which  civilisation  had 
done  so  much,  and  which  had  so  highly  developed 
the  military  art,  science,  trade,  and  industrial  pur- 
suits ;  so  after  repressing  a  revolt  of  the  Strelitz 
(February  1697),  and  di^rsing  them  among  the 
various  provinces,  he  intrusted  uie  reins  of  govern- 
ment to  rrince  Romonadofski, assisted  by  a  council  of 
three,  and  left  Russia  in  April  1697,  in  the  train  of 
an  embassy  of  which  Lefort  was  the  head.      In  the 
guise  of  an  inferior  official  of  the  embassy  he  visited 
the  three  Baltic  provinces,  Prussia,  and  Hanover, 
reaching  Amsterdam,  where,  and  subsequently  at 
Saardam,  he  worked  for  some  time  as  a  common 
shipwright.     His  curiosity  was  excessive;   he  de- 
manded explanations  of  everything  which  he  did 
not  understand;  and  to  his  practice  of  ahip-bnildins 


PETER  I.— PETER  IL 


ftnd  kindred  trades,  lie  added  the  study  of  astronomy, 
natural  philosophy,  geography,  and  even  anatomy 
and  aureery.     On  receipt  of  an  invitation  from  Wil- 
liam III,  king  of  England,  he  visited  that  country, 
and  for  three  months,  spent  partly  in  London  and 
partly  at  Deptford,  laboured  to  amass  all  HDvts  of 
usefm  iuformatioiL    While  in  England  he  received 
the  honorary  degree  of  D.C.L.  from  the  university 
of  Oxfonl !    He  left  England  in  April  1698,  carrying 
with  him   English  engineers,  artificers,  surgeons, 
artiBADS,  artillerymen,  &c.,  to  the  number  of  500, 
and  next  visited  Vienna,  for  the  purpose  of  inspect- 
ing t^e  emperor  of  Austria's  army,  tnen  the  best  in 
Europe.    He  was  about  to  visit  Venice  also,  when 
the  news  of  a  formidable  rebellion  of  the  Strelitz 
recalled  him  to  Russia,  which  he  reached  by  way 
of  Poland,  arriving  at  Moscqw  4th  September  17981 
General  Gordon  had  already  crushed  the  revolt,  but 
these  turbulent  soldiers  had  so  enraged  P.  against 
them  by  their  frequent  outbreaks,  that  he  ordered 
the  whole  of  them  to  be  executed,  even  occasionally 
assisting  in  person  on  the  scaffold.    A  few,  however, 
were  pardoned,  and  sent  to  settle  at  Astrakhan.  The 
Czarina  Eudoxia,  who  was  suspected  of  complicity 
in  the  conspiracy,  which  had  been  the  work  of  the 
old  Kussiaa  or  anti-reform  party,  was  divorced,  and 
shut  up  in    a    convent;    the    czar's    own    sister, 
Martha,  was  likewise  compelled  to  take  the  veiL 
To  shew  his  gratitude  to  his  faithful  adherents, 
P.  conferred  upon  the  chief  of  them  the  Order  of  St 
Andrew,  now  first  instituted.      He  put  the  press 
on  a  proper  footing,  caused  translations  of  the  most 
celebrated  works  of  foreign  authors  to  be  made  and 
published,  and  established  naval  and  other  schools. 
At  this  period,  the  ordinary  arithmetic  was  first 
introduced  for  the  management  of  accounts,  these 
having  been   previously  kept  by   means  of  balls 
strung  on  a  wire  (the  Tartar  method).      P.  also 
introduced  the  mode  of  raising  revenue  b^  taxation 
of  commodities  in  common  use.     Trade  with  foreign 
countries,  which  was  formerly  punished  as  a  capital 
crime,  was  now  permitted,  or  rather,  in  the  case 
of  the  principal  merchants,  insisted  upon.      Many 
improvements    in    dress,    manners,   and    etiquette 
were  introduced  authoritatively  among  the  public 
functionaries,  and  recommended  to  the  people  at 
large.    Even  the  organisation  of  the  national  church 
coiud  not  escape  P.  s  reforming  zeal. 

In  1700,  P.,  desirous  of  gaining  possession  of 
Carelia  and  Ingria,  provinces  of  Sweden,  which  had 
formerly  belonged  to  Russia,  entered  into  an  alliance 
with  the  kings  of  Poland  and  Denmark  to  make  a 
combined  attack  on  Sweden,  taking  advantage  of 
the  tender  age  of  its  monarch.  Charles  XII. ;  but 
he  was  shamefully  defeated  at  Narva,  his  raw  troops 
being  wholly  unable  to  cope  with  the  Swedish 
veterans.  P.  was  by  no  means  disheartened,  for, 
taking  advantage  of  the  Swedes  being  employed 
elsewhere,  he  quietly  approj)riated  a  portion  of 
Ingria,  in  which  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  new 
capital,  St  Petersburg,  27th  May  1703.  Great 
inaucements  were  held  out  to  those  who  would 
reside  in  it,  and  in  a  few  years  it  became  the 
Kuasian  commercial  d^pdt  for  the  Baltic.  In  the 
long  contest  with  Sweden,  the  Russians  were  almost 
always  defeated,  but  P.  rather  rejoiced  at  this,  as  he 
saw  that  these  reverses  were  administering  to  his 
tny)ps  a  more  lasting  and  effective  discipline  than  he 
could  have  hoped  to  give  them  in  any  other  way. 
He  had  his  revenge  at  last,  in  totally  routing  the 
Swedish  king  at  Poltava  (q.  v.),  8th  July  1709,  and 
in  seizing  the  whole  of  the  Baltic  provinces  and  a 
portion  of  Finland  in  the  following  year.  His  suc- 
cess against  Sweden  helped  much, to  consolidate  his 
empire,  and  to  render  his  subjects  more  favourably 
disposed  towards  the  new  order  of  things.  After 
Ml 


re-o^^anising  his  army,  he  prepared  for  strife  with 
the  Turks,  who,  at  the  instigation  of  Charles  XIL 
(then  residing  at  Bender),  had  declared  war  against 
hiuL  See  Ottomak  Empirb.  In  this  contest,  P. 
was  reduced  to  such  straits  that  he  despaired  o^ 
escape,  and,  looking  forward  to  death  or  captivity, 
wrote  a  letter  to  his  chief  nobles,  cautioning  them 
against  obeying  any  orders  he  might  ^ive  them  while 
a  captive,  and  advising  them  regarding  a  successor 
to  the  throne  in  case  of  his  deatL  But  the  finesse 
and  ability  of  his  mistress,  Catharine,  afterwards 
his  wife  and  successor  (see  Catharine  I.),  extri- 
cated him  from  his  difficulties;  and  a  treaty  was 
concluded  (23d  July  1711)  by  which  Peter  lost  only 
his  previous  conquest — the  port  of  Azof  and  the 
territory  belonging  to  it.  Shut  out  from  the  Black 
Sea,  the  possession  of  a  good  sea-board  on  the 
Baltic  became  the  more  necessary  to  him,  and  the 
war  against  Sweden  in  Pomerania  was  accordinglv 
pushed  on  with  the  utmost  vigour.  On  2d  March 
1712,  his  marriage  with  his  mistress,  Catharine, 
was  celebrated  at  St  Petersburg ;  and  two  months 
afterwards,  the  offices  of  the  central  government 
were  transferred  to  the  new  capit(d.  His  arms  in 
Pomerania  and  Finland  were  crowned  with  success, 
and  in  1713  the  latter  province  was  completely 
subdued.  P.  neglected  nothing  to  develop  the  naval 
power  of  the  empire,  and  the  strictness  with  which 
ne  enforced  the  discharge  of  their  duties  on  his 
ministers  and  officers,  appears  from  the  refusal,  by 
the  court  of  admiralty,  of  the  czar's  own  appUca- 
tion  for  the  grade  of  vice-admiral,  until  by  defeating 
the  Swedish  fleet  at  Hangoend,  and  taking  the 
Aland  Isles,  and  several  coast-forts  in  Finland,  he 
had  merited  the  honour.  In  the  end  of  1716,  and 
beginning  of  1717,  in  company  with  the  czarina,  he 
m^e  another  tour  of  Europe,  this  time  visiting  Paiis, 
where  he  was  received  with  great  empressement, 
and  returned  to  Russia  in  October  1717,  carrying 
with  him  books,  paintings,  statues,  &c.,  to  a  large 
amount.  It  was  soon  after  this  time  that  he  ordered 
his  son  Alexei  (q.  v.)  to  be  executed,  and  many  of 
the  nobles  who  had  been  implicated  in  his  treason- 
able plans  were  punished  with  savage  barbarity.  In 
1721  peace  was  made  with  Sweden,  and  on  condi- 
tion of  that  power  giving  up  the  Baltic  provinces, 
Ineria  (now  government  of  St  Petersburg),  Viborg, 
and  Kexholm,  and  a  small  portion  of  Finland,  wiui 
dll  the  islands  along  the  coast  from  Coiirlaud  to 
Viborg,  she  received  back  the  rest  of  Finland,  with 
a  sum  of  £400,000.  In  1722  P.  commenced  a  war 
with  Persia,  in  order  to  open  up  the  Caspian  Sea 
to  Russian  commerce  (see  Persia).  The  internal 
troubles  of  Persia  comi)el]ed  the  shah  to  yield  to 
the  demands  of  his  formidable  opponent,  and  to 
hand  over  the  three  Caspian  provinces  along  with 
the  towns  of  Derbend  and  Baku.  On  P.'s  return  to 
his  capita],  he  inquired  into  the  conduct  of  his 
finance  ministers,  and  punished  with  fines,  imprison- 
ment, and  even  death,  those  whom  he  detected  in 
fraudulent  acts.  To  save  the  empire  which  he  had 
established  and  constituted  from  being  abandoned  to 
the  weak  government  of  a  minor,  he,  in  February 
1722,  promulgated  his  celebrated  law  of  succession 
(see  Peter  11.  )•  For  the  last  years  of  his  life  he 
was  chiefly  engaged  in  beautifying  and  improving 
his  new  capital,  and  carrying  out  plans  for  the  mi  re 
general  ditiusion  of  knowledge  and  education  among 
his  subjects.  In  the  autumn  of  1724  he  was  seized 
with  a  serious  illness,  the  result  of  his  imprudence- 
and  now  habitual  excesses ;  and  after  enduring 
much  agony,  he  expired,  8th  February  1725,  in  the 
arms  of  the  empress. 

PETER  II.,  ALEXEIVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia,, 
was  the  sole  male  representative  of  Peter  the 
Great,  being  the  son  of  the  unfortunate  Alexei  (see 

449 


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PETER  in.— PETERBOROUGH. 


Peter  L)  by  his  wife  the  Princess  Charlotte  of 
Brunswick' Wolfenbuttel,  and  was  bom  23(1  Octo- 
ber 1715  at  St  Petersburg.  On  the  death  of  the 
Czarina  Catharine  L,  he  ascended  the  throne,  May 
17,  1727,  in  accordance  with  a  decree  of  Peter 
the  Great,  which  enjoined  that  each  czar  should 
name  his  successor ;  and  the  ambitious  Menchikof^ 
who  hoped  to  govern  more  easily  in  the  name  of  a 
minor,  prompt^  the  empress  to  choose  P.  In  order 
to  secure  himself  in  his  hi^h  position,  Menchikoff 
affianced  one  of  his  daughters  to  the  youthful 
czar,  and  comi)eIIed  his  relative,  Anniv  Petrowna, 
and  her  husband,  the  Duke  of  llolstein,  to  retire  to 
their  own  estates.  But,  notwithstanding  these  and 
other  precautions,  his  power  was  overturned  by  a 
mere  child,  a  playfellow  of  the  boy-ruler,  who  was 
of  the  powerful  family  of  BolgoroukL  Instigated 
by  his  friends,  this  boy,  Ivan  Dolgorouki,  opened 
the  eyes,  of  his  sovereign  to  the  humiliating  depen- 
dence in  which  he  was  held  by  Menchikoff,  and 
inspired  him  with  a  stronc  desire  to  free  himself. 
The  plan  succeeded,  and  the  minister  and  his 
family  were  exiled  to  Siberia,  the  Dolgorouki  family 
taking  their  place  as  favourites.  The  marriage  of  a 
lady  of  this  family  with  P.  had  been  arranged,  and 
was  almost  on  the  point  of  being  celebrated,  when 
he  was  seized  with  small-pox,  and  died  at  St 
Petersburg,  January  29,  1730.  During  his  reign, 
the  three  Caspian  provinces,  Asterabad,  Ghilan,  and 
Mazanderan,  whicn  had  been  seized  by  Peter  the 
Great,  were  recovered  by  Persia. 

PETER  III.  FEODOROVITCH,  Czar  of  Russia, 
grandson  of  Peter  the  Great  (being  the  son  of  his 
eldest  daughter  Anna  Petrowna,  wife  of  Karl 
Friedrich,  Duke  of  Holstein-Gottorp),  was  bom  at 
Kiel,  March  4,  1728,  and  on  November  18,  1742, 
was  declared  by  the  czarina  Elizabeth  (q.  v.),  her 
successor  on  the  throne  of  Russia.  From  the  time 
of  his  being  publicly  proclaimed  heir,  be  lived  at 
the  Russian  court ;  and,  in  obedience  to  the  wishes 
of  the  czarina,  married  Sophia- Augusta,  a  princess  of 
Anhalt-Zerbst,  who,  on  entering  the  Greek  Church 
(a  necessary  condition  of  marriage  of  a  foreigner 
with  the  czar  present  or  presumptive),  assumed  the 
name  of  Catharina  Alexiowna.  r.  succeeded  Eliza- 
beth on  her  death,  June  5,  1762 ;  and  his  first  act 
of  authority  was  to  withdraw  from  the  confederate 
league  of  France,  Austria,  and  Russia  against 
Prussia,  restoring  to  the  heroic  monarch  of  the 
latter  kingdom,  Frederic  II.,  the  provinces  of 
Prussia  Proper,  which  had  been  conquered  during 
the  Seven  Years*  War,  and  bending  to  his  aid  a  force 
of  15,000  men;  a  line  of  conduct  which  seems  to 
have  been  prompted  solely  by  his  admiration  for 
the  Prussian  soverei^  He  also  recalled  many  of 
the  political  exiles  from  Siberia,  among  whom  were 
UEstocq,  Munnich,  and  the  Duke  of  Courland; 
abolished  the  sanguinary  law  which  proscribed  any 
one  who  should  utter  a  word  against  the  Greek 
church,  the  czar,  or  the  government;  and  then 
attempted  the  realisation  of  his  favourite  project, 
which  was  to  recover  from  Denmark  that  portion 
of  Slesvig  which  had  been  ceded  to  her  in  1713, 
and  to  avenge  the  tyranny  and  annoyances  to  which 
lus  family — that  of  Holstein-Gottorp— had  been 
.  subjected.  But  before  the  army  he  had  despatched 
could  reach  its  destination,  a  formidable  conspiracy, 
headed  by  lus  wife,  and  supported  by  the  principal 
nobles,  had  broken  out  aigainst  him.  This  con- 
apiracy  originated  in  the  general  discontent  which 
was  felt  at  the  czar's  conduct  and  government ;  fur 
the  nobility  were  offended  at  his  liberal  innovations, 
and  the  preference  he  shewed  for  Germans ;  the 
people  and  clergy,  at  his  indifference  to  the  national 
religion,  and  his  ill-concealed  contempt  for  Russian 

nmnners   and  customs:    while   the  whole  nation 
460 


murmured  at  his  servility  to  Frederic  II.  of  Praasis. 
His  wife  had  still  deeper  cause  for  dislike;  for 
though  he  was  himself  addicted  to  drunkenness  and 
debauchery,  he  never  ceased  to  reproach  her  with 
her  infidelities,  and  had  even  planned  to  divorce 
her,  disinherit  her  son  Paul  (q.  v.),  and  elevate 
his  mistress  Elizabeth  Woronzof  to  the  conjugal 
throne.  The  revolution  broke  out  on  the  night  of 
the  8th  July  1762 ;  P.  was  declared  to  have  fo^ 
feited  his  crown,  and  his  wife  Catharine  was  pro- 
claimed czarina  as  Catharine  II.  (q.  v.)  by  the 
Guards,  the  clergy,  and  the  nobility.  P.,  who  was 
then  at  Oranienbaum,  neglecting  the  counsels  of 
Fi^ld-marshal  Munnich,  who  proposed  to  maidi  at 
once  on  the  capital  at  the  bead  of  the  regimentB 
which  were  still  faithful,  or  at  anyrate  to  ta^e  secure 
possession  of  Cronstadt  and  the  fleet,  soon  found 
even  the  opportuni^  of  flight  cut  off,  and  was  com- 
pelled to  submit  He  abdicated  the  crown  on  10th 
July,  and  on  the  14th  of  the  same  month  was  put 
to  death  by  Orlof  (q.  v.),  to  secure  the  safety  of  the 
conspirators. 

PE'TERBOROTJGH,  an  episcopal  city  and  pa^ 
liamentary  borough  of  Northamptonshire,  stands  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Nen — which  is  thus  far  navi- 
gable for  boats — 37  miles  north-east  of  Northamp- 
ton, and  76  mQes  north-north-west  of  London  by 
railway.  The  Great  Northern,  the  Eastern  Counties', 
the  Northampton  and  Peterborough,  and  the  Mid- 
land Counties*  railways  pass  the  city,  and  have 
stations  here.  P.  is  regularly  laid  out,  has  an 
excellent  grammar-school  with  an  endowment,  & 
corn-exchange  in  the  Italian  style,  a  jail  and  house 
of  correction,  a  handsome  parish-chiircb,  ami  a 
number  of  chapels  and  meeting-houses,  schools,  and 
charitable  institutions. 

But  the  great  edifice  of  P.  is  the  famous  cathe- 
dral, which  holds  a  high,  if  not  the  highest  rank 
among  English  cathedrals  of  the  second  class. 
The  choir  and  eastern  aisles  of  the  transept  (built 
1118 — 1133)  are  early  Norman;  the  transept  (1155 
— 1177)  is  middle  Norman;  the  nave  (1177— 
1193)  is  late  Norman  ;  the  western  transept  (dating 
from  the  same  period),  is  transition  Korman ; 
the  west  front,  which,  as  a  portico  (using  that  term 
in  its  classical  sense),  is  said  to  be  the  grandtrst 
and  finest  in  Europe,  is  early  English  ;  and  the 
eastern  aisle  (begun  in  1438,  but  not  complete 
till  1528),  is  Perpendicular.  The  beautafol  western 
front  consists  of  three  arches  81  feet  in  height, 
supported  by  triangular  piers  detached  from  the 
west  wall  Each  arch  is  surmounted  by  a  beantifol 
pediment  and  cross.  The  front  is  flanked  on  each 
side  with  turrets  156  feet  high,  and  crowned  with 
pinnacles.  The  roof  of  the  nave  ia  painted  is 
lozenge-shaped  divisions,  containing  figures  of  kings, 
bishops,  grotesques,  &c.,  in  ooloura  A  central  tower, 
lantern-shaped,  rises  at  the  intersection  of  the  nave 
and  transept.  In  the  north -choir  aisle,  a  slab  of 
blue  stone  still  covers  the  remains  of  Catharine  of 
Aragon.  On  the  stone  is  carved  the  simple  inscrip- 
tion, 'Queen  Catharine,  A.D.  1536.*  In  July  1587, 
the  remains  of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  were  brought 
here  from  Fotheringay  for  interment,  and  here  they 
rested  until,  twenty-five  years  after,  they  were 
removed  to  Westminster  Abbey.  The  entire  length 
of  the  cathedral  is  476  feet  5  inches ;  the  br^ad^  of 
nave  and  aisles,  78  feet ;  height  of  the  ceiling  of  xh& 
church,  78  feet ;  breadth  of  the  church  at  the  giesit 
transepts,  203  feet;  height  of  lantern,  135  feet; 
length  of  western  front,  156  feet ;  height  of  centnl 
tower  from  the  ground,  150  feetL 

P.  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  com,  ooaX,  timbv, 
lime,  bricks,  and  stone.  The  borough  retains  ti€o 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pop.  of  p»r 
liamentary  borough  (1861),  8672;  (1861),  I1,735L 


PETERBOEOUGH— PBEEE'S,  8T,  CHUECH. 

tty  bad  ita  origin  in  &  great  Benedictine    took  place  by  order  ol  the  uuwiitratai ;   tereral 

...     I — J..    ■-    i>^w    I-    n I!         -'' troopaof  horse,  incJudingthe  Mani3ieBtor  Yeomanry, 

beina  concerned  in  the  affair,  of  which  an  account 
will  tie  found  in  Hiatory  of  tht  Ftaee,  by  Harriet 
Martineau,  edition  of  1858,  p.  107.  Five  or  niz 
persons  were  killed  and  many  wounded.     St  PeteHi 


Thia  monaatery,  wbich  became  one  of  the 
lett  and  most  important  in  England,  waa 
in  honour  of  St  Peter;  but  it  was  not  uatii 
letng  destroyed  by  the   Danes  in  607,  and 

about  9116,  that  the  town  was  called  Peter- 
11  On  the  dissolation  of  the  monaateries, 
ai^tficent  edifice  was  e^iared,  owinc,  it  is 
.'<C  to  its  containing  the  remains  of  Queen 
ae  of  Ara^n. — Murray's   Maiidbook  to  the 

Cathfdrrd*. 

ERBOROUGH,  LoBDi  See  Mordaost. 
RRHBA'D,  a  seaport  and  muuicipal  and 
lentary  borough,  Alwrdeensbire,  stands  un  a 
ila,  the  most  eaaturu  point  of  land  in  Scot- 
t  milta  north' north-east  of  Alierdeen,  by  the 
<iirth  of  Sootiaaii  Railway.  It  is  irrejjularly 
I  clean,  and  ia  iiaved  in  many  cases  witb  the 
:  granite,  wbich  receives  ita  name  from  the 

A  Urge  portion  of  the  pariah,  and  the  supe- 
of  the  town  of  P.  formerly  belonged  to  the 
lal  family,  1713.  This  valuable  possession 
;  in  proceaa  of  time,  by  purchase  the  property 
aerohant  Maiden  Hosjntal  of  Edinburgh,  the 
irs  of  wbich  have  latterly  done  much  in  the 

im]>rovemeut  both  for  the  town  and  port 
Lains  no  very  striking  edifices.  Ita  parish 
has  a  granite  spire.  118  feet  in  hci^'ht.  and  a 

pillar  of  the  ruacan  order  stauus  ou  the 
-cross.     There  are  E].iscoi>ftl,  Free  Clinreh, 

Catholic,  and  other  chapels ;  an  ac.idemy 
,lier  schools,  and  two  hbrariua.  Keceutly, 
lad  wincey  manufactures  have  beei.   ictro- 

ship-buildinu  is  carried  on  t«  a  considerable 


herriugs,  coil -fish,  butter,  grain,  and  granite 
'   ' ,   and  lime,   wool,   and   Eeneral  mer- 
iinported.     P,  was  long  iai 


if  the  seal  and  whale -tiaheriea  in 
;  oat  within  rei-ent  years  the  fisheries  have 
enerally  unpnifitabte,  and  this  interest  has 
d.  In  1864  about  20  vessels,  a  larger  number 
lat  sent  out  by  any  oCber  British  port,  were 
ed  iu  the  different  branches  of  this  trade, 
aat- fisheries  are  fltdl  vi|;orously  prosecuted, 
the  season  a  fleet  of  3UU  herring-boats  put 
in  the  harbours  in  the  eveuin;{,  P.  ia  the 
tisbing- station  in  Scotland.  In  1363,  upwards 
K)  barrels  of  cured  herringa  were  exjKJrted  to 
itineut.     In  ISG-1, 1<IG4  v.^aaels  of  G8,S50  tons 

and  cleared  the  port.  The  two  harbours 
tect.vely  on  the  north  and  south  aide  of  the 
i  of  the  peninsula  on  which  the  town  is 
nd  a  passage  connecting  them  has  been  cut 
be  iatomuB,  so  that  vesaels  can  leave  harbour 
state  of  the  wind.  This  town  baa  often  been 
d    aa  a   Harbour  of  Refuge.     On  the  south 

the  bay  of  P.,  and  abiiut  2\  milts  from 
ro,  is  Buchannesa,  aud  near  it  arts  the  pic- 
le  ruina  of  Boddam  Castle.  loverugie  and 
craig  caatlca,  now  mere  niins,  are  finely 
1  on  the  banka  of  the  Ugie,  wbich  enters 
a  mile  north  of  the  town.  P.  unitea  with 
pn  (q.  V.)  boroughs  in  sending  a  member  to 
eat.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  norough  (1851) 
(1861),  7541. 

KRLOO  MASSACRE,  the  name  popnlariy 
o  the  dispenal  of  a  large  meeting  by  armed 
.  St  Peter's  Field,  Manclieatcr,  Monday,  July 
9l  The  lasemblage,  consistiug  chielly  of 
nf  operadvea  from  different  parts  of  Lanca- 
raa  called  to  consider  the  question  of  parlia- 
f  reform,  and  the  chair,  on  open  hustings. 
cupjed  by  Mr  Henry  Hunt.    The  disperaal 


Field  is  now  covered  by  buildings.      Peterloo  waa  a 
fanciful  term,  euggested  by  Waterloo. 

PETKB'S,  St.  CHURCH,  at  Rome,  U  the  largert 
cathedral  in  Chriatendom.  It  stands  on  the  site  of 
a  much  older  basilica,  fonnded  by  ConatantiQe.  a,  d. 
306,  over  the  reputed  grave  of  St  Peter,  and  near 
the  apot  where  he  ia  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom. 
This  basilica  waa  of  great  size  and  majniilicence  ;  but 
had  fallen  into  decay,  when  Po|ie  Nicholas  V.,  in 
1450.  resolved  to  erect  a  new  cathedral,  worthy  of 
the  di"Dity  and  importance  of  the  Roman  pontificate, 
then  m  the  zenith  of  ita  power.  A  design  waa 
accordingly  prejiared  by  Rosaeliui  on  a  veiv  grand 
scale,  and  the  mbune  waa  begun,  when  the  pope 
died.  The  new  building  remained  neglected  for 
about  half  a  centuiy,  when  iTulius  II.  resolved  to 
carry  out  tlie  builmng,  and  employed  Bramantfi, 
then  celebrated  as  an  architect,  to  mahit  a  new 
design.  This  design  still  exists.  The  foundation 
stone  was  laid,  in  1406 ;  and  the  works  carried 
on  witb  great  activity  till  the  death  of  the  iwpe 
in  1513.  Bramante,  who  died  the  following  year, 
waa  succeeded  by  Baldussare  PeruiaL  Almust 
every  architect  who  was  employed  during  the 
long  courau  of  time  required  for  the  erection 
of  tbia  great  edifice,  proposed  a  new  design.  That 
of  San  Uallo.  who  succeeded  Penizzi,  la  one  of 
the  beat,  and  is  atill  preserved.  It  was  not  till  his 
death  in  1,546,  when  the  superintendence  devolved 
on  Michael  Angelo,  then  aevcnty-two  years  of  age, 
that  much  progress  was  made.  He  designed  the 
dome  ;  and  had  the  satisfaction,  befnra  his  death  in 
bis  ninetieth  year  (1564).  of  seeing  the  moat  arduous 
part  of  the  task  completed  ;  and  he  left  such  com- 
plete models  of  the  remainder  that  it  waa  carried 
out  exactly  in  conformity  with  hie  design  by  his 
successors,  Vignola  and  Giacomo  della  Porta,  and 
aucceasfiUiy  terminated  by  the  latter  in  1G90  in 
the  pontificate  of  Siitiis  V.  The  design  of  Michael 
Angela  waa  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  crosa,  bnt  the 
building  waa  actoally  completed  as  originally 
designed  by  Bramanti  as  a  Latin  croaa,  under  Paid 
v.,  by  the  architect  Carlo  Mademo.  The  portico 
and  facade  were  also  by  him.  He  is  much  blamed 
for  altering  Michael  Angelo's  plan,  becaoae  the 
result  is  that  the  projecting  nave  prevents  the 
dome  (the  gretU  part  of  the  work)  from  being  well 
seen.  The  fa^aAe  is  considered  paltry,  and  too 
much  cut  up  into  small  pieces.  It  is  observable 
that  this  entrance  iaipAe  ia  at  the  ecut  end  of 
the  chnrch,  not  the  west,  as  it  would  certainly  have 
been  north  of  the  Alps.  But  in  Italy  the  pruicipl« 
of  orientation  was  little  regarded. 

Mademo'a  nave  was  fimshed  in  1612,  and  the 
fa9ade  m  16H,  and  the  church  deilicated  by  Urban 
VIIL  in  1626.  In  the  front  of  the  portico  is  a 
I  magnificent  atrium  in  the  form  of  a  piazza,  enclosed 
'  on  two  sides  by  grand  semicircular  colonnades. 
This  waa  erected  under  Alexander  VIL  by  the 
architect  BemiuL 

The  fa^e  of  the  cathedral  is  368  feet  long  and 
14&  feet  high.  Aa  already  mentioned,  the  design 
ia  not  generally  approved,  but  aome  allowance  must 
be  made  for  the  necessities  of  the  case.  The 
balconies  in  the  front  were  required,  as  the  pope, 
at  Easter,  always  bestows  his  blesaing  on  the  people 
from  them.  Five  open  arches  lead  into  a  magni- 
ficent vestibule,  439  feet  long,  47  feet  wide,  and  65 
feet  high,  and  adorned  with  statues  and  mo*aicf> 
Here  ia  preaerved  a  celebrated  mosaic  ol  St  Peta 
191 


PETER'S,  ST,  COLLEGE-PlfiTION  DE  VILLENEUVE. 


walking  on  the  sea^  called  the  Navicella,  designed 
by  OiotM)  in  1298,  and  preserved  from  the  old 
basilicfti  The  central  bronze  doors  are  also  relics 
saved  £rom  the  old  church.  On  entering  the 
interior  of  the  cathedral,  its  enormous  size  does  not 
produce  the  impression  its  grandeur  of  proportions 
should  do  on  the  spectator.  This  arises  from  the 
details  being  all  of  an  excessive  size.  The  pilasters 
of  the  naye,  the  niches,  statues,  mouldings,  Sec,  are 
all  such  as  they  might  have  been  in  a  much  smaller 
church,  maemtied.  There  is  nothing  to  mark  the 
scale,  and  pave  expression  to  the  magnitude  of  tlie 
building.  The  figures  supporting  the  holy  water 
fountain,  for  example,  appear  to  be  those  of  cherubs 
of  a  natural  size,  but  when  more  closely  approached, 
turn  out  to  be  six  feet  in  height,  and  the  figures 
in  the  niches  are  on  a  still  more  colossal  scale. 
The  cathedral  is  613  feet  long,  and  450  feet 
across  the  transepts.  The  arch  of  the  nave  is  90 
feet  wide,  and  162  feet  high.  The  diameter  of  the 
dome  is  1954  feet.  From  the  pavement  to  the 
base  of  the  lantern  is  405  feet,  and  to  the  top  of 
the  cross  434)  feet.  The  dome  is  thus  50  feet 
wider,  and  64  feet  higher  than  that  of  St  Paul's 
(q.  T.)  in  London. 

The  walls  of  the  interior  are  adorned  with  plates 
of  the  richest  marbles,  and  copies  of  the  most  cele- 
brated paintings  executed  in  mosaic  The  arch 
piers  have  two  stories  of  niches  with  statues  of 
saints,  but  these,  unfortunately,  are  in  a  debased 
style  of  art.  The  pavement  is  all  in  marbles  of 
different  colours,  arranged  in  beautiful  patterns 
designed  bv  Giacomo  della  Porta.  The  dome  is, 
howeyer,  tne  finest  part  of  the  cathedral ;  it  is 
supporteid  on  four  great  arches.  Immediately 
under  the  dome  stands  the  high   altar  over  the 

Srave  of  St  Peter.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  maj^i- 
cent  baldacchino  or  canopy,  in  bronze,  which 
was  designed  by  Bernini  in  1633,  and  executed 
with  bronze  stripped  from  the  Pantheon  by  Pope 
Urban  VIIL  Beneath  the  high  altar  is  the  shrine, 
in  which  112  lamns  bum  d&y  and  night.  The 
building  is  adorned  with  many  remarkable  monu- 
ments and  statues,  some  of  them  by  Michael  Angelo, 
CanoTa,  and  Thorwaldsen.  The  most  of  the  monu- 
ments are  erected  in  memory  of  the  popes,  but 
there  is  one  to  'James  III.,  Charles  III.,  and 
Henry  IX.,  kings  of  England,'  the  remains  of  the 
exiled  Stuarts  l^ing  buned  in  the  vaults  beneath. 
The  'Grotte  Vaticane,'  or  crypt,  has  been  most 
carefully  and  religiously  preserved  during  all  the 
changes  and  worlu  of  the  cathedral;  so  much  so, 
that  the  ancient  pavement  remains  undisturbed. 

As  a  work  of  architectural  art,  St  Peter's  is  the 
greatest  opportunity  which  has  occurred  in  modem 
tmies;  butC  notwithstanding  the  great  names  of 
the  men  who  were  engaged  upon  the  work,  it  is 
universally  admitted  to  1^  a  grand  and  lamentable 
failure. 

PETER'S,  St,  COLLEGE,  Cambridge,  com- 
monly called  Peter-House,  was  founded  before  any 
other  college  now  existing  in  England — viz.,  in  1257, 
by  Hugh  de  Balsham,  Bishop  of  Ely,  and  was 
endowed  by  him  in  1282,  with  a  maintenance  for 
a  master  and  14  fellows.  In  addition  to  the  14 
original  foundation-fellows,  there  fkve  eight  bye- 
fellows  on  different  foundations,  and  23  scholars. 
The  master  is  elected  by  the  society. 

PE'TERSBURG,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Viiginia,  U.  S.,  on  the  south  bank  of  the  Appo- 
mattox river,  12  miles  above  its  junction  with 
James  River,  at  City  Point.  It  is  30  miles  south 
of  Richmond.  Five  railways  contribute  to  make 
it  the  third  city  in  the  state.  It  has  gas  and 
waterworksi  custom-house,  court-house,  mechanics' 


hall,  public  library  of  5000  vols. ;  4  banks  of  issue ; 
4  savings  banks ;  3  daily  and  2  weekly  papers ;  14 
churches,  4  of  which  are  for  people  of  colour;  50 
manufacturing  establishments,  among  which  20 
manufacture  26,000,000  lbs.  of  tobacco,  the  chief 
staple.  In  the  campaign  of  1864,  lieutenant- 
General  Grant,  commander  of  the  Fetleral  army, 
failing  to  take  Richmond,  besieged  P.,  and  was 
repulsed  in  several  attacks  by  General  Beauregard, 
with  heavy  loss.    Pop.  (1860)  18.266. 

PETERSBURG,  St.    See  St  Petersburg. 

PE'TERSFIELB,  a  parliamentarv  borough  and 
market-town  in  Hampshire,  23  miles  east-north- 
east of  Southampton,  and  55  miles  south-west  of 
London  by  railway.  It  is  a  pleasant  country- town, 
and  contains  a  Norman  parish  chapel  of  the  12th  c, 
and  an  educational  institution,  called  Chnrcher's 
College.  An  equestrian  statue  of  William  III., 
once  richly  gilt,  stands  in  the  market-place.  P. 
retams  a  member  to  the  House  of  Commons.  Pool 
(1861)  of  town,  1466;  of  borough,  5655. 

PETERWA'RDEIN,  the  capital  of  the  Slavooio- 

Servian  military  frontier,  and  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  the  Austrian  dominions,  is  situated  in 
a  marshy,  unhealthy  locality  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Danube,  50  miles  north-west  of  Belgrade.  The 
ordinary  garrison  consists  of  2000  men,  besides 
which  the  town  and  suburbs  contain  a  popuhition 
of  about  4600,  mostly  Germans.  The  most  ancient 
part  of  the  fortifications,  the  Upper  Fortress,  ia 
situated  on  a  rock  of  serpentine,  which  on  three 
sides  rises  abroptly  from  the  plain.  P.,  situated  on 
a  narrow  peninsula  formed  by  a  loop  of  the  Danube, 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Bom  an  Acnmincum  {acutnenj 
point),  and  is  said  to  have  been  named  in  honour  of 
Peter  the  Hermit,  who  marshalled  here  the  soldiers 
of  the  first  crasade.  In  1688,  the  fortifications 
were  blown  up  by  the  imperialists,  and  the  town 
was  soon  after  burned  to  the  ground  by  the 
Turks;  but  at  the  Peace  of  Passarowitz,  on  2l8t 
July  1718,  it  remained  in  the  {xjssession  of  the 
emperor.  It  was  here  that,  on  5th  August,  1716, 
Prince  Eugene  obtained  a  great  victory  over  tha 
Grand  Vizier  AIL 

PB'TIOLE.    See  LEAVisa 

POTION  DE  VILLENEUVE,  J^romk,  noted 
for  the  part  he  i)Iayed  in  the  tirst  French  Revolu- 
tion, was  the  son  of  a  procurator  at  Chartres,  and 
was  bom  theriB  in  1753.  He  was  practising  as  an 
advocate  in  his  native  city,  when  he  was  elected 
in  1789  a  deputy  of  the  Tiers  Etat  to  the  States- 
General.  His  out-and-out  republican  principles, 
and  his  facile  oratory,  sonorous  rather  than 
eloquent,  quickly  made  him  popular,  tboogh  he 
had  an  essentially  mediocre  understanding,  and 
was  altogether  a  windy,  verbose  personage.  He 
was  a  prominent  member  of  the  Jacobin  Club, 
and  a  great  ally  of  Robespierre;  the  latter  was 
called  the  *  Incorruptible,*  and  P.  the  *  Virtuous.* 
He  was  sent  along  with  Bsunave  and  Latour- 
Maubourg  to  bring  back  the  fugitive  royal  ibmily 
from  Varennes,  and  in  the  execution  of  this 
commission  he  acted  in  an  extremely  unfeeling 
manner.  He  afterwards  advocated  the  deposition 
of  the  king,  and  the  appointment  of  a  popularly 
elected  regency,  and  along  with  Robespierre  receive^ 
30th  September  1791,  the  honours  of  a  public 
triumph.  On  the  18th  of  November,  he  was  elected 
Maire  de  Paris  in  Bailly*s  stead,  the  court  favouring 
his  election,  to  prevent  that  of  Lafayette.  In  this 
capacity  he  encouraged  the  demonstrations  of  the 
lowest  classes,  and  the  arming  of  the  populace. 
But  as  the  catastrophe  drew  near,  he  awoke  to 
a  sense  of  its  terrible  nature,  and  sought  in  vain 
to   arrest  the  torrents     On  the   triumph   of  th* 


PBTITIO  PRINCIPn— PBTRA. 


Terrorists,  P.'s  popularity  declined,  and  he  joined 
the  Girondists.  On  the  king's  trial,  he  voted  for 
death,  but  with  delay  of  execution  and  appeal  to 
the  people,  upon  which  he,  became  suspected  of 
being  a  royalist,  and  of  partaking  in  the  treason 
of  Dumouriez.  He  was  thrown  into  prison,  2d 
June  1793,  on  the  fall  of  the  Gironde,  but  escaped 
from  prison,  and  joined  the  other  Girondists  at 
Caen.  Upon  the  aefeat  of  their  army  by  that  of 
the  Convention,  he  fled,  in  July  1793,  into  iBretasne, 
and  in  conirany  with  Buzot  reached  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Bourdeaux,  which,  however,  had 
already  submitted.  A  short  time  after,  P.'s  and 
Buzot*8  corpses  were  found  in  a  com-tield  near  St 
Emilion,  partly  devoured  by  wolves.  They  were 
supposed  to  have  died  by  their  own  hands.  P.'s 
character  has  been  defended  by  Madame  de  Genlis 
and  Madame  Roland.  It  appears  that  he  was 
extremely  virtuous  in  all  his  domestic  relations ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  his  public  career  shews  him  to 
have  been  weak,  shallow,  ostentatious,  and  vain. 
Les  (Eurrea  de  PHioiiy  containing  his  speeches, 
and  some  small  political  treatises,  were  published 
in  179a 

PETI'TIO  PRINCI'PII  (*a  be^g  of  the  prin- 
ciple or  question')  is  the  name  given  in  Logic  to 
that  species  of  vicious  reasoning  in  which  the  pro- 
position to  be  proved  is  assumed  in  the  premises 
of  the  syllogism. 

PETI'TION  (Lat.  veto,  I  ask),  a  supplication 
preferred  to  one  capable  of  granting  it.  '  Tne  right 
of  the  British  subject  to  petition  the  sovereign  or 
either  House  of  Parliament  for  the  redress  of 
grievances  is  a  fundamental  principle  of  the  British 
constitution,  and  has  been  exercised  from  very  early 
times.  The  earliest  petitions  were  generally  for  the 
redress  of  private  wrongs,  and  the  mode  of  trjring 
them  was  judicial  rather  than  legislative.  Beceivers 
and  triers  of  petitions  were  appointed,  and  proclama- 
tion w^as  made  inviting  all  persons  to  resort  to  the 
receivers.  The  receivers,  who  were  clerks  or  masters 
in  Chancery,  transmitted  the  petitions  to  the  triers, 
who  were  committees  of  prelates,  peers,  and  judges, 
who  examined  into  the  alleged  wrong,  sometimes 
leaving  the  matter  to  the  remedy  of  ^he  ordinary 
courts,  and  sometimes  transmitting  the  petition  to 
the  chancellor  or  the  judges,  or,  if  the  common  law 
afforded  no  redress,  to  parliament.  Receivers  and 
triers  of  petitions  are  still  appointed  by  the  House 
of  Lords  at  the  opening  of  every  parliament,  though 
their  functions  have  long  since  been  transferred  to 
parliament  itself.  The  earlier  petitions  were  gener- 
ally addressed  to  the  House  of  Lords ;  the  practice 
of  petitioning  the  House  of  Commons  tirst  oecame 
fre<^uent  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV. 

Since  the  Revohition  of  1688,  the  practice  has 
been  gradually  introduced  of  petitioning  parliament, 
not  so  much  for  the  redress  of  specific  grievances, 
as  regarding  general  questions  of  public  policy. 
Petitions  must  be  in  proper  form  and  respectful 
in  l&iiguage ;  and  there  are  cases  where  petitions  to 
the  House  of  Commons  will  onlv  be  received  if 
recommended  by  the  crown,  as  where  an  advance 
of  public  money,  the  relinquishment  of  debts  due 
to  the  crown,  the  remission  of  duties  payable  by 
any  person,  or  a  charge  on  the  revenues  of  India 
have  been  prayed  for.  The  same  is  the  case  with 
petitions  praymg  for  compensation  for  losses  out 
of  the  public  funds.  A  petition  must,  in  ordinary 
cases,  be  presented  by  a  member  of  the  House  to 
which  it  is  addressed ;  but  petitions  from  the  cor- 
poration of  London  may  be  presented  by  the  sheriffs 
or  lord  mayor.  Petitions  from  the  corporation  of 
Ihiblin  have  also  been  allowed  to  be  presented  by 
tibe  lord  mayor  of  that  city,  and  it  is  believed  that 


a  similar  privilege  would  be  acceded  to  the  lor<\ 
provost  of  Edinburgh. 

The  practice  of  the  House  of  Lords  is  to  allow 
a  petition  to  be  made  the  subject  of  a  debate  when 
it  is  presented ;  and  unless  a  debate  has  arisen  oo 
it,  no  public  record  is  kept  of  its  substance,  or  the 
parties  by  whom  it  is  signed.  In  the  House  of 
Commons,  petitions  not  relating  to  matters  of 
urgency  are  referred  to  the  Committee  on  Public 
Petitions,  and  in  certain  cases  ordered  to  be  printed. 

In  1837,  there  were  presented  to  parliament 
10,831  petitions  with  2,905,905  signatures ;  in  1859, 
24,386  petitions,  with  2,290,579  signatures. 

PETITION  OP  RIGHTS,  a  declaration  of 
certain  rights  and  privileges  of  the  subject  obtained 
from  King  Charles  L  in  his  first  parliament  It 
was  so  c^led  because  the  Commons  stated  their 
grievances  in  the  form  of  a  petition,  refusing  to 
accord  the  supplies  till  its  prayer  was  granted. 
The  petition  professes  to  be  a  mere  corroboration 
and  explanation  of  the  ancient  constitution  of  the 
kingdom ;  and  after  reciting  various  statutes, 
recognising  the  rights  contended  for,  prays  *that 
no  man  be  compelled  to  make  or  yield  any  gift, 
loan,  benevolence,  tax,  or  such  like  charge,  without 
common  consent  by  act  of  parliament;  that  none 
be  called  upon  to  make  answer  for  refusal  so  to  do  ; 
that  freemen  be  imprisoned  or  detained  only  by  the 
law  of  the  land,  or  by  due  process  of  law,  and  not 
by  the  king's  special  command,  without  any  charge  ; 
tnat  persons  be  not  compelled  to  receive  soldiers 
and  mariners  into  their  houses  against  the  laws  and 
customs  of  the  realm;  that  commissions  for  pro- 
ceeding by  martial  law  be  revoked.'  The  king  at 
first  eluded  the  petition,  expressing  in  general  terms 
his  wish  that  risht  should  be  done  according  to  the 
laws,  and  that  his  subjects  should  have  no  reason 
to  complain  of  wrongs  or  oppressions ;  but  at  length, 
on  both  Houses  of  Parliament  insisting  on  a  fuller 
answer,  he  pronounced  an  imqualified  assent  in  the 
usual  form  of  words, '  SoU  faU  comme  il  est  dSsirif 
on  the  26th  of  June  1628. 

PE'TRA  (Heb.  Sela,  both  names  signify  'Rock ') 
was  anciently  the  capital  of  the  Nal^thaeans,  and 
was  situated  in  the  *■  desert  of  Edom  *  in  Northern 
Arabia,  about  72  miles  north-east  of  Akabah — a  town 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  an  arm  of  the  Red 
Sea.  It  occupied  a  narrow  rocky  valley  overhung 
by  mountains,  the  highest  and  most  celebrated  of 
which  is  Mount  Hor,  where  Aaron,  the  first  Hebrew 
high-priest,  died,  and  was  thus  in  the  very  heart  of 
the  region  hallowed  by  the  forty  years'  wanderings^ 
of  the  Israelites.  The  aboriginal  inhabitants  were 
called  Horim  ('dwellers  in  caves').  It  was  then 
conquered  by  the  Edomites  or  Idumeans  (but  it 
never  became  their  capital) ;  and,  in  the  3d  or  4th 
c.  B.  C,  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Nabathseans, 
an  Arab  tribe,  who  carried  on  a  great  transit- trade 
between  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of  the 
world.  It  was  finally  subdued  by  the  Romans  in 
105  A.  D.,  and  afterwards  became  the  seat  of 
a  metropolitan ;  but  was  destroyed  by  the  Moham- 
medans,  and  for  1200  years  its  verv  site  remained 
unknown  to  Europeans.  In  1812,  6urckhardt  first 
entered  the  valley  of  ruins,  and  suggested  that  they 
were  the  remains  of  ancient  Petra.  Six  years  later, 
it  was  visited  by  Messrs  Irby,  Mangles,  Banks,  and 
Leigh,  and  in  1828  by  M.M.  Laborde  and  Linant, 
and  since  then  by  numerous  travellers  and  tourists 
to  the  East,  as  Biartlett,  Porter,  and  Dean  Stanley. 
Laborde's  dLrawings  give  us  a  more  vivid  impres- 
sion of  the  ruins  of  r,  than  any  descriptions,  how- 
ever picturesque.  These  ruins  stand  in  a  small  open 
irregular  basin,  about  half  a  mile  square,  through 
which    runs    a   brook,  and    are    best  approached 

46» 


PETEA-PETRAKCA. 

by  ua  extraordinai^  chum  or  ravine,  called  the  {  rows  of  cave-tombB,  heim  oat  of  the  solid  itnae,  nj 

81k,  am  rowing  as  it  proceede  till   in  some  places  i  ornametited  with  facades.    These  Ar»  alan  n>iini.r.,ii. 

the  w  dth  is  only  12  feet,  while  tbe  rocky  wiilla    eUewhere.    Originally,  t 

of  re.l-sani'atune  tower  to  the  height  of  300  feet      '  -■--'■■  -    '  ■' 

Hardly  a   ray   of    light   can    iiierce    (hia   gloomy 

gorge,  yet  it  wa«  once  the  highn-»y  to  P.,  and  the 

remain*  ot    an    ancient  pavement  can   b«    traced 

beneath  the  briUiant  aleanden  that  now  covo'  the 

pathway.    All  along  the  face  of  the  rocky  walla  an 


ginally,  they  were  probably  i1«fI1idi^ 
of  the  living,  not  of  tbe  dead  -a  supiwaitivo  Jojtintil 
by  ao  eianiiuation  of  their  interior;  but  wbrn  th: 
NabathiBSDS  built  the  city  praiwr  ia  the  littli^  hnn 
ot  the  hilb,  they  were  in  all  Ukelibood  abanJ^noi, 
and  then  set  apart  aa  the  fatnUv-aepulchra  of  \\nt 
who  had  fonneriy  b«ea  '  dweUen  in  the  d«fu  tt 


Petra— Xoont  Safr.— PWn  Lahoide. 


tbe  rocks.'    Hie  prinrapal  niina  are — I.  El-Khuzrtdi 

('the  Tr«aaitt«-houBe').  believed  by  the  nativea  to 
oontun,  boried  aomewhere  in  ita  aacred  encloaure, 
the  treasurea  of  Pharaoh.  It  directly  face*  the 
mouth  of  the  gorge  we  have  deacrihed,  and  wai 
the  great  temple  of  the  Petr^ane.  2.  The  Theatre. 
a  magnificent  biiildiug,  capable  of  containing  from 
3000  to  4000  apectature.  3.  The  Tomb  un(A  Uif, 
Triple  Rangt  o/Columiu.  4.  The  Tomb  vtitA  Latin 
Irucriptum.  6.  The  Deer  or  Connent,  a  hu^ 
moaolithio  temple,  hewn  out  of  the  aide  of  a  cliJf, 
and  facing  Mount  Hor.  6.  T/ie  Acropolia.  7. 
Kuar  Farvn,  or  Pharaoh's  palace,  the  least  inoom- 

Slete  ruin  of  Petra.      Most  of  tlie  architecture  is 
reek,  bnt  there  are  alao  examjiles  of  tbe  intliienoe 
cf  Egypt,  pyramidal  forma  being  not  unknown. 

PETBARCA,  Francesco,  the  first  and  greatest 
lyric  poet  of  Italy,  was  the  son  nf  a  Floret" 
notary  named  Petracco,  who  belonged  to  tbe  ( 
political  faction  aa  the  poet  Datite,  and  went  into 
exile  along  with  bim  ami  othera  in  13112.  Petrauco 
took  up  his  residence  at  Art^zzo,  and  here  the  future 
poet  was  bqra  in  the  month  of  July  13(li  His 
original  name  was  Francesco  di  Petraooo,  wbic 
aubaequeatly  changed  to  that  by  which  be  is 
known.  When  P.  waa  about  eight  yeara  of  age,  hia 
father  removed  to  Avignon,  where  the  i»pal  oourt 
was  then  held ;  and  here,  and  at  tbe  neighbouring 
town  of  Carpentras,  the  youth  studied  grammar, 
rhetoric,  and  dialectics.  Contrary  to  nis  own 
inclination,  but  in  compliance  with  the  wish  of  hia 
father,  he  spent  aeven  yeara  in  tbe  study  of  law  at 
Uontpellier  and  Bologna ;  but  in  1326  hia  father 


died,  and  P.  novr  devoted  himself  paitiy  to  thi 

gaieties  of  Avi^on,  and  partly  to  claaaical  atuiiic^ 
or  rather  to  tbe  study  of  the  Latin  clsssicj.  u  it 
was  only  tAwarda  the  end  of  hia  life  that  h« 
attempted   to   master    Greek.       At    tbia    tiuie.  lu 


ittempbii 


Bishop  of  Ijomhea  in  Gaacony,  and  hia  brother,  tba 
Cardinal  Giovanni,  Azzo  da  Corregio,  lord  nf  Finni, 
and  many  other  noble  and  lenmed  penunage^  Hit 
illustrious  admirers — among  whom  were  empcnn 
popes,  dugea,  kings,  and  sovereign .dukcH—obvioiuIr 
thought  tTiemselves  honoured  by  their  intimacy  with 


1    of   I 


poor 


forward  in  proiTering  him  their  favour.  But  \ia 
.creat  event  in  P.'a  life  [viewed  in  the  light  'i  i* 
literary  consequencea)  was  hia  tenderif  rnaiuu^ 
and  ultimately  pure  passion  for  Iiaiira — the  g.jllen- 
baired,  beaiitifui  Frenchwoman.  Some  slight  ct 
aciirity  atill  hangs  over  bis  relation  to  this  laiiy.  Inl 
it  ia  almost  certain  that  she  was  no  leas  a  pan:~''° 
of  virtue  tlian  of  loveliness.  Be  met  b^  »a  li>< 
6th  of  April  I32T  in  the  chnreh  of  Ht  Clan  n 
Avignon,  and  at  once  and  for  ever  fell  de^i'lv  lo 
love  with  her.  The  lady  waa  then  19,  .iii.i  W  | 
been  married  for  two  yeara  to  a  gentlcmMi  ■'' 
Avignon,  named  Hiiguea  de  Sade.  For  tea  ytsi 
P.  lived  near  her  in  the  papal  city,  and  fr«]ii«sll.' 
met  her  at  chureh,  in  society,  at  featiTiti'.s,  Ac  He 
sun;  her  beauty  and  bis  love  in  those  aoi.Deta  ■hew  j 
nellifluuiis  conceits  ravished  the  oara  of  his  txavsr 
jmranes,  and  have  not  yet  ceased  to  charm.  Iw* 
was  not  insensible  to  a  worship,  which  ms^  M   I 


PETREI.-PETROICA, 


emperor  (Charles  IV.)  beg  to  be  introduced  to  her, 
and  to  be  allowed  to  kiss  her  forehead;  but  she 
seema  to  have  kept  the  too-passionate  poet  at  a 
proper  distance  Only  once  did  he  dare  to  make 
an  ayowal  of  his  love  in  her  presence,  and  then  he 
was  sternly  reproved.  In  133S,  P.  withdrew  from 
Avignon  to  the  romantic  valley  of  Vaucluse,  where 
he  hved  for  some  years,  spending  his  time  almost 
solely  in  literary  pursuits.  A  most  brilliant  honour 
awaited  him  at  Home,  in  1341,  where,  on  Easter- 
day,  he  was  crowned  in  the  Capitol  with  the  laurel- 
wreath  of  the  poet.  The,  ceremonies  which  marked 
this  coronation  were  a  grotesque  medley  of  pagan 
and  Christian  representations.  P.  was,  however,  as 
ardent  a  scholar  as  he  was  a  poet ;  and  throughout 
his  whole  life,  he  was  occupied  in  the  coUection  of 
Latin  MSS.,  even  copying  some  with  his  own  hand. 
To  obtain  these,  he  travelled  fre(^uently  throughout 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  Spam.  His  own  Latin 
works  were  the  first  in  modern  times  in  which  the 
langua^  was  classically  written.  The  principal  are 
his  EptstolcR,  consisting  of  letters  to  his  numerous 
friends  and  acquaintances,  and  which  rank  as  the  best 
of  his  prose  works ;  De  Vitis  Virorum  lUustrium  ; 
Dt  JSemediia  utriusfjue  Fortunce;  De  Vita  Solitaria; 
Berum  Memorandarum  Libri  IV.;  Dt  Conteniptu 
Mundi,  ftc.  Besides  his  prose-epistles,  P.  wrote 
numerous  epistles  in  Latin  verse,  eclogues,  and  an 
epic  poem  called  Africa^  on  the  subject  of  the 
second  Punic  War.  It  was  this  last  production 
which  obtained  for  him  the  laurel-wi'eath  at  Rome. 
P.,  it  may  be  mentioned,  displayed  little  solicitude 
about  the  fate  of  his  beautiful  Italian  verse,  but 
built  his  hope  of  his  name  being  remembered  on  his 
Latin  poems,  which,  it  has  been  said,  are  now  only 
remembered  by  his  name.  In  1353  he  finally  left 
Avignon,  and  passed  the  remainder  of  his  life  in 
Italy — partly  at  Milan,  where  he  spent  nearly  ten 
years,  and  partly  at  Parma,  Mantua,  Padua,  Verona, 
Venice,  ana  Rome.  At  last,  in  1370,  he  removed 
to  Arquil,  a  little  village  prettily  situated  among 
the  Euganean  Hills,  where  he  spent  his  closing 
years  in  .hard  scholarly  work,  much  annoyed  by 
visitors,  troubled  with  epileptic  fits,  not  overly  rich, 
but  serene  in  heart,  and  displaying  in  his  life  and 
correspondence  a  rational  and  beautiful  piety.  He 
was  found  dead  in  his  library  on  the  morning  of  the 
18th  July  1374,  his  head  dropped  on  a  book! — P. 
was  not  only  far  beyond  his  age  in  learning,  but 
had  risen  above  many  of  its  prejudices  and  super- 
stitions. He  despised  astrology,  and  the  childish 
medicine  of  his  times ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
had  no  liking  for  the  conceited  scepticism  of  the 
medieval  savanta;  and,  in  his  De  sui  Ipshis  et 
mtUtarum  cUiorum  Ignorantia,  he  sharply  attacked 
the  irreligious  speculations  of  those  who  had 
acquired  a  shallow  free-thinking  habit  from  the 
study  of  the  Arabico- Aristotelian  school  of  writers, 
such  as  Averrhoes.  P.  became  an  ecclesiastic,  but 
was  contented  with  one  or  two  inconsiderable 
benefices,  and  refused  all  offers  of  higher  ecclesi- 
astical appointment. — The  Italian  lyrics  of  P. — ^the 
chief  of  which  are  the  BtTnef  or  Canzonieret  in  honour 
of  Laura — have  done  far  more  to  perpetuate  his 
fame  than  all  his  other  works.  Of  Italian  prose, 
he  has  not  left  a  linei  The  J^tme,  consisting  of 
sonnets,  canzonets,  madrigals,  were  composed 
during  a  period  of  more  than  forty  years ;  and  the 
later  ones — ^in  which  P.'s  love  for  Laura,  long  since 
laid  in  her  grave,  appears  purified  from  all  earthly 
taint,  and  beautifal  with  something  of  a  beatific 
grace — ^have  done  as  much  to  refine  the  Italian  Ian- 
eoage  as  the  Divina  Commedia  of  Danta  Of  his 
7fim€j  there  have  been  probably  more  ^than  300 
editions.  The  first  is  that  of  Venice,  1470;  the 
most  accurate  is  that  by  Marsand  (2  vols.,  Padua, 


1819).  Collective  editions  of  his  whole  works  have 
also  been  published  (Basel,  1495,  1554,  and  1581^ 
et  seq.)  His  life  has  employed  many  writers,  among 
whom  may  be  mentioned  Bellutello,  Beccadelli, 
Tomasini,  De  la  Bastie,  De  Sades,  Tiraboschi, 
Baldelli,  and  Ugo  Foscolo. 

PE'TREL  {ProceUaria),  a  genus  of  birds,  some* 
times  ranked  among  Laridce  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes^ 
constituted  into  a  separate  fomil}',  ProceUaridcB^ 
which  is  now  subdivided  into  sevend  genera,  and 
distinguished  by  having  the  bill  hooked  at  the  tip, 
the  extremity  of  the  upper  mandible  being  a  hard 
nail,  which  appears  as  if  it  were  articulated  to  the 
rest,  the  nostrils  united  into  a  tube  which  lies  along 
the  back  of  the  upper  mandible,  and  the  hind-toe 
merely  rudimentary.  They  possess  great  power  of 
wing,  and  are  among  the  most  strictly  oceanic  of 
birds,  being  often  seen  at  great  distances  from  land. 
Among  the  FrocellaridcB  are  reckoned  the  Fulmars 
(q.  v.).  Shearwaters  (q.  v.),  &c.,  and  the  small  birds 
designated  Storm  Petrels,  Storm  Birds,  and 
Mother  Carey's  Cbickens.  These  form  the  genus 
Thalaasidroma  of  recent  ornithological  systems,  the 
name  (Or.  sea-runner)  being  given  to  them  in 
allusion  to  their  apparent  running  along  the  surface 
of  the  waves,  which  they  do  in  a  remarkable  manner, 
and  with  great  rapidity,  particularly  when  the  sea 
is  stormy,  and  the  moUuscs  and  other  animals 
forming  their  food  are  brought  in  abundance  to  the 
surface— now  descending  into  the  very  depth  of  the 
hollow  between  two  waves,  now  touchiug  their 
highest  foamy  crests,  and  fiitting  about  with  perfect 
aatety  and  apparent  delieht  Hence  also  their  name 
Petrel,  a  diminutive  of  Peter,  from  the  apostle 
Peter's  walkiug  on  the  water.  From  the  frequency 
with  which  flocks  of  these  birds  are  seen  in  stormy 
weather,  or  as  heralds  of  a  storm,  they  are  very 
unfavourably  regartled  by  sailors.  They  have  very 
long  and  pointed  wings,  passing  beyond  the  point  of 
the  tail ;  and  the  tail  is  square  in  some,  slightly 
forked  in  others.  Their  flight  much  resembles  that 
of  a  swallow.  They  are  to  oe  seen  in  the  seas  of  all 
parts  of  the  world,  but  are  more  abundant  in  the 
southern  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere.  The 
names  Storm  P.  and  Mother  Carey's  Chicken  are 
sometimes  more  juuticularly  appropriated  to  T/icUa^ 
Hdroma  pdagica,  a  bird  scarcely  larger  than  a  lark« 
and  the  smallest  web-footed  bird  known,  of  a  sooty 
black  colour,  with  a  little  white  on  the  win^  and  i 
some  near  the  tail.  Two  or  three  other  species  are 
occasionally  found  on  the  British  shores ;  but  this 
is  the  most  common,  breeding  in  crevices  of  the 
rocks  of  the  Scilly  Isles,  St  Kilda,  the  Orkneys, 
Shetland  Isles,  &c.  Like  many  others  of  the  family, 
it  generally  has  a  quantity  of  oil  in  its  stomach, 
which,  when  wounded  or  seized,  it  discharges  by 
the  mouth  or  nostrils;  and  of  this  the  people  of  St 
Kilda  take  advantage,  by  seising  the  birds  during 
incubation,  when  they  sit  so  closely  as  to  allow 
themselves  to  be  taken  with  the  hand,  and  collecting 
the  oil  in  a  vesseL 

PETRIFA'CTION,  a  name  given  to  organic 
remains  found  in  the  strata  of  the  earth,  because 
they  are  generally  more  or  less  mineralised  or  made 
into  stone.  The  word  has  fallen  very  much  into 
disuse,  having^  given  place  to  the  terms  Fossil  (q.v.) 
and  Organic  Kemains. 

PETBOI'OA,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
SyhnadtJ^  natives  of  Australia,  nearly  alUed  to  the 
Redbreast,  and  to  which  its  familiar  name  Robin 
has  been  given  by  the  colonists.  The  song,  call- 
note,  and  manners  of  P.  maUicolor,  a  species 
abundant  in  all  the  southern  parts  of  Australia, 
very  much  resemble  those  of  the  European  bird,  but 
its  plumage  is  very  different:  the  male  having  the 


PETROLEUM— PETTY  OFFICERS. 


head,  throat,  and  back  jet-black,  the  forehead  snowy- 
white,  one  longitudinal  and  two  obliq^ue  bands  of 
white  on  the  wings,  and  the  breast  bright  scarlet ; 
the  female  is  brown,  with  red  breast  There  are 
■everal  other  species,  birds  of  beautiful  plumage. 

PETRO'LEUM.  See  Naphtha.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  danger  attending  the  storing  and 
keeping  of  petroleum,  an  act  of  parliament  was 
passed  in  1861  (25  and  26  Vict  c.  66)  to  reguUte 
the  subject,  putting  it  on  a  similar  footing  to 
gunpowder.  A  licence  is  recjuired  to  keep  hurge 
quantities,  which  is  obtained  m  England  from  the 
aldermen  of  the  city  of  London,  the  metropolitan 
board,  the  mayor  and  aldermen  of  boroughs,  or 
the  harbour  commissioners,  according  to  the 
locality  where  it  is  proposed  to  be  kept;  and  in 
other  places,  in  England  and  Scotland,  from  two 
justices  of  the  peace.  If  the  licence  is  refused,  the 
party  may  appeal  to  the  Home  Secretary.  Not 
more  than  forty  gallons  must  be  kept  within  fifty 
yards  of  a  dwelling-house  or  a  warehouse  for  foods, 
except  in  pursuance  of  a  licence,  under  a  pemuty  of 
£20  per  day.  One  moiety  of  the  penalty  is  nven  to 
the  mformer.  A  search-warrant  may  be  obtained 
from  justices,  in  case  it  is  suspected  that  the  act  is 
violated. 

PETRO'LOGY  (Gr.  science  of  rocks),  a  torm 
recently  introduced  into  geology  to  designate  par- 
ticular aspects  of  the  study  of  rocks,  apart  from  tueir 
oxganic  contents.  By  some,  it  is  confined  to  an 
examination  of  their  structure  and  composition ;  by 
others,  it  is  extended  to  the  study  of  rock -masses, 
their  x)lanes  of  division,  their  forms,  their  position 
and  mutual  relations,  and  other  characters  not 
bearing  on  the  question  of  the  geological  time  of 
their  production. 

PETROMY'ZON.    See  Lamprey. 

PE'TRONEL,  an  ancient  and  clumsy  description 
of  pistol. 

PETRO'NIUS,  C,  a  Roman  voluptuary  at  the 
court  of  Nero,  whose  profligacy  is  said  to  have  been 
of  the  most  superb  and  de<;ant  description.  We 
know,  however,  veiy  little  about  him.  He  was  at 
one  time  proconsul  of  Bithynia,  was  subsequently 
appointed  consul,  and  is  c^iilied  as  navinz 
performed  his  official  duties  with  energy  and 
prudence.  But  his  grand  ambition  was  to  shine 
as  a  court-exquisite.  He  was  a  kind  of  Roman 
Brummell,  and  Nero  thought  as  highly  of  him  as 
did  the  Prince  Regent  of  the  famous  Beau.  He  was 
entrusted  by  his  imperial  master  and  companion 
with  the  charge  of  tne  royal  entertainments,  and 
thus  obtained  (according  to  Tacitus)  the  titie  of 
Arbiter  £legatUi(e,  Nero  would  not  venture  to 
pronounce  anything  comme  U  faut,  until  it  had 
received  the  approval  of  the  oracle  of  Roman  fashion. 
The  influence  which  he  thus  acquired  was  the  cause 
of  his  ruin.  Tigellinua,  another  favourite  of  Nero, 
conceived  a  hatred  of  P.,  brought  fidse  accusations 
against  him,  and  succeeded  in  getting  his  whole 
household  arrested.  P.  saw  that  his  destruction 
was  inevitable,  and  committed  suicide  (66  B.  c.),  but 
in  a  languid  and  sraceful  style,  such,  he  thought, 
as  became  his  life.  He  opened  some  veins,  but  every 
now  and  then  applied  bandages  to  tiiem,  and  thus 
stopped  the  flow  of  blood,  so  that  he  was  for  a 
while  enabled  to  gossip  gaily  with  his  friends,  and 
even  to  appear  in  the  streeto  of  Cumse  before  he 
died.  We  are  told  that  he  wrote,  sealed,  and 
despatehed  to  Nero,  a  few  hours  before  his  death,  a 
paper  containing  an  account  of  the  tyrant's  crimes 
and  fla^tious  deeds.  It  has  been  generallv  sup- 
posed that  P.  ia  the  author  of  a  well-known 
work  entitled,  in  the  oldest  MSS.,  Petronii  AHntri 
Satyrican,  a  senes  of  f ragmente  belonging  apparently 
4&6 


to  a  very  extensive  comio  novel  or  romaiioe 
(see  NovBLs),  the  greater  portion  of  which  ham 
perished,  but  there  is  really  no  satisfactory  evidence 
to  shew  whether  or  not  he  was  so.  It  ia  probable, 
however,  that  the  work  belongs  to  the  Ist  c  a.]>. 
The  fragmente  exhibit  a  horrible  picture  of  the 
depravity  of  the  times;  but  there  is  no  indication 
that  the  author  disapproves  of  what  he  describes. 
The  edilio  princeps  of  the  fragmente  appeared  at 
Venice  in  1499 ;  later  editions  are  those  of  Biur- 
mann  (Traj.  ad.  Rhen.  1709;  2d  edit  Amst  174d)» 
and  of  Antonius  (Leip.  1781). 

PETROPAVLO'VSK,  a  small  port  of  Russian 
Siberia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Avatcha^  on 
the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka. 
Lat  53"  N.,  long.  158'  44'  R  It  has  only  691 
inhabitante,  and  has  lost  much  of  ite  former  import- 
ance since  ite  desertion  b^  the  Russians  in  1855» 
and  the  removal  of  ite  garrison  to  Nikolaevsk. 

PETROZAVODSK,  an  import^t  mining-town 
in  the  north  of  European  Russia,  capital  of  the 
government  of  Olonetz,  stands  on  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Onega,  300  miles  by  water  north-east  of 
St  Petersburg.  A  cannon-foundry  was  erected  here 
in  1701  by  Peter  the  Great,  who  himself  had  dis- 
covered the  rich  resources  of  this  northern  r^on 
in  iron  and  copper  ores.  The  town  iteelf  dates  mm, 
the  year  1703 ;  and  from  that  to  the  present  time, 
it  hsM  been  the  great  centre  of  the  mining  industry 
of  the  government.  The  Alexandrovsky  arms- 
factoiy  is  specially  deserving  of  notice.  It  w^as 
founded  in  1773,  and,  besides  other  arms,  it  has 
produced  in  all  30,000  pieces  of  cast-iron  ordnance. 
Works  are  also  fitted  up  for  the  preparation  ot 
steeL  Wood  abounds  in  the  vicinity,  and  there  is 
easy  communication  by  water  with  St  Petersbur]^ 
Pop.  10,648. 

PETSH,  or  IPEK  (L  e.,  silk),  a  town  of  Euro* 
pean  Turkey,  in  Albania^  stands  on  the  Bistritsa, 
or  White  Drln,  65  miles  north-east  of  Scutari.  It 
is  a  pleasant  town ;  the  houses  are  large  and  hand- 
some, and,  as  a  rule,  have  gardens  attached,  in 
which  fruit  and  mulberry-trees  are  cultivated. 
Water,  from  the  river,  is  led  up  into  all  the  houses. 
Silk  is  extensively  made,  tobacco  and  fruite  are 
largely  cultivated,  and  arms  manufactured.  P.  was 
formerly  the  residence  of  the  Servian  patriarchs. 
Pop.  8000. 

PETTY  BAG  OFFICE,  one  of  the  branches  of 
the  Court  of  Chancery,  now  regulated  by  statutes 
11  and  12  Vict.  o.  48,  and  12  and  13  Vict.  c.  109. 
The  clerk  of  the  petty  bag,  an  officer  appointed  by 
the  Master  of  the  Kolls,  draws  up  write  of  summons 
to  parliament,  Congis  diUre  iox  bishops,  writs  of 
Scire  facias,  and  all  original  writs.  A  great  deal  of 
miscellaneous  business  is  also   transacted   in   the 

Stty  bag  office,  which  the  Lord  Chancellor  and 
aster  of  the  Rolls  are  empowered  to  regulate  and 
transfer  from  time  to  time.  In  the  petty  bag  office 
may  be  brought  any  personal  action  by  or  against 
any  officer  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  in  respect  of 
his  service  or  attendanc& 


PETTY  OFFICERS  in  the  royal  navy  are 
upper  class  of  seamen,  analogous  to  the  non-oom- 
missioned  officers  in  the  army.  They  comprise  the 
men  responsible  for  the  proper  care  of  the  several 
portions  of  the  ship,  the  foremen  of  artiticers,  the 
signalmen,  and  many  others.  They  are  divided 
into  three  classes :  chief  petty  officers,  at  2a  3dL  a 
day ;  1st  class  working  pet^  officera,  at  2a  a  day ; 
and  2d  clps  working  })etty  omoers,  at  la  lOd  a  day. 
Petty  offiicers  are  appointed  and  can  be  degraded  hr 
the  captain  of  the  ship.  Her  efficiency  nuua 
depends  on  this  useful  daas  of  sailora 


PETTY  SESSIONS— PIlZfiNA& 


PETTY  SESSIONS  is  the  coart  oonstitnted  by 
two  or  more  justices  of  the  peace  in  England, 
when  sitting  in  the  administration  of  their  ordinary 
jonsdiction.  Though  for  many  purposes  statutes 
enable  one  justice  to  do  acts  auxiliary  to  the  hear- 
ing and  adjudication  of  a  matter,  yet  the  jurisdic- 
tion to  adjudicate  is  generallv  conferred  upon  the 
justices  in  petty  sessions,  in  which  case  there  must 
be  at  least  two  justices  present,  and  this  is  caUed  a 
petty  sessions,  as  distinguished  horn,  quarter  sessions, 
which  generally  may  entertain  an  appeal  from  petty 
sessions.  For  the  purpose  of  secunn^  always  suffi- 
cient justices,  the  whole  of  the  counties  of  England 
are  subdivided  into  what  are  called  petty  sessional 
divisions,  thoee  justices  who  live  in  the  immediate 
neighbourhood  being  the  members  who  form  the 
court  of  such  division.  This  subdivision  of  counties 
is  confirmed  by  statute,  and  the  justices  at  quarter 
sessions  have  power  from  time  to  time  to  alter  it. 
Each  petty  sessions  is  held  in  some  town  or  village 
which  gives  it  a  name,  and  a  police-court  or  place  is 
appropriated  for  the  purpose  of  the  sittings  of  the 
court.  There  is  a  clerk  of  each  petty  sessions, 
usually  a  ]ocal  attorney,  who  advises  the  justices, 
and  issues  the  summons  and  receives  the  fees  made 
payable  for  steps  of  the  process.  The  justices  in 
petty  sessions  have  a  multifarious  jurisdiction,  which 
they  exercise  chiefly  by  imposing  penalties  author- 
ised by  various  acts  of  parliament,  as  peoalties 
against  poachers,  vacrants,  absconding  workmen 
and  apprentices*  &c.  They  also  have  jurisdiction  to 
hear  cnarges  for  all  inmctable  offences,  to  take 
depoeitions  of  witnesses,  and,  if  they  think  a  case  of 
suspicion  is  made  out,  to  commit  the  partv  for  trial 
at  the  quarter  sessions  or  assizes,  and  to  bind  over 
the  witnesses  to  attend.  See  also  Justice  op  ths 
Pka.ce. 

PETU'NIA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Solanacece,  natives  of  the  warmer  parts  of 
America.  They  are  herbaceous  plants,  very  nearly 
allied  to  Tobacco,  and  with  a  certain  similarity  to 
it  in  the  general  appearance  of  the  foliage,  which 
has  also  a  slight  viscidity,  and  emits  when  handled 
a  disagreeable  smell,  but  the  flowers  are  very  beau- 
tifnU  and  varieties  improved  by  cultivation  are 
amongst  the  favourite  ornaments  of  our  greenhouses 
and  flower-borders.  The  petunias,  although  peren- 
nial, are  veiy  often  treated  as  annuals,  sown  on  a 
hot-bed  in  spring,  and  planted  out  in  summer,  in 
which  way  they  succeed  very  well  even  in  Scotland. 
They  are  tall  plants,  with  branching  weak  stems, 
and  may  readily  be  made  to  cover  a  tr^is.  Although, 
when  treated  as  greenhouse  plants,  they  become 
half-shrubby,  they  do  not  live  more  tlum  two  or 
three  years.  The  name  P.  is  from  the  Brazilian 
Petun,  The  first  P.  was  introduced  into  Britain  in 
182& 

'  PETTJ'NTZB,  a  white  earth  used  by  the  Chinese 
in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain,  and  said  to  consist 
of  comminuted  but  undecomposed  felspar.  It  is 
fusible,  and  is  used  for  glazing  porcelain. 

PB'TWORTH,  or  SUSSEX  MARBLE,  is  a  thin 
layer  of  limestone,  composed  of  the  shells  of  fresh- 
water PaludinjB.  It  has  been  long,  but  not  exten- 
sively nsed  for  ornamental  purposes.  A  polished 
slab  of  it  was  found  in  a  itoman  buildmg  at 
Chichester,  and  pillars  formed  of  it  exist  in  the 
cathedrals  of  Chichester  and  Canterbury. 

PEWS  (anciently  puee;  Old  Pr.  pjm;  Duteh, 
puyett;  Lat.  podium^  'anything  on  which  to  lean  ;' 
g'appuyer),  enclosed  seats  in  churches.  Church- 
•eato  were  in  use  in  England  some  time  before  the 
Reformation,  as  is  proved  by  numerous  examples 
•till  extant,  the  carvmg  on  some  of  which  is  as  early 
as  the  Decorated  Period,  l  e.,  before  1400  ▲.  d.  ; 


and  records  as  old  as  1400,  speak  of  such  seats  by 
the  name  oipueB.  They  were  originally  plain  fixed 
benches,  all  facing  east,  with  partitions  of  wain- 
scoting about  three  feet  high,  and  sides  of  the  width 
of  the  seat,  panelled  or  carved ;  the  sides  sometimes 
rising  above  the  wainscoting,  and  ending  in  finials 
or  poppies,  or  else  ranging  with  it  and  finished  with 
a  moulding.  After  the  Reformation,  probably 
imder  the  influence  of  the  Puritans,  who,  objecting 
to  some  parts  of  the  service  which  they  were  com- 
pelled to  attend,  sought  means  to  conceal  their 
nonconformity,  pews  grew  into  large  and  high 
enclosures,  containing  two  or  four  seats,  lined 
with  baize,  and  fitted  with  doors,  desks,  and 
cushions.  Pews  were  early  assigned  to  particular 
owners,  but  at  first  only  to  the  j^atrons  of  churches. 
A  canon  made  at  Exeter,  in  1287,  rebukes  quar- 
relling for  a  seat  in  church,  and  decrees  that  none 
shall  claim  a  seat  as  his  own  except  noblemen 
and  the  patrons.  Gradually,  however,  the  system 
of  appropriation  was  extended  to  other  inhabitante 
of  the  parish,  to  the  injury  of  the  poor,  and  the 
multiplication  of  disputes. 

The  law  of  pews  in  England  is  briefly  this.  All 
church-seats  are  at  the  disposal  of  the  bishop,  and 
may  be  assigned  by  him,  either  (1)  directly  by 
faculty  to  the  holders  of  any  pro])er1y  in  the  parish ; 
or  (2)  through  the  churchwardens,  whose  duty  it  is, 
as  officers  under  the  bishop,  to  'seat  the  parishioners 
I  according  to  their  decree?  In  the  former  case,  the 
right  descends  with  the  property,  if  the  faculty  can 
be  shewn,  or  immemorial  occupation  proved.  In 
the  latter,  the  right  can  at  any  time  oe  reczdled, 
and  lapses  on  the  party  ceasing  to  be  a  regular 
occupant  of  the  seat^  It  appears  that  by  common 
law  every  parishioner  has  a  right  to  a  seat  in  the 
church,  and  the  churchwardens  are  bound  to  place 
each  one  as  best  they  can.  The  practice  of  letting 
pews,  except  under  the  church-building  acts,  or 
special  local  acts  of  parliament,  and,  much  more,  of 
telling  them,  has  been  declared  illegal 

In  Scotland,  pews  in  the  parish  churches  are 
assigned  by  the  neritors  (q.  v.)  to  the  parishioners, 
who  have  accordingly  the  preferable  claim  on  them; 
but  when  not  so  occupied,  they  are  legally  open  to 
alL  As  is  well  known,  pews  in  dissentmg  churches 
are  rented  as  a  means  of  revenue  to  sustain  general 
charges.  In  some  parts  of  the  United  States,  pews 
in  churches  are  a  matter  of  annual  comiietition,  and 
bring  large  sums.  Latterly,  in  England,  there  has 
been  some  discussion  as  to  the  injuriously  exclusive 
character  of  the  *  pew  S3r8tein,'  and  a  disposition  has 
been  manifested  to  abolish  pews  altogether,  and 
substitute  movable  seats  available  by  all  indiscri* 
minately.  Several  pamphlets  have  appeared  on  the 
subject.  In  the  Roman  Catholic  churches  on  the 
Continent  pews  are  seldom  to  be  seen. 

PEWTER,  a  common  and  very  useful  alloy  of 
the  metals,  tin  and  lead.  Two  other  kinds  of.  pewter 
have  a  more  compound  character.  Common,  or  leV' 
pewter^  consists  of  4  parts  of  tin  and  1  part  of  lead ; 
jUcUe-pewter  is  made  of  100  parte  of  tin,  8  parte  of 
antimony,  2  parte  each  of  bismuth  and  copper; 
another  kind,  called  trifle,  ia  composed  o£^  83 
parte  of  tin  and  17  parte  of  antimony.  Although 
these  are  the  stendard  formulas,  each  kind  is  often 
much  varied  to  suit  the  purposes  of  the  manufac- 
turer; the  chief  alteration  oeing  the  addition  of 
a  large  proportion  of  lead  to  the  last,  and  a  large 
increase  of  the  same  metal  in  the  other  two. 

PEZENA3,  a  manufacturing  town  of  France,  in 

the  department  of  Herault,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 

river  of  that  name,  25  miles  west-south-west  of 

Montpellier.     It  stands  in  a  district  remarkable  for 

!  ito  beauty,  and  so  well  cultivated  as  to  have  received 


PFEFFERS— PHAETHON. 


tho  lume  oi  the  Qarden  of  Herault  It  is  famous  for 
its  healthy  climate  and  clear  sky.  The  vicinity  pro- 
duoes  excellent  wine,  and  wooUen  and  linea  cooda 
aiv  manufactured.  The  trade,  however,  is  chiefly 
in  liquors,  Mid  P.  is  known  as  one  of  the  principsJ 
brandy-markets  of  Europe.    Pop.  6609. 

PFE'FFERS  an  extraordinary  and  much-visited 
locality  in  the  Canton  of  St  Gail,  Switzerland, 
five  miles  south-east  of  Sargans.  It  has  been 
famous  since  the  middle  of  the  11th  o.  for  its 
hot  baths,  situated  2180  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
520  feet  above  the  village  of  Ragatz.  The  old  baths 
of  P.  are  built  on  a  ledge  of  rock  a  few  feet  above 
the  roarinc;  torrent  of  the  Tamina,  and  are  hemmed 
in  bv  waUs  of  rock  towering  above  them  to  the 
height  of  600  feet,  and  so  far  burying  the  baths 
within  the  gorge,  that  even  in  the  height  of  sum- 
mer, sunlight  appears  above  them  only  from  ten 
to  four.  Above  the  old  baths,  the  walls  of  the 
ravine  of  the  Tamina  contract  until  they  meet, 
covering  up  the  river,  which  is  there  seen  from  a 
cavernous  gap.  The  hot-springs  are  reached  from 
the  baths  by  means  of  a  railed  platform.  This  plat- 
form, leading  to  the  hot  spring;,  is  secured  to  the 
rocks,  and  the  Tamina  churns  its  way  through  the 
cleft  30  or  40  feet  below.  The  waters  of  the  hot 
spring  are  now  conveyed  to  Eagatz  (about  two  miles 
below  P.)  by  wooden  pipes,  12,500  feet  long.  The 
waters,  as  tliey  issue  from  the  spring,  have  a  tem- 
perature of  100'  Fahr.  A  pint  of  the  water,  which 
IS  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing,  contains 
only  about  three  grains  of  saline  particles. 

PFEIFFER,  Ida  {nSe  Reysr),  a  celebrated 
female  traveller,  was  bom  at  Vienna,  October  15, 
1797,  and  from  her  earliest  years  shewed  a  resolute 
and  fearless,  but  not  unfeminine  disposition.  In 
1820,  she  married  an  advocate,  named  Pfeififer,  from 
whom  she  was  obliged  to  obtain  a  separation,  after 
she  had  borne  him  two  sons,  Oscar  and  Alfred, 
whose  education  devolved  on  herself.  When  she 
had  settled  them  in  life,  and  was  free  to  act  as  she 
pleased,  she  at  once  proceeded  to  gratify,  at  the  age 
of  45,  her  long-cherished  inclination  for  a  life  of 
travel  and  adventure.  Her  first  expedition  was  to 
the  Holy  Land.  She  left  Vienna  in  March  1842,  and 
returned  in  December  of  the  same  year,  havine 
traversed,  alone  and  without  cuide,  European  and 
Asiatic  Turkey,  Palestine,  and  Egyptb  She  pub- 
lished an  account  of  her  eastern  rambles  in  the 
follo^dng  vear  {Reise  einer  Wietierinn  in  daa  Heilige 
Lcmd),  wnich,  like  all  her  other  works,  has  p^ne 
through  many  editions,  and  been  translated  mto 
French  and  English.  In  1845,  she  visited  Northern 
Europe — Sweden,  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Iceland — 
and  recorded  her  impressions  in  her  Beise  nach  dem 
Skandinawiscfiy  Norden  und  der  Insel  Idand  (2  vols. 
1846).  But  these  journeys,  which  would  have 
satisfied  most  women,  were  but  little  excursions  in 
the  eves  of  this  insatiable  nomade,  and  only  served 
to  whet  her  appetite  for  something  vast^.  She 
resolved  on  a  voyage  roimd  the  world ;  and  on  the 
28th  of  June  1846,  sailed  from  Hamburg  in  a 
Danish  brig  for  BraziL  Her  descriptions  of  the 
scenery  of  that  country  and  of  the  mhabitants — 
both  native  Indians  and  Brazilians — are  exceedingly 
interesting.  She  then  sailed  round  Cape  Horn  to 
Chile,  ana  thence,  after  some  time,  across  the  Pacific 
to  Otaheite,  China,  and  Calcutta ;  crossed  the  Indian 
peninsula  to  Bombay,  whence  she  took  ship  for  the 
Persian  Gulf,  landed  at  Bassora,  traversea  a  great 
part  of  Western  Asia,  Southern  Russia,  and  Greece, 
and  re-entered  Vienna,  November  4,  1848.  Two 
yean  later,  she  published  a  narrative  of  her  travels 
and  adventures,  entitled  E^ne  Frauenfahrt  um  die 
Wdt  (Vienna^  1850,  3  vols.).  As  a  small  recognition 


of  her  services,  and  of  the  singular  enmpr,  fortitode, 
and   perseverance  of  her  character,  the  Anstmn 

Government  granted  Madame  P.  a  sum  of  £101. 
he  now  determined  to  go  round  the  world  apio, 
but  by  a  different  route.  Proceeding  to  England, 
she,  in  May  1851,  took  ship  for  Sarawak,  roandiog 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  penetrated  alone  to  the 
heart  of  Borneo,  visited  Java  and  Sumatra,  lived 
for  a  time  with  some  cannibal  tribes,  and  sailed 
from  the  Moluccas  to  CaUfomia,  thenoe  to  Pern, 
scaled  the  peaks  of  Chimborazo  and  Cotopaxi,  made 
a  run  through  the  principal  of  the  United  Stat^ 
and  returned  to  London  in  1854.  This  second 
voyage,  signalised  by  several  scientific  oltservations, 
is  describe  in  Meine  Zwe'Ue  Weltreise  (Vien.  1856). 
But  the  more  she  travelled,  the  fiercer  became  her 
hunger  for  movement.  In  September  1856,  she  sel 
out  on  what  was  to  be  her  last  expedition — namely, 
to  Madagascar.  After  enduring  terrible  hardships, 
she  ffot  away,  and  came  home  to  Vienna — to  die. 
Her  death  took  place  October  28,  1858. 

PFO'RZHEIM,  an  important  manufactaring 
town  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden,  on  the  northern 
border  of  the  Black  Forest,  stands  on  the  Ens,  at 
its  confluence  with  the  Nagold  and  Wurm,  55  miles 
south-south-east  of  Manheim,  and  on  a  recently- 
constructed  branch  of  the  Manheim  and  Hue 
Railway.  It  consists  of  the  town  proper— sur- 
rounded with  a  wall  and  ditch — and  the  suburbs ; 
contains  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  Markgrafs  of  Baden- Durlach; 
several  ohurches,  one  of  which,  the  SddosakircJic,  on 
a  height,  contains  a  number  of  monuments,  with 
marble  statues  of  the  princes  of  Baden ;  a  convent 
for  noble  ladies;  industrial  and  other  schools; 
chemical  and  iron -works ;  machine-shops,  tanneries, 
and  cloth  and  other  factories.  The  priucipal  articles 
of  manufacture  are  gold  and  silver  wares  and 
trinkets,  the  chief  marEets  for  which  are  Germany 
and  America.  An  important  trade  is  carried  on  in 
timber,  which  is  cut  in  the  neighbouring  forests, 
and  is  floated  down  to  Holland  by  the  Neckar  and 
Rhina     Pop.,  of  town  and  suburbs,  about  9000. 

PH^'DRUS,  a  Latin  poet,  whose  works  consist 
of  fables.  He  was  probably  a  Thracian  or  Mace- 
donian, carried  to  Rome  as  a  slave  in  his  childhood, 
and  brought  up  at  the  coui-t  of  Augustus,  who 
emancipated  him.  Under  Tiberius,  he  was  exposed 
to  great  danger  from  the  hostility  of  SeJAnus,  but 
liv^  to  see  that  general's  overthrow,  and  died  at 
an  advanced  aoe,  probably  in  the  reign  of  Claudina 
Five  books  of  fables,  after  the  manner  of  .^£sop,  and 
called  FabtUa  JUaopicBf  have  been  usually  ascribed 
to  hiuL  The  faults  of  the  style  have  led,  however, 
to  the  suspicion,  not  merely  of  alterations  at  a  latet 
date,  but  of  later,  and  even  much  later,  composition. 
The  dry  '  morals  *  have  been  supposed  to  indicate 
the  Middle  Ages  as  the  period  to  which  the  work 
should  probably  be  referred ;  but  its  authenticity 
is  generally  admitted.  The  first  etUtion  was 
published  at  Troves  in  1596.  The  text  has  subse- 
quently occupied  the  attention  of  some  of  the 
greatest  scholars  and  critics,  from  the  days  of 
Burmann  and  Bentley  to  the  present  timeu  A  sixth 
book,  containing  32  fables,  has  recently  been  dis- 
covered and  puuished,  of  the  authenticity  of  which, 
however,  there  are  greater  doubts  than  of  that  of 
the  other  books.  The  best  edition  is  that  oiJ.iX 
Orelli  (Zurich,  1831). 

PHJSNO'OAMGUS  PLAKT&    See  Pkakebo- 

GAHons  Plants. 

PHAETHON  (Le.,  the  shining),  in  the  writinj? 
of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  a  frequent  title  of  Helios  the 
sun-god,  and  subsequently  employed  as  his  Dam&— 
P.,  in  Greek  mythology,  is  also  the  name  of  a  son  of 


PHAETON— PHALANX. 


Hrlks,  famom  for  bU  aiifartuiiat«  attempt  to  drive 
hii  fither'B  chariot  Scai-cely  h»d  the  presumptuoi 
ynuth  seized  the  reins,  when  the  horseB,  perceiviu 
hia  weakneu,  nui  off,  and  a])|iniachinK  too  near  tt . 
Earth,  almuat  wt  it  on  iire.  Whereupon  the  Earth 
tried  to  Jupiter  for  help,  and  Jupiter  atruck  ijoi 
P.  with  a  thunderbolt  into  the  EridaauH  or  I 

Hia  aiaters.   the   Holiadea,  whu  had   barneascd  t 

biinea  of  tbe  Sun,  were  ohanged  into  poplars,  and 
their  tean  into  amber. 
PHAiiTON.     See  Tbopic  Bird. 
PHAGBD^'NA  (Or.,  from  pAngdn,  to  eat  or 
cfirmde),   deaignatea    a   variety   of    ulceration 
which  there  ii  much  infiltration,  and  at  the  ««„, 
tiiDi  rapid  deatniotion  irf  the  affected  part,     ITie 
anre  presenta  an  irregular  Outline,  and  a  yellowish 
•nrface  ;   it  gives  off  a  profuae  bloody  or  icboriah 
discharge,   and  is  extremely  painful.      It  usually 
■ttacka  jieraons  whose  conetitutiona  are  vitiated  by 
uroFula,  by  the  syphilitic  virus,  by  the  abuse  of 
mercury,  by  intemperance,  Ac.     It  not  very  unfre- 
quently  ajijieara  in  the  throat  after  scarlatina  in  a 
severe  fonu.    H  relief  is  not  afTrirded  by  the  internal 
administration  of  opium  (to  allay  the  pain),  and  of 
quinia,  or  some  other  prejiaration  of  barb,  wine, 
beef-tea,  ftc  to  imjirove  the  tone  of  the  conatitution, 
to;;i.'ther  with   astringent   and  sedative  local  appli- 
catiouB.  recourse  must  bo  bad  to  the  destruction  of 
th«  part  by  strong  nitric  acid,  or  some  other  cauatic. 
The  terrible  disease  known  in  civil  practice   as 
Slocuuino  PniOEU.«SA,  and  in  militaiy  and  naval 
practice  as  Hospital  Gakokene.  ismerelv,  according 
to  some  of  our  hisheat  surgical  authoritiea.  a  stat« 
of  phaj^edfena  in  ita  fullest  development     This  dis- 
onfer  rcinirea  tor  its  development  the  influence  of 
acme  of  those  oadclined  caiiaea  which  rPi;iUat«  the 
outlireak    of    epiiieraica,    and    ia   peculiarly    charac- 
terised by  its  coatagi"ua  and  infcctioua  nature.     It 
is  usually  engendered  by  the  overcrowding  of  sick 
and  wounded  men,  and  some  idea  of  its  virulence 
may  be  formed  from  tbe  fact  that  on  the  return  of 
tbe  French  fleet  from  the  Crimean  war,  no  less  than 
6(1  ileaths  from  it  occurred  in  one  ship  in  tbe  cmirso 
of  3S  hours.      It  ia  not  of  frequent  occurrence  in  tbe 
London  Hospitalajbut  ithrokeoutintho  Middleaeic 
Hospital  in  J835,  in  University  College  H.wpitai  in 
1944,   and   in  8t  Bartholomew's  and   St  George's 
Hospitals  in  1847  (Druitt's  Surgroa't  Vad'-meeum, 
8th  ed.,  p.   72,  note).      For  details  resjiecting  this 
disorder  the  reader  is  referred  to  Hennon's  Prin- 
eipla    of    MitUari/   Surgery,    Boggie    On    Hvspilal 
Ganijrene,    and  the   article  on    'Gangrene,'   by  Mr 
Holmes  Coote  in  Holmes's  SynTem  qf  Surgery^  voL  L 
PHALACBO'OORAX.     See  Cormorant. 
PHAL.*:'NA-     Soe  Motil 
PHA'LANGEK    or   PHALANGIST    [Phalan- 
gUla},  >  genus  of  marsupial  quadruiieda,  having  a 
rather  abort  head,  abort  ears,  short  woolly  fur,  a 
long  jirebensile  tail,  sometimes  completely  covered 
with   hair,  and  BOmetimea  only  at  the  base,  and 
acaly  towards  the  extremity ;  the  dentition  some- 
what various  as  to  the  number  of  premolars,  the 
inciaoFB   always  six  in  the  upper  jair  and  two  in 
the  lower,  tbe  tme  molars  eight  in  each  jaw,  the 
canines  of   the  lower  jaw  very  small,  and  close  to 
tbe  incisoro.     Tbe  fore-paws  are  strong,  and  capable 
of  much  uae  in  eraaping  food  and  bringing  it  to  the 
month.     A  numoer  of  species  inhabit  Auatralia  aud 
the  ialaada  to  the  north  of  it    They  live  chiefly  in 
trees,  and  feed  on  insticts,  small  animals  of  various 
kinds,  epgo,  and  fmit«.     The  Sooty  P.  or  Tafo* 
iP.  /uliginomi)  it  pretty  common  in  Van  Diemcn'a 
lAnd,  Kod   is  much  sought  after  on  acuuuni  of  ill 
fill-,  which  is  of  a  uniform  smoky-black  colour,  or 
tinged  witft  chtstnut,  warm  and  MautifuL    The  tail 


I  is  very  bushy.  It  is  nocturnal  in  its  habits.— Tlie 
Vduinb  p.  {P.  eulpiita),  also  called  the  Vulpisb 
Opossuir,  is  veiT  plentiful  and  widely  diffused  in 
Australia.  The  length  of  the  animal  from  the  |ioint 
of  the  muzzle  to  die  root  of  the  tail  is  aUmt  2l> 
inches ;  the  tail  is  about  16  inches  long,  and  ia 
buahy ;  the  colour  La  grayiah-yellow  on  Uie  upp«r 


Vulpine  Pbalanger  (P.  mitpina). 

IKuts,  and  tawny-buff  below.     The  fitr  ia  not  so 
much  viUned  as  that  of  the  last  s[>ccics,  but  is  used 
for  varioiia  puri-oscs.     The   flesh,  altboii^'b  it  has  a 
strong  peculi.-ir  flavour,  is  a  favourite  fuoii  of  the 
Ausitraluin  aborigines — Nearly  allied  to  this  genus, 
ia  tbe  genus  C'wcuit  of  which  one  species,  whitish- 
gray,  apotted  with  brown,  ia  plentiful  iu  the  Molucca 
and  Papuan  Islands. — Allied  to  the  phalangers  also 
e  the  Flying  Phalangers  (q.  v.). 
PUALA'NGIDjii:,  a  family  of  Tracbearian  Arach- 
da,   popularly  called  Harvesl-mfit,   some  of    the 
ecies  ap[ieariog  in  great  numbers  in  flolds  during 
e  ha^  and  corn  harvests.     They  resemble  spiJera 
their  general    form,   although    their  organs  of 
rea|>iration    are    very    difTurent      Their   K-gs   are 
extremely  long  aud  alender.    Most  of  the  species 
are  very  agile. 

PHALANSTE'RIANISM  [from  Or.  signifying 
phalanx  and  solid),  tbe  system  of  living  in  commu- 
nities called  phalansteries,  as  suggested  by  Fourier, 
the  French  socialist     See  Fouriebisk. 

PHA'LANX,  the  ancient  Qreek  formation  for 
heavy  infantry,  which  won  for  itself  a  reputation  of 
invincibility,  may  be  described  as  a  line  of  parallel 
columns,  rendered  by  ita  depth  and  aolidity  ca]^able 

-'    ^trating   any  line   of   troops.      The  oldest 

was  the  Lacednmonian  or  Spartan,  in  which 
the  soldiers  stood  eight  deep ;  the  Athenian  pbalaox 
had  been  the  same,  until,  at  the  battle  of  Marathon, 
(480  B.C.J  Miltiades  reduced  the  depth  to  four  men 
in  order  to  increase  his  front     When  Epaminondaa 


nable  to  troops  organised  in  their  own  manner. 
He  therefore  increased  the  depth  and  leaseaed  the 
front  of  his  phalanx,  which  enabled  him  to  burst 
through  the  Spartan  line,  inflicting  tbe  sanguinary 
defeat  of  Lenotra  (371  B.C.).  Philip  of  Maoedon  had 
learned  tbe  art  of  war  under  EpaminondoBi  and 
when  be  resolved  to  make  his  state  a  military 
power,  he  formed  the  celebrated  Uacedonian 
nhalanx  (319  t.c),  which  enabled  him  to  conquer 
Greece,  and  with  which  hia  son  Alexander  subdued 
the  eastern  world.  The  Macedonian  phalanx,  aa 
the  lateat  form  that  organisation  assumed,  and  aa 
the  shape  in  which  the  ph^anx  encountered  tha 


PHALA  KI8-PHALLD8. 


militaiy  skill  of  tha  west,  U  dwerving  of  de»cripti( 
Tbe  tine  v/a»  16  deep:  a  grand-pluJiuix  comiiriBi 
lti,S&i  hoptiitt,  or  heavy-arraed  soldiers,  Bubdivid 
ms  follows  ;  the  grand-pbalaiiK  was  composed  of  foor 
phslanxea  or  divisions,  each  under  a  geceral  officer, 
called  a  plialajiuarch ;  hii  commaad  was  divided 
into  two  brigades  or  meranjtitt  (sometimes  called 
tdarehifH],  each  of  these  comprising  two  regiments, 
or  (Jiiliarchia,  of  four  battalions  or  lyntagmala  each. 
A  fgntagma  answered  accurately  to  a  modem  bat- 
talion, except  that  it  was  imaller.  It  was  a  perfect 
aquare.  with  16  men  each  way,  was  commanded  bj 
A  tpntagmatardt  or  xaiar/oi ,-  and  had  an  adjutant, 
with  one  ortwo  other  staff-officers  wbo  stood  behind. 
Eight  files  nailed  were  under  a  taxiareU,  four  under 
*  UirarcA,  correspouding  probably  to  a  modem 
captain,  two  files  were  under  a  dilockit''  or  subaltern. 
A  single  file  of  16  men  was  called  •  torho/i,  and  the 
best  man  was  placed  at  Its  head  ;  a  picked  man,  tbe 
oarago*.  also  marching  in  the  rear.  The  arma  of  all 
theae  rihalam-men  were  pikei  or  Bpears,  24  feet 
long,  of  which  6  feet  were  behind  and  18  feet  held 
in  front  of  the  combatant.  As  each  man  occupied 
with  his  shield  three  feet,  the  jihalani,  when  it 
•dvanced.  had  six  tiers  of  st«ar-points  in  front,  a  wall 
of  steel  which  no  troops  could  withstand,  especially 
as  the  bearers  of  the  spears  were  pressed  on  by  the 
ten  ranks  in  their  rear.  By  rapid  movements  the 
phalanx  could  change  front,  form  in  cIobo  column  of 
■jntagmata,  and  eieonte  other  critical  mantenvres. 
— The  heavy-armed  phalanx  was  onfinarily  Uaaked 
by  pflt/utta  or  light  infantry,  similarly  fanned,  but 
only  eight  deep,  while  the  cavalry  were  but  four 
deep.  The  phalanx,  as  representative  of  the  heavy 
formation,  came  in  contact  with  tbe  lighter  legion 
of  Home  durini^  the  wars  of  Pyrrhiu  in  Italy. — At 
the  great  battle  of  Heroclea  (279  b.c),  the  phalanx 
won  the  day  ;  but  the  victory  was  attributable 
to  other  cauaea  as  much  aa  to  any  superiority  of 


who  flnurished  about  the  middte  of  the  6th  c  B 


According  to  the  prevalent  tradition,  he  was 
:ions  for  his  cruelty.  He  mjuntained  his  power 
6  years  by  the  aid  of  foreign  hirelings,  and,  it 


is  said,  by  putting  to  death  all  pel 
in  his  duminiona ;  but  at  last  ne 
popular  indignation.  He  gratified,  we  are  told,  his 
love  of  cruelty  by  causing  persons  to  bo  roasted 
•live  in  a  brazen  bull,  whicli  was  made  for  that 
purpose— tbe  first  victim  being  the  maker,  Perillus. 
Cicero  calls  bim  the  'moat  cmel  of  all  tyrants' 
{crud^limmua  omnium  tifroJiniiruni).  But  some  doubt 
attaches  to  this  view  of  his  character,  partly  because 
many  of  the  Crimea  laid  to  his  charge  are  intrinsically 
improbable,  and  partly  because  later  traditions 
rejiresent  him  aa  fond  of  literature  and  philosophy, 
and  a  patron  of  learned  men.  Lucian  adirins  that 
be  was  naturally  a  man  of  a  mild  and  humane  dis- 
position. How  far  the  later  view  should  be  allowed 
to  modify  the  earlier,  it  is — in  tUe  absence  of  all 
reliable  knuwh'ilo — impossible  to  say.  It  is  under 
the  later  aspect  that  he  is  shewn  to  ua  in  the  famous 
but  apurioua  Jipittla  of  PluUarit.   See  Bbstlbv. 

PHA'LAROPE  IPIialaropm),  a  genus  of  birda  of 
the  family  Lobiptdkiee  (q.  v.) ;  having  a  nit'ier  long, 
■lender,  weak,  straight  bill,  resembling  that  of  the 
sandpipers,  which,  indeed,  they  otherwise  much 
resemble,  although  diSering  in  their  aquatic  habits ; 
the  greater  part  of  their  time  being  passed  in  swim- 
ming on  the  sea,  where  they  seek  moUuacs  and 
other  small  marine  animala  for  their  food.  The 
GraT  p.  {P.  IdhatOE),  although  formerly  ao  rare  a 
bird  in  Britain  that  Feaaant  says  he  only  knew  of 
two  inatancM  of  ita  occuirence  in  bis  time,  is  now 


not  nnfrequenlly  seen  in  ita  autumn  migration  from 
its  northern  abode  to  its  southern  winter-quartern 
It  breeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  both  of  the  old  and 
new  world,  migrating  southward  in  both  on  tha 
approach  of  winter.  Ita  entire  length  ia  rather  nioro 
'.ban  eight  inchea.     The  tail  is  abort     It  is     ' 


tiful  bird,  and  remarkable  for  tha  great  difference  of 
ita  summer  and  winter  plumage,  the  prev: 
in  winter  being  a  delicate  gray,  whilst. i: 


iling  tint 


Oiay  Phslarope  [P.  lobatta). 

tbe  upper  parts  exhibit  a  fine  mixture  of  black, 
'  e,  and  yellow,  and  the  breast  and  under  iiarti 
reddish  ch.stnuL— The  Eed-necked  P.  [P. 
hifperboreiie,  or  Lobii>ti  hyperboreut,  a  generic  dis- 
tinction beinj;  made  by  Ciivier  and  others,  on  account 
of  the  aliarper  and  more  slender  bill),  breeds  in  aome 
of  the  northern  Scottish  islands,  although  it  ii 


norther 


region 


e  tbe 


former,  is  found  In  oil  the  northern  partsof  the  world. 
It  ia  rather  smaller  than  the  Gray  K,  and  is,  Uke  it, 
very  gracefvil  iu  form  and  movements,  and  finely 
colonreiL  The  phalaroiHis  are  very  fearless  of  man, 
and  very  easily  tamed.  Their  tlesh  ia  oily  and 
-"ipala  table. 

PHA'LLUS,  a  representation  of  the  male  gcner- 
ive  organs,  used  at  certain  Dionyaian  feativala 
ancient  Greece,  aa  a  symbol  cf  the  powers  of 
,  ocreation.  It  waa  au  object  of  oonimon  wor- 
ship throughout  the  nature- religion  of  the  East, 
and  was  called  by  manifold  names,  such  aa 
Linga  (q.  v.),  Joni,  Pollear,  kc  Originally,  it  had 
no  other  meaning  than  the  allegorical  one  of  that 
mysterious  union  between  the  male  and  female, 
which  throughout  nature  seems  to  be  the  sole  condi- 
if  the  continuation  of  the  existence  of  animated 


and  unnatural  vices,  its  worship  became  an  intoler- 
ible  nuisance,  and  was  put  down  by  the  aenate  on 
iccount  of  the  more  than  usual  immorality  to  which 
t  gave  rise.  Ita  origin  has  given  rise  to  much 
ipeculation,  but  no  certainty  has  been  arrived  at  by 
nvestigatora.  The  Phtenleians  traced  its  introduo- 
.ion  into  their  worship  to  Adonis,  the  Egyptians 
o  Osiris,  the  Phrygians  to  Attys,  the  tiioeka  to 
Dionysus.  The  common  myth  concerning  it  woa  tha 
atory  of  aome  god  deprived  of  hia  powers  of  generation 
—an  allusion  to  the  snn,  which  in  autumn  loses  ita 
frnotifying  influence.  The  procession  in  which  it  waa 
carried  about  was  called  Fbollagogia,  or  Peri]>hallia, 
and  a  certain  hymn  was  auna  on  that  occasion, 
called  the  Phamon  Mclos.  The  beareii  of  the 
phallus,  which  generally  consisted  of  red  leathei-, 
and  was  attached  to  an  enormoua  pole,  were  the 
Phallophoroi.  Phalli  were  on  those  occasions  worn 
aa  ornaments  round  the  neck,  or  attached  to  tha 


PHALLUS-PHARISEES. 


body.  Aristotle  traces  the  or^in  of  comedy  to  the 
ribaldry  and  the  improvised  jokes  customary  on 
those  festivals.  Phalli  were  often  attached  to 
statues,  and  of  a  prodigious  size ;  sometimes  they 
were  even  movable.  At  a  procession  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  a  phallus  was  carried  about  made  of 
gold,  and  120  yards  long.  Before  the  temple  of 
Venus  at  Hierapolis  there  stood  two  phalli,  180 
feet  high,  upon  which  a  priest  mounted  annually, 
and  remained  there  in  prayer  for  seven  da3rs.  The 
phallus  was  an  attribute  of  Pan,  Priapus,  and  to 
a  certain  extent  also  of  Hermes. 

PHALLUS,  a  genus  of  fungi  of  the  division 
Ocutei'omyeeteg,  egg-8ha|)ed,  the  outer  covering  at 
length  bursting  to  permit  the  grovrth  of  a  stem,  the 
receptacle  which  produces  the  spores,  and  which  is 
surmounted  by  a  rudimentary  pileus.  The  most 
common  British  species,  P.  impudicus  or  faUidits, 
popularly  called  iitin&hom,  ia  as  large  as  a  hen's 
®gg>  growing  underground  in  thicketo,  and  finally 
sendmg  up  a  stem  4 — 6  inches  high,  the  fetid 
mnell  of  which  is  felt  for  many  yards  around.  The 
egg  is  full  of  a  jelly-like  substance.  The  growth  of 
the  stem  is  very  rapid,  and  it  soon  decays. 

PHANEBO'GAMOUS  (Gr.  phaneroa,  manifest ; 
game,  marriage)  PLANTS,  or  Phanogamous  (Gr. 
vkaino,  to  shew)  Plants,  are  th«>se  plants  which 
have  true  flowers,  and  in  which  the  sexual  oi^ns 
(stamens  and  pistils)  are  distinctly  notable,  ^ey 
are  also  callea  Flowering  Plants,  being  by  all 
these  names  contradistinguished  to  Cryptogamous 
Plants  (q.  v.).  The  seeds  of  P.  P.  originate  from 
Ovules  (a.  v.),  and  already  contain  the  young  plant, 
more  or  less  perfectly  formed,  which  is  called  the 
embryo,  P.  P.  are  about  three- fourths  of  all  known 
plants.  Among  them  are  included  all  the  larger 
plants,  and  aU  plants  of  great  importance  in  an 
economic  point  of  view.  They  are  generally  divided 
into  Monocotyledonoua  or  Endogenous  Plants,  and 
Dicotyledonous  or  Exogenous  Plants, 

PHA'RAOH.  The  name  given  by  the  Hebrews 
to  the  monarch  ruling  in  Egypt  at  the  time,  in  the 
same  manner  as  Cfesar  was  a])plied  to  the  Roman 
emperors,  and  as  Khan  is  to  the  Tartar  and  Shah 
to  the  Persian  rulers.  The  word  is  of  uncertain 
etymolojzy,  being  capable  of  two  derivations -^viz., 
either  Pa  ra,  *the  Sun,*  which  is  the  leading  or 
first  title  of  all  Egyptian  monarchs,  or  the  popu- 
lar expression.  Pi  ouro,  or  Phouro,  *  the  King.*  It 
is  even  possible  to  derive  it  from  Pa  har,  'the 
Horus,'  another  title  of  Egyptian  monarchs.  The 
greatest  difiiculties  have  been  encountered  in 
attempting  to  determine  the  particular  monarchs 
who  pass  under  this  name  in  tne  Scriptures.  The 
first-mentioned  P.  is  the  one  in  whose  reign 
Abraham  visited  Egypt,  who  is  supposed  by  some 
chronologists  to  have  been  one  of  the  Shephrad 
Monarcl^  but  nothing  can  be  offered  beyond  mere 
conjecture  in  support  of  this  theory.  Another  P.  is 
the  one  in  whose  reign  Joseph  was  Drought  to  Egypt, 
and  who  was  supposed  by  Eusebins  to  be  Apophis, 
one  of  the  later  Shepherd  Kings  of  the  seventeenth 
dynasty,  who  are  known  from  the  monumento  to 
have  immediately  preceded  the  eighteenth.  Bunsen 
indeed  places  the  arrival  of  Joseph  in  the  reign  of 
Usertesen,  or,  as  he  reads  his  name,  Sesertesen  I.  of 
tiie  12th  dynasty,  in  which  indeed  a  famine  is  stated 
in  the  hieroglyphical  texts  to  have  hapx>ened,  and  in 
which  it  appears  numerous  officers  were  established 
to  take  charge  of  the  grain.  Argumente,  however, 
may  be  adduced  for  Joseph  havmg  arrived  in  the 
time  of  the  12th  dynasty,  from  the  fact  of  the 
establishment  of  the  family  of  Jacob  in  the  land 
of  Goshen,  the  importance  to  which  Joseph  had 
risen,  and  the  omission  of  the  name  of  any  of  the 


principal  Egyptian  cities  in  the  nairative,  and  th« 
fact  of  Joseph  having  married  Asenath,  the  daughter 
of  Potipherah,  priest  Qf  Heliopolis,  a  city  evidt:atly 
the  seat  of  the  court  imder  the  12th  dynasty,  as 
Guar  or  Avaris  was  under  the  Shepherds.  Equal 
difficulty  is  experienced  in  determimng  the  P.  who 
reduced  the  Israelites  to  bondage,  employed  them 
in  the  labours  of  the  brick-field,  and  compelled 
them  to  build  the  treasure-cities  of  Pithom  and 
Kameses.  He  appears  to  have  meditated  the  total 
absorption  of  the  Hebrews  into  the  Egyptian  race. 
All  that  is  clear  from  the  narrative  is  that  the  city 
of  Rameses  was  called  after  his  name,  in  the  same 
manner  as  modem  forts  have  been  by  contemporary 
rulers.  Now  frequent  mention  occurs  in  the  Papyri 
and  other  texts  of  the  Mahatalu  en  Bamessu,  or 
Tower  of  Rameses  IL,  which  is  represented  on 
the  walls  of  Medinat-Abu ;  and  this  has  induced 
Lepsius  and  Bunsen  to  depress  the  date  of  the 
Exodus  from  1491 B.  a  to  the  close  of  the  nineteenth 
dynasty,  or  after  Rameses  II.,  a  point  controverted 
by  other  chronologists,  who  wish  to  elevate  it  to  the 
middle  of  the  18t£  dynasty,  or  1732  b.  o.  To  s^- 
chronise  the  former  date,  Lepsius  takes  the  rabbini- 
cal date  of  1314  &  a  for  the  Exodus,  or  1340  b.  a 
for  the  birth  of  Moses.  The  P.  of  the  Exodus  is 
supposed  to  be  Merienptah  or  Menephthes,  the  son 
and  successor  of  Rameses  II.  Philologically,  this 
ex])lanation  is  preferable,  as  the  fixed  i>oint  in  the 
inquiry  is  the  name  of  the  Migdol  of  Rameses  found 
both  m  the  Scriptures  and  on  the  monumento  of 
Eg3rpt.  Gther  Pharaohs  are  roeutioned;  as  the 
father  of  Tahpenes,  wife  of  Hadad  and  mother  of 
Genuboth ;  the  P.  whose  daughter  Solomon  married ; 
P.  Nechao,  or  Necho  II.,  who  gave  battle  to  Josiah, 
king  of  Judah,  whom  he  slew  at  Megiddo,  and  who 
made  war  against  the  Syrians,  defeated  them  at 
Magdolus,  and  took  Cadytus  or  Katsh,  on  the 
Arunata  or  Orontes.  He  was  subsequently  defeated 
by  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Garchemish,  607  B.  a  P. 
Hophra,  was  the  Uaphris  or  Apries  of  the  Greeks 
whose  destruction  was  prophesied  by  Jeremiah, 
and  who  was  strangled  570  B.  o. — Bunsen,  JEgyptens 
SuUe,  iii  p.  109  ;  Lepsius,  EinUit,  p.  317 ;  Nash,  TU 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus  (8vo,  Lend.  1862). 

PHA'BISEES  [Perishm  or  Perushim,  Separ- 
atists), a  so-caUed  'Jewish  sect,*  more  correctly, 
however,  a  certain  Jewish  school,  which  probably 
dates  as  a  distinct  body  or  party  from  the  time  of 
the  Syrian  troubles,  and  whose  chief  tendency  it 
was  to  resist  all  foreign,  chiefly  Greek,  influences 
that  threatened  to  undermine  the  sacred  religion  of 
their  fathers.  They  most  emphatically  took  their 
stand  upon  the  Law,  together  with  those  inferences 
drawn  from  its  written  letter  which  had,  partly  from 
time  immemorial,  been  current  as  a  sacred  tradition 
among  the  people.  Out  of  the  small  band  of  the  Cha- 
sidim  (q.  v.),  the  P.  had  taken  their  rise  o^ginally  as 
Chaberim,  Friends,  GoUeagues,  Scholars — ^in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Am-Haarez,  or  common  people— 
and  their  chief  object  in  life  was  the  Divine  Law, 
ite  study  and  farther  development.  Principally 
distinguished  by  their  most  scrupulous  observance 
of  certain  ordinances  relating  to  things  clean  and 
unclean,  they  further  adopted  among  themselves 
various  degrees  of  purity,  the  highest  of  which, 
however,  was  scarcely  ever  reached  by  any  member 
of  their  community.  For  every  degree,  a  s])ecial 
course  of  instruction,  a  solemn  initiation,  and  a 
novitiate  was  necessary;  all  of  which,  together  with 
a  certain  distinction  in  dress,  seems  to  have  been 
imitated  from  them  by  the  Essenes  (q.  v.).  The 
name  of  P.  or  Pem^m  was  probably  at  first 
bestowed  upon  them  in  derision  by  the  Sadducees  or 
Zadokites,  the  priestly  aristocracy  and  their  party, 
the  Patricians,  who  differed  from  them  politically, 

4U 


PHABISEES. 


md  to  eome  extent  also  in  religions  matters.  The 
P.  had  no  special  *  Confession  of  Faith/  or  articles 
of  creed  different  from,  the  whole  bod^  of  Jews. 
The  Bible,  as  interpreted  by  the  traditional  Law, 
was  their  only  code.  Obedience  to  this  Law, 
strictest  observance  of  all  religions  and  moral 
duties,  submission  to  the  Divine  will,  full  confidence 
in  the  wisdom  and  justice  of  Providence,  firm  belief 
in  future  reward  and  punishment,  chastity,  meek- 
ness, and  forbearance — ^these  were  the  doctrines 
inculcated  in  their  schools.  They  were,  in  fact, 
nothing  more  or  less  than  the  educated  part  of  the 
people,  who  saw  in  the  rigid  adherence  to  the  ancient 
religion,  such  as  it  had  developed  itself  in  the  course 
of  centuries,  the  only  means  of  saving  and  preserving 
the  commonwealth,  notwithstandinfl;  all  its  internal 
and  external  troubles.  Hence,  tney  wished  the 
public  affairs,  the  state  and  all  its  political  doings, 
to  be  directed  and  measured  by  the  standard  of  this 
same  Divine  Law;  without  any  regard  for  those 
aristocratic  families  who  ruled,  or  at  all  events 
greatly  influenced  the  commonwealth.  These  con- 
sisted of  the  priestly  families,  the  Zadokites  (Sad- 
dncees,  q.  v.),  and  of  the  valiant  heroes  and  sagacious 
statesmen,  who  had  brought  the  Syrian  wars  to  a 
successful  issue,  and  had,  by  prudent  negotiations 
with  other  courts,  restored  the  nation  to  its  former 
greatness,  and,  on  their  own  part,  had  acquired 
wealth  and  fame,  and  freer  and  wider  views  of  life 
and  reli^on.  The  latter  held  the  modem  doctrine, 
that  relmion  and  state  were  two  totally  different 
things  ;  that  God  had  given  man  the  power  of  taking 
his  matters  into  his  own  hands;  and  that  it  was 
foolish  to  wait  for  a  supernatural  interference,  where 
energy  and  will  were  ail  that  was  required.  Natur- 
ally enough,  the  political  difference  between  the 
two  parties  by  degrees  grew  into  a  religious  one, 
since  the  Jewish  State  was  one  still  com- 
pletely pervaded  by  the  religious  element — as 
indeed  it  had  begun  as  a  theocracy,  and  could 
still,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  called  by  that  name. 
And  the  more  the  Sadducees  lost  their  influence 
— the  people  sidins  with  the  P. — the  more  the 
religious  gulf  must  nave  widened  between  them ; 
although  the  divergence  between  them,  as  far 
as  our  authorities — Josephus,  the  New  Testa- 
ment, and  the  Talmud — ^go,  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  of  a  very  grave  natiue.  Thus,  the  P.  assumed 
the  dogma  of  immortality,  chiefly  with  a  view 
to  a  futiure  reward  of  good  and  evil  deeds  in  this 
world;  while  the  Sadducees,  without  rejecting — 
as  we  are  erroneously  informed  by  Josephus — wis 
dogma  in  the  least,  yet  held  that  there  was  nothing 
in  the  Scripture  to  warrant  it,  and,  above  all,  that 
there  was  no  need  of  any  future  reward ;  at  any- 
rate,  that  a  pious  life  with  a  view  to  this  was  not 
meritorious.  While  the  P.  held  all  the  traditional 
ordinances  in  equal  reverence  with  the  Mosaic 
'mes,  tracing,  in  fact,  most  of  the  former  to  Sinai 
itself,  the  Sadducees  rejected,  or  rather  varied 
some  of  these  according  to  the  traditions  of  their 
own  families :  these  ordinances  chiefly  relating  to 
priestly  and  sacrificial  observances,  certain  ukws 
of  punty,  and  some  parts  of  the  civil  law.  It  may 
perhaps  even  be  assumed,  with  the  most  recent 
mvestigators  (chiefly  Geiger),  that  the  P.  were 
the  representatives  of  a  newer  Halacha,  dictated 
by  an  oppositional  and  religions  and  nalional  zeal 
which  carried  them  far  beyond  the  original 
boundaries.  Certain  other  legal  differences  between 
the  two  parties,  such  as  the  application  of  the  laws 
of  inheritance  to  daughters,  or  of  the  responsi- 
bility of  the  master  for  his  servants,  are  nothing 
more  than  political  party-views  in  a  reli^ous  masl^ 
which  were  meant  to  meet  certain  special  isolated 
eases  only.    In  general,  the  P.  handled  justice  in  a 


much  milder  manner  than  their  antagonists,  who 
took  their  stand  uy^on  the  rigid  letter,  aud  would 
hear  of  no  mercy  where  a  violation  of  the  corle  was 
clearly  made  out  Out  of  the  midst  of  the  P.  rose 
the  great  doctors  and  masters  of  t|ie  Law  (Soferim, 
Scribes,  Homodidtiskaloiy  teachers  of  the  Law),  and 
to  them  were  intrusted  by  the  later  rulers  the  most 
important  offices. 

Until  recently,  the  greatest  misconception  has 
prevailed  even  among  scholars  respecting  this 
self-sacrificing,  patriotic,  pious,  learned,  and  national 
party  of  progress.  That  there  were  among  them 
those  who  were  a  disgrace  to  any  party,  and, 
still  more,  to  their  siaict  one,  no  one  knew  better 
th%n  the  P.  themselves,  and  in  bitterer  words  than 
were  ever  used  by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  the 
Talmud  castigates  certain  hyperpious  members  of 
their  own  community  as  the  *  plague  of  Pharisaism.' 
These  hypocrites  were  characteristically  styled  Zt- 
buim  [dyed,  painted  ones],  *  who  do  evil  deeds  like 
Zimri,  and  require  a  godly  reward  like  Phineha&' 
Seven  kinds  of  P.  are  enumerated  in  the  Talmud, 
six  of  whom  were  not  to  be  counted  as  real  Phari- 
sees— viz.  (1)  they  who  did  the  will  of  God  for 
earthly  motives ;  (2)  those  who  made  very  small 
steps,  or  said :  Wait  for  me — I  have  still  some  good 
deed  to  do ;  (3)  those  who  knocked  their  heads 
against  walls,  lest  they  might  look  at  a  woman; 
(4)  ex  officio  Saints ;  (5)  those  who  say :  tell  me  of 
another  duty ;  (6)  those  who  are  pious,  because 
they  fear  Grod.    The  only  genuine  Pharisee  was  he 

*  who  did  the  will  of  his  Father  in  Heaven,  became 
he  loved  Him.*  Josephus's  accounts,  distortions  in 
themselves,  have,  to  add  to  the  confusion,  been 
misunderstood  (thus,  for  example,  the  word  which 
he  uses  to  designate  the  three  parties,  never  meant 

*  sect,*  as  it  has  invariably  been  interpreted) ;  and 
the  position  of  Christ,  in  relation  to  the  P.,  can 
never  be  understood  properly  without  a  full  acquaint- 
ance with  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  to  which 
there  is  no  other  way  than  a  knowledge  of  that 
literature  (the  Talmud  and  Midrash)  which  has  so 
long  been  neglected.     Christ  found  the  influcnos 
of  the  P.  predominant  among  the  people,  although 
the  Sadducees  (and  the  Bo^thusians)  were  in  reality 
the  ruling  classes  and  allies  of  the  reigning  dynasty. 
He  naturally  sided  with  the  democratic  party  of 
the  P.  asainst  that  of  the  proud  opposite  campi 
As  for  the  religious  tendencies  of  the  latter,  tiie 
Sadducees   (q.  v.) — ^the   people    had    decided  that 
point  already  practically,  by  siding  with  the  Pha- 
risees.   Once  only  an  allusion  is  made  also  to  the 
leaven  of  Herod  =  the  Sadducees   (Mark  viiL  15, 
c£  Matt  xvL  6).      But  it  was,  above  all  things, 
necessary  to  combat  the  ever-growing  tendency  to 
choke  up,  as  it  were,  all  real  piety  and  genoine 
virtue   of   heart   under   external  ceremonies  and 
observances,  which,  unless   guarded  against,  will 
appear,  instead  of  a  mere  symbol  ana  memento, 
the  essence  of  religion  itself,  and  thus  become  in 
time  a  delusion  and  bondage,  and    end  in  that 
vile   hypocrisy,  against  whicn  the  Talmud  fights 
with  aU  its  powers  of  derision,  and  Christ  inveighs 
in  much  more  vehement  terms  than  is  his  wont 
It  was  not  in  themselves  that  these  *oral  laws' 
were  held  up  to  scorn.     They  were  a  necessary  and 
natural  growth,  and  acted,  in  the  main,  beneficially; 
as  is  now  fully  recognised  by  scholars  of  eminence. 
(For   some  further   remarkjs  on  the  subject,  see 
Talbicd.) 

Pharisaism — ^from  which  gradually  branched  off  the 
wild  democratical  party  of  ZeaioU  (Kannaim),  and 
which  for  the  last  time  represented  political  opinions 
in  tiie  revolution  of  Biu'  Cochbi^has,  from  the 
downfall  of  the  sanctuary,  and  the  final  destniction 
of  the  commonwealth  to  this   day,  remained  the 


PHARMACOPCEIA— PHARYNX. 


principal  representatiye  of  Judaism  as  a  creed  only, 
Saddaceeism  dying  oat,  or,  at  all  events,  producing 
only  one  suoh  stenle  plant  as  EAraisuL   See  Jewish 

8BCTB,  SaDDUCBBS. 

PHARMACOPOS'IA.  This  term  has  been  applied 
to  various  works,  consistinff  for  the  most  part  of 
(1)  a  list  of  the  articles  of  the   Materia  Medica, 
whether  simple  or  compoimd,  with  their  characters, 
and  the  tests  for  the  determination  of  their  purity ; 
and  (2)  a  collection   of  approved  receipts  or  pre- 
scriptions, together  with  tne  processes  for  articles 
ih  the  Materia  Medica,  obtained  by  chemical  opera- 
tions.    Almost  every  civilised   country  of  import- 
ance has  its  national  pharmacopoeia,  amongst  which 
those  of  the  United  States,  France,  and  Prussia 
deserve    8i)ecially   honourable    notice.      The    first 
pharmacopoeia  published  under  authority  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  Nuremberg  in  the  year  1542.    A 
student  named  Valerius  Cordus,  who  was  staying 
for  a  short  time  at  Nurembeiv,  shewed  a  collection 
of  medical  receipts,  which  he  nad  selected  from  the 
works  of  the  most  eminent  writers,  to  the  physi- 
cians of  that  city,  who  were  so  struck  with  its 
value  that  they  urged  him  to  print  it  for  the  benefit 
of  the  apothecaries,  and  obtained  for  his  work  the 
■anction    of  the  senatus.      Before  this  time,  the 
books  chiefly  in  use  amongst  apothecaries  were  the 
treatises :  On  Simplea  by  Avicenna  and  Serapion ; 
the  Lib^r  Servitoria  of  Balchasim  ben  Aberazerim ; 
the    Anlidotarium   of    Johannes    Damascenus    or 
Mezue,  arranged  in  classes;  axid  Hiq  A ntidotariam 
of  Nicolaus  &  Salerno,  which  was  arranged  alpha- 
betically. This  work  was  commonly  called  Nicolaua 
jlfa;7iiu«,  to  distinguish  it  from  an  abriclgment  known 
as  NicolauB  Parvus, 

Confining  our  remarks  to  the  British  Pharma- 
copoeias, we  may  notice  that  the  first  edition  of 
the  London  Pharmacopoeia  (or,  more  correctly 
speaking,  of  the  Pharmacopoeia  of  the  London 
Colle<;e  of  Physicians)  appeared  in  1618,  and  was 
chiefly  founded  on  the  works  of  Mezue  and  Nicolaus 
de  Salerno.  Successive  editions  appeared  in  1627, 
1635,  1650, 1697, 1721,  1746,  1787,  1809,  1824,  1836, 
and  1851 ;  and  form  an  important  contribution  to 
the  history  of  the  progress  of  pharmacy  and  thera- 
peutics during  the  last  two  centuries  and  a  half. 
The  nature  and  the  number  of  the  ingredients  that 
entered    into    the   composition   of    many   of    the 

fiharmaceutical  preparations  of  the  17th  and 
8th  centuries,  would  equally  astonish  most  of 
the  practitioners  and  patients  of  the  present  day. 
In  the  earlier  editions  we  find  enumerated  earth- 
wonns,  snails,  wood-lice,  frogs,  toads,  puppy  dogs, 
foxes  ('  a  fat  fox  of  middle  age,  if  you  can  get  such 
•  one '),  the  skull  of  a  man  who  had  been  hanged, 
the  blorid  of  the  cat,  the  urine  and  excrements  of 
Tarioas  animals,  ftc. ;  and  electuaries  were  ordered, 
containing  50,  62,  and  in  one  instance — MatMoIus, 
his  Great  Antidorte  against  Poison  and  Pestilence— 
124  different  ingredients. 

The  Edinburgh  Pharmacopoeia  is  more  modem 
than  the  London,  the  first  ecution  having  appeared 
in  1699  ;  while  the  Dublin  Pharmacopoeia  does  not 
date  farther  back  than  1807.  The  latest  editions  of 
these  works  appeared  in  the  years  1841  and  1850 
respectiyely. 

Until  the  Medical  Act  passed  in  1858,  the  right 
of  pablishing  the  pharmacopoeias  for  England,  Scot- 
land, and  Ireland  was  vested  in  the  Colleges  of 
PhyBteisuis  of  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin 
respectiyely ;  and  as  these  three  pharmacopoeias 
contained  many  important  preparations,  similar  in 
name  but  totally  different  in  strenf;th  (as,  for 
example,  dilate  hydrocyanic  acid,  solution  of  hydro- 
chlorate  of  morphia,  ftc.),  dangerous  oomplica- 
tiona  arose  from  a  London  prescription  being  made 


up  in  Edinburgh  or  Dublin,  or  tke  verad.    By  that 
act  it  is  ordained  that '  the  General  [Medical]  Coun- 
cil shall  cause  to  be  published,  under  their  direction, 
a  book  containing  a  list  of  medicines  and  com- 
pounds, and  the  manner  of  preparing  them,  together 
with  the  true  weights  and  measures  by  which  they 
are  to  be  prepared  and  mixed ;  and  containing  such 
other  matter  and  things  relating  thereto  as  the 
General  Council  shall  think  fit,  to  be  called  British 
Pharjruzcopceia,  which    shall    for  all    pur{)oses  be 
deemed  to  be  substituted  throughout  Oreat  Britcun 
and  Ireland,  for  the  several  above-mentioned  phar- 
macopceias.*    We  recret  to  add,  that  the  British 
PharmacopceiOf  which  appeared  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  year  (1864),  has  given  rise  to  such  a 
general  feeling  of  disappointment  throughout  the 
whole  ranks  of  the  profession  (including  even  the 
chemists  and  druggists),  that  at  a  meeting  of  the 
General  Council  (Ma^  1864)  it  was  resolved  that  a 
new  and  amended  edition  shall  be  brought  out  with 
the  least  possible  delay.     For  further  information 
on  this  suoject,  the  reader  is  referred  to  'Critical 
and  Explanatory  Comments  on  the  New  Pharma- 
copoeia,* published  in  the  LanceL 

PHA'RMACY  (from  the  Gr.  pharmaeon,  a 
medicine)  is  that  de])artment  of  Materia  Medica 
(q.  V.)  which  treats  of  the  collection,  preparation, 
preservation,  and  dispensing  of  mcdicmes.  It  is 
synonymous  with  Phaivnaceutical  G/itmistry, 

PHA'ROS.    See  Lighthouse. 

PHABSA'LUS,  now  Febsala,  anciently  a  town 
of  Thessaly,  to  the  south  of  Larissa,  on  the  river 
Enipeus,  a  branch  of  the  Peneus  (now  the  Salam- 
bria),  and  historiccolly  notable  mainly  for  Uie  great 
battle  fought  here  between  Csesar  and  Pompey, 
August  9,  48  B.  c.  Pompey  had  about  45,U00 
legionaries,  7000  cavalry,  and  a  great  number  of 
li^t-armed  auxiliaries.  Csesar  had  22,000  legion- 
aries and  1000  German  and  Gallic  cavalry.  The 
battle-cry  of  Csesar*s  army  was  *  Venus  victrix,* 
that  of  Pompey* 8,  'Hercules  invictus.*  Caesar's  right 
wing  began  the  battle  by  an  attack  on  tlie  left  wing 
of  rompey,  which  was  speedily  routed.  Pompey 
fled  into  the  camp,  and  his  army  broke  up ;  Caesar's 
troops  stoi*med  his  camp  about  mid-day,  and  he 
himself,  awaking  as  from  stupefaction,  fled  to 
Larissa,  whither  Csesar  followed  him  next  day. 
Csesar,  according  to  his  own  account,  lost  only  30 
centurions  and  200  soldiers ;  other  accounts  make 
his  loss  I'iOO.  On  Pomney's  side  about  6000 
legionaries  fell  in  battle,  ana  more  than  24,000,  who 
had  fled,  were  taken,  whom  Csesar  pardoned,  and 
distributed  among  his  troo^is. 

PHARYNGOBRA'NCHII,  a  suborder  of  Der- 
mopterous  (q.  v.)  fishes,  characterised  by  respiratory 
processes  projecting  from  above  the  pharynx  into 
the  large  cavity  <S  the  mouth.  The  P.  have  no 
heart,  and  are  the  lowest  in  organisation  of  all  fishes. 
The  species  are  very  few.    See  Lakczlet. 

PHARYNGOGNA'THI,  an  order  of  fishes,  in 
the  system  of  MUller  and  Owen ;  partly  Acanthop- 
teroiu  and  partly  Malacopterous  in  the  system  of 
Cuvier;  some  of  them  also  Cycloid^  and  some 
Ctenoid.  Their  oommon  charactenstic  is  the  union 
of  the  lower  i^iaryngeals  into  one  bone. 

PHA'RYNX  (Gr.)  is  the  name  of  that  part  of 
the  alimentary  canal  which  lies  behind  the  nose, 
mouth,  and  larynx.  It  is  a  mniculo-membranous 
sac,  situated  upon  the  cervical  portion  of  the  verte- 
bral column,  and  extending  from  the  base  of  the 
skull  to  the  level  of  the  fifth  cervical  vertebiai 
where  it  becomes  continuous  with  the  (Esophagus 
(q.  v.).  Its  length  is  about  four  inches  and  a  hal^ 
it  is  broader  in  its  transverse  than  in  its  antero- 

463 


FHAaCOGALfi-PHASES. 


noiterior  dluiiet«r,  uid  it*  nurowest  poiat  is  at 
tti  termiiutioD  in  the  cesophairua.  Seven  /oramina 
or  opeuiDga  commuaic&te  with  it— vie,  the  two 


Tig.  1. — ThB  Phaiyni  lud  open  front  behind  : 


WiltMu) 

poaterior  nara  or  nostrila,  at  t)ie  npper  and  front 
part  of  the  P. ;  the  two  Etutachian  tubei,  opening 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  preceding  orilicea ;  the 
movlh ;  the  larynx  ;  and  the  atopkagut. 

The  P.  ig  compoiad  of  an  external  miaevJar  ooat; 


Us.  1.— Brtemal  Tiaw  of  the  Htudlei  of  PhaiTnx  ; 


U,lli«iiipeilor,  DiUdlt,  and  lolulot  sDiulrlcur  muMls. 

a  middle  fimnu  coat  called  the  pharyjigtrd  apo- 
Neuron'^  thick  above  where  the  mnacnlar  coat  is 
absent,  and  gradiiall;  thinning    a*   it    dmcenda 


and  a  naieout  cost,  oontinuoiu  with  the  muconi 
memhrane  oC  the  mouth  and  aoetrila.  The  moacular 
coat  requires  special  notice.  It  ii  eompoaed  of  a 
ivptrior,  middle,  and  inferior  eonttneUir  muscle  on 
either  side,  togeUier  with  two  less  important  muscles, 
termed  the  glylo-pharyiigeal  and  palatO-pJiarj/ngeai 
muscles.  Wlien  the  food,  after  being  sufficiently 
masticated  and  mixed  with  saliva  is  thrown,  by 
the  action  of  the  tongue,  into  the  P.,  the  latter  is 
drawn  upwards  and  iSlat«d  in  diETarent  directions  ; 
the  elevator  muscles  (the  stflo-pharyngeal  and 
palato -pharyngeal)  then  relax,  and. the  P.  descends; 
and  as  soon  as  the  morsel  is  fairly  within  the  sphere 
of  sctioQ  of  the  constrictor  muscles,  they  succes- 
sively contract  apon  it,  and  gradually  pass  it 
onwards  to  the  (Esnphasis.  Independent^  of  its 
importance  in  the  act  M  swoUowing,  the  P.  exerts 
an  influence  on  the  modulation  of  the  voice, 
especially  in  the  pruductiun  of  the  higher  notes. 

The  P.  is  not  so  frequent  a  seat  of  disease  OS 
many  other  ports  of  the  intestinal  tube.  In  cos^a 
of  Diphtheria  (q.  v.)  it  is  usually  the  chief  seat  of 
the  disease.  It  is  liable  to  ordmary  inflammatioa 
or  pharyngUit—iui  affection  characterLsed  bj[  pain, 
especially  in  swallowing,  without  redness  in  the 
fauces  or  change  of  voice.  Lit^e  in  the  way  of 
treatment,  except  low  diet  and  attention  to  the 
bowels,  is  required ;  and  the  inflammatioa  usually 
terminates  in  resolution.  Sometimes,  however,  it 
proceeds  to  suppuratiou,  and  abscesses — danserona 
partly  from  inanition  consequent  on  inahihty  to 
take  food,  but  chiefly  from  euSbcatiOD  due  to  pres- 
sure on  the  larynx— are  formed.  These  abscesses 
are  more  daneerous  in  the  lower  than  in  the  np|ier 
part  of  the  P.,  and  are  more  common  in  yoong 
children  than  in  adults.  The  treatment  conmatB  in 
opening  the  abscess,  which  gives  inunediale  relief; 
but  ibe  operation  must  be  conducted  with  great 
care,  and  the  inciaion  made  as  nearly  as  possible  to 
the  mesial  line,  in  consequence  of  the  large  adjacent 
blood-vessels. 

PHASCO'GAL^  a  genus  of  marsupial  qnadro- 
peds,  of  which  one  siteciea.  P.  penicUlata,  about  th» 
size  of  a  rat,  gray,  with  long  Soft  hair,  and  a  long 
taft«d  tail,  is  common  ia  most  parts  of  Australia, 
lives  chiefly  in  the  hollows  of  decayed  trees,  anil 
preys  on  small  animals  of  every  kind.  It  is  much 
disliked  by  the  oolonista,  to  whom  it  is  known  a* 
tlie  Tapoa  Tafa,  on  aocount  of  its  depredationa  in 
poiUtt^-yards  and  larden.     It  is  vwy  agile  aiid 

FHASE'OLUS.     See  Kidhzt-buk. 

PHA'SES  (Or.  p/ia«i8,  appearance),  the  difierent 
luminous  apjiearsnces  presented  by  the  moon  and 
several  of  the  planets,  sometimes  the  whole,  a  part, 
or  none,  of  the  luminous  surface  being  seen  from 
the  earth.  The  various  phases  of  the  moan,  ajid 
the  reasons  of  them,  arc  mentioned  under  the  artids 
Moon.  Mercury  and  Veuut,  beins  inferior  pUneta, 
preeent  to  an  onBerver  on  the  earth  exactly  similar 
phases  to  those  of  the  moon  ;  but  the  former  require, 
instead  of  a  mo  nth,  periods  oC  1  IS  and  584  days  reapeo- 
tively  to  pass  throagh  a  complete  series  of  phases. 
The  superior  planeU,  to  a  certain  extent,  eiliibit 
phases,  but  the  luminous  surface,  as  seen  from  the 
earth,  only  varies  from  the  full  illumination  seen 
when  they  are  in  conjunction  with  the  earth  to  a 
sUghtly  gibbous  appearance  when  they  attain  their 
greatest  elongation;  and  their  distance  from  the 
snn  is  so  great  in  comparisou  witii  that  of  the  eaj-th, 
as  to  render  the  variation  in  the  fonn  of  their 
luminous  surface  not  observable,  except  in  the  case 


PHASIANID^S— PHEASANT. 


of  the  tmih  of  the  Cop'^mican  system.  The  great 
briUiancy  of  Mercury,  and  Its  nearness  to  the  sun, 
presented  its  phases  from  beiug  so  easily  noticed, 
but  they  were  at  last  observed  by  Masius,  and 
since  by  many  other  astronomers.  The  tunn  phases 
is  freqaently  applied  to  designate  the  successive 
stages  of  an  ecUpbc,  lunar  or  solar. 

PHASIA'NID^,  a  family  of  gallinaoeons  binis, 
including  pheasants,  argus.  Macartney  cock,  fowls, 
impeyans,  tragopans,  &a ;  its  limits,  however,  being 
extended  by  some  ornithologists  to  include  peacocks 
and  turkeys  (PawmicUB),  wmch  differ  from  it  by  no 
veiv  considerable  character.  The  hind-toe  is  placed 
hiffher  on  the  tarsus  than  the  front  toes,  so  that 
only  the  tip  touches  the  ground.  The  wings  are 
short 

PHA'SIS,  a  river  in  Colchis,  now  called  the 
RiON.  It  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Caucasus,  flows 
in  a  generally  western  direction,  and  enters  the 
Euxine  near  the  ancient  city  of  Phasis. 

PHA'SMIDifi  (6r.  pJicLsma,  a  spectre),  a  family 
of  orthopterous  insects,  allied  to  Mantidce,  but 
differing  in  having  the  fore-legs  similar  to  the  other 
legs,  and  used  like  them  for  locomotion,  not  for 
combat  and  prehension,  in  the  want  of  stemmatic 
eves,  and  in  the  similarity  of  the  first  joint  of  the 
thorax  to  the  other  joints.  They  are  insects  of 
very  €Extraordinary  appearance,  innabiting  tropical 
countries,  and  spending  their  lives  upon  trees  and 
shrubs,  tiie  tender  shoots  of  which  they  devour. 
Some  of  them  resemble  green  leaves ;  some  resemble 
brown  and  withered  leaves ;  whilst  others,  wingless, 
or  nearly  so,  and  with  much  elongated  bodies — one 
siiecies  nine  inches  in  length — resemble  dried  twigs. 
To  these  peculiarities  they  owe  their  safety  from 
enemies,  eluding  observation,  for  their  motions  are 
sluggish.  Some  are  known  as  Leaf  Insects,  Spectre 
Insects,  Walkine-sticks,  &c.  The  larv»  of  the  P. 
much  resemble  tne  perfect  insect. 

PHEA'SANT  {Phasianu8)y  a  genus  of  gallinaoeons 
birds  of  the  family  PhaBianidcB;  having  a  rather 
short  strong  bill,  a  little  curved;  the  cheeks  and 
skin  surrounding  the  eyes  destitute  of  feathers,  and 
warty ;  the  win^a  short ;  the  tail  long,  its  feathers 
so  placed  as  to  slope  down,  roof -like,  on  either  side, 
the  middle  feathers  longest ;  the  tarsus  of  the  male 
furnished  with  a  spur.  The  males  of  all  the  species 
are  birds  of  splendid  plumage ;  the  females  have 
shorter  tails  and  dull  or  sombre  colours.  There  are 
numerous  species,  natives  of  the  warm  and  temperate 
parts  of  Asia.  The  Common  P.  (P.  Colchlcua)  is 
said  to  have  been  brought  from  the  banks  oi,  the 
Phasis,  in  Colchis,  to  the  south  of  Europe,  at  a  very 
remote  period,  its  introduction  being  ascribed  in 
classic  legend  to  the  Argonauts.  From  the  Phasis  it 
derived  its  Greek  name  PhaaianoSy  the  origin  of  its 
name  in  English  and  other  modem  languages.  It 
was  soon  naturalised  in  Europe,  and  is  now  diffused 
over  almost  all  the  temperate  parts  of  it.  The  date 
of  its  introduction  into  Britain  is  not  known, 
but  was  certainly  before  the  end  of  the  13th  c. :  it 
has  long  been  plentiful  in  plantations  and  game- 
preserves,  and  has  been  introduced  into  almost  every 
part  of  the  country  suitable  to  its  habits.  The 
abundance  of  pheasants  in  Britain,  however,  is  to 
be  ascribed  chiefly  to  careful  ^ame-preservation, 
without  which  the  race  would  in  all  probability 
soon  be  extirpated.  No  kind  of  game  fails  so  easy 
a  prey  to  the  poacher. 

A  minute  description  of  the  Common  P.  is  unneces- 
sary. The  head  and  neck  of  the  male  are  steel-blue, 
redectinff  brown,  green,  and  purple  in  different 
lights ;  tne  back  and  wings  exhibit  a  fine  mixture 
of  orange-red,  black,  brown,  and  light  yellow ;  the 
tureast    and   belly   are    golden-red,    each   feather 

di2 


maipned  with  black,  and  reflecting  tints  of  gold 
and  purple.  The  whole  length  of  a  male  P.  is  about 
three  feet,  of  which  the  toil  often  measiu-es  two 
feet.  The  entire  length  of  the  female  is  about  two 
feet  The  general  colour  of  the  female  ia  pale 
3rellowiBh-brown,  varied  with  darker  brown,  the 
sides  of  the  neck  tinged  with  red  and  green.  The 
ordinary  weight  of  a  P.  is  about  two  pounds  and  a 
half ;  but  when  pheasants  are  abundantly  supplied 
with  food,  and  kept  undisturbed,  they  are  some- 
times four  pounds  or  four  pounds  and  a  half  in 
weight 

Tne  nest  of  the  P.  is  on  the  ^und,  and  is  a  rude 
heap  of  leaves  and  grasses,  in  which  eleven  or 
twelve  dive-brown  e^s  are  laid.  But  in  l^e  half- 
domesticated  state  m  which  it  exists  in  many 
English  preserves,  the  P.  does  not  pay  that  attention 
to  its  eggs  and  young  which  it  does  when  more  wild, 
and  not  unfrequenuy  continues  to  lay  eggs  for  a 
considerable  time,  like  the  domestic  fowl ;  the  eggs 
being  removed  by  the  gamekeeper,  and  hatched^ 
hens,  alon^  with  eggs  from  nests  found  among  clover 
and  hay  m  the  season  of  mowing.  Veij  youns 
pheasants  must  be  carefully  supplied  with  antr 
eggs,  magneto,  &&,  and  the  whole  aifficulty  of  rear- 
ing them  IS  in  their  earliest  stage.  Pheasants  feed 
very  indiscriminately  on  berries,  seeds,  roots,  yonng 
shoots  of  plants,  worms,  insects,  &c.  Beans,  pease, 
com,  and  buckwheat  are  not  unfrequently  sown  for 
them  in  oi)en  places  in  woods ;  and  they  scrape  up 
bulbous  and  tuberous  roots  in  winter.  They  roost 
in  trees  at  no  great  height  from  the  ground,  and 
poachers  sometimes  capturo  them  by  burning  sul- 

Shur  below  them.  During  the  moulting  season,  they 
o  not  ascend  trees  to  roost,  but  spend  the  night 
on  the  ground,  when  they  fall  a  ready  prov  to  foxes. 
They  are  fond  of  woods  with  a  thick  undergrowth, 
in  which,  when  disturbed,  they  naturally  seek 
shelter,  runnini;  whilst  it  is  possible,  rather  than 
taking  flight  The  male  P.  takes  flight  much  more 
readily  than  the  female,  which,  apparently  trusting 
to  her  brown  colour  to  escape  observation,  often 
remains  still  until  the  sportsman  is  almost  upon  her. 
Tbe  males  and  females  do  not  associate  together 
except  during  the  breeding  season,  but  small 
numbers  of  one  sex  are  often  found  in  company. 
The  *■  short  crow'  of  the  males  begins  to  be  heard  in 
Maroh.  In  England  and  Scotland  pheasant-shooting 
legally  begins  on  the  1st  of  October,  and  ends  on 
the  3d  of  Febraary.  The  pheasants  turned  out  from 
the  gamekeeper's  breeding-yard  into  a  preserve,  aro 
in  general  supplied  with  abundance  of  food  during 
winter,  and  come  to  the  accustomed  call  as  readily 
as  any  kind  of  poultry,  so  that  the  sportsmanship 
of  a  battue,  in  which  they  are  killed  oy  scores  or 
hundreds,  is  of  the  lowest  kind.  It  is  scareely 
necessary  to  mention  that  the  flesh  of  the  P.  is  in. 
very  high  esteem  for  the  table. 

^e  female  P.,  in  old  age,  or  when  from  any 
cause  incapable  of  the  functions  of  reproduction, 
sometimes  assumes  the  plumage  of  the  male.  The- 
P.  exhibits  a  remarkable  readiness  to  hybridise  with 
other  gfdlinaceous  birds.  A  hybrid  between  it  and 
the  common  fowl  is  not  unfrequent,  and  is  called  a 
Pero.  Hybrids  between  the  r.  and  Black  Grouse 
have  also  occurred;  and  hybrids  are  supposed  to 
have  been  produced  between  the  P.  and  Guinea- 
fowl,  and  the  P.  and  turkey.  Kone  of  these 
hybrids,  however,  have  ever  been  known  to  be 
fertile,  except  with  one  of  the  original  species.  On 
the  contrary,  the  offspring  of  the  Common  P.  and 
the  Ring-necked  P.  {P.  tortjucUus)  is  perfectly 
fertile,  a  ciroumstance  which  is  urged  in  argument 
by  those  who  regard  them  as  mere  varieties  of  one 
species.  The  Ring-necked  P.  is  now  almost  as 
plentiful  in  Britain  as  the  Common  P. :  it  is  a  native 

'  466 


PHEASANTSHELL-PHEKYL. 


of  the  forests  of  India  and  China,  and  is  said  not  to 
breed  with  the  Common  P.  in  a  tnily  wild  state,  but 
in  Britain  they  readily  intermix.  It  is  distinsuished 
by  a  white  rin^  almost  surrounding  the  neck,  and 
is  of  smaller  size  than  the  Common  P.,  somewhat 
different  in  markings,  and  has  a  shorter  tail. — The 
BoHBUiAN  P.  \B  another  variety  of  a  silvery-gray 
colour. — White  pheasants  are  of  not  very  unfrequent 
occurrence.— Of  other  species  of  P.  may  be  men- 
tioned Diard's  p.  (/*.  versicolor),  a  native  of  Java, 
in  which  the  prevailing  colour  is  green ;  and 
Beeves's  p.  (P,  Bfievesn),  a  native  of  Sxe  north  of 
China,  in  which  white  is  the  prevailing  colour,  and 
the  tail  is  of  extraordinary  length,  so  that  a  bird  not 
larger  than  the  Common  P.  measures  eight  feet  in 
entire  length.  Of  somewhat  different  type,  and 
more  nearly  approaching  to  the  common  fowl,  are  the 
Golden  P.  (A  pictus,  or  T/iaumalia  pkta)  and  the 
Silver  P.  (P.  or  Gallophasis  nycthemeriu),  both 
natives  of  China,  and  both  hardy  birds,  the  intro- 
duction of  which  into  British  preserves  has  been 
attempted  with  good  prospect  of  success.  Both 
have  long  been  kept  in  a  state  of  domestication  by 
the  Chinese.  The  Golden  P.  is  one  of  the  most 
splendid  of  the  tribe.  It  has  a  fine  crest,  and  a  ruff 
of  orange  and  black,  capcible  of  being  erected  at 
pleasure.  The  tail  is  very  long.  The  crest  and  ruff 
are  held  in  great  estimation  by  anglers  for  making 
artificial  flies.— Lady  Amherst's  P.  (P.  or  Thau- 
mcUia  Amherstios)  is  a  native  of  China,  resembling 
the  Golden  P.,  and  with  an  extremely  long  tail. — 
The  Silver  P.  is  one  of  the  lai^est  and  most  power- 
ful of  the  tribe,  and  very  combative,  driving  the 
Common  P.  from  preserves  into  which  it  is  intro- 
duced. The  prevailing  colour  of  the  upper  parts 
and  tail  of  the  male  is  white,  finely  pencilled  with 
black,  the  breast  and  belly  purplisn-black. — ^The 
name  P.  is  sometimes  extended  to  gallinaceous  birds 
of  allied  genera. 

PHEASANT-SHELL  {Phasianella),  a  genus  of 
gasteropodous  molluscs  of  the  family  Turbinidae,  of 
which  the  shells  are  much  valued  for  their  beauty, 
and  when  they  were  rare  in  collections,  were  some- 
times  sold  for  extraordinary  prices.  They  are  now 
comparatively  cheap  and  plentiful,  being  found  in 
great  numbers  on  some  parts  of  the  Australian 
coast. 

PHEI'DIAS  (Lat  Phidias),  son  of  Charmides, 
the  greatest  sculptor  of  ancient  Greece,  bom 
at  Athens  probably  between  500 — 490  B.G.  His 
first  instructor  in  art  was  Hegias  of  Athens;  he 
afterwards  studied  under  a  more  famous  master, 
Ageladas  of  Argos.  He  appears  to  have  first 
acquired  distinction  in  his  profession  soon  after  the 
battle  of  Salamis,  and  indued  his  great  works  were 
all  executed  during  a  period  most  »vourable  for  the 
development  and  encouragement  of  genius,  when 
Greece  was  triumphant  over  external  enemies,  and 
her  people  enjoyed  a  more  perfect  liberty  than 
almost  at  any  other  period  of  their  history.  With 
the  character  of  the  age  correspond  the  works  of  its 
poets,  particularly  of  the  tragedians  .^chylus, 
Sophocles,  and  Euripides,  ana  of  its  sculptors, 
particularly  of  Pheidias.  Under  Cimon's  administra- 
tion the  Athenians  besran  the  work  of  restoring 
their  city,  which  the  Persians  had  destroyed,  in 
more  than  its  former  magnificence,  and  to  fill  it 
witii  noble  works  of  art.  P.  was  accordingly 
•employed  in  making  the  colossal  brazen  statue  of 
Minerva,  Athena  Promachos,  which  was  placed 
upon  the  citadel,  and  was  executed  probably  about 
460  B.a  To  the  government  of  Cimon  succeeded 
that  of  Pericles,  still  more  brilliant,  and  signalised 
by  an  extraordinary  development  of  art  I^ericles 
not  only  gave  to  P.  a  commission  to  execute  all  the 
466 


more  splendid  statues  that  were  to  be  erected,  but 
made  him  general  superintendent  of  all  works  oi 
art  going  on  in  the  city.  Plutarch  tells  us  that 
P.  had  under  him  architects,  statuaries,  workers 
in  copper  and  bronze,  stone-cutters,  gold  and 
ivory  beaters,  &c  To  P.,  as  director-general  of 
all  the  skilled  artists  and  artificers  of  Athens,  we 
owe,  among  other  glorious  edifices,  the  Propylsa 
and  the  Parthenon,  the  sculptured  omamenU  of 
which  were  executed  under  his  direct  superintend- 
ence, while  the  statue  of  the  goddess  Athene, 
the  materials  for  which  were  ivory  and  gold,  was 
the  work  of  P.  himself  (circa  438  B.C.).  This  statae 
was  clothed  with  a  golden  robe,  which  alone  was 
worth  44  talents  of  gold.  The  statue  is  gone  for 
ever,  and  the  Parthenon  is  now  only  a  magni- 
ficent wreck,  but  we  still  possess  some  splendid 
evidence  of  the  genius  of  JP.,  in  the  sculptures 
of  the  metopes,  and  friezes  of  the  temple  of  Athena 
See  Elgin  Marbles.  Kext  year  P.  went  to  Ehs, 
where  he  executed  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeos  for 
the  Olympeium  at  Olympia  (q.  v.),  also  of  ivory 
and  gold  (about  433  b.  c).  This  was  reckoned 
his  masterpiece.  On  his  return  to  Athens,  poU- 
tical  passions  were  running  high.  There  was 
a  strong — at  least  a  violent — party  inimical  to 
Pericles,  but  as  they  did  not  dare  to  attack  the 
great  statesman,  they  assailed  him  through  his 
friends  P.,  Anaxagoras,  Aspasia,  &c.  r.  was 
accused  of  having  appropriated  to  himself  some 
portion  of  the  gold  destined  for  the  robe  of  Athene. 
This  accusation  he  repelled  by  taking  off  the  robe 
and  weighing  it.  He  was  then  accused  of  impiety, 
for  having  introduced  his  own  likeness  and  that  of 
Pericles  on  the  shield  of  the  goddess.  On  this 
most  frivolous  and  contemptible  pretext  he  was 
thrown  into  prison,  and  diea  there,  but  whether  of 
sickness  or  poison  is  uncertain.  His  death  took 
place  about  432  B.a  The  works  executed  by,  or 
ascribed  to  P.,  were  numerous,  but  we  have  men- 
tioned the  most  celebrated.  Their  prevailing  char- 
acteristic appears  to  have  been  an  ideal  sublimity, 
and  even  tne  imperfect  relics  that  we  possess  are 
the  most  noble  specimens  of  sculpture  in  the  world. 

PHENOMENON  (Gr.  appearance),  the  name 
given  in  philosophy  to  an  object  or  fact  as  it  is 
perceived  by  us,  as  distinguished  from  what  it  is 
m  itself.  In  the  philosophy  of  Kant,  that,  what- 
ever it  may  be,  wnich  is  behind  the  phenomenon, 
and  causes  it,  is  called  the  ncumenon,  as  being 
merely  assumed  or  thought  of  in,  the  mind.  See 
Metaphysics,  Perception. 

PHE'NYL,  AND  THE  PHENY'LIC  GROUP. 

Phenyl  (Ci^H .)  is  an  organic  radical,  which  has  not 
yet  been  isolated.  Its  most  important  compounds 
are:  (1.)  Carbolic  or  Phenic  Acid  (HO,C^H,0), 
known  also  as  Phenol,  Hydrated  Oxide  of  Pnenyl, 
and  Phenvl-AlcohoL  See  Carbouo  Acm.  (2.) 
Hydride  of  Phenyl  (C^^^),  known  also  as  Benzole, 
Benzine,  and  Phene.  See  Benzols.  (3.)  Phenyla- 
mine  or  Phenylia  (Cj^Hj.H^N,  or  CJE£yN),  better 
known  under  the  name  of  Aniline,  one  of  the  most 
important  of  the  artificially  formed  bases. 

Aniline  derives  its  name  from  anil,  an  obsolete 
name  for  indigo,  which  is  one  of  the  somt^es  from 
which  it  is  most  readily  procured.  It  exists  amongvt 
the  products  of  the  distillation  of  coal,  and  probably 
other  organic  compounds,  but  is  always  obtained 
by  the  manufacturing  ciiemist  either  from  indigo  or 
from  nitro-benzole.  Dr  Hofmaun,  to  whom  we  are 
mainly  indebted  for  our  knowledge  of  the  chemistry 
of  this  substance,  ^ves  the  foUowics  directions  foi* 
obtaining  it  from  indigo :  *  Powdered  indigo  boiled 
with  a  highly-concentrated  solution  of  hydrate  of 
potassa,  dissolves  with  evolution  of  Aydrogen  gai 


PHEON— PHIGALIAN  MARBLES. 


to  a  brownish-red  liquid,  containing  a  peculiar  acid, 
called  the  anthranilic  acid.     If  this  matter  be  trans- 
ferred to  a  retort,  and  still  further  heated,  it  swells 
up,  and  disengages  aniline,  which  condenses  in  the 
form  of  oily  drops  in  the  neck  of  the  retort  and  in  | 
the  receiver.   Separated  from  the  ammoniacal  water  i 
by  which  it  is  accompanied,  and  re- distilled,  it  is  ! 
obtained  nearly  colourless.    The  formation  of  aniline 
from  indigo  is  represented  by  the  following  equa- 
tion: 


Imllgo. 


Hydnted  PotMM. 


C„HjNO,  +  4(K0,H0)  -|-  2H0 


Aolltne. 


Carbonate  of 
Fotaua. 


CijHyN  +  4(K0,C0J  -I-  4H.» 

By  this  process,  the  indigo  is  made  to  yield  about 
one-fifth  of  its  weight  of  pure  aniline.  Nitro-benzole 
is  converted  into  aniline  by  the  action  of  various 
reducing  agents,  such  as  hydrosulphate  of  ammonia, 
or  acetate  of  ])rotoxide  of  iron ;  and  the  distillatiim 
of  one  part  of  nitro-beuzole,  one  part  of  acetic  acid, 
and  one  and  a  half  parts  of  iron  tilings,  is  regarded 
by  Hofmann  as  the  best  means  of  preparing  aniline, 
which  is  now  required  in  large  quantities  for  the 
dyers. 

*  When  pure,'  sajrs  Dr  Hofmann,  *  aniline  forms  a 
thin,  oily,  colourless  liquid,  of  faint  vinous  odour, 
and  aromatic  burning  taste.  It  is  very  volatile,  but 
has  nevertheless  a  high  boiling-point,  359°  "6.  In  the 
air,  it  gradually  becomes  yellow  or  brown,  and 
acquires  a  resinous  consistency.  Its  density  is 
I'OSS.  It  is  destitute  of  alkaline  re-action  on  test- 
paper,  but  is  remarkable  for  the  number  and  beauty 
of  the  crystallisable  compounds  it  forms  with  acids. 
Two  extraordinary  rc-actions  characterise  this  body, 
and  distinguish  it  from  all  others — viz.,  that  with 
chromic  acid,  and  that  with  solution  of  hypochlorite 
of  lime.  The  former  gives  with  aniline  a  deep- 
greenish  or  bluish-black  precipitate  ;  and  the  latter, 
an  extremely  beautiful  violet-coloured  compound, 
tlie  fine  tint  of  which  is,  however,  very  soon 
de-stroyed.'  In  the  manufacture  of  aniline  on  a 
large  scale,  several  bases  having  higher  boiling- 
points  than  aniline  are  formed.  To  one  of  these— a 
beautiful  crystalline  compound,  represented  by  the 
formuLi  Cj4HiiN^ — ^the  name  of  ParanUine  has  been 
given,  from  its  bemg  isomeric  with  aniline.  Aniline  is 
a  substance  of  the  greatest  importance  in  theoretical 
organic  chemistry,  from  the  large  number  of  deriva- 
tives and  substitution-products  which  it  yields,  and 
for  the  knowledge  of  which  we  are  almost  entirely 
indebted  to  Hofmann,  M'hose  investigations  originally 
appeared  in  a  scries  of  papers  in  the  Tranaactiona 
of  the  Philosophical  Society.  These  compounds  are, 
however,  for  the  most  part  of  too  complicated  a 
nature  to  be  noticed  in  these  pages.  Bul^  indepen- 
dently of  its  theoretical  importance,  this  substance 
has  recently  been  extensively  employed  in  the  arts,  a 
series  of  pigments  of  imequalled  beauty  having  been 
obtained  from  it  by  the  action  of  oxidising  agents. 
It  is  to  Mr  W.  Perkin  that  we  are  indebted  for  the 
idea  of  applying  practically  the  property  possessed  by 
aniline  of  forming  violet  and  blue  solutions  with 
chromic  acid  and  with  hypochloride  of  lime,  to 
which  we  have  already  referred  ;  and  he  succeeded  in 
fixing  these  colours,  and  adapting  them  to  the  use 
of  the  dyer.  The  most  important  of  these  colouring 
matters  are  described  in  the  article  Dte-stuffs 
(q.  v.). 

(4.)  Trinitrophenic  Acid  [HO,Ci2H,(N04)30],  in 
which  three  of  the  equivalents  of  the  hydrogen  of 
phenic  acid  are  replaced  by  three  equivalents  of  the 
group,  NO^ ;  known  also  aa  Carbazotic  Acid  (q.  v.) 
and    Picric   Acid.     In  addition   to   the   remarks 


contained  in  the  article  on  Gabbazotic  Acid,  it  ma^ 
be  noticed  that  while  a  solution  of  this  acid  com- 
municates a  bright-yellow  tint  to  animal  textures, 
as  the  skin,  wool,  and  silk,  it  has  no  such  effect  on 
tissues  composed  of  vegetable  fibres,  such  as  cotton 
and  linen,  and  hence  it  may  be  employed  to  ascer- 
tain whether  the  materials  of  any  tissue  belong  to 
the  animal  or  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  A  solution 
of  a  salt  of  this  acid,  when  treated  with  indigo, 
fields  a  beautiful  green  colour,  which  is  employed 
m  the  manufacture  of  artificial  flowers,  and  for 
various  other  purposes.  In  doses  of  from  1  to  10 
grains,  it  acts  on  rabbits  as  a  strong  poison,  occa- 
sioning convulsions  and  speedy  death.  It  has 
been  prescribed  in  small  doses,  with  moderate 
success,  in  cases  of  intermittent  fever ;  but  patients 
to  whom  it  is  given  should  be  previously  informed 
that  it  possesses  the  property  of  giving  to  the  eye  a 
yellow  and,  as  it  were,  a  jaundiced  api)earance.  All 
the  salts^of  this  acid  are  of  a  beautiful  red  or  yellow 
tint,  and  most  of  them  form  brilliant  crystals. 
When  heated,  or  in  some  cases  when  only  struck, 
they  explode  with  considerable  violence. 

PHE'ON,  in  Heraldry,  the  barbed  head  of  a  dart 
It  is  represented  as  engrailed  on  the  inner  side,  and 
its  position  is  with  the  point  downwards,  unless 
Otherwise  blazoned. 

PHE'RiE,  a  powerful  city  of  Thessaly,  near 
Mount  Pelion ;  according  to  legend,  the  ancient  royal 
seat  of  Admetus  and  Alcestis ;  and  afterwards  of 
political  consequence  under  *  tyrants*  of  its  own, 
who  long  made  their  influence  felt  in  the  affairs  of 
Greece,  and  rej)eatedly  attempted  to  make  them- 
selves masters  of  Thessaly.  One  of  these  tyrants 
named  Alexander,  is  particularly  celebrated  for  his 
cruelties.  It  was  one  of  his  practices  to  bury 
innocent  persons  alive,  and  another  to  sew  them  up 
in  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  set  his  hounds  upon 
theoL  After  a  bloody  reign  of  thirteen  years,  he 
was  slain  by  his  wife  and  her  brother,  357  b,  a 
Five  years  later.  P.,  with  the  rest  of  Thessaly, 
became  subject  to  Philip  of  Macedon. — At  P.  there 
was  a  mineral  spring,  named  Hyperia,  famous  for 
its  healing  virtues.  A  few  ruins  at  Velestino  still 
mark  the  site  of  the  city. 

PHERECY'DES,  an  ancient  Greek  writer,  bom 
in  the  island  of  Syros,  one  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the 
6th  c.  B.C.  He  is  said  by  Diogenes  Laertius  to 
have  been  a  rival  of  Thales,  and  to  have  learned  his 
wisdom  from  the  Egy|)tians  and  Chaldeans.  He 
wrote  a  Cosmogony  in  a  kind  of  prose  mucli 
resembling  poetry,  under  the  title  fleptamydios,  the 
meaning  of  which  is  doubtful.  In  a  manner  rather 
poetic  than  philosophic,  he  endeavoured  in  this 
work  to  shew  the  origin  of  all  things  from  three 
eternal  principles,  7'ijne  or  Kroiioa;  Martha  as  the 
formless  and  passive  mass ;  and  jEther  or  Zeus,  aa 
the  formative  principle.  He  taught  the  doctrine  of 
the  existence  of  the  human  soul  after  death ;  but  it 
is  imcertain  if  he  held  the  doctrine  of  the  transmi- 
gration of  souls,  afterwards  promulgated  by  his 
disciple,  Pythagoras.  Of  his  work,  only  fragments 
are  extant,  which  have  been  collected  and  elucidated 
by  Sturtz  (Gera,  1798 ;  2d  ed.,  Leip.  1824).  -Another 
P.,  who  lived  in  the  5th  c.  B.C.,  compiled  the  mythical 
histories  of  Athens  and  other  states,  but,  except  a 
few  fragments,  the  work  is  lost.  See  Sturtz, 
Pherecyais  Fragmenta  (Leip.  1824). 

PHIGA'LIAN  MARBLES,  the  name  now  given 

to  the  sculptured  frieze  taken  from  the  cella  of  the 

temple  of  Apollo  at  Phigalia  in  Arcadia  in  1814,  and 

transferred  to  the  British  Museum.     It  represents 

the  contests  between  the  Centaurs  and  Lapithse. 

The   Phigalian  temple  of  Apollo  is,  next  to  the 

Theseium  at  Athens,  the  must  perfect  architectural 

467 


PHILADELPHIA— rniLiE. 


ruirt  in  all  Greece ;  but  owing  to  its  sequestered  posi- 
tion at  the  head  of  a  lonely  and  rocky  glen  among 
the  Arcadian  hilla,  it  Ions  remained  unknown  in 
modem  times,  except  to  tne  shepherds  of  the  dis- 
trict; and  to  the  same  circumstance  it  probably 
owes,  in  part,  its  preservation.  Chandler  first 
visited  and  deecribed  it  in  1765;  he  was  followed 
by  Gell,  Dodwell,  and  others;  and  in  1812  it  was 
very  carefully  examined  by  a  body  of  artists  and 
ocholara,  tiie  results  of  whose  investigations  are 
given  in  Stackelberg*s  Der  ApoUo-tempd  zu  BansoL 
%n  Arkadien  (Rome,  1826).  The  temple  is  built  of  a 
baixL  ydlowish-brown  limestone,  stands  north  and 
south,  was  originally  about  125  feet  long  and  48 
broad,  and  had  15  columns  on  either  side,  and  6  on 
either  front,  in  all  42,  of  which  36  still  remain. 

PHILADELPHIA,  the  chief  city  and  sea- 
port of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.,  and  the  second  city 
m  i)opulation  and  importance  in  America,  is  situated 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Delaware  River,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Schuylkill,  on  a  plain  2  to  4  miles 
wide  between  the  two  rivers ;  lat  39**  66'  59"  K., 
long.  75°  9'  64"  W. ;  136  miles  north-east  of  Wash- 
ington, 87  miles  south-west  of  New  York.  It  is  5 
mues  long  by  3}  wide,  having  12  square  miles,  laid 
out  by  its  founder,  William  Penn,  in  streets  crossing 
each  other  at  right  andes.  The  city  is  neatly  but 
])lainly  built  of  red  oricks  and  marble,  with  7 
squares  laid  out  as  parks.  The  picturesque  eminence 
of  Falrmount,  with  its  reservoirs  of  water  raised 
from  the  Schuylkill,  and  the  Laurel  Hill  and  other 
ornamental  cemeteries,  are  favourite  public  resorts. 
Among  the  finest  edifices  are  the  Custom-House 
(formerly  United  States  Bank),  Mint,  and  the 
buildings  of  the  Girard  College,  all  built  of  white 
marble,  the  latter,  in  the  Corintbian  style,  having 
cost,  with  the  surrounding  buildings,  2,000,000 
dollars.  There  are  4  or  6  theatres,  and  an 
^Academy  of  Music*  capable  of  seating  about 
8500  persons,  some  850  churches,  about  60  of 
which  are  Episcopal,  70  Presbyterian,  and  80 
Roman  Catholic,  among  which  is  a  magnificent 
Cathedral,  just  completed ;  numerous  and  magnifi- 
cent hotels,  markets,  and  public  Institutions.  The 
most  noted  building  is  Independence  Hall,  occu- 
pied in  the  revolution  of  1776  by  the  Continental 
Congress,  in  which  was  voted  and  signed  the 
Declaration  of  Independence.  The  Philadelphia 
Library,  founded  by  Benjamin  Franklin,  contain? 
80,000  volumes.  There  are  also  an  Academy  of 
Fine  Arts,  an  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Girard 
College,  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  and  several 
flourishing  medical  colleges.  The  public  schools 
of  Philadelphia  comprise  2  high  schools,  60  gram- 
mar-schools, and  more  than  800  schools  of  lower 
grades.  The  Girard  College,  founded  by  Stephen 
Girard,  a  Philadelphia  merchant,  supports  and 
educates  600  orphans.  Next  to  New  York,  P.  is 
the  largest  publishing  emporium  in  the  country, 
issuing,  besides  books,  about  a  dozen  daily  papers, 
40  weekly  papers,  and  50  periodicals.  .  Among 
the  charitable  institutions,  for  which  the  city  is 
noted,  are  22  hospitals  and  dispensaries,  14 
asylums,  4  lying-in  charities,  and  14  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor ;  a  city  almshouse,  with  8000  in- 
mates ;  house  of  refuge,  &c.  There  are  15  military 
hospitals,  with  beds  for  over  18,000  patients.  The 
Eastern  State  Penitentiary  is  a  model  institution 
on  the  system  of  solitary  confinement.  The  city, 
divided  into  26  wards,  is  governed  by  a  mayor,  a 
select  council  of  26,  and  common  council  of  44 
members.  The  city  revenue  is  2,724,709  dollars ; 
its  debt,  21,000,000  dollars.  The  United  States 
mint,  established  1791,  had,  up  to  1862,  coined 
404,928,876  dollars  in  gold  and  97,726,589  dollars 

468 


in  silver.  There  are  several  fine  brick  market- 
buildings;  some  25  banks  of  issue;  7  or  8  savings 
banks;  board  of  trade ;  merchants'  exchange ;  corn 
exchange ;  an  excellent  harbour ;  imports,  direct 
and  by  New  York,  of  45,000,000  dollars  per  annum ; 
a  large  coal  trade ;  railways  which  in  1800  conveyed 
goods  to  the  interior  to  the  value  of  140,000,000 
dollars ;  manufactures  of  iron,  machinery,  cotton, 
woollen,  clothing,  chemicals,  boots  and  shoes,  fur- 
niture, &o.,  amounting  to  175,000,000  dollars  a 
year.  P.  was  founded  in  1682  by  William  Penn, 
on  *  a  spot  that  seemed  to  have  been  appointed  for 
a  town,'  and  of  which  he  wrote,  *0f  all  places  in 
the  world,  I  remember  not  one  better  seated.'  Its 
early  settlers  were  mostly  of  the  Society  of  Friends. 
In  1684  it  had  2500  inhabitants.  It  grew  rapidly 
by  large  immigrations  from  Germany  and  the 
North  of  Ireland.  In  1729  was  esUblished  the 
Pennsylvania  Gazette^  afterwards  edited  by  Frank- 
lin. The  first  colonial  congress  met  here  in  1774 ; 
in  1777  the  town  was  occupied  by  the  British 
forces  under  General  Lord  Howe,  when  the  city 
contained  21,767  inhabitants.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  United  States  bank,  the  capital  till  1800,  and 
the  first  city  in  America,  until  surpassed  by  New 
York.     Pop.  (1860)  665,581. 

PHI'L^,  the  name  of  a  celebrated  island  lyins 
in  the  midst  of  the  Nile,  south  of  Syene,  beyond 
the  frontier  of  Egypt,  in  24**  1'  28"  N.  lat.  It  was 
called  by  the  E^}'ptians  Menlak,  the  place  of  the 
Cataract ;  or  J^enuab^  the  Abaton  or  Sanctuary ; 
and  by  the  Copts,  Pilak  or  *  Cataracts.'  It  is  a 
small  granite  rock,  about  1000  feet  long,  and  200 
feet  brfiad,  on  which  is  placed  a  suite  of  buildinvd, 
I  not  of  the  most  remote  antiquity,  but  distiu^iished 
for  ^at  architectural  beauty.  The  oldest  o?  these, 
consisting  of  a  hypoethral  or  roofless  hall,  was  built 
in  the  reign  of  Nectanebus  I.,  377 — 367  B.a  A 
second  mention  of  the  same  monarch  occurs  on  the 
first  propylon,  where  a  door,  constructed  in  his 
reign,  nas  been  incorporated  into  the  constructions 
by  a  later  Ptolemy.  Both  these  are  dedicated  to 
the  goddess  Isis,  who  in  P.  was  venerated  as  Athur 
or  the  Egyptian  Veuus.  The  principal  remains 
consist  ot  the  great  temple  of  Isis,  erected  by 
Ptolemy  IL  or  Philadelphus,  and  coutinued  by  his 
successors,  especially  by  Ptolemy  IIL,  Euergetea, 
247— 222  b.  c. 

The  temple  consists  of  a  shrine  or  sekos,  a  pronans, 
an  ojien  portico,  and  two  pylons  or  gateways.  Both 
of  the  propylous  were  constructed  by  Ptolemy  VII., 
or  Philometer,  and  Lathyrus ;  but  the  first  was  added 
to  by  Ptolemy  IX.,  or  Euergetes  IL,  145 — 141  B.a 
On  the  second  pylon,  the  monarch  is  represented 
slaying  the  hostile  nation&  The  colonnade  was 
principally  erected  by  Tiberius.  The  charming  little 
temple,  the  Mastal)at  el  Pharaoun,  or  Pharaoh's 
Bed  of  the  Arabs,  was  made  in  the  reign  of 
Trajan,  100  A.D.  The  temples  are  particularly 
important  as  containing  the  principal  representations 
of  the  story  of  Osiris,  his  birth,  bringing  up,  death, 
and  embalmment  by  Isia  Commenced  in  the  reign  of 
Nectanebus  1.,  and  continued  b^  the  Ptolemies  and 
Romans,  the  worship  of  Isis  lingered  here  till  453 
A.D.,  or  sixty  vears  later  than  the  edict  of  Theodo- 
sins.  After  the  subjection  of  the  Blemmyes  to  the 
Nubian  Christians,  the  temple  was  converted  into  a 
church,  and  the  paintings  daubed  with  mud ;  and,  in 
577  A.D.,  the  bishop  Theodorus  changed  the  prouaos 
of  the  temple  of  Isis  into  the  church  of  St  Stephen ; 
and  a  Coptic  church,  at  a  later  period,  waa  buUt  out 
of  the  rums.  The  whole  area  of  the  ancient  temple 
was  about  435  feet  long  by  135  broad,  in  the  centra 
of  the  dromos.  At  the  present  day  the  island  it 
deserted.     It  is   »  favourite  resort  of   travellen 


PHILANTHROPY— PHILIP  IL 


ascending  to  Nubia,  and  is  one  of  the  best  of  the 
remaining  mined  sites  of  ancient  Egypt 

Pliny,  N.  H.,  v.,  c  29 ;  Servius,  jEneidy  v.  164 ; 
Jones  and  Goury,  Views  on  the  Nile;  Wilkinson, 
Modem  Egypt,  ii.  295—303;  Brugsch,  Beiseberichte 
aus  J^gifpten,  p.  256 ;  Lepeius,  Reise,  p.  262. 

PHILA'NTHROPY,  a  word  formed  from  the 
Greek,  and  signifying  the  *  love  of  mankind.'  In  the 
history  of  Gennan  school  education  it  has  acquired 
a  special  meaning.  The  influence  exercised  by 
Rousseau  w<as  not  less  great  on  education  than  on 
politics,  and  was  as  visible  in  the  pedagogues  of 
Germany  and  Switzerlaud  as  in  the  men  of  the 
French  Revolution.  It  is  to  the  brilliant  and  one- 
sided advocacy  by  the  author  of  EmUe,  of  a  return 
to  nature  in  social  life  and  in  the  training  of  the 
young,  that  Basedow  owed  his  novel  and  enthusiastic 
educationalism.  A  brief  notice  of  the  institution, 
which  was  oi^ened  under  his  auspices  at  Dessau  in 
1774,  and  which  was  called  PhtfanUiropin,  ia  given 
in  the  article  on  Basedow.  Other  establishments 
of  the  same  kind  were  founded  in  different  parts 
of  Germa-  V,  but  the  only  one  which  still  survives 
is  Salzmann's  Institute  at  8chnepfenthal,  in  Gotha, 
opened  in  1784. 

PHILE'MON  AN©  BAU'OIS,  according  to  a 
classic  myth,  finely  poetised  by  Ovid  in  his  Meta- 
morphoses, were  a  married  pair,  remarkable  for  their 
mutual  love.  Jupiter  and  Mercury,  wandering 
through  Phrygia  in  human  form,  were  refused  hos- 
pitality by  every  one,  till  this  aged  pair  took  them 
m,  washed  their  feet,  and  gave  them  such  humble 
fare  as  they  could  provide.  On  going  away,  the 
gods  took  them  with  them  to  a  neighbouring  moun- 
tain, on  looking  from  which  they  saw  their  village 
covered  with  a  flood,  but  their  own  cottage  changed 
into  a  splendid  temi>le.  Jupiter  pcrmitt^  them  to 
make  any  request  they  chose,  but  they  only  asked 
to  be  servants  of  his  temple,  and  that  they  might 
die  at  the  same  time.  When,  accordingly,  they  were 
seated  at  the  door  of  the  temple,  being  now  of  great 
age,  they  were  changed,  Philemon  into  an  oak,  and 
Baucis  into  a  linden.  They  felt  the  change  taking 
place,  and  as  long  as  the  power  remained  with  them, 
looked  most  tenderly  upon  one  another. 

PHILEMON,  Epistle  op  Paul  to,  is  the 
shortest  of  the  four  extant  letters  which  the  ap(»stle 
wrote  from  Rome  during  his  captivity.  We  either 
directly  learn,  or  legitimately  infer  from  its  contents, 
that  Pnilemon,  who  probably  lived  at  Colossde,  was 
a  man  of  considerable  wealth,  the  head  of  a  numer- 
ous household,  and  liberal  to  the  p(X)r.  He  had 
possessed  a  slave  cxJled  Onesimus,  who  had  run 
away  from  him,  after — it  has  been  thought  (verse 
18) — robbing  or  defrauding  him.  Onesimus,  how- 
ever, coming  to  Rome,  had  been  brought  into  con- 
tact with  Paul,  and  converted  to  Christianity.  At 
first  the  apostle  thought  to  retain  him  as  his 
personal  attendant,  for  he  was  now,  as  he  teUs  us 
(verse  9),  *  Paul  the  aged ;  *  but  on  further  consider- 
ation, he  resolved  to  send  him  back  to  his  former 
master.  The  epistle  is  simply  a  brief  letter,  begging 
Philemon  to  pardon  Onesimus,  and  to  receive  nim 
'  not  now  as  a  servant,  but  above  a  servant,  a 
brother  beloved.*  It  exhibits  an  exquisite  tender- 
ness and  deUcacy  of  feeling,  with  all  that  tact  and 
subtlety  of  address,  by  which  Paul  was  wont  to 
find  his  way  into  the  innermost  heart  of  men.  The 
historical  evidence  of  its  authenticity  is  complete. 
Even  Baur  has  remarked  that  modern  criticism  in 
assailing  this  particiUar  book  runs  a  greater  risk  of 
exposing  itself  to  the  imputation  of  an  excessive 
ilistrost — a  morbid  sensibility  to  doubt  and  denial — 
than  in  questioning  the  claims  of  any  other  epistle 
•u:ribed  to  PauL 


PHILIDOR,  the  assumed  name  of   a  French 
family,  which   has    produced   many  distinguished 
musicians,  and  one  celebrated  composer.    The  real 
name  of  the  family  was  Danigan,  and  the  additional 
appellation  P.  was  assumed  by  Michel  Danigan,  the 
hautboist  to  Louis  XIII.,  on  account  of  his  having 
equalled  a  celebrated  player  on  the  same  instrument, 
named  Filidon.    The  name  was  transmitted  to  his 
descendants,  the  most  famous  of  whom  was  his 
grandson,  FRAN901S  Andri^   Danigan,  who    was 
bom  at  Dreux,  in  the  department  of  Eure  et  Loir, 
1726,  studied  Qiusic,  and  produced  a  great  ^  many 
comic  operas,  all  louj^  forgotten.     It  may  be  noticed 
that,  while  residing  m  London — whither  he  had  fled 
on  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution — (1779),  he  set  to 
music  the  *  Carmen  Saeculare*  of  Horace,  a  work  which 
is  considered  by  many  as  a  masterpiece  of  musicid 
art.     He  died  m  London,  31st  August  1795.    P.'s 
modem  reputation  rests  exclusively  on  his  skill  in 
the  game  of  chess,  the  principles  of  which  he  has 
laid  uown  with  exceeding  cleamesa    It  was  in  great 
measure  his  passion  for  this  game  which  prompted 
him  to  visit  Germany  and  Holland,  where  at  that 
time  the  most   distinguished  players  were  to  be 
found,  in  order  to  measure  his  strength  with  theirs. 
He  was  one  of  the  founders  of  the  London  Chess 
Club.      Here   it  was  that    in   1777  he   published 
his  Analyse  du  Jeu  des  Echecs  (Analysis  of  the 
Game  of  Chess).     One  principle,  then  unique,  seems 
to  lie  at  the  root  of  all  P.*s  games— i  e.,  to  maintain 
and  support  carefully  the  pieces  in  the  centre  of  the 
board — and  rather  than  deviate  from  this  principle, 
he  rejects  the  opportimity  of  making  an  effective 
and  advantageous  move.    He  practisea  with  success 
the  playing  of  games  blindfold ;  but  in  this  parti- 
cular he  has  been  far  surpassed  in  recent  times  by 
Harrwitz,  and  more  recently  by  Morphy. 

PHILIP  II.,  king  of  Macedonia,  and  father  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  was  bom  at  Pella  in  382  B.a 
He  was  the  youngest  son  of  Amyntas  II.  and 
Eurydice.  At  Thebes,  whither  he  was  taken  as  a 
hostage  by  Pelopidas,  he  spent  part  of  his  early 
Ufe,  employing  his  exile  in  studying  the  art  of  war, 
and  the  constitution  and  laws  of  the  Greek  states,  as 
well  as  the  literature  and  the  character  of  the  people 
— pursuits  which  were  of  the  greatest  service  to  mm 
afterwards,  when  called  on  to  administer  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Macedonian  kingdom.  The  assassina- 
tion of  his  eldest  brother,  Alexander  IL,  by  Ptolemy 
Alorites,  after  a  short  reign  of  two  years  (369 — 367 
B.  c),  and  the  death  of  his  second  brother,  Perdiccas 
III.,  in  battle  (360  b.  c),  placed  him  at  the  head  of 
affairs  \in  Macedonia,  as  guardian  to  his  nephew 
Amyntas,  still  an  infant.  In  a  few  months,  P. 
made  himself  king,  the  rights  of  Amyntas  being  set 
aside.  Dangers  soon  beset  him  from  without  and 
from  within.  The  Illyrians  and  other  neighbouring 
tribes  assailed  his  kingdom  on  different  sides ;  while 
two  pretenders  to  the  throne,  urged  on  by  the 
Athenians  and  Thracians,  stirred  up  civil  commo- 
tion. Bui;  foreign  and  domestic  enemies  soon 
disapjieared  before  the  decision,  the  enerfi:y,  and  the 
wise  policy  of  the  young  king.  In  the  orief  space 
of  a  year  he  had  secured  the  safety  of  his  kingdom, 
and  had  gained  for  himself  a  dreaded  name.  At 
tliis  time  he  was  only  24  years  of  a^e.  Hence- 
forwanl  his  policy  was  one  of  aggression,  and  his 
every  thought  was  directed  to  the  extension  of  his 
empire  and  the  spread  of  Macedonian  influence. 
The  Greek  towns  on  the  coast  of  Macedonia  were 
the  first  objects  of  attack.  After  possessing  himself 
of  Amphi|K)lis  and  Pydna,  by  means  little  consistent 
with  the  faith  of  treaties,  he  handed  over  to  the 
Olynthians  the  city  of  Potid^ea,  which  he  had  taken 
from  the  Athenians.     In  Thrace  he  captured  the 

small  town  Crenides,  which,  under  its  new  name, 

469 


PHILIP  IlL -PHILIP  IL 


PHi]iiPP7,  soon  acquired  great  wealth  and  fame, 
and  ultimately  became  celebrated  in  profane  as 
well  as  in  sacred  history.  The  surrounding  district 
was  rich  in  gold-mines,  which  i>royed  a  source  of 
i^at  revenue  to  P.  (about,  say,  £250,000  annually), 
tnd  supplied  him  plentifully  with  the  means  of 
paying  his  armies,  of  bribing  traitorous  Greeks,  and 
of  opening  the  gates  of  many  cities,  the  sieges  of 
which  might  otherwise  have  cost  the  blood  of 
thousands.  After  a  few  years  of  comparative  leisure, 
he  turned  his  ambitious  views  southward;  and 
capturing  Methone  (at  the  siege  of  which  he  lost 
an  eye),  he  advanced  into  Thessaly,  and  ultimately 
to  the  Strait  of  Thermopyl«,  which,  however, 
he  did  not  attempt  to  force,  as  it  was  strongly 
yarded  by  the  Athenians.  He  therefore  returned 
into  Macedonia,  and  directed  his  arms  against  the 
Thraciaas,  waiting  for  a  more  fitting  occasion  to  carry 
out  his  darling  project.  Such  an  opi>ortunity  was 
not  long  wanting.  After  capturing  all  the  towns  of 
Chalcidice — ^the  last  of  which  was  the  imiwrtant  city 
of  Olynthus — he  made  peace  with  the  Thracians, 
and  next  year  with  the  Athenians,  who  had  been 
at  war  with  him  in  defence  of  their  allies  the 
Olynthiaus.  It  was  tliis  siege  of  Olynthus  by 
P.  which  called  forth  these  Olyntliiac  orations 
of  Demosthenes,  which  are  still  admired  as  efforts 
of  oratorical  genius  hitherto  unequalled  in  any 
country.  P.  was  now  requested  by  the  Thebans 
to  interfere  in  the  war  ('the  Sacred  War*)  which 
was  raging  between  them  and  the  Phocians.  He 
marched  into  Phocis,  destroyed  its  cities,  and  sent 
as  colonists  to  Thrace  many  of  the  inhabitants 
(346  B.  c).  The  place  which  the  Phocians  had 
occupied  in  the  Amphictyonic  Council  was  trans- 
ferred to  P.,  and  ho  was  apj)ointed,  jointly  with 
the  Thebans  and  Thessalians,  as  president  of  the 
Pythian  games.  His  next  step  was  to  secure  a 
footing  in  the  Peloponnese,  by  espousing  the  cause 
of  the  Argives,  Messenians,  and  others,  against  the 
Spartans.  In  339  B.C.  the  Amphictyonic  Council 
declared  war  against  the  Locriaus  of  Amphissa ;  and, 
in  tho  following  year,  a)>i)ointed  P.  commander-in- 
chief  of  their  torces.  llie  Athenians  were  alarmed 
at  his  approach  into  Greece  in  this  capacity,  and 
formed  a  league  with  the  Thebans  against  him ;  but 
their  united  army  was  utterly  defeated  at  the  battle 
of  Chseronea  (33i8  B.  a),  and  all  Greece  was  at  the 
feet  of  the  conqueror.  He  was  now  in  a  position  to 
enter  on  the  great  dream  of  his  later  years — viz., 
to  invade  the  Persian  empire,  and  revenge  the 
injuries  of  Greece.  Deputies  from  the  different 
states  of  Greece  assembled  in  congress  at  Corinth ; 
and  after  resolving  to  make  war  on  the  Persian 
king,  chose  P.  as  leader  of  their  armies.  Pre- 
parations were  in  progress  for  this  great  expedition 
when  he  was  suddemy  cut  off  by  the  hand  of  the 
assassin  Pausanias,  at  a  festivtd  celebrating  the 
marriage  of  his  daughter  with  Alexander  of  Lpirus 
(336  B.  c).  A  private  gnidge  at  P.,  for  neglect  to 
punish  an  insult  offered  to  Pausanias  by  Attains, 
was  said  to  be  the  motive  which  inspired  the 
murderer,  though  suspicion  is  not  wanting  that  the 
deed  was  done  at  the  instigation  of  Alexander  and 
his  mother  01ymx)ias,  who  had  retired  from  the 
court  in  disgust  at  P.*s  marriage,  the  year  previous, 
with  Cleopatra,  daughter  of  Attiilus,  one  of  his 
generals.  P.  was  a  man  given  to  self-indidgence 
and  sensnahty ;  he  was  faithless  in  the  observance 
of  treaty  obligations,  and  unscrupulous  as  to  the 
means  by  which  he  gained  his  ends ;  but  he  had  to 
deal  with  factious  and  faithless  opi)oneBt3,  which 
may  help  to  explain,  if  it  does  not  justify  his  policy; 
whde  his  clemency  as  a  victor  has  won  the  admir- 
ation even  of  the  virtuous  Cicero,  who  pronounces 
him  'always  great.'  Of  his  force  and  energy  of 
470 


character,  his  acuteness,  fertility  of  invention,  and 
eloquence,  it  is  im}>ossible  to  speak  too  highly.  He 
was  at  the  same  time  a  lover  of  learning,  and  s 
liberal  patron  of  learned  men.  He  reigned  from 
359  to  336  B.a 

PHILIP  III.,  OF  Macedoh.  On  the  death 
of  Alexander  the  Great  at  Babylon  in  323  blc, 
the  army  elected  as  king,  under  the  name  of 
PhiUp  IIL,  Arrhidaeus,  son  of  Philip  and  Philinns 
of  Larissa,  one  of  his  many  wives.  He  was  a 
youth  of  weak  understanding,  and  was  totally  untit 
for  the  duties  of  government.  His  wife  Eurydice 
(daughter  of  Amyntas,  son  of  Perdiccas  IIL),  whom 
he  married  in  322  B.  c,  endeavoured,  on  their  leturn 
to  Macedonia,  to  oppose  the  measures  of  Polj- 
sperchon  and  Olymiuas  in  support  of  the  young 
Alexander,  posthumous  son  of  Alexander  the  Great 
and  Koxana.  But  her  army  was  defeated ;  she  herself 
was  taken  prisoner ;  and,  along  with  her  husband, 
was  put  to  death  in  317  B.  a 

PHILIP  II.,  Kino  of  Spain,  the  only  son  of 
the  £mperor  Charles  V.  (q.  v.)  and  Isabella  of 
Portugal,  was  born  at  Valladolid,  2l8t  May  1527. 
He  was  brought  up  in  Spain,  and  carefully  educated 
under  the  superintendence  of  able  tutors,  by  whose 
instructions  he  greatly  profited,  becoming  an  accom- 
plished linguist  and  mathematician,  and  a  cod- 
noisseur  in  ai'chitecture  'and  the  fine  arts.  But  all 
attempts  to  indoctrinate  him  with  the  chivalric 
ideas  of  the  time  were  utterly  futile.  From  his 
very  childhood  he  was  distrustful  and  reserved;  he 
invariably  spoke  with  slowness  and  an  air  of  deep 
reflection  which  was  too  marked  to  be  wholly  reat 
and  exhibited  in  his  manners  a  sang-froid  which 
even  in  his  early  years  was  rarely  diisturbed  by 
ebullitions  of  passion.  While  still  very  young  he 
was  intrusted,  under  the  direction  of  a  council,  with 
the  government  of  Spain,  and  in  1543  he  espoiued 
Mary  of  Portugal,  who  died  three  years  after*  Id 
1548  he  went  to  join  his  father  at  Brussels,  and 
there  adopted  the  multitudinous  equiuage  and 
minute  and  pom)>ous  etiquette  of  the  late  Bnr- 
gundian  court,  which  from  this  time  he  retained. 
While  at  Brussels,  P.  was  presented  to  bis  future 
subjects,  and  was  at  the  same  time  folly  initiated 
into  his  father's  policy,  the  two  chief  items  of  which 
were  the  maintenance  and  extension  of  absolute 
rule  throughout  his  dominions,  and  the  support 
and  propagation  of  the  Catholic  religion.  la 
1554  ne  married  Mary  Tudor,  Queen  of  England, 
and  to  gain  the  &ui)ix>rt  of  that  country  to  his 
political  projects,  and  at  the  same  time  restt^re 
it  to  the  Roman  Catholic  pale,  he  laid  aside  his 
ordinarily  cold  and  haughtj^  demeanour,  and  labouit^ 
to  ingratiate  himself  with  his  wife's  subjects, 
taking  the  utmost  care  to  avoid  exciting  ih^ 
national  jealousy  of  foreign  infiuenca  But  his 
plans  were  discovered  and  frustrated,  and  this  dis- 
appointment, combined  with  the  annoyance  to  which 
he  was  subjected  by  the  jealousy  of  his  wife, 
prompted  him  to  leave  England  (whidi  he  did  for 
ever),  and  return  to  Brussels  (September  1555).  In 
the  following  month  he  became,  by  the  abdicatioa 
of  his  father,  the  most  powerful  potentate  of  Kun>pe, 
having  under  his  sway,  Spain,  the  Two  Sicilies,  the 
Milanese,  the  Low^  Countries,  Franche  Comtl. 
Mexico,  and  Peru;  his  European  territories  bein^ 
more  fertile,  and  their  inhabitants  more  wealthy 
and  prosj^erous,  than  any  others  on  the  contineLi 
while  his  army  was  the  best  disciplined,  and  headed 
by  the  greatest  ^nerals  of  the  aga  The  treasory 
alone  was  deficient,  havius  been  drained  by  iht 
enormous  ex^ienditure  of  nis  father*s  wara.  P. 
was  eager  to  be^^  the  crusade  in  favour  <»f 
Catholicism,  but  he  was  compelled  to   poetpOB^ 


PHILIP  IL— PHIUP  V. 


it,  owinff   to    a   league  which   had  been  formed 
between  France,  the  Pope,  and  the  Sultan,  to  deprive 
him  of  his  Italian  dominions.     He  soon  got  over 
his  religions  scruples  at  engaging  in  warfare  with 
the  pope,  and  intrusted  the  defence  of  the  Sicilies 
to  Alva  (q.  v.),  who  speedily  drove  out  the  pope  and 
the  French,  and  conquered  the  papal  territories,  while 
P.  himself  vigorously  prosccut^  the  war  against 
France  in  the  north,  and  defeated  the  French  at 
St  Quentin  (q.  v.)  (August  10,  1557)  and  Graveliues 
(July  13,  1558).     These  reverses  forced  the  French 
(the  po{>e  having  already  made  a  separate  ti-caty) 
to  a^:ree  to  terms  of  peace  at  Chateau- Cambresis 
(Apnl  2,  1559).     P.'s  wife  was  now  dead,  and  after 
an  unsuoccssfiU  attempt  to  obtain  the  hand  of  her 
successor.  Queen  Elizaocth,  he  espoused  Isabella  of 
France,  and  returned  to  Spain,  where  from  this 
time  he  always  resided.    Before  leaving  the  Low 
Countries,  he  solemnly  promised  to  withdraw  almost 
the  whole  of  his  Spanish  troops  who  preyed  upon 
the  peaceful  Flemings,  but   he  firmly  refused  to 
annul  or  modify  the  rigorous  edicts  of  his  father 
against  heretics.     His  realm  being  now  at  peace, 
he  resolved,  as  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  carry- 
ing out  of  his  great  proselytising  scheme,  to  replenish 
his   treasury,  a  thing   impossible  without    forced 
contribntions,  which,  at  that  time,  could  only  be 
obtained  in  those  countriea   over  which  he  held 
absolute  rule — viz.,  S])ain  and  America.    He  there- 
fore set  about  establishing  absolute  government  in 
those  of  his  states  that  were  in  possession  of  some- 
thing like  free    institutions,   and  with  this  view 
sought  to  introduce  the  Inquisition  into  the  Low 
Countries  and  Italy.    But  the  introduction  of  this 
instrument  of  tyranny  was  successfully  resisted  in 
Naples  and  the  Milanese ;  in  Sicily  its  ix)wers  were 
so  shackled  as  to  render  it  quite  a  harmless  iusti- 
tution ;  but  these  failures  only  stimulated  him  the 
iui>re  to  establish  it  in  all  its  pride  and  power  in 
the  Low  Countries.     For  a  number  of  years  it  con- 
tinued in  vigorous  action  in  that  country ;  but  the 
Datura]  resiut  of  such  a  course  of  conduct  was  a 
f<>mii<lable  rebellion   of  all  classes.  Catholic  and 
Protectant,    which    was    partially   successfid — the 
northern   portion   (the   *  seven    united   provinces') 
e!«tablishing  its  independence  in  1579.     In  this  con- 
flict the  resources  of  Sjxain  were  largely  expended, 
and    to    replenish    his   treasury   in   the   speediest 
manner  possible,  P.  exacted  enormous  contributions 
from  Spain,  abolishing  all  special  communal  or  pro- 
vincial privileges  and  rights  which  might  interfere 
-with   his  actions,  and  suppressing  aU  insurrection 
and  discontent  by  force  of  arms  or  the  Inquisition. 
During  the  first  half  of  his  reign  he  engaged  in 
a  desultory  warfare  with  the  Barbary  corsairs,  who 
were  supported  by  the  Turks — the  only  memorable 
incident  of  which  was  the  famous  naval  victory  of 
Lepanto  (q.  v.)*  won  September  16,  1571.     In  1580 
the    direct  male  line  of  Portugal  having  become 
extinct,  P.  laid  claim  to  the  throne,  and  after  the 
I>uke  of  Alva  had  occupied  the  kingdom  with  an 
army,  the  Spanish  monarch's  title  was  recognised 
by  the  Portuguese  estates.    His  enmity  to  England 
on    accoimt  of  the  anti-Spanish  policy   of   Queen 
£lizabeth  incited  him  to  attempt  the  conquest  of 
that    country,  but   his  most  formidable   attempt 
failed  signally.    See  Armada.    After  the  accession 
of  Catharine  de  Medicis  to  power,  France  and  Spain 
drew^  closer  the  bonds  of  amity  which  had  previously 
8al>sisted  between  the  two  countries ;  but  the  refusal 
of  Catharine  to  adopt  P.'s  plans  for  the  wholesale 
slaughter  of  heretics  produced  a  coolness  in  their 
relationa    However,  when  Henry,  king  of  Navarre, 
a  Hoguenot,  became  heir-presumptive  to  the  throne, 
V.  Allied  himself  with  the  Guises  and  the  other  chiefs 
of  the  Catholic  party  who  were  in  rebellion,  and  his 


obstinate  persistence  in  these  intrigues  after  the  cauM 
of  the  Giuses  was  shewn  to  be  hopeless,  prompted 
Henry  to  declare  war  against  hiuL  The  8i)aniai*ds 
had  uie  worst  of  it,  and  P.  was  izlad  to  conclude  the 
treaty  of  Vervius  (2d  May  159S).  He  died  in  the 
Escurial  at  Madrid,  on  13th  September  of  the  same 
year.  It  cannot  be  denied  that  P.  was  gifted  %(-ith 
^at  abilities,  but  he  was  also  a  visionary,  esi)ecially 
m  politics,  and  engaged  in  so  many  grand  enteq)rises 
at  once  as  to  overtask  his  resources  without  leading 
to  an^  good  or  proHtable  result  No  single  king- 
dom m  Euro]>e  could  have  long  stood  against  him, 
but  he  was  always  at  war  with  at  least  two  at  a 
time ;  and  even  the  splendid  opportunity  which  the 
extinction  of  the  direct  Ca^tetian  line  in  1589  gave 
him  for  uniting  France,  Spain,  and  Portugal  in  one 
great  monarchy,  could  not  restrain  this  unfortunate 
peculiarity.  His  fanatical  enthusiasm  for  Catho- 
licism, in  which  he  was  suq)assed  by  no  man  who 
ever  lived,  and  the  zeal  with  which  he  [>er3ecuted 
all  heretics  through  the  Inquisition,  combined  with 
the  odious  tyranny  of  his  secular  government  to 
degrade  Spain,  by  breaking  the  proud  and  chivalrous 
spirit  which  had  been  the  source  of  its  pre-eminence 
among  European  nations,  while  his  virulent  per- 
secutions of  the  industrious  Moriscoes,  and  his 
oppressive  exactions,  put  a  sto^)  to  the  commerce  of 
the  country.  By  his  fourth  wife,  Anne  of  Austria, 
he  had  a  son,  Philip  III. 

PHILIP  v.,  king  of  Spain,  and  the  founder  of 
the  Bourbon  dynasty  in  that  country,  was  the  second 
son  of  the  Dauphin  Louis  (son  of  Louis  XIV.)  of 
France,  and  was  born  at  Versailles,  December  19, 
1683.  The  last  king  of  Spain  of  the  Ha])8bnrg 
dynasty,  Charles  II.,  had  successively  promised  the 
succession  to  the  throne  to  Charles,  archduke  of 
Austria,  the  great  grandson  of  Philip  III.  of  Spain, 
and  to  P.,  then  Duke  of  Aujou,  the  son  of  his  own 
eldest  sister;  but  becoming  cognizant  of  a  secret 
treaty  which  had  been  agreed  to  l)etween  England, 
France,  and  Holland  for  the  partition  of  Sixain,  he, 
to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  his  kingdom,  left 
by  will  the  succession  to  P.  of  Anjou.  Fnmce 
immediately  seceiled  from  the  x)artition  treaty,  and, 
on  the  death  of  Charles  II.  in  1700,  P.,  who  was  the 
favourite  candidate  among  the  Si)aniards,  with  the 
exception  of  those  in  the  eastern  provinces,  took 
possession  of  the  kingdom  (April  21,  1701);  and,  to 
gain  over  Savoy  to  his  side,  and  thus  create  a 
diversion  in  Italy  against  Austria,  he  married 
Maria  Louisa,  daughter  of  Victor  Amadeus.  War 
almost  immediately  broke  out  between  the  rival 
claimants,  Charles  being  supported  by  the  *  grand 
alliance,'  which  included  England,  Austria,  and 
Holland,  and  subsequently  (January  1702)  Prussia, 
Denmark,  and  Hanover  (May  1703),  Portugal,  and 
(October  1703)  Savoy.  See  Succession,  War  of 
Spanish.  The  fortune  of  war  was  mostly  on  the 
side  of  the  allies ;  but  France  and  Spain  carried  on 
the  contest  heroically,  and,  though  at  great  sacri- 
fices, the  throne  was  secured  to  P.  by  the  peace 
of  Utrecht  (April  11,  1713).  In  the  following 
year  the  queen  died,  and  P.  espoused  Elizabeth 
Farnese  of  Parma,  who  immediately  induced  her 
husband  to  commit  the  reins  of  government  to 
Alberoni  (q.  v.) ;  in  fact,  so  much  was  the  weak- 
minded  king  under  the  influence  of  his  talented 
young  wife,  that  he  granted  everything  she  asked. 
*He  was,'  says  Sismondi,  *  remarkable  for  good 
nature,  he  had  few  faults  and  as  few  virtues,  his 
sentiments  were  just  and  honourable,  but  he  was 
wholly  deficient  m  energy;  he  had  no  taste  for 
anything  beyond  devotional  exercises  and  the 
chase;  he  was  made  to  be  governed,  and  he  waa 
so  all  his  Ufe.*  Alberoni's  adventurous  foreign 
policy,  which  at  first  succeeded  in  restoring  1ai% 


PHELIFPB  IL— FHIUPFE  IV. 


SpMUih  rile  ia  Sieflj  and  Sudintt,  broaght  down 
npon  S|«»n  the  wrath  of  the  Qnadraple  Alliance 
Crranoe,  England,  Holland,  and  Austria),  and  war 
waa  only  averted  by  hia  being  dumisMid ;  bat  his 
disniaud  waa  really  ptodnced  by  hia  net^lecting  to 
further  the  aaeen^a  pet  acheme  of  providing  aove- 
leigntiea  in  Italy  for  her  aona,  who  seemed  to  have 
little  chance  of  obtaininff  the  throne  of  Spain.  The 
atrong  bond  of  union  which  had  hitherto  aabaisted 
between  Spain  and  France  waa  broken,  in  1725|  by 
the  refnaal  of  the  regent  of  the  latfeer  cuuuLry 
to  folfil  certain  matrimonial  agreementa;  bat  four 
years  afterwards  the  two  ooontries  joined  with 
England  and  Holluid  against  the  emperor,  and  in 
1731  P.  took  measnies  to  reooTer  the  old  Spanish 
poaseasions  in  Italy.  The  war  which  followed  at 
last  satisfied  the  queen  by  giving  the  kingdom  of 
the  Two  Sicilies  to  her  son  Charies  (1736),  bat  P., 
m  attempting  to  obtain  still  greater  advantages 
over  Austria,  waa  led  into  a  war  of  which  he  was 
not  destined  to  aee  the  resnlb  He  died  at  Madrid, 
July  9, 1746. 

PHILIPPE  II.,  better  known  as  Pbujfpb 
AuousfTE,  king  of  France,  was  the  son  of  Louis 
VIL  and  Alix  of  Champagne,  and  was  bom  in 
August  1165.  He  was  crowned,  m  1179,  during 
the  life  of  his  father,  succeeded  him  in  1180, 
and  proved  one  of  the  greatest  monarchs  of  the 
Capetian  dynasty.  His  marriage  with  Isabella  of 
Hainault,  a  descendant  of  the  Oarlovingians,  estab- 
lished more  completely  the  right  of  his  family  to 
the  throne  of  France.  He  first  made  war  upon  the 
Count  of  Flanders,  to  obtain  the  districts  of  Verman- 
dois,  Vaiois,  Amienois,  and  Artois,  which  belonged 
to  his  wife,  and,  after  various  fortune,  obtained 
Amienois  and  part  of  Vermandois  at  once,  and  the 
rest  after  the  count's  death  in  1185.  By  the  advice 
of  St  Bernard  (q.  v.)  he  rigorously  pumshed  here- 
tics, despoiled  tne  Jews,  absolving  their  debtors 
of  all  ooligations,  excepting  one-bfth,  which  he 
transferred  to  himself;  put  down  with  vigour  the 
numerous  bands  of  brigands  and  priest-haters  who 
devastated  the  country  and  burned  the  churches 
and  monasteries,  compelling  their  chief  leader,  the 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  to  submit  (1186)  to  bis  authority 
— ^acts  which  gave  him  great  popularity  among  his 
subjects.  He  sustained  the  sons  of  Henry  II.  of 
England  in  their  rebellions  a^inst  their  father, 
and  conquered,  in  conjunction  with  Richard  Oorar- 
de-Lion,  many  of  the  English  possessions  in  France. 
After  the  accession  (1282)  of  Kichard  to  the  throne, 
P.  and  he  set  out  together  on  the  third  crusade; 
but  quarrelled  while  wintering  in  Sicily,  and  this 
dissension  continuing,  P.,  after  a  sojourn  of  34 
months  in  Syria,  set  out  (31st  July  1190)  on 
his  return  to  France,  after  taking  a  solemn  oath 
to  respect  the  integrity  of  Richard's  dominions; 
but  no  sooner  had  he  returned  than  he  entered 
into  an  arrangement  for  the  partition  of  Richard's 
territories  in  France  with  his  unworthy  brother 
John.  Some  acquisitions  were  made,  but  Richard's 
sudden  return  overset  the  calculations  of  the  conspir- 
ators, and  a  war  immediately  commenced  between 
the  two  monarchs,  in  which  r.  had  at  one  and  the 
same  time  to  defend  his  territories  from  the  English, 
and  the  Counts  of  Champagne,  Boulogne,  Bre- 
tagne,  and  Hainault,  who  attacked  them  on  all 
sides.  In  order  to  obtain  money,  he  was  obliged 
to  rescind  his  edicts  against  the  Jews ;  but  the 
mediation  of  Poi^e  Innocent  put  an  end  (1 3th 
January  1199)  to  a  war  which  was  productive  of  no 
other  restdt  than  the  exhaustion  of  the  strength 
of  the  combatants.  Richard  of  England  died  within 
two  months  after;  but  war  almost  immediately 
recommenced  with  England,  regarding  the  respective 

claims  of  King  John  of  Engmnd  and  his  nephew 
471 


'  Arthur  of    Bretaene   to  the  French  herilwe  cf 
Richard  Coeor-de-Liofi,  which  oonaisted  chimy  of 

'  Anjoo,  Maine,  and  Tonratne.  Arthur  had  applied  for 
aid  to  P.,  and  the  French  king  immediately  respoodel 
br  causing  the  yoang  duke  to  be  recognised  in  the 
above-mentioned  piovincea ;  but  a  quarrel  in  which 
he  became  involved  with  the  pope  on  aocoont  of 
hia  having  divorced  hia  second  wife,  In^^bur^  of 
Denmaik,  to  mamr  Agnea  of  Meran,  a  Tyrolese 
princess,  compelled  him  to  leave  the  En^iah  in 
possession  for  a  little  time  longer.  The  d<^eat, 
capture,  and  snbaequent  murder  of  Arthur,  hov- 
ever,  again  brought  him  into  the  field.  The  En^h 
provinces  in  France  were  attacked  by  the  combmed 
French  and  Bretons ;  Normandy  and  PoitoQ,  with 
the  three  disputed  provinces,  were  annexed  to 
France ;  and  tiie  F«ngfish  dynasty  in  Bretagne  dis- 
possessed by  a  French  one  (26th  October  1206K 
During  1211 — 1214,  P.  waa  engaged  in  a  war  with 
King  John  of  England  and  the  Emperor  Otho  of 
Germany,  who  luul  leagued  thems^vea  agaunst 
him,  in  which  he  waa  on  the  whole  sucoasfoL 
During  the  rest  of  his  reign,  P.  was  occupied  in 
consolidating  his  new  possessions;,  and  took  no  part 
either  in  the  war  with  the  Albigenses  or  that  in 
England,  though  his  son  Louis  (q.  v.)  went  to  the 
latter  with  an  army.  P.  succeeded  in  establishing; 
the  unity  of  his  dominions,  and  in  emancipat- 
ing the  royal  authority  from  the  trammels  of  the 
pafMicy  and  clergy,  and  vindicated  hia  aovereiga 
authority  over  the  latter  as  his  subjects,  irrespective 
of  the  pope.  His  measures,  without  alienating  the 
great  feuoal  lords,  tended  firmly  to  establish  his 
authority  over  them,  and  to  emancipate  the  larger 
towns  from  their  sway.  To  incfeaae  the  unity  <tf 
the  kingdom,  and  strengthen  the  central  power,  he 
established  at  Paris  a  chamber  of  twelve  peers,  six 
lay  and  six  ecclesiastical,  who  almost  always  sup- 
ported his  plans,  even  against  the  court  of  Rom& 
Finally,  he  largely  improved  and  embellished  Paris, 
built  manv  churches  and  other  institutions,  and 
encouraged  commercial  associations  ;  he  also  fortified 
many  of  the  chief  towns,  including  the  capitaL  He 
died  at  Mantes,  July  14,  122a 

PHILIPPE  IV.,  sumamed  Lb  Bel  or  *F»ir,' 
king  of  France,  the  son  of  Philippe  III.,  king  of 
France,  and  Isabella  of  Aragon,  was  bom  at  Fon- 
tainebleau  in  1268,  and  succeeded  his  father  in  12S5u 
By  his  marriage  with  Queen  Joanna  of  Navarre,  he 
obtained  Navarre,  Champagne,  and  Brie.  For 
several  years  he  carried  on  a  struggle  with  the 
Count  of  Flanders  to  obtain  possession  of  that 
country,  and  also  seized  Guienne  from  the  English ; 
but  was,  in  the  end,  obliged  to  restore  Guienne  and 
Flanders  beyond  the  Lys.  The  great  events  of 
P/s  reign  were  his  war  with  the  papacy  and  the 
extermination  of  the  Knights  Templars ;,  the 
former  had  its  origin  in  the  attempt  of  the  king 
to  tax  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  laity  for  the 
heavy  expenses  of  his  numerous  wars.  Boniface 
forbade  tne  clergy  to  submit  to  taxation,  while 
P.,  on  his  side,  ordered  that  neither  money  nor 
valuables  were  to  be  exported,  thus  cutting  off  a 
main  supply  of  papal  revenue ;  and  on  the  lope's 
legate  insolently  reprimanding  him,  he  threw  him 
into  prison.  P.  now  called  an  assembly  of  states, 
in  which  deputies  of  towns  appeared — thouc^h  not 
for  the  first  time — and  obtainea  assurance  of  their 
8upiK>rt,  even  in  case  of  excommunication  and 
interdict.  Boniface,  in  turn,  assembled  a  coimcil 
at  Rome  (1302),  which  supported  his  view,  and  th« 
celebrated  bull,  Unam  Sanctam  (q.  v.)  was  issue  L 
P.  caused  the  bull  to  be  pnbUcly  burned,  and  with 
the  consent  of  the  states-general  confiscated  the 
property  ot  those  prelates  who  had  sided  witii 
the  pope.     Boniface   now   exoommuoicated  hm, 


PHILIPPE  VL— PHILIPPE  LE  BON. 


bat  the  king,  nothing  daunted,  sent  to  Borne  his 
general,  WilHam  de  Nogaret,  who  seized  and  impri- 
soned the  pope ;  and  though  he  was  released  after 
a  few  days  oy  a  popular  rising,  he  soon  afterwards 
died.  In  1304,  P.  obtained  the  elevation  of  one  of 
his  own  creatures  to  the  papal  chair  as  Clement  V., 
on  condition  of  his  residing  at  Avignon,  and  giving 
ap  the  Knights  Templars  (q.  v.).  In  accordance 
•rith  this  agreement,  the  Templars  were  seized 
(1306—1314),  and  burned  b^  hundreds,  and  their 
wealth  appropriated  by  PMip.  The  grandmaster, 
Jacques  Jlolay,  was  burned,  18th  March  1314,  and 
when  dying  he  summoned  P.  to  compear  within  a 
vear  and  a  day,  and  the  pope  within  forty  days, 
before  the  judgment-seat  of  God;  strange  to  say, 
both  the  pope  and  king  died  within  the  time  men- 
tioned, the  latter  at  Fontainebleau,  November  29, 
1314.  P.  during  his  whole  reign  steadily  strove  for 
the  suppression  of  feudalism  and  the  introduction 
of  the  Eoman  law ;  but  while  thus  increasing  the 
power  of  the  crown,  and  also  that  of  the  third 
estate,  he  converted  royalty,  which  was  formerly 
protecting,  kind,  and  popular  to  the  mass  of  the 
people,  into  a  hard,  avaricious,  and  pitiless  task- 
master. Under  him  the  taxes  were  |9preatly  in- 
creased, the  Jews  persecuted,  and  their  property 
confiscated;  and  when  these  means  were  insuffi- 
cient to  satisfy  P.'s  avarice,  he  caused  the  coinage 
to  be  greatly  debased ;  yet  he  was  an  able  monarch, 
and  under  him  France  was  extended  almost  to  its 
present  limits  on  the  north  and  east. 

PHILIPPE  VL,  OF  Valob,  king  of  Prance,  was 
the  son  of  Charles  of  Valois,  younger  brother  of 
Philip()e  IV.,  and  succeeded  to  the  regency  of  France 
on  the  death  of  Charles  IV.,  the  proclamation  of  a 
king  being  deferred  on  account  of  the  pregnancy  of 
Charles  IV.'s  widow  ;  but  on  her  giving  birth  to  a 
daughter,  P.  caused  himself  to  be  crowned  king  at 
Beims  (May  29, 1328),  and  assumed  royal  authority. 
His  right  to  the  throne  was  denied  by  Edward  IIL 
of  England,  the  grandson  of  Philippe  IV.,  who 
declar^  that  females,  though  excluded  by  the  Salic 
law,  could  transmit  their  rights  to  their  children, 
and  therefore  insisted  upon  the  superiority  of  his  own 
daima.  P.,  however,  was  not  only  already  crowned 
kin^  but  he  had  the  support  of  the  people.  His 
reign  commenced  gloriously,  for  marching  into 
Flanders  to  support  the  count  against  his  rebellious 
subjects,  he  wiped  out  the  disgrace  of  Courtrai  by 
vanquishing  the  Flemings  atCassel  (August  23, 1328). 
He  was  obliged  to  give  up  Navarre  (q.  v.),  as  the  Salic 
law  of  succession  did  not  a^ply  to  it,  but  he  retained 
Champagne  and  Brie,  paymg  for  them  a  consider- 
able annual  stipend.  P.  seems  to  have  had  no 
settled  plan  of  government,  and  no  systematic  poli- 
tical action ;  his  acts  were  regulated  bv  the  whim 
of  the  hour,  and  were  mostly  calculated  to  gratify 
his  own  vanity  and  love  of  show.  From  1330 
to  1336,  constant  encroachments  had  been  made 
upon  the  English  possessions  in  France,  till  at  last 
Edward  III.  s  patience  was  exhausted;  and,  on 
August  21,  1337,  he  formally  declared  war,  and 
a  commencement  of  this  terrible  hundred  years* 
contest  was  made  both  in  Guienne  and  Flanders ; 
it  was  carried  on  languidly  for  several  years,  the 
only  prominent  incident  being  the  destruction  of  the 
French  fleet  off  Sluys  (June  24,  1340).  In  March 
1343,  P.  established  the '  gabelle,'  or  monopoly  of  salt, 
a  heavy  percentage  tax  on  all  mercantile  transactions. 
The  constant  round  of  fdtes  and  tournaments  at 
eourt  was  never  interrupted,  even  when  the  war 
had  well-nigh  exhausted  the  wealth  of  the  countrv, 
for  the  money  to  carry  them  on  was  immediately 

Kovided  by  some  new  tax  or  fresh  confiscation. 
1346,  Eclward  IIL  landed  in  Normandy,  ravaged 
tbtt  whole  country  to  the  environs  of  Paris,  and 


totally  defeated  P.  at  Cr6cy  (q.  v.).  A  truce  was 
then  concluded,  but  the  devoted  kingdom  had  no 
sooner  been  released  from  war,  than  destruction  in 
another  and  a  more  terrible  form,  that  of  the '  Black 
Death '  (q.  v.),  threatened  it.  The  wild  extrava- 
gance of  the  court  was  nothing  lessened  by  this 
visitation ;  but  the  financial  embarrassi^ents  in 
which  P.  found  himself,  compelled  him  to  agree 
to  the  passing  of  a  law  (1338)  which  gave  to  the 
assembly  of  we  states  the  sole  power  of  imposing 
taxes.      He    received  Dauphin6    in    gift  in   1349, 

Surchased  Majorca  from  its  unfortunate  king,  and 
ied  August  22,  1350,  neither  loved  nor  respected. 
He  was  a  despiser  of  learning,  and  a  bigot. 

PHILIPPE  LE  HABDI  {PMip  the  JBdd), 
the  foimder  of  the  second  and  last  ducal  house 
of  Burgundy,  was  the  third  son  of  Jean,  king  of 
France,  and  his  wife  Bonne  of  Luxemburg,  and 
was  bom  January  15,  1342.  He  was  present  at 
the  battie  of  Poitiers  (1356),  and  displayed  such 
heroic  courage,  venturing  his  own  life  to  save 
that  of  his  father,  as  gamed  for  him  the  sobri- 
quet of  le  Hardi,  or  'the  Bold'  He  shared 
his  father's  captivity  in  En^and,  and  on  return- 
ing to  France  in  1360,  received  in  reward  of  hi^ 
bravery  the  duchy  of  Touraine,  and  subsequently 
(1363)  also  that  of  Burgundy,  being  created  at  the 
same  time  the  first  peer  of  Franca  On  the  accession 
of  hiB  brother,  Charles  V.,  to  the  throne  of  France, 
P.  had  to  resign  Touraine,  but,  as  a  compensation, 
obtained  in  marriage  Margaret,  the  heiress  of  Flan- 
ders. In  1372,  he  commanded  the  French  army 
opposed  to  the  English,  and  took  from  them  many 
of  their  possessions.  In  1380,  he  exerted  himself  to 
suppress  the  sedition  of  the  Flemish  towns  against 
their  count,  and  succeeded  with  some  of  the  malcon- 
tents; but  the  citizens  of  some  of  the  populous 
places,  especially  Ghent,  were  possessed  with  such  a 
fever  of  independence,  that  after  many  fruitiess 
attempts  to  induce  them  to  return  to  their  allegi- 
ance, F.  raised  an  army,  and  inflicted  upon  them  the 
bloody  defeat  of  Eosbeck  (November  27, 1382),  leav- 
ing  26,000  of  them  on  the  field.  Flanders,  the  county 
of  Burgundy,  Artois,  Bethel,  and  Nevers  fell  to  him 
by  the  death  of  the  count  in  1384,  and  the  influence 
of  his  power,  combined  with  prudence  and  good 
management  on  his  part,  soon  won  the  affection  and 
esteem  of  his  new  subjects.  Energy  and  wisdom 
characterised  his  government ;  arts,  manufactures, 
and  commerce  were  much  and  judiciously  encour- 
aged, and  his  territory  (a  kingdom  in  extent)  was 
one  of  the  best  governed  in  Europe.  During  the 
minority  and  subsequent  imbecility  of  his  nephew 
Charles  VI.  of  France,  he  was  obliged  to  take  the 
helm  of  affairs,  and  preserve  the  state  from  insur- 
rection and  sedition  within,  and  the  attacks  of  the 
English  without  He  was  on  his  way  to  repel  an 
attack  of  the  latter  on  Flanders  when  he  died  at 
the  chateau  of  Hall  in  Brabant,  a  littie  to  the  south- 
west of  Brussels,  April  27,  1404. 

PHILIPPE  LB  BON,  Le.,  'the  Good,'  Duke 
of  Burgundy,  the  son  of  Jean  'Sans-peur'  by 
Margaret  of  Bavaria,  and  grandson  of  Philippe  the 
Bol^  was  born  at  Dijon  (the  capital  of  the  auchy), 
June  13,  1306,  and  on  the  assassination  of  his 
father  on  the  bridge  of  Montereau  at  the  instigation 
of  the  dauphin  (afterwards  Charles  VIL),  succeeded 
to  the  duchy  of  Burgundy.  Bent  on  avengng 
the  murder  of  his  father,  he  entered  into  an  offen- 
sive and  defensive  alliance  with  Henry  V.  of 
England  at  Arras  in  1419,  at  the  same  time  recog- 
nising him  as  the  rightful  regent  of  Prance,  and 
heir  to  the  throne  after  Charles  VL's  death.  This 
agreement,  which  disregarded  the  Salic  law,  was 
sanctioned  by  the  king,  parliament,  university,  and 


PHIUPPEVILLE-PHILIPPINE  ISLANDa 


Btatos-general  of  France  by  the  treaty  of  Troyes, 
but  the  dauphin  declined  to  resign  his  rights, 
and  took  to  arms;  he  was,  however,  defeated  at 
Crevant  (1423)  and  Vemeuil  (1424),  and  driven 
beyond  the  Loire.  Some  disputes  with  the  English 
prompted  P.  to  conclude  a  treaty  with  the  king  of 
France  in  1429.  However,  the  English,  by  ceding 
to  P.  the  province  of  Champagne,  and  paying  him 
a  large  sum  of  money,  restored  nim  to  their  sioe.  At 
this  time,  by  becoming  heir  to  Brabant,  Holland, 
Zealand,  and  the  rest  of  the  Low  Countries,  he 
was  at  the  head  of  the  most  flourishing  and 
ix)werful  realm  in  Western  Europe;  but  tnoiigh 
much  more  powerful  than  his  superior,  the  king  of 
France,  he  preferred  to  pontinue  m  nominal  subjec- 
tion. Smarting  under  some  fresh  insults  of  the 
English  viceroy,  and  being  strongly  iirged  by  the 
pope,  he  made  a  final  peace  (1435)  with  Charles, 
who  gladly  accepted  it  even  on  the  hard  conditions 
which  P.  prescribed.  The  English,  in  revenue, 
committed  great  havoc  among  the  merchant  navies 
of  Flanders,  which  irritated  P.  to  such  an  extent 
that  he  declared  war  against  them,  and,  in  conjunc- 
tion with  the  king  of  France,  gradually  expelled 
them  from  their  French  possessions.  The  imposition 
of  taxes,  which  were  necessarily  heavy,  excited  a 
rebeUion,  headed,  as  usual,  by  the  citizens  of  Ghent, 
but  the  duke  inflicted  upon  them  a  terrible  defeat 
(July  1454),  though  he  wept  over  a  victory  bought 
with  the  blood  of  20,000  of  his  subjects.  The  latter 
part  of  his  reign  was  filled  with  trouble  caused  by 
the  quarrels  between  Charles  VIL  and  his  son,  the 
Bauphin  Louis  (afterwards  Louis  XL),  who  had  fled 
from  his  father's  court,  and  sought  shelter  from  P., 
although,  after  ascending  the  throne,  far  from 
shewing  gratitude,  he  tried,  in  the  most  dishonour- 
able manner,  to  injure  his  benefactor.  P.  died  at 
Bruges,  July  15,  1467,  deeply  lamented  by  his  sub- 
jects. Under  him,  Bnr^ndy  was  the  most  wealthy, 
prosperous,  and  tranquil  state  in  Europe ;  its  ruler 
was  the  most  feared  and  admired  sovereign  of  his 
time,  and  his  court  far  surpassed  in  brilliancy 
those  of  his  contemporaries.  Knights  and  nobles 
from  all  parts  of  Europe  flocked  to  his  jousts  and 
tournaments. 

PHILIPPEVILLB,  a  thriving  town  and  seaport 
of  Algeria,  in  the  province  of  Constantine,  and  forty 
miles  north-north-east  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Stora,  between  Cape  Bouiaroun  and 
Cape  de  Fer.  It  was  laid  out  in  183S  by  Marshal 
Val^,  on  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Russicada,  and 
is  one  of  the  prettiest  towns  in  Algeria,  and 
thoroughly  French  in  its  character.  It  is  an  impor- 
tant entrepdt  of  the  commerce  of  the  east  of  Algeria, 
and  the  country  in  the  vicinity  is  picturesque  and 
fertile,  producing  grain,  tobacco,  cotton,  flax,  and 
fruits.  It  contams  numerous  public  offices,  a  large 
hospital  and  dispensary,  Catholic  and  Protestant 
churches,  public  library  and  museum,  theatre,  &c. 
In  the  vicinity  are  quarries  of  the  famous  Filfila 
marble.  A  harbour  is  at  x)resent  (1864)  in  course  of 
construction ,  and  a  pier  and  dock,  which  afford 
shelter  to  small  merchant  ships  in  bad  weather, 
have  already  been  completed.  There  are  here  several 
establishments  for  curing  fish,  and  trade  is  carried 
on  in  grain  and  in  fabrics  of  native  manufacture. 
P.  will  be  the  chief  station  of  the  railway  for  the 
province  of  Constantine.    Pop.  (1864)  12,191. 

PHILI'PPI,  a  city  of  Macedonia^  It  was  named 
after  PhiUp  IL  of  Macedon,  who  conquered  it  from 
Thrace  (up  to  which  time  it  had  been  called  Crenides, 
or  tiie  '  Place  of  Fountains  *),  and  enlarged  it 
because  of  the  gold-mines  in  its  neighbourhood. 
Philip  worked  the  mines  so  well,  that  he  got  from 
fhem  1000  talents  a  year.  It  is  famous  on  account 
474 


of  the  two  battles  fought  in  42  B.  c.  between  Antony 
and  Octavianus  on  the  one  side,  and  the  republicans 
under  Brutus  and  Cassius  on  the  other.  The  first 
engagement  was  undecided ;  in  the  second,  20  days 
after,  the  republic  finally  perished.  The  apostle 
Paul  founded  a  Christian  church  here  in  53  a.  d.,  to 
which-  one  of  his  epistles  is  addressed.  The  ruins  of 
the  city  still  bear  the  name  of  Phihppi,  or  Feliba. 

PHILITPIANS,  Epistle  to  the,  one  of  ihn 
latest  of  the  Pauline  epistles.  It  was  transmitted 
from  Rome  probably  about  the  year  63  a.  d.,  through 
Epaphroditus,  apparently  a  pastor  of  the  Philippian 
church,  who  had  been  sent  to  minister  to  the 
necessities  of  the  apostle.  The  Philippian  church 
was  looked  upon  with  peculiar  tenderness  and  affoc- 
tion  by  Paul.  It  was  the  first  fruits  of  his  evan- 
gelisation in  Europe  ;  its  members  were  singularly 
kind  towards  him ;  again  and  again,  when  he  was 
labouring  in  other  cities,  such  as  Thessalonica  and 
Corinth,  they  sent  him  contributions  that  he  might 
not  be  burdensome  to  his  new  converts,  and  now 
they  had  sent  one  of  the  brethren  all  the  way  to 
Rome  with  presents  for  him,  knowing  that  he  was  in 
bonds,  and  suspecting — what  was  in  fact  the  case — 
that  he  might  be  in  sore  straits  for  his  daily  bread. 
His  letter  to  them  is  deeply  affecting.  It  contains 
not  so  much  of  doctrinal  matter,  as  of  a  warm  out- 
pouring of  his  personal  feelings  towards  his  friends 
at  Philijipi.  The  historical  evidence  in  favour 
of  the  authenticity  of  the  Epistle  is  so  strong, 
that  it  could  hardly  give  way  to  any  internal 
criticism;  and  the  objections  of  this  kind,  urged 
by  Baur,  Schwegler,  and  others  of  the  Tubingen 
school,  who  regard  it  as  a  Gnostic  composition 
of  the  2d  c,  are  regarded  as  preposterous  even  by 
many  Biblical  scholars  who  do  not  profess  to  be 
orthodox. 

PHILI'PPICS,  originally  the  three  orations  of 
Demosthenes  against  Philip  of  Macedon.  The  name 
was  afterwards  applied  to  Cicero's  orations  against 
the  ambitious  and  dangerous  designs  of  Mark 
Antony.  It  is  now  commonly  employed  to  desig- 
nate any  severe  and  violent  invective,  whether  onl 
or  written. 

PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS,   lie  to   the    north 

of  Borneo  and  Celebes,  in  5'*  30'— 19^  42^  N.  lat, 
and  117"*  14'— 120°  4'  E  long.  They  are  more 
than  1200  in  number,  with  an  area  of  about 
150,000  square  miles.  Pop.  over  5,000,000,  three- 
fourths  of  whom  are  subject  to  Spain,  the  remainder 
governed,  according  to  their  own  laws  and  customs^ 
by  independent  native  princes. 

Luzon,  in  the  north,  has  an  area  of  51,3(M)  square 
miles,  and  Mindanao,  or  Magindanao,  in  the  south, 
fully  25,000.  The  islands  lying  between  Luzon 
and  Mindanao  are  called  the  Bissayas,  the  largest  of 
which  are — Samar,  area  13,020  square  miles ; 
Mindoro,  12,600;  Panay,  11,340;  Levte,  10,080; 
Negros,  6300;  Masbate,  4200;  and  Zebu,  2.352. 
There  are  upwards  of  a  thousand  lesser  islands  of 
which  little  is  known.  To  the  south-west  of  the 
Bissayas  lies  the  long,  narrow  island  of  Paragoa  or 
Palawan,  formed  oi  a  mountain -chain  with  low 
coast-lines,  cut  with  numerous  streams,  and  exceed- 
ingly fertile.  The  forests  abound  in  ebony,  log- 
wood, gum-trees,  and  bamboos.  Area,  8820  square 
miles.  To  the  north  of  Luzon  lie  the  Batanen, 
Bashee,  and  Babuyan  Islands,  the  two  first  groups 
having  about  8000  inhabitants,  the  last  unpeoiHed. 

The  Sooloo  Islands  form  a  long  chain  mm  Min* 
danao  to  Borneo,  having  the  same  mountainous  and 
volcanic  structure  as  the  P.  L,  and  all  are  probably 
fragments  of  a  submerged  continents  Many  active 
volcanoes  are  scattered  through  the  islands; 
Mayon,  in  Luzon,  and  Buhayan,  in  Mindaoats  often 


•v 


PHILIPPINE  ISLANDa 


causing  ffreat  devastation.  The  mountain-cliains 
run  north  and  south,  and  never  attain  a  greater 
elevation  than  7000  feet.  The  islands  have  many 
rivers,  the  coasts  are  indented  with  deep  bays,  and 
there  are  many  lakes  in  the  interior.  Earthquakes 
are  freouent  and  destmctive,  Manila,  the  capital, 
having  been  nearly  destroyed  by  one  in  1863.  On 
February  3, 1864,  another  terrific  earthquake  visited 
the  province  of  Zamboango,  in  Mindanao,  levelling 
all  tne  houses  to  the  ground,  and  causing  some  of 
the  smaller  islands  to  disappear.  The  soil  is 
extremely  fertile,  except  where  extensive  marshes 
occur.  In  Mindanao  are  numerous  lakes,  which 
expand  during  the  rainy  seasons  into  inland  seas. 
Bam  may  be  expected  from  May  to  December,  and 
from  June  to  November  the  land  is  flooded.  Violent 
hurricanes  are  experienced  in  the  north  of  Luzon 
and  west  coast  of  Mindanaa  Especially  during  the 
changes  of  the  monsoons,  storms  of  wind,  rain, 
thunder  and  lightning  prevail.  The  weather  is  very 
fine,  and  heat  moderate,  from  December  to  May, 
when  the  temperature  rapidly  rises  and  becomes 
oppressive,  except  for  a  snort  time  after  a  faU  of 
rain.  The  fertility  of  the  soil  and  humid  atmos- 
phere produce  a  richness  of  vegetation  which  is 
nowhere  surpassed.  Blossoms  and  fruit  hang 
together  on  the  trees,  and  the  cultivated  fields  yield 
a  constant  succession  of  crops. 

Immense  forests  spread  over  the  P.  I.,  clothing 
the  mountains  to  their  summits  ;  ebony,  iron- wood, 
cedar,  sapan-wood,  eum-trees,  ftc,  being  laced 
together  and  garlanded  by  the  bush-rope  or  palasan, 
which  attains  a  length  of  several  hun(&ed  feet.  The 
variety  of  fruit-trees  is  great,  including  the  orange, 
citron,  bread-fruit,  mango,  cocoa-nut,  guava,  tama- 
rind, rose-apple,  &c. ;  other  important  products  of 
the  vegetable  kingdom  being  the  banana,  plantain, 
pine-apple,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  coffee, 
cocoa,  cinnamon,  vanilla,  cassia,  the  areca-nut, 
ginger,  pepper,  &c,  with  rice,  wheat,  maize,  and 
various  other  cereal& 

Gold  is  found  in  river-beds  and  detrital  deposits, 
being  used,  in  form  of  dust,  as  the  medium  of  ex- 
change in  Mindanao.  Iron  is  plentiful,  and  fine 
coal-beds,  from  one  to  four  feet  thick,  have  been 
found.  Copper  has  long  been  worked  in  Luzon. 
There  are  also  limestone,  a  fine  variegated  marble, 
sulphur  in  unlimited  quantity,  quicksilver,  ver- 
milion, and  saltpetre — ^the  sulphur  being  found 
both  native  and  in  combination  with  copper,  arsenic, 
and  iron. 

Except  the  wild  cat,  beasts  of  prey  are  unknown. 
There  are  Qxen,  buJfaloes,  sheep,  goats,  swine, 
harts,  squirrds,  and  a  great  variety  of  monkeys. 
The  jnnj^es  swarm  with  lizards,  ^  snakes,  and 
other  reptilia ;  the  rivers  and  lakes  with  crocodiles. 
Huge  spiders,  tarantulas,  white  ants,  mosquitoes, 
and  locusts  are  plagues  which  form  a  set-off  to  the 
beautiful  fireflies,  the  brilliant  queen-beetle  (EkUer 
noctilucus)t  the  melody  of  myriads  of  birds,  the 
turtle-doves,  pheasants,  birds  of  paradise,  and  many 
lovely  species  of  paroquets,  with  which  the  forests 
are  alive.  'Hives  of  wild  bees  hang  from  the 
branches,  and  alongside  of  them  are  tne  nests  of 
humming-birds  dangling  in  the  wind.' 

The  caverns  along  the  shores  are  frequented  by 
the  swallow,  whose  edible  nest  is  esteemed  by  the 
Chinese  a  rich  delicacy.  Some  of  them  are  also 
tenanted  by  multitudes  of  bats  of  immense  size. 
Buffaloes  are  used  for  tillage  and  draught ;  a  small 
horse  for  riding.  Fowls  are  plentiful,  and  incredible 
numbers  of  ducks  are  artificially  hatched.  Fish  is 
in  great  abundance  and  variety.  Mother-of-pearl, 
coral,  amber,  and  tortoise-shell  are  important 
articles  of  commerce. 

The  Tagals  and  Bisayera  are  the  most  numerous 


native  races.     They  dwell  in  the  cities  and  cultiv- 
ated lowlands ;  2,500,000  being  converts  to  Koman 
Catholicism,  and  a  considerable  number,  esj)eciiUly 
of    the   Bisayers,   Mohammeilan.       The    mountain 
districts  are  inhabited   by  a  negro  race,   who,   in 
features,  stature,  and  savage  mode  of  living,  closely 
resemble  the  Alfoors  of  the  interior  of  Papua,  and 
are   probably  the   aborigines   driven   back   before 
the  inroads  of  the  Malays.    A  few  of  the  negroes 
are   Christian,  but  they  are   chiefly  idolaters,    or 
without  anv  manifest  form  of  reli«;ion,  and  roaming 
about  in   families,  without  fixed  dwelling.      The 
Mestizos  form  an  influential  part  of  the  population ; 
by  their  activity  engrossing  the  greatei$t  share  of 
the  trade.     These  are  mostly  of  Chinese  fathers  and 
native  mothers.    Few  Spaniards  reside  in  the  P.  I., 
and  the  leading  mercantile  houses  are  English  aud 
American.      The  Chinese  exercise  various    trades 
and  callings,  remaining  only  for  a  time,  and  never 
bringing  their  wives  with  them.      The    princii^al 
languages    are  the  Tagalese  and  Bisayan.      lUce, 
sweet  potatoes,  fish,  flesh,  aud  fruits  form  the  food 
of  the  Tagals  and  Bisayers,  who  usually  drink  only 
water,  though  sometimes  indulging  in  cocoa- v^ine. 
Tobacco  is  used  by  all.    Thev  are  gentle,  hospitable, 
fond  of  dancing  and  cock-fighting. 

With  the  exception  of  two  S])anish  brigades  of 
artillery  and  a  corps  of  engineers,  the  army  is  com- 
posed of  natives,  and  consists  of  seven  regiments  of 
mfantry  and  one  of  cavalry.  There  ia  also  a  body 
of  Spanish  militia  in  Manila,  whom  the  governor,  as 
commander  of  the  naval  and  land  forces,  may  call 
out  in  an  emergency.  The  navy  has  four  steam- 
ships, one  brig,  six  gun -boats,  and  a  great  number  of 
feluccas  for  coast  service. 

Education  is  far  behind,  and  similar  to  what  it 
was  in  Europe  during  the  middle  ages.  There  is  an 
archbishop  of  Manila  and  bishops  of  New  Segovia, 
Nueva  Caceres,  and  Zebu.  lieligious  processions 
are  the  pride  of  the  people,  and  are  formed  with 
great  parade,  thousands  of  persons  carrying  wax- 
candles,  &C. 

The  natives  not  only  build  canoes,  but  ships  of 
considerable  tonnage.  They  weave  various  textile 
fabrics  of  silk,  cotton,  abaca,  and  very  fine  shawls 
and  handkerchiefs  from  the  fibre  of  pine-apple 
leaves.  These  are  called  pinas,  and  often  sell  for 
one  or  two  ounces  of  gold  apiece.  The  pinilian  is 
the  finest  sort,  and  is  only  made  to  order — one  for 
the  queen  of  Si)ain  costing  500  dollars.  They  work 
in  horn,  make  silver  and  gold  chains,  fine  hats  and 
cigar-cases  of  fibres,  and  beautiful  mats  in  different 
colours,  ornamented  with  gold  and  silver. 

The  governor-general  is  appointed  by  the  sovereign 
of  Spam,  and  resides  at  Manila.  There  are  also  a 
lieutenant-governor,  governors  of  provinces,  and 
chiefs  of  pueblos  or  townships,  who  are  elected 
yearly.  Acting  governors  reside  also  at  Zambo- 
anga  in  Mindanao,  and  Iloilo  in  Panay.  They  are 
appointed  for  six  years  by  the  governor-general. 

The  revenue  amounts  to  about  £2,100,000,  and 
the  expenditure,  including  subsidies  to  Spain, 
nearly  tne  same.  In  1859  the  budget  was — receipts 
£2,086,946;  expenditure,  £2,177,652.  The  personal 
tax  produced  £401 ,793,  and  the  government  mono- 
polies, of  which  tobacco  is  the  chief,  £1,499,990. 
To  Spain  was  remitted  £210,802.  The  gross  receipts 
of  the  tobacco  monopoly  were  £1,062,541,  of  which 
63  per  cent,  was  expended  in  paying  for  tobacco, 
manufacturing  it,  and  other  charges,  leaving  37  per 
cent  of  clear  profit. 

The  principiEd  exports  are  sugar,  tobacco,  dears, 
indigo,  Manila  hemp,  or  Abaca  (q.  v.) — of  wnich 
25,000  tons  are  annually  exported — coffee,  rice,  dye- 
woods,  hides,  ^old-dust,  and  bees'-wax.  Cotton, 
woollen,  and  silk  goods,  agricultural  implement^ 


PHILIPPINS— PHILISTINES. 


watclies,  jewellery,  &c.,  are  imported.  British  and 
American  merchiuits  enjoy  the  lar^t  share  of  the 
business,  the  imports  to  Great  Britam  being  upwards 
of  £1,500,000  sterling  yearly,  and  the  exports  thither 
nearly  of  the  same  value.  There  are  seven  British 
houses  established  at  Manila,  and  one  at  Doilo  in 
the  populous  and  productive  island  of  Panav,  which 
is  the  centre  of  an  increasing  trade.  The  total 
exports  and  imports  of  the  P.  L  have  a  value  of 
about  £6,000,000  yearly. 

The  Sooloo  Islands  have  a  population  of  150,000 ; 
ftre  governed  by  a  sultan,  whose  capital  is  Sung,  in 
m"  V  N.  lat,  and  120"  56'  51"  K  long.,  who  also 
rules  over  the  ^^reatest  part  of  Paragoa,  me  northern 
oomer  only  being  subject  to  Spain, 

Luzon  has  a  population  of  2,500,000,  one-fifth  part 
being  independent ;  the  Bissavas  islands,  2,000,000,  of 
whom  three-fourths  are  under  Spanish  rule.  The 
popuLition  of  Pasay  amounts  to  750,000,  and  that 
of  Zebu  to  150,000.  Of  the  numbers  in  Mindanao 
nothing  is  known ;  the  districts  of  ZanilK>anga, 
Misamis,  and  Caragan,  with  100,000  inhabitants, 
being  all  that  is  subject  to  S])ain.  The  greater 
part  of  the  island  is  under  the  sultan  of  Mindanao, 
resident  at  Selanga,  in  7"  9'  N.  lat  and  124°  38'  E. 
long.,  who,  with  his  feudatory  chiefs,  can  bring 
together  an  army  of  100,000  men.  He  is  on  friendly 
terms  with  the  Spaniards.  Besides  Manila,  there 
are  very  many  large  and  important  cities,  especially 
in  Luzon,  Panay,  and  Zebu«  The  great  centres  of 
trade  are  Manila  in  Luzon,  and  Iloilo  in  Panay. 

The  P.  L  were  discovered  in  1521  by  Magellan, 
who,  after  visiting  Mindanao,  sailed  to  Zebu,  where, 
taking  part  with  uie  king  in  a  war,  he  was  wounded, 
and  died  at  Maotan,  26th  April  1521.  Some  years 
later  the  Spanish  court  sent  an  expedition  under 
Villabos,  who  named  the  islands  in  honour  of  the 
Prince  of  Asturias,  afterwards  Philip  II.  For  some 
time  the  chief  Spanish  settlement  was  on  Zebu; 
but  in  1581  Manila  was  built,  and  has  since  con- 
tinued to  be  the  seat  of  government. 

PHI'LIPPINS,  a  Russian  sect,  so  called  from 
the  founder,  Philip  PustoswiUt,  under  whose  leader- 
ship they  emigrated  from  Russia  in  the  end  of  the 
17th  c,  are  a  branch  of  the  Baskolkiks  (q.  v.). 
They  call  themselves  Starowerski,  or  *01d  Faith 
Men,'  because  they  ding  with  the  utmost  tenacity 
to  the  old  service-books,  the  old  version  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  old  hymn  and  prayer-books  of  the 
Russo-Greek  Church,  in  the  exact  form  in  which 
these  books  stood  before  the  revision  which  they 
underwent  at  the  hands  of  the  patriarch  Nekon 
in  the  middle  of  the  17th  century.  There  are  two 
classes  of  the  Raskolniks — one  which  recognises  popes 
(or  priests) ;  the  other,  which  admits  no  priest  or 
other  clerical  functionary.  The  P.  are  of  the  latter 
class ;  and  they  not  only  themselves  refuse  all 
priestly  ministrations,  but  they  regard  all  such 
ministrations — baptism,  marriage,  sacraments — as 
invalid ;  and  they  rebaptise  all  who  join  their  sect 
from  other  Russian  communities.  AU  their  own 
ministerial  ofii^es  are  discharged  by  the  Starik,  or 
parish  elder,  who  for  the  time  takes  the  title  of  pope, 
and  is  required  to  observe  celibacy.  Among  we 
P.  the  spirit  of  fanaticism  at  times  has  run  to  the 
wildest  excesses.  They  refuse  oaths,  and  decline  to 
enter  military  service ;  and  having,  on  account  of  this, 
and  many  other  incompatibilities  of  the  system 
with  the  Russian  practice,  encountered  much  perse- 
cution, they  resolved  to  emisrate.  Accordingly,  in 
1700,  under  the  leadership  of  Philip  Pustoswi&t,  they 
settled  partiy  in  Polish  Lithuania,  partly  afterwards 
in  East  rrussia,  where  they  still  have  several  small 
settlements  with  churches  of  their  own  rite.  They 
are  reported  to  be  a  peaceable  and  orderly  race. 
Their  principal  pursuit  is  agriculture;  and  their 
47« 


thrifty  and  industrious  habits  have  secured  for 
them  the  goodwill  of  the  proprietors,  as  well  m  of 
the  government. 

PHILIPS,  AifBROSB,  was  bom  in  Shropshire  in 
1675.  He  studied  at  St  John's  College,  Gambridee, 
and  took  his  degree  of  M.A  in  1700.  In  171^ 
his  Pastorals  appeared,  along  with  those  of  Pope,  in 
ToMon^s  Misctrflany;  and  the  same  year,  bkving 
gone  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Copenhagen,  he 
addressed  from  thence  a  'Poetical  Letter'  to  the 
Earl  of  Dorset,  which  was  published,  with  a  warn 
eulogium  from  Steele,  in  the  Toiler,  In  1712,  he 
brought  on  the  stage  T'ke  Distresaed  Mother^  a 
trag^y  adapted  from  Racine*s  Andromaque,  which 
had  great  success.  He  subsequently  wrote  two 
other  tragedies,  but  they  proved  failures.  Some 
translations  from  Sappho,  which  appeared  in  the 
SpectatoTf  added  greatly  to  P.'s  reputation,  but 
Addison  is  believed  to  have  assisted  in  these  classic 
fragments.  Some  exaggerated  praise  of  P.  baviDg 
appeared  in  the  OuaixHan,  Pope  ridicoled  his 
Pastorals  in  a  piece  of  exquisite  irony,  which  led 
to  a  bitter  feud  between  the  poets.  P.  even 
threatened  personal  chastisement,  and  hung  np  a 
rod  in  Button*s  Coffee-house,  but  no  encounter  took 
place.  One  of  the  names  fastened  upon  P.  was  that 
of  *  Namby  Pamby,'  arising  from  a  peculiar  style  of 
verse  adopted  by  him  in  complimentary  effusions, 
consisting  of  short  lines  and  a  sort  of  infantine 
simplicity  of  diction,  yet  not  destitute  of  grace  or 
melodv.  The  accession  of  the  House  of  Hanover 
proved  favourable  to  the  poet;  he  was  appointed 
paymaster,  and  afterwards  a  commissioner  of  the 
lottery ;  and  going  to  Ireland  as  secretary  to  Arch- 
bishop Boulter,  he  became  secretary  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  M.P.  for  Armagh,  and  registrar  of  the 
Prerogative  Court  He  di«i  in  1749.  P.  is  some- 
what conspicuous  in  literary  history  from  the 
friendship  of  Addison  and  the  enmity  of  Pore; 
but  his  i>oetry,  wanting  enei^  and  passion,  hai 
fallen  out  of  view. 

PHI'LIPSTOWi^,  a  market  and  post  town 
(formerly  the  assize  town)  of  Kind's  County,  pro- 
vince 01  Leinster,  Ireland,  47  miles  sontb-wesi 
from  Dublin.  Its  charter  dates  from  1567 ;  and  in 
the  reign  of  James  IL  it  obtained  the  privile^  of 
sending  two  members  to  parliament.  Tim  privilege 
was  withdrawn  at  the  Union.  It  is  at  present, 
and  has  long  been  a  place  of  hardly  any  trade  and 
entirely  witnout  manufacture,  and  the  town  has 
fallen  still  more  into  decay  since  the  withdrawal  of 
the  assizes  (1838)  to  the  neighbouring  and  more 
flourishing  town  of  Tullamore.  Pop.  in  1861,  91S^ 
of  whom  830  were  Catholics  and  88  Jnrotestants. 

PHILISTINES  {LXX.,  AUophuloi,  Strangers),  i 
word  either  derived  from  a  root  phalasa  (^'Eth.l, 
to  emigrate,  wander  about,  or  identified  with  PelaskH 
(q.  v.),  or  compared  by  others  with  She/da.  (Heb.), 
lowlanders;  designates  a  certain  population  mentioned 
in  the  Bible  as  being  in  frequent  contact  with  tha 
Jews,  and  who  lived  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediter* 
ranean,  to  the  south-west  of  Judsa,  from  £kn>Q 
towards  the  £g3rptian  frontier,  bordering  principally 
on  the  tribes  of  Dan,  Simeon,  and  Judah.  Our 
information  about  the  origin  of  the  P.  is  extremely 
obscure  and  contradictory.  The  genealogical  talJe 
in  Grenesis  (x.  14)  counts  them  among  the  Egyptian 
colonies  (the  '  Caslyhim,  out  of  whom  came 
Philistim  * ) ;  according  to  Amos  ix.  7,  Jeremiah 
xlviL  4^  and  Deuteronomy  il  23,  they  came  from 
Caphtor.  But  supposing  that  the  Caaluhim  wen 
some  separate  tnbe,  and  yet  Caphtorian  colon* 
ists,  the  question  still  remains,  wnether  Canhtor 
can  be  identified  with  Cappadocia  in  Asi*  Minoi, 
as  the  early  versions  {LXX^  Targ^  PeA    Vulg,) 


PHILISTINES— PHILLIP. 


have  it ;  or  whether  it  be  Pehisium,  Cyprus,  or 
the    Isle    of    Crete.       The    latter    opinion  Beems 
sot  the   least    probable  among  them.      At  what 
time   they  first   immigrated,  and  drove    out    the 
Canaanitish  inhabitants,  the  Awim,  is  difficult  to 
conjecture.    They  would  appear  to  have  been  in  the 
countiy  as  early  as  the  time  of  Abraham ;  and  in  the 
history  of  Isaac,  Abimelech,  king  of  Gerar,  is  dis- 
tinctly called  king  of  the  Philistines.  Yet,  even  sup- 
posing that  in  Genesis  the  country  is  designated  by 
the  name  which  it  bore  at  a  later  period,  there  can 
yet  be  no  doubt  of  the  people  being  hrmly  established 
at  the  time  of  Moses  (Exodus  xv.  14,  &c).   Thus  the 
date  of  their  immigration  would  have  to  be  placed 
at  about  1800  B.a    At  the  Exodus,  Moses,  evidently 
fearing  an  encounter  with  the  warlike  colony  for  his 
undisciplined  band,  did  not  choose  the  shorter  way 
to  Canaan  through  their  territory,  but  preferred  the 
well-known  circuituous  route.     At  a  later  period, 
however,  Joshua,  having  triumphed  over  31  Canaan- 
ite  princes,  also  conceived  the  plan  of  making  him- 
self master  of  the  possessions  of  the  P. ;  but  his 
intended  disposal  of  their  country  for  the  benefit  of 
the  tribe  of  Jndah  was  never  carried  out.    At  this 
time,  they  were  subject  to  five  princes  (Seranim  = 
ixles,    pivots),    who  ruled   over  the  provinces  of 
Gaza,  Ashdod,  Askalon,  Gath,   and   Ekron.     Not 
before  the  period  of  the  Judges  did  they  come  into 
open  collision  with  the  Israebtes  ;  and  the  strength 
and  importance  in  which  they  suddenly  appear  then, 
contrast  so  strangelv  with  their  insignificance  at  the 
time  of  the  patriarcns,  that  many  theories — a  double 
immi^ation  principally — have  been  propounded  to 
explain  the   circumstance.     We  find  them  daring 
powerful  nations  like  the  Sidonians,  whom,  about 
1209  B.  a,  they  forced  to  transfer  their  capital  to  a 
more  secure  position  on  the  island  of  Tyre ;  or  the 
Egyptians,  with  whom  they  engaged  in  naval  war- 
fare at  the  same  time,  under  Rameses  III.    With  the 
Ijiraelites  their  war  assumed  the  air  of  guerrilla 
raids,  sometimes  into  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
Under  Shamgar  (about   1370  B.  c),  they  were  re- 
pulsed, with  a  loss  of  600  men  ;  however,  about 
200  years   later,  the  Israelites  were  tributary  to 
them,  and   continued  to  groan  under  their  yoke, 
with  occasional  pauses  6nly,  until  Samson  first  com- 
menced to  humiliate  them.     But  they  were  still 
so  powerful  at  the  time  of  Eli,  that  they  carried 
away  the  ark  itself.     Under  Samuel,  their  rule  was 
terminated  by  the  battle  of  Mizpah.    Saul  was  con- 
stantly engaged  in  warding  ofi*  their  new  encroach- 
ments,  and   at  Gilboa,  he  and  his  sons  fell  in  a 
disastrous  battle  against  them.    At  this  time,  they 
seem  to  have  returned  to  their  primitive  form  of  a 
monarchy,  limited,  however,  by  a  powerful  aristo- 
cracy, the  king^s  formal  title  again  being  *  Abime- 
lech =  *  Father-king,*  as  we  find  it  in  Genesis.  David 
succeeded  in  routing  them  rei)eatedly ;  and  under 
Solomon  their  whole  country  seems  ta  have  been 
incorporated  in  the  Jewish  empire.    The  internal 
troubles  of  Judsea  emboldened  the  P.  once  more  to 
open  resistanca     Under  Joram,  in  union  with  the 
Arabians,  they  invaded  Judsea,  and  hot  only  carried 
away  the  royal  property,  but  also  the  serail  and  the 
royal  children.     Uzziah,  however,  recovered  the  lost 
ground ;  he  overthrew  them,  and  dismantled  some  of 
their  most  powerful  fortresses — Gath,  Yabne,  and 
Aididod,  ana  erected  forts  in  dififerent  parts  of  their 
countiy.    Under  Ahaz,  they  rose  again,  and  attacked 
the  border-cities  of  the  'plain'  on  the  south  of  Judah; 
and  a  few   years  later,  renewed  £heir  attacks,  in 
league  with  the  Syrians  and  Assyrians.     Hezekiah, 
in  the  first  years  of  his  reign,  subjected  their  whole 
country  acain,  by  the  aid  of  the  Egyptians,  whom 
we    find    in    the  possession    of    five    cities.      The 
AjsyzianSy    however,  took  Ashdod,  under  Tartan, 


which  was  retaken  again  by  Psammetich,  after  29 
years*  siege.  About  this  time,  Philistsea  was  traversed 
by  a  Scythian  horde  on  their  way  to  Egypt,  who 
pillaged  the  temple  of  Venus  at  Askalon.  In  the 
terrible  struggles  for  supremacy  which  raged  between 
the  Ohaldseans  and  IWptians,  Philistsea  was  the 
constant  battle-ground  of  both — her  fortresses  being 
taken  and  retaken  by  each  of  them  in  turn ;  so  that 
the  country  soon  sank  into  ruin  and  insi^ificance. 
Yet  a  shadow  of  independence  seems  to  have  been 
left  to  it,  to  judge  from  the  threats  which  Zechariah 
(ix.  5),  after  the  exile,  utters  against  Gaza  and 
Askalon,  and  their  pride.  In  the  time  of  the 
Maccabees,  the  P.  were  Syrian  subjects,  and  had  to 
suffer  occasionally  from  the  Jews,  although  inter- 
marriages between  the  two  nations  were  of  no  rare 
occurrence.  Alexander  Balas  transferred  part  of  the 
country  to  Judsea;  another  part  was  taken  by 
Alexander  Jannseus  ;  Pompey  incorporated  some  of 
the  cities  with  Koman  Syria  ;  Augustus  transferred 
another  portion  to  Herod;  and  finally,  Salome,  his 
sister,  received  a  small  principality  of  it,  consisting 
of  Jamnia,  Ashdod,  and  Askalon.  But  by  this  time 
the  name  of  the  country  had  long  been  lost  in  that 
of  Palestine,  which  designated  all  the  territory 
between  the  Lebanon  and  Egypt 

Gf  their  state  of  culture,  institutions,  &c.,  wc 
know  very  little  indeed.  They  ap]>ear  as  a 
civilised,  agricultural,  commercial,  and  warlike 
nation.  They  traded  largely,  and  their  wares  seem 
to  have  been  much  sought  after.  Their  worship  was 
much  akin  to  that  of  the  Phoenicians — a  nature- 
religion,  of  which  Dagon,  Ashtaroth,  Baalzebub, 
and  Derceto  were  the  chief  deities.  Priests  and 
soothsayers  abounded ;  their  oracles  were  consulted 
even  by  people  from  afar.  They  carried  their 
charms  about  their  persons,  and  their  deities  had  to 
accompany  them  to  the  wars.  They  do  not  seem 
to  have  practised  circumcision.  As  to  their  language, 
so  little  is  known  about  it,  that  conjectures  seem 
more  than  usually  vain.  Those  who  take  them  to 
have  been  Semites,  conclude  that  their  language,  too, 
was  Semitic ;  others,  who  would  identify  them  with 
the  Pelasgians,  difier  also  respecting  their  language. 
Thus  much  is  certain,  that  their  proper  names,  as 
they  are  recorded  in  the  Bible,  are  mostly  Semitic, 
and  that  there  always  remained  a  difierence  of 
dialect  between  the  Hebrew  and  the  Philistsean 
idiom. 

The  name  of  Philistines  is  given  by  German 
students  to  all  non-students  in  general,  and  the 
citizens  of  the  special  university-pmce  in  particular. 

PHILLIP,  John,  R.A.,  was  bom,  22d  May  1817, 
at  Aberdeen.  At  a  very  early  a;  c  he  gave  indi- 
cation of  the  talent  which  has  since  so  distinguished 
him ;  and  before  Lo  had  attained  his  fifteenth  year, 
had  painted  various  pictures  shewing  his  feeling  for 
colour.  He  thus  procured  an  introduction  to  the 
late  Lord  Panmure,  by  whom  he  was  enabled  to  go 
to  London  to  pursue  his  studies.  He  began  by 
copying  from  tne  Elgin  marbles  at  the  Britisn 
Museum,  and  aiter  a  few  months  was  admitted  at 
a  student  at  the  Eoyal  Academy. 

AU  his 
such  as  a 

*  Scotch  WashiuL,     ^,    -       —       _ 

1851  he  went  to  Spain  in  search  of  health,  which  he 
found,  and  with  it  a  change  in  the  character  of  his 
subjects  On  his  return  home  he  established  himself 
at  the  head  of  the  painters  of  the  habits  and  cus- 
toms of  the  Spanish  people.  In  1853  he  exhibited 
at  the  Boyal  Academy  *  Life  among  the  Gipsies  at 
SeviUe.'  His  pictures  for  1854—1855,  *  A  Letter 
Writer   of   SevUle,*    and   *E11  Paseo,'    were   both 

Eurchased  by  Her  Majesty  the  Queen.      In  1857f 
e  attained  the  rank  of  Associate  of  the  Koya) 

4S7 


PHILO  JUDiEDa 


Academy,  aad  the  following  year  exhibited  a  moat 
powerful  picture  of  'Spanish  Contrabandistas,' 
which  was  purchased  by  the  late  Prince  Consort,  of 
whom  he  atao  painted  a  portrait  the  same  year  for 
the  town-hall  of  his  natiye  city.  In  1859,  he  received 
thA  full  honour  of  Royal  Academician.  Hia  work 
for  exhibition  in  1860  was  certainly  the  most  diffi- 
cult he  had  yet  tried,  and  his  success  was  proper- 
tionably  great.  *The  Marriage  of  the  Frincess 
Royal'  was  pronounced  by  both  his  fellow-artists 
and  the  public  as  a  decided  success.  His  next 
portrait  subject  (exhibited  1863)  was,  if  possible, 
»  still  more  difficult  task,  beine  the '  House  of  Com- 
mons,* 1860,  containing  upwards  of  thirty  portraits 
of  the  leading  members  of  both  sides  of  the 
House ;  in  it  he  was  equally  successful  However 
much  he  excels  in  portraiture,  his  heart  is  more 
in  hia  Spanish  subjects,  of  which  he  ia  understood 
to  have  in  progress  more  worka  (the  fruits  of 
hia  last  two  visite  to  Spain)  than  he  can  finish  in 
several  years. 

The  characteristics  of  Mr  P.*8  style  are  rich 
powerful  colour,  broad  light  and  shade,  strong  bold 
outline,  and  great  variety  and  truthfulness  ot  tex- 
ture ;  there  is  no  living  artist  who  has  more  power 
over  his  brush,  or  whose  example  has  produced  a 
greater  effect  on  the  colorists  of  the  present  British 
school. 

PHI'LO  JUD^'XTS,  the  Philosopher  (there  being 
another  Jewish  Greek  writer  of  this  name),  was 
bom  at  Alexandri.'i,  about  the  time  of  the 
birth  of  Christ  Bclon^ng  to  one  of  the  most 
wealthy  and  aristocratic  families — his  brother  was 
the  Alabarch  Alexander  —  he  received  the  most 
liberal  education ;  and,  impelled  by  a  rare  zeal  for 
learning,  he,  at  a  very  early  age,  had  passed  the 
ordinary  course  of  Greek  stumes  which  were  deemed 
necessary  for  one  of  his  station.  Although  every 
one  of  the  different  free  sciences  and  arts  included 
in  the  BncydilMf  he  says,  attracted  him  like  so  many 
beautiful  slaves,  he  yet  aimed  higher,  to  embrace 
the  mistress  of  them  all — Philosophy.  Metaphysical 
investigation  was  the  only  thing  which,  according 
to  his  own  confession,  couldgive  him  anything  like 
satisfaction  or  pleasure.  0%e  extraordinary  bril- 
liancy of  his  style,  which,  by  his  contemi)oraries, 
was  likened  to  that  of  Plato — ^his  rare  power  of 
thought  and  imagination,  and  an  erudition  which 
displayed  the  most  astonishing  familiarity  with 
fjl  the  works  of  the  classical  Greek  poets  and 
philosophers,  while  at  the  same  time  it  made  him 
an  adept  in  the  fields  of  history,  geography,  mathe- 
matics, astronomy,  physiology,  natural  ^  history, 
music,  &C. — could  not  but  be  of  vast  influence 
both  upon  his  co-religionists  and  those  beyond  the 
pale  of  his  ancestral  creed.  He  had  completely 
mastered  the  literature  of  his  nation ;  but,  strange 
to  say,  he  chiefly  knew  it,  as  far  as  it  was  Hebrew, 
from  translations.  Thus,  the  Bible  was  only  familiar 
to  him  through  the  Septuagint  version,  with 
all  its  shortcomings.  When  about  40  years  of 
age,  he  went  to  Rome  as  the  advocate  of  his 
Alexandrian  brethren,  who  had  refused  to  worship 
Caligula  in  obedience  to  the  imperial  edict.  He 
has  left  an  account  of  this  embassy,  into  the  result 
of  which  we  need  not  enter  hera  Of  his  life  we 
know  little  except  what  is  recorded  above,  and  that 
he  once  went  to  JerusalenL  His  second  mission 
to  Rome,  to  the  Emperor  Claudius,  on  which  occa- 
sion he  is  said  to  have  made  the  acquaintance 
of  the  Apostle  Peter,  as  reported  by  Eusebius,  is 
doubtful 

The  religious  and  jdbilosoi)hical  ^stem  of  P., 
however,  which  is  really  the  thing  of  most  conse- 
quence, is  most  minutely  known,  and  is  deserving 
of  the  profoundest  study,  on  account  of  the  vast 
478 


influence  which  it  has  exercised  both  on  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  world.  To  understand  his 
system  aright,  it  will  be  necessary  to  remember 
the  strange  mental  atmosphere  of  his  days,  which 
we  have  endeavoured  briefly  to  sketch  in  oar 
introduction  to  Gnostics  (q.  v.).  The  Alexamhioes 
had  endeavoured  to  make  Judaism  palat&hle  to 
the  refined  Greeks,  by  proving  it  to  be  identical 
with  the  grandest  conceptions  of  their  philosophers 
and  poete,  and  had  quite  allegorised  away  its 
distinctive  characteristics.  P.  was  the  first  man 
who,  although  himself  to  a  great  extent  imbaeil 
with  allegorising  tendencies,  made  a  bold  and 
successful  stand  against  a  like  e vaporisation  of  the 
revealed  relidon  of  his  fathers :  which,  indeed,  in 
many  cases  had  led  people  to  throw  off  its  yoke 
also  outwardly.  A  most  zealous  champion  of 
Judaism,  his  bitterness  in  rebuking  those  co- 
religionists who  tried  to  defend  their  secret  or 
overt  apostacy  by  scoffing  at  the  Law  iise\i,  who 
were  *  impatient  of  their  religious  institutions,  ever 
on  the  look-out  for  matter  of  censure  and  complaint 
against  the  laws  of  religion,  who,  in  excuse  of  their 
ungodliness,  thoughtlessly  argue  all  manner  of 
objections' — ^knows  no  bounds.  He  cannot  under- 
stand how  Jews,  •  destined  by  divine  authority  to  be 
the  priests  and  prophets  for  all  mankind,*  could  be 
found  so  utterly  blind  to  the  fact,  that  that  which 
is  the  position  only  of  a  few  disciples  of  a  truly 
genuine  philosophy — viz.,  the  knowled^  of  the 
Highest,  had  by  law  and  custom  become  the  inherit- 
ance of  every  individual  of  their  own  people  ;  whuse 
real  calling,  in  fact,  it  was  to  invoke  the  blessing  of 
God  on  mankind,  and  who,  when  they  offered  up 
sacrifices  *  for  the  people,'  offered  them  up  in  reality 
for  all  men. 

To  P.,  the  divinity  of  the  Jewish  Law  is  the  basis 
and  test  of  all  true  philosophy.    Although,  like  his 
contemporaries,  he  holds  that  the  n-eater  part  of 
the  Pentateuch,  both  in  its  historical   aua  legal 
portions,  may  be  explained  allegorically,  nay,  goes 
so  far  even  as  to  call  only  the  Ten  Commandments, 
the   fundamental   rules   of  the  Jewish  tiieocracy, 
direct  and  immediate  revelations,  while  the  other 
parts  of  the  Book  are  owing  to  Moses :  he  yet  holds 
the  latter  to  be  the  interpreter  specially  selected  by 
God,  to  whose  dicta  in  so  far  also  divine  veneration 
and  strict  obedience  are  due;  and  again,  althou>:h 
many  exx)lanations  of  a  metaphysical  nature  could 
be  given  to  single  passages,  yet  their  literal  meaning 
must  not  be  tampered  with.    This  literal  meanini^ 
according  to  him,  is  the  essentisd  part,  the  other 
explanations  are  mere  speculation — exactly  as  the 
Midrash  and  some  Church  Fathers  hold.    Only  that 
allegorical  method  differed  in  so  far  from  that  of  his 
contemporaries,  that  to  him  these  interpretations — 
for  which  he  did  not  disdain  sometimes  even  to 
use  the  numbers  symbolically,  or  to  derive  Hebrew 
words  from  Greek  roots,  and  the  Hke— were  not  a 
mere  play  of  fancy,  in  which  he  could  exercise  his 
powers   of  imagination,  but,  to  a  certain   extent, 
a  reality,  an  inner  necessity.      He  clung  to  philo- 
sophy, as  combined  with  the  Law.     If  the  former 
could  be  shewn,  somehow  or  other,  to  be   hinted 
at  in  the  latter,  then  only  he  could  be  that  which 
all  his  sold  yearned  to  be — viz.,  the  disciple  of  both: 
a  Greek,  with  all  the  refinement  of  Greek  culture ; 
and  a  Jew— a  faithful,  pious,  relicious  Jew.     Kay, 
he  even  urged  the  necessity  of  ^leeory  from  the 
twofold  reason  of  the  anthropomor^isms  current 
in    Scripture    and    from   certain    apparent    super- 
fluities, repetitions,  and  the  like,  which,  in  a  recnnl 
that  emanated  from  the  Deity,  roust  needs  have  a 
special  meaning  of  their  own,  which  required  inves- 
tigation and  a  peculiar  interpretation.   Se«*  M  idhash, 
BuLGGADA.       xet  this  fanciful  method  never  ior 


PHILO  JXJDiEUa. 


one  moment  interfered  with  his  real  object  of  point- 
ing ont  how  Judaism  most  plainly  and  unmistaKably 
was  based  upon  the  highest  ethical  principles. 

His  writings  develop  his  ideas  and  nis  system 
in  the  two  directions  indicated.  In  that  division 
of  his  writings  principally,  which  treats  of  the 
Creation  {Kogmopaia)y  he  allows  allegory  to  take  the 
reins  out  of  his  hands ;  in  that  on  the  Laws  (Nomoi)^ 
on  the  other  hand,  he  remains  remarkably  sober 
and  clear,  extolling  the  Mosaic  legislation  through- 
out, at  the  expense  of  every  other  known  to  him. 
In  a  very  few  instances  only  he  is  induced  to  find 
fault,  or  to  alter  slightly,  by  way  of  allegory,  the 
existing  ordinances. 

His   idea  of   Grod  is  a  pre-eminently  religious, 
not  a  philosophical  one.      He    alone  is  the  real 
Good,  tne  Penect ;  the  world  has  only  an  appar- 
ent existence,  and  is  the  source  of  all  evil.    God 
is    only  to   be    imagined   as    the  primeval  light, 
which  cannot  be  seen  by  itself,  but  which  may 
be    known    from   its    rays,    that    fill    the    whole 
world.     Being  infinite  and  imcreated.  He  is  not  to 
be  compared  with    any  created   thing.      He   has 
therefore  no  name,  and  reveals  Himself   only  in 
designations  expressive    of   this   '  inexpressibility.' 
He  IS  also  named  the  Place  (the  talmudical  Makom)^ 
because  He  comprises  all  space,  and  there  is  nothing 
anywhere  besides  Him.     He  is  better  than  Virtue 
and  Knowledge,  better  than  the  Beautiful  and  the 
Good  {Kahkagatheia),  simpler  than  the  One,  more 
blissful  than  bliss.   Thus,  He  has,  properly  speaking, 
no  quality,  or  only  negative  ones.    He  is  the  existing 
Unity  or  Existence  itself  (On,  or  6«),  comprised  in 
the  unpronounceable  Tetragrammaton.     As  Creator, 
God  manifests  Himself  to  man,   and  He  is  then 
called  'The  Beginning,  the  Name,  the  Word,  the 
Primeval  AngeL      In  this  phase  of  active  revelation 
of  God,  which  is  as  natural  to  Him  as  burning  is 
to  the  heat,  and  cold  to  the  snow,  we  notice  two 
distinct  sides,  the  Power  and  the  Grace,  to  which 
correspond  the  two  names  of  fUohim  and  Adonai, 
used  in  the  Bible.    The  Power  also  gives  the  laws, 
and  punishes  the  offender;  while  the  Grace  is  the 
beneticent,  forgiving,  merciful  (quality.     Yet,  since 
there  is  not  to  be  assumed  an  unmediate  influence 
of  God  upon  the  world,  their  respective  natures 
being  so  different,  that  a  point  of  contact  cannot 
be  found,  an  intermediate  class  of  beings  had  to  be 
created  to  stand  between  both,  through  whom  He 
could  act  in  and  upon  creation — viz.,  the  spiritual 
world  of  ideas,  which  are  not  only  *  Ideals,'  or  typeSt 
in    the    Platonic    sense,  but   real,    active   powers, 
surrounding  God  like  a  number  of  attendant  Beings. 
They  are  His  messengers,  who  work  His  will,  and 
by  the  Greeks  are  cafled  good  demons ;  by  Moses, 
angels.     There  are  very  many  different  degrees  of 
perfection    among    them.      Some    are    immediate 
•  serving  ancels ; '  others  are  the  souls  of  the  pious, 
of  the   pro^ets,  and  the  people  of  Israel,  who  rise 
higher  up  to  the  Deity ;  others,  again,  are  the  heads 
and.  chief  representatives  of  the  different  nations, 
such   as  Israel  does  not  need,  since  they  conceive 
and  acknowledge  the  Everlasting  Head  of  all  beings. 
Himself-     The  Logos  comprises  all  these  intermeoi- 
ate  spiritual  powers  in  His  own  essence.    See  article 
Logos   for  P.*s  views  on  this  part  of  his  system. 
Man   is  a  microcosm,  a  little  world  in  himself,  a 
creation    of  Logos,  through  whom  he  participates 
in  the  JDeity,  or,  as  Scriptiu^  has  it,  *  he  is  created 
in    the    image  of  God.*      He  stands  between   the 
higher  and  lower  beings — in  the  middle  of  creation. 
The    ethical   principles   of   Stoicism,  P.  identified 
irith    the   Mosaic    ethics,  in  which   the  ideal    is 
most   exalted  moral  perfectibility  or  sanctity,  and 
xnan's    dnties   consist  in  veneration  of  God,  and 
Jove    and.  righteousness  towards  fellow  men.     P. 


holds  firmly  the  belief  in  immortality.  Man  is 
immortal  by  his  heavenly  nature;  but 'as  there 
are  de^ees  in  his  divine  nature,  so  there  are 
degrees  m  his  immortality,  which  only  then  deserves 
this  name  when  it  has  been  acc^uired  by  an  eminence 
of  virtue.  There  is  a  vast  difference  between  the 
mere  living  after  death,  which  is  common  to  all 
mankind,  and  the  future  existence  of  the  perfect 
ones.  Future  recompense  and  punishment  are  not 
taken  by  him  in  the  ordinary  sense  of  the  wonL 
Virtue  and  sin  both  have  all  their  rewards  within 
themselves ;  but  the  soul,  which  is  *  pre-existing,* 
having  finished  its  course  in  the  sublunar  world, 
carries  this  consciousness  with  it  in  a  more  intense 
and  exalted  manner.  Paradise  is  Oneness  with 
God;  there  is  no  hell  with  bodily  punishments 
for  souls  without  a  body,  and  no  Devil  in  the 
Philonic  system. — Philo*s  Messianic  notions  are 
vague  in  the  extreme,  and  he  partly  even  inter- 
prets certain  scriptural  passages  alluding  to  some 
future  Kedeemer  as  referring  to  the  soul.  Yet 
he  indicates  his  belief  in  a  distant  time  when 
some  hero  will  arise  out  of  the  mi<lst  of  the  nation, 
who  will  gather  all  the  dispersed  to^^ether;  and 
these,  purified  by  long  punishments,  will  henceforth 
form  a  happy,  sinless,  most  prosperous  community, 
to  which  ail  the  other  nations  will  be  eager  to 
belong. 

We  have  only  been  able  to  indicate,  in  the 
slightest  of  outlines,  the  principal  features  of  P.'s 
theology  and  philosophy,  without  endeavouring  to 
follow  any  one  of  the  manifold  systematic  schemes 
into  which  his  scattered  half-obscure  dicta  have 
been  pressed.  The  influence  P.  has  exercised  upon 
Christianity  and  Judaism  (in  the  later  writings  of 
which  his  name  occurs  as  *Yediilyah  the  Alex- 
andrine') ia  enormous,  and  the  various  articles 
in  the  course  of  this  work  (Gnosticism,  Jews, 
Logos,  &c)  dwell  more  or  less  upon  this  point 
What  he  has  done  for  the  development  of  Philo- 
so]|»hy,  is  discussed  under  that  head,  and  in  the 
articles  Plato,  Neo-Platonism,  Ac.  Of  the  many 
works  left  under  his  name,  several  have  been 
declared  spurious,  but  in  some  cases,  without  much 
show  of  reason.  His  writings  are  generally  brought 
under  three  chief  divisions,  the  first  of  which  com- 
prises those  of  a  more  general  and  metaphysical 
nature,  such  as,  De  Muruli  Incorruptibilitate,  Quod 
Omnia  Prof/ua  Liher^  De  Vita  Contemplaiiva,  The 
second  contains  those  written  in  defence  of  his 
compatriots,  Adi^ersus  FUiccuni,  Legatio  ad  Caium, 
De  Nobilitate,  The  third  and  moat  important  is 
devoted  to  the  interpretation  and  explanation  of 
Scripture  in  the  philosophical  manner  indicated,  De 
Mundi  Opifido,  Legia  AUegoriarum  Lihri  IIL; 
containing  also  a  number  of  special  treatises,  De 
Circumciaionet  De  Monardiia,  De  Frcemiia  Sacer- 
dotum,  De  FoaterUate  Caini,  De  Cherubim,  &c. ;  five 
books  On  the  Hiatory  of  Abraham^  De  Joaeplio,  Vila 
MoaiSj  De  CarUate,  De  Pamitentia,  &c. ;  to  which 
also  belong  De  Parentibua  Colendia,  De  Virtuie 
eiuaque  PartUms,  first  published  by  A.  Mai ;  and 
certain  very  doubtful  fragments,  tirat  discovered  in 
an  Armenian  translation,  «uch  as  De  Providenlia 
and  De  Aniinalibua,  &c.  Many  of  his  works,  how- 
ever, seem  irredeemably  lost.  The  eiUtio  princeps 
by  Tumebus,  dates  Paris,  1552 ;  reprinted  Geneva, 
1613 ;  Paris,  1640 ;  &c.  Mangey  published  a  more 
critical  edition  (Loud.  1742,  2  vols,  fol),  and  Richter 
a  slightly  improved  one  (Leip.  1828—1830,  8  vols). 
An  edition  of  Pfeiffer  (1785,  &c.)  remained  incom- 
plete. Another  edition  was  published  by  Tauchnitz 
(1851,  &a).  As  yet,  there  are  several  codd.  in  ths 
Escurial,  in  Rome,  in  St  Petersburg,  which  have 
never  been  collated,  and  which  promise,  to  judge 
from  the  few  readings  known,  to  furnish  an  immeuss 

479 


PHILOLOGY. 


help  for  that  really  critical  edition,  which  as  yet  is 
a  desideratum. — Of  the  scholars  who  have  written 
on  P.,  we  mention  principally  Dahl,  Bryant,  Gfrorer, 
Creiizer,  Grosmann,  Wolff,  Kitter,  Beer,  &c.  The 
CDglish  translation  of  P.  in  4  vols.,  forms  part  of 
Bonn's  Ecclesiastical  Library 

PHILO'LOGY.  This  word,  as  a  technical  name 
for  a  branch  of  knowledge,  has  gone  through  various 
phases  of  meaning.  Originally  signifying  the  love 
of  talk  or  discourse,  and  then,  in  a  more  restricted 
sense,  the  love  of  philosophical  conversation  such  as 
is  exhibited  in  the  dialogues  of  Plato,  it  came,  in  the 
later  period  of  Greek  literature,  to  mean  the  study 
and  Knowledge  of  books,  and  of  the  history  and 
other  science  contained  in  them.  In  this  sense  it 
passed  over  to  the  Romans,  under  whom  the  name 
of  philologists  was  applied  to  men  distinguished 
for  universal  learning,  more  especially  to  the 
fframmatidj  whose  chief  occupation  of  editing  and 
illustrating  the  classic  poets,  naturally  led  them  to 
this  multifarious  knowledge ;  and  when  Martianus 
Oapella  (q.  v.)  in  the  6th  a  composed  his  Encyclo- 
paedia (a.  V.)  or  curriculum  of  education,  embracing  the 
*  seven  liberal  arts '  (Grammar,  Dialectic,  Rhetoric, 
Music,  Arithmetic,  Geometry,  and  Astronomy),  he 
designates  the  collective  whole  by  the  name  of  phi- 
lology. What  is  known  as  the  Revival  of  Literature 
after  the  dark  ages,  is  nothing  else  than  the  revival 
of  the  ancient  philology.  But  when  men,  instead 
of  looking  only  at  what  had  been  written,  began  to 
examine  the  world  for  themselves,  and  enlarge  the 
bounds  of  science,  it  became  impossible  for  one  man 
to  cultivate  the  whole  round  of  knowledge,  and  the 
term  philology  was  by  degrees  restricted  to  a  know- 
ledge of  the  langnaces,  history,  laws,  &c.  of  the 
ancient  world  (by  whidi  the  Greek  and  Roman  world 
was  chiefly  thought  of),  or,  more  narrowly  still,  to 
the  study  merely  of  the  languages — of  grammar, 
criticism,  and  interpretation.  A  more  complete 
conception  of  philology,  as  an  independent  branch 
of  knowledge,  was  that  of  F.  A  Wolf,  who  assigned 
as  its  field  all  that  belongs  to  the  life  of  the  ancient 
peoples ;  and  the  conception  is  still  further  extended 
b^  Bockh,  who  makes  it  almost  synonymous  with 
history — ^its  problem  being  the  reproduction  of  the 
past;  in  this  sense,  the  word  is  applicable  to  all 
l)eoples  at  all  periods  of  their  history,  so  that  we 
are  beginning  to  have  an  Indian  philoloey,  a  German 
philology,  a  Slavic  philolo^,  no  less,  than  a  classic 
philology.  The  fullest  andmost  systematic  exposi- 
tion of  what  philology  in  this  sense  ought  to 
embrace,  has  been  given  by  G.  Haase  in  £n^  and 
GrUber's  Ency.,  3d  sect.,  vol.  xxiii. 

Of  philology,  even  in  its  widest  sense,  the  study 
of  language  was  always,  and  necessarily,  a  funda- 
mental part ;  and,  in  the  usual  sense  of  the  word,  it 
has  been  the  chief  part—often  nearly  the  whole. 
For  a  long  time  after  the  revival  of  learning,  the 
classic  writers  were  studied  chiefly  for  their  language 
and  style,  and  those  of  them  that  did  not  come  up 
to  an  imaginary  standard  of  purity  were  despised 
and  neglected,  however  valuable  they  might  be  for 
their  matter.  But  although  sreat  and  even  undue 
attention  was  thus  given  to  language,  it  was  only 
as  an  instrument,  as  means  to  an  end.  The  philo- 
logist studied  a  language  in  order  to  be  aole  to 
understand  it  and  use  it — ^to  get  at  the  thoughts 
conveyed  in  it,  or  to  convey  his  own  thoughts 
with  force  and  elegance  to  others.  This  is  the 
object  of  the  grammars,  dictionaries,  annotated 
editions,  and  criticiBms,  which  constitute  the  chief 
part  of  philological  literature.  But  within  recent 
years,  philology  has  entered  upon  a  new  phase,  or 
rather  a  new  study  has  sprung  up  alongside  of  the  old. 
As  the  naturalist  investigates  a  class  of  objects  not 
with  a  view  to  turn  them  to  nse^  but  to  understand 

480 


their  nature,  and  classify  them ;  so  the  new  school  of 
philolo^sts  examine  and  compare  the  structures  of 
the  various  languages,  and  arrange  lAiem  in  dsnei 
and  families,  with  the  ultimate  view  of  arriving  at 
some  theory  of  language  in  general — ^its  mode  of  ongin 
and  growth.  The  comparison  of  tiie  structare  of 
two  or  more  languages  is  called  Comparative  Gram* 
mar,  and  the  whole  of  this  new  branch  of  study  is 
sometimes  designarted  as  Comparative  Philology; 
but  it  seems  better  to  leave  the  old  Held  in  poiset- 
of  the  old  name,  and  in  contradistincticiii  to 


sion 


philoloj^  as  the  practical  knowledge  of  langosgea, 
to  speak  of  the  study  of  language  as  a  pheno- 
menon per  M,  as  the  Science  of  Language.  The 
Grerman  term  Bpradienkunde.,  and  the  French 
Linguistique,  have  more  especial  reference  to  the 
naturalist,  or  classificatoxy  aspect  of  the  study. 

So  long  as  the  view  prevailed  that  limguaee  wu  a 
human  invention,  anything  like  a  science  oi  it  wu 
impossible.  According  to  that  view,  whic^  was 
eany  started,  and  was  especially  elaborated  and 
discussed  by  Locke,  Adam  Smith,  and  Dnrald 
Stewart,  it  was  only  after  men  found  that 'Uieir 
rapidly  increasing  ideas  could  be  no  longer  con- 
veyed by  gestures  of  the  body  and  changes  of  the 
countenance,  that  they  set  about  inventing  a  set  of 
artificial  vocal  signs,  the  meahing  of  which  ma 
fixed  by  mutual  agreement.  On  tiiis  theory,  then 
might  be  a  history  of  the  subsequent  course  of  the 
difl'erent  languages,  but  inquiries  into  the  nature  and 
laws  of  language  after  the  manner  of  the  i^ydcal 
sciences  would  be  absurd.  In  opposition  to  ths 
philosophers  who  attributed  the  origin  of  language 
to  human  invention,  some  theologians  claimed  a 
divine  origin  for  it,  representing  the  Deity  as  having 
created  the  names  of  things,  and  directly  taught 
them  to  Adam.  Both  these  uieories  may  now  be  con- 
sidered as  ^ven  up  by  all  who  are  entitled  to  sjiesk 
on  the  subject.  Everything,  in  fact,  tends  to  shew 
that  language  is  a  spontaneous  product  of  human 
nature — a  necessary  result  of  man's  physical  and 
mental  constitution  (including  his  social  instincts), 
as  natural  to  him  as  to  walk,  eat,  or  sleep,  and  ai 
independent  of  his  will  as  his  stature  or  the  colour 
of  his  hair. 

Language  was  an  object  of  speculation  am<Mig  tiie 
Greek  philosophers ;  but  as  was  the  case  with  tiieir 
inquiries  into  the  outward  world  generally,  they 
bejgan  at  the  wrong  end;  they  speculated  on  the 
origin  of  tbinss  before  they  had  examined  the  things 
themselves.  They  knew  no  language  but  their  own, 
and  all  others  were  indiscriminately  classed  as  *  bar- 
barous* or  foreign;  they  had  no  test  of  affinity 
among  tongues  except  mutual  intelligibility.  The 
theories  of  the  modem  philosophers  of  the  18th  c 
were  nearly  as  baseless ;  they  were  mere  d  prwi 
speculations,  akin  to  Burnef  s  (q.  v.)  *  theory  of  the 
earth,*  which  was  constructed  before  the  strata  o{ 
the  earth's  cnist  had  been  explored.  The  gnat 
obstruction  to  the  true  course  of  inquiry  was  the 
assumption,  first  made  by  the  Church  Fathers,  and 
for  a  long  time  unquestioned,  that  Hebrew  was  the 
primitive  language  of  man,  and  that  therefore  all 
languages  must  be  derived  from  Hebrew.  A  pro- 
digious amount  of  leamim;  and  labour  waa  wasted 
during  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  in  trying  to 
trace  this  imaginary  connection.  Leibnitz  was  th« 
first  to  set  aside  this  notion,  and  to  establish  the 

Srinciple  that  the  study  of  languages  must  be  con- 
uctea  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  the  exact 
sciences,  by  first  collecting  as  many  &ct8  as  pos- 
sible, and  then  proceeding  by  inductive  reasoning. 
It  was  owing  to  nis  appeab  and  exertions  that  mis- 
sionaries, travellers,  and  others,  now  b^;an  making 
those  collections  of  vocabularies  and  specimens  m 
languages  and  dialects  which  form  the  Uerbarimm, 


PHILOLOGY. 


M  it  were,  of  human  snccob.    A  valuable  Catalogue 
of  Languages  in  six  ▼olunuis  was  published  in  Span- 
ish in  ISS),  by  Hervas,  a  Jtisa.fc  missionary.    It 
cont4iins  specimens  and  notices  of  mo^e  than  300 
languages,   and   many  of  the   true   alii  ni  ties    are 
happily  traced.      A  similar  work   was  AiJ,olancr'8 
MititridaUa  (4  vols.  Berlin,  181)6—1  Sl7),  based  on  tiic 
catalogue  of  Hervas,  and  also  on  the  collections  which 
the  Kusaian  government  had  caused  to  be  made. 
In  none  of  these  efforts,  however,  although  much 
truth  was  struck  out,  were  there  anytlnng  like 
fixed  principles  of  scientiiic  classification.   The  light 
that  brought  order  into  the  chaos  rose  witii  the 
study  of  Sanscrit  (q.  v.),  first  made  accessible  to 
European    scholars    by  Sir  William  Jones,   Cole- 
brooke,  and  other  members  of  the  Asiatic  Society, 
founded  in  Calcutta  in  1784     The  simiWity  of 
Sanscrit    to  Greek   and  Latin,  especially  in  the 
eiammatical  forms,  struck  every  one  with  surprise. 
biT  William  Jones  declared  that  *  no  philologer  could 
examine  the  Sanscrit,  Greek,  and  Latin  without 
believing  them  to  have  sprung   from   the    same 
Bouix)e,  which  perhaps  no  longer  exists.     There  is 
a  similar  reason,  though  not  quite  so  forcible,  for 
supposing  that  both  the  Gothic  and  the  Celtic  had 
the  same  origin  with  the  Sanscrit.    The  old  Persian 
may  be  added  to  the  same  family.'    Hather  than 
admit  this  relation,  which  it  was  seen  would  involve 
also  ethnological  affinities,  some,  as  Dugald  Stewart, 
denied  that  Sanscrit  had  ever  been  the  laDguage  of 
a  people,  and  held  that  it  was  an  invention  of  the 
Brahmans,  who  had  constructed  it  on  the  model  of 
the  Greek  and  Latin.    Fr.  Schlegel's  work.  On  the 
Language   and    Wisdom   of   the   Indians    (1808), 
although  defective  and  erroneous  in  point  of  scho- 
larship,   has  the  merit  of  boldly  embracing  the 
languagee  of    India,   Persia,   and   Europe  in   one 
family  ^roup,  by  the  comprehensive  name  of  Indo- 
Germanic.    It  was  this  work  that  called  the  atten- 
tion of  German  scholars  to  a  field  of  labour  which 
they  have  since  made  specially  their  own. 

The  successive  publications  of  Bopp  (q.  v.),  begin- 
ning in  1816,  and  culminating  in  \m  great  work  on 
the  granamar  of  the  Aryan  languages,  Vergleicfiende 
GrammaHk  (BerL  1833—1852 ;  a  2d  ed.  recast  and 
enlarged,  3  vols.,  Berl.  1857 ;  an  English  translation 
of  1st  ed.  was  published  in  3  vols.,  1845 — 1850, 
and,  revised,  in  1854),  created  the  new  science 
of  pomparative  Grammar,  and  laid  a  sure  and  broad 
foundation  for  the  science  of  language  generally. 
Concurrent  with  the  labours  of  Bopp,  were 
those  of  Pott  in  his  Etymological  Kesearches 
{JSiifmologifiche  Forsehungen^  2  vols.,  1833—1836; 
2d  ed.  1859)  and  other  works.  Not  less  import- 
ant, though  confined  to  one  stock  of  the  Aryan 
family,  the  Teutonic,  was  the  great  German  Gram- 
mar {Deutsche  QrammaUk,  4  vols.  1818—1837)  of 
J.  Grimm  (q.  v.).  William  von  Humboldt  (q.  v.) 
did  much  to  ^abhsh  a  philosophy  of  language — 
the  relations  and  interactions  of  mind  and  speech ; 
a  department  of  the  subject  which  has  been  further 
cultivated  in  recent  years  by  SteinthaL  The 
method  of  investigation,  thus  invented  and  perfected 
in  the  field  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  has  been  applied 
to  other  languages,  and  considerable  progress  has 
been  made  in  grouping  the  principal  varieties  of 
human  speech  mto  famiUes,  which  again  fall  into 
subdivisions  or  branches,  according  to  the  different 
degrees  of  nearness  in  the  relationship.  In  estab- 
lishing these  relationships,  although  a  comparison  of 
the  vocabularies — ^the  numerals,  pronouns,  and  more 
essential  nouns  and  verbs — ^may  establish  a  general 
afiBnity,  and  render  a  conmion  origin  probabk ;  yet 
the  surer  test  lies  in  the  grammatical  forms.  For 
when  those  elements  of  a  language  which  express 
the  relationa  of  thing|BrT>caBe,  number,  tense— nave 


once  become  mere  terminations,  and  lost  their 
original  form  and  independent  meaning,  they  can 
only  be  transmitted  by  tradition;  and  when  the 
same  grammatical  forms  are  found  possessed  in 
common  by  two  or  more  tongues,  they  must  be  an 
inheritance  from  a  common  ancestor.  It  follows 
from  this  that  the  *  genealogical'  classification,  as 
it  is  called,  cannot  be  carried  out  with  great  surety 
or  rigour  except  in  the  case  of  languages  in  which 
grammatical  forms  had  become  in  some  degree  fixed 
before  their  divergence — in  other  words,  of  the 
inflectional  languages.  Accordingly,  the  only  two 
well-defined  genealo^cal  families  (^re  the  Aryan 
and  the  Semitic,  which  embrace  the  whole  of  the 
languages  of  the  inflectional  type. 

Besides  the  division  of  languages  into  families 
bearing  traces  of  a  common  origin,  there  is  a  division 
into  three  orders,  as  they  may  be  called,  depending 
upon  a  radical  difference  of  structiure.     Speech,  as 
the  expression  of  thought,  contains  two  elements : 
ideas  or  conceptions,  which  constitute  the  substance 
or  material  jxart ;  and  the  relations  of  these  ideas  to 
one  another,  which  constitute  the  formal  part ;  and 
the  nature  of  a  language  depends  upon  the  parti- 
cular way  in  which  the  vocal  expression  of  these  two 
elements  is  combined.      At  the  foundation  of  all 
words  lie  Roots  (q.  v.),  or  simple  sounds  expressive  of 
meaning.      Now,  some  languages,  as  the  Chinese 
(q.  v.),  use  these  roots  in  their  naked  form  as  words, 
the  same  syllable,  according  to  its  position,  serving 
as  noun,  adjective,  verb,  &c. — e.  g.,  ta  means  great, 
greatness,  to  be  or  to  make  great,  greatly  or  very. 
The  relational  part  of  the  thought,  for  the  most 
part,  gets  no  vocal  expression,  it  is  only  indicated 
by  position,  as  when  T/Mn,  i^eople,  and  lij  power,  are 
simply  put  together  (mm  U)  to  signify  the  people*! 
power.    Kelationa  not  readily  indicated  by  position 
are    expressed    in    a    round-about   way   by   using 
additional  significant  words:  thus,  tschung  (mass  or 
multitude)  jin  (man)  =  men ;  niu  (woman)  ts^  (child) 
=:  daughter ;  y  min  U  (employ  people  power)  =  with 
the  people's  power.    Even  in  such  cases,  each  root 
preserves  its  independence,  and  is  felt  to  express  its 
own  radical  meamng.    Languages  like  the  Chinese, 
whose  development  has  been  arrested  at  this  rudi- 
mentary stage,  are  called  Monosyllabic  or  Isolating. 
The  next  stage  of  development  is  that  of  the 
Agglutinate  langiiages,  which  are  by  far  the  most 
numerous,  including  the  Turanian   and  American 
families.    In  these,  the  relational  part  of  thought 
obtains  prominent  vocal  expression  by  separate  roots 
joined  or  glued  on  to  the  significant  roots  as  termi- 
nations.    These  terminations  were  originally  them- 
selves significant  roots,  and  many  of  uiem  are  still 
used  as  8ei>arate  significant  words,  although  the 
greater  part  have  sunk  down  to  mere  signs  of  cases 
and  other  relations.    The  com|)ound  expression  thus 
formed  never,  however,  attains  perfect  unity ;  the 
significant  root  ^ways  remains  ngid,  unobscured  in 
its  sense  and  unchanged  in  form,  and  the  termina- 
tion is  felt  as  something  distinct  from  the  body  of 
the  word. 

Thus,  the  Finnish  declension  exhibits  a  structure 
of  the  most  mechanical  and  transparent  kind— e.  g., 
karhu,  bear;  karhu-n,oi  the  bear;  karhiU-ta,  without 
bear;  karhu-sta^  out  of  the  bear;  and  so  on  tlirough 
fifteen  cases.  The  insertion  of  the  ])lural  suffix,  tV 
gives  karhui-n,  of  the  bears ;  karhu-i-ta^  without 
bears;  karhu-ista,  out  of  the  bears;  Ac.  But  this 
composite  mechanical  structure  reaches  its  climax-— 
remaining  all  the  while  perfectly  transparent — in 
the  Turkish  verb.  Thus,  the  root  sev  has  the  inde- 
finite meaning  of  loving,  and  the  inf.  is  sev-mek,. 
to  love;  which  then,  by  the  insertion  of  certain < 
suffixes,  can  take  on  aa  many  as  forty  forms  cat 
voices — e.  c.,  sev-me-inek,  not  to  love ;  sev-e-Tne-mek: 


PHILOLOGY. 


not  to  bo  able  to  love;  teif-dir-mek,  to  cause  to 
love ;  9ev-dir-tsh-mek,  to  caiise  one  another  to  love ; 
!s"v-\l-mdc,  to  be  loved ;  sev-U-e-me-meh^  not  to  be 
able  to  be  loved ;  &c.  Each  of  these  forms,  then, 
runs  through  a  large  round  of  tenses  and  moods, 
with  their  persons  and  numbers. 

The  languages  of  the  American  Indians  are  all  of 
this  agglutinating  tyiie,  although  they  have  also 
got  the  name  Incorporative,  or  Intercalative, 
because  they  run  a  whole  phrase  or  sentence  into 
one  word — e.  g.,  hoponi,  to  wash ;  hopocuni,  to  wash 
hands ;  hopocMunij  to  wash  feet ;  nifUicaqua,  I  (nt) 
eat  {qua)  flesh  {naca).  The  Basque  language  partakes 
of  this  character. 

It  is  only  in  the  third  or  Inflectional  stage  that 
perfect  unity  of  the  two  elements  is  attained.  In 
the  Aryan  and  Semitic  tongues,  which  alone  have 
reached  this  highest  state  of  development,  the 
significant  root  and  the  termination  have  become 
blended  into  one  both  in  effect  and  form,  and 
phonetic  changes  have  for  the  most  part  obliterated 
the  traces  of  composition.  Yet  no  doubt  is  felt  by 
philologists  that  the  most  highly  organised  of  the 
mflecting  or  amalgamating  languages  began  with  the 
radical  stage,  and  passed  through  the  agglutinate. 
The  analytic  powers  of  comparative  grammar  have 
succeeded  in  tracing  back  the  formal  elements  of 
the  Aryan  tongues  to  original  independent  words, 
agglutinated  to  other  words  to  moaify  them.  See 
Inflection.  Against  this  theory  it  has  been  urged, 
that  there  is  no  historical  instance  of  a  language  so 
changing  its  type,  and  passing  from  one  stage  to 
another.  But  a  sufficient  account  of  this  pheno- 
menon may  be  found  in  the  different  mental 
habits  and  political  positions  of  the  peoples  (see 
Max  Miiller,  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language, 
First  Series,  page  316).  Besides,  the  languages 
of  tiie  lower  types  do  shew  a  tendency,  under 
favourable  circumstances,  to  produce  grammatical 
forms  of  the  higher  kind.  Even  in  Chinese,  in 
some  of  its  modern  dialects,  something  like  cases 
is  to  be  seen  ;  and  Finnish  and  Turkish,  in  con- 
tact with  the  inflected  languages  of  £uroi)e,  are 
making  approaches  to  the  innectional  type. 

On  zae  other  hand,  the  inflectional  languages  had, 
before  the  earliest  times  of  which  we  have  any 
written  monuments,  entered  on  the  reverse  phase — 
the  analytic.  By  the  process  of  phonetic  change 
and  decay,  the  grammatical  forms  have  been 
gradually  becoming  obliterated  and  losing  their 
power,  and  their  place  has  been  supplied  by  separate 
words,  in  the  shape  of  prepositions  and  auxiliary 
rerbs.    See  Inflection. 

Connected  with  these  radical  differences  of  type, 
is  one  of  the  higher  and  more  speculative  problems 
of  the  science— the  question  as  to  the  common 
ori<nn  of  all  langnt^es.  The  inherent  and  appar- 
ently ineffaceable  difference  of  structure  in  the  three 
orders  above  described,  as  well  as  the  absence  of 
all  sure  marks  of  genealogical  affinity  even  between 
the  two  families  (3  the  inflectional  type,  the  Aryan 
and  the  Semitic,  are  considered  by  some  as  insuper- 
able objections  to  the  theory  of  a  common  ongin. 
But  although  it  may  be  fruitiess  to  look  for  exten- 
sive identitications  of  the  roots  and  grammatical 
forms  of  the  Aryan  tongues,  even  in  the  oldest 
forms  to  which  we  can  trace  them,  with  those 
of  the  Semitic,  still  more  with  Chinese  or  Turkish 
elements ;  it  seems  rash  and  unscientiflc  to  affirm 
that,  going  back  to  the  radical  stage,  the  develop- 
ment of  all  could  not  have  b^un  n*om  a  common 
stock  of  monosyllabic  roots.  The  wonderful  trans- 
formations exhibited  by  language  in  the  course  of 
its  known  history,  seem  sufficient  ground  for  main- 
taining the  possibility  of  a  common  origin.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  nature  of  the  case  forbids  all  hope 
483 


of  ever  being  able  to  prf^ffe  it ;  for  the  coinddencei 
that  occur  (e.  g.,  Chinese  /tr,  Tibetan  pha,  Lai 
and  Or.  ^-ter,  Eng.  /a-ther;  Chin,  totx,  Egyp. 
ma,  Lat  and  Or.  Tna-ter,  £ng.  mo-ther),  even  though 
they  were  much  more  niunerous  than  they  are, 
might  weU  arise  from  the  mind  and  vooal  orgau 
of  man  being  everywhere  essentially  the  same. 

Languages,  like  living  organisms,  are  in  a  state 
of  continual  flux  or  change,  and  an  essential  part 
of  the  science  consists  in  investigatine  the  Jam 
according  to  which  these  changes  iaika  place.  It  is 
because  there  are  such  laws  that  a  science  of 
language  is  possible.  In  tracing  words  to  their 
origin,  and  identifying  them  with  words  in  other 
lanjTuages,  we  are  no  longer  guided  by  mere 
similarity  of  sound,  on  the  contrary,  identity  of 
sound  is  often  a  proof  that  a  proposed  etymology  ii 
wrong.  It  has  been  established,  for  instance,  by 
induction  (see  Grimm's  Law),  tiiat  c  in  Latin  ii 
regularly  represented  by  h  in  €k>thic  and  EngUsh ; 
while  for  Gothic  or  English  e,  the  corresponding 
letter  in  Latin  is  g.  Accordingly,  we  readily 
recognise  Latin  eom-u  and  English  horn  as  cognate 
words;  while  a  suggestion  to  connect  the  fl^lish 
coTm  with  comti,  is  immediately  rejected.  If  com 
has  a  representative  in  Latin,  it  must  begin  with  9, 
which  points  out  granum  as  the  word.  Orain  ia 
not  the  English  representative  of  granum;  it  u 

franum,  borrowed  from  the  Latin  through  the 
rench.  The  exiiert  etymologist  can  often  identify 
with  certainty  two  words,  uthough  not  a  letter 
remains  the  same.  In  simple  cases,  this  is  done  by 
every  one.  Who,  for  instance,  doubts  that  Aber 
deenshire  /a,  fiJUc,  are  merely  dialectic  varieties  of 
Eng.  who,  whidu  Yet  the  same  persons  who  readily 
admit  such  cases,  are  sceptical  when  it  is  uroposed, 
for  instance,  to  identify  Fr.  larme,  with  £ng.  tear. 
The  grounds  of  identihcation,  however,  are  similar 
in  both  instances ;  the  only  difference  being,  that 
with  regard  to  larme  and  tear,  they  require^  to  be 
traced  nistorically.  No  one  will  dispute  that 
larme  is  a  corruption  of  Lot  laerima;  in  Tact,  it  can 
be  followed  through  the  successive  stages  of  change. 
Now  we  know  that  the  Romans  had  a  peculiarity 
of  letting  d  in  some  positions  degenerate  into  I 
Nor  IS  this  unaccountable,  when  we  consider  that 
the  contact  of  organs  which  nroduces  d,  differs  from 
that  which  produces  I,  chiefly  in  being  more  ener- 
getic ;  a  slovenly  d  slides  into  L  Thus  the  Gredc 
name,  Odysseus,  became,  in  the  mouth  of  the 
Romans,  Ulysses ;  they  said  odor  (a  smell),  but 
oleo  (I  smell);  and,  instead  of  impedimentum,  dedi- 
care,  we  sometimes  find  impdimentuni,  deUoare, 
These  and  other  instances  woiUd  warrant  us  to 
conclude  that  lacri-'ma  was  a  corruption  of  daeri-ma 
(corresponding  to  Gr.  daJeru),  even  if  we  had  not 
the  express  E^tement  of  Festus  that  dacrima  was 
the  older  form.  After  this  there  is  no  difficalty  m 
recognising  dacri,  or  dakru,  as  identical  with  Gothic 
tagr,  Eng.  tear. 

In  oraer  to  give  a  rational  account  of  the 
phonetic  changes  now  exemplifled,  the  nature  ol 
articulate  sounds,  and  of  the  organs  that  produce 
them,  must  be  carefully  investigated.  The  most 
valuable  contributions,  in  English,  to  this  important 
preliminanpr  branch  of  the  study  (called  Phonetics),  are 
those  of  Aur  Alex.  J.  Ellis.  Seia  Phonetic  Wrttino. 
An  admirable  rintmS  of  the  subject,  with  diagrams 
of  the  organs  of  voice  in  the  position  of  pronoanciiis 
the  different  articulations,  is  given  in  the  aecond 
series  of  Max  MUller's  Lectures  on  the  Science  oj 
Language  (1864),  where  the  best  recent  works  go 
phonetics  are  noted* 

The  transformations  that  ¥rords  exhibit,  as  tfa^ 
are  traced  down  the  stream  of  history,  are  of  the 
nature  of  phonetic  decay,  and  are  due' to  a  natun) 


PHILOLOGY. 


tendency  to  economise  mnscular  enerffy  by  pro- 
nouncing two  syllables  in  one.    The  oropping  of 
inflections,  the   shortening  of  words   by  internal 
elision  and  othervise  (Fr.  p^ref  from  Lat.  pater; 
Eng.  fair^  from  A.  S.  foeger  ;  stranger^  from  old  Fr. 
entrangirr^  Lat.    extranetis),  are   all  owing  to  the 
action  of  this  force,  and  the  cmiformities  observable 
among  such  changes,  can  be  explained  on  physio- 
logic^ principles.     Dialectic  diversification  is  not 
10  easily  accounted  for ;  it  is  difficidt  to  say  why 
lister  nations — as  in  the  case  of  the  Aryan  family, 
or  of  the  nations   speaking   Romanic   tongues — 
shonld  have  ^ven  such  different  forms  to  the  same 
stock  of  primitive  roots ;  why,  e.  g.,  Gr.  pente  (iEoL 
P"mpe\  pepOf  should  be  in  Lat.  quinmie^  coquo.    Max 
Miiller  thinks  it  necessary  to  go  back  to  a  time 
when    many  of   the    articulations   were    not    yet 
sharply  defined ;  and  he  ap{)eals,  in  illustration,  to 
the  confusion  children  make  between  such  sounds 
as  kit  and  cat;  and,  what  is  still  more  in  point, 
to  the  analogy  presented  by  languages  like  the 
Polynesian.      In  the   language   of    the    Sandwich 
Islands,  the  two  consonants,  k  and  tj  run  into  one 
another,  *  and  it  seems  impossible  for  a-  foreigner 
to  say  whether  what  he  hears  is  a  guttural  or  a 
dental.     The  same  word  is  ^Titten  by  Protestant 
miafiionaries  with  k,  by  French  with  L    It  takes 
months  of  patient  labour  to  teach  a  Hawaian  youth 
the  differenoe  between  k  and  t,  g  aud  c2, 1  and  r.  .  .  . 
If  colonies  started   to-morrow  from  the  Hawaian 
Islands,  the  same  which  took  place  thousands  of 
years    ago,    when   the    Hindus,    the  Greeks,  and 
Komans    left  their   common   home    (see  Aryan), 
would    take    place    again.      One    colony    would 
elal)orate  the  indistinct,  half-guttural,  half-dental 
contact  into  a  pure  guttural ;  another,  into  a  pure 
dental ;    a   thinl,  into  a  labial.'      Much  light  is 
thrown  on  this  question  by  those  phonetic  pecu- 
harities — those    cieficiencies    and    predilections    of 
Articulation  which   characterise  whole  tribes   and 
nations,   as  they  often  do  individuals.     They  may  I 
have  originated,  perhaps,  in  the  idiosyncrasies  of 
inflividujQ  ancestors  (a  lisping  patriarch  might  pro- 
dace  a  tribe  of  lisi^ers,  without  their  inheriting  the 
physical  defect  which  caused  the  lisp  in  him),  or  in 
a  common  habit  of  the  organs  of  speech  produced 
by  external  circumstances ;   but  once  established, ; 
thoy   are   verv    persistent    and   influentiaL      The 
3Iohawks,  and  several  other  American  tribes,  have 
no  />,  6,  m,  /I  r,  or  w;  they  never  articulate  with 
their  lips.      In  Chinese,   there  is  no  ef;  r  is  also 
wanting ;  and  as  the  habit  of  the  language  requires 
a  vowel  after  every  consonant,  the  nearest  approach 
they  can  make  to  the  sound  of  Christ  is  Ki-li-ae-tu. 
An  analogous  habit  of  articulation  transforms  the 
English  word  gold  in  the  mouth  of  a  Kafir  into 
i-f/o-li-de^     On  this  principle  can  be  explained  the 
Fr.  f sparer ^  from  Lat.  sperare;  establir  or  itahliry 
from  stah'dire ;  ^ole  {escole)^  from  scholar  &c.     In 
the  Celtic  tongue,  an  initial  s  with  a  consonant 
after  it  was  an  unwonted  combination;    when  it 
would  have  occurred,  a  vowel  was  always  prefixed ; 
and,  on    adopting  the  Latin   language,  the  Celtic 
I>eoples   caxned  their  old    habit  of   pronunciation 
with  them.     The  effects  upon  a  language  of  thus 
coming    in    contact  with   another,  are    important 
elements  in  its  history.    See  Enoush  Lakguaoe 
AND  Literature. 

The  positive  part  of  the  science  of  language 
having  pushed  inquiry  back  imtil  it  arrives  at 
mooosyllabic  roots  tiiat  admit  of  no  further 
analysis,  there  stops,  as  at  the  legitimate  boundary  of 
its  province.  It  assumes  the  existence  of  a  certain 
store  of  crude  or  primary  matter,  and  merely  con- 
cerns itself  with  how  >at  of  this  matter  the  structure, 


as  we  know  it,  has  been  built  or  has  crown  up.    Bu< 
a  question   yet  remains,  which,   although   it   can 
never  receive  but  a  conjectural  answer,  has  a  won- 
derful fascination  for  the   speculative   mind,  and 
was,  in  fact,  the  question  with  which  all  inquiries 
into  language  began ;  the  question,  namely :  How  did 
language  take  a  beginning  at  all?  how  came  this 
primitive    material    of   language,  these   significant 
roots,  into  existence  ?    The  answer  may  be  thus 
conceived :  To  speak  is  a  necessity  of  man's  rational 
and  emotional  nature ;  he  speaks  because  he  thinks 
and  feels.     When  the  mind  receives  an   impres- 
sion   or  intuition,   by  an   instinctive   impulse,    of 
the  nature  of  reflex  action,  some  outward  expres- 
sion— a  gesture  or  vocal  sound — ^breaks  forth,  which 
by  association  becomes  a  sign  or  symbol,  to  the 
individual  and  to  bis  associates,  of  the  impression  or 
idea  that  j^ve  it  birth.     Associated  at  first  with 
individual  unpressions  and  objects,  these  sounds,  by 
the  process  of  abstraction,  which  is  pre-eminently  a 
human  faculty,  would  gradually  come  to  represent 
more  generalised  impressions— would  become  words, 
as  distinguished  from  mere  animal  sounds.    The 
necessity  of  words  to  think  in  is  much  insisted  on 
by  speculators  on  this  subject,  as  being  the  motive- 
power  in  the  generation  of  language ;  and  no  doubt 
it   is   true  that,  without  language,  thought  could 
advance  but  little,  if  at  all,  beyond  what  is  mani- 
fested by  the  brutes.    But  when  they  argue  as  if 
this    necessity   of    having    his    ideas    objectively 
depicted,  in  order  to  exercise  his  own  reason,  would 
impel  an  individual  man  to  construct  a  language  for 
his  own  use,  they  make  the  unwarranted  assump- 
tion that,  under  any  circumstances,  even  though  he 
grew  up  from   infancy  in  solitude,  the  thinking 
powers  of  a  human  being  must  necessarily  develop 
themselves.    The  necessarily  few  facts  that  bear  on 
the  case  look  the  other  way.    Kaspar  Hauser  (q.  v.), 
instead  of    elaborating   a  system    of    symbols   of 
thought  for  himself,  had  forgotten  what  he  had  once 
possessed ;   his  faculties  of  thought  and  of  speech 
seem  to  have  been  simiUtaneousl^  arrested.     Obser- 
vation seems  to  favour  the  opmion,  that  man  in 
solitude— if  he  could  exist  in  solitude — would  be  as 
mute  as  the  lower  animals.     The  social  nature  of 
man  helped  to  give  birth  to  the  germs  of  speech,  no 
less  than  his  rational  nature  ;  an  instinctive  desire 
to  give  a  sensible   sign  of  his  impressions  to  his 
fellows,  was  perhaps  the  primary  imjiulse  ;  the  aid 
thus  given  to  his  own  thinking  powers,  a  second- 
ary result.    Be  this  as  it  may,  it  seems  reasonable 
to  assume,  as  it  has  been  well  put  by  Steinthal,  that 
'  at  the  origin  of  humanity,  the  soul  and  the  body 
were  in  such    mutual  dependence,  that    all   the 
emotions  of  the  soul  had  their  echo  in  the  body, 
principally  in    the  organs  of  respiration  and  the 
voice.    This  sympathy  of  soul  and  body,  still  found 
in  the  infant  and  the  savage,  was   intimate  and 
fruitful  in  the  primitive  man ;  each  intuition  woke  in 
him  an  accent  or  a  sound.' — Farrar,  Origin  oj  Lang. 
Were  these  sounds,  then,  guided  by  chance  or 
caprice  ?   or    if   not,  what   determined  particular 
articulations  to  be  associated  with  particular  objects 
or    ideas?      Any    mvstic    innate    correspondence 
between  sounds  and  things,  is  out  of  the  question ; 
but  what  more  reasonable  than  to  suppose  that  the 
natural  eounds  emitted  by  so  many  things,  animate 
and  inanimate,  should  suggest  the  character  of  the 
articulations  which  the  ideas  of  the  things  called 
forth — not  so  as  to  produce  exact  imitations,  which 
it  is  not  of  the  nature  of  articulate  sounds  to  be, 
but  such  resemblances  as  would  suffice  for  associa- 
tion.    See  Onomatop(KIA.     In  the  case  of  ideaa 
unconnected  with  any  natural  sound,  names  would 
readily  be  suggested  in  many  cases  by  analofi:ies, 
real  or  fancieoTwith  things  that  were  attended  by 

483 


PHILOLOGY. 


sounds.  We  can  see,  again,  a  physiological  fitness 
in  the  articulation  «ta^  to  stand ;  with  the  idea  of 
stability,  still  more  with  the  attitude,  the  organs 
involuntarily  assume  the  position  with  whicl^this 
syllable  is  emitted.  Similar  instances  might  be 
multiplied.  We  are  not  to  suppose  that  the  same 
thing  would  suggest  the  same  sound  to  all,  or  even 
to  the  same  ini&^idual  at  all  times.  The  language- 
making  faculty  in  the  flush  of  its  spring  would 
throw  out  a  multitude  of  names  for  the  same  thing 
(83*nonyms),  as  well  as  apply  the  same  name  to 
many  different  thin^  (nomonyms) ;  but  by  a 
process  of  natural  elimination,  those  only  would 
survive  that  were  felt  best  to  answer  the  purposes 
of  speech.  The  abstractiuff  faculty  would  also 
soon  dissociate  tiiem  from  the  concrete  individual 
objects  that  first  suggested  them,  and  convert  them 
into  symbols  of  the  prominent  attributes  of  whole 
classea  It  is  these  generalised  names,  syllables 
significant  of  such  general  simple  notions  as  seeing, 
moving,  running,  shining,  striking,  cutting,  or  being 
sharp,  that,  by  a  kind  of  inverse  process,  became 
the  roots  of  language  as  it  now  exists.  A  syllable 
expressive  of  a  single  prominent  attribute  forms 
the  foundation  of  tne  names  of  a  whole  class  of 
objects,  the  specific  differences  being  marked  by 
other  significant  syllables  joined  on  to  it  See  Roots. 
In  some  such  way,  by  the  unconscious  working  of 
man's  intellectual  nature,  we  may  conceive  lan£;uage 
to  have  grown  out  of  the  exclamatory  or  inter- 
jectional  stage  into  the  rational  structure  that  we 
now  admire.  This  theoiy  of  the  origin  of  roots, 
together  with  the  constant  operation  of  phonetic 
change,  accounts  for  the  absence  of  all  traces  of 
onomatopoeia  in  the  great  bulk  of  the  words  of  a 
language,  and  seems  to  meet  the  objections  of  Max 
Muller  and  other  philologists  to  the  onomatopoeic 
theoiy. 

With  regard  to  these  primary  or  radical  words 
it  is  only  necessary  to  observe  here  that  they  are  all 
significant  of  sensible  or  physical  ideas,  and  expres- 
sions for  immaterial  conceptions  are  derived  from 
them  by  metaphor.  How,  from  a  comnaratively 
few  roots  of  this  kind,  the  vocabulary  of  the  richest 
language  may  grow,  is  further  illustrated  in  the 
article  Root. 

Another  speculative  question  regards  the  length 
of  time  that  language  must  have  teken  to  advance 
from  the  rudimentary  stage  to  the  state  in  which  it 
is  found  in  the  earliest  records.  Biinsen  assigns 
1^,000  years  as  the  lowest  limit ;  but  it  is  evident 
that  the  same  uncertainty  must  always  rest  on  this 
question  as  on  the  corresponding  one  in  geology. 

Separate  points  of  philolo^  will  be  found  treated 
under  a  vanety  of  heads,  bee — besides  the  articles 
already  referred  to — Alphabet  ;  the  several  letters, 
A,  B,  &C. ;  Genitivb  ;  Noun  ;  Adverb  ;  Pronoun  ; 
Dialect;  Persian  Language  and  I^txrature; 
Semitio  Languages  ;  &c. 

The  literature  of  the  new  science  of  language  is 
already  rich ;  but  much  of  it  is  scattered  through 
the  transactions  of  societies  and  periodicals.  Of 
separate  works  of  a  comprehensive  kind,  in  addition 
to  those  already  named,  we  may  mention,  in  German, 
Schleicher,  Die  Spraclieti  Europas  (Bonn,  1850), 
and  VerglMiende  Grammatik  der  Indo-Ger.  Sprachen 
(2  vols.  Weimar,  1861)  i  J.  Grimm,  uAer  den 
Ursprung  der  Sprache  (Ber.  1852) ;  Diez,  EtymoL 
WOrterbuch  der  Romanisdien  Spracfien  (2d  ed.  Bonn, 
1861),  and  Vergleichende  Graminatik  der  Roman- 
iechen  Sprachen  (3  vols.  Bonn,  1836 — 1842) ;  trans- 
lations of  both  works  into  English  have  been 
published  hy  Williams  and  Norgate  (1864).  Heyse, 
System  der  Sprachwiasenechajl  (Ber.  1856) ;  Steinthsd, 
Die  ClaasiJ&ation  der  Sprachen  (Ber.  1856) ;  and 
Der  Ursprung  der  Sprache  (Ber.  1851).    In  French, 


Renan,  HUtoire  G^nirale  et  SysUme  comparS  de$ 
Langues  Semitiques  (3d  ed  Paris,  1863) ;  and  De 
VOrigine  du  Language  (3d  ed  Paris,  1863) ;  Pictet, 
Les  Origines  Indo-Europiennes  (Paris,  1859). 

English  scholars  were  late  in  entering  this  field  of 
research.  Home  Tooke's  (q.  v. )  Divereions  of  PurUy, 
though  a  work  of  genius,  and  though  it  has  been 
the  means  of  first  awakening  in  many  an  interest 
in  the  nature  of 'language,  was  written  without 
sufficient  acquaintance  with  the  kindred  tongue^ 
and  before  tne  true  key  to  the  inquiry  had  been 
obtained,  and  therefore  few  of  the  results  can  now 
be  accepted  Among  the  first  important  eon- 
tributions  were  Prichard's  Eastern  Origin  of  the 
Celtic  Nations  (Oxf.  1831),  and  the  contributions  of 
the  Rev.  Richard  Garnett  to  the  Quarterly  Reciem 
in  1835— 1848.  Mr  Gamett's  essays  in  the  ^rter/y, 
and  his  subsequent  papers  printed  in  the  proceedings 
of  the  London  Philological  Society  (in  the  formation 
of  which,  in  1842,  he  took  an  active  part),  have 
been  reprinted  under  the  title  of  Philological  Essays 
(Williams  and  Norgate,  1859),  and  are  models  of 
linguistic  research.  The  philological  articles  of  the 
Fenny  Cydopcedia  also  contributed  to  popularise  the 
study  in  England  Of  substantive  works,  the  most 
important,  wough  bearing  more  directly  on  the 
Greek  and  Latin  tongues,  are  The  New  Cixxfylvs 
(18.30,  3d  ed  1859),  and  the  Varronianus  (1S44) 
of  J.  W.  Donaldson  (q.  v.).  Winning's  Manval  o} 
Comparative  Philology  (1838)  had  previously  given 
a  popular  sketch  of  the  affinities  of  the  Aryan  lan- 
guages. Latham's  English  Language  (1841— several 
new  editions)  treats  its  subject  from  the  historioo- 
comparative  point  of  view,  and  therefore  comes  in 
some  degree  within  our  scope.  A  valuable  work  of 
the  same  kind  is  Marsh's  Lectures  on  the  Engliah 
Language  (New  York,  1660).  Latham's  Eletnetits 
qf  Comparative  Phildogy  (1862)  cives  an  elaborate 
classification  of  the  lauguages  of  the  world,  iiith 
numerous  S{>ecimens ;  omy  a  small  nart  of  the  work 
(56  pages  out  of  752)  is  given  to  tne  general  prin- 
ciples of  the  science.  Farrar,  On  the  Origin  oj 
Language  (1860),  chiefly  deals  with  the  speculative 
part  of  the  subject ;  he  brings  within  small  com- 
pass the  views  of  the  lextdiug  investigators  on  the 
more  interesting  points.  But  above  all,  the  writ- 
ings of  Max  Muller  (Comparative  Mythology^  in 
the  Oxford  Essays^  1856 ;  Lectures  on  Vie  Science  of 
Language,  1861 ;  Second  Series,  1864)  have  contri- 
buted to  make  the  study  of  this  science  take  root 
in  Britain. 

On  the  principles  of  classification  above  sketehed, 
the  chief  languages  of  the  earth  may  be  thus 
aiTanged : 

L  MonosijUahic  or  Isolating, — 1.  Chinese,  tfie 
typical  language  of  this  order.  2.  Tibetan,  which 
shews  some  beginnings  of  grammatical  forms.  3. 
The  languages  of  the  Eastern  Peninsula— Siamese, 
Anamese,  Burman.  Japanese  and  the  language  of 
Coi'ca  are  doubtfuL 

II.  Agglutinate. — 1.  The  most  important  division 
of  this  order  is  the  Turaniau  family,  comprising  '  all 
languages  spoken  in  Asia  and  Europe  (indndinff 
Oceania),  and  not  included  under  the  Aryan  ana 
Semitic  families,  with  the  exception  of  Chinese  and 
its  cognate  dialects.'  For  the  subdivisions  of  this 
family,  see  Turanian  Lanouaoibs.  2.  African 
Languages. — Some  of  the  languages  of  Africa  are 
allied  to  the  Semitic  family,  and  were  introduced 
by  immigration,  such  as  the  dialect  of  Tigrg  in 
Abyssinia  (see  Ethiopia),  and  the  Arabic  dialects 
spoken  by  the  Mohammedan  population  of  the 
coasts,  and  which  have  even  pene&ated  deep  into 
the  interior.  How  far  the  Berber  dialects  are  of 
Semitic  character,  is  a  disputed  question ;  and  the 
same  is  the  case  with  the  language  of  Ihe  GaUas  ir 


PHILOLOaY. 


Abysnnia  LitUe  has  as  yet  been  done  in  inves- 
tigating and  classifying  the  native  Agglutinate 
languages  of  Africa,  which  have  been  designated  by 
the  common  name  of  Hamitic.  The  ancient  Egyptian, 
from  which  the  modem  Coptic  is  derived,  would 
seem  never  to  have  got  beyond  the  isolating  stage 
(see  HiEROOLYPUics).  Some  of  the  languages 
adjoining  Egypt  are  thought  to  be  allied  to  the 
Coptic  The  negro  languages,  properly  so  called,  of 
the  Sudan,  and  of  the  west  coast  from  the  Senegal 
to  the  Niger,  are  exceedingly  numerous  and  widely 
diverse.  The  languages  to  the  south  of  the  equator 
are  markedly  different  from  those  to  the  north. 
They  fall,  according  to  some,  into  two  great  families, 
the  Congo  family  on  the  west,  and  the  Kafir  family 
on  the  east.  The  Hottentot  language  is  distinct 
from  both.  A  valuable  contribution  has  recently 
been  made  to  the  study  of  jtart  of  the  field  by 


Block's  Comparathm  Chrammar  of  tha  South  African 
Languages  (1862)»  3.  The  Languages  of  thr 
American  Indians. — The  native  languages  of  the 
New  World  are  numbered  by  many  hundreds,  all 
differing  totally  in  their  vocabulary,  but  stUl  agre<  • 
ing  in  iSie  peculiar  grammatical  structure  which  haa 
given  the  name  of  Cicorporative  (see  above).  Theii 
area  is  fast  contracting,  and  they  seem  destiued  to 
disappear. 

IIL  Inflectional — This  order  consists  of  two 
families,  so  distinct  in  their  grammatical  framework 
that  it  is  impossible  to  imagine  a  language  of  the 
one  family  derived  from  one  of  the  other.  It  is  the 
peoples  speaking  these  languages  that  have  been 
the  leaders  of  civilisation  within  the  historic  period. 
The  subdivisions  of  these  families  will  be  best 
understood  from  the  accompanying  tables,  taken 
from  Max  Midler's  Lectures,  First  ^ies. 


Ko.  L  — GeNBALOOIOAL  TaBUE  of  THB  ABTAN  FAHILT  of  liAKGUAGia. 


{ 


Liviiio  Laxquaojis. 

IMiIeets  of  Indiii,    •       • 

the  Gipsies, 
Persia, 
Afghanixtan, 
Kurdistan,        • 
Bokhara,      • 
Armenia,  •        . 
OMethi, 
Wales,       . 
Brittany,      • 

Scotland, 
lr«lajid,     .        • 
Man,  • 

Portugal,  . 

Sp«iin,  . 
Pr.ivcnce, 
Jfianee,         . 
Italj,         •       • 
Walachla,     . 
theGilsona, 
Albania, 


Greecs,     •       •       • 

Uthnaoia,  • 

"I"        •        •       • 

Earland  and  Llronia,) 
(Lettish),  .       .    I 

BttlgAria,    .  • 

KuMtla  (Great,  Little,) 
White  Russian),     I 

Blrrla      (Slovenian,) 
Croatian,  Servian),) 

Poland, 

Bohemian  (Slovakian), 

Lusatia,        •       • 

Germany,         •       • 

"T"        •  •  •         • 

England,  .       .       • 
Holland,      .       •       • 
Frlesland,        •       • 
North    of  Germany) 
(Platt-Deutsch),    jP 
Denmark,  .       . 
Sweden,        •       • 
Norwav,    • 
JoeUnOf        •     ^« 


Dead  Lamouaocs. 

/ • V 

Prakrit   and    Pali —Modern    Sanscrit. —Yedic 

Sanscrit 

Parai—Pehlevi— Ganeilbrm  loBOriptioiis— Zend 


Old  Armenian 


Bbaschss. 


Classes. 
Indie 


Comiflli 


I  Gadhelio 


•Iranio 


4 

} 


Celtte 


Langue  d'oc 
Langue  d*oil 


Ungaa  Tolgaris 


Oscan 
Latin 
Umbrian 


Kttfii 


Dorio— .fioUo 
Attic— lonis 
Old  Proasian 


Italic 

]>IUyrte 
I  Hellenic 


Ecclesiastical  Slavonio 


lliettlc 


Old  Bohemian 
Puiabian 

Middle  High-German,  Old  ffigh-German 

Gothic 
Anglo-Saxon 
Old  Dutch 
Old  Friesian 

Old  Saxon 
Old  Hone 


Sonth-East 
Slavonic 


Weat-SlATonio 


•  Windlo 


I 

\  High-German  % 


Lovr-German 


>  Scandinavian 


-Teutonic 


S3 


> 

5. 


No.  n.— Genbalogioal  Tabli  of  THB  SEMino  Faiolt  of  Lanouagii. 


larao  LAHooAosSi 

Dialects  of  Arable,        • 

Amharic,  .       • 
+      .       . 

«         the  Jews, 
Neo-STfiac, 


DlAD  liAKOUAOm. 


Ethiopie 

Uimyaritic  Inscriptions 

Biblical  Hebrew 

Samaritan  Pantateneh  (Sd  c.  a.  i>.] 

Carthaginian,  PhoBnioiaa  Inseriptlonfl 

Chaldee  (Masora,  Talmud,  Targnm,  Biblical  Chaldaa) 

Syriac  (Pesbito,  2d  o.  a.  d.) 

Cunaiform  Inscriptions  of  Babylon  and  Mineveh 


Arabic 

or 
Southam 

Hebraic 

or 
Middle 

Arsmaic 

or 
Northern 


485 


PHILOMEL  A— PHILOSOPH  Y . 


PHI  LOHE'LA,  the  name  of  a  ])er8onage  in  Greek 
legend,  who  was  changed  according  to  one  account 
into  a  swallow,  to  another  into  a  nightingale.  Modem 
poets  are  (or  rather  were,  for  it  was  chiefly  an  18th 
a  fashion)  fond  of  calling  the  nightingale  by  its 
classic  name. 

PHILOP(£'MEN,  the  most  illustrions  patriot 
and  general  who  figures  in  the  later  history  of 
Greece,  belonged  to  one  of  the  best  families  of  Arca- 
dia, and  was  bom  at  Megalo|)olis  about  252  b.o. 
At  an  early  age  he  lost  his  father,  and  was  brought 
up  by  a  wealthy  citizen,  named  Oleander,  who  t^k 
care  tbat  he  should  receive  an  excellent  education. 
His  earliest  experiences  of  war  were  confined  to  the 
border  raids  of  the  Arcadians  into  Laoonia;   but 
in  222  B.a,  he  was  one  of  the  defenders  of  Megalo- 
polis against  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta.    Next  year, 
when  the  Macedonian  king  Antigonus  marched  to 
the  assistance  of  the  Achaeans,  P.  joined  him  at  the 
head  of  1000  horse,  and  contributed  materially  to 
the  terrible  defeat  which  the  Spartan  king  received 
at  SeUasia.     As  tranquillity  was  now  for  a  short 
time  restored  to  Greece,  P.  went  abroad  to  perfect 
himself  in  the  art  of  war,  and  served  in  Crete  with 
such  distinction,  that  on  his  return  to  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, in  210,  he  was  appointed  general  of  the 
Achaean  horse,  and  at  once  proceede4  to  discipline  his 
men  in  a  vigorous  and  masterly  style.    In  the  expe- 
dition against  Elis  (209)  he  slew  the  Elean  leader, 
Demophantus,  with  his  own  hand.     In  208  he  was, 
raised  to  the  highest  military  dignity  then  possible 
in  Greece,  being  elected  strategus  or  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  Achaean  League,  and  In  this  capacity 
signalised  himself  by  the  great  improvements  which 
he  effected  in  the  drill,  discipline,  and  armour  of 
the  Acluean  soldiery.    It  seemed  as  if  the  ancient 
heroism  of  the  land  were  reviving.    The  battle  of 
Mantineia,  which  took  place  in  the  course  of  the 
same  year,  and  in  which  the  Spartans  were  again 
utterly  routed — ^their  general  and  kin^  Machanidas, 
falling  by  the  sword  of  P.  himself — raised  him  to  the 
pinnacle  of  fame,  and  at  the  Nemean  festival  which 
fallowed  he  was  proclaimed  liberator  of  Greece. 
His  exalted  honours  did  not  in  the  slightest  degree 
disturb  the  integrity  of  his  character.    So  great  was 
his  influence  over  his  quarrelsome  countrymen,  that 
the  Macedonian  monarch,  Philip,  began  to  fear  that 
Greece  would  regain  its  independence,  and  tried  to 
have  him  secretly  assassinated;  but  the  infamous 
treachery  was  discovered  in  time,  and  its  only  effect 
was  to  endear  P.  still  more  to  the  Achaeans.  Another 
of  his  determined  enemies  was  Nabis,  successor  of 
Machanidas  in  the  'tyranny'  of  Sparta,  but  in  201 
he  inflicted  on  the  latter  a  severe  defeat  at  Skotetas 
on  the  borders  of  Laconia.    During  the  next  few 
yeaxs  he  was  absent  in  Crete,  partly,  it  would  seem, 
for  political  reasons,  but  returned  to  the  Peloponnesus 
in  ld4  to  And  matters  in  a  serious  condition.    A  new 
and  dreaded  pow^r — the  Romans— had  appeared, 
and  overthrown  both  Philip  and  Nabis,  and  P.  fore- 
boded future  mischief  to   all  Greece  from,  these 
ambitious  warriors.    On  the  departure  of  the  consul 
Flamininus,  Nabis  recommenced  hostilities  against 
the  Achseans ;  P.  was  once  more  appointed  strategus 
(192);  and  in  a  pitched  battle  nearly  annihilated 
the  troops  of  Nabis,  who  himself  was  shortly  after- 
wards killed  by  the  iEtolians.    He  now  exerted 
all  his  power  to  heal  the  divisions    among  the 
Achsans,   and   to  prevent    them   from    affording 
the  Komana  a  pretc^  for  taking  away  their  inde- 
pendence.   In   188,  he  took  a  fierce  revenge  on 
Sparta  for  having  put  a  number  of  his  friends  to 
death,  and  was  m  consequence  strongly  censured 
by  the  Roman  senate,  and  by  Q.  Csecihus  Metellus, 
who  was  sent  out  as  a  commissioner  to  Greece  in 

185.    Two  years  later  P.  (now  an  old  man  of  70) 
486 


was  elected  strategus  for  the  eighth  time.  When 
lying  lU  of  a  fever  at  Argos,  news  was  brought  to 
mm  that  the  Messenians  nad  broken  their  connec' 
tion  with  the  league ;  P.  instantly  rose  from  his  sick 
bed,  hastened  at  the  head  of  some  cavalry  to  qaell 
the  revolt,  but  was  overpowered  by  numDers,  and 
fell  into  the  hands  of  Democrates,  uie  leader  of  the 
Messenians,  who  two  nights  after  sent  him  a  cup  of 
poison,  which  P.  drank  off  and  died.  The  remains 
of  the  hero  were  brought  in  solemn  procession  to 
his  native  city — the  historian  lolybios  carrying  the 
urn — and  statues  were  erected  to  his  memory  by 
his  grateful  and  repentant  countrymen. 

PHILO'SOPHY.  This  word  meant  originally 
the  *love  of  knowledge,*  and  indicated,  therefore, 
a  special  taste,  appetite,  or  desire,  of  which  the 
subject-matter  was  kuowledge.  At  first,  man's  par- 
suit  of  knowledge  was  subservient  to  the  immeoiate 
uses  of  life ;  but,  in  the  course  of  time,  an  interest 
was  taken  in  knowing  the  order  of  the  world,  inde- 
pendent of  its  application  to  the  common  utilities. 
We  iind  that  this  stage  had  been  reached  in  Greece 
especially,  about  five  or  six  centuries  before  Christ ; 
at  which  time  the  name  *  philosophy'  took  its  lise, 
being  attributed  to  Pythagoras. 

The  word  has  had  a  variety  of  acceptations, 
although  all  pervadetl  by  the  one  idea  of  employing 
the  human  understanding  in  the  search  for  mcreas- 
in^  knowledge  and  certainty.  It  always  impUei 
this  effort  in  a  distinguished  degree,  such  as  omy  a 
few  persons  in  any  age  have  ever  been  able  to 
sustain,  llie  pursuit  of  knowledge  had  to  become 
an  end  in  itself,  for  the  mere  improvement  of 
practice  would  not  at  flrat  have  been  a  sufficient 
motive  for  men  to  undergo  the  labours  of  scientific 
inquiry.  Indeed,  this  improvement  was  not  at  all 
apparent  as  a  consequence  of  the  earliest  efforts  of 
s^ieculation.  As  one  celebrated  example,  the  inves- 
tigation of  the  properties  of  the  sections  of  the 
cone — ^the  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hyperbola— was 
without  any  practical  use  for  nearly  two  thousand 
years. 

As  may  be  readily  supposed,  the  precise  aim  of 
philosophy,  the  statement  of  what  constitutes  its 
end,  has  varied  with  the  advancement  of  its  study. 
In  modem  times,  the  pursuit  of  truth  has  taken  a 
well-defined  form,  expressed  by  the  name  Science 
(q.  v.).  But,  in  the  ancient  world,  this  operation 
was  a  mixture  of  speculation,  practice,  and  senti- 
ment— of  legitimate  inquiry  with  aspirations  after 
the  unattainable ;  and  hence  the  word  *  philosophv/ 
in  its  modem  employment,  often  refers  to  the 
subjects  that  have  not  as  yet  adopted  the  strict 
scientific  form.  On  this  view,  science  is  the  goal 
and  the  grave  of  philosophy.  (See  Lewes's  Biogra- 
phical History  of  Philosophy,)  It  is  chiefly  wiUi 
reference  to  morals,  metaphysics,  and  the  humaa 
mind  generally,  that  the  term  is  stiU  retained. 

The  characters  that  distinguish  the  highest  form 
of  truth  are  Generality  and  Certainty  or  precision ; 
and  in  proportion  as  a  subject  has  advanced  in  these 
respects,  it  might  be  said  to  have  become  philo- 
sophical, but  we  now  prefer  to  use  the  word  scientilic: 
The  theoretical  foundations  of  a  practical  subject, 
as  grammar,  are  sometimes  pretentiously  called  th# 

Ehilosophy  of  it.  So  any  department  of  nature  or 
umamty,  where  explanations  by  ceneral  laws  are 
f  umi^ed,  is  styled  *  philosophical  p  thus,  we  have 
the  philosophy  of  zoology  or  of  history,  and  a 
*  philosophical   naturalist  or  historian. 

Again,  after  definite  branches  of  knowledi^  have 
taken  a  scientific  shape^  and  have  been  reckone*!  at 
distinct  'sciences'  (mathematics,  &c.)  the  geivval 
principles  and  views  that  are  supposed  to  mo 
through  the  whole,  are  sometimes  called  *  f  faHo- 
Bophy?    This  was  one  of  the  meanings  of  the  word 


PHILOSOl^HY. 


in  Plata  The  great  work  of  Auguste  Comte  bases 
its  title  {Coura  de  PhUosophie  Positwe)  upon  tliis 
consideration. 

Professor  Ferrier  remarks  that  philosophy  is  not 
truth,  but  '  reawned  tmth  ;  *  that  is,  it  must  be 
tmth  presented  under  the  forms  and  processes  that 
evolve  and  establish  the  highest  or  scientific  know- 
ledge. This  is  merely  another  mode  of  stating  that 
philosophy  implies  a  special  procedure  for  attaining 
tmth,  the  ordinary  unregulated  operations  of  the 
understanding  being  insufficient. 

Among  the  oldest  problems  of  philosophy,  we  are 
to  reckon  the  attempt  to  generalise  the  imiverse, 
or  to  resolve  all  nature  into  some  great  unity,  or 
common  substance  or  principle.     Thales  considered 
Water  the  primordial  and  fimdamcntal  principle. 
Anaximandcr  adopted   as   the  foundation  of    the 
universe  something  called  by  him  the  Infinite  or 
Indeterminate,  out  of  which  the  various  definite 
substances,  air,  fire,  water,  &c.,  were  generated,  and 
to  which  they  were  again  resolved.    Anaximenes 
assumed  Air  as  the  primordial  substance,  which,  by 
rarefaction,  produced  fire  and  ether,  and  by  conden- 
sation, water,  earth,  and  stone.     These  three  philo- 
sophers all  belonged  to  the  Ionic  colony  of  Miietus. 
Pythagoras  was  an  emigrant  from  Ionia  to  Italy ; 
he  gave  Number  as  the  essence  and  foundation  of 
all  existing  things :    the  different  numbers  being 
representative  of  different  natural  properties  and 
powers  ;  thus,  fiv€  stood  for  colour,  six  for  life,  &c. 
Aenophanes  of  Kolophon  attacked  the  popular  poly- 
theism, and  propounded  one  great  indivisible  agency 
comprehendrng   and  identified  with  the  universe, 
which  he  womd  not  designate  as  finite  or  infinite, 
in  motion  or  at  rest.     Panneuides  of  £lea  distin- 
guished between  self-existent  being.  Ens,   or  the 
aljsolute,  characterised  by  extension  and  duration, 
and  phenomenal  nature,  the  region  of  inferior  cer- 
tainty, or  mere  opinion.    This  was  the  first  sketch 
of  what  has  since  been  called  Ontology,   or  the 
science  of  the  noumenon^  or  absolute  being.    Hera- 
kleitus   of   £i)hesu8    maintained  an  absolute  of  a 
t<>tally  different  character — a  princi})le  of  incessant 
Change,  the  negation  of  all  substance  and  stability, 
a  power  of  perj)etual  destruction  and  renovation. 
Empedocles  took  his  stand  u^ton  the  Four  BUements, 
oat  of  which  all  things  were   constituted  by  the 
action  of  the  op{x>sing  principles  of  love,  and  enmity 
or  discord — a  poeticu  representation  of  attraction 
and  repulsion.     Anaxagoras  also  treated  the  world 
as  made  up  of  elements,  but  indefinite  in  number. 
By  the  attraction  of  each  for  its  own  kind,  the 
primitive  chaos  was  separated,  but  excepting  '  mind,' 
no  el(>ment  ever  was  perfectly  pure,  the  character 
of  each  substance  being  determined  by  the  predomin- 
ance of  the  proper  element.    These  elements  were 
called  the  *  homoeomeries.*    Diogenes  of  Apollonia, 
the  last   of   the  series  called  Ionic    philosophers, 
adopted  in  a  modified  form  the  tenet  of  Anaximenes, 
that  Air  was  the  primordial  element.  The  celebrated 
Atomic  theory  originated  with  Leukippus,  but  is 
commonly  identified  with  his  pupil  Democritus  of 
Abdera.      The  elements  of  Anaxagoras  were  acted 
on  by  mind,  but  with  Democritus  their  activity  was 
inherent  in  themselves  from  the  begiiming. 

The  grand  problem  of  External  Perception  (see 
Pebception)  was  agitated  at  an  early  period,  and 
has  Ijeea  always  reckoned  a  leading  question  of 
philo80]>hy.  The  first  attempt  at  a  solution  was  an 
application  by  Democritus  of  his  atomic  hypothesis. 
He  supposed  that  all  things  were  constantly  throw- 
ing on  images  of  themselves,  which  enter  the  soul 
through  the  pores  of  the  organs  of  sense.  He  was 
aware  that  this  left  us  in  a  state  of  uncertainty,  as 
k»  whether  the  images  corresponded  to  the  otherwise 
unknown  originals. 


The  many  difficulties  and  uncertainties  incident 
to  the  search  for  knowledge,  coiUd  not  but  be  felt  by 
inquirers  generally.  Tiiorc  was  one  sect  in  par- 
ticular, moj'O  espeiiallv  impressed  by  this  circum- 
stance, and  hence  called  Sceptics,  or  Doubters.  They 
were  represented  in  antiquity  by  PyrrUo.  They 
dwelt  on  the  absence  of  any  sure  criteri(m  of  truth, 
and  pointed  out  that  what  was  considered  most 
certain  was  not  free  from  objections,  or  counter* 
arguments. 

Philosophical  speculation  began  to  take  definite 
shape  in  tiie  age  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  the  aoe  of 
the  beginnings  of  many  of  the  sciences.  Slore 
especially  at  this  time  do  we  find  the  distinct 
enunciation  of  the  Philosophy  of  Human  Life, 
otherwise  called  Moral  and  Ethical  Philosophy. 
The  questions  concerning  the  end  of  life,  the  pursuit 
of  happiness,  and  men's  duties  in  various  relation- 
ships, had  been  answered  by  a  sort  of  rule-of-thumb 
experience,  rather  than  by  deep  refiection  or  far- 
seeing  combinations.  The  distinctions  of  virtue  and 
vice  were  determined  by  politiczd  society,  and  con- 
nected more  or  less  with  religion.  There  were  tests 
and  maxims  of  conduct,  for  the  most  part  merely 
prudential  The  first  approach  to  a  moralising  strain 
IS  found  in  the  poems  of  Hcsiod.  He  combines  a 
gloomy  view  of  life  with  much  practical  wisdom, 
enjoining  iustice,  energy,  temperance,  and  simplicity 
of  living.  The '  Seven  W  ise  M  en,'  who  belonged  to  the 
6th  c  B.C.,  followed  in  the  same  course,  and  uttered 
a  variety  of  sayings  or  short  maxims,  of  which  the 
most  ordinary  subiects  were  *the  uncertainty  of 
human  things,  the  brevity  of  life,  the  unhappiness 
of  the  poor,  the  blessing  of  friendship,  the  sanctity 
of  an  oath,  the  force  of  necessity,*  &c,  togetlier  with 
the  simple  rules  of  prudence.  The  most  celebrated 
saying  of  this  age  was  the  Delphian  in6cri])tion  (of 
uncertain  authorship), '  Know  thyself.'  The  teach- 
ing of  the  Sophists  made  another  stage  in  the  history 
of  moral  philosophy.  They  oi)ened  up  discussions 
on  virtue,  on  justice,  on  the  laws,  and  on  happiness ; 
and  framed  hortatory  addresses  with  a  view  to 
moral  culture.  Socrates  then  came  forward,  and 
instituted  a  severe  logical  analysis  of  the  meaning 
of  ethical  tertus,  asking  'What  is  piety?  What  ia 
impiety?  What  is  the  noble  ?  What  the  base?  What 
is  just?  What  is  tem])erance?  What  is  madness? 
What  is  a  state  ?  What  constitutes  the  character  of  a 
citizen  ?  What  is  rule  over  man  ?  What  makes  one 
able  to  rule  ? '  The  rigid  search  after  strict  defini- 
tions of  these  terms  may  be  said  to  constitute  a 
philosophical  method  in  ethics,  and  hence  Socrates 
IS  called  the  first  moral  philosopher.  He  gave  tiie 
impulse  to  Plato,  his  successor,  who  in  his  turn 
acted  upon  Aristotle,  and  also  to  the  ojiposin^  sects 
of  the  Cynics  and  the  Cyrenaics— the  one  anecting 
a  hard  and  ascetic  life,  and  a  proud  superiority  of 
the  individual  will  to  all  outward  conventions  and 
customs;  the  other  avowing  pleasure  as  the  chief 
good,  sitting  loose  to  the  irksome  duties  of  l^e 
citizen,  and  in  despair  of  attaining  happiness,  sliding 
into  apathy.  The  Stoics  and  the  Epicmeans  afforded 
a  similar  contrast,  although  differently  expressed. 
The  Stoic  ideal  was  a  being  in  whom  the  natural 
impulses  and  desires  should  oe  absolutely  subjected 
to  nighly  abstract  views  of  the  universe :  the  Epi- 
curean ideal  was  a  being  moving  harmoniously 
according  to  natural  impulses — in  short,  following 
nature  up  to  the  limits  of  prudence. 

The  last  phase  of  ancient  philosophy  is  repre- 
sented by  Neo-Platonism  (q.  v.),  or  ^e  Alcxandiian 
school  In  the  middle  ages,  speciUative  fihilosophy 
took  the  form  called  Scholasticism  (q.  v.).  At  the 
revival  of  learning,  Descartes  and  Bacon  led  in 
opfxisite  directions,  the  one  representing  what  is 
called  d  priori  philosophising ;  tne  other,  Induction 

487 


PHILOSTRATUS— PHLEBina 


(q. v.).  From  this  time,  'philosophy'  comes  to 
mean  more  exclusively  the  inquiries  connected  with 
the  mind,  as  exemplined  in  the  writinjB;8  of  Hobbes, 
Locke,  Leibnitz,  Berkeley,  Hume,  field,  Kant,  ftc. 
The  qualified  phrase.  Natural  Philosophy  (in  the 
English  sense),  was  applied  to  a  special  department 
of  the  outer  world,  as  Mond  Philosophy  was  used 
in  connection  with  mind  and  the  discussion  of  moral 
duties.  The  chief  points  in  the  history  of  modem 
philosophy  will  be  found  under  the  heads  of  Gkr- 
HAK  Philosophy,  Eclecticism,  Guhhok  Sense, 
Perception,  Metaphtsigs,  Ethics;  and  in  the 
notices  of  Berkeley,  Locke,  Hume,  Reid,  Kant, 
Hegel,  Fichte,  Cousin,  Hamilton,  &c. 

PHILO'STRATUS,  the  Elder,  of  Lemnoe,  a 
famous  Greek  sophist  and  rhetorician,  was  bom 
probably  about  170 — 180  A.i>.,  studied  under 
rrodus  at  Athens,  and  finally  established  himself 
at  Rome,  where  he  became  a  member  of  the 
brilliant  and  learned  circle  that  gathered  round 
the  'philosophic'  Julia  Domna,  wife  of  Severus. 
He  was  alive,  accordmg  to  Suidas,  in  the  time  of  the 
Emperor  Phihp  (244 — 249).  He  is  the  author  of  a 
number  of  wono  stUl  extant,  and  not  without  value 
on  account  of  their  matter,  although  the  style  and 
arrangement  are  faulty.  Among  them  are  a  life 
of  Apollonius  (q.  v.)  of  Tyana,  a  description  of  a 
collection  of  paintings  at  Naples  under  the  title  of 
ImagiMs,  biographies  of  a  number  of  sophists, 
Iferotca,  Letters,  &C;  There  are  complete  eaitions 
of  his  works  by  Morel  (Paris,  1608) ;  Olearius  (Leipc 
1709);  and  Ka3rser  (Zur.  1844,  etaeq.),  of  which  the 
last  is  by  far  the  most  correct  and  critical. — Philoh> 
TRATDS  the  Younger,  called  Philostratus  the  Lem- 
nian,  also  a  teacher  of  elocution,  was  an  intimate 
friend,  jKrhaps  a  relative  of  the  former,  but  nothing 
is  known  with  certainty  regiurding  him. 

PHI'LTER,  PHILTRE  (Or.  philfran,  love- 
charm,  love-potion).  A  superstitious  behef  in  the 
efficacy  of  certain  artificial  means  of  inspiring  and 
securing  love,  seems  to  have  been  generally  i)revalent 
from  very  early  times  ;  and  among  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  (among  the  latter  in  the  lat^r  days  of  the 
republic,  and  under  the  emperors),  love-charms,  and 
especially  love-potions,  were  in  continual  use.  It  is 
not  certainly  known  of  what  these  love-potions  were 
composed — nor  can  we  rely  entirely  on  the  details 
given  us  on  this  subject  by  classic  writers,  and  their 
commentators  in  later  time— but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  certain  poisonous  or  deleterious  herbs  and  drags 
were  among  their  chief  ingredients,  to  which  other 
substances,  animal  as  well  as  vegetable,  are  said  to 
have  been  added,  coupled  with  the  employment  of 
magic  rites.  Thessalv  had  the  credit  of  producing 
the  most  potent  heros,  and  her  people  were  noto- 
rious as  the  most  skilfid  practisers  of  magic  arts, 
whence  the  well-known  'Thessala  philtra'  of 
Juvenal  (vi  610).  These  potions  were  violent  and 
dangerous  in  operation,  and  their  use  resulted  often 
in  the  weakemng  of  the  mental  powers,  madness, 
and  death,  instead  of  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  intended.  Lucretius  is  said  to  have  been 
driven  mad  by  a  love-potion,  and  to  have  died  by 
his  own  hand  in  consequence— though  the  story 
does  not  perhaps  rest  on  sufficient  authority;  and 
the  madness  of  the  Emperor  Cahgula  was  attributed 
by  some  persons  to  love-potions  given  him  by  his 
wife  Cassonia — by  which  also  she  is  said  to  have 
preserved  his  attachment  till  the  end  of  his  life.  In 
the  corrupt  and  licentious  days  of  the  Roman  empire, 
the  manufacture  of  love-charms  of  all  kinds  seems 
to  have  been  carried  on  as  a  regular  trade;  the 
purchasers,  if  not  the  makers  of  them,  being  chiefly 
women.  The  use  of  philters  seems  to  have  been 
not  unknown  during  tke  midrlle  ages ;  and  in  the 


East,  the  nurse  of  superstition  of  all  kinds,  belief  in 
the  power  of  love-potions  lingers  probably  down  to 
the  present  day. 

PHLEBE'NTERISM  is  a  term  invented  by  De 
Quatrefaj^  to  designate  an  anatomical  arrange- 
ment, existing,  as  he  supposed,  in  certain  ofuie 
nudibranchiate  molluscs,  and  characterised  h^  rami- 
fied prolongations  of  the  digestive  tube,  in  virtue  of 
which  the  digestive  apparatus,  to  a  certain  extent, 
supplies  the  place  of  a  complete  circulatory  appar- 
atus, and  aids  in  the  process  of  respiratioiL  The 
researches  of  Alder  ana  Hancock,  and  other  zoolo- 
gists, seem,  however,  to  shew  that  in  these  animali  the 
cireiUation  is  as  complete  as  in  the  gasteropodouii 
molluscs  generally,  ana  that  these  ramified  prolonga- 
tions are  of  the  nature  of  a  mdimentazy  hver.  For 
further  information  on  this  subject,  the  reader  is 
referred  to  De  Quatrefages's  RamJUes  of  a  NaturaMt 
voL  L  pp.  348—353. 

PHLEBI'TIS,  or  INFLAMMATION  OF  THE 
VEINS  (Gr.  phleb8^  a  vein),  although  seldom  an 
original  or  idiopathic  disease,  is  a  frequent  sequence 
of  wounds,  in  which  case  it  is  termed  trauimiic 
phlebitis  (hx>m  the  Greek  traumOn,  a  wound),  and  is 
not  uncommon  after  delivery.  The  disease  is  indi- 
cated by  great  tenderness  and  pain  along  the  coarse 
of  the  2U0fected  'esse!,  which  feels  like  a  hard  knotted 
cord,  and  rolls  under  the  fingers.  The  hardness  is, 
however,  sometimes  obscureaby  the  swelling  of  the 
limb  beyond  and  about  the  seat  of  the  disorder,  partly 
in  consequence  of  the  effusion  of  serum  caused  by 
the  obstruction  to  the  return  of  the  venous  blond 
(which  thus  giv^  rise  to  a  local  dropsy),  and  partly 
in  consequence  of  the  propagation  of  the  inflamina« 
tion  to  the  surrounding  tissues.  The  inner  surface 
of  the  inflamed  vess^  is  supposed  to  throw  out 
fibrinous  fluid,  which  coagulates  in  layers,  and 
finally  closes  the  tube.  Ii  the  vessel  is  amali, 
the  consequences  of  its  obstruction  may  be  of 
little  importance,  but  when  a  lai^  vein  is  affected, 
the  consequences  are  always  dangerous,  and  may  be 
fatal. 

There  are  two  modes  of  recovery  :  solution  of  the 
coagidated  fibrine  may  take  place,  and  the  vessel 
may  again  become  pervious ;  or,  as  is  more  com- 
monly the  case,  the  obstruction  may  continue,  bat  a 
collateral  venous  circulation  may  be  established,  and 
the  circulation  thus  carried  on  through  a  circuitooB 
route.  With  the  return  of  the  circulation— in 
whichever  of  these  two  ways  it  is  aocomplisbed- 
the  swelling  subsides,  and  the  patient  gradually 
recovers.  If,  however,  the  disease  advances,  sop* 
puration  takes  place  within  the  eoagulum,  and 
one  of  two  things  happens ;  either  a&cesse?  are 
formed  alon?  the  vein,  or  the  pus  gets  into  the 
current  of  blood  and  contaminates  the  circuhtion, 
giving  rise  to  the  perilous  disease  known  as  Pt^ft'S 
(q.  v).  Either  condition  is  dangerous ;  the  latter 
pre-eminently  sa 

Phlebitis  generally  originates  in  some  locid  injnty 
of  a  vein,  and  the  inflammation,  when  once  estah* 
lished,  is  readily  propagated  along  the  course  of  the 
vesseL  Sometimes  very  slight  injuries  give  rise  to 
it  It  occasionally  occurs  after  venesection,  esfeci- 
ally  with  a  dull  lancet,  or  one  soiled  by  contact  with 
diseased  matter.  Women  are  peculiarly  liable  to 
this  disease  after  delivery,  as  the  veius  of  the  womb 
are  apt  to  become  inflamed,  and  to  communicate  the 
inflammation  to  the  venous  trunks  connected  with 
them.    See  Phlegmasia. 

There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  ati  to 
the  treatment  to  be  pursued ;  some  high  authorities 
(Dr  Wood,  for  example)  recommending^  «the  very  free 
use  of  leeches  along  the  affected  vein,  and  that  they 
'should  be  repeated  over  and  over  again  if  Um 


PHLEBOLITES— PHOOAa 


symptoms  of  inflammatioii  shoold  penevere/  the 
■abeequent  application  of   cold   lotions,  and   the 
internal  nfle  of    mercury  'pushed  to  a  moderate 
salivation ;'  while  others  question  the  utility  of 
luch  treatment,  and  recommend  *  rest,  warm  fomen- 
tatioDS  and  poultices,  early  incision  of  abscesses, 
evacuation  of  bile  and  faeces  by  one  or  two  doses  of 
calomel,  opium  to  relieve  pain  and  insure  quiet  of 
mind  and  body,  and  wine,  especially  if  there  has 
been  great  loss  of  blood.' — Druitt's  Surgeon^s  Vade 
Ifecum,  8th  ed.,  p.  326.    The  latter  is  in  most 
cases  the  preferable  mode  of  treatment.    During 
coDvalescence,  the  patient  must  be  satisfied  if  the 
swelling  goes  down  slowly.    Time  is  required  for 
the  enlargement  of  the  veins  by  which  the  o  bilateral 
circnlation  is  to  be  carried  on ;  and  active  counter- 
irritation,  such  as  the  application  of  ointments  of 
iodine  or  mercury,  if  employed  incautiously,  fre- 
quently does  harm  ^y  increasing  the  inflammation. 
With  care,  however,  they  are  useful   appliances; 
and  if,  after  giving  them  a  fair  trial,  much  swelling 
should  remain,  the  practitioner  must  have  recourse 
to  carefuUy  regulated  bandaging,  and  the  use  of 
diuretics. 

PHLE'BOLITES  (Gr.  pMOs,  a  vein,  and  Utho9, 
a  stone)  are  calcareoius  concretions  formed  by  the 
degeneration  of  coagulations  in  veins,  or  occasionally 
orinnating  in  the  coats  of  the  vessel  They  are 
seldom  detected  till  after  death,  although  cases  are 
on  record  in  which,  occurring  in  subcutaneous 
veins,  thev  have  given  rise  to  external  tumours  of 
considerable  size. 

PHLEBOTOMY.    See  Bleedixo. 

PHLE'GETHON,  i.  e.,  the  Flaming,  a  river  of 
the  infernal  regions,  whose  waves  rolled  torrents  of 
fire.  Nothing  would  grow  on  its  scorched  and 
desolate  shores.  After  a  course  contrary  to  the 
Cocytus  (q.  v.),  it  discharged  itself,  like  the  latter 
stream,  into  the  Lake  of  Acheron. 

PHLEGMA'SIA  AXBA  DO'LBNS,  or  MILK- 
LEG,  is  &  disease  which  is  most  common  in  women 
after  parturition,  especially  if  they  have  lost  much 
blood,  but  sometimes  occurs  in  unmarried  women, 
and  oocasionally  in  males.  It  usually  commences 
about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  delivery  with  a  feel- 
ing of  pain  in  the  loins  or  lower  part  of  the  abdomen, 
whence  it  extends  to  the  min  and  down  the  thigh 
and  leg.  The  pain  soon  becomes  ver^  severe,  and 
principally  follows  the  course  of  the  mtemal  cuta- 
neous and  crural  nerve  of  the  thigh  and  of  the 
posterior  tibial  in  the  leg.  The  limb  soon  begins 
to  swell,  and  in  the  course  of  a  couple  of  days,  is 
sometimes  twice  its  ordinary  size,  and  as  the  swell- 
in^r  develops  itself,  the  acuteness  of  the  pain  con- 
siderably^ diminishes.  The  limb  is  partly  flexed,  and 
lies  motionless ;  any  movement  aggravates  the  pain. 
The  swelling  extends  uniformly  over  the  limb,  which 
k  pale  and  shining,  and  hot  and  firm  to  the  touch, 
seldom  pitting  on  pressiire.  The  femoral  vein  may 
usually  be  felt  Uke  a  hard  cord,  and  this  symptom, 
taken  with  the  swdUing,  clearly  indicates  that  this 
affection  is  essentiidly  crural  phUbitu.  The  uni- 
formity of  the  cord  is  intermpted  by  nodules,  arising 
either  from  inflamed  cellular  tissue,  or  from  olote 
within  the  vein.  Both  legs  are  seldom  attacked  at 
the  same  time,  and  the  left  thigh  is  the  most 
oommon  seat  of  the  disease. 

This  affection  usually  terminates  favourably,  the 
acute  symptoms  disappearing  in  about  ten  days  or 
a  fortnight.  The  swelling,  however,  often  continues 
for  a  long  time,  and  sometimes  lasts  for  life.  Very 
different  opinions  have  been  held  regarding  the 
nature  of  tnis  disease.  At  one  time,  it  was  con- 
sidered as  the  result  of  metastatic  secretion  of 
milk  (or,  in  otiier  words,  as  due  to  the  milk  lea>  ng 


the  breast,  and  settling  in  the  thigh,  and  hence  thu 
term  milk-leg).  There  is  now  no  doubt  that  the 
disease  is  inflammation  originating  in  the  veins  oi 
the  womb,  and  extending  to  those  of  the  lowet 
extremity.  The  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  Phle- 
bitis (q.  v.)  generally.  Wann  poppy  fomentations,  or 
bran  poultices  sprinkled  with  laudanum,  may  be 
applied  externally  at  the  beginning  of  the  attack, 
alter  which  flannel  saturated  with  a  liniment,  com* 
posed  of  one  part  of  laudanum  to  two  iiarts  of  soap 
liniment,  may  be  applied  round  the  Umb  in  the  form 
of  a  bandage,  applied  not  so  tightiy  as  to  occasion 
pain.  If  necessary,  the  bowels  must  be  gently 
opened  with  castor  oil,  and  opium  given  to  aUay 
pain  and  induce  sleep. 

PHLE'UM.    See  Tiuotht  Grass. 

PHLOGI'STON  (Gr.  combustible)  was  the  term 
employed  by  Stahl,  professor  at  Halle,  in  his 
Zymotechnia  Fundamentalist  1697,  to  designate  a 
hypothetical  element  which,  by  combining  with  a 
body,  rendered  it  combustible,  and  which  occasioned 
combustion  by  ite  disengagement,  there  being  left, 
after  its  evolution,  either  an  acid  or  an  earth.  In 
the  above-named  work,  he  maintains  that  the  pro- 
cesses of  obtainioff  sulphur  from  sulphuric  acid, 
and  of  procuring  uie  metals  from  their  earths  or 
calces^  are  analogous,  and  consist  alike  in  the  addi- 
tion of  his  ph]o|;iston.  Thus,  sulphur,  according 
to  the  phlogistic  theory — which  held  undivided 
sway  in  chemistry  until  the  time  of  Lavoisier,  who 
substituted  for  it  the  theory  of  oxygenation  (1775 
— 1781),  and  was  maintained  by  a  few  chemists, 
especially  Priestley,  till  the  beginning  of  the  present 
century — was  composed  of  sulphuric  acid  and  phlo- 
giston; lead,  of  the  calx  of  lead  and  phlogiston; 
&C.  In  consequence  of  the  general  adoption  of  the 
phlogistic  theory,  when  Priestley,  in  1774,  dis- 
covered oxygen,  and  when  Scheele,  a  little  laier, 
discovered  chlorine,  the  names  these  chemists  gave 
to  their  discoveries  were  dephlogisticaied  air  and 
dephiogisiicated  marme  acid.  According  to  modem 
views,  mainly  based  on  Lavoisier's  experiments,  the 
addition  of  oxygen  takes  place  in  the  formation  of 
acids  and  of  earths,  instead  of  the  subtraction  of 
phlogiston.  The  question  whether  the  process  was, 
m  fact,  one  of  addition  or  subtraction,  was  finallv 
decided  by  the  balance,  an  instrument  to  which 
chemistiy  owes  most  of  its  marvellous  progress 
during  the  last  three-quarteis  of  a  century. 

PHLOX,  a  ffenns  of  plants  of  the  natural  order 
PofemoaioMtB,  distinguisned  by  a  prismatic  calyx, 
salver-shaped  corolla,  and  unequal  filaments.  The 
species  are  pretty  numerous,  mostiy  perennial 
plants  with  sample  leaves,  and  mostiy  natives  of 
if  orth  America.  A  number  of  species  are  common 
in  our  flower-gardens.  This  has  of  late  become  a 
favourite  genus  with  florists,  and  many  very  fine 
varieties  have  been  produced. 

PHO'BEROS,  \  genus  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Flacourtiacece  or  Bixa^eece,  of  which  one  species, 
P.  Mundiiit  the  KUpdoom  of  the  Duteh  colomsts  of 
South  Africa,  although  only  20—30  feet  high, 
attains  a  diameter  of  l£ree  feet  or  more,  and  is  very 
useful  for  the  puriKwes  of  wagon-makers  and  honse- 
carpenters,  the  wood  being  hard  and  fine-grained ; 
another  South  African  species,  P.  Eckloniiy  the 
Roodpeer  oi  the  colonists,  has  a  hard,  heavy,  and 
fine-grained  wood,  used  by  cabinet-makers,  mill- 
wrights, &C. 

PHOCjSi'NA.    See  Porfoisb. 

PHO'OAS,  emperor  of  Constantinople  (602—610) 
was  a  Cappadooian  by  birth,  and  was  for  some  time 
groom  to  Priscus,  one  of  the  celebrated  generals  ot 
the  Emperor  Mauridus  (q.  v.).    His  brutal  courage 


PHOCIDiR-PH(ENIOIA. 


gained  him  a  neat  reputation  among  the  soldiers, 
and  though  omy  a  centurion  at  the  time  of  the 
revolt  against  Mauricius,  he  was  elevated  to  the 
throne  by  the  soldiers.  To  secure  himself,  he  caused 
Mauricius  to  be  murdered,  alouff  with  his  five  sons 
and  his  principal  adherents ;  and  then,  by  a  treaty 
disgraceful  to  the  empire,  got  rid  of  the  Avars. 
But  his  troubles  were  just  commencing,  for  Khusru 
IL  {q.  v.),  Shah  of  Persia,  hearing  of  the  death  of 
his  fnend  and  benefactor,  Mauricius,  an  event  which 
freed  him  from  the  obligation  of  amity  with  the 
Eastern  Empire,  took  up  arms  to  revenge  his  friend's 
murder,  and  to  recover  for  Persia  all  the  territories 
previously  under  her  sway.  The  war  was  fiercely 
carried  on  for  24  years,  during  the  first  18  of  which 
the  Persian  army  were  uniformly  successful,  and 
the  Byzantines  were  almost  completely  driven  out 
of  Asia.  See  Khusru  IL  and  Heraolius.  P. 
remained  in  the  capital,  to  overawe  his  turbulent 
subjects,  conscious  of  his  unfitness  to  command 
the  army;  and  abandoned  himself  to  his  animal 
appetites,  t5Tannising  over  the  ])eople  without  the 
least  regard  to  justice,  and  putting  to  death  whom- 
soever he  thought  dangerous,  among  others,  Narses, 
the  celebrated  general  in  the  former  Persian  war. 
Gonstantina,  the  widow  of  Mauricius,  excited  against 
the  tyrant  two  formidable  insurrections,  the  latter 
in  607,  but  both  were  speedily  quelled ;  and  the  ex- 
empress,  with  her  daughters,  were  beheaded  on  the 
same  spot  where  her  nusband  and  sons  had  been 
slain.  Her  principal  adherents,  some  of  whom 
were  among  the  highest  officers  of  state,  suffered 
death  under  the  most  horrible  tortures.  These 
cruelties,  and  the  successes  of  the  Persians,  had 
well-nigh  ruined  P.'s  power  and  influence.  But  he 
gave  the  coup  de  grdce  to  it  himself  by  insulting  his 
favourite  and  son-in-law,  Orispus,  who  had  remon- 
strated with  him  on  his  conduct.  Crispus  revenged 
himself  by  forming  a  conspiracy  against  him,  along 
with  Heraclius,  exarch  of  Africa — ^the  result  of 
which  was  the  overthrow  of  the  tyrant,  who  was 
taken  prisoner  (October  3, 610).  After  being  insulted 
and  tortured,  he  was  beheadecl,  and  his  body  dragged 
through  the  streets  by  the  mob. 

PHO'CIDiB.    See  Seal. 

PHO'OION  (Gr.  Phokidn)^  an  Athenian  general,  of 
noble  and  unselfish  character,  was  bom  about  the 
end  of  the  5th  c.  B.a  Clinton,  in  his  FaMi  Hellenid^ 
gives  the  date  402  B.a  He  was  of  humble  origin,  but 
appears  to  have  enjoyed  a  superior  education,  and  to 
have  studied  under  Plato,  Aenocrates,  and  perhaps 
Diogenes  also,  from  the  last  of  whom  he  may  have 
acquired  his  habit  of  indulging  in  caustic  sarcasm. 
P.  first  attracted  notice  in  the  great  searfight  at 
Naxos  (376),  where  he  commanded  a  division  of  the 
Athenian  fleet,  and  materially  helped  to  secure  the 
victory  for  his  countrymen.  Strange  to  say,  how- 
ever, we  scarcely  hear  of  him  again  for  more  than 
20  vears ;  but  in  351,  along  with  Evagoras,  he  under- 
took the  conquest  of  Cyprus  for  the  Persian 
monarch,  Artaxerxes  IIL  (Ochus),  and  was  com- 
pletely successful  About  the  same  time,  but  the 
exact  date  is  uncertain,  he  led  an  Athenian  expedi- 
tion into  the  island  of  Eubcaa,  where  Phihp  of 
Macedon  was  intriguing,  and  inflicted  a  severe  defeat 
on  that  ^werful  sovereign  at  TamynaB.  In  341,  he 
was  a^ain  successful  in  crushing  the  Macedonian 
party  m  Eubcea,  and  in  restoring  the  ascendency  of 
Athens.  Two  years  before  this,  he  had  achieved  a 
similar  result  at  Megara ;  and  in  340,  when  sent  to 
the  aid  of  the  Byzantines  against  Philip,  he  acted 
with  so  much  prudence  and  tact,  and  inspired  the 
citizens  with  so  much  zeal  and  courage,  that  PhUip 
was  forced  to    abandon  the   siege,  and    even  to 

evacuate  the  Chersonesus :  while  P.  captured  severed 
490 


of  his  ships  and  coast-garrisons,  besides  making 
havoc  of  a  good  deal  of  the  Macedonian  territory-. 
Nevertheless,  with  jiist  appreciation  of  the  real 
weakness  of  Greece  Proper,  and  of  the  strength  of 
Macedon,  he  advocated,  even  in  the  midst  of  his 
triumphs,  pacific  views,  and  the  establishment  of 
better  relations  with  the  enemy.  His  advice  was 
not  taken;  but  the  fatal  battle  of  Chaeronea,  only 
two  years  afterwards,  in  which  the  inde£>endeQC8 
of  the  Greek  republics  was  lost  for  ever,  proved 
its  soundness.  The  murder  of  Philip,  in  336,  occa- 
sioned the  greatest  exultation,  and  Demosthenes 
even  proposed  a  public  sacrifice  of  thanksgiving,  and 
the  establishment  of  religious  honours  to  the  memory 
of  the  assassin,  but  P.  resisted,  and  prevented  eo 
monstrous  a  proposal.  Henceforth,  his  career  is 
chiefly  political  We  see  him  struggHnc  at  Athens 
to  repress  what  appeared  to  him  the  re^less  desire 
for  war  on  the  part  of  the  fanatical  patriots,  on 
account  of  which  he  was  regarded  as  a  traitor,  bat 
his  personal  honour  is  above  suspicion.  After  the 
deatn  of  Alexander  in  323,  the  aged  P.  endeavoured, 
but  in  vain,  to  hinder  the  Athenians  from  going  to 
war  with  Antipater.  The  battle  of  Cranon,  next  year, 
which  prostrated  his  countrymen,  again  evinced  the 
wisdom  of  his  coimsels;  but,  though  very  unhand- 
somely treated  by  the  Athenians,  he  used  all  his 
uifluence  with  the  conqueror  (who,  like  Alexander, 
had  a  profound  respect  for  him)  to  mitigate  ibeii 
hardships.  After  the  death  of  Antipater,  P.  was 
involved  in  the  intrigues  of  Cassander,  the  rival  of 
Polysperchon,  and  was  forced  to  flee  to  Phods, 
where  Polysperchon  delivered  him  up  to  the 
Athenians.  He  was  condemned,  by  '  a  mixed  mob 
of  disfranchised  citizens,  foreigners,  and  slaves,* 
to  drink  hemlock.  His  body,  flung  unbuiied  over 
the  borders  of  the  state,  was  carried  by  some  <^ 
his  friends  to  Eleusis,  and  burned  there.  The 
Athenians  soon  began  to  raise  monuments  to  his 
memory.  His  life  nas  been  written  by  Plutarch 
and  Cornelius  Nepos. 

PHO'CIS  (Gr.  Phdkia),  a  province  of  Greece  Proper 
or  Hellas,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Ozolian  Lokn, 
on  the  N.  by  Doris,  on  the  E.  by  the  Opantian  Lokri, 
and  on  the  S.  by  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  It  was  about 
792  square  miles  in  extent  The  greater  part  of  the 
country  is  occupied  by  the  famous  mountain-range 
of  Parnassus  (q.  v.).  The  principal  river  is  the 
Cephissi^s.  According  to  tradition,  the  most  ancient 
inhabitants  were  the  Leleges,  Pelasgians,  and 
Thracians,  from  the  gradual  mixture  of  whom  the 
Phocians  were  believed  to  have  arisen.  These  were 
finally  united  into  a  free  federal  state,  which  derives 
its  chief  historica.1  importance  from  possessing^  the 
famous  oracle  of  Belpni  (q.  v.).  During  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  war,  the  Phocians  were  close  allies  of  the 
Athenians.  In  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  they 
were  involved  in  a  ten  years'  war,  on  account  of 
their  opposition  to  a  decree  of  the  Amphictyonio 
Council,  concerning  the  use  of  a  piece  of  land  belong- 
ing to  the  temple  of  Delphi  This  war,  commonly 
known  as  the  Sacred  or  Phocian  War,  ended 
disastrously  for  the  Phocians,  the  whole  of  whose 
cities  (22  in  number)  were  destroved,  with  one 
exception,  and  the  inhabitants  parcelled  out  among 
the  hamlets. 

PHOE'BUS  (L  a,  the  Bright  or  Radiant),  a  title, 
and  subsequently  a  name,  of  Apolla  It  had  refer- 
ence both  to  the  youthful  beauty  of  the  god,  aad  to 
the  radiance  of  the  sun,  when,  latteriv,  Apjllo 
became  identified  with  Helios,  the  sun-god 

PHCENPCIA  (Gr.  Pkoinike,  derived  either  from 
Phomoa,  purple,  or  PAotnia;,  palm-tree — both  desig- 
nations descriptive  of  the  chief  produce  of  the 
country;   the    Hebrew    term   Kenaaii,   Lowlau^ 


phce::icia. 


referring  to  its  physical  condition)  is  t)ie  name  ^ven 
by  tlie  Greeks  and  Romans  to  a  certain  territory 
situated  about  34"— 36''  N.  lat,  bounded   bv  the 
Mediterranean  on  the  W.,  by  Syria  to  the  N.  and 
£.,  and  Judaea  to  the  S.    £xcept  where  the  Meili- 
terranean  set  a   natural  boundary,  the   frontiers 
differed  widely  at  different  periods,  north,  south,  and 
cast,  according  to  the  gradual  rise  and  decline  of 
the  country.    Its  length  may  be  said  to  have  been 
about  200  miles,  while  its  breadth  never  exceeded  20 
miles,  making  a  total  of  about  2000  square  miles. 
We  may  here  mention  some  of  the  products  of  the 
soil,  the  exportation  of  which,  to  a  certain  extent, 
laid  the  foundation  of  her  greatness.     Pine,   iir, 
cy^iress,    cedars,    terebinths,    palm    and    fig-trees, 
sycamores,    olive-trees,    and    acacias,    crown    the 
heights ;  while  wheat,  rye,  and  barley  are  found  in 
the  lower  regions,  together  not  only  with  oi*dinaiy 
fruit,  but  also  with  apricots,  peaches,  pomegranates, 
almonds,  citrons,  sugar-cane,  grapes,  bananas — all 
growing  luxuriantly,  and  forming  a  forest  of  finely- 
tinted  foliage.      The  land  further  vields  silk  and 
cotton,    indiffo    and    tobacco ;    ana    the    modem 
inhabitants  <h  Shur,  like  their  forefathers  of  old, 
drive  a  profitable  traffic  with  the  produce  of  Mount 
Lebanon,  its  timber,  wood,  and  charcoal.    Flocks  of 
sheep  and  goats,  and  innumerable  swarms  of  bees, 
supply  meat,  milk,  and  honey.    The  sea  furnished 
shoals  of  fish,  and  molluscs  for  the  purple  of  Tyre. 
There  are  no  precious  metals  found  anywhere  in 
P. ;  bat  it  is  rick  in  iron,  and  the  stone-quarries  of 
Lebanon  were  already  worked  in  Solomons  time. 

The  (question  of  tne  origin  of  the  Phoenicians  is 
one  which  has  hitherto  not  been  solved  satisfac- 
torily.   Their  own  account,  as  preserved  by  Herod- 
otus, speaks  of  their  having  immigrated  from  the 
'  Sea  called  Erythra;*  a  report  further  confirm^  by 
another   passage  in  his  History,   and  by  Justin. 
Strabo  speaks  of  two  islands. in  the  Persian  Gulf, 
called  Tyros  or  Tylos  and  Aradus,  in  which  temples 
were  found  similar  to  those  of  the  Ph(i3nicians ;  aud 
the   inhabitants    of   these    cities    stated  that  the 
Phoenicians  had  left  them  in  order  to  found  new 
colonies.    The  Erythrean  Sea,  in  its  widest  sense, 
extends  from  the  eastern  shores  of  Egypt  to  the 
western  shores  of  India;  and  since  Genesis  calls 
Canaan,  the  founder  of  the  race,  a  descendant  of 
Ham,  not  of  Shem,  some  investigators  have  come  to 
the  conclusion,  that  the  Persian  or  Arabian  Gulf  is 
the  original  home  of  the  Phoenicians.    Against  this 
notion,    however,   weighty   argimients    have    been 
brought  forward,  both  from  the  genuine  traditions 
of    tne  people  itself,  as  preserved,  not  in  a  cor- 
rupted Greek  sha^,  but  in  their  myths,  in  the 
biblical  accounts,  m  their  language,  which  even 
in   its  very  oldest  remnants   (Canaan  =  Lowland ; 
Sidon  =  Fishing-place;  Giblites  =&  Mountain-people) 
18  porely  Semitic.    It  would  be  vague  to  speculate 
on  the  time  at  which  the  first  Phoenician  settlers 
entered  the  country :  as  vague  as  to  conjecture — the 
£rythrean  Sea  being  put  out  of  the  question  —whence 
they  came.  •  So  mu(m  seems  certain,  that  they  did 
not  enter  it  from  one  region,  but  from  several  sides, 
and  at  various  periods ;  and  that  only  very  gradually, 
in  the  course  of  long  pre-historio  centuries,  they 
grew  into   one   nationality,  embracing  the  tribes 
thAt  inhabited  the  sea-coast,  or  Phoenicia  Pro2>er, 
from  Sidon  to  Gaza,  and  the  cities  north  of  Sidonia. 
The  latter  term  induded  the  many  separate  states 
origioany  formed  hy  the  various  gentes,  who  again, 
originally,  had  thei/r  own  political  existence,  laws, 
anu     even    worshi}^.      Gradually,    however,    the 
larger  communities  extended  their  rules  over  the 
■znaller  ones,  or  rather  combined  with  them  for 
the  ffomation  of  a  more  imposing  and  imix>rtant 
■t«%te^  into  which  the  different  states  were  merged,  I 


without,  however,  giving  up  their  own  individual 
existence  or  cultus  entirely.  The  most  important  of 
these  special  tribes  or  states  were  the  inhabitants  of 
Sidonia — a  term,  however,  expressive  both  of  the 

inhabitants  of  the  city  and  of  the  whole  country 

the  Tyiians,  whose  settlement,  according  to  their 
own  traditions,  was  prior  to  any  other  Phoenician 
settlement  (a)x)ut  2750  b.  c.)  ;  and  Aradus,  founded, 
according  to  the  native  traditions,  by  Arvadi,  *  the 
brother  of  Sidon.]  From  these  three  tribes— of  the 
Sidonians  collectively— are  to  be  distin^ished  the 
Giblites  with  their  two  sovereignties  of  Byblus  and 
Berytus,  who  differed  in  many  respects  from  the 
former,  and  who,  it  may  be  jjresumed,  formed  at 
first  the  ruling  state  of  P.,  until  they  were  brought 
under  Sidonian  dependency.  Several  smaller  tribes 
or  states  are  mentioned  in  Scripture— Arke,  Sin, 
Haraath,  &c. — ^but  little  is  known  about  them. 

Of  the  government  and  Internal  constitution  of 
these  states  or  cities,  we  know  next  to  nothing. 
There  were  hereditary  monarchs  ruling  over  Sidon, 
Tyrus,  Byblus,  Berytus,  and  Aradus,  for  whose  con- 
firmation, however,  the  assent  of  the  people  was 
necessary  in  all  cases.    By  the  side  of   the  king 
stood  a  powerful  assembly,  composed  of  represen- 
tatives of  the  old  aristocratic  families  of  the  land, 
whose  numbers  differed  at  various  periods.    When 
Tripolia  was  founded  by  Tjttis,  Sidon,  and  Aradus, 
as  a  place  of  joint   meeting  for  their  hegemony, 
every  one  of  these  cities  sent  100  senators  to  watch 
her  special  interests  at  the  common  meeting  ;  and 
the  senate  of  Sidon  seems,  in  the  4th  o.  ilc,  at  least, 
to  have  consisted  of  500—600  elders,  some  of  whom 
were  probably  selected  more  for  their  wealth  than  for 
their  noble  Imeage.    The  king  sometimes  combined 
in  his  i)er8on  the  office  of  hi^-priest.     The  turbu- 
lent seething  mass  of  the  people,  consisting  of  the 
poorer  famUies  of  Phoenician  descent,  the  immi- 
grants of  neighbouring  tribes,  the  strangers,  and  the 
whole  incongruous  mass  of  workmen,  tradespeople, 
sailors,  that  must  have  abounded  in  a  commercial 
and  maritime  nation  like  the  Phoenicians,  and  out 
of  whose  midst  must  have  arisen  at  times  influential 
men   enough — was   governed,    as   far    as   we   can 
learn,  as  'constitutionally'  as  possible.     The  unruly 
spirits  were  ^ot  rid  of  in  Komau  fashion  somehow 
in  the  colomes,  or  were  made  silent  by  important 
places  being  intrusted  to  their  care,  under  strict 
supervision  from  home.    Only  once  or  twice  do  we 
hear  of  violent  i>opular  outbreaks,  in  consequence 
of  one  of  which  it  was  mockingly  said  that  P.  had 
lost  all  her  aristocracy,  and  what  existed  of  Phoeni- 
cians  was  of  the  lowest  birth,  the  offspring  of 
slaves.    As  the  wealth  of  all  the  world  accumulated 
more  and  more  in  the  Phoenician  ports,  luxury,  and 
too  great  a  desire  to  rest  and  enjoy  their  wealth  in 
peace,  induced  the  dauntless  old  pirates  to  intrust 
the  guard  of  their  cities  to  the  mariners  and  mer- 
cenary soldiers,  to  Libyans  and  Lydians — '  they  of 
Persia  and  of  Lud  and  of  Phut,'  as  Ezekiel  has  it ; 
although   the    wild    resistance   which    this   small 
territory  offered  in  her  single  towns  to  the  enormous 
armies  of  Assyria,  Babytonia,  and  Greece,  shews 
that  the  old  spirit  had  not  died  out. 

The  sources  for  the  early  Phoenician  history 
are  of  the  scantiest  descripuon.  Of  the  annals 
and  state  documents  which  filled  the  archives  of 
every  large  city,  nothing  has  survived  except  a  very 
doubtful  rrcord,  which  Sanchuniatho  (q.  v.)  is  said 
to  have  compUed,  about  1250  B.G.,  in  Phoenician  from 
official  documents,  and  which  was  translated  into 
Greek  by  Philo  of  Byblus,  and  a  frs^ment  of  which 
is  preserved  by  Eusebius.  The  Bible,  principally 
Ezekiel,  Menander  of  Ephesus,  and  Dius,  a  Phoe- 
nician, who  wrote  the  history  of  Tyre  from  Tyriau 
annals,  fragments  of  which  are  ezUmt  in  Josephoa 


PHCENICIA. 


and  SynceUos,  Herodotus,  Diodoma,  Justinus,  and 
others,  together  with  a  very  few  notes  scattered 
throiijghout  the  Church  Fathers,  contain  the  sum 
of  all  our  information.  Four  great  periods,  how- 
ever, are  clearly  distinguis?  able  in  the  history 
of  ancient  Phoenicia.  "Die  drst  would  comprise 
the  earliest  beginnings  and  the  gradual  development 
of  the  single  states  and  tribes,  from  their  immigra- 
tion to  the  historical  time  when  Sidon  began  to  take 
the  lead,  or  about  1500  B.  c.  The  second  period 
dates  from  the  conquest  of  Palestine  by  the  Hebrews. 
Sidon  had  then  become  already  the  'first-bom  of 
Kanaan,*  as  Genesis  has  it,  or  *  Sidon  Kabbah,'  the 
Great  Sidon.  The  flourishing  state  of  its  commerce 
and  manufactures  appears  likewise  from  several 
passages  in  Homer.  The  silver  vase  proposed  by 
Achilles  as  a  prize  in  the  funeral  games  in  honour 
of  Patroclus,  was  a  work  of  the  *SKiIfuI  Sidonians ; ' 
the  garment  Hecuba  offers  as  a  propitiatory  gift 
to  Minerva  was  the  work  of  Sidonian  women.     The 

fold-edged  silver  bowl  given  to  Telemachus  by 
lenelaos,  Hephaistos  had  received  from  the  kine 
of  the  Sidonians.  Ulysses  is  left  on  the  island  of 
Ithaca  by  the  Phoenicians,  who  sail  away  to  *  well- 
pneopled  Sidonia.'  The  gradual  ascendency  of  the 
rival  city  of  Tyre  marks  the  beginning  of  the 
third  period,  in  which  P.  reaches  the  hei^t  of  its 
power,  in  which  her  shi|)8  covered  aU  the  seas,  her 
commerce  embraced  the  whole  earth,  and  her  innu- 
merable colonies  flourished  far  and  near.  The  first 
historically-recorded  item  of  Tyre's  activity  is  her 
foundation  of  Gades,  a  few  years  before  that  of  Utica, 
in  1100  B.  a  The  reason  of  the  sudden  greatness 
of  Tvre  is  to  be  found  in  the  defeat  of  the  Sidonians 
by  tne  king  of  *  Askalon ' — a  term  probably  meant 
to  represent  the  whole  pentapolis  of  Philistia — 
about  the  year  1209;  in  consequence  of  which, 
the  principal  families  of  Sidon  *  emigrated  in  their 
ships  to  Tyre,  which  [viz.,  the  Island-city]  they 
founded.*  In  the  11th  c,  in  the  time  of  Samuel, '  the 
priuces  of  the  Tyrians '  are  already  spoken  of  instead 
of  the  Sidonians,  as  the  representatives  of  Phoenicia. 
During  the  reigns  of  David  and  Solomon — under 
Hiram  (980 — ^917) — the  friendliest  relations  existed 
between  the  two  nations :  both  in  the  full  bloom 
of  their  power.  Each  country  needed  what  the 
other  could  supply.  Hence  tiieir  close  alliance, 
which  led  even  to  common  commercial  enterprises 
in  ships  built  by  Solomon,  the  supercargoes  of 
which  belonged  to  him,  while  the  mariners  and 
pilots  were  Hiram's. 

By  this  time,  Phoenician  colonisation  had  reached 
its  utmost  extent.  In  the  space  of  three  centuries 
(1300—1000),  the  Phoenicians  had  covered  all  the 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean  with  their 
forts,  their  factories,  and  their  cities ;  and  their  ships, 
which  ploughed  the  main  in  all  directions,  every- 
where found  their  own  ports.  They  had  colonised 
Cyprus,  thus  commanding  the  waters  of  the  Levant 
and  the  coasts  of  Syna  and  Oilicia.  Kithion, 
Amathus  (Hamath),  Karpasia,  Paphos,  with  its 
magnificent  temple  of  Ashera,  Keryneia,  and 
Lapothos,  were  some  of  their  principal  settle- 
ments in  those  regions.  Northward,  on  the  coast 
of  Cillcia,  they  founded  the  cities  of  Myriandros, 
Tarsos,  and  Soloi.  Migrating  to  the  went,  they 
took  possession  of  Khodes,  Crete  (cf.  the  Myth  of 
Zeus  and  Europe),  Melos,  Thera,  Oliaros  (near 
Paros),  and  Cythera,  on  the  coast  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. To  the  east  of  the  iSgean,  we  find  them  at 
Erythrse,  and  further,  as  masters  of  the  islands  of 
Samothrace,  Lenmos,  and  Thasos  with  its  wealth 
of  gold  mines.  The  ^gean  Sea,  with  all  its 
islands,  being  in  their  hands,  they  sailed  thence 
further  west,  to  Sicily,  where  they  settled  at 
Motye,  on  the  extreme  west  point;  founded  Bos 

4921 


Melkarth,  in  the  south  (Heraclea  Minoa) ;  in  the 
north,  Machanath  (Panormos,  Palermo),  and  further, 
Melite  (Malta)  and  Gaulos.  They  owned  Caralia 
(Cagliari)  in  Sardinia,  Minorca,  Iviza  (Ebosos), 
Elba;  on  tiie  opposite,  or  African  coast,  Hip|)0, 
Utica,  Hadrumetum,  Leptis,  and  some  minor  islaad 
states.  From  Sardinia  and  Minorca,  the  indefa- 
tigable mariners  went  still  further  west— throui^h 
the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  to  Tarshish  (the  Califoraia 
of  those  days)  or  Spain,  where  they  founded  Gadeir 
or  Cadiz,  and  in  the  south,  Karteja,  Malaka,  and 
Abdarach.  From  here,  having  colonised  weU-ni^h 
the  whole  of  the  Si)anish  coast,  they  went  north- 
wards to  the  tin  islands  (Scilly  Isles),  and  to 
Britain  herself.  And  while  they  thus  explored  the 
regions  of  the  Atlantic,  their  alliance  with  the 
Hebrews  had  permitted  them  to  find  the  way  to 
the  Indies  by  the  Red  Sea. 

The  impulse  given  to  industry  and  the  arts  by 
this  almost  unparalleled  extension  of  their  com- 
mercial sphere,  was  enormous.  Originally,  exporteis 
or  traders  only  for  the  wares  of  Egypt  and  Assyria, 
they    soon    began    to    manufacture    these  wires 
themselves,    and    drew    the    whole     world    into 
their  circle  of  commerce.      As  to    the  early  and 
most  extensive  commercial  intercourse  between  P. 
and  Greece  and  her  colonies,  nothing  can  be  more 
striking  than   the  circumstance  of  nearly  all  the 
Greek  names  for   the  principal  objects  of  oriental 
commerce    being   Phoenician,  or  rather  Semitic- 
identical  almost  with  the  terms  found  in  the  Old 
Testament     Thus,  of  spices — ^myrrh,  cassia,  cinna- 
mon, galbanum,  narde,  aloe,  crocus,  nitron,  balsam, 
kc ;    of    jewels    and    precious    stones,    sapphire, 
jasper,  smaragdos ;  of  fine  materials,  and  garments, 
byssus,    karpasos,    sindon,     &c;    musical    instrQ- 
ments — ^nabla,    tympanon,  sambyke,    &c. ;  oriental 
plants,    vessels,    and    even   writing    implements. 
The   wealth   of   silver,    iron,  tin,    and    lead  was 
chiefly  got  from  Tartessus.    The  descriptions  of  the 
abundance  of  precious  metals  there  verge  on  the 
fabidous.     Thus,  the  Phoenicians  are  supposed  to 
have   made  even  their    anchors    of    silver,  wh^ 
they  first  discovered  the  country,  not  knowing  hov 
to  stow  away  all  the  silver  in  their  veaseL    what 
must  have  been  the  state  of  these  mines  is  clear 
from  the  fact,  that,  even  in  the  Roman  time,  40,000 
men  were  constantly  employed  as  miners,  and  the 
state  received  a  clear  revenue  of  20,500  drachms 
daily.     The  *  Fortunate  Islands,*  which,  according 
to  Diodorus,  they  discovered  after  many  days'  sailm^^ 
along  the  coast  of  Africa,  beyond  the  Strait  of  Her- 
cules, and  which,  to  judge  from  the  name  Purpur&ria 
given  to  some  islands  off  the  coast  of  Mauritania, 
would  seem  to  have  been  the  Canaries,  yielded 
them  the  shell-fish    purpura^  so  useful  for  th«ir 
dyeing    manufactories.      Besides    th^    wholesale 
commerce  carried  on  by  fleets  and  caravans,  they 
also  appear  to  have  gone  about  the  interior  of  Syria 
and   Palestine,    retailing    their    home    or   for^agn 
produce. 

Although  the  Phoenicians  were  erroneously  be- 
lieved, by.  the  western  tribes,  to  manufacture  all 
the  wares  in  which  they  dealt  themselves,  yet  no 
inconsiderable  number  of  them  was  really  their 
own  work.  None  of  their  manufactures,  howevtr, 
stood  in  80  high  repute  throughout  antiquity  as  the 
purple  dye  prepared  from  the  muricids,  a  snell-fiah 
of  its  coast ;  and  none  excelled  more  in  it  than 
the  Tyrians.  Purple  was  an  almost  indispensable 
luxury  of  antiquity,  particularly  in  Asia.  In  temples 
and  palaces  for  gods  and  men,  purple  garments, 
hangings,  curtains,  and  veils  were  needed;  and 
Alexander  the  Great  found  in  Susa  alone  a  store 
of  piirple  worth  5000  talents.  Sidon's  principal  pro- 
duction was  glass — invented  there^  it  was  said,  by 


PHOENICTA- 


Aocident;  bat  probably  the  invention  was  derived 
Erom  Egypt,  wnere  it  was  in  use  long  before ;  the 
Phoenician  glass,  however,  was  always  supposed  to 
be  the  best  The  Sidonians  knew  the  use  of  most  of 
onr  own  contrivances — the  blowpipe,  the  lathe,  and 
the  graver.  Hardly  less  p*eat  was  the  fame  of  Phoe- 
nician  metallurgy.  Their  mining  operations  in  the 
Lebanon  and  C5l>ru8,  where  they  dug  for  copper; 
in  Thasos,  where,  according  to  Herodotus,  th^ 
overturned  a  whole  mountain  in  searching  for  gold ; 
but  more  particularly  in  Iberia,  where  at  first  silver 
was  so  abundant,  that  hardly  any  labour  was  re- 
quired to  obtain  it — were  stupendous;  and  the 
minute  description  of  the  mining-process  contained 
in  Job  (chap.  xxviiL  1 — 11)  has  probably  been  derived 
from  a  sight  of  Phoenician  mining-works.  That 
they  well  understood  how  to  work  the  metals  thus 
gained,  has  been  observed  already.  The  art  of 
founding  brass  must,  indeed,  have  reached  a  high 
perfection  to  enable  Hiram  Abif  to  execute  such 
works  for  Solomon's  Temple  as  they  are  described 
in  the  Bible.  No  less  were  they  familiar  with  the 
art  of  imitating  precious  stones,  and  colouring  glass 
by  means  of  metallic  oxides.  To  Sidon  is  turther 
attributed  the  pre-eminence  in  the  glyptic  and  plas- 
tic arts ;  and  the  artists  sent  by  Hiram  to  Solomon 
were  skilful  workers  in  gold  and  silver,  in  brass,  in 
iron,  in  purple  and  in  Hue,  in  stone  and  in  timber, 
in  fine  linen,  and  the  engraving  of  precious  stones. 
Their  architecture  seems  to  have  b^n  of  a  Cyclo- 
pean nature.  Their  vessels,  originally  simple  rafts, 
gradually  develop^ — with  the  aid  of  the  jLebanon, 
which  afforded  inexhaustible  supplies  of  timber, 
and  Cyprus,  which  jx>sse8sed  all  the  materials 
necessary  for  fitting  up  a  ship,  from  the  keel  to 
the  sails — into  a  fiiit-rate  fleet,  consisting  of  round 
8hii)s,  or  gauli,  for  short  or  coasting  voyages ;  war- 
^alleys,  or  triremes;  and  fifty-oared  craft,  long 
m  build,  and  adapted  for  rapid  sailing  or  rowing. 
The  internal  arrangement  of  these  vessels  was 
perfect,  and  excited  the  wonder  and  admiration  of 
the  Greeks,  by  th^ir  being  so  splendidly  adapted  at 
once  for  navigation,  freight,  and  defence.  Their 
extraordinary  three  years'  voyage  of  discovery, 
undertaken  in  the  service  of  Kecho,  round  Africa, 
going  out  of  the  Red  Sea,  and  returning  by  the 
way  of  the  Strait's  mouth,  is  as  well  known  as 
their  voyages  in  the  service  of  Solomon. 

The  golaen  age  of  P.,  duriiig  which  her  colonies, 
her  manufactures,  and  her  commerce  were  in  this 
most  brilhant  phase,  seems  to  have  waned  simul- 
taneously  almost  with  that  of  Judse^L  As  Solomon 
in  the  latter,  so  does  Hiram  in  the  former,  mark 
the  end  of  that  peace  and  happiness  which  had 
made  their  countries  rich  and  glorious,  as  no 
other  country  of  their  day.  According  to  a 
fragment  preserved  in  Menander,  Hiram  was  fol- 
lowed by  his  son  Baleastartus,  who  died  after  a 
short  reign  of  seven  years,  in  940  a  c,  and  a  I'^ng 
•erics  of  pohtical  calamities  and  civil  wars  ensuea 
The  last  of  Hiram's  sons,  Pheletus,  fell,  in  898, 
by  the  hands  of  Ithobaal,  the  priest  of  Astarte,  into 
-whoBe  family  now  passed  the  kingdom  of  Tyre.  He 
is  the  Ethbaal  mentioned  in  Scripture  as  the  father 
of  Jezebel,  and  father-in-law  of  Ahab ;  and  a 
peculiar  coincidence  is  the  simultaneous  mention 
of  the  three  years'  drought  in  Judiea  (to  which  an 
end  was  put  by  Elijah's  prayer)  and  in  P.,  where 
relief  was  obtained  by  Ithobaal,  who  seems  to  have 
stood  in  the  odour  of  sanctity.  It  was  during 
tills  unhappy  period  that  the  celebrated  Elissa, 
better  known  as  Queen  Dido  (q.  v.),  fled,  together 
-with  some  of  the  most  aristocratic  families  of 
Sidon,  to  Libya,  where  they  founded  a  new  city 
(Kartachadata  a  Carthage),  near  the  spot  of  an 
ikncient  Sidonian  settlement,  about  813  B.a    The 


fourth  and  last  period  of  Phoenician  history  may  be 
dated  from  the  middle  of  the  8th  c,  when  Shal- 
maneser,  the  king  of  Assyria,  invaded  P.,  and 
besieged  Tyre  for  five  years,  but  without  result; 
and  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  peace 
concluded  at  the  end  of  this  period  was  very 
favourable  to  Tyi-e.  But  soon  afterwards,  P.  wae 
drawn  into  the  struggle  for  the  supremacy  then 
raging  between  ChMoiea  and  Eg^'pt,  and  was 
conquered  bv  the  former  power.  A  further 
calamity^  befel  P.  at  the  hand  of  Pharaoh- Apries, 
who  anticipated  Nebuchadnezzar's  intended  attack 
on  Egjrpt  bv  destroying  the  Phoenician  fleet, 
conquering  the  country,  and  pillaging  it  These 
calamities  produced  a  series  of  mternal  troubles,  in 
consequence  of  which  the  constitution  was  con- 
stantly changed ;  and  we  hear  now  of  a  series  of 
kings,  and  now  of  provisional  suffeles—dSi  their  respec- 
tive reigns,  however,  being  of  very  brief  duration. 
From  that  time  forward,  and  even  before  the  special 
histories  of  Sidon  and  Tyre,  which  alternately  pos- 
sessed themselves  of  the  hegemony  of  Phoenicia, 
constitute  also  the  history  of  the  country  itself,  and 
to  these  two  cities  we  refer  for  what  momentous 
events  took  place  in  the  latter  days  of  the  once 
mighty  empire.  The  battle  on  the  Issus  terminated 
even  the  shadow  of  P.'s  independent  existence,  and 
it  shared  the  fate  of  Alexander's  vast  empire.  la 
65  B.a  it  became,  under  Roman  dominion,  part  of 
Syria,  and  has  since  shared  her  fate  for  good  or 
evil    See  Syria,  Sidojs,  Tyre,  Carthage. 

Rdigioru — With  regard  to  the  Religion  of  the 
Phoenicians,  its  real  character  has  as  vet  been 
imperfectly  expiscated.  Deprived  of  all  original 
and  direct  information  on  the  subject,  we  have  to 
crull  what  scanty  notices  we  may  from  the  works 
of  Greek  and  Latin  writers,  or  to  gather  knowledge 
from  some  vague  allusions  contained  in  the  Bible. 
Not  a  scrap  of  native  literature  has  been  allowed  to 
survive;  and  the  supposed  extracts  from  a  Greek 
version  by  Philo  of  Sanchuniatho's  Phoenician 
works,  which  we  find  in  Eusebius — hitherto  our 
chief  source  of  information— must  be  used  with 
more  than  an  ordinary  degree  of  caution.  See  San- 
OHUNIATHO.  We  shall  therefore,  without  entering 
into  futile  speculations,  confine  ourselves  to  a  few 
general  and  well  ascertained  facts  ;  premising,  how- 
ever, that  Phoenician  theology  is  far  from  being  a 
hopeless  province,  whatever  it  may  appear  now. 
Excavations  are  on  foot  in  all  directions,  both 
in  the  mother-country  and  in  the  colonies,  and 
new  discoveries  are  being  brought  to  light 
constantly. 

The  reUgion  of  the  Phoenicians  wns,  like  all  ancient 
Semitic  religion**— except  that  of  the  Hebrews 
— a  kind  of  pant^icistic  worship  of  nature.  While 
Monotheism,  with  the  descendants  of  Abraham, 
assumed  a  supreme  power  within  nature,  which, 
according  to  its  own  free  will,  creates  and  destroys, 
the  rest  of  the  East  assumed  a  Dualism :  two  elements, 
a  male  and  a  female ;  or  two  highest  deities,  one  of 
whom  begets,  and  has  the  power  to  destroy,  and 
the  other  conceives  and  bears.  These  two  supreme 
beings  were  sometimes  merged  in  one  deity,  with 
male  and  female  attributes,  which  spread  out  into 
immense  ramifications :  representatives  now  of  the 
general  powers  of  nature,  now  of  the  particular 

Ehenomena  in  nature,  or  the  Ufe  of  men.  They 
ad  deities  who  ruled  over  the  stars,  the  elements, 
the  seasons;  over  special  localities,  or  over  cer* 
tain  phases  of  life.  No  nation  of  antiquity  per- 
haps possessed  a  more  endless  pantheon  than  the 
Phoemcians:  a  circumstance  easily  explained  by 
their  peculiar  position  and  relations.  Cousistina 
originally  of  a  variety  of  tribes,  each  of  whom  haa 
had  their  own  special  deities — although  the  supreme 


FHCENICIA. 


Jfumen,  or  the  principle  of  their  chief  Deity,  was 
probably  the  same  witn  all — ^those  Phoenicians  who 
dwelt  in  the  north  differed  in  some  respects,  snch 
as  the  names  and  attributes  of  certain  gods, 
from  those  of  the  south.  Besides  this,  it  must 
not  be  forgotten  that  the  period  of  Phoenician 
history  ranges  over  2000  years,  and  their  political 
career,  as  well  as  their  commerce,  brought  them  in 
close  and  constant  contact  with  nearly  all  the  civil* 
ised  nations  of  the  then  known  world ;  and  being 
both  superstitious  (as  sailors  and  traders  are  prone 
to  be),  and  possessed  of  an  adaptability  to  which 
partly  they  owed  their  success  in  other  respects, 
they  easily,  if  not  greedily,  received  into  their 
wide  pantheon  those  who,  albeit  the  special  national 
gods  of  others,  or  because  of  this  very  reason, 
could  either  harm  or  benefit  them.  It  may  be  also 
that  a  certain  easy  nonchalance  about  these  thincs, 
such  as  the  wealthy  and  aristocratic  classes  dis- 
played in  ancient  Kome  and  elsewhere,  and  the 
mterest  of  the  priests,  who  received  very  consider- 
able tithes  of  every  sacrifice  (oddly  enough,  our 
information  on  that  point  leaves  nothing  to  be 
desired),  went  hand  in  hand  to  favour  the  gradual 
introduction  of  as  many  gods  and  goddesses  as 
pleased  the  herd.  Their  proper  divisions,  however, 
their  real  names  and  derivations,  and  the  historv 
and  time  of  their  nationalisation,  are  things  which 
will  for  ever  continue  to  puzzle  investigators. 

Setting  aside  such  more  or  less  vague  and  unde- 
fined names  of  deities  as  were  common  to  the 
whole  Semitic  stock,  and  as  they  are  found  in  the 
Hebrew  records— like  El  (Mightv  One),  or  (in  plural) 
£lim;  OUonim  [Elyon]  (the  Most  High);  Adon 
(Lord) ;  Melech  [Moloch]  (King) ;  &c. — we  find  in 
the  first  rank  of  gods  (of  Tyre  and  Sidon)  Baal 
(q.  V.)  and  Astarte  (q.  v.)  Baal  again  occurs  in  two 
different  characters,  as  it  were — as  Baalsamin  (Lord 
of  Heavens),  the  highest  god  ruling  over  the  Uni- 
verse, the  Zeus  Olympics,  and  Jupiter  Optimus 
Maximus ;  and  as  Baal  melkarth^  the  special  national 
numen.  Baalsamin  is  originally  identical  with  the 
Babylonian  Bel  or  BaaL  The  third  supreme  Tyrian 
goddess  was  Astarte,  worshipped  as  the  very  coun- 
terpart of  the  Sidonian  Astarte.  While  the  latter 
was  considered  a  pure  virgin,  whose  emblem  was 
the  moon,  the  former  (the  biblical  Ashera)  was 
propitiated  (as  Venus,  goddess  and  planet)  by  pro- 
stitution. The  Tyrian  Astarte  was  principally 
known  under  the  name  of  Tanis  (q.  v.),  the  Assyro- 
Persian  Tanais,  and  was  married  to  Baalsamin,  and 
also  to  Adonis,  and  bore  altogether  the  character 
of  a  goddess  who  delijghted  in  chastity. 

The  principal  deities  of  Northern  P. — the  non- 
Sidonian  tribes — consisted  of  a  different  trias — M, 
BaaltiSf  and  Adonis.  The  first  was  the  supposed 
founder  of  the  two  oldest  Phoenician  cities  of 
Byblus  and  Berytus,  and  corresponded  to  (being 
originally,  perhaps,  identical  with)  both  Baalsamin, 
as  the  highest  deity,  and  Melkarth,  as  the  special 
god  of  Tyre.  Baaltis,  Beltis  (My  Lady — Aphrodite), 
worshipped  at  Byblus,  Berytus,  Aphaka,  Arke 
(Architis),  &a,  was  joined  to  Adonis  (q.  v.),  whose 
cultus  had  been  imported  from  Assyria,  and  is 
therefore  unknown  in  the  more  ancient  Phoenician 
colonies,  in  Africa  and  Spain.  Byblus  called 
him  Adouis  Ganas,  or  Ganan  fperhaps  Gaavan,  the 
Exalted) ,  near  Byblus,  we  find  him  worshipped  as 
Elyon  (the  Highest) ;  as  Esmun  in  Berytus,  and  per- 
haps idso  under  the  name  of  Memnon,  at  Apamea, 
where  an  annual  mourning-festival  was  celebrated  in 
his  honour ;  further,  near  the  river  Bandas  at  Paltos ; 
and  at  the  river  Belus.  As  Serach  (the  Brilliant) 
in  Phoenician,  and  Rharush  (the  Sun)  in  Persian, 
he  appears  to  have  had  some  relation  to  the  star- 

aud-planet  worship  which  became,  under  Assyrian 
494 


influence,  a  prominent  featore  of  the  Phcenicin 
religioD. 

Besides  these  more  or  less  localised  gods  and 
goddesses  (Dii  Majorea),  a  certain  nimiber  of  deities 
— states  and  country  deities — were  worshipped  in 
common  by  all  Phoenician  states.  They  were  called 
the  Children  of  Sadik  (the  Just),  or  the  Children, 
or  the  Patseki  (Descendants  of  Phtha),  or  the  eight 
Kabiri  (Strong  Ones).  They  are  the  maritime  g(3s, 
and  their  images  were  placed  on  the  prows  of 
Phoenician  ships.  As  protectors  of  navigation,  they 
are  identified  with  tne  Dioscuri;  and  again,  as 
representatives  of  heat,  breath,  and  life,  they 
received  the  names  of  Lares  and  Penates.  Their 
individual  names  are  not  generally  mentioned ; 
they  seem  (cf.  Esmun  =  eighth)  to  have  been  merely 
counted.  Their  mode  of  worship  was  most  myste- 
rious— as  indeed  some  of  the  earliest  mysteries  were 
closely  connected  with  it. 

Besides  these,  they  also  worshipped  certain  phen- 
omena, personified  attributes,  and  qualitiea.  Their 
planetary  divinities  were  the  Sun  and  his  four 
horses — ^to  whose  worship  belongs,  among  others,  to  a 
certain  extent  the  annual  festival  of  the  Kesturec- 
tion  of  the  (Tyrian)  Herakles,  under  the  emblem  of 
a  column  in  the  form  of  a  rising  flame  (Chaman); 
the  Moon  with  her  chariot  drawn  by  white  bulls  ; 
the  planet  Mars  (Aziz  or  Nergal) ;  Jupiter  (Kochab 
Baal) ;  Venus  (Astoret  Naamah  =  lovely  Astarte), 
with  her  voluptuous  cultus  ;  and  Satumus  (Moloch, 
Kronos),  the  evil  principle.  Hie  elements  were 
revered  either  in  conjunction  with  certain  deities  or 
on  their  own  account.  The  water,  to  which  sacti* 
fices  were  offered  both  in  the  shape  of  haman 
beings  and  animals  or  fruits,  was  hallowed  in  all  its 
shapes— as  the  sea,  as  rivers,  fountains,  lakes— 
by  which  people  took  their  most  solemn  oaths; 
the  fire,  in  connection  with  the  oldest  deity  of 
P.;  the  light  (Moloch);  the  air  and  the  winds; 
the  earth  and  all  its  plants,  its  forests,  and 
glens,  and  trees,  and  more  especially  its  mountains, 
as  the  'symbols  of  the  High  Ones,'  or  as  'Faces 
of  God,'  such  as  Mount  Carmel,  Lebanon,  Anti* 
libanus,  and  others.  Of  animal-worship  we  have 
only  smsdl  traces. 

Abstract  notions  and  ideas  were  not  forgotten. 
The  Year  and  the  Months,  Day  and  Night,  Aurora 
(Lilith),  Age  and  Youth,  Art  and  Love,  had  their 
altars.  Nor  were  certain  professions  and  trades 
without  their  visible  patrons.  Thus,  tiiere  are  gods 
of  agriculture  and  horticulture,  like  Dagon,  the  god 
of  grain ;  a  Dionysos,  whose  Phoenician  name  is  L>9t, 
as  the  sod  of  wine-growers;  a  god  who  is  the 
niunen  of  fniit-growing,  of  pisciculture,  of  mines,  &c 
Chthonian  gods  are  not  wanting.  The  god  of  Death 
— the  king  of  the  lower  regions— is  Muth  =  Death 
(Pluto),  who  is  represented  as  a  small  child.  Hii 
reign  was  shared  by  a  goddess  whose  name  is 
vaguely  known  as  £loti  (My  Goddess),  and  who 
is  occasionally  identified  with  Astarte,  Dido,  Anna, 
Persephone,  Europa,  and  a  great  many  other  deities. 

We  have  already  touched  U(K)n  the  mode  of 
worship  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  places  chiefly 
selected  for  their  rites.  Mountains,  heights,  rivers, 
lakes,  fountains,  meadows,  glens,  were,  as  we  saiii 
the  favourite  habitations  of  the  gods.  But  the 
Phoenicians  were  also  amongst  the  hrst  who  erected 
temples.  These  were  generally  divided  in  two 
parts,  containing  the  sacred  arlcs  (the  mystic  cists 
of  the  Greeks) ;  and  the  chariots  upon  which  the 
sacred  objects  were  at  times  carried  about  Xot 
being  intended  to  be  prayer-houses,  but  as  dwelling- 

§  laces  for  special  goos,  they  were  rather  small,  and 
id  not  even  contain  the  altar  upon  which  the 
sacrifices  were  offered.  This  generally  stot>d  at 
the   entrance   of   the  temple,  and  around  it  the 


PH(EN1CIA. 


tdeatB  and  hierodonloi  danced   in  their  service. 
Pare    wells    and    an    everlasting    fire    were    the 
indispensable  conditions  of  a  sanctuary.    The  sacri- 
fices themselves,  as  far  as  they  consisted  of  animals, 
offer  great  analogies  to  those  of  the  Jews ;   but 
the  P.  also  offered  up  human  sacrifices — chiefly 
first-bom  male  children,  as  that  which   the  sup- 
pliant  held  dearest — chiefly  to   Baalsamin,  Baal 
Eamon,  and  Astarte.     Such  human  sacrifices,  or 
bomt-offerings  took  place  annually  at  the  great 
festivals  of  expiation,  and  further  on.extraordmary 
'  occasions,  at  the  beginning  of  important  enterprises, 
such  as  a  campaign,  and  in  great  casualties:  in 
order  to  expiate  by  one  sacrifice  the  sin  of  all.    The 
same  fanaticism  which  fancied  the  gods  best  pleased 
by  the  ofiering  up  of  what  was  most  precious,  led 
the   Phoenician  women,  like    the    Babylonian,  to 
sacrifice  their  honour   in  honour  of  Astarte,  on 
certain  occasions,  so  that  certain  sanctuaries  became 
hot- beds   of    prostitution.      Circumcision — another 
kind  of  sacrifice — was  not  common  among  all  the 
Phoenician  tribes,  it  being  a  rite  principaUy  sacred 
to  El,  the  god  of  Beiytus  and  Byblus. 

Of  festivals  and  pilgrimages  in  general,  we  have 
spoken   under  Festivals,  Greek  Eelioion,  &c.; 
and  what  has  been  observed  there  res|)ecting  their 
character    in  Polytheism  (their  being  to  a  great 
extent  connected  with  the  births,  deaths,  resurrec- 
tions, and  other  personal  phases  of  special  deities), 
holds  good  hera     No  doubt,  these  festivals,  like 
those  of  the  Hebrews,  and  all  other  ancient  nations, 
had,  beside  their  religious,  also  their  political  and 
commercial  significance;  and  P.  was  more  parti- 
cularly, by  the  eminent  position  she  held  in  the 
world  8  trade,  a  place  towards  which  flocked,  on 
solemn  occasions,  pilgrims  from  all  pai'ts  of  Asia 
and  Africa.      'Festival  Embassies,'  as  they  were 
called,  were  despatched  thither  from  Syria,  Arabia, 
Babylonia,  Capi)adocia,   Cilicia,  Egypt,  Armenia; 
nay,  from  India,  Ethiopia,  Persia,  ana  Scythia ;  and 
not  until  the  5th  c.  a.d.  did  these  pilgrimages  to 
P.  ceaae  entirely.    One  festival,  is  entirely  peculiar 
to  Tvre,  and  strangely  enough,  it  is  stiQ  celebrated 
by  the  present  inhabitants  of  Sur — viz.,  the  *  Wed- 
ding of  the  Land-water  with  the  Sea-water.'    On 
these  occasions,  the  people  walk  in  procession  to 
the  well   near  the  town-gate,  and  pour  some  pails 
of  sea- water  into  it,  in  omer  to  render  it  clear  and 
Bweet  again  for  a  long  time. 

It  would  be  vain  to  try,  with  our  scanty  and 
adulterated  sources,  to  eain  a  deeper  insight  into 
the   ideas  attached  to  the  names,  attributes,  and 
modes   of   worship   of  the   deities    mentioned,   or 
to  speculate  upon  their  moral  influence  U{>on  the 
people  of  Phcenicia.  That  these  were  pre-eminently 
practical ;   that  arts  and  manufactures   flourished 
among  them,  more  than  among  any  other  ancient 
nation;   that  they  knew  how  to  turn  science  into 
money ;  that  tiiey  were,  in  fact,  shrewd  men  of  busi- 
ness— sill  this  we  know,  but  little  more.    Atheists 
or  Pantheists,  whichever  they  must  be  called  in 
the  modem  sense  of  these  words,  it  is  extremely 
doubtful  whether  they,  any  more  than  the  bulk  of 
the  Hebrews  before  the  Exile,  believed,  as  a  body,  in 
immortality.  What  was  their  influence  upon  Greece, 
Kome,  the  whole  ancient  and  modem  world,  in  the 
province  of  religious  thought,  we  shall  never  have  any 
means  fully  to  ascertain.    Comparative  Mythology, 
has  a  vast  field  to  explore  in  this  direction. 

Phtjefiician  Language  and  Literature. — With  the 
exception  of  Greek  and  Latin,  no  language  was 
BO  widely  known  and  spoken  throughout  antiquity 
as  the  Phoenician ;  and  monuments  of  it  have  Deen 
found,  and  continue  to  be  found,  almost  all  over 
the  ancient  world.  We  can  only  vaguely  speculate 
on  its  early  histor}*  an  1  its  various  phases,  so  long 


as  our  materials  yield  so  little  information  on  that 
point.  Its  decline  seems  to  date  from  the  ^tn  a 
B.C.,  when  Aramaisms  crept  in  in  overwhelming 
numbers.  Finally,  the  close  contact  with,  and  the 
everywhere  preponderating  influence  of  the  Greeks, 
superseded— chiefly  after  Alexander's  time — the 
ancient  language  almost  completely ;  and  even  coins 
with  Phoemcian  legends  occur  not  later  than  the 
2d  c.  B.a — An  important  Phoenician  literature  seems 
to  have  been  extant  as  late  as  the  1st  c.  A.D.,  but 
it  has  disappeared  from  the  face  of  the  earth.  After 
the  second  half  of  the  3d  a,  the  language  had 
vanished  entirely  in  the  country  itself,  and  cJerome, 
who  lived  in  Palestine,  mentions  the  Punic,  but 
never  the  Phoenician.  In  the  west,  it  survived  to  a 
much  later  period.  In  Mauritania  and  Numidia,  it 
remained,  in  a  corrupted  form,  the  reining  tongue 
as  late  as  the  4th  c.  a.d.  ;  and  Augustine  (&aws  his 
explanations  of  Scripture  from  the  Punic  current  in 
the  5th  century.  There  was  a  translation  of  the 
whole  Bible  into  Punic  made  for  the  use  of  the  Punic 
Churches ;  and  in  and  near  Tripolis  and  Bizanium, 
it  was  the  language  of  the  common  people  up  to  a 
late  period.  From  the  6th  c,  however,  it  rapidly 
died  out,  chiefly  in  consequence  of  the  Vandals, 
Goths,  Moors,  and  other  foreign  tribes  overrunning 
the  country,  and  ingrafting  their  owd.  idioms  upon  it. 

As  a  branch  of  the  so-called  Semitic  family  of  the 
Hebrews,  Syrians,  Arabs,  &c.,  the  Phoenicians  natur- 
ally are  closely  related  to  these  also  with  respect  to 
language.  The  afliuity  of  the  *  speech  of  Canaan,'  as 
the  Hebrew  is  called  sometimes,  with  the  Phoenician 
was  indeed  remarked  at  an  early  period.  Augus- 
tine, Jerome,  and  Priscian  pointed  out  already — 
and  sometimes  in  order  to  back  some  very  peculiar 
notions — ^how  closely  these  two  languages  and  their 
dialects  were  allied.  Yet  it  must  be  obvious  at 
first  sight,  that  however  near  the  two  idioms  may 
originally  have  stood  to  each  other,  the  peculiar 
relations  and  fortunes  of  the  two  races  who  spoke 
them  must  have  produced  substantial  changes  in  their 
structures  in  the  course  of  time.  While  the  ancient 
scriptural  monuments  of  the  Hebrews — outwardly 
and  inwardly — exhibit  a  rare  unity  of  idiom  and 
form,  the  ancient  hallowed  utterance  becoming 
a  type  and  model  for  the  later  generations:  the 
Phoenicians,  on  the  other  hand,  not  confined  within 
the  narrow  limits  of  their  home-country,  but  mixing 
freely  with  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  spreading 
their  own  colonies  far  and  near  among  them,  opened 
a  wide  field  for  the  *  development'  of  their  language, 
or  rather  for  its  corruption,  by  its  entering  into 
alliance  with  Libyan  in  Africa,  Sardinia,  and 
Spain,  and  with  Aramaic  in  Northern  Phoenicia, 
Cilicia,  and  perhaps  even  in  Cyprus.  Thus  it  came 
to  pass  that  the  two  languages  which  originally  may 
have  been  identical  in  old  Canaan  became  more 
and  more  widely  divergent.  To  enter  into  a  more 
detailed  disquisition  on  this  or  other  cognate  points, 
we  deem  more  hazardous  now  than  we  shoiUd  have 
thought  it  ten  or  even  five  years  ago ;  for  the 
more  ample  our  discoveries  in  Phoenician  literature 
have  become  of  late,  the  more  it  becomes  evident 
that  we  aie  only  at  the  commencement,  as  it  were, 
of  Phoenician  philology. 

What  we  said  of  the  structure  of  the  Hebrew 
Language  (q.  v.),  also  holds  cood  for  Phoenician  to  a 
certain  extent ;  and  we  shall  therefore  simply  point 
out  the  most  palpable  differences  between  them.  In 
the  first  instance,  we  observe  the  very  strange  cir- 
cumstance, that  what  is  considered  an  archaism  or 
an  isolated  dictum  in  Hebrew,  appears  as  a  com- 
mon expression  In  Phoenician.  Certain  grammatical 
terminations,  obsolete  in  Hebrew,  are  in  use  in  Phoe- 
nician— so  that  it  would  appear  as  if  the  Phoenician 
had  retained  more  of  the  ancient  Canaanite  speech 


PH(ENICIA. 


than  the  Hebrew,  which  gradually  transformed  and 
refined  it  by  grammatical  niceties.  Another  feature 
is  the  preponderance  of  the  Chaldee,  or  rather 
Aramaic  words  and  forms — although  here  again  we 
are  on  yerv  dubious  ground.  It  might  further  be 
questioned  whether  our  Phoenician  Inscriptions  —all 
belonging  to  a  very  late  period — are  not  rather  a 
faithful  reflection  of  the  Hebrew  of  their  period, 
which,  since  the  8th  c.  B.a,  had  more  and  more 
changed  into  Aramaic.  So  much  is  certain,  that  the 
original  language  of  Canaan  was  perfectly  free  from 
Chaldaisms,  and  that  these  are  but  a  late  corruption 
— such  as  we  also  find  in  the  later  books  of  the  Old 
Testament.  Yet  there  are  other  features  quite 
peculiar  to  the  PhoBuician,  which-~«lthough  not  of 
sufficient  importance  to  warrant  our  separating 
the  dialect  entirely  from  the  Hebrew — are  of  a 
nature  not  to  be  explained  b^  any  Semitic  analogy ; 
such  as  certain  diuerences  m  the  pronunciation  of 
▼owela,  in  the  treatment  of  consonants,  the  forma- 
tion of  pronouns,  some  verbal  forms,  and  certain 
words  entirely  foreign  to  the  Semitic  Again,  a 
distinction  is  to  be  made  between  the  Phoenician 
of  P.  and  that  corrupted  form  of  it  spoken  in 
the  western  colonies,  called  Punic,  and  further, 
that  idiom  peculiar  to  the  inhabitants  of  Leptis, 
called  Libyo-Phoenician — a  mixture  of  Phoenician 
and  Libyan,  with  a  vast  preponderance,  however, 
of  the  former  element. 

The  difference  in  the  pronunciation  maybe  briefly 
characterised  as  a  tendency  towards  an  obscuring 
or  lowering,  as  it  were,  oi  the  vowels :  thus,  the 
Hebrew  a  is  changed  into  o,  the  e  into  t  or  p,  t  into 
Pf  sometimes  into  u,  and  o  into  u.  Peculiar  is 
also  the  use  of  the  Hebrew  Ayin  as  a  vowel  {mcUer 
lectionia),  with  the  pronunciation  of  o  or  u.  On 
some  occasions,  however,  it  is  entirely  omitted. 
The  ffutturals  are  changed  at  times,  as  in  the  cor- 
rupted orthography  of  Samaritan  and  Sabian,  so 
that  L  and  S  are  sometimes  assimilated  with  the 
next  consonant  in  the  middle  of  the  word,  or 
entirely  omitted,  &a  As  to  grammar,  our  know- 
ledge is  extremely  limited.  A  few  undoubted  facts 
are  the  termination  of  the  nominative  form  in  at 
instead  of  the  Hebrew  oA,  the  greater  variety  of 
genitive  forms  in  Phoenician,  the  difference  in  the 
formation  of  the  pronoun,  and  the  identity  of  the 
article  with  that  m  Hebrew  {ha).  For  the  Phoeni- 
cian alphabet,  the  model  of  all  European  alphabets, 
eee  Alphabet. 

The  Literature  of  P.,  in  its  original  form,  has,  as  we 
eaid,  perished  entirely.  What  &aces  and  fra;;ments 
we  have  of  it,  have  survived  in  Greek  translations. 
But  from  even  these  small  renmants,  we  can  easily 
imagine  the  extreme  antiquity,  and  the  high  import- 
ance and  vast  extent  of  these  productions,  which* 
at  first,  seem  to  have  been  chiefly  of  a  theological 
or  theogonical  nature.  Their  authors  are  the  gods 
themselves,  and  tiie  writing  are  only  accessibk  to 
the  priests,  and  to  those  initiated  in  the  mysteries. 
From  the  allegorical  explanations  of  these  exalted 
persona»3s  sprang  a  new  branch  of  sacred  literature, 
of  which  those  fragments  of  Cosmogony  mentioned 
above  are  derived.  To  the  literary  age  of  Taaut, 
Kadmus,  Ophion,  Esmnn,  &a,  succeeded  Thabion, 
Isiris,  Sanchuniatho,  and  Mochus,  who  founded 
the  schools  of  Priests  and  Prophets.  These  culti- 
vated the  sciences,  chiefly  the  occult  ones,  magic, 
and  the  like.  Nearest  to  the  Sacred  Literature 
stands  Didactic  Poetry,  somewhat  related  to  the 
Orphic,  whose  chief  representatives  are  Sido,  Jopas, 
&c.  The  erotic  poeby  is  characterised  as  of  a 
very  sensuous  nature,  both  in  P.  and  the  colonies. 
Of  historians  are  mentioned  Mochus,  Hypsikrates 
(Sanchuniatho?),  Theodotus,  Philostratus,  Slenander, 
and  others;  but  these  are  mere  Qreek  versions  of 


their  Phoenician  names,  and  absolately  nothing  ini 
been  preserved  of  their  writings.  Punic  Htenton 
is  also  frequently  mentioned  by  Greek  and  Bomaa 
writers.  Geography,  history,  agriculture,  were  the 
fields  chiefly  cultivated  by  uie  colonists  of  Cartluge 
•nd  the  West  generally. 

The  monuments  that  have  come  down  to  at,  and 
which  not  only  have  enabled  us  to  judge  for  our- 
selves of  the  religion,  the  language,  and  the  mannen 
of  the  Phoenicians,  are  of  two^ld  kind— they  are 
either  legends  on  coins  and  lapidary  inscriptiona,  or 
Phoenician  proper  nouns  and  texts  imbedded  in  tk 
works  of  ancient  classical  or  sacred  writers.   The 
principal  and  ever-growing  source  for  our  infor- 
mation, however,  are  the  monumental  inscriptiozu, 
of  whose  existence,  till  the  middle  of  the  18th  &, 
nothing  was  known.     The  most  numerous  Fhoeni* 
cian  remnants  have  been  discovered  in  the  colooi£& 
Richard  Pococke  first  found,  on  the  site  of  ancient 
Citium  (Lamaka  of  to-day),  31  (not  33,  as  eener^y 
stated)  Phoenician  inscriptions,  which  be  oeposited 
at  Oxford  (published  b^  Swinton,   1750).    Malta, 
Sardinia,  Cuthage,  Algiers,  Tripolis,  Athens,  ^lar* 
seille,  have  each  yielded  a  considerable  number,  so 
that  altogether  we  are  now  in  the  possession  of 
about  120  monuments,  either  votive  tablets,  or  tomb 
inscriptions.    The  latest  and  most  remarkable  are 
those  now  in  the  British  Museum,  discovert  at 
Carthage  a  few  years  ago  by  N.  Davis,  consisting  of 
votive  tablets,  a  (doubtful)  tombstone,  and  a  sacri- 
ficial tariff*,  which  completes  another  stone  foand 
some  years  ago  at  Marseille  of  the  same  nature; 
both  setting  forth  the  amount  of  taxes,  or  rather  the 
proportionate  share  the  priest  was  entitled  to  receive 
for  each  sacrifice.    Another  exceedingly  valoable 
(trilingual)  inscription,  referring  to  the  gift  of  an 
altar  vowed  to  Eshmun-Asklepios,  has  oeen  dis- 
covered a  year  or  two  ago  in  Sardinia.    See  belov. 
One  of  the  most  impoitant  historical  monuments 
is  the    sarcophagus    of  Ashmanasar   IL,  king  of 
Sidon  (son  of  lennes?),  found  at  Tyre  in  1855, 
the  age  of  which  has  variously  been  conjectored 
between  the  11th  c  B.C.  (Ewald) — a  most  inoon* 
eruous  guess  indeed— the  7th  (Hitzig),  the  6th  (Dae 
ae  Luynes),  and    the  4th   (Levy),   of    which  we 
shall  aidd  the  commencement^  literally  translated : 
'In  the  month  of  Bui,  in  the  fourteenth  year  that  I 
reigned.  King  Ashmanasar,  king  of  the  Sidoniaos, 
son  of  King  Tebnith,  king  of  the  Sidonians— spake 
King  Ashmanasar,  king  of  the  Sidonians,  saying: 
Gamed  away  before  my  time,  in  the  AikkI  of  daj-s— 
in  dumbness  ceases  the  son  of  gods.     Dead  do  1  lie 
in  this  tomb,  in  the  grave,  on  the  place  which  I 
have  built.    I  myself  ordain  that  iJl  the  nobles  and 
all  the  people  shall  not  open  this  place  of  rest ;  they 
shall  not  seek  for  treasures  and  not  carry  awav  the 
sarcophagus  of  my  resting-place,  and  not  disturo  me 
by  mounting  the  couch  of  my  slumbers.    If  people 
should  speak  to  thee  [and  persuade  thee  to  tbe 
contrary],  do  not  listen  to  them.    For  all  the  noblei 
and  aU  the  people  who  shall  open  this  sarcophagus 
of  the  place  of  rest,  or  carry  away  the  sarcopha^ 
of  my  couch,  or  disturb  me  upon  this  resting-place, 
may  they  find  no  rest  with  the  deputed ;  may 
they  not  be  buried  in  a  tomb,  and  may  no  son  ui 
successor  live  after  them  in  their  place  ;*  &c. 

The  votive  tablets  bear  the  same  character 
throughout,  differing  only  with  respect  to  the  nazoe 
of  the  man  or  woman  who  placed  it  in  a  certain 
sanctuary  in  accordance  with  his  or  her  vow.  Theb 
material  is  mostly  limestone  or  fine  sandstone, 
rarely  marble,  and  they  vary  from  5  to  15  inche* 
in  height,  from  4  to  7  in  width,  and  from  l\  t» 
4  in  thickness.  Beginning  in  most  cases  irith 
the  dedication  to  the  god  or  goddess,  or  both, 
thus :  *  [Sacred]   To  the  god  ...  .  [this   toblei] 


whkh  Towed  N.  ion  (itaoghter)  of  N.  When 
ha  (ihe)  he&rd  my  voiuu  and  blessed,'  or  '  hear 
my  mice  and  bless;'  Ac  TLo  RepulchraJ  tablets 
geoenlly  nm  aomewhftt  in  this  lu^nner  :  'Stone 
erected  to  ....  ,  who  lived  ....  yiijrs.'— Much 
jet  iBinams  to  b«  done.  Even  the  paleu^^inphical 
tide  hu,  notwithstanding  all  the  ready  material, 
not  beea  settled  satisfactorilj  yet.  One  point, 
however,  isindisputableeven  now.  There  are  at  least 
two  kinds  of  Fhcenician  writing  to  be  distinguuhed 
most  olearly.  The  older,  purer,  more  orthographical, 
sod  mare  neatly  execated,  is  found  in  the  inscrip- 
tions  of  P.  herself,  of  Malta,  Athens,  Citium,  and 
Csrthsge;  the  younger,  cormpted  not  only  with 
respect  to  the  grBmrnar  and  longnage,  bnt  also  vrith 
respect  to  the  form  of  the  letters,  which  are  lesa 
cuefnlly  executed,  and  even  exhibit  some  atrsD)^ 
probably  degenerate  characters,  is  found  chiefly  on 
the  monuments  of  Cyprus,  Cihcia,  Sardinia,  A&ica, 
Spain.  Nomidia,  and  the  adjacent  porta. 

Besides  these  monumental  sources  for  the  lan- 
guage, there  are  a  few  remnants  of  it  embedded,  at 
we  said,  in  ancient  non-FhiBnician  writings.  The 
Old  Testament  alone,  however,  hai  preserved  its 
words— proper  nouns  chiefly— unrautilated.  Later 
eastern  writers  even,  not  to  loention  the  Greeks  and 
,  have    oormpted   the    spelling,    to    such 


nndergo.  flt«t  at  the  hands  of  Plaotus,  who  probably 
only  wrote  them  by  the  ear.  then  at  theooads  ot 
generations  of  ignorant  scribes,  have  mode  i 
than  one  word  or  passage  an  insoluble  puzzle. 


f. «,  lerabbaUi  Letsnitli  Fen-Bul 

mesddan  LebtAl  Ch[uumoa  A] 

[Sh]  Nodar  ChsaboU  [Ban  Abd] 

Aibmnn    ....    [Shsmal 

[Ko]l[aBarah>  .        .        .        . 

'  To  the  I*dy  Tanith,  the  Fsoe  of  Baal,  and  to  the  Lord 

Baal  Chkuimon  [is  dediealad  this  j«J]  which  hu  TO  wed 

HanbsAl  [tbs  sail  ot  Abd]  Ashman   ....  [Whau 

he  (or  ahe)  bears  his  voiee,  may  he  (or  she)  bless.'} 

Fathen  tAK)!<>'^e,  Prisoianna,  Servns),  Ao.  The 
only  really  important  remnant^  however,  is  found 
preserveal — -albeit  fearfully  mutilated  and  Latinised 
— in  Plautus's  Pcenidut,  act  v.  h.  1  of  which 
contains,  in  16  lines,  the  Pbcenician  trsnalation  of 
the  Latin  text,  with  more  than  100  Fhinaician 
words.  Several  other  phraaea  and  words  ore 
embodied  in  act  v.  ss.  2  and  3  of  the  same  play. 
Yet,  although  there  is  veiy  little  doubt  among 
scholars  about  the  greater  jiortiou  ot  tbeae  texts, 
the  oormption  and  mutilation  which  they  had  t" 


PHCENIC0PTER08-PH0NEnG  WRITING. 


CuthoginiaD  votive  tablets  with  which  the  British 
Huaeum  ^dow  the  we&itbieet  in  Ph<Enician  monu- 
menta)  haa  lately  been  enriched,  aa  mentioned  before. 
Tbe  emblenu  on  it  are  gymbolical,  and  refer  to 
the  deities  invoked.  The  lower  part  is  mutilated, 
but  eaail;  luppUed.    The  date  ia  uncertain,  perhaps 


the2< 


irSdc. 


is  a  triliajnial  inscription  from  a  base 

of  an  altar,  recently  found  at  Pauh  Gerrei,  in  Sardinia, 
and  has  been  first  fully  eiploined  by  Deiitsch.  (See 
JVojuaciittiMoftheRoyai  Society  of  Literature,  1864.) 

Its  contents  are  briefly  this :  A  certain  Cleon, 
Pfarenician  by  religion,  Greek  by  name,  Jtoman  by 
natianality,  a  wJt-farmer,  tows  an  altar — material 
and  weight  of  which  are  only  given  in  Phomician; 
viz.,  copper,  a  huadnxl  pounds  in  weight — to  Eahmun- 
iSsculiipius  'the  Htaler'  (the  Ph<:euiciau  Sfearrach, 
clumsily  transcribed  Mfrre  in  Latin,  and  ilim  in 
Greek],  in  cooai deration  for  a  cure  to  be  performed. 
The  date,  given  in  Phceoician,  vit,  the  year  of 
two,  apparently  annual,  entirely  unknown  judges, 
civea  no  cliie  to  tlie  time.  Pal^graphical  reaauos, 
however,  would  place  it  in  about  the  lat  c.  b.o. 

Among  those  who  have  more  or  lew  success- 
fully occupied  themselves  with  Phcenician  aatl- 
qnities,  language,  and  literature,  and  who  have 
also,  in  Home  instances,  deciphered  inBcrijitiona.  we 
mention  Scaliger,  Boohart,  Pococke,  Barthelemy, 
Swinton.  Bayer,  Dutens,  Hamaker.  Gesenius,  Movers, 
Miinck,judaa,  Barges,  UcSaulcy,Ewald,  Levy,  Vaun, 
Penan.  De  Luynes,  De  Vogufi,  Deutsch,  and  others ; 
to  whose  writings,  contained  either  in  special  works 
or  scattered  in  Transactions  of  learned  societies,  we 
refer  for  further  information  on  the  subject  of  our 
article.  The  principal  work  in  German  is  Movers'a 
Ph/xnixitr,  unfortunately  left  unfinished  at  tha 
author's  death,  A  useful  English  compilation  ■• 
Kenrick's  Pkenkia  (Lond.  1855). 

PHCENICO'PTBRUa    See  Flamihqo. 

PH(E'NIX,thenameofaniythical  Egyptian  bird, 
■upposcd  by  some  to  be  a  kind  of  pluver,  like  the 
Kfii'Cz,  often  depicted  with  human  arms,  and  called 
in  hierogtyphe  reM.  Othen  consider  it  to  be  t^e 
beniiJi,  or  nycticorax,  a  bird  sacred  to  Osiris,  and 
represented  watchina  in  the  tamarisk  over  his 
c!^D.  The  first  of  these  representations  hss  some- 
times a  star  upon  the  head,  supposed  to  indicate 


thrine  particularly  dedicated  to  it  at  Eeliopolis,  and 
there  buried  it«  parent,  putting  the  body  into  an 
■mg  or  cne  made  of  myrrh,  nod  then  closing  up 
the  egg.  Another  account  is,  that  the  P.,  when 
about  to  die,  made  a  nest  for  itself  in  Arabia,  from 
which  a  new  P.  sprung  of  itself.  This  bird  pro- 
ceeded to  Eeliopolis,  and  there  burned  and  buried 
its  father.  But  the  more  popularly- known  version 
is,  that  the  P.  burned  itself,  and  a  new  and  young 
P.  sprung  from  the  ashes.  A  less  received  version 
is,  that  a  worm  crawled  out  of  the  body  of  the  dead 
P.,  and  became  the  future  one.  The  P.  was,  according 
to  the  most  authentio  accounts,  supposed  to  visit 
Egypt  every  600  years ;  the  precise  period,  however, 
was  not  known  at  Heliopolis,  and  was  a  subject  of 
contention  till  its  apj)earanoe.  The  connection  of 
the  Phunii  period  with  that  of  the  Sothiac  cycle, 
appears  to  be  generally  received  by  clironologiata,  as 
well  as  the  statement  of  Herrepollo,  that  it  designated 
the  soul  sod  the  inundation  of  the  Nile.  A  great 
difference  of  opinion  has  prevailed  about  the  Phisnix 

Kriod :  according  to  jKlian,  it  was  aoycleof  600  years ; 
koitua  seems  to  make  it  one  of  25U  years  ;  Lepeius, 
a  oyole  of  1500  years.  The  P.  waa  fabled  to  have 
four  timee  appeared  in  Ecypt :  I,  under  Sesostris ; 
%  under  Amaais,  5Q9--  525  B.  o. ;  3,  under  Ptolemy 


PhiUdelphna,  284—246  B.C. ;  and  lastly,  UorX 
A.  D.,  jnst  prior  to  the  death  of  Tiberiua.  The  F. 
also  appears  upon  the  coins  of  Cooatantine,  334  A.D., 
vit,  .SOO  years  after  the  death  of  Christ,  who  vu 
considered  the  P.  by  the  monastic  writes.  It  is 
supposed  by  the  rabbins  to  be  mentioned  in  Joh  W 
the  Psalms.— Job  izziz.  IS;  Psalms  ciiL  6  ;  Herrnl- 
otns,  iL  73  ;  Achillea  Tatius,  ilL  25;  Tacitui,  in. 
vi.  28 ;  TselH*,  CAii.  v.  397 ;  Lepeius,  EinUil,  p, 
183 ;  Arekcfolagitt,  voL  in.  p.  256, 

PHCENBL    See  Date  Palk  and  Puns. 

PHO'LAS,  a  genua  of  lameUibranchiate  molliua, 
of  the  family  Pholadtda.  This  family,  to  which  the 
Ship- worm  {Teredo  naualii]  also  belongs,  has  tbt 
shell  gaping  at  both  ends,  thin,  white,  very  hard, 
sometimes  with  aocessory  valves  ;  the  two  prindpil 
valves  beset  with  calcareous  inequalities,  connuttd 
by  fine  transverse  parallel  riches,  forming  a  kind  nf 
rasp,  used  by  the  animal  for  borinff  a  hole  in  reck. 
wood,  or  other  substance,  in  which  it  Uvet.  Tha 
animal  itself  is  aitber  cinb-ahtped  (aa  in  Pk^]  v 


A  pieoe  at  rack  bored  by  Fholade*. 

worm-shaped  (aa  in  Terrdo],  with  lar^  Ions  siphonSi 
often  unil:«d  ahnost  to  the  end,  and  a  short  foot 
Several  species  are  natives  of  the  British  ooaits. 
They  are  popularly  called  Piddocia.  They  are  used 
for  bait,  and  also  for  food.  How  the  [Aolades  nt 
pittocks  excavate  the  holes  in  which  they  live, 
sometimes  in  clay  or  mud,  but  often  in  chalk,  and 
even  in  much  hanler  rocks,  has  been  the  snbject  of 
much  dispute.  An  excavating  iostniment  amml 
with  silicious  particles,  has  been  ascribed  to  the 
animal,  but  no  such  instrument  exists.  The  sbdl 
is  studded  with  projections,  in  regular  rows,  giving 
it  the  character  of  a  rasp  or  file  ;  and  the  P.,  fiiiiu 
itself  firmly  by  its  foot,  which  acts  aa  a  sucker,  ul 
working  itself  from  tide  to  side,  makes  ose  of  tbt 
rasping  power  of  its  shell  to  enlarge  its  hole  aa  it 
has  need,  so  that  the  hole  is  always  very  axactt; 
accommodated  to  the  siae  of  the  occupant. 

PHONB'TIO  WRITING  is 
of  speech  by  means  of  symbols  for  the  eler 
sounds  of  language.  All  alphabetic  writing  ■ 
essentially  phonetic  The  invention  of  letters  wu 
the  invention  of  phonetic  writing,  as  distinguiilnl 
from  the  older  pictorial,  or  ideographic,  wntiij. 
From  a  variety  of  causes,  however,  do  lancuaga  iit 
ever  been  perfectly  represented  by  its  spSlin^.  aad 
with  the  lapse  oi  time  the   divergence  baa  gcsi 


PHOXETIC  WRITINa. 


OD  increasing,  since  the  spoken  words  are  con-  the  redaction  of  dialects  to  one  common  standard, 
ttaotiy  nndergoing  change,  while  the  spelling  tends  and  further  the  diffusion  of  our  language  in  foreign 
to  remain  fixed.  In  English,  more  especially,  this  countries.  To  learn  to  read  from  perfectly  phonetic 
diTergenoe  has  been  allowed  to  proceed  to  such  an  characters,  would  be  merely  to  learn  the  sQphabet, 
extreme  that  it  is  admitted  on  all  hands  to  be  a  and  to  spell  would  be  merely  to  anidyse  pronuncia- 
serious  evil,  and  in  recent  times  various  schemes  '  tion.  A  child  at  school  misht  be  made  a  fluent 
have  been  projected  to  remedy  it.  It  is  to  these  ''  reader  in  a  few  weeks.  All  uncertainty  of  pro- 
schemes  of  radically  reformed  spelling  that  the  name  nundation  would  vanish  at  the  sight  of  a  word,  and 
of  Phonetic  Writing  is  now  more  especially  applied  ;  dictionaries  of  pronunciation  woum  be  superfluous, 
sod  what  foUows,  represents  the  views  and  argu-  \  Of  all  the  languages  which  employ  the  Latin 
ments  of  the  promoters  of  the  movement,  and  alphabet,  the  English  is  the  worst  represented ;  in 
sketches  its  history.  some  measure  because  of  the  rich  variety  of   its 

The  earliest  attempts  at  alphabetic  writing  were  phonic  elements,  but  chiefly  because,  of  all  the 
as  strictly  phonetic  as  the  limited  scheme  of  symbols  '  nations  which  have  adopted  Latin  letters,  the 
allowed,  or  as  the  limited  aim  of  writers  required.  '  English  have  done  least  to  make  their  writing 
The  alphabets  were  confined  almost  exclusively  phonetic.  Every  attempt  to  correct  the  anomalies 
to  consonants ;  and  the  analysis  of  speech  on  which  of  our  orthography  has  roused  a  host  of  prejudices, 
they  were  based  was  of  course  confined  to  the  against  which  the  efforts  of  private  mdividuals 
languages  for  which  the  alphabets  were  designed.  !  have  been  powerless.  The  difference  between 
^Vhen  any  old  alphabet,  therefore,  came  to  be  phoneticians  and  their  opponents  seems  to  be  a 
adojtted  for  a  new  language  or  dialect,  it  would  be  I  fundamental  difference  as  to  what  really  constitutes 
found  deficient  in  the  means  of  writing  any  sounds  a  word*  The  former,  maintaining  the  sound  to  be 
which  were  not  used  in  the  lanmiage  for  which  the  the  true  word,  would  discard  all  associations  depend- 
aljihabet  was  originally  intended.  Unless,  then,  ent  on  letters,  in  order  to  represent  the  exact  sound 
new  symbols  were  added  for  the  new  sounds,  these  in  the  simplest  manner ;  the  latter,  clinging  to  the 
latter  must  have  been  represented  by  conventional  literal  associations  of  orthography,  argue  as  if  the 
combinations  of  letters ;  and  at  this  point  the  verbal  cluster  of  letters  in  reality  constituted  the 
writing  would  cease  to  be  perfectly  phonetic.  |  word.      The   dispute   is  thus,  in   effect,   between 

The  Sanscrit  language  furnishes  the  most  con-  letters  and  sounds :  which  are  the  signs — which 
vincing  proof  of  the  original  phonetic  character   the  thing  signified  ? 

of  aljmabetic  writing ;  for  not  only  were  words ;  In  phonetic  writing,  the  eye  would  no  doubt 
written  exactly  as  they  were  sounded,  but  every  confound  such  words  as  know  and  no,  see  and  sea, 
change  which  a  word  underwent  in  utterance  was  sighs  and  size^  when  written  separately,  as  in  a 
consistently  indicated  by  a  change  in  the  writing,  vocabulary ;  but  it  cannot  be  supposed  that  such 
Notwithstanding  this  fact,  there  is  no  language  words  would  present  more  ambiguity  in  contextual 
in  which  the  etymological  and  grammatical  relations  usage  than  they  now  do  in  utterance,  subject  to  the 
of  words  are  more  clearly  exhibited  or  easily  traced  same  confusion  to  the  ear.  At  present,  we  have,  in 
than  in  Sanscrit.  Chir  own  language  illustrates  the  fact,  two  languages— one  purely  phonic,  addressed 
same  principle.  No  difficulty  is  experienced  in  to  the  ear;  and  the  other,  in  some  degree  etymo- 
discovering  the  relation  between  loaf  and  loaves,  logical  or  historical,  addressed  to  the  eye.  In  this 
vij>,  and  vrives,  notwithstanding  the  change  of  /  respect,  we  are  in  a  similar  position  to  the  Chinese, 
into  r  in  the  plural ;  nor  would  any  difficulty  be  with  their  classical  ideographic  language  of  litera- 
created  though  the  s  also  were  changed,  as  it  is  in  ture,  and  their  multituainous  vemacu&ur  dialects, 
sound,  and  the  words  written  as  they  are  pronounced  In  order  to  establish  the  assertion,  that  the  phonic 
— luvz,  wivz.  i  word  (the  sound)  written  phonetically  in  a  sentence 

The  English  language  embraces  in  its  dialects  would  be  less  intelligible  to  the  eye  than  the 
ahnost  all  the  elementary  sounds  of  all  languages ;  written  word  in  its  present  form,  it  is  incumbent 
and  the  Latin  alphabet,  which  was  adopted  for  its  on  the  opponents  of  phoneticism  to  shew  that  the 
writing,  was  so  msufficient  in  the  number  of  its  simple  phonic  word  is  now  less  intelligible  when 
characters,  that  many  new  letters  would  have  been  pronounced  in  a  sentence,  than  its  written  symbol 
required  to  adapt  it  for  the  representation  of  Anglo-    is  when  read  in  a  sentence. 

Saxon  and  other  words.  But  in  place  of  being  The  principal  objection  urged  against  phonetic 
extended,  the  alphabet  was  reverentially  accepted  writing  is,  that  it  woiUd  obscure  the  etymological 
with  all  its  imperfections ;  its  deficiencies  were  history  now  discoverable  in  the  orthography  of  a 
SQpplemented  by  the  use  of  servile  or  silent  letters, '  word.  The  best  answer  to  this  objection  is  that 
and  by  various  orthographical  expedients  ;  and  thus  the  traces  of  etymology,  preserved  m  the  present 
our  writing  came  to  be  irregular,  difficult,  and  spelling,  are  so  imperfect  and  inconsistent  as  to  be 
fluctuating.  The  great  inconvenience,  however,  of  of  little  value  compared  with  the  embarrassments 
representing  by  the  same  character  the  sounds  of  they  occasion  in  other  respects. 
U  and  V,  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  former  as  a  I  The  first  recjuisite  for  the  construction  of  a  phon- 
new  letter  for  the  vowel  sound,  and  to  the  limita-  etio  alphabet  is  an  exact  knowledge  of  elementary 
tion  of  the  latter  character  to  the  consonant  sound ;  sounds,  that  every  element  may  l^  provided  with 
and  the  further  ambiguity  arising  from  the  want  its  appropriate  S3rmbol,  and  that  no  more  symbols 
of  an  appropriate  sign  for  the  sound  of  W,  led  to  may  be  introduced  than  there  are  distinct  elementary 
the  invention  of  that  symbol,  which,  being  formed  sounds.  The  latter  consideration  would  be  of  im- 
by  joining  together  two  of  the  old  V  characters, !  portance  only  in  connection  with  a  general  alphabet 
was  thence  caBed  *  double  V ' — ^pronounced,  accord-  available  for  all  languages.  An  alphabet  for  any 
ing  to  the  old  sound  of  V,  *  double  U.'  The  phonetic  individual  language  might  contain  symbols  for  corn- 
principle  was  fully  Tec6gD\8ed  in  these  changes,  i>ound  sounds,  with  no  other  disadvantage  than  that 
and  tliey  famish  precedent  for  further  changes,  of  adding  to  the  number  of  symbols.  It  would  not, 
W'hen  a  necessity  for  them  shall  be  sufficiently  felt  for  instance,  be  of  any  consequence,  so  far  as  phonetic 
and  acknowledged.  |  writing  is  concerned,  whether  the  word  sacks  were 

There  can  ho  no  doubt  that  phonetic  writing  represented  by  the  letters  saks,  sacs,  or  sax,  so  that 
would  greatly  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  the  power  the  symbols  used  were  ifivariably  appropriated  to 
of  reamng,  and  consequently  of  the  education  of  the  same  sounds.  Orthoepists  and  phoneticians  are 
childzen  and  illiterate  adulto;  as  well  as  tend  to   not  agreed  as  to  what  elements  compose  many  of 


PHONETIC  WRITING. 


our  compound  sounds,  such  as  those  heard  in  the 
words  atair^  queen,  tune,  /,  (mt,  &c  Any  attempt, 
thei'efore,  at  representinc  compounds  analvtically 
would  be  premature,  untu  the  analysis  of  toe  com- 
pounds had  been  settled.  This  analysis  would  be 
absolutely  necessary  for  a  general  alphabet}  but  not 
so  for  an  alphabet  for  any  single  language.  Phon- 
etic  writing,  then,  should  be  separately  considered, 
as  a  means  of  representing  the  elementary  sounds  of 
all  languages,  and  as  a  method  of  symbolising  the 
pronunciation  of  any  one  language  only.  We  shall 
now  shew  the  nature  of  the  attempts  that  have 
been  made  for  the  phonetic  writing  of  English. 

Dr  Franklin,  in  1768,  proposed  a  phonetic  alpha- 
bet for  Enffliah,  in  which  new  symbols  were  intro- 
duced for  the  vowels  heard  in  the  words  on  and  up, 
and  the  four  consonants  heard  in  the  words  9ke,  they, 
and  thing.  Many  other  schemes  have  been  from 
time  to  time  proposed;  but  the  only  alphabets 
which  have  been  practically  applied  on  a  large  scale 
are  those  of  Dr  Oomstodi:  in  America,  and  Messrs 
Ellis  and  Pitman  in  England.  The  object  of  ex- 
perimenters in  this  department  has  generally  been 
to  make  use  of  existing  letters  as  far  as  possible, 
and  only  to  supplement  deficiencies  by  new  forms. 
The  common  alphabet  has  been  made  to  furnish 
almost  a  sufficient  number  of  characters  by  the 
inversion  of  some  of  its  letters — tlius«  a.  A,  v,  o,  e, 
S,  q,  &C.,  as  in  the  *  Anti-absurd  *  alphabet  of  Major 
Beniowski ;  but  the  best  scheme  of  phonotypes  that 
has  yet  been  introduced  was  the  joint  production 
of  IVA:  Isaac  Pitman,  the  inventor  of  the  first  system 
of  phonetic  shorthand  writing,  and  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis, 
B.A.  of  Cambridge,  a  most  accomplished  mathema- 
tician and  linguist.  This  alphabet  was  completed 
in  1847 ;  and  the  experiment  of  its  introduction 
was  carried  out  with  great  diligence  and  persever- 
ance by  its  promoters,  until  an  arm  v  of  philanthropic 
assistants  became  enlisted  in  all  parts  of  Great 
Britain  and  America.  Primers  and  school-books 
were  issued,  and  tested  on  juvenile  and  adult 
classes;  many  works  of  standard  literature,  and 
even  the  entire  Bible,  were  translated  into  the  new 
spelling ;  magazines  were  published,  and  ultimately 
a  newspaper,  printed  in  the  phonetic  character,  was 
started  by  the  enterprising  orthographic  reformers. 
In  this  scheme  of  phonotypes,  diphthongal  and 
articulate  compounds  were  not  analysed,  and  the 
letters  of  the  ordinary  alphabet  were  retained 
in  their  most  common  signification,  seventeen  new 
characters  being  introduced  for  unrepresented  or 
ambiguously  written  sounds.  The  forms  of  these 
were,  in  most  cases,  happily  suggestive  of  the 
displaced  orthography,  and  the  eeneral  aspect  of 
the  writing  bore  sudi  a  resemblance  to  common 
typography,  that  any  good  reader  of  the  latter  could 
decimier  the  new  printing  with  ease,  after  a  veiy 
brief  study  of  the  alphabet.  The  ordinary  vowel 
letters  (A,  £,  I,  0,  U)  were  pronounced  as  in  the 
words  QTn,  eU,  itt,  on,  up  ;  the  consonants  C  and  G 
were  sounded  as  in  came  and  game;  the  letters  K,  Q, 
X  were  rejected  at  superfluous,  and  all  the  otiier 
letters  of  the  common  alphabet  were  retained,  with 
their  established  sounds.  Comparing  this  scheme 
of  letters  with  the  tabulated  elementary  sounds  of 
English,  we  find  that  it  represents  all  the  vowels, 
except  the  nice  varieties  heuti  in  the  words  air,  ore, 
err,  ash;  and  that  all  the  consonants  are  accurately 
represented  except  wh.  The  latter  element  is  written 
by  letters  soundmg  hoo,  so  that  the  words  where  and 
whoever  are  made  identical  to  the  eye ;  and  the 
sentence, '  I  saw  the  man  whet  the  knife,*  is  written, 
*  I  saw  the  man  lo/io  aJte  the  knife.' 

Notwithstanding  these  -imperfections,  this  alpha- 
bet was  found  to  work  well  among  tibose  who  were 

disposed  for  a  reform.    The  phonetic  method  was 
600 


proved  to  be  remarkably  simple  and  easy  in  com- 
parison with  the  ordinary  system ;  the  time  occupied 
in  makinff  fluent  readers  was  greatly  reduced ;  and 
readers  of  phonetic  printing  experienced  but  little 
difficulty  in  the  transition  to  reading  from  conunoo 
orthography. 

The  advantages  claimed  for  the  system  vera 
chiefly :  rapidity  of  learning  to  read«  certainty  M 
pronunciation,  and  increasi^  facility  in  common 
reading,  after  the  power  of  phonetic  reading  had 
been  acquired.  The  chief  disadvantasea  aUeged 
against  tne  system  were :  accustoming  me  eye  to  a 
false  orthography,  and  teaching  what  had  to  be  Id 
great  part  unlearned  after  it  was  acquired.  Whether 
the  objectors  were  right  or  wrong,  they  were  0Te^ 
poweringly  numerous,  and  the  system  failed  to  do 
more  than  prove  that  phonetic  spelling  greatly 
simplifies  the  acquisition  of  the  power  of  reading. 

The  original  phonotypic  alphabet^  descxibed  sboTe, 
has  been  for  some  years  discarded  in  the  printins 
issued  from  the  *  Phonetic  Institution*  (Bath),  a&d 
a  more  analytic  alphabet  has  been  adopted,  in 
which  deven,  instead  of  seventeen,  new  forms  are 
introduced.  The  latest  edition  of  this  alphabet 
gives  the  ordinary  vowel  letters  A,  E,  I,  0  for  the 
sounds  in  the  woids  am,  ell,  ill,  on,  and  the  letter  U 
for  the  sound  in  pull;  R  is  restored,  and  C  rejected; 
J  is  used  as  in  French ;  and  the  elementary  sonnd 
of  wh  is  still  unacknowledged.  The  eleven  new 
characters  represent  the  consonants  in  the  words 
she,  oath,  they,  and  {B)ing;  and  the  vowels  in  the 
words  ale,  ee/,  oItha,  old,  all,  pool,  up. 

The  following  are  the  forms  of  the  new  letters  as 
printed  and  written,  with  a  passage  exhibiting  their 
appearance  in  composition. 

This  Phonetic  Alphabet  consists  of  34  letten, 
viz.,  the  23  useful  letters  of  the  conunon  alphabet 
(c,  q,  and  x  being  reiected),  and  ike  11  new  ones 
below.  J  is  used  for  the  French  j  (zh),  or  g  in  *edye,* 
or  «  in  '  virion ; '  hence  4/  represents  J  in  John,  and 
dg  in  edge,  Tq  {t  sh)  represents  ch  in  ches*,  and 
tA  in  catch,  i  and  w  are  consonants ;  wh  lieing 
replaced  by  hw.  The  vowels  a,  e,  i^  o,  u  have 
invariably  the  short  soimds  heard  in  jKii,  ptt,  jni, 
pot,  put.  All  the  other  old  letters  have  their  usual 
signification.  The  italic  letters  in  the  words  in  the 
tmrd  line  denote  the  sounim  of  the  lettera 


VOWELS. 

c#  a   Z  e    on £}*»  P& 

«^*.- 

-^P 

fifl   8e   *i  —  Oo,  CTor, 

TUui- 

-3ir 

ohns,  age,atr,  «at     — —     aU,       ope. 

fbod    — 

—  Ml.lwt. 

sms,  edj,  er,    it     ol,      op, 

find    » 

— ssii,bst 

DIPHTHONGS. 

Bi,     ei,     oi,     on. 

ojr,      l>jr,      boy,     no*, 
fii,      bei,     boi,     nou* 


GONSOKAXrS. 

tAe,        ttin,       Ocn,       naf. 
gi,       bin,       doa,      sif^ 

The  double  loiter  tc,  sa  in  unit,  units,  dmip,  ^atms,  m 
written  ttius :  "  yuinit,  yuneit,  diuiti,  raliu."  VThen  ai,  ei, 
make  a  disaynahic  diphthong,  the  Mcond  letter  is  y^»r^-^ 

w  itb  a  dieereais ;  thus,  tolfaXif,  «o^. 

*<  'Tiz  de  meind  dat  melcs  de  boA  rit^; 

and  ax  de  ssn  breks  brui  de  darkest  kJnnds^ 

ser  onor  'pireb  in  de  mineat  habit. 

^  Hwot !  S  iz  de  dj8  mm  preQ'^  dan  de  \a*%^ 

bikos  his  federz  ar  mor  biuitiful ; 

or  S  iz  de  ader  beter  dan  de  il, 

bikoz  his  pented  skin  kontenta  de  el 

CT  ner,  gud  Ket ;  neider  art  dou  de  wsra 

for  dis  puir  fsrnitiur  and  min  ars." 


PHONETIC  WRITING. 


The  rednetion  in  the  number  of  lettfera  from  that 
in  the  Ellis  and  Pitman  alphabet  is  obtained 
chiefly  at  the  expense  of  the  phonetic  principle,  in 
the  attempt  to  analyse  diphthongs  in  writing,  before 
their  correct  phonic  analysis  has  been  ascertained 
and  settled.  Tnns,  the  compound  sound  in  the  word 
iMf,  before  represented  by  a  single  character,  is  now 
Analysed  into  the  elementary  vowels  heard  in  the 
words  ill  and  pool;  the  diphthong  in  the  word  oir^ 
\B  analysed  into  the  elementary  sounds  in  on  and 
pull ;  and  the  diphthong  in  the  word  ide  is  analysed 
into  the  elements  heard  in  dl  and  UL 

The  original  phonotypic  alphabet  was  of  proved 
value  as  an  initiatory  alphaoet,  from  which  the 
transition  to  reading  from  ordinary  orthography 
was  easy,  and  on  this  ground  it  had  many  advo- 
cates ;  the  recent  modifications,  which  are  doubtful 
improvements,  have  been  introduced  apparently 
with  the  view  rather  of  superteding  established 
orthography,  and  on  this  ground,  it  is  to  be  feared, 
the  'reformed'  phonetic  alphabet  will  meet  with 
comparativelv  few  supporters. 

But  the  full  advantiiges  of  the  phonetic  principle 
are  not  secured  to  uie  learner  while  phonetic 
writing  is  used  only  as  introductory  to  common 
reading.  Phonetic  spelling  would  require  to  be 
authoritatively  established,  so  as  to  be  irreproach- 
able in  ordinary  use,  otherwise  the  learner  has  still 
to  master  the  more  difficult  orthography  after  the 
phonetic  mode  has  been  learne£  At  present, 
spelling  is  the  test  of  a  good  vernacular  education, 
and  the  applicability  of  this  test  phonetic  writing 
tends  to  destroy. 

But  may  not  the  advantages  of  phoneticism,  so 
far  as  simplifyinjc;  the  acquisition  of  reading  is  con- 
cerned,  be  obtained  by  the  phonetic  teaching  of 
ordinary  letters,  and  without  any  alphabetic  change? 
finch  a  result  is  undoubtedly  practicable,  as  by  Mr 
Beirs  method  (in  his  nursery-book  of  Letters  and 
Sounds)  of  shewing  the  orthography  of  a  word  and 
its  sound  together,  and  teaching  the  latter  only 
while  the  learner's  eye  is  accustomed  to  the  former 
also.      Thus,  the    words   foq/",  debt,  tcife,  wreath, 
ttroiffhl^  Ac.,  are  printed  lo"f,  de»>t,  wife,  wre«th, 
straight,  ftc.    The  associations  of  orthography  are 
chiefly  fixed  by  the  eye,  and  this  plan  for  learners 
preserves  the  pictoriid  aspect  of  words,  and  shews 
at  once  the  phonetic  spmling  and  the  established 
orthography. 

But  the  question  recnrs :  Why  should  established 
orthography  be  unphonetic?     Or,  at  least,   why 
should  not  some  national  measures  be  adopted  to 
correct  the  anomalies  of  our  spelling?    A  similar 
work  wras  undertaken  by  the  Spanish  Academy  in 
the   middle  of  last   century,   and  carried  out  so 
efficiently  that,  at  the  present  day,  the  pronun- 
ciation  of    any  word   in  Spanish  is  immediately 
determined  with    certainty  by   every  reader  who 
merely  knows  the  phonetic  value  of  the  alphabetic 
characters.    The  writing  of  the  Italian,  Dutch,  and 
many  other  languages  has  also  been  successfully 
phoneticised.      A  similar  result  would  be  attained 
in  English,  if  the  work  of  orthographic  revision  were 
submitted  to  a  competent  tribunal,  and  if   such 
changes  as  might  be  found  necessary  were  duly 
sanctioned  by  authority.    New  letters  should  l>e 
added  to  the  alphabet  for  the  six  unrepresented 
simple  consonant  sounds,  Sh,  Zh,  Th,  Dh,  Wh,  Ng  ; 
or,    at   all  events,  the  writing  of  these  elements 
shonid  be  made  distinctive ;  and,  with  a  few  rules 
f<nr  distinguiiBhing  the  vowel  sounds,  Uttie  alteration 
of   spelling  wouM  be  needed  to  approximate  the 
writing  of  English  to  phonetic  accuracy. 

A  general  phonetic  alphabet,  available  for  the 
writing  of  ail  the  sounds  of  human  speech,  is  still  a 
•cientilic  desideratuffl.    Such  aa  alphabet  would  be 


of  great  practical  value  to  travellers,  colonists, 
missionaries,  and  philologists.  Much  attention  has 
been  paid  to  this  subject  of  late  years.  In  1854,  a 
conference  of  philologists  was  held  in  London,  at 
which  two  rival  alphabets  were  produced,  one  by 
Professor  Lepsius  of  Berlin,  and  another  by  Pro- 
fessor Max  MUller  of  Oxford.  The  former  has  been 
adopted  by  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  but  so 
many  local  diversities  in  the  value  of  the  characters 
have  been  found  necessary  in  different  countries, 
that  this  *  Universal  Alphabet'  has  been  practically 
split  up  into  several  alphabets.  The  writing  is, 
besides,  overladen  with  diacritical  points.  In  the 
alphabet  of  Professor  Max  MUller,  the  latter  diffi- 
culty is  obviated  by  a  free  use  of  compound  letters. 
The  Lectures  on  the  Science  of  Language  by  this 
author  may  be  consulted  with  great  advantage,  both 
as  to  the  physiology  of  speech  and  the  history  of 
words.  In  the  second  series  of  these  Lectures, 
diagrams  of  the  organic  formation  of  many  of  the 
elements  of  8})eech  are  given,  as  well  as  a  compara- 
tive table  of  four  alphabets  that  have  been  used 
in  the  transcription  of  Sanskrit,  and  numerous 
references  to  the  works  of  continental  and  other 
writers  who  have  treated  of  the  science  of  phonetics. 

The  most  elaborate  scheme  of  a  universal  alpha- 
bet hitherto  published  is  that  of  Mr  A.  J.  Ellis.  In 
this  alphabet  94  soun48  are  discriminated  by 
means  of  an  ingenious  system  of  compound  letters, 
but  the  comjUexity  of  the  writing  forbids  the 
possibility  of  its  *  universal*  adoption. 

The  chief  difficulty  in  the  construction  of  a 
universal  alphabet  has  arisen  from  the  want  of 
a  complete  classification  of  elementary  sounds ; 
another  difficulty  has  been  created  by  an  adherence 
to  the  inadequate  letters  of  the  Koman  alphabet. 
The  resolutions  of  the  alphabetic  conference  were 
decidedly  in  favour  of  Roman  letters  as  the  basis  of 
the  proposed  'standard'  alphabet.  But  the  wisdom 
of  this  decision  may  be  questioned.  No  existing 
alphabet  exhibits  the  natural  relations  of  the  sounds 
it  represents;  and,  consequently,  although  an  alpha- 
bet physiologically  complete  were  framed,  it  could 
not  incorporate  Roman,  Greek,  or  any  other  letters 
at  present  in  use,  without  sacrificing  the  most 
essential  qualities  of  a  universal  alphabet — simplicity 
and  congruity.  Symbols  mdst  oe  devised  which 
would  indicate  to  the  eye  all  the  organic  relations 
discoverable  by  the  ear  between  the  various  ele- 
ments, and  which  would  be  free  from  the  associations 
that  would  attach  to  adopted  letters  familiar  to  the 
eye  with  other  meanings. 

A  general  or  ]>anethnic  alphabet  must,  of  course, 
embody  an  exhaustive  classification  of  sounds,  and 
its  characters  should  be  designed  to  be  pictoriallif 
suggestive  of  the  organic  actions  which  produce 
the  sounds,  so  as  to  be  universally  intdHisible. 
In  this  way,  a  person .  who  had  never  heard  the 
language  or  the  sound  might  pronounce  it  from  the 
physiological  writing,  if  ne  were  only  acquainted 
with  the  modes  of  action  of  the  organs  of  speech, 
and  the  representative  principle  of  the  alpnabet. 
By  means  of  such  a  scneme  of  symbols,  all  the 
sounds  of  every  language,  including  even  the  laugh, 
the  sigh,  the  murmur,  the  groan,  the  snore,  uie 
lisp,  the  burr,  and  the  imitative  sounds  practised  by 
ventriloquists,  as  well  as  the  modulative  distinctions 
of  tiie  Chinese,  the  Hottentot  Clicks,  and  tiie  pecu- 
liar inspiratory  sounds  indulged  in  by  savages, 
might  be  represented  phoneticidly  with  the  utmost 
directive  precision,  and  by  a  wonderfully  small 
number  of  radical  characters.  If  ever  the  Utopian 
dream  of  a  universal  language  is  to  be  realised,  its 
alphabet  must  be  phonetic,  and  its  elementary 
s^bols  not  selected  from  old  alphabets,  but  new, 
cfeeigned  from  the  mouth,  pictorial  or  analogical. 

Ml 


PHONOMANIA— PH0SPHATE3. 


and  forming  a  *iriuble  speech.'  See  Visiblk 
Sfsboh.  Phonetic  writing  on  such  a  basis  would 
not  encounter  the  prejuoices  that  have  hitherto 
defeated  the  efforts  of  orthographic  reformers; 
and  it  would  be  of  considerable  immediate  service 
to  linguists,  besides  being  a  beginning  and  a  promise 
of  the  widest  utility.  For  phonetic  shorthand 
writing,  see  Shorthand. 

PHONOMA'NIA.    See  Homicidal  Mania. 

PHO'SGENE  GAS,  known  also  as  Oxychloride 
OF  Carbon  or  Chlorocarbonic  Acid,  is  repre- 
sented bv  the  formula  COCl,  or  more  correctly  by 
its  double  (COCl),.  It  is  a  colourless,  suffocating 
gas,  which  is  formed  by  exposing  equal  measures  o! 
carbonic  oxide  and  chlorine  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  sun,  when  they  combine  and  become  condensed 
into  half  their  volume.  It  does  not  possess  any 
acid  characters,  but  water  decomposes  it  into  carltonic 
and  hydrochloric  acids,  as  is  shewn  by  the  equation 
(COCl)j  +  2H0  =  2C0,  +  2HC1.  This  gas  is  of  great 
interest  in  relation  to  the  artificial  production  of 
Urea  (q.  v.)  from  inorganic  matter. 

PHO'SI*HATBS  (m  Physiology).  The  foUow- 
ing  phosphates*  play  an  active  part  in  the  chemistry 
of  the  animal  boay. 

Phosphate  of  Soda^  which  may  occur  under  any 
one  of  the  three  forms  SNaCPOg,  or  2NaO,HO,P08, 
or  NaO,2HO,PO..  All  these  salts  are  soluble  in 
water ;  and  the  hrst  two  have  an  alkaline  reaction, 
while  the  third  is  acid.  By  exposure  of  the  second 
of  these  salts  (2NaO,HO,P05)  to  a  red  heat,  it  is 
converted  into  what  is  termed  pi/rophosphate  of 
toda  (2NaO,POg),  in  which  the  phosphoric  acid  is 
obviously  no  longer  tribasic,  but  bibasic ;  and  by 
similarly  treating  the  third  of  these  salts 
(NaO,2HO,POg),  we  convert  it  into  the  so-called 
metaphosphcUe  of  aoda  (NaO,P03),  in  which  the 
phosphoric  acid  is  monobasic  It  is  in  consequence 
of  these  changes  under  the  action  of  heat,  that  the 
terms  pyi'ophosphoric  and  metaphosphoric  have  been 
used  as  synonyms  for  bibasic  and  monchcLsic  pfios- 
pJiOTic  acids.  Phosphate  of  soda,  in  one  or  other  of 
the  above  forms,  occurs  as  a  constituent  of  all  the 
animal  fluids  and  soft  tissues  of  the  body,  but  is 
especially  abundant  in  the  lu-ine  and  tiie  bile. 
There  are  reasons  for  believing  that  it  is  the 
second  and  third  of  these  salts  which  occur  as  con- 
stituents of  the  animal  body,  although  the  first  may 
possibly  sometimes  be  found.  Pyrophosphate  and 
metaphosphate  of  soda  are  often  found  in  the  ashes 
of  animal  fluids  or  tissues  after  the  process  of 
incineration,  but  they  merely  result  from  the  action 
of  heat  on  the  two  other  salts.  The  following 
remarks  on  the  derivation,  elimination,  and  physio- 
logical importance  of  the  phosphate  of  soda,  are 
equally  applicable  to  the  corresponding  salts  of 
potash,  which  are  always  associated  with  them. 
The  phosphates  of  the  alkahes,  which  occur  in  the 
animal  body,  obviously  owe  their  origin,  either 
directly  or  indirectly,  to  the  food ;  viz.,  (urectly,  by 
being  ingested  as  phosphates  of  the  alkalies;  or 
indi^tly  (within  the  system),  by  the  action  of 
phosphate  of  lime  on  salts  of  the  alkalies.  The 
elimination  of  these  salts  from  the  system  is  neces- 
sary, because  the^  are  being  constantly  supplied  by 
the  food ;  and  this  process  is  effected  mainly  by  the 
kidneys  and  the  intestinal  canaL  In  the  carniv- 
orous animals,  whose  blood  is  much  richer  in  phos- 
phates than  that  of  herbivora  (the  ash  of  the  blood 
of  the  dog,  for  example,  contains  from  12  to  14  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  while  that  of  the  ox  or 

*  The  means  of  distinguishing  between  the  salts  of 
tribasic,  bibasio,  and  monobasic  phosphorio  aoid,  are 
given  in  the  artide  Phosphorus.  t 

603  ' 


sheep  does  not  contun  more  than  from  4  to  6), 
these  salts  are  carried  off  by  the  urine ;  but  in  coa- 
sequence  of  the  formation  of  free  acids  as  producU 
of  the  disintegration  of  the  tissues,  a  portion  of  Uie 
base  is  abstracted  from  the  originally  alkaline  phos- 
phates, and  a  corresponding  portion  of  phosphoric 
acid  is  liberated.  The  originally  alkaline  iaXt  is  thai 
rendered  neutral  or  even  acid ;  and  the  occanenoe 
of  the  acid  phosphate  of  soda,  NaO,2HO^(,  in 
the  urine  is  thus  explained.  In  the  herbivorcMu 
animaU,  on  the  other  hand,  the  urine  contains  no 
phosphates,  the  whole  of  the  phosphoric  acid  taken 
m  their  food  being  eliminated  by  the  intestinal 
canal  in  the  form* of  the  insoluble  phosphates  of 
lime  and  magnesia.  Although  the  general  diMii- 
bution  of  the  phosphates  of  the  aUcalies  in  the 
nutrient  fluids  (there  is  40  j)er  cent,  of  them  in  the 
ash  of  the  blood-ceils ;  2S'4  per  cent,  of  pfaospboiic 
acid  and  23*5  of  potash  in  tne  ash  of  cow's  milk; 
and  about  70  per  cent,  of  phi>sphoric  acid  in  the 
ash  of  the  yelk  of  egg)  is  in  itself  an  Indication  of 
their  importance,  the  exact  nature  of  their  functions 
is  not  completely  understood.  liebig  has  specially 
drawn  attention  to  the  peculiar  grouping  of  the 
acid  and  alkaline  fluids  of  the  animal  body.  The 
permanence  of  this  grouping  is  chiefly  maintained, 
es{)ecial1y  in  herbivorous  animals,  by  the  conversion, 
within  the  body,  of  alkaline  and  neutral  phosphates 
into  acid  phosphates  by  the  means  aJready  de- 
scribed. Moreover,  all  tissue-forming  substances 
(the  protein  bodies)  are  so  closely  connected  with 
phosphates,  that  they  remain  associated  during  the 
solution  and  subsequent  re-precipitation  of  theft; 
substances ;  and  the  ash  of  developed  tissues  (such 
as  muscle,  lung,  liver,  &c.)  always  affoixls  evidence 
that  acid  pho8j)hates  existed  in  the  recent  tiasoe; 
and,  further,  no  exudation  from  the  blood-vessels 
can  undergo  transformation  into  cells  and  fibres,  or, 
in  other  words,  become  organised,  unless,  in  additicm 
to  other  conditions,  phosphates  are  also  present 
Another  very  convincing  proof  of  the  share  taken 
by  the  phosphates  in  the  formation  and  functions  of 
the  tissue,  is  the  fact,  that  although  herbivorooi 
animals  take  up  a  very  small  quantity  of  phosphates 
in  their  food,  and  although  their  blood  is  very  poor 
in  these  salts,  their  tissues  contain  as  large  a  pro- 
portion  of  phosphates  as  the  corresponding  parts  of 
camivora.  Lastly,  the  fact,  that  one  equivalent  of 
the    alkaline   phosphate   of   soda    (2NaO,HOJ*0s) 

Possesses  the  property  of  absorbing  as  much  car- 
onic  acid  as  two  equivalents  of  caroonate  of  soda, 
leads  us  to  the  belief,  that  the  power  of  attracting 
carbonic  acid,  which  the  serum  of  the  blood  pL«- 
sesses,  is  due  at  least  as  much  to  the  phosphate  as 
to  the  carbonate  of  soda,  and  that,  consequently, 
phosphate  of  soda  plays  an  important  part  in  the 
respiratory  process. 

Phosphate  of  Lime  occurs  in  the  organism  in  two 
fomts,  viz.,  as  the  neutral  or  basic  phosphate, 
3CaO,POs,  and  the  acid  phosphate,  2Ca6,HO  J*0:, 
The  neutral  phosphate  occurs  in  all  the  solids  aod 
fluids  of  the  body,  but  is  most  abundant  in  the 
bones,  in  which  it  amounts  to  about  57  per  eeat ; 
and  in  the  enamel  of  the  teeth,  in  which  it  ranges 
from  80  to  90  per  cent.  It  may  at  first  sight  appetf 
inexplicable  how  a  salt  so  perfectly  insoluble  m 
water  as  neutral  phosphate  of  lime,  can  be  held  in 
solution  in  the  animal  fluids.  In  some  fluids,  as  the 
blood,  it  is  probably,  in  part  at  least,  combined  with 
albumen,  with  which  it  forms  a  soluUe  compound ; 
while  in  other  fluids,  as  the  urine,  it  is  held  in 
solution  by  a  free  acid  or  by  certain  salts  (as,  for 
example,  chloride  of  sodium),  whose  watery  aolutiooi 
are  more  or  less  able  to  dissolve  it.  If  any  prooi  is 
wanted  of  the  functions  of  this  salt  in  relation  to  the 
bones,  it  is  afforded  by  the  well-lmown  experimeol 


PHOSPHATIC  DIATHESIS-  PHOSPHORESCENCE, 


of  Choesat,  who  shewed  that  when  too  small  a 
qaantity  of  it  is  taken  with  the  food,  the  bones  lose 
more  or  less  of  their  hardness  and  finnoess,  and 
fractures  do  not  readily  unite.    Phosphate  of  lime, 
like  the  phosphates  of  the  alkaUes,  is  indispensable 
to  oell-forroation ;  and  as  a  good  illustration  of  this 
fact,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  the  mantle  of 
the  molluscs  (where  new  cells  for  the  fonnation  of 
shell  abound)  this  salt  is  far  more  abundant  than  in 
any  other  part  of  the  body.    Although  by  far  the 
greater  quantity  of  the  phosphate  of  Time  found  in 
the  body  has  doubtless  pre-existed  in  the  food,  yet 
it  is  unquestionable,  that  a  part  of  it  is  formed 
within  the  organism  by  the  action  of  carbonate  of 
lime  on  the  phosphoric  acid  that  is  formed  during 
the    disintegration    of   the    pho6i>horus-containing 
tissues,  such  as  the  brain,  for  example.     In  man 
and  carnivorous  animals,  a  certain  portion  of  the 
phosphate  of  lime  is  eliminated  by  the  kidne3rs,  and 
the  rest  is  carried  off  in  the  excrements ;  while  in 
herbivorous  animals  the  whole  is  carried  off  in  the 
excrements.    The  acid  phosphate  of  lime  is  occa- 
sionally found  in  the  unne  of  man  and  carnivorous 
animals,  but  is  of  no  practical  importance.    For  a 
notice  of  the  amount  of  earthy  phosphates  daily 
eliminated  by  the  kidneys,  the  reaaer  is  referred  to 
the  article  Urine. 

BaMe  Phosphaie  of  Magnesia,  SMgOJ^Og,  is 
anal<^us,  botii  in  its  chemical  and  physiological  | 
relations,  to  the  corresponding  salt  of  lime,  with  which 
it  is  always  associatecL  The  abundance  of  this  salt 
in  the  seeds  of  the  cereals,  and  in  the  other  ordinary 
articles  uf  vegetable  diet,  sufficiently  explains  its 
presence  in  the  system.  A  far  less  amount  of  this 
salt,  than  of  the  corresponding  lime-salt,  seems  to 
be  required  by  the  organism,  as  is  shewn  by  the 
relative  quantities  in  which  thev  occur  in  bone 
(57  of  the  former  to  1*3  of  the  latter),  and  as  is 
further  indicated  by  the  fact,  that,  relatively,  far 
more  of  this  than  of  the  lime-salt  escapes  intes- 
tinal absorption,  and  appears  in  the  excrements. 

The  only  phosphates  remaining  to  be  noticed  are 
the  phoitpfiaU  of  ammonia  ana  magnetia^  or,  as 
it  is  sometimes  termed,  the  triple  phosphate, 
2MgO,lSH40,POB  +  2Aq,  which  occurs  in  beautiful 
prismatic  crystals  in  alkaline  urine,  and,  indeed,  in 
any  specimen  of  urine  that  is  beginning  to  putrefy, 
and  the  pftotphaJte  of  soda  and  ammonia,  which  is 
occaaioiuuly  found  as  a  crystalline  sediment  in 
putrid  urine. 

PHOSPHA'TIO  DIA'THESIS,  in  Medicine, 
desigiiates  the  condition  in  which  there  is  a  tendency 
in  the  urine  to  deposit  white  graveL  As  the  deposit 
of  lithates  (see  Lithio  Acid  Diathesis)  depends 
upon  an  excessive  acidity  of  the  urine,  so  that  of  the 
phosphates  is  determined  by  the  opposite  condition 
— namely,  by  deficient  acidi^,  or  by  positive  alkales- 
cence. Alkalescence  of  the  urine  may  occur  from 
two  distinct  causes — ^viz.  (1)  from  the  presence  of 
the  carbonate  of  a  fixed  alkali  (potash,  or  soda),  or 
of  alkaline  phosphate  of  soda  (see  Phosphates 
in  Physiolo^);  or  (2)  from  the  presence  of  the 
carbonate  ot  the  volatile  alkali,  ammonia,  which 
is  due  to  the  decomposition  of  urea.  This  decom- 
position is  due  to  the  fermenting  action  of  the 
mucus  of  the  bladder  on  the  urea,  and  is  explained 

CartionaM  of 
Ammonia 


Water 


by  the  equation— C,0-N,H4  -»■  2H0  =  2(NHj,C0J. 
The  -white  gravel  whicn  is  deposited  in  the  second 
of  these  conditions — viz.,  when  the  urine  con- 
tains carbonate  of  ammonia,  is  composed  of  minute 
shining  prismatic  crystals  of  the  tiiple  phosphate 
of  ammonia  and  magnesia,  whose  formula  is  given 
in  the  article  Phosphates.  This  salt  is  formed 
AS    follows:    Healthy    urine   contains    phosphate 


of  ma^esia  in  a  state  of  solution.     If,  however. 
'  the  unne  become  alkaline  from  the  decomposition 
I  of  the  urea,  a  portion  of  the  ammonia  combine* 
I  with  the  phosphate  of  magnesia,  and  forms  the 
'  triple  salt  which  is  insoluble  m  the  urine,  which  has 
'  now  become  alkaline.    With  this  triple  phosphate, 
I  there  is  almost  always  an  admixture  of  phosphate 
'  of  lime  (SCaOfPOg)  in  the  form  of  an   amorphous 
precipitate.     The  tendency  to  deposit  the  mixed 
phosphates  (triple  plio6])hate  and  amorphous  phos- 
phate of  lime)  is  especially  observed  m  cases  of 
disease  or  injury  of  the  spinal  cord,  and  in  disease  of 
the  bladder,  particularly  in  chronic  inflammation  of 
its  mucous  coat.    Upon  allowing  urine  of  this  kind, 
which  is  usually  pale  in  colour,  to  stand  for  some 
time,  an  iridescent  film  or  pellicle  generally  forma 
upon  its  surface,  which,  when  exammed  under  the 
microscope,  is  found  to  consist  mainly  of  the  salts 
we  have  described.     Such  urine  spec^lily  becomes 
putrid,  and  evolves  a  strong  anmioniacal  odour. 

The  above  is  by  far  the  most  common  form  of  the 
phosphatic  deposits,  but,  as  has  been  already  stated, 
the  urine  may  become  alkaline  from  the  presence  • 
of  the  carbonate  of  potash  or  soda;  and  then, 
no  ammonia  being  present,  in  place  of  the  triple 
salt,  there  is  a  deposition  of  amorphous  phosphate 
of  lime,  or  in  rare  cases,  of  a  crystalline  stellar 
phosphate,  whose  composition,  according  to  Dr 
Bence  Jones,  is  represented  bv  2CaO,UO,P6g  {Joum, 
of  Chem,  Sac  vol.  15).  In  these  cases,  the  urine  is 
idkaline,  pale,  copious,  slightly  turbid,  of  low  specific 
gravity,  and  of  a  peculiar  odour.  This  urine  makes 
reddened  litmus  paper  permanently  blue;  while 
ammoniacal  urine  causes  only  a  temporary  change  in 
the  colour  of  the  same  test-paper.  As  the  urine 
cools,  and  sometimes  even  in  the  bladder,  the  white 
sand  is  deix>3ited,  occasionally  giving  the  last  por- 
tion of  the  excreted  urine  a  milky  appearance. 
During  perfect  health,  the  urine  often  becomes  tem- 
porarily alkaline  during  the  act  of  digestion  (when 
the  gastric  juice  is  especially  acid) ;  but  as  a  general 
rule,  the  tendency  to  alkalescence  from  a  fixed 
alkali,  and  therefore  te  phosphatic  depositai,  is  asso* 
ciated  with  general  debUity.  These  deposits  occur 
for  the  most  part  in  sallow,  languid,  unhealthy- 
looking  persons,  whose  vital  energies  have  been 
depressed  by  mental  anxiety,  by  insufficient  food, 
or  by  sexual  excesses. 

In  both  forms  of  alkaline  urine,  and  therefore  of 
phosphatic  deposits,  a  generous  diet  and  tonics,  such 
as  bark,  wine,  and  the  mineral  acids  (given  before 
meals),  are  of  great  service ;  and  opium  is  usually 
of  great  value,  if  judiciously  administered.  Small 
doses  of  benzoic  acid,  twice  or  thrice  a  day,  with 
the  view  of  restoring  the  acidity  to  the  urine,  and 
the  occasional  washing-out  of  the  bladder  with  tepid 
injections,  have  been  also  found  serviceable  in  th» 
ammoniacal  form  of  the  disease. 

PHOSPHORB'SCENCR  Strictiy  speaking,  the 
term  is  applied  to  the  phenomenon,  exhibited  bv 
certain  bcxiies,  of  remaining  luminous  in  the  dark 
for  some  time  after  being  exposed  to  a  strong  light. 
In  this  sense,  it  is  strictly  analogous  to,  perhaps  we 
should  say,  identical  with,  the  Heating  of  bodies  bv 
exposure  to  light  or  radiant  heat.  Thev  absorb 
part  of  the  energy  of  the  vibrations  which  fall  on 
them ;  it  becomes  motion  of  their  x>articles ;  and  is 
again  radiated  from  them  as  light  or  heat.  Certain 
preparations,  such  as  Canton's  Phosphorus  (q.  v.), 
indurated  luneetone,  &a,  possess  this  true  phos- 
phorescence in  a  very  high  d^ree.  With  the  great 
majority  of  phosphorescent  bodies,  however,  the 
duration  of  the  phenomenon  is  very  short,  rarelv 
more  than  a  small  fraction  of  a  second.  Beoquerel, 
who  has  recently  studied  this  phenomenon  with 
great  care,  has  invented  a  very  ingenious  instniment 


PHOSPHORESCENCE-PHOSPHORUa 


for  the  pnrpoAs,  called  a  pho9phoT09oop€»  The 
body  to  be  tried  Is  phiced  in  a  small  drum,  which 
has  an  opening  at  each  end.  In  this  drum  there 
mvolve  two  discs,  mounted  on  the  same  axle,  and 
pierced  symmetrically  with  the  same  number  of 
Aoles.  i!hey  are  so  adjusted,  that  when  a  hole  in 
<me  disc  is  opposite  to  the  hole  in  the  corresponding 
•nd  of  the  drum,  the  second  disc  closes  the  hole  at 
Its  end  of  the  drum,  and  vice  vered.  Light  is 
admitted  by  one  of  the  holes  in  the  drum,  so  as  to 
fall  on  the  object,  and  it  is  examined  through  the 
other  hole.  It  is  obvious  that  when  the  dircs  are 
made  to  revolve,  the  object  is  alternately  exceed 
to  li^t,  and  presented  to  the  eye.  By  a  train  of 
multiplying  wheels,  these  alternations  may  be  made 
to  succeed  each  other  as  rapidly  as  the  observer 
pleases,  and  thus  the  object  is  presented  in  the 
dark  to  his  eye  as  soon  after  its  exposure  to  light  as 
may  be  desired.  Almost  all  bodies  are  found  to  be 
phosphorescent;  for  instance,  some  kinds  of  pink 
rubies,  when  exposed  to  sunshine  in  this  apparatus, 
appear  to  glow  like  live  coals  in  the  dark.  The 
phenomenon  is,  in  fact,  precisely  that  which  was 
observed  by  Brew^ster  and  Herschel  in  quinine  and 
certain  crystals  of  fluor-spar,  and  thenoe  called 
Fluorescence,  Stokes  was  the  first  to  give  the  true 
explanation  of  these  facts,  and  he  uiewed  it  to 
depend  upon  the  change  of  refrangibility  (L  e.,  colonr) 
which  lieht  suffers  on  being  absorbed  and  then 
radiated  l)y  the  fluorescent  substance.  The  sreen 
eolouring-matter  of  leaves,  a  decoction  of  the  Dark 
of  the  horse-chestnut,  and  the  common  canary  class 
(coloured  with  oxide  of  uranium),  are  bodies  which 
exhibit  this  phenomenon  very  well.  Perhaps  the 
most  striking  method  of  studying  the  phenomenon 
b  to  receive  m  a  darkened  room  uie  solar  Spectrum 
(q.  v.)  on  a  sheet  of  white  paper ;  and  to  jmiss  over 
the  coloured  spaces  a  brush  aip]>ed  in  a  solution  of 
sulphate  of  quinine  with  sulphuric  acicL  No  chan|;e 
is  produced  on  the  less  refrangible  rays,  but  in  the 
blue  and  indigo  spaces,  a  strange  change  of  colour  is 
at  once  apparent  where  the  liquid  has  been  spread. 
This  appears  more  strongly  in  the  violet,  and 
vividly  in  the  spaces  beyond  the  violet,  where  rays 
fall  which  excite  no  luminous  sensation  in  the  eye. 
By  this    experiment,    the    visible    length   of   the 

3>ectmm  may  easily  be  doubled.  By  using  the 
ectric  light,  which  is  peculiarly  rich  in  these 
highly  refrangible  rays,  a  prism  of  quartz,  which 
allows  them  to  pass  very  freely,  and  various  fluores- 
cent substances,  Stokes  has  obtained  spectra  six  or 
eight  times  as  Ions  as  those  otherwise  visible.  The 
characteristic  of  all  these  rays  is,  that  they  are  less 
refrangible  than  those  from  which  they  are  produced. 
The  entire  phenomenon  is  identical  in  principle 
with  Leslie's  photometer,  in  which  light  was 
measured  when  changed  into  heat  by  absorption,  in 
the  coloured  glass  of  which  one  of  the  bulos  of  his 
differential  thermometer  was  formed. 

Ordinary  phosphorus  (from  which  the  pheno- 
menon took  its  name)  becomes  luminous  m  the 
dark  by  slight  friction ;  whence  the  common  trick 
of  drawing  self-luminous  figures  on  doors  and  walls 
dvith  a  stick  of  phosphorus,  or  an  ordinary  lucifer- 
match.      A  similar   appearance    is    presented    by 

Strescent  animal  matter,  such  as  oecaying  fish, 
; ;  but  these  are  effects  of  slow  combustion,  or 
chemical  combination,  and  are  not  properly  classed 
among  the  phenomena  of  phosphorescence.  See 
LuMiNOSiTT  OF  Oroanio  BxiNoa 

PHO'SPHORUS  (symb.  P,  equiv.  31*,  sp.  gr. 
1*826)  is  one  of  the  metalloids,  or  non-metallio 
elements,  although,  in  its  combining  relation,  it  is 
more  closely  connected  with  the  metals  arsenic  and 
antimony  than  with  any  of  the  members  of  the 
•nlphur-groapk  in  which  it  is  commonly  placed. 
MA 


This  substance  affords  an  excellent  example  of 
allotropy;  that  is  to  say,  it  may  be  made  to 
occur  under  different  forms  presenting  different 
properties.    See  Allotbopy. 

Ordinary  phosphorus  and  the  red  variel^  are  the 
only  important  forms.  We  shall  speak  oi  them  as 
phosphonis  and  red  phosphorus  respectively. 

Phosphorus  at  ordmary  temperatures  is  an  almost 
colourless  or  faintly  yellow  solid  substance,  having 
the  gUstenine  appearance  and  the  consistence  (n 
wax,  and  evolving  a  disagreeable  alliaceous  odour, 
which,  however,  is  probably  due  to  the  action  of 
the  oxygen  of  the  air  upon  it.  It  fuses  at  111*5* 
into  a  colourless  fluid ;  and  if  the  air  be  excluded,  it 
boik  at  555**,  and  is  converted  into  a  colourless 
vapour  of  sp.  gr.  1*826.  If,  however,  it  be  heated  to 
about  140'*  in  the  air,  it  catches  fire,  burns  with  a 
brilliant  white  flame,  and  is  converted  into  phos- 
phoric acid ;  and,  indeed,  it  is  so  inflammable  that 
it  will  catch  fire  at  ordinary  temperatures  by  mere 
friction.  As  the  bums  which  it  occasions  are  often 
severe  and  dangerous,  great  caution  is  required  in 
handling  it;  and  in  consequence  of  the  readiness 
with  wmch  it  catches  fire,  and  of  its  tendency  to 
oxidise  when  exposed  to  the  air  at  a  temperature 
higher  than  32%  it  is  always  kept  in  water,  in  which 
it  IS  insoluble.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  ether,  but 
dissolves  freely  in  benzol,  in  the  fixed  and  essential 
oils,  and  in  bisulphide  of  carbon ;  and  by  allowing  its 
solution  in  one  of  these  fluids  to  fall  upon  tiltmng 
paper,  the  finely  divided  phosphorus  absorbs  oxygen 
so  rapidly  as  spontaneously  to  catch  fire  as  soon  as 
the  solvent  has  evaporated.  One  of  the  most 
characteristic  properties  of  phosphorus  is  that  it 
shines  in  the  dark,  probably  m>m  the  slow  combus- 
tion which  it  undergoes ;  and  hence  its  name  from 
the  Greek  words  jmSs^  light,  and  phdros^  bearing 
Its  power  of  forming  ozone  is  noticed  in  the 
article  on  that  substance.  Taken  internally,  phos' 
phorus  is  a  very  powerful  irritant  poison ;  and  it  is 
the  active  ingredient  of  some  of  the  preparations 
employed  for  the  destruction  of  vermin.  Its  fumes 
give  rise  to  a  peculiar  form  of  necrosis  of  the  jaw, 
which  is  very  common  amongst  the  makers  of  lucnfer^ 
matches,  and  is  not  f  ollowe(^  as  in  ordinary  neoroaa, 
by  a  formation  of  new  bone. 

Red  phosphorus  differs  from  the  ordinary  variety 
in  several  important  points.  It  oocurs  as  a  deep 
red  amorphous  powder,  which  is  perfectiy  devoid  <n 
odour,  may  be  heated  to  nearly  600"  vrithout  fusing 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  2*10,  does  not  shine  in  the 
dark,  nor  take  fire  when  rubbed,  undergoes  no 
change  on  exposure  to  the  air  at  ordinary  tempera- 
tures, and  is  in  all  respects,  far  less  inflammable. 
Moreover,  it  is  insoluble  in  bisulphide  of  carbon 
and  the  other  fluids  in  which  ordinary  phosphorus 
dissolves,  and  is  not  poisonous.  On  this  account, 
Schrbtter  (to  whom  we  are  mainly  indebted  for  our 
knowledge  of  this  modification  of  phosphorus)  has 
attempt^,  although  with  imperfect  success,  to 
apply  it  to  the  formation  of  luoifer-matches.  When 
red  phosphorus  is  heated  in  an  atmosphere  of 
carbonic  acid  to  a  temperature  of  600°,  it  is  con- 
verted, without  loss  of  weight,  into  ordinary 
phosphorus. 

Phosphorus  is  never  met  with  in  nature  in  an  un- 
combined  state,  but  it  occurs  in  small  proportion  as 
phosphate  of  lime  in  the  primitive  and  volcanic  rocks 
(as  was  first  shewn  bv  Fownes  in  1844),  by  the 
^;radual  decay  of  which  it  passes  into  the  soil;  it 
IS  also  found  abundantly  in  the  minerals  known  as 
apatite  and  plwsphorite^  and  in  the  brown  rounded 
pebbles  which  abound  in  the  Norfolk  Crag,  and 
which,  under  the  name  of  oodroliteSt  are  muoh 
em^oyed,  when  crushed,  for  manure.  From  the  soilt 
it   IB  ^extracted  by  plants,  which   acoumulate  i% 


PHOSPHORUS. 


(enpecially  in  t^e  seeds  of  the  cereals)  in  quantity 
Bumcient  for  the  wants  of  the  animals  which  they 
supply  with  food.  In  tiie  animal  system,  phosphate 
of  Ume  fonns  57  per  cent,  of  the  bones ;  pnoepnates 
of  the  alkalies,  especially  of  soda,  occur  freely  in 
the  animal  fluids ;  and  in  fibrine,  albumen,  and 
nervons  matter,  phosphorus  is  universally  present^ 
although  we  do  not  clearly  know  in  what  form  of 
combination  it  occurs. 

Phosphorus  was  originally  discovered  in  1669  by 
Brandty  a  Hamburg  chemist,  who  obtained  it  from 
urine.  Gahn  and  Scheele  were,  however,  the  first 
to  discover  its  presence  in  bone,  and  to  employ 
that  material  for  its  preparation.  The  following  are 
the  leading  steps  of  the  method  now  usually  em- 
ployed in  m>taining  it  on  the  large  scale.  Bones  are 
burned  to  whiteness,  and  powdered ;  and  this  bone- 
ash  is  then  mixed  with  sulphuric  acid  in  such 
quantity  as  partially  to  decompose  the  phosphate 
of  lime  occurrmg  in  the  ash  (SCaOjPOs)  into  insoluble 
sulphate  of  lime,  and  a  soluble  sa^ierphosphate  of 
hme,  whose  composition  is  represented  by  the 
formula  2HO,CaO,FOg,  The  solution  of  the  super- 
phosphate is  evaporated  to  a  syrup,  mixed  with 
charcoal,  and  submitted  to  distillation  in  an  earthen 
retort  exposed  to  a  red  heat.  Phosphorus  rises  in 
vapour,  and  is  convened,  by  means  of  a  bent  tube, 
into  water,  in  which  it  condenses  in  yellow  drops. 
Two  distinct  processes  take  place  within  the  retort 
The  first  consists  in  the  decomposition  of  the  super- 
phosphate of  lime  into  bone-earth  and  hydrated 
Shosphoric  acid;  while  the  second  consists  in  the 
eoxidation,  by  means  of  the  carbon,  of  the  liberated 
phosphoric  acid  into  phosphorus — a  process  accom- 
panied by  the  evolution  of  hydrogen  and  carbonic 
oxide  gases.  After  it  has  been  pressed  in  a  fused 
state  through  wash-leather,  and  further  purified,  it 
is  forced  into  tubes,  in  which  it  is  allowed  to 
solidify,  and  which  give  it  the  form  of  sticks,  in 
which  it  is  commonly  met  with. 

Phosphorus  forms  with  oxygen  an  oxide,  P,0 
(which  is  always  produced  in  small  quantity  ^hen 
phosphorus  is  oumed  in  air,  but  is  of  no  practical 
importance),  and  three  acids — viz.,  hypophosphorous 
acid,  PO,  phosphorous  acid,  POg,  and  phosphoric 
acid,  POq.  Of  these  compounds,  phosphoric  acid  is 
by  far  the  roost  important,  and  we  shall  therefore 
consider  it  first  in  oraer  of  the  three  acids. 

JPhaspfutric  add  in  its  anhydrous  state,  or  phos- 
phoric anhydride^  as  it  is  usually  termed  at  the  pre- 
sent day,  is  represented  by  the  formula  PO5,  and  is 
obtained  by  bumin'g  phosphorus  in  a  jar  of  perfectly 
dry  atmospheric  air  or  oxygen,  when  it  is  deposited 
in  snow-white  flakes  at  the  bottom  and  on  the  sides 
of  the  jar,  from  whence  it  must  be  removed  by 
means  01  a  platinum  spatula  as  quickly  as  possible, 
in  consequence  of  its  attracting  moisture  nom  the 
atmosphere,  and  placed  in  a  perfectly  dry  flask. 
When  dropped  into  water,  it  combines  with  it,  and 
dissolves,  evolving  a  considerable  amount  of  heat, 
and  emitting  a  hissing  sound,  as  when  red-hot  iron 
and  water  come  tog^her.  In  conseouence  of  its 
stronff  affinity  for  water,  this  anhydride  is  very 
nsefulin  the  laboratory  as  a  desiccating  agent. 

There  are  three  hydrates  of  phosphoric  add,  each 
of  which  possesses  the  properties  of  a  distinct  acid 
— yiz.,  a  protohydrate  (HOjPOj),  a  deutohydrate 
(2H0,P0a),  and  a  tritohydrate  (SHO.POJ.  These 
hydrates  retain  their  characteristic  properties  when 
duaolved  in  water,  and  combine  with  one,  two,  or 
three  equivalents  of  bases  to  form  salts,  according 
to  tbe  hydrate  employed.  In  the  salts  formed  by 
the  first  hydrate,  the  one  equivalent  of  water  is 
replaced  by  one  equivalent  of  base ;  in  those  formed 
by  the  second  hydrate,  both  equivalents  of  water 
may  be  replaced  by  two  of  base,  or  one  equivalent 


of  water  alone  may  be  replaced,  while  the  other 
remains  in  the  salt  as  basic  water ;  while  in  those 
formed  by  the  third  hydrate,  aU  three  equivalent* 
of  water,  or  two,  or  only  one,  may  be  replaced  by 
base,  so  that  this  acid  forms  three  sets  of  salts. 
Hence  phosphoric  acid  is  what  is  termed  a  Polybasic 
Add  (q.  v.).  The  foUovring  scheme  may  elucidate 
this  remark :  If  M,  M',  M  ,  are  any  three  mettJs, 
whose  oxides  act  as  bases,  the  monohydrate 
HOjPOs  forms  the  salt  M0,P0g,  and  is  mono- 
basic ;  the  deutohydrate  2HO,POs  forms  the  salts 
M0,M'0,P0b  and  M0,H0,P05,  and  is  bibasic ; 
the  tritohydrate  3H0,P0.  forms  the  salts  MO,M'0, 
M"0,POp,  M0,M'0,H0,P05,  and  M0,2H0,  PO5, 
and  is  tnbasia 

The  occurrence  of  phosphoric  acid  (in  a  state  of 
combination)  in  the  three  kingdoms  of  nature  has 
been  already  noticed  in  our  remarks  on  phosphorus. 
The  discovery  of  the  acid  was  made  in  1740  by 
Marggraf ;  the  discovery  of  its  true  chemical  nature 
is,  however,  due  to  Lavoisier ;  and  that  of  its  various 
modifications  and  its  polybasicity,  to  the  investi- 
gations  f  our  illustrious  countryman,  Graham. 

Phosphorous  Acid  occurs  both  as  an  anhydride, 
PO3,  and  as  a  hydrate,  3HO,P03.  Hypophosphorous 
Acid  (3H0,P0)  is  only  known  in  its  hydrated 
condition,  in  which  it  occurs  as  a  very  acid,  colour- 
less, uncrystallisable  syrup. 

Phosphorus  combines  with  hydrogen  in  three 
proportions  to  form  phosphnretted  hydrogen  gas, 
PHq;  liquid  phosphide  of  hydrogen,  PH^;  and 
solid  phosphide  of  hydrogen,  r.,H.  Of  these,  the 
first  alone  requires  notice  in  these  pages.  There 
are  various  processes  for  obtaining  the  gas ;  one  of 
the  simplest  being  by  boiling  fragments  of  phos- 
phorus in  a  concentrated  solution  of  nydrated  potash, 
m  which  case,  hypophosphite  of  potash  is  formed, 
while  phosphnretted  hydrogen  gas  is  extricated.  The 
reaction  is  explained  by  toe  equation,  4P  -♦-  3(H0, 
KO)  =  3(K0,P0)  -I-  PHj.  The  gas  thus  evolved 
is  colourless,  possesses  a  characteristic  foetid  odour, 
and  has  the  remarkable  property  of  taking  fire 
spontaneously  in  atmospheric  ,air  or  in  oxygen  gas, 
and  of  resolving  itself  into  anhydrous  phosphoric 
acid  and  water — a  phenomenon  of  which  Professor 
Miller  has  given  the  following  graphic  description : 
<If  allowed  to  escape  into  the  air  in  bubbles,  each 
bubble  as  it  breaks  produces  a  beautifid  white 
wreath  of  phosphoric  acid,  comi)osed  of  a  number  of 
ringlets  revolving  in  vertical  planes  around  the  axis 
of  the  wreath  itself  as  it  ascends ;  thus  tracing 
before  the  eye,  with  admirable  distinctness,  the 
rapid  gyratory  movements  communicated  to  the 
superincumbent  air  by  the  bursting  of  a  bubble 
upon  the  surface  of  a  still  sheet  of  water.  If  the 
bubbles  be  allowed  to  rise  into  a  jar  of  oxygen,  a 
brilliant  flash  of  light,  attended  with  a  slight  con- 
cussion, accompanies  the  bursting  of  each  bubble.' 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  perfectly  pure  phos- 
phnretted hydrogen  gas  does  not  possess  the  power 
of  igniting  spontaneously,  and  that  the  self-hghting 
gas  always  contains  a  minute  quantity  of  the  vapour 
of  the  liquid  phosphide  (PH2).  The  luminous 
phenomenon  known  as  WiM-o^ -the- Wisp  has  been 
referred  to  the  natural  evolution  of  the  gas ;  there 
is,  however,  no  scientific  evidence  in  favour  of  this 
hypothesis. 

various  compounds  of  phosphorus  with  sulphur, 
chlorine,  iodine,  bromine,  &c.,  have  been  formed  ana 
investigated ;  but  none  of  them  are  of  any  practical 
importance. 

The  medicinal  uses  of  phosphorus  and  phosphoric 

add  have   still   to   be    considered.      Phosphoru^ 

dissolved  in  ether  or  oil,  was  formerly  prescribed 

in  very  minute  doses  as  a  stimulant  to  the  nervous 

system  in  oertain  conditions.    It  is,  however,  now 

M6 


PHOTIUS. 


rarely  employed  in  medicine,  at  all  events,  in  this 
country,  m  consequence  of  its  poisonous  properties. 
Several  cases  are  on  record  in  which  children  have 
been  killed  by  sucking  the  phosphoric  ends  of  lucifer- 
matches;  and  Christison  relates  an  instance  in 
which  a  grain  and  a  half  of  phosphorus  proved  fataL 

The  symptoms  induced  by  this  poison  are  those 
of  acute  innammation  of  the  stomach  and  boweJb, 
and  tiie  only  treatment  that  can  be  recommended 
is  the  administration  of  large  quantities  of  mild 
demulcent  fluids,  such  at  milk  and  thin  arrowroot, 
80  as,  if  possible,  to  envelop  the  phosphorus,  and 
exclude  it  from  the  action  of  the  air  in  the  intes- 
tinal eanal;  and  of  magnesia,  with  the  view  of 
neutralising  any  phosphorous  and  phosphoho  acids 
that  may  l^  formed. 

Dilute  Phosphoric  Acid  is  included  in  the  British 
Pharmacopoeia,  but  is  not  very  much  employed.  It 
may  be  prescribed  in  much  the  same  cases  as  those 
in  which  sulphuric  and  nitric  acids  are  employed, 
and  is  less  likely  to  disturb  the  digestive  functions, 
if  employed  for  a  long  period,  jbhan  the  other  mineral 
acids.  The  late  Dr  raris  used  to  recommend  it, 
when  properly  diluted,  as  the  best  acidulated  drink 
for  assuaging  the  thirst  in  diabetes.  It  may  be 
prescribed  in  half -drachm  doses. 

PHO'TIUS,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople  in  one  of 
the  most  critical  periods  of  the  struggle  of  that 
see  with  the  ^reat  patriarchate  of  the  West  for 
supremacy  in  the  entire  church,  was  a  member  of 
a  patrician  family  of  Constantinople,  and  was  bom  in 
the  early  part  of  the  9th  century.  From  youth,  he 
was  distinguished  by  his  abilities  and  learning ;  and 
having  served  in  various  important  public  offices, 
and  especially  on  a  diplomatic  mission  to  Assyria 
(or  more  probably  Persia),  he  secured  the  favour  of 
the  Emperor  Michael,  with  whom  P.'s  brother  was 
connected  by  marriage,  and  of  the  all-powerful 
Csesar  and  favourite  Bardas.  The  Patriarch  Igna- 
tius having  incurred  the  displeasure  of  Bardas  and 
of  the  emperor,  a  weak  ana  profligate  man,  whose 
vices  Ignatius  tried  in  vain  to  correct,  it  was 
resolved  to  deprive  him  of  the  patriarchal  dignity ; 
and  the  attempt  to  induce  him  to  resign  having 
failed,  he  was  deposed  with  much  indigmty,  impri- 
soned, and  sent  into  exile.  P.,  although  a  layman, 
and  hitherto  engaged  in  secular  pursuits,  was 
appointed  in  his  stead,  hurried  in  a  few  successive 
days  through  all  the  stages  of  sacred  orders,  and 
finally  installed  as  patriarch.  A  council  of  bishops, 
under  the  influence  of  the  court  (858),  declared  in 
favour  of  the  deposition  of  Ignatius,  and  confirmed 
the  election  of  P.,  and  the  latter  communicated 
his  election  to  the  pope,  Nicholas  I.,  in  a  letter 
which  carefully  suppressed  all  these  irregularities, 
and  represented  that  he  had  reluctantly  under- 
taken the  office.  Meanwhile,  however,  Ignatius 
had  privately  written  to  Rome,  and  the  pope  sent 
two  legates  to  inquire  and  report  on  the  facts. 
A  new  council  was  assemblea  (859),  in  which 
Ignatius   was    declared   deposed,   and  was   com- 

Selled  to  sign  the  act  of  abdication,  and  P.  was 
eclared  duly  elected.  The  legates  concurred,  it 
was  b^eved,  under  i^e  undue  influence  of  Bardas, 
in  this  sentence.  But  in  so  doing  they  had  exceeded 
their  power,  which  was  merely  to  report  to  the 
pope ;  and  Nicholas  refused  to  acknowledge  the  sen- 
tence, and  summoned  the  parties  to  a  new  hearing. 
P.,  however,  resisted ;  and  a  new  cause  of  dispute 
having  arisen  in  regard  to  the  jurisdiction  claimed 
bv  the  see  of  Constantinople  in  part  of  the  province 
of  niyricum  and  among  the  newly-converted  Bulga- 
rians, the  council,  whic^  Nicholas  called  at  Rome  in 
862,  annulled  the  acts  of  that  of  Constantinople  and 
of  the  le^tes,  declared  P.'s  election  nncanonical 
and  invalid,  deposed  and  exoommunicated  him,  and 

MM 


reinstated  Ignatius  in  his  see.  Being  supported, 
however,  by  the  emperor,  P.  retained  possession,  and 
not  only  refused  to  yield,  but  retaliated  on  the  pu{)e 
by  assembling  a  council  at  Constantinople  in  $67, 
in  which  the  Question  was  removed  from  the  region 
of  a  personal  oispute  between  the  bishops  to  a  con- 
troversy of  doctrine  and  discipline  between  the 
churches  of  the  East  and  West  themselves.  In  this 
council,  P.  first  brought  forward  distinctly  certain 
grounds  of  diflerence.oetween  the  churches,  whidi, 
although  consideral  )ly  modified,  af  ten^'ards  led  to  their 
final  separation.  In  all  these  doctrinal  difTereufies, 
the  council  condemned  the  Western  Church,  ezcom* 
municated  Nicholas  and  his  abettors,  and  withdrew 
from  the  communion  of  the  see  of  Rome.  Daring 
the  life  of  the  £mperor  Michael,  the  auUiority  of  P. 
remained  without  further  question ;  but  on  Michael 
being  deposed  and  put  to  death  by  Basilius  ^e 
Macedonian  in  867,  P,  by  that  capricious  exercise 
of  imperial  authority  of  which  these  times  supply 
so  many  examples,  was  deposed,  and  banished  to 
Cyprus,  and  Ignatius  reinstated  -,  soon  after  which, 
in  869,  the  council  known  as  the  eighth  general 
council,  at  which  Pope  Adrian  II.*8  legates  presided, 
was  assembled  at  Constantinople.  Tne  whole  case 
was  revised.  P.  being  convicted  of  fraud,  forgery 
of  documents,  and  uncanonical  usurpation,  was 
condemned  and  excommunicated,  the  rights  of 
Ignatius  established,  and  the  intercommunion  of 
the  churches  restored.  From  his  exile  at  Cypros, 
P.  appealing  successfully  to  Bamlius,  obtained  his 
recall,  and,  on  the  death  of  Ignatius,  was  re-ap- 

Jointed  to  the  patriarchate.  The  pope  of  the  time, 
ohn  VIIL,  yielding  to  expediency,  or  deceived  by 
false  reports,  acquiesced  in  the  proceeding— a  su|>- 
posed  act  of  womanish  weakness,  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  some,  by  obtaining  for  John  the  /emiKise 
sobriquet  Joannct,  was  the  origin  of  the  fable  of 
Pope  Joan  (q.  v.).  P.,  in  879,  assembled  a  new 
council  at  Constantinople,  renewed  the  chaijge 
against  the  Western  Church,  and  erased  from  the 
creed  in  the  article  on  the  Procession  of  the  Holt 
Ghost  (a.  v.),  the  word  Jilioque,  which  had  been 
inserted  by  the  Latin  Church.  The  separation  of 
the  churches,  however,  was  not  complete<l  till  the 
time  of  Michael  Cerularius.  See  Qrekk  CurscH. 
P.  did  not  die  in  possession  of  the  see;  he  was 
deprived,  and  exiled  to  Armenia,  by  Leo,  sumamed 
the  Philosopher,  the  son  and  successor  of  Basilios,  in 
886,  and  died  soon  afterwards,  probably  in  891.  The 
character  of  P.  is,  of  course,  differently  represented 
by  the  Easterns  and  by  the  Westerns,  the^  latter  of 
whom  ascribe  to  him  every  excess  of  craft,  violence, 
and  perfidy.  The  Greeks,  on  the  contrary,  defend  his 
memory.  It  is  hardly  i)ossible,  however,  to  doubt  the 
substantial  justice  of  the  accusations  made  against 
him.  The  impression  produced  by  a  review  of  his 
chequered  career,  and  of  the  more  than  equivocal 
proceedings  with  which  his  name  is  connected,  is 
made  more  painful  by  the  evidences  of  rare  genius, 
and  profound  and  cidtivated  literary  judgment, 
which  his  works  reveaL  His  chief  remains  are  (1.) 
Myriobiblon,  called  also  BibUoUieca^  a  summary 
review  of  the  works  which  P.  had  read,  with  an 
epitome  of  the  contents,  and  a  critical  judgment  of 
their  merits.  The  number  of  works  thus  critidsfHi 
is  no  less  than  279 ;  and  as  many  of  these  are  now 
lost,  the  judgment  and  remarks  of  such  a  man  are 
of  great  value  for  ancient  literary  history.  (2.)  A 
Lexicon^  which  was  edited  by  Hermann,  and  after- 
wards by  Person  (or  rather  from  his  manuscript 
by  Dobree)  in  1822.  (3.)  The  Nomoccuton,  which 
is  a  collection  of  the  acts  and  decretes  of  the  councils 
up  to  the  seventh  ecumenical  oouocil,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  laws  of  the  emperors  for  the  same 
period.     (4.)  Several   minor   theologcal  treattMk 


PHOTO-GLYPHIC  ENGRAVING-PHOTOGRAPHY. 


(&)  A  collection  of  letters,  many  of  them  extremely 
interesting  and  elegant.  There  is  one  in  which, 
from  his  exile,  he  appeals  to  be  permitted  the 
use  of  his  books,  which,  for  beauty  of  composition, 
dehcacy  of  sentiment,  and  the  genuine  eloquence  of 
a  scholar's  love  of  learning,  can  hardly  be  surpassed 
in  ancient  or  modern  literature.  A  complete  edition 
of  his  works  is  found  in  Migne's  Pairologw  Cursus 
Completus,  in  4  vols.,  royal  iva 

PHOTO-GLYTHIC  ENGRAVING.  See  Pho- 
tographic Engravino,  Photography. 

PHOTOGRATHIO  ENGRAVING.      Several 
ingenioas  attempts  have    been    made    to  prepare 
engraved  plates  by  photopenic  action ;  the  earliest 
of  these  dates  as  far  back  as  1827,  which  was  six 
years  previoiLS  to  the  introduction  of  the  Daguerre- 
otype process,  and  was  the  invention  of  M.  Nioe- 
phore  Niepce  of  Paris,  who  first  discovered  that 
thin  plates  of  bitumen  were  curiously  affected  by 
light;  he  therefore  coated   metal   plates  with  a 
thin  layer  of  bitumen,  of  the  kind  called  Jews' 
Pitch,  and  placed  them  in  a  camera  obscura,  so 
arranged    that    he    could    insure    their    exposure 
to  the  same  image  for  several  hours.     The  plate 
was  then  submit^d  to  the  action  of  oil  of  spike, 
which  readily  dissolved  those  portions  not  acted 
upon  by  the  light,  but  exerted  little  action  upon 
the  remainder ;  the  metal  exposed  by  the  solution 
of  the  bitumen  was  then  acted  upon  by  acid,  which 
produced  a   complete   etching-plate,   the   picture- 
part  being  protectiod  by  its  bituminous  varnish  from 
the  action  of  the  acid.    About  ten  years  after,  M. 
Fizeau  invented  another  process ;  he  took  a  Daguerr^- 
otype  picture,  and  acted  upon  it  with  a  mixture 
of  nitric,  nitrous,  and  hydrochloric  acids,  which, 
without  affecting  the  silver  where  the  metal  was 
free  from  the  photographic  action,  quickly  attacked 
the  dark  portions  of  the  picture  in  greater  or  less 
degree  according  to  their  intensity,  and  thus  etched 
the  picture  in  the  plate.    The  action  at  first  pro- 
duced only  a  slight  erosion,  because  a  coating  of 
chloride  of  silver  was  formed ;  but  upon  this  bein^ 
removed  by  a  solution  of  anuuonia,  it  was  repeated 
until  a  greater  depth  was  gained.     This,  at  the 
ntmoet,  was  not  very  great,  and  never  sufficient  to 
print  from ;  but  he  most  ingeniously  met  this  diffi- 
culty by  coating  the  plate  with  a  drying  oil,  which 
Mras  carefully  wiped  from  the  surface,  and  left  to  dry 
in  the  engraved  parts ;  afterwards,  he  electrotyped 
the  level  surface  with   gold  until  the  necessary 
depth  was  obtained,  after  which   the   plate  was 
boUed  in  a  solution  of  caustic  potash,  which  re- 
zaoved  the  varnish.   The  plate  in  this  state  required 
a  little  of  the  engraver's  art  to  touch  it  up,  and 
remedy  some  defects  inherent  in  the  process ;  and 
ihen^  to  prevent  injury  to  the  soft  metals — silver 
and  gold — employed,  an  electrotype  plate  was  taken 
for  the  printer's  use.    But  these  processes,  notwith- 
standing their  extreme  ingenuity,  never  thoroughly 
succeeded,  and  have  been  abandoned  for  the  more 
aatisfactory  inventions  of  Dr  W.  H.  Fox  Talbot; 
these  were  patented  in  1852  (No.  179)  and  1858 
(Nol  875).    ^y  his  first  plan,  a  steel  plate,  such  as  is 
prepared  for  engravers,  is  first  dipped  into  a  solution 
containing  acetic  and  sulphuric  acids ;  it  is  then 
coated  with  a  mixture,  containing  a  solution  of  fine 
gelatine  and  bichromate  of  potash.     This  is  im- 

Eased  with  the  image  of  a  photographic  negative 
exposure  in  tiiie  copying-frame,  and  washed.  The 
1  of  ^latine  is  previously  yellow,  but  the  action 
of  the  hght  through  the  l^t  parts  of  the  photo- 
l^rrapb  change  it  dark  brown,  but  the  remainder  is 
nnaftected :  consequently,  a  picture  is  produced  of  | 
«  light  yellow  colour  on  a  brown  sround.  The  j 
actioA  of  the  light  is  to  reduce  the  l>ichromate  of  i 


potash,  and,  consequently^  to  render  the  gelatine 
combined  with  it  insoluble;  whilst  those  portions 
which  have  been  protected  from  the  action  of  the 
light  by  the  dark  parts  of  the  ne^tive,  are  still 
readily  soluble  in  water,  and  can  be  removed  by 
soaking :  the  insoluble  portion  thus  forms  a  raised 
picture,  which  is  submitted  to  a  solution  containing 
bichloride  of  platina  in  certain  proportions,  with 
a  little  free  acid  and  water,  whicn  etches  out  the 
exposed  parts  of  the  plate,  and  renders  it  fit  for 
engraving  from.    In  the  same  specification  is  added 
an  ingenious  method  of  giving  to  the  whole  picture 
the  appearance  of   an  engraving ;    it  consists  in 
spreading  over  the  gelatinised  plate,  when  nearly 
dry,  a  piece  of  very  fine  muslin,  and  evenly  pressing 
it  so  as  to  leave  an  impression  of  the  cross-lines  of 
the  textile  material  upon  the  surface.  By  his  second 
specification,  he  alt^s  the  process  so  far  as  the 
washing  is  concerned,  after  obtaining  the  picture  on 
the  gelatinised  plate,  and  thus  obviates  some  injuries 
to  which  it  was  thereby  rendered  liable.    Instead  of 
washing,  the  gelatinised  surface  is  thinly  but  very 
evenly  covered  with  finely-powdered  copal  or  other 
resin,  and  the  under-side  of  the  phite  exposed  to 
sufficient  heat  to  melt  the  resin,  so  as  to  form  a  thin 
jrarnish  over  the  whole.    The  etching  fluid  is  then 
poured  on,  and,  notwithstanding  the  resin  coating,  it 
acts  through  to  the  metal,  and  eats  in  wherever  the 
gelatine  has  not  been  rendered  insoluble  by  the 
action  of  the  bichromate  of  potash  and  the  licht. 
When  sufficiently  etched,  it  is  washed  in  c^n 
water,  and  the  plate  is  freed  from  the  resin  and 
gelatine.  Two  modifications  of  this  process  are  given 
in  the  Specification,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred 
for  fuller  particulars.     Dr  Talbot  calls  his  process 
Photo-glypnic  Engraving.    The  same  processes,  with 
some  modifications,  applied  to  zinc  constitute  Photo- 
zincography^  and  to  stone  Photo-litfiography  (o.  v.), 
both  of  which  are  largely  practised  ;  and  they  .nave 
been   brought    to    such    extraordinary   perfection, 
especially   oy  Sir  Henry  James,  Director  of  the 
Ordnance  Survey  in  this  country,  and  by  an  eminent 
firm  in  Brussels — Messrs  Simonau,  Toovey,  &  Ca 
— that  quite  a  new  era  is  opened  up  in  the  art 
of  engraving  and  printing. 

These  processes  are  particularly  well  adapted  for 
2opying  mai)s  and  printed  books,  and  Sir  H.  James 
has  consequently  turned  it  to  a  most  profitable 
account  in  producing  reductions  of  the  large  plana 
of  the  Ordnance  Survey  to  the  proper  sizes  of  maps ; 
and  he  has  also  published  perfect  fac-similes  of 
Doomsday  Book  and  other  important  documents. 
See  under  Photogbaphy. 

PHOTO'GRAPHY  (Gr.  phos,  hght,  and  grapho, 
I  write).  From  the  following  brief  sketch  of  the 
history  of  this  art,  it  will  oe  apparent  that  its 
present  advanced  form  has  resulted  from  the  com- 
bination of  various  discoveries  in  reference  to  the 
nature  and  properties  of  light  made  by  investigators 
at  different  periods.  Each  inquirer  has  availed 
himself  of  the  results  obtained  by  previous  students, 
adding  to  the  common  stock  the  results  of  his  own 
investi^tions.  The  progress  has  been  far  more 
rapid  than  in  most  of  the  sciences  which  have 
been  built  up  in  a  similar  maimer.  Like  other 
branches  of  chemistry,  it  owes  its  origin  to  the 
alchemists,  who,  in  their  fruitless  researches  after 
the  Philosopher's  Stone  and  Elixir  VitcSy  produced 
a  substance  to  which  they  gave  the  name  of 
Luna  Cornea,  or  Horn  Silver,  which  was  observed 
to  blacken  on  exposure  to  light.  This  property 
of  the  substance  constitutes  the  leading  fact 
upon  which  the  science  of  photography  is  based. 
More  recently,  the  illustrious  phUosopher  Scheele 
made  experiments  with  the  substance  in  question, 
wi^  a  view  to  determine  the   effects  produoea 

W 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


ttPon  it  by  different  rays  in  the  solar  spectrum. 
Bus  words  are  these  (published  in  1777):  'Fix  a 
glass  prism  at  the  window,  and  let  the  refracted 
sunbeams  fall  on  the  floor;  in  the  coloured  light 
put  a  paper  strewed  with  luna  cornea^  and  you  will 
observe  that  the  horn  silver  grows  sooner  black  in 
the  violet  ray  than  in  any  of  the  other  rays.'  Still 
more  recently,  the  names  of  Wedgwood  and  Davy 
(1802),  and  of  Niepce  and  Daguerre  from  1814  to 
1839,  occur  as  followers  in  the  path  indicated  by 
Scheele  and  the  earlier  savans  ;  and  in  the  early 
months  of  the  present  year  (1864),  the  attention  of 
the  Photographic  Society  of  London  was  occupied 
by  the  endeavour  to  establish  the  authenticity  and 
true  photographic  character  of  some  pictures  found 
in  the  library  of  Matthew  Boulton,  and  believed  to 
be  true  sun-pictures  by  James  Watt,  the  celebrated 
engineer;  thus  offering  great  probability  that  the 
mind  which  produced  the  wonders  of  steam-power, 
had  also  been  engaged  in  the  same  investigations 
which  have  resulted  in  the  present  more  extensive 
development  of  photographic  science.  Most  of  the 
experiments  alluded  .to  may  be  said  to  have  bee  a 
based  upon  the  fact,  that  the  salt  of  silver,  called  by 
the  ancients  luna  cornea,  and  by  modem  chemists 
nitrate  of  silver,  otherwise  lunar  caustic  (from  its 
use  in  medicine),  is  highly  sensitive  to  the  influence 
of  light.  But  such  observers  must  have  been  fully 
aware  that  this  substance  is'  not  the  only  one 
affected  by  light,  for  it  had  been  long  noticed  that 
the  light  of  the  sun  does  not  fall  upon  any  surface 
without  leaving  traces  of  its  action  thereon.  It 
cannot  be  absorbed  or  reflected  without  in  some 
way  modifying  the  structure  and  properties  of  the 
exposed  surface.  Even  the  brick  and  stone  of 
which  our  houses  are  built  become  blanched  by 
its  influence,  and  those  portions  on  which  the 
shadows  of  trees  or  other  detached  objects  fall  are 
perceptibly  darker  than  those  exposed  to  its  full 
force ;  with  the  knowledge,  therefore,  of  this  all- 
pNervading  influence  before  their  minds,  the  inves- 
tigations of  scientific  photographers  have  been 
directed  to  the  production  of  surfaces  either  of 
metal,  paper,  or  glass,  so  imbued  with  chemical 
substances  as  to  possess  a  maximum  amount  of 
sensibility  to  this  subtle  agent — light. 

There  seems  but  little  doubt  that  some  of  the 
acute-minded  men  who  investigated  the  phenomena 
of  the  influence  of  light  must  have  made  use  of  the 
beautiful  invention  of  Baptista  Porta  of  Padua, 
known  as  the  Camera  Obscura  (q.  v.) ;  for  the  pic- 
tures of  natural  objects  fonued  on  the  inner 
surface  of  this  instrument  would  readUy  suggest  its 
use  in  combination  with  the  luna  cornea.  We  know 
that,  in  the  later  period  of  the  researches  made  on 
the  subject,  the  camera  was  used,  and  that  it  has 
now  been  universally  adopted.  The  earlier  attempte 
to  produce  pictures  oy  its  means  failed,  however,  in 
consequence  of  the  want  of  a  power  of  fixing  the 
images  produced  b^  the  lens.  That  want  having, 
by  means  of  chemical  investigation,  been  supplied, 
the  science  of  photography  has  become  firmly  estab- 
lished in  its  priuciples,  and  the  practice  of  it  as  an 
ait  is  diffused  all  over  the  civilised  world.  The 
honour  of  having  been  the  first  to  produce  pictures 
by  the  action  of  light  on  a  sensitive  surface  is  now 
very  generally  conceded  to  Thomas  Wedgwood, 
an  account  of  whose  researches  was  published  in 
1802  in  the  Journal  of  the  RoyaX  l-MMuUon,  under 
the  title:  'An  Account  of  a  Method  of  copying 
Paintings  upon  Glass,  and  of  making  Profiles  b^ 
the  agency  of  Light  upon  Nitrate  of  Silver; 
with  Observations  by  H.  Davy.'  In  the  experi- 
ments detuled  in  this  communication,  white  paper 
and  uMte  leaHier  were  imbued  with  nitrate  of 
■liver,  and  exposed  either  in  the  camera  obscura, 
6j8 


or  under  the  leaves  of  trees  or  wings  of  insecta 
The  result  was,  that  the  shadows  preserved  the 
parts  concealed  by  them  white,  while  the  other 
parts  became  speedily  darkened  The  misfortttne 
was,  that  no  attempte  made  either  by  Wedg* 
wood  or  Davy  to  prevent  the  uncoloured  portions 
from  being  acted  on  by  light  (or,  as  we  now  say, 
to  fix  the  picture),  were  successful  This  opention 
was  not  effected  in  a  thoroughly  eflicient  maimer 
untU  Sir  John  Herschel  suggested  the  employment 
of  hyjMsnlphite  of  soda  for  that  purpose.  Many 
other  fixing  agente  had  been  previously  used,  as 
ammonia,  iodide  of  potassium,  chloride  of  eodinm, 
and  bromide  of  potassium,  suggested  by  Mr  Fox 
Talbot ;  none  of  these,  however,  were  found  equal  to 
the  salt  proposed  and  successfully  used  by  Sir  John 
Herschel. 

M.  Niepce  of  Ohalon-on-the-Saone  was  the  first 
to  enjoy  the  satisfaction  of  producing  permanerd 
pictures  by  the  influence  of  smar  radiations.  This 
was  accomplished  in  1814,  and  the  name  chosen  to 
designate  his  process  was  heliography — a  name  in 
some  respects  preferable  to  photography.  It  con- 
sisted in  coating  a  piece  of  plated  silver  or  glass 
with  a  varnish  nuuie  by  dissolving  powdered 
asphaltum  to  saturation  in  oil  of  lavender, 
taking  care  that  the  drying  and  setting  of  this 
varnish  be  allowed  to  take  place  in  the  entire 
absence  of  light  and  moisture.  The  plate  so  pre- 
pared was  then  exposed  in  the  camera  obscura  for 
a  length  of  time,  varying  from  four  to  six  bonis  I 
according  t-o  the  amount  of  light.  A  faint  image 
only  is  at  first  visible,  and  this  is  afterwards  devd- 
oped  and  fixed  by  immersion  in  a  mixture  of  oil  of 
lavender  and  oil  of  white  petroleum ;  the  plate 
being  finally  washed  with  water,  and  dried.  Light 
has  Tittle  or  no  action  on  these  heliographs ;  they 
should,  however,  be  protected  from  moisture.  M. 
Daguerre  improved  on  this  process,  by  sng^tu^ 
the  use  of  the  resins  obtained  by  evaporating  ou 
of  lavender,  whereby  a  great  increase  of  sensibility 
was  secured. 

Adopting  date  of  publication  as  the  best  evidence 
of  discovery,  the    next  process    offering  itself  for 
consideration  is  that  for  photo^nic  drawing  by  Mr 
Henry  Fox  Talbot,  communicated  to   the  Royal 
Society  on  the  3l8t  January  1839,  just  six  months 
previous  to  the  publication  of  Daguerre's  prpeeaa 
It  consisted  in  immersing  carefully  selected  writing- 
paper  in  a  weak  solution  of  common  salt,  and  dr>'ing 
it.    After  this,  a  dilute  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver 
was  spread  over  one  side,  and  the  paper  again  dried 
at  the  fire.    When  dry,  it  was  fit  tor  use,  the  sensi- 
tiveness being  much  increased  by  alternate  treat- 
ment with  saline  and  argentine  solutions^    Paper 
thus  prepared  yielded  impressions  in  an  incredibly 
short  time,  and  nothing  could  be  more  perfect  than 
the  images  it  gave  of  leaves  and  flowers,  the  h^ht 
passing  through  the  leaves  delineating  every  ramifi- 
cation of  their  nerves.    Ck)nsiderable  improvement 
in  point  of  sensibility  was  attained  by  Mr  Talbot  in 
the  following  year,  1840,  by  the  employment  of 
iodide  of  silver  on  paper,  as  a  foundation,  to  be 
washed  over  with  a  mixtnire  of  aceto-nitrate  and 
gallo-nitrate  of  silver,  just  previous  to  exposure  in 
tne  camera.    Paper  so  prepared  was  so  sensitive 
that  an  exposure  of  less  than  a  second  to  diffused 
light  was  enough  to  produce  an  impression.    After 
exposure  and  development,  the  picture  was  washed, 
and  fixed  by  immersion  in  a  solution  of  bromide  of 
potassium. 

Niepce  and  Daguerre  accidentally  discovered  that 
they  were  conducting  experiments  of  a  kindred 
character,  and  shortly  afterwards  entered  into  a 
partnership.  The  former,  however,  dying  in  July 
1833,  a  new  deed  of  partnership  was  signed  betwafli 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


his  Bon  Isidore  and  M.  Daguerre,  .which  resulted  in 
the  publication,  in  July  1839,  of  the  process  known 
as  the  Daguerreotype.  This  was  not  done,  howeTer, 
until  the  French  government  had  passed  a  bill, 
aecaring  to  M.  Da^erre  a  pension  ol  6000  francs, 
and  to  M.  Isidore  If iepce,  tne  son  of  t^ie  Niepce,  a 
pension  of  4000  francs,  both  for  life,  and  one-half 
in  reversion  to  their  widows.  This  handsome 
conduct  on  the  part  of  the  French  government  was 
based  upon  the  argument,  that  *  the  invention  did  not 
admit  of  being  secured  by  patent,  since,  as  soon  as 
published,  all  viigH  avail  themselves  of  its  advantages; 
they,  therefore,  chose  to  enioy  (he  glory  of  endouh 
ing  t/te  world  of  science  and  of  art  tnUh  one  cf  the 
jnost  surprising  discoveries  that  honour  th&r  native 
land.* 

The  discovery  of  the  Daguerr^type  may  be  said 
to  have  arisen  from  the  dissatisfaction  entertained 
by  Dagnerre  with  the  insensibility  of  the  bituminous 
surfaces  of  Kiepce,  which  induced  him  to  turn  his 
attention  to  the  salts  of  silver  as  a  means  of  pro- 
ducing a  higher  degree  of  sensitiveness.     This  he 
attained  by  exposing  a  highly  polished  plate  of 
silver  (attached,  for  greater  strength,  to  a  copper 
plate)  to  the  vapour  ot  iodine,  by  wnich  pure  iodide 
of  silver  was  formed  on  the  surface.    The  plate  so 
prepared  was  exposed  in  the  camera  obscura  for  a 
length  of  time  (20  minutes),  which  was  then  con- 
aidered  very  short   No  apparent  effect  was  produced 
on  the  plate,  the  imace  being  a  latent  one,  arising 
from  a  minute  molecmar  disturbance  caused  by  the 
impact  of  the  actinic  rays.    The  latent  image  was 
afterwards  developed  by  exposing  the  plate  to  the 
vapour  of  mercury ;  and  it  is  this  development  of  a 
laUaU  image,  reducing  as  it  did  the  time  pf  exposure 
from  hours  to  minutes,  which  truly  constituted  a 
new  era  in  the  science  of  photographv.    It  is  further 
due  to  Daguerre  to  state,  that,  while  his  processes 
for  the  purpose  were  imperfect,  he  still  succeeded  in 
fixing  his  pictures,  although  it  was  reserved  for  Sir 
John   Herschel  to  annoimce  the  great  suitability 
of  the  hypostdphites  for  dissolving  the  haloid  salts 
of  silver.     The  sensibility  of  the  silver  plate  was 
still  further  increased  by  Mr  Ooddard,  who  suggested, 
in  1839,  the  association  of  the  vapour  of  Nomine 
with  that  of  iodine;   while  M.  Claudet,  in  1840, 
employed  chlorine.      It   is    a  remarkable  fact  in 
connection  with  these  discoveries,  that  the  elder 
Niepce  should,  so  early  as  1820,  have  tried  the 
treatment  of   silver   plates  with  the  vapours    of 
Bulphur  and  phosphonu. 

£at  the  progress  of  this  interesting  science 
receiyed  a  very  important  impulse  from  a  discovery, 
which  at  first  scarcely  appeared  to  have  any  con- 
nection therewith.  In  1833,  Braconnot  gave,  in 
the  Annales  de  Chimie,  an  account  of  a  new  sub- 
stance obtained  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  on 
starch,  sawdnst,  linen,  and  cotton-wool.  He  named 
this  substance  Xyloidme ;  it  was  very  combustible, 
and  burned  almost  without  residue.  In  1638, 
Peloiize,  in  the  Comptes  Bendues,  suggested  its 
application  in  artillery.  He  says,  *Plun^  paper 
in  nitric  acid  (specitic  gravity  1*500),  leave  it  m  for 
two  or  three  minutes,  and  wash :  a  kind  of  parch- 
ment is  obtained,  impermeable  to  moisture,  and 
extremely  combustibla'  Dumas,  in  1843,  proposed 
the  name  Kitramidine,  and  su^ested  its  use  for 
fireworks.  At  a  meeting  of  the  British  Association 
h^eld  at  Southampton  in  the  year  1846,  Herr 
Schonbein,  an  emment  Prussian  chemist,  read  a 
paper  on  the  preparation  of  explosive  cotton,  a 
substance  obtamed  by  acting  on  ordinary  carded 
cotton  by  a  mixture  of  strong  nitric  and  sulphuric 
acids..  This  explosive  cotton  was  afterwards  f oimd 
to  be  soluble  in  ether ;  and  the  solution  so  prepared 
-was  named  collodion  by  its  discoverer,  Mr  Maynard, 


who,  in  1848,  published  in  the  American  Journal  of 
Medical  Science  the  formula  for  its  preparation. 
This  ethereal  solution  having  a  certain  proportion  of 
alkaline  iodides  and  iodide  of  silver  added  Uiereto 
constituted  the  collodion  first  employed  by  Mt 
Archer,  who,  although  deserving  the  credit  oi  hav- 
ing first  arranged  a  practicable  working  process 
with  collodion  for  its  oasis,  without  which  photo- 
graphy could  mot  have  attained  its  present  high 
position,  says,  in  the  second  edition  of  his  Manual^ 
*  it  is  due  to  Legray  to  say  that  he  was  the  first  to 
publish  an  account  of  collodion  as  a  photographic 
agent ; '  thus  illustrating  the  candour  with  which 
Mr  Archer  admitted  his  claim  to  be  considered 
the  first  to  suggest  its  value  in  photography.  Mr 
Fallon  Home  and  Mr  Fry  materially  assisted  Mr 
Archer  in  bringing  his  experiments  to  |)erfection. 
Although  the  announcement  at  the  British  Associa- 
tion in  1846,  was  to  the  effect  that  Schonbein  had 
made  cotton  as  explosive  as  gunpowder,  no  particu- 
lars were  published.  In  April  1847,  he  obtained  a 
X>atent ;  but  in  October  1846,  Mr  Thomas  Taylor  had 
published  a  similar  method  to  that  patented.  By 
one  of  those  singular  freaks  of  fortune  which  some- 
times occur,  Daguerre  succeeded  in  identifying  his 
name  with  his  process ;  but  Mr  Archer  was  not  so 
fortunate  as  to  give  his  name  to  the  process  which 
he  invented.  A  reference  to  the  article  Collodion 
wiU  shew  that  (bearing  in  mind  that  glass  perfectly 
cleaned  forms  the  supporting  medium)  the  sensitive 
surface  is  obtained  by  the  conversion  of  the  soluble 
iodides  and  bromides  in  the  collodion  film  into 
iodide  and  bromide  of  silver  by  immersion  in  a  solu- 
tion of  the  nitrate  of  that  base,  and  that  it  ia 
exposed  in  the  camera  while  still  moist  with 
adherent  nitrate,  the  latent  image  so  obtained  being 
developed  with  a  mixture  of  pyrogaUic  acid,  acetio 
acid,  and  alcohol,  ./Sxec^  with  hyposulphite  of  soda^ 
and  varnished. 

In  the  Niepgotype  or  albumen  process,  glass  plates 
of  proper  thickness  and  quality,  and  perfectly  clean, 
are  coated  with  Albumen  (q.  v.)>  to  which  an  alka- 
line iodide  has  been  added.  When  perfectly  dry, 
they  are  immersed  in  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
when  an  immediate  decomposition  takes  place; 
iodide  of  silver  being  formed  in  the  albumen  film, 
and  nitrate  of  potash  or  ammonia  remaining  in 
solution.  The  plate  is  then  freely  washed  with 
water,  dried,  exposed,  developed  with  gaUic  acid, 
and  fixed  with  hyposulphite  of  soda. 

A  retrospective  glance  will  shew  the  reader  that 
four  processes  have  now  been  passed  in  review ;  and 
on  a  little  consideration,  it  will  be  seen  that  one 
principle  pervades  the  whole — viz.,  the  production 
of  a  laient  image  by  the  action  of  light  on  iodide 
and  bromide  of  iiuoer,  its  subsequent  development 
by  suitable  means,  and  the  finiu  removal  of  the 
unaltered  portions  of  the  sensitive  film  by  a  fxing 
agent 

Among  these  processes,  that  in  which  collodion  is 
employed  has  achieved  a  well-merited  distinction, 
ana  is  now  so  generally  employed,  as  almost  entirely 
to  exclude  the  others.  Various  modifications  of 
this  process  have  been  from  time  to  time  suggested 
to  meet  the  exigencies  of  landscape  photograph^. 
It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  collodion  film  is 
exposed  while  still  moist  with  adherent  nitrate  of 
silver  solution ;  and  this  method  is  especially  appli- 
cable to  the  taking  of  portraits,  where  it  is  desired 
to  reduce  the  time  of  exposure  to  a  minimum  ;  but 
for  landscape  purposes,  it  is  bv  no  means  so  impera- 
tively necessary  to  curtail  tne  time  of  exposure; 
and  as  the  necessary  apparatus  and  matenals  for 
sensitising  and  developing  a  wet  plate  are  somewhat 
cumbrous  for  field-work,  it  was  su$[gested  by  the 
Abb6  Despratz  to  wash  off  the  free  mtrate  from  the 


PHOTOGRAPHY. 


itirface,  and  allow  the  film  to  dry  in  the  absence  of 
light.  A  number  of  sensitive  plates  can  be  prepared 
by  this  method  in  anticipation  of  a  journey.  This 
is  called  the  'Dry  Collodion  Process.'  A  plate 
so  prepared  is  much  inferior  in  point  of  sensi- 
tiveness to  a  wet  plate,  and  this  arises  as  much 
from  an  altered  molecular  condition  of  the  iodide 
of  silver  as  from  the  absence  of  free  nitrate  of 
silver.  The  Abb6  Despratz  introduced  resin  into 
his  collodion,  with  the  view  of  keeping  the  popes 
open.  The  pictures  obtained  by  his  process  were, 
however,  dimcult  to  develop  without  stains ;  and  a 
variety  of  agents  have  since  been  used,  botii  from 
the  organic  and  inorganic  kingdoms,  to  preserve  the 
film  in  the  same  molecular  condition  when  dry  as 
when  wet.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  nitrate 
of  magnesia,  honey,  oxymel,  and  a  host  of  other 
materials,  such  as  sugar,  albumen,  infusion  of  malt, 
and  lastly  tannin,  which  last  preservative  agent 
bids  fair  to  supersede  all  others. 

rhe  practice  of  photo^phy  in  the  present  day  is 
confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  rosmvE,  the 
Negative,  and  the  Drt  Collodion  Processe&  In 
the  firatt  the  object  is  to  obtain  in  the  camera  a 
direct  image,  which  is  to  be  viewed  hy  reflected 
light;  and  as  it  is  desired  that  the  pictures  so 
produced  should  possess  pure  blacks  and  whites, 
an  inorganic  (nitric)  acid  is  used  in  the  bath,  and 
the  developer — protosnlphate  of  iron — is  also  of 
inorganic  origin,  these  being  the  conditions  best 
calculated  to  produce  a  deposit  of  pure  white  metallic 
silver.  In  the  second,  however,  an  image  possessing 
density  to  transmitted  light  is  required;  accord- 
ingly, an  organic  (acetic)  acid  is  used  both  in  the 
bath  and  developer;  and  in  order  still  further  to 
insure  an  efiicient  supply  of  organic  matter  to  com- 
bine with  the  silver  at  the  moment  of  its  reduction, 
pyrogallic  acid  is  sometimes  exclusively  used.  The 
tJiird  or  dry  process  is  distinguished  from  the 
preceding  modilications  of  the  wet  process  by  the 
complete  removal  of  the  adherent  free  nitrate  of 
silver,  the  application  of  a  preservative  agent,  and 
the  necessity  for  adding  mtrate  of  silver  to  the 
developer. 

It  will  be  desirable,  before  concluding  this  article, 
to  refer  to  some  of  the  various  applications  of 
photography  which  have  been  made  since  the 
principles  of  the  science  have  been  well  understood. 

Photo-Lithography,  the  application  of  photo- 
graphy to  engraving  on  stone.  A  lithographic 
stone  is  coated  with  a  mixture  of  water,  axan- 
arabic,  sugar,  and  bichromate  of  potash,  oried 
in  the  done,  exposed  in  the  camera,  or  under  a 
negative.  The  effect  of  the  luminous  action  is  to 
render  the  gum  almost  insoluble.  A  solution  of 
soap  is  then  applied,  which  serves  the  double 
purpose  by  its  decomposition  of  yielding  a  greasy 
printing-surface,  and  by  its  solvent  action  to 
remove  those  portions  unacted  on  by  light:  its 
action  being  inversely  proportionate  to  the  extent 
to  which  the  gum  was  fixed  by  the  light.  In  this 
condition,  the  stone  is  freely  washed  with  water, 
and  when  dry,  receives  a  coating  of  printer*s  ink 
from  the  roller,  which,  by  uniting  with  the  soap, 
gives  additional  body  to  the  picture.  This  process 
was  patented  by  Mr  W.  R  Newton ;  but,  in  common 
with  otiiers  of  a  kindred  character  noticed  in  this 
section,  the  resulting  pictures  were  invariably 
ddicient  in  middle  tinl^  possessing  a  degree  of 
hardness  very  unpleasant  to  the  eye,  and  satis- 
factorily accounting  for  its  not  coming  into  general 
use. 

Photo-Xtlographt,  the  application  of  photo- 
graphy to  wood-engraving.  One  process,  patented 
by  Mr  Newton,  consisted,  first,  in  rubbing  into  the 
wood-block  a  varnish,  composed  of  asphaltum,  ether, 


and  lamp-black,  to  saturate  the  pores.  Collodion 
was  then  poured  on  as  in  the  ordinary  Collodion  pro- 
cess (q.  v.).  The  surface  was  then  sensitised,  and 
exposed  in  the  caipera,  the  picture  being  developed 
in  the  usual  way.  But  the  desired  sncoeas  was  not 
complete,  for  the  thickness  of  the  united  films  was 
found  to  interfere  with  the  operations  of  the 
engraver,  and  the  process,  in  consequence,  did  noi 
receive  general  adoption. 

W.  (>ookes,  F.B.S.,  subsequently  simplified  tlw 
method  of  producing  an  impression  on  wood-blocks, 
by  rubbing  them  over  with  a  mixture  of  oxalate  of 
silver  and  water,  and  exposing  under  a  nesatire. 
The  advantage  of  this  process  was,  that  it  cud  not 
require  any  treatment  of  the  block  for  the  pnrpose 
of  fixing  after  exposure,  as  if  kept  from  the  con- 
tinued action  of  light,  the  block  would  keep  lung 
enough  for  the  engraver  to  work  out  the  details 
with  his  tools.  It  is  fair  to  assume,  notwithstanding 
the  ingenuity  displayed  in  these  processes,  that 
some  insuperable  objection  exists  in  both  of  them, 
since  neither  have  been  adopted  to  much  extent 

Photo-Micrography  consists  in  the  enlargement 
of  microscopic  objects,  by  means  of  the  microscope, 
and  the  projection  of  the  enlarged  image  on  a 
sensitive  collodion  film.     The  manipulatory  details 
are  the  same  as  in  the  Collodion  process  (q.  v.),  only 
that,  on  account  of  the  delicate  nature  of  the  mark- 
ings  to  be   rendered,  it  is  necessary  to  employ 
a  collodion  yielding  what  is  termed  a  stractureless 
film.     The  principle  upon  which  the  enlargement 
ia  effected  is  that    of   the  conjugate  foci.     This 
branch  of  microscopic  and  photoCTaphic  science  has 
proved  a  usefid  aid  in  the  study  of  the  sciences 
of  Botany,  Physiology,  and  Entomology,  by  deli- 
neating,   with    unerring   accuracy,     woody    fibre, 
ducts,  starch  granules,  muscular  fibre,  blood  diacs, 
nerve  papillie,  &a      Among  the  numerous  experi- 
menters attracted  by  this  interesting  study,  Br 
Maddox  is  perhaps  the  only  one  who  has  attained 
to  any  renown ;  and  by  him,  minute  animalcabe, 
all  but  invisible  by  unassisted  vision,  have  heen 
magnified  to  a  superficial  area  of  three  square  inches, 
in  which  the  most  delicate  details  have  been  faith- 
fully preserved.      By  reversing  the    arrangement 
necessary  for  these  enlar^ments    of    microscopic 
objects,  it  will  be  seen  that  minute  photogra^ 
of  engravings,  or  other  objects,  may  be  prodnced 
which  woula  require  a  microscope  for  their  inspec- 
tion, and  it  has  been  suggested  that  in  this  way 
war  despatches  might  be  transmitted  in  the  setting 
of  a  ring  or  breast-pin ;  and  this  ia  really  by  no 
means  so  difficult  to  accomplish  as  it  may  seem 
at  first  sight,  since  photographs  no  larger  than 
a  pin's  head  have  been  producell,  including  in  that 
small  space  portraits  of  no  less  than  600  eminent 
men. 

Celestial  Photographt  comprehends  the  appli- 
cation of  photography  to  the  automatic  registration 
of  celestial  phenomena.  The  labourers  in  this  field 
of  scientific  research  have  been  numerous  both  in 
America  and  Europe  ;  the  name  of  Mr  Warren  de 
la  Rue,  however,  stands  out  so  prominently  before 
all  others,  that  in  the  limited  space  at  command,  it 
is  scarcely  necessary  to  do  more  than  notice  the 
leading  facts  established  by  his  researches.  Not 
the  least  interesting  of  these  is  the  demonstiatiofi 
of  the  sphericity  of  the  moon  by  means  of  the 
stereoscope  and  lunar  photographs,  also  the  deter- 
mination of  the  nature  of  many  of  the  more  obscure 
markings  on  its  surface,  by  which  elevations  an 
clearly  distinguished  from  depressions.  The  facubs 
or  spots  on  the  sun's  surface  nave  also  been  ph<^ 
graphed,  and  examined  stereoscopically,  by  which 
they  have  been  found  to  ^rise  from  elevationa  of  the 
outer  regions  of   the   photosphera      PhoU^graphf 


PHOTO-LITHOGEAPHT— PHOTO-SCTJLPTUEB. 


hare  tlto  been  obtaiaed  of  Lyro  uid  Cattor,  and  of 
tbe  nebulzB  in  Orion.  The  instroment  emplnj'ed  for 
the  purpose  U  called  a  Flioto-helioiTaph. 

Psoto-Galvinooraphv,  a  method  of  prodacing 
fram  a  photograph  an  eleetrotjrpe  copper-plate  in  a 
rtnte  fit  for  jirinting.  It  waa  invented  by  Mr  Paul 
Pretsch  of  Vienna,  and  ia  dependent  on  the  property 
which  unaltered  gelatine  po8sesle»  of  iwelling  up 
in  water.  In  order  that  a  plate  should  be  fit  for 
engraving,  it  ia  of  coarse  essential  that  it  should 
have  on  its  surface  elevations  and  depressions 
corresponding  to  the  lights  and  shadows  of  the 
pictui^  Accordingly,  the  first  operation  consists 
in  coating  a  glass  with  a  solution  of  gelatine  and 
bichromate  of  potash,  and  when  this  is  clry,  exposing 
tlie  same  to  light  under  a  negative.  In  accordance 
with  the  above-named  property  of  gelatine,  it  will 
be  found,  on  applying  water  to  tbe  film,  tjiat  the 
portion  unacted  on  wUl  swell  up.  while  those  parts 
upon  which  the  actinic  raya  have  exercised  their 
full  influence,  will  remain  unchanged  by  the  water. 
From  the  image  thus  obtained,  a  gutta-percha 
mould  is  prepared,  and  its  surface  made  conducting 
by  means  of  levigated  graphite  or  bronze-powder, 
(iopper  is  then  de mob ited  thereon  by  the  electrotype 
process,  and  the  plate  thus  produced  i*  printed  from 
ID  the  ordinary  way. 

Photo -GLYPHooBiPHY  is  a  process,  invented  by 
Hr  Fox  Talbot,  for  etching  a  photwraph  into  a  steel 
pUt&  It  consista  in  coating  the  jilate  with  a 
mixture  of  bichromate  of  potash  and  gelatine,  and 
exposing  under  a  negative.  The  eftect  of  this 
treatment  is  to  render  tbe  gelatine  insoluble,  just 
in  proportion  to  the  intensity  oE  the  light's  action, 
after  which  a  solution  of  perchloride  of  iron,  of 
a  certain  detinite  strength,  ia  poured  over  the  film, 
which  solution  i>enetrateg  those  parta  unacted  on  by 
light,  reaching  the  steel  plate,  and  biting  itself  in, 
bnt  is  repelled  by  that  portion  of  the  gelatine 
rendered  insoluble  ;  the  plate  being  thus  protected 
from  the  action  of  the  solvent.  Because  a  dilute 
solution  of  perchloride  of  iron  soaks  into  a  film  of 
gelatine  more  readily  than  a  strong  solution,  it  is 
very  important  fiat  the  etching  fluid  shonld  possess 
that  amount  of  dilution  which  has  been  found 
by  practice  to  yield  the  best  results. 
PHOTO-LITHO'CRAPHY.  SeePHOToaRAPHiO 

ENCBATINa,  PaOTOOKAPHT. 

PHOTO'METEE  (Gr.  pfiOs,  li^t ;  metron,  mea- 
■ore),  an  inatrument  for  measuring  the  intensity 
of  light.  The  (irat  who  occupied  himself  in  scienti- 
ficaify  determining  the  intensity  of  light  was 
Bougiier  ;  bnt  his  investigationa  were  far  surpassed 
by  those  of  Lambert,  about  1700.  The  latter  indi- 
cated an  exceedingly  simple  and  efiecttve  kind  of 
photometer,  which  was  atterwarda  constructed  by 
Riuiiford.  The  instrument  consiata  of  a  screen  of 
thin  paper  placed  vertically,  and  behind  it,  at  the 
distance  of  a  few  inches,  is  placed  a  cylindrical  stick, 
or  any  odier  similar  body.  When  the  intenalty  of 
light  from  two  flames  is  to  be  compared,  they  are 
pfiu:ed  behind  this  stick  in  such  a  way  that  each 
casts  a  separate  shadow  of  the  stick  upon  the  paper 
•creen.  The  observer  stands  in  front  of  the  screen, 
and  directs  the  removal  of  the  two  lighta  either  to 
or  from  the  stick,  till  the  ahadows  which  sre  cast 
apon  the  screen  are  equally  obscure.  The  distance 
of  eacb  light  from  the  shadow  it  casts  on  the  screen 
is  then  measured;  and  tbe  squares  of  these  dis- 
tsDcea  ciyB  the  relative  intensities  of  the  two 
li^ta.  This  photometer  may  also  be  modified  by 
employing,  instead  of  a  cylindrical  alack,  a  second 
•creen  parallel  to  the  tic«t,  but  of  greater  thickness, 
»nd  having  an  aperture  cut  lii  its  centre.  The  two 
Hghta  being  theo  placed  behind  the  seoond  screen, 


and  considerably  apart,  each  casta  a  separate  illn- 
-"■"-.tion  through  the  aperture  in  the  second  Upon 
first  screen,  and  the  observer  in  front  of  ths 
latter  changes  their  relative  distances  till  the  dlu- 
minations  appear  to  the  eye  of  equal  intensity.  The 
calculation  is  the  same  as  before.  There  nre  several 
other  classes  of  photometera,  which,  however,  do 
not  deserve  the  name,  as  they  depend  ujion  the 
heating  and  chemiclJ  powers  which  generHJly 
npany  light,  and  not  upon  the  intensity  of 
ction  on  the  organs  of  virion.  Thus,  I-^slie's 
ument  is  nothing  more  than  a  differential 
QOmeter,  while  Saussure'a  and  Landriani's 
depend  upon  the  chemical  efiecta  of  light.  Lom- 
padius,  instead  of  c.'Jculating  the  intensitiea  from 
the  different  diatances  of  the  fighta  from  the  screen, 
—  '  plates  of  horn,  or  other  semi-opaque  material, 
fioiLS  thicknessea.  and  deduced  his  results  from 
□mparative  thickness  of  the  two  plates.  The 
results  attained  by  tiie  aid  of  the  photometer, 
'iug  to  the  imperfection  of  the  instrument,  are 
be  rcHed  upon  only  n-ithin  certain  limits.  Some 
of  them  are  aa  follows:  the  light  of  the  sim  ia 
94,500  times  greater  than  that  of  tbe  moon ;  and 
an  oniinary  Argand  lamp,  wtth  cylindrical  wick, 
is  equal  to  nine  newly-trimmed  candles. 

PHOTO-SCUXPTURE,  a  new  art,  invented, 
during  the  present  year,  by  M.  Will^me,  a  French- 
man. It  has  been  introduced  Into  Great  Britain, 
and  is  successfully  pra>:tised  by  M.  Ulaudet  in 
London,  and  a  society  has  been  formed  for  carrying 
it  out  in  Paris.  It  consists  in  taking  Ukenesaea  in 
the  form  of  atatuettea  and  medallions  by  the  ud  of 
photography,  and  a  very  ingenious  series  of  acces- 
sory contnvancGB.  A  buiMing  specially  adapted 
for  the  purpose  is  absolutely  necessary ;  this  con- 
aists  of  a  circular  room,  40  feet  in  diameter,  and 
surmounted  by  a  glass  cupola  22  feet  hiuh,  the 
Buppoiting  wJl  being  about  8  feet  in  height,  and 
pierced  with  24  equidistant  holes  about  4  feet  from 
the  fioor  ;  these  ore  only  sufficiently  large  to  uermit 
the  action  of  an  orfinary  camera  lens  throuirt  eaeh 
one.  OutaidB  the  suixounding  wall  of  this  circular 
chamber  ia  a  covered  dark  passage  in  which  twenty- 
'—  cameras  are  placed  with  their  lenses  adjusted 


to  the  holes  m  the  wall  The  person  whose  like- 
ness is  to  be  taken  stands  in  the  centre  under  the 
sloss  dome,  and  at  a  given  signal  the  caroerae  are 
simultaneously  brought  into  action,  and  a  photo- 
graph is  taken.  The  whole  of  this  arrangement 
wUI  be  fully  understood  by  reference  to  fig.  1. 

The    twenty-four    photographs     are     carefully 
numbered,  80  that  no  error  can  take  place  in  tba 


PHOTO-ZINCOORAPHT— PHBENOLOQT. 


■nbaHjuerit  operation,  which  il  performed  in  another    transparent 


con  be  dsj-kened  will  d< 


M  in  fig.  2     ThemodfUii^dif 


▼ortical  wheel,  which  ia  lo  arranged  that  at  the  wiD 
of  the  operator  each  one  can  be  brought  before  the 
lent  of  a  magic  lantern,  and  it!  image  projected  on  » 


placed,  ratker  behind  the  screen,  ttut  thc"!!^ 
can  use  a  pantograph,  wbich  has  its  redacing  juiit 
armed  with  a  moulding  or  cutting  tool  ioaUad  of  i 
mere  marker  ;  and  as  the  loneer  ana  of  the  initri' 
inent  describes  the  outline  or  the  projected  tigira 
obtained  from  the  photogrsiihs,  the  ihortet  obi  ii 
reproducing  oa  a  so^er  scale  the  Sgure  in  the  6kj, 
The  statuette  thus  produced  requires  reloDoliiiii 
with  the  band  to  TemoTS  the  ahaip  and  n^gn 
lines  of  the  uutting-toolii,  and  of  oooise  mub 
d^iends  upon  artistic  skill  in  doing  thia  In  tbt 
■killed  hands  which  have  yet  had  to  da  with  its 
operation!,  the  arrsogemeDt  has  had  so  muked  t 
Bucceas  as  to  promise  to  produce  in  time  the  mort 
Utisfactory  roulta. 


PHRAGMI'TES.    See  BsD). 

PHRASB,  the  name  given,  in  Unsic,  to  tha 
tlmple  motives  containing  in  themselves  no  sitii> 
factory  mueioal  idea,  whidi  enter  into  the  compoo- 
tioD  U  every  melody  containing  a  perfect  muiod 


•^^^S 


ThepluM 


most  usually  consists  of  two  measurea ;  in  cm- 
pound  time,  it  may  be  comprised  in  one  meiADie, 
— -*  an  eitended  phrase  is  one  which  contains  tbws 

ures.  In  the  more  simple  and  regular  fonn* 
of  musical  composition,  two  phrases  unite  to  iona 
'  -~4ioa  ending  in  a  cadence ;  and  a  perfect  miiical 

is  formed  of  two  such  sections  terminating  ths 
first  with  the  domituuit,  thesecond  with  tba  toil 
baimony. 


A  little  confusion  has  arisen  from  the  use,  by 
some  muaicBl  writers,  of  the  word  phrase  for  what 
is  here  called  a  section. 

PHRENI'Tia    See  MciiNomB. 
PHRENO'LOGY 

fng  a  discourse  on  th 
limited  sense  to  mean  a  theoty  of  mental  philo- 
sophy (onnded  on  the  observation  and  discovery  of 
the  nmotiona  of  the  brain,  in  so  far  as  it  is  c^oii' 
oemed   in   intellectual  and  emotional 

Phrenology  takes  into  view  likewise  the 

all  otiier  parts  of  the  body,  and  of  external 
■Noting  uteM,  upon  the  biain. 


The  founder  of  this  natem  was  Dr  Ftmu  Ja«i4 
Oall  (^.  v.),  who  died  m  lS2a  In  Britain,  it  1m 
been  amply  expounded  by  his  pupil  Dr  SpuiJisini 
{a.  v.),  by  George  and  Andrew  Combe  (q.  v.),  by  Dr 
ESIiotson  of  I«ndoo,  and  others.  In  America,  Dr 
Charles  Caldwell  has  been  its  ablest  advocate.  Gsll'i 
method  of  investigating  the  funotioiis  of  the  brain  a 
that  which,  applied  to  other  organs,  h^  loJ  to  tin 
disoovery  of  their  functions,  but  which  had  nevw 
before  been  ^stematicaUy  applied  to  the  bnis. 
When  a  physiologist  wished  to  ascertain  the  func- 
tion of  any  part  of  the  body,  he  did  not  rest  satisfied 
with  examining  its  structure,  and  apeculating  <a 
the  purposes  for  which  that  strnDtnre  aeenwd  to  b* 


PHBENOLOGY. 


adapted.  He  ol)servcd  what  kind  of  function  of  mind  are  proportioned,  in  intensity  and  frequency 
ai){)eared  during  life  as  tlij  invariable  accompani-  of  recurrence,  to  the  size  or  expansion  of  particnlai 
ment  of  the  presence  and  actiiui  of  that  particular  ports  of  the  brain — this  law  being  subject  to  modi- 
part;  and,  by  repeated  and  careful  ub'^ervation,  he  iication  in  the  case  of  the  brain,  as  in  tliat  of  the 
at  last  succeeded  in  discovering  the  fuuotion.  The  muscles  and  oth'^r  parts  of  the  body,  by  differences 
knowledge  thus  obtained  was  afterwards  verified  i  of  health,  quality,  exercise,  && 
and  completed  by  examination  of  the  structure,  aud  <  If  size  of  organ,  cceteria  paribus^  is  the  measure  of 
observation  of  the  ellects  of  its  injury  or  diseases.  { tLo  vigour  of  function,  it  is  of  great  moment  In 
To  the  adoption  of  this  principle  in  studying  the  ^  what  region  of  the  brain  the  organs  are  largest — 
functions  of  the  brain.  Gall  was  led  by  observing  whether  in  the  animal,  moral,  or  intellectuaL  On 
at  school  the  concomitance  of  a  quick  and  retentive  this  preponderance  de{)end3  the  character.  Two 
memory  of  words  with  a  peculiar  appearanoe  of   brains  may  be  exactly  alike  in  size  generally,  yet 


places,  and  under  the  most  different  oircnmstances,  cover  the  strength  of  the  dispositions  and  intellectual 
the  same  concomitance  of  talent  with  development  powers  of  men;  2.  That  the  form  of  the  brain  can,  in 
of  brain  came  under  his  notice  so  frequently,  as  to  !  normal  subjects  not  beyond  middle  age,  be  ascer- 
suggest  to  him  the  probability  that  there  mi^t  be  tained  with  sufficient  accuracy  from  the  external 
discovered  by  the  same  method  a  connection  of !  form  of  the  head— the  brain,  though  the  softer 
other  talents  and  dispositions  with  other  portions  |  substance,  being  what  determines  the  shape  of  the 
of  the  brain.  It  was  by  the  diligent  application  ]  skull ;  3.  That  the  organs  or  parts  of  which  the 
of  the  method  of  inquiry  which  accident  had  thuB  brain  is  composed  api^ear  on  its  surface  in  folds 
suggesteil  to  him,  and  not,  as  some  suppose,  by  or  convolutions,  which  have  a  well-ascertained 
the  exercise  of  his  imagination,  that  Dr  Gall  was  at  fibrous  connection  with  the  medulla  oblonQata, 
last  led  to  conclude,  first,  that  the  brain  is  an  which  unites  the  brain  to  the  spinal  cord ;  4  That 
a^rgregate  of  many  different  parts,  each  serving  for  .  the  brain  being  divided  into  two  equal  parts  called 
the  manifestation  of  a  particular  mental  faculty ;  \  Junnispheres,  in  each  of  which  the  same  organ  occurs, 
and,  secondly,  that,  all  other  conditions  being  equal,  <  all  the  organs  are  double,  like  the  ears  and  eyes, 
the  size  of  each  of  these  cerabral  organs  is  a  measure  See  Brain.  But  when  the  term  organ  is  used, 
of  the  [)ower  of  its  function.  These  two  proposi- 
tions constitute  the  distinctive  or  fundamental 
principles  of  Phrenology.  The  first  of  them,  how- 
ever, is  not  new.    The  impossibility  of  reconciling 


both  organs  are  meant. 

It  is  true  that  where  strength  is  most  needful,  the 
sktill  is  thicker  than  at  other  places ;  but  this  is  not 
overlooked  by  phrenologists,  nor  do  they  fail  to 
actual  phenomena  with  the  notion  oi  a  single  organ  warn  observers  against  mistaking  for  signs  of  cere- 
of  the  mind  has,  for  many  centuries,  suggested  bral  development  the  bony  processes  and  ridges 
the  probability  of  a  plurality  of  organs  in  thebrain. .  which  serve  for  the  attachment  of  muscles  to  uie 
But  the  phrenologists  hold  that  Dr  Gall  was  the  skull.  See  Skulu  They  recognise  also,  as  we 
lirat  to  demonstrate  the  fact,  and  to  make  any  shall  see,  the  uncertainty  often  occasioned  by  the 
considerable    progress  in    determining  with  what   frontal  sinus. 

parts  of  the  brain  the  various  intellectual  and  emo-       Besides  the  brain  proper,  there  is  a  smaller  brain, 
tional  faculties  and  susceptibilities  are  connected.        lying  below  the  hinder  part  of  the  main  brain. 

That  man,  in  his  present  state,  cannot  think,  and  called  the  cerebdlum. 
will,  or  feel  without  the  intervention  of  the  brain,  ia  |  The  brain  is  divided  into  the  anterior,  middle^ 
generally  admitted  by  phyaiologists,  and  appeals  and  posterior  lobes.  The  anterior  lobe  contains  the 
from  even  the  fact  that,  by  pressure  applied  to  it^  organs  of  the  intellectual  faculties ;  the  posterior 
conjBciousness  is  at  once  suspended.  That  it  is  not  lobe  and  lower  range  of  the  middle  one  are  the 
a  single  organ  is  d  priori  probable  from  such  con-  regions  of  the  animid  propensities ;  while  the  moral 
siderations  as  these :  1.  It  is  a  law  in  physiology  sentiments  are  stated  to  have  their  organs  developed 
that  differeiit  functions  are  never  performed  by  the  on  the  top  or  coronal  region  of  the  h^d. 
same  organ.  The  stomach,  liver,  heart,  eyes,  eats,  I  Phrenologists  distinguish  between  power  and 
have  each  a  separate  duty.  Different  nerves  are  activity  in  the  mental  faculties.  Power,  in  whatever 
necessary  to  motion  and  feeling,  and  there  is  no  |  degree  possessed,  is  capability  of  feeling,  perceiving, 
example  of  confusion  amongst  them.  2.  The  mental '  or  thinking ;  while  activity  is  readiness  and  quick- 
]M>wer8  do  not  all  oome  at  once,  as  they  would  were  |  ness  in  the  exercise  of  power. 


the  brain  one  organ.    They  appear  successively,  and 


The  powers  of  mind,  as  manifested  by  the  oiganst 


the  brain  undergoes  a  corresponding  change.  3.  are  called /acu^ie«.  A  faculty  may  be  defined  to  be 
Cit'nius  varies  in  different  individuals:  one  has  a  a  particular  power  of  thinking  or  feeling.  A  faculty 
ium^  as  it  is  called,  for  one  thing,  and  another  for  is  regarded  as  elementary  or  primary — 1.  When  it 
8<:»mething  different^  4.  Dreaming  is  explained  by  ,  exisia  in  one  kind  of  animal,  and  not  in  another ; 
the  doctrine  of  distinct  organs  which  can  act  or  j  2.  When  it  varies  in  the  two  sexes  of  the  same 
rest  alone.  5.  Partial  insanity,  or  madness  on  one  species ;  3.  When  it  is  not  in  proportion  to  the 
piint  with  sanity  on  every  other,  similarly  points  other  faculties  of  the  same  indiviaual ;  4.  When, 
to  a  plurality  of  cerebral  organs.  6.  Partial  injuries  '  it  appears  earlier  or  later  in  life  than  the  other 
of  the  brain,  affecting  the  mental  manifestations  of  :  faculties ;  5.  When  it  may  act  or  re|K>se  singly ; 
the  injured  parts,  but  leaving  the  other  faculties  '  6i.  When  it  is  propagated  from  parent  to  child ;  and 
sound,    tend  to   the   same    conclusion.     7.  There    7.  When  it  may  singly  preserve  its  soimdness,  or- 

singly  become  deranged  or  extinct. 

'^e  faculties  are  usually  divided  by  phrenolo*- 
gists  into  two  orders — Fe£UNGS  and  Intellect,  or 
Affectiyb  and  Imtellbctual  Faculties.  The- 
Feelings  are  divided  into  two  genera — the  Propen- 
sities and  the  Sentinienls;  while  the  IntellectuaL' 
embrace  the  Perceptive  or  Knowing,  and  the  liejiective, 


could  be  no  such  state  of  mind  as  the  familiar  one 
where  onr  feelings  contend  with  each  other,  ii  the 
brain  were  one  organ. 

These  are  ^rounds  for  presuming  that  the  braui 
is  not  single,  but  a  cluster  of  organs,  or  at  least  that 
it  is  capable  of  acting  in  parts  as  well  as  in  whole. 
For  this  conclusion  the  phrenologists  consider  that 


tiiey  have  found  satisfactory  proofs   in  numerous  I  Faculties.    This  classification,  however,  is  avowedly 
observationa,  shewing  that  particular  manifestations  |  imperfecta 


PHRENOLOGT. 


Hie  followioff  u  ft  npretentfttioti  of  the  hnmaD 
heaii  in  four  pomta  of  view,  ihewine  the  poaitioiiB 
of  the  cerebral  orguu,  acoording  to  Mr  Combe : 


le  of  tbe  piime  objects  of  moraliata  and  leKislntora. 

2.  PhUoprogenitieenfia,  or  love  ot  offeiiring,  la  i^er- 
slly  Etrongeat  in  tbe  female.  Its  organ  ia  one  of 
the  easiest  to  disttoguiah  in  the  hiuDiiD  head.  Those 
who  are  flat  and  perjiendicalar  there,  inatead  of 
being  delighted,  are  annoyed  by  children.  Iho 
feeling  is  aaid  to  gi™  a  teniler  Bympathy  with  weak- 
uen  and  helpIeBsnesa  in  geaeral.  The  moet  savage 
races  must  have  affection  for  tbeir  young,  or  tbey 
would  become  extinct  The  organ,  like  the  other 
oerebral  porta,  may  become  diseased ;  and  insanity 
on  the  subject  of  children  often  occiiis. 

3.  ItJuAitivauM  (called  by  Mr  Combe  Concm- 
traiaienat)  baa  its  organ  immediately  above  the 
preceding  Dr  Gall  did  not  discover  its  fanction ; 
and  Dr  Sporzheim,  observing  it  largo  in  peraons 
attached  to  their  native  pLice,  or  any  place  in 
which  they  had  long  dwelt,  called  it  Iniahitiwnat. 
Ur  Combe  thooght  it  has  a  more  extended  aphere 


ot  action.  He  observed  it  large  in  those  who  an 
detain  contdnuonsl;  tbeir  feelings  and  ideas  in  Unit 
minds  ;  while  the  feelioga  and  ideas  of  otben  ^ 
away  like  the  images  in  a  mirror,  so  that  tJie;  in 
incapable  of  taking  syitematio  viewi  of  a  nbjcct, 
or  eoneenlraling  their  powers  to  bear  on  ok  pmcL 
The  organ  ia  atated  aa  only  probable,  till  forths 
facts  are  obtained. 

4.  Ailhaivmeu. — The  organ  of  this  feeUng  ra 
discovered  by  Gall,  from  being  found  very  lirjje  in 
a  lady  remarkable  for  Uie  warmth  and  stodinesi  a! 
her  bieodsbipa.  It  attaches  men  sod  grtguicDS 
aniniiylH  to  each  other,  and  is  the  foundatioii  of  ttiat 
ptessure  which  mankind  feel  in  bestovinj;  ud 
receiving  friendshin,  and  in  associating  witb  act 
other.  Acting  with  Amativeneaa,  it  gives  coiulun 
and  duration  to  the  attacbment  ot  the  DUiried. 
Generally  spL'aking,  Adbeaivenen  is  strongest  asd 
its  organ  lar^t  in  woman. 

5.  Combalwenat, — Dr  Gall  diacovered  the  arpn 
ot  this  propensity  by  a  vast  nnmber  of  obsembosa 
on  the  heads  of  persons  fond  of  lightin);.  Dr 
Spuraheim  extended  its  fanction  to  eonlnlim  is 
general,  whether  physical  or  moral.  Those  defideol 
in  it  shew  that  over-gentle  and  indolent  chancier 
which  yields  to  aggreasion,  is  easily  rcptM 
by  the  ap]iearance  of  difficulty  and  trouble,  ud 
naturally  seeks  the  shades  and  eddy-comen  d 
Uf& 

6.  i>e»ft*ndiwji«».— The  propensity  to  dMbny  ii 
abundantly  manifested  by  man  and  carniToniia 
animals,  and  when  too  stroug  or  ill-regnlilsd  s 
the  source  of  cruelty  and  wanton  miscbieL  Ai 
a  defensive  power,  it  is  of  high  utility.  Angn, 
resentment,  and  indignadoQ  spring  from  it  A 
email  endowment  is  one  of  the  eLementB  of  i  '  Eoft' 
character;  while  persons  who  have  much  of  it  ut 

Senerally  marked  by  an  energetic,  and  prohitJj 
erce  and  posaionato  character. 
AliraentiiKneM  and  Love  of  Life. —  Some  <jf  tht 
recent  phrenological  worka  treat  in  this  part  of  to 
order  01  the  faculties,  of  a  faculty  of  AlimentiTesea, 
or  the  pro]>ensity  to  eat  and  drink,  and  aln  of 
another  wnioh  follows — viz..  Lots  of  Life;  Tht 
first  being  represented  as  no  more  than  pniiA 
and  the  second  aa  only  eonjtetarrd,  they  hate  no 
number  allotte.1  to  them  on  tie  bust,  The  ^ 
assigned  to  Alimentiveuess  is  marked  by  a  cri.«i  on 
the  side-view  of  the  bust.  Mr  Combe  suggsti  tlut 
tiie  organ  of  the  Love  of  Life  is  probably  i  con- 
volution at  the  base  of  the  middle  lobe  of  the  bnin, 
the  size  of  which  cannot  be  ascertained  dnrin<!  Uie. 

7.  £ecrrtiwn«M  is  the  propensity  to  conceal,  whick 
in  excess  assumes  the  form  of  cunning.  It  helps 
animals  both  to  avoid  and  to  prey  upon  each  otbij. 
In  abuse,  it  leads  to  lying,  hypocrisy,  snd  fnnd 
and  with  Acquis  itlvenesa  dispoBes  to  theft  snd 
swindling.  The  organ  is  subject  to  diiwase.  and 
cimning  madmen  are  difficult  to  deal  witb.  DiseiM 
here  often  leads  to  belief  in  plots  and  oODspirano 
formed  against  the  jiatient. 

8.  yJojiiitifiiwics*— The  existence  of  a  eerebnl 
organ  for  ttiu  desire  of  property  is  held  by  phrrso- 
legists  to  prove  that  this  ia  not,  as  many  hxtt 
thought,  a  derived  or  secondary  tendency,  li  it 
what  Lord  Kamea  Calls  the  'hoarding  appetiu.' 
This  explains  the  miser's  desire  to  accnmuIiH 
money,  without  regard  to  its  nse  in  the  purcbaM  rf 
other  enjoyment.  When  the  organ  is  disranl. 
persona  in  easy  circnmatoncea  are  sometimes  proa 
to  pilfer  everything  of  value,  and  often  ot  no  iiIk. 
which  comes  in  tbeir  way. 

9.  Comlructtvenau  is  the  impolse  to  faahiao  nl 
oonstnict  by  changing  tbe  forms  of  matter.  Mwj 
of  the  inferior  animals  jKwaesa  it,  aa  the  beai'<. 
bee,  and  birds.     Physical  nature  donsista  of  nv 


PHRENOLOGY. 


materials    which    ConBtractiveness    prompts    and 
enables  man  to  adapt  to  his  purposes. 

10.  Self-enteem  is  the  source  of  that  self-coni' 
pUoency  which  enhances  the  pleasures  of  life,  gives 
the  inmvidual  contidence  in  his  own  powers,  and 
enables  him  to  apply  them  to  the  best  advantage. 
It  is  sometimes  called  proper  pride,  or  self-respect, 
in  which  form  it  aids  the  moral  sentimente  in 
resisting  temptations  to  meanness  and  vice.  Its 
deficiency  renders  a  man  too  humble,  and  the  world 
take  him  at  his  word,  and  push  him  aside.  Its 
excess  produces  arrogance,  seltishness,  disobedience, 
and  tyranny.  Self-esteem  becomes  insane  i>erhaps 
more  frequently  than  any  other  faculty,  and  then 
thews  itself  in  extravagant  notions  of  self-import- 
ance. Such  maniacs  fancy  themselves  kings, 
emperors,  and  even  the  Supreme  Being.  The  organ 
is  generally  larger  in  men  than  in  women;  and 
more  men  are  insane  from  pride  than  women. 

11.  Love  of  Approbation  is  the  desire  of  the  good 
opinion,  admiration,  and  praise  of  others.  It  is  an 
excellent  guard  upon  morals  as  well  as  manners. 
The  loss  of  character,  to  those  largely  endowed 
with  it,  is  worse  than  death.  If  the  moral  senti- 
ments be  strong,  the  desire  will  be  for  honest 
fame ;  but  in  meaner  characters,  the  love  of  glory 
ia  a  passion  that  has  deluged  the  world  with  blood 
in  all  ages.  Shamelessness  is  the  effect  of  its 
deficiency,  often  observed  in  criminals.  The  organ 
oftener  becomes  diseased  in  women  than  in  men,  as 
in  women  it  is  more  active  than  in  the  other  sex 
generally. 

12.  Cautiousnes$. — ^The  organ  of  this  faculty  is 
found  large  in  persons  much  troubled  with  fears, 
hesitations,  and  doubts.  Its  normal  character  is 
well  expressed  by  its  name.  When  diseased,  as 
it  often  is,  the  organ  produces  causeless  dread  of 
evil,  despondency,  and  often  suicide. 

13.  Benevolence  is  the  desire  to  increase  the  happi- 
ness and  lessen  the  misery  of  others.  When  strong, 
it  prompts  to  active,  la1x)rious,  and  continued 
exertions,  and,  unless  Acquisitiveness  be  powerful, 
to  liberal  giving  to  promote  its  favourite  object. 
UnregiilatS  by  Conscientiousness  and  Intellect, 
Benevolence  degenerates  into  profusion  and  facility. 
It  often  coexists  with  Destructiveness  in  great  force ; 
as  it  did  in  Burns,  whose  poem  on  a  Wounded 
Hare  expresses  both  feelings  highly  excited. 

14.  Veneration  has  for  its  object  whoever  and 
tchatever  is  deemed  venerable  by  the  individuaL  One 
man  venerates  what  another  treats  with  indifference, 
because  his  understanding  leads  him  to  consider 
that  particular  object  as  venerable,  while  his  neigh- 
bour deems  it  otherwise.  But  any  man  with  a  large 
endowment  of  the  organ  will  have  a  tendency  to 
consider  others  as  superior  to  himsell  Venera- 
tion is  the  basis  of  lovalty,  and,  having  the  Deity 
for  its  highest  object,  forms  an  element  in  relicious 
feeling.  So  liable  is  its  organ  to  disease,  that  nigh 
devotional  excitement  is  one  of  the  most  common 
forma  of  insanity. 

15.  Firmnew  is  the  source  of  fortitude,  constancy, 
perseverance,  and  determination ;  when  too  powerful, 
it  pnxluces  obstinacy,  stubbornness,  and  infatuation. 
The  want  of  it  is  a  great  defect  in  character. 
The  £nglish  soldier  is  more  persistent  than  the 
French,  although  in  courage  and  spirit  they  are 
eqnaL 

16.  ConseientioumeM  gives  the  love  of  justice,  but 
intellect  is  necessary  to  shew  on  which  side  justice 
lies.  The  judge  must  hear  both  sides  before 
deciding,  and  his  very  wish  to  be  just  will  prompt 
him  to  do  sa  Conscientiousness  not  only  curbs 
ipiir  faculties  when  too  powerful,  but  stimulates 
those  that  are  too  weak,  and  incites  ns  to  duty 
even  against  strong  inclinations.    The  existence  of 


Conscientiousness  as  an  independent  element  in  the 
human  constitution,  explains  some  apparent  inconsis- 
tencies in  human  conduct — that  a  man,  for  instance, 
is  kind,  forgiving,  even  devout,  and  yet  not  just 
The  organ  is  commonly  larger  in  Europeans  than  in 
Asiatics  and  Africans ;  very  generally,  it  is  deficient 
in  the  savage  brain.  When  it  is  diseased,  the 
insanity  consists  in  morbid  self-reproach,  belief  in 
imaginary  debts,  and  the  like. 

17.  Hope  was  regarded  as  a  primary  faculty  by 
Spurzheim,  but  was  never  adnutted  by  Gall,  who 
considered  it  as  a  function  of  every  taculty  that 
desires,  Dr  Spurzheim  answered,  that  we  desire 
much  of  which  we  have  no  hope.  It  produces  gaiety 
and  cheerfulness,  looks  on  the  sunny  side  of  every- 
thing, and  paints  the  future  with  bright  colours. 
When  not  well  regulated,  Hope  leads  to  rash  specu- 
lation, and,  in  combination  with  Acquisitiveness,  to 
gambling,  both  at  the  gaming-table  and  in  the 
counting-house.  It  tends  to  make  the  individual 
credulous  of  promised  good,  and  often  indolent. 

18.  Wonder, — Dr  Gall  found  the  organ  of  this 
facidty  large  in  seers  of  visions  and  dreamers  of 
dreams,  and  in  those  who  love  to  dwell  on  the 
marvellous,  and  easily  believe  in  it.  persons  who 
have  it  powerful  are  fond  of  news,  especially  if 
striking  and  wonderful,  and  are  alwa^  expressing 
astonishment ;  their  reading  is  much  m  the  region 
of  the  marvellous,  tales  of  wonder,  of  enchanters, 
ghosts,  and  witches.  When  the  sentiment  is  exces- 
sive or  diseased,  it  produces  that  peculiar  fanaticism 
which  attempts  miracles,  and  (with  Language  active, 
speaks  in  unknown  tongues. 

19.  Ideality,— The  organ  of  this  faculty  was  ob- 
served by  Dr  Gall  to  be  prominent  in  the  busts*  and 
portraits  of  deceased,  and  in  the  heads  of  a  great 
niunber  of  living,  poets.  This  confirmed  to  him 
the  old  classical  adage,  that  the  poet  is  bom,  not 
made.  He  called  it  the  organ  of  Poetry.  The  name 
of  Ideality  was  given  to  it  by  Dr  Spurzheim.  This 
faculty  is  said  to  delicht  in  the  perfect,  the  exquisite, 
the  heau-idial^  the  oeautiful  and  sublime.  The 
organ  is  usually  small  in  criminals  and  other  coarse 
and  brutal  characters,  for  it  is  essential  to  refinement. 
It  prompts  to  elegance  and  ornament  in  dress  and 
furniture,  and  gives  a  taste  for  poetry,  painting, 
statuary,  and  architecture.  A  pomt  of  interroga- 
tion is  placed  on  the  bust  on  the  back  part  of  the 
region  of  this  organ,  conjectured  to  be  a  different 
organ,  but  one  idlied  to  Ideality.  The  existence 
of  the  faculty  of  Ideality  is  held  by  phrenologists  to 
prove  that  the  sentiment  of  beauty  is  an  original 
emotion  of  the  mind,  and  to  settle  the  controversy 
on  that  subject.    See  i^BsTHETics. 

20.  >Ki^  or  tJie  Sentiment  of  the  Ludicrous. — The 
phrenological  writers  have  discussed  at  great  len^h, 
and  with  not  a  little  controversv,  the  metaphysical 
nature  or  analysis  of  this  faculty.  We  need  not 
foUow  them  into  this  inquiry,  as  most  of  them  are 
agreed  that  by  means  of  it  we  feel  and  enjoy  the 
ludicrous, 

21.  Imitation. — Dr  Gall  found  the  prominence  of 
ihis  organ  accompanied  by  instinctive,  and  often 
irrepressible  mimiciy.  The  tendency  to  imitate 
is  evidently  innate ;  from  the  earliest  years,  it  makes 
the  younff  follow  the  customs  and  the  manner  of 
speech  of  those  around  them,  and  so  preserves  a 
convenient  nniformity  m  the  manners  and  externals 
of  society.  Celebrated  actors  always  possess  it 
strong,  and  by  its  means  imitate  the  supposed 
manner,  and  even  feel  the  sentiments,  of  their 
characters.  Its  organ  is  found  large  alsu  in  painters 
and  sculptors  of  eminence.  In  its  morbid  states,  the 
impulse  to  mimic  becomes  irresistible. 

We  DOW  come  to  the  Intellectual  Faculties,  or 


PHREXOLOOY. 


those  which  make  us  acquainted  'n'ifch  thinga  that 
exist,  and  with  their  qualities  and  relations.  Dr 
8i>urzheim  divided  them  intu  three  genera — 1.  The 
External  Senses ;  2.  The  Internal  Senses,  or  Per- 
ceptive Faculties  ;  3.  The  Reflecting  Faculties. 

Tlie  external  senses,  as  generauy  received,  are 
five  in  number — Touchy  Taste^  Smdl,  Hearing^  and 
Sight,  There  seem  to  be  two  more— namely,  the 
Sense  of  Hunger  and  Thirst,  and  the  Muscular  Sense, 
or  ^t  by  which  we  feel  the  state  of  our  muscles  as 
acted  upon  by  force  and  resistance.  Without  this 
last  sense,  we  could  not  keep  our  balance,  or  suit  our 
movements  to  the  laws  of  the  mechanical  world. 
Whether  each  sense  has  a  special  cerebral  organ 
in  addition  to  its  external  apparatus  and  nerves, 
is  a  question  regarded  by  phrenologists  as  still 
undetermined. 

22.  Individuality,  the  first  in  the  list  of  the  per- 
ceptive faculties,  is  not  easily  defined.  It  is  said 
to  take  cognizance  of  individual  objects  as  such, 
e.g.,  a  horse  or  a  tree.    Other  knowing  faculties 

1)erceive  the  form,  colour,  size,  and  weight  of  the 
Lorse,  but  Individuality  is  thought  to  unite  all 
these,  and  give  the  idea  of  a  horse.  It  is  regarded 
as  the  storehouse  of  knowled^  of  things  simply 
existing.    When  it  is  strong,  without  l)eiug  accom- 

J>aiiied  by  reflecting  power,  the  mind  is  full  of 
acts,  but  unable  to  reason  from  them.  After 
puberty,  the  size  of  the  organ  of  Individuality,  as 
well  as  of  tiie  neighbouring  organs  of  Size,  Weight, 
Colouring,  and  Locality— all  situated  behind  the 
superciliary  ridge  of  the  skull— is  often  rendered 
doubtful  by  the  existence  of  a  hollow  space,  of  un- 
certain width  and  extent,  between  the  two  plates  of 
the  skull.  This  hollow  is  called  the  frontal  sinus  ; 
and  when  it  is  large,  there  may  be  a  great  projection 
of  the  bone  over  the  eyes,  without  a  corresponding 
projection  of  brain  within.  When  this  part  of  the 
skull  is  flat,  however,  the  organs  must  be  at  least 
as  defective  as  the  flatness  in£cates.  Owing  to  the 
source  of  uncertainty  here  j)ointed  out,  and  the 
smallness  of  the  organs  behmd  the  eyebrows,  the 
functions  of  those  parts  of  the  brain  are  not  regarded 
as  being  so  well  ascertained  as  those  of  the  larger 
organs,  nor  will  a  cautious  phrenologist  be  too  re^uly 
to  pronounce  l^em  lar^ 

23.  Form.— When  tne  organ  of  Form  is  large, 
the  eyes  are  wide  asunder.  Dr  Gall  discovered  it 
in  persons  remarkable  for  recognising  faces  after 
long  intervals,  and  although  perhaps  only  once  and 
briefly  seen.  The  celebratea  Cuvier  owed  much 
of  his  success  in  comparative  anatomy  to  his  large 
organ  of  Form.  Decandoile  mentions  that  *  lus 
[Cuvier^s]  memory  was  particularly  remarkable  in 
what  related  to  forms,  considered  in  the  widest 
sense  of  that  word ;  the  figure  of  an  animal  seen  in 
reality  or  in  drawing  never  left  his  mind,  and 
served  him  as  a  point  of  comparison  for  all  similar 
objects.* 

24.  Size, — Every  object  has  size  or  dimension ; 
hence  a  faculty  seems  necessary  to  cognize  this 
quality.  The  supposed  organ  is  situated  at  the 
inner  extremities  of  the  eyebrows,  where  they  turn 
upon  the  nose.  A  perception  of  size  (including 
distance)  is  important  to  our  movements  and  actions, 
and  essential  to  our  safety. 

25.  Weight. — A  power  to  perceive  the  different 
degrees  of  weight  and  force  is  likewise  essential  to 
man's  movements,  safety,  and  even  existence. 
Phrenologists  have  generally  localised  the  organ  of 
that  power  in  the  part  of  the  brain  marked  25  on 
the  Vust. 

26.  Colouring, — ^The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  lai^ 
in  great  painters,  especially  great  colourists,  and 
gives  an  arched  appearance  to  the  eyebrow ;  for 
example,  in  Rubens,  Titian,  Rembrandt,  Salvator 


Rosa,  and  Claude  Lonraine.  In  cases  of  ooloa^ 
blindness,  it  is  found  smalL  Many  persons,  tiiough 
able  to  distinguisli  colours,  have  no  perception  of 
their  hannonies :  for  this  perception,  a  higher  endoir* 
ment  of  the  faculty  seems  to  be  reqnirea 

27  Locality,— Dt  Gall  was  led  to  the  ditcoreiy 
of  this  faculty  by  comparing  his  own  difficultiei 
with  a  companion's  facilities,  in  finding  their  \ray 
through  the  woods,  where  they  had  puM^ed  marn 
for  binls,  and  marked  nests,  when  studyiog  natunl 
history.  Every  material  object  must  exist  in  some 
part  of  space,  and  that  part  of  space  beoomct 
place  in  virtue  of  being  so  occapied.  Objecti 
themselves  are  cognized  by  Individuality;  bat 
their  place,  the  direction  where  they  lie,  the  way 
to  them,  faU  within  the  sphere  of  Locality.  Its 
organ  is  large  in  those  who  find  their  way  easily, 
and  vividly  remember  pla9e8  in  which  they  hare 
been.  It  materially  aids  the  traveller,  and  it 
sup))osed  to  give  a  love  for  travelling.  The  oigan 
was  large  in  Columbus,  Cook,  Park,  Clarke,  and 
other  travellers. 

28.  Number, — The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  placed 
at  the  outer  extremity  of  the  eyebrows  and  angle  of 
the  eye.  It  occasions,  when  lai^  a  fulness  or  breadth 
of  that  part  of  the  head,  and  often  ]>ashe3  downwanla 
the  external  comer  of  the  eye.  When  it  is  small, 
the  ]jart  is  flat  and  narrow  between  the  eye  aod 
the  temple.  Dr  Gall  called  the  faculty  le  son  d^i 
rapports  des  nonU/res  (the  Sense  of  the  Relabou 
of  Numbers),  and  assigned  to  it  not  only  ahth* 
metic,  but  mathematics  in  generaL  Dr  Spurzheim 
more  correctly  limits  its  functions  to  arithmetic, 
algebra,  and  logarithms;  geometry  being  the 
products  of  other  faculties,  particularly  Size  and 
Locality.  Dr  Gall  first  observed  the  organ  in  a  boy 
who  could  multix)ly  and  divide,  mentally,  ten  or 
twelve  by  three  figures,  in  less  time  than  expert 
arithmeticians  could  with  their  pendla.  Many  such 
examples  are  on  record. 

29.  Order, — ^The  organ  of  this  faculty  is  said  to  be 
large  in  those  who  are  remarkable  for  love  of  method, 
neatness,  arrangement,  and  symmetry,  and  aie 
annoyed  by  confusion  and  irregularity.  In  savage*, 
whose  habits  are  slovenly,  filthy,  and  disgusting,  the 
organ  is  comi)aratively  smalL 

30.  Eventualih/.-^'The  organ  is  situated  in  the 
very  centre  of  the  forehead,  and  when  lai)^  gires 
to  this  part  of  the  head  a  rounded  prominency. 
Individuality  has  been  called  the  faculty  of  nouns ; 
Eventuality  is  the  faculty  of  verbs.  The  finst  pe^ 
ceives  merely  things  that  exist ;  the  other,  moUon, 
change,  event,  history.  The  m<»t  powerful  knotnng 
minds  have  a  large  endowment  of  both  Imhvi* 
duality  and  Eventuality;  and  such  persona,  even 
with  a  moderate  reflecting  capability,  are  the  clever 
men  in  society — the  acute  men  of  business— the 
ready  practical  lawyers.  The  organ  of  Eventuality 
is  generally  well  developed  in  children,  and  their 
ap]>etite  for  stories  corresponds. 

31.  Time.— Some  persons  are  called  walking  time- 
]>ieces  ;  they  can  tell  the  hour  without  looking  at  a 
watch ;  ana  some  even  can  do  so,  nearly,  when 
wakiug  in  the  night.  The  impulse  to  mark  time 
is  too  common,  too  natural,  ana  too  strong,  not  to 
be  the  result  of  a  faculty ;  it  is  an  element  in  the 
love  of  dancing,  almost  universal  in  both  savage 
and  civilised  man. 

32.  Tune,— The  organ  of  Tune  ia  Uurj^  in  grot 
musicians ;  and  when  it  is  small,  there  is  an  utter 
incapacity  to  distinguish  either  melody  or  harmnny. 
The  great  bulk  of  mankind  possess  it  in  a  moiler^te 
endowment,  so  as  to  be  capable  of  enjoying  muN^ 
in  some  degree.  Those  in  whom  it  is  lai^  aB<l 
active,  become,  in  all  stages  of  society,  distinguish^ 
artistSi   exercising   a   peculiar   powo^    over  then 


PHRENOLOGY. 


fellow-creatnres,  so  as  to  ronse,  melt,  soothe,  and 
mtify  them  at  pleasure.  But  the  gift,  in  this  active 
form,  is  liable  to  be  much  modihed  according  as 
it  is  accompanied  by  Adhesiveness,  Combativeness, 
Ideality,  Benevolence,  Wit,  and  other  facidties. 

33l  Language. — The  comparative  facility  with 
vhich  different  men  clothe  their  thoughts  in  words, 
and  learn  to  re[>eat  them  by  heart,  depends 
on  the  size  of  the  organ  of  Language,  which  is 
situated  on  the  super-orbitar  plate,  immediately 
OTer  the  eyeball,  and,  when  large,  pushes  the  eye 
outwards,  and  sometimes  downwanis;  producing, 
in  the  latter  case,  a  wrinkling  or  pursing  of  the 
lower  eyelid.  Verbal  memory  is  strong  or  weak, 
without  relation  to  the  strength  or  weakness  of 
the  memory  of  things,  forms,  or  numbers. 

The  Perceptive  Organs  are  for  the  most  part 
called  into  activity  by  external  objects  ;  but  internal 
causes  often  excite  them,  and  objects  are  then 
perceived  which  have  no  external  existence,  but 
which,  nevertheless,  the  individual  may  believe 
to  be  reaL  This  is  the  explanation  of  visions  and 
ghosts,  and  of  the  fact  that  two  persons  never  see 
the  same  spectres  at  the  same  time.  Excess  or 
disease  in  the  organ  of  Wonder  predisposes  to  belief 
in  the  marvellous  and  supernatural,  and  probably 
stimulates  the  Perceptive  Organs  into  action,  when 
spectral  illusions  are  the  consequence. 

34.  Comparison, — Dr  Gall  discovered  the  organ 
of  this  faculty  in  a  man  of  science  who  reasoned 
chiefly  by  means  of  analogies  and  comparisons,  and 
rarely  by  logical  deductions.  The  middle  of  the 
upper  part  of  his  forehead  was  very  prominent. 
The  precise  nature  of  the  faculty  has  been  much 
diitputed  among  phrenologists,  but  they  seem  to  agree 
that  tlie  perception  of  analogy  dei)end8  iijwn  it. 
Every  faculty,  we  are  told,  can  compare  its  own 
objects :  Colouring  can  compare  colours ;  Weight, 
weights ;  Form,  forms ;  Tune,  sounds ;  but  Com- 
parison can  compare  a  colour  Mnth  a  note,  or  a 
form  with  a  weight,  kc  Analogy  is  a  comparison 
not  of  things,  but  of  their  relations. 

35.  Caf'salUy. — This  is  regarded  as  the  highest 
and  noblest  of  the  intellectual  powers.  Dr  Spurz- 
heim  so  named  it  from  believing  that  it  traces  the 
connection  between  cause  and  €fff:ct,  and  recognises 
the  relation  of  ideas  to  each  other  in  respect  of 
necessary  consequence.  Some  metaphysicians  have 
held  that  we  have  no  idea  of  cause,  but  see  only 
sequence,  or  one  event  following  another.  See 
Causb.  It  is  true  that  we  do  see  sequence ;  but 
we  have  a  third  idea — that  of  power,  agency,  or 
efficiency,  existing  in  some  way  in  the  antecedent, 
to  produce  the  consequent.  Whence  do  we  get  this 
third  idea  ?— from  a  distinct  faculty,  Causahty.  It 
is  a  large  ingredient  in  wisclom. 

The  phrenologists  have  chiefly  confined  their 
attention  to  the  organs  of  the  brain,  and  the  various 
facnlticM  of  which  these  are  the  instruments.  The 
former  writers  on  mind — Reid,  Stewart,  Brown,  and 
others — ^gave,  on  the  contrary,  their  chief  care  to 
the  mental  acts  called  Attention,  Perception,  Con- 
ception, &C.,  which  they  considered  as  faculties. 
The  phrenologist  does  not  overlook  the  importance 
of  this  department  of  mental  [ihilosophy,  but  differs 
from  the  metaphysicians  in  considering  perception, 
conception,  memory,  &c.,  as  only  motUs  in  which 
the  real  faculties  above  described  act.  This  dis- 
tinction is  one  of  sreat  importance. 

According  to  the  phrenologists,  the  faculties  are 
not  mere  passive  susceptibilities ;  they  all  tend  to 
action.  When  duly  active,  the  actions  they  pro- 
duce are  proper  or  necessary ;  in  excess  or  abuse, 
they  are  improper,  vicious,  or  criminaL  Small 
moral  organs  do  not  produce  abuses ;  but  they  are 


unable  to  prevent  the  abuse  of  the  animal  organs, 
as  larger  tend  to  do;  thus  small  Benevolence  is 
not  cruel,  but  it  does  not  ofler  sufficient  control  to 
Destructiveness,  which  then  impels  to  cruelty. 
Cceteris  paribus,  large  organs  have  the  greatest, 
and  small  the  least  tendency  to  act — each  faculty 
producing  the  feeling  or  idea  peculiar  to  itself. 
In  active  constitutions,  the  brain  partakes  of  the 
general  activity,  and  comes  more  readily  into  play 
than  where  the  constitution  or  temperament  is 
lymphatic  Health  and  disease,  exercise  and  inac- 
tion, nutrition  and  starvation,  have  also  great 
influence  in  modifying  both  the  power  of  the 
cerebral  organs  and  their  readiness  to  act.  Moreover, 
when  certain  faculties  have  been  much  exercised 
for  a  series  of  generations  in  a  family,  they  are  apt 
to  be  manifested  in  greater  strength  and  activity 
than  where  no  such  hereditary  influence  exists. 
Seeing  that  all  the  organs  tend  to  action,  each,  it  is 
concluded,  must  have  a  legitimate  sphere  of  action, 
and  be  necessary  for  the  welfare  of  man. 

The  Prppensitues  and  Sentiments  cannot  be 
called  into  action  by  the  will.  We  cannot  fear,  or 
pity,  or  love,  or  be  angry,  by  willing  it^  But 
xiUemal  causes  may  stimulate  the  organs,  and  then, 
whether  we  will  or  not,  their  emotions  will  be  felt. 
Again,  these  feelings  are  called  into  action  in  spite 
of  the  will,  by  the  presentation  of  their  external 
objects — Cautiousness,  by  objects  of  terror;  Love, 
by  beauty;  and  so  on.  The  excitability  of  the 
feelings,  whether  stimulated  from  within  or  without, 
is  increased  by  activity  of  the  temperament.  Insanity 
is  a  frequent  result  of  over-activity  of  the  propen- 
sities and  sentiments.  These  may  be  diseased  and 
yet  the  intellect  sound.  The  converse  is  also  true. 
When  an  organ  is  small,  its  feeling  cannot  be 
adequately  experienced.  The  will  can  mdirecthj 
excite  the  propensities  and  sentiments  by  setting 
the  intellect  to  work  to  find  externally,  or  conceive 
internally,  the  proper  objects.  Lastly,  these  faculties 
do  not  form  ideas,  but  simply  feel ;  and  therefore 
have  no  memory,  conception,  or  imagination. 

The  Pebceptivb  and  RBPLEcmNO  Faculties,  or 
Intell6ct,  form  ideas,  perceive  relations,  and  are 
subject  to,  or  rather  constitute,  the  Will ;  and 
minister  to  the  affective  faculties.  They  may  be 
excited  by  external  objects  and  by  internal  causes. 
When  excited  by  the  presentation  of  external 
objects,  these  objects  are  perceived,  and  this  act  is 
called  Perception.  It  is  the  lowest  degree  of 
activity  of  the  intellectual  faculties  ;  and  those  who 
are  deficient  in  a  faculty  cannot  perceive  its  object. 
— Conception  also  is  a  mode  of  action  of  the 
faculties,  not  a  faculty  itself.  It  is  the  activity  of 
the  faculties  from  internal  causes,  either  willed,  or 
involuntary  from  natural  activity. — Imagination  is 
Conception  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  vivacity. 
— •Memory,  too,  is  not  a  faculty,  but  a  mode  of 
action.  There  is  no  such  thing  as  the  general  memory 
of  the  metaphysicians,  but  every  intellectual  faculty 
has  its  own  memory.  Memory  differs  from  Con- 
ception and  Imagination  in  this,  that  it  recollects 
real  objects  or  events  which  it  has  actually  per- 
ceived, and  adds  the  consciousness  of  time  elapsed 
since  they  were  perceived.  The  other  named 
modes  of  action  do  not  require  realities  or  time. 
— Judgment  is,  properly,  the  perception  of  adapta- 
tion, fitness,  ana  necessary  consequence;  this  is 
a  mode  of  action  of  the  reflecting  powers.  In 
a  certain  sense,  ^e  Perceptive  Faculties  may  each 
be  said  to  possess  judgment ;  as  Colourinff  judges 
of  colours;  Form,  of  forms;  Time,  of  music 
By  the  word  •judgment^*  however,  is  meant  right 
reasoning,  sound  deciding.  To  this,  a  proper  balance 
of  the  affective  faculties  is  essential  There  can  be 
no  sound  judgment  where  any  of  the  feelinffs  ar« 

617 


PHRYGANEA— PHEYGIA. 


excesaivi-. — Consciousness  is  the  knowledge  which 
the  mind  has  />f  its  own  existence  and  operations. 
— Attention  U  not  a  faculty,  but  the  application, 
or  tension  J  of  any  or  all  of  the  intellectual  faculties. — 
Association  iw  the  succession  of  ideas  in  the  mind, 
each  seeming  to  call  up  that  which  succeeds;  so 
that  in  our  waking-hours  the  mind  is  never  without 
an  idea  passing  through  it.  This  is  a  state  or  condi- 
tion of  the  faculties,  not  a  faculty.—-? assion  is  any 
faculty  in  excess  :  Love  is  the  passion  of  Amative- 
nebi  in  union  with  Adhesiveness  and  Veneration ; 
Avarice,  of  Acquisitiveness;  Hage,  of  Destructive- 
ness.— Plkasurb  and  Pain,  Joy  and  Gbi£f,  also 
belong  to  each  faculty,  according  as  it  is  agreeably 
or  disagreeably  affected — Habit  is  the  power  of 
doing  anytliing  well,  acquired  by  freouently  doing 
it  But  before  it  can  be  done  at  all,  tliere  must 
be  the  faculty  to  do  it,  however  awkwardly. — 
Taste  was  held  by  Mr  Stewart  to  be  a  faculty, 
and  to  be  acquired  by  habit  It  seems  to  be  the 
result  of  a  harmonious  action  of  all  the  faculties. 

Such  is  an  outline  of  the  system  propounded  by, 
the  phrenologists.  So  far  as  it  shall  be  confirmed 
by  the  mature  experience  and  observation  of  com- 
petent inquirers,  tne  facts  and  principles  which  it 
unfolds  must  be  of  great  practical  value  to  man- 
kind. The  study  of  the  mutual  influence  of  the 
mind  and  body  has  ever  been  recognised  by  wise 
and  observant  men  as  one  of  high  im]>ortance, 
though  of  great  difficulty ;  and  certainly.  Gall  and 
his  followers  have  not  only  given  a  strong  impidse 
to  that  study,  but  have  thrown  much  light  on  the 
diversities  of  human  character,  and  accumulated  a 
large  body  of  facts  of  a  kind  which  had  ])reviously 
been  too  much  overlooked.  Much,  it  is  admitted,  stiU 
remains  to  be  discovered.  *No  phrenologist,'  says 
Mr  Combe,  'pretends  that  Gall's  discoveries  are 
perfect;  they  are  far  from  it,  even  as  augmented 
and  elucidated  by  his  followers ;  but  I  am  humbly 
of  opinion  that,  in  their  great  outlines,  his  doctrines 
are  con*ect  representations  of  natural  facts.  .  •  • 
The  future  of  phrenology  will  probably  exhibit  a 
slow  and  gradiud  progress  of  the  opinion  that  it  is 
true  and  important ;  and  only  after  this  stase  shall 
have  been  passed,  will  it  be  seriously  studied  as 
science.  Hitherto  this  has  not  been  done:  the 
number  of  those  who  have  bestowed  on  it  such  an 
extent  of  accurate  and  varied  observation  and 
earnest  reflection  as  is  indispensable  to  acquiring  a 
scientific  knowledge  of  chemistry,  anatomy,  natural 
philosophy,  or  any  other  science,  is  extremely  small ; 
and  the  real  knowledge  of  it,  on  the  part  of  such 
as  continue,  through  the  press  and  in  public  lectures, 
to  oppose  it,  appears  to  me  scarcely  greater  than 
it  was  in  1815  and  1826,'  when  it  was  ridiculed  in 
the  Edi/nhurgh  Review, 

In  considering  the  claims  of    phrenology,  t^o 

?[uestions  should  not  be  confounded.  One  is — How 
ar  the  functions  of  the  different  parts  of  the  bi  ain 
have  been  established  by  observation  of  extreme 
instances  of  their  large  and  small  development? 
— the  other,  To  what  extent  the  facts  so  ascer- 
tained can  be  applied  physiognomically  in  practice  t 
Gall  disclaimed  the  ability  to  distinguish  either 
ill-deflned  modifications  of  forms  of  the  skull,  or 
the  slighter  shades  of  human  character  (8ur  Us 
Fonctiotia  du  Cerveau,  iii.  41) ;  nor,  we  believe,  did 
'  he  or  Spurzheim  ever  pretend  to  estimate  the  size 
of  every  organ  in  a  single  brain.  By  attempting  too 
much  in  these  directions  some  of  their  disciples 
may  have  helped  to  prolona  the  incredulity  with 
which  phrenology  is  still  widely  regarded. 

For  the  titles  of  numerous  booki  on  phrenology, 
see  Gall  (F.  J.),  Spurzheim  (J.  G.),  and  Combe 
(G.);  aUo  an  article  in  The  Biiiin/i  and  Foreign 
ftit 


Medical  Review,  vol.  ix.  p.  190.  Among  the  more 
recent  works  bearing  on,  or  criticising  phrenology, 
we  may  mention  Dr  Laycock*s  Mina  and  Brain, 
or  tlie  Correlation  of  Consdousness  and  Organimtion 
(2  vols.  £din.  1860) ;  his  article  on  Phrenology  in  the 
8th  ed.  of  the  Encyc  Brit.;  an  article  on  Pliren* 
ological  Ethics  in  the  Edinburgh  Review  for  Jan- 
uary 1842,  voL  Ixxiv.  p.  376 ;  Aug.  Comte^s  Philo- 
90phie  Positive,  torn.  iii.  (or  Miss  Martineau's  traosL, 
i  466) ;  Sir  Benj.  C.  Brodie's  Psychological  Inquiries, 
Dialogue  vi.  (Ix)nd.  1854) ;  G.  H  Lewea's  Biog. 
HiaU  of  Ph^oB,,  p.  629  (Lond.  1857);  Samuel 
Bayley's  Letters  on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human 
Mind,  2d  Series,  Letters  xvi — xxi.  (Lond.  1858) ;  and 
Professor  Bain  On  tlie  Study  of  Character,  indading 
an  Estimate  of  Phrenology  (Lond.  I86iy.  Sir  WiUiam 
Hamilton's  objections,  mostly  published  many  yean 
since,  and  w^hich  are  now  appended  to  his  Lectures  on 
Metaphysics,  i.  404  (£uin.  1859),  were  discussed  in 
the  Phren.  Jour.,  vols.  iv.  and  v.,  and  are  remarked 
on  by  Mr  Combe  in  his  work  On  the  Relation  between 
Science  and  Religion,  pref.,  p.  xvii  (Edin.  1857). 

PHRYGA'NEA.    See  Caddice. 

PHRY'GIA,  a  country  in  Asia  Minor,  the  extent 
and  boundaries  of  which  varied  very  much  at 
different  i>eriods  of  ancient  history.  In  pre-histohc 
ages  it  is  believed  to  have  comprised  the  gn^ter 
part  of  the  ])enin8ula,  but  at  the  time  of  the 
Persian  invasion  it  was  limited  to  the  districts 
known  as  Lesser  Phrygia  and  Greater  Phiygia — ^the 
former  stretching  from  the  Hellespont  to  Tro«s 
(inclusive),  the  latter  occupying  a  central  portion 
of  Asia  Minor.  The  inland  boundaries  of  Lesser 
Phrygia  are  not  well  ascertained ;  but  Greater 
Phrygia  was  bounded  on  the  K.  by  Bithynia  and 
Paphlagonia,  on  the  E.  by  Cappadocia  and  Lycaonia, 
on  the  S.  by  the  Taurus  range,  and  on  the  W.  by 
the  maritime  countries  of  Mysia,  Lydia,  and  C^aha. 
At  a  later  period  it  was  considerably  reduced  by  the 
formation  of  Galatia  (q.  v.)  and  the  extension  of 
Lycaonia.  P.  was  in  genend  a  high  and  somewhat 
barren  plateau,  thou^  its  pastures  supported 
immense  flocks  of  sheep,  noted  for  the  fineness  of 
their  wool,  as  indeed  they  still  are.  The  ni'ct 
fertile  part  was  the  valley  of  the  Sangarius,  but  the 
most  beautiful  and  populous  district  was  the  S(.»uth- 
west,  at  the  base  of  the  Taurus,  where  the  Ms^ander 
and  other  streams  had  their  rise.  The  mountains 
and  streams  yielded  gold;  Phrygian  marble  was 
anciently  celebrated,  and  the  cidtivation  of  the 
vine  appears  to  have  been  extensively  carried  on. 

The  origin  of  the  Phr^'gians  is  one  of  the  mysteries 
of  ancient  ethnology.  Some  think  that  they  were 
settled  at  a  very  remote  period  in  Europe,  and  that 
they  emigrated  from  Thntce  into  Asia  Minor ;  and 
Xanthus,  Herodotus,  and  Strabo  certainly  spe.tk 
of  such  a  migration.  Xanthus  places  it  after  the 
Troian  war;  but  if  there  be  any  truth  in  the 
tradition  at  aJl,  it  can  only  refer  to  a  return  of  some 
tribes  to  the  cradle  of  the  race  in  the  valley  of  the 
Sansarius,  for  the  Phrygians  were  re^rded  as  ou€ 
of  the  oldest  races  (if  not  the  very  ddest)  in  Asia 
Minor.  Instead  of  seeking  for  their  origin  in 
Thrace,  the  I  ust  classical  ethnologists  seek  for  it  ia 
the  neighbouring  highlands  of  Armenia,  whence  the 
Phrygians  are  believed  to  have  spread  at  a  period  iai 
before  the  dawn  of  authentic  history  over  the  greaSrr 
part  of  the  Peninsula,  and  thence  to  have  ciii6&<xl  iLU> 
±Iuroi)e,  and  occupied  the  gi-eater  jjart  of  Thrace, 
Macedonia,  and  lllyria;  while  the  mythic  Pclu^is, 
who  colonised  the  Peloponnesus,  and  gave  it  his  name, 
was  said  by  tradition  to  be  a  Phrygian.  In  both 
Greek  and  Latin  poetry  the  Trojans  are  also  crvUei 
Phrygians,  and  the  same  name  is  applied  to  t  ihee 
nations  of  Asia  Minor,  such  as  the  Mydouiana  and 


PHETNE-PHYaALIS. 


HynmiuL  In  Thrice,  too,  many  of  the  nam^  of  placea 
were  the  Bame  as  in  Troas ;  while  it  Ims  now  been 
demoDHtrated  that  the  Armenian,  Phrfgiaa,  and 
Greek  Ian(;iiage8  are  akiu  to  each  other,  ao  that  the 
peoples  jpenkmg  the  two  former  tongues,  like  thoae 
tpenkini;  the  l.ttter,  belong  to  the  great  Aryan 
branch  of  the  human  familj.  The  Phrygians  bcsan 
to  decline  in  ]>ower  and  numben  after  the  Trojan 
war.  They  were~iF  we  can  make  anything  like 
historic  fact  oat  of  the  mythic  narratives  ol  that 
early  time— pushed  out  of  Euro|ie  by  the  lUyriaos 
in  the  north  and  the  Macedonians  in  the  south, 
while  in  Asia  Minnr  the  nee  of  the  Semitio  Aa^riaDS 
also  deprcmed  and  weakened  them,  by  breaking  up 
the  integrity  (if  their  territory.  The  whole  of  the 
south  coaat  of  the  j«ninsu1a  was  occupied  by  Semitic 
ini~aden;  the  Lyiliana  and  Cappadociana  were  of 
Syro- Phoenician  origin  ;  and  Strabu  sneaks  of  stmo- 
tures  of  Semitamis  as  far  north  as  Poatus.  Their 
language,  manners,  and  religion  even,  underwent 
radical  changes — hence  the  great  dilEcnlty  experi- 
enced in  ascertaining  their  original  eharacteristic*. 
After  being  subjugated  by  Cncaiu,  they  passed,  on 
the  dissolution  of  the  Lydian  monarchy,  under  the 
■way  of  Cyrus  ;  and  it  is  only  from  tliis  date  that 
thejf  are  brought  within  the  pale  of  £ioaitive  hiatory. 
Their  country  formed  part  of  the  empire  of  Alei- 
ander,  and  subsequently  belonged  to  the  Syrian 
Selencidts,  to  the  kincs  of  Pergamum.  mid  to  the 
Komana,  who  obtained  poasesaion  of  it,  1^3  b.  o. 

The  Phrygians  had  not  a  warhlie  reputation 
among  the  ancients,  but  though  in  later  times 
commonly  described  as  indolent  and  stupid,  yet, 
like  negroes,  they  were  of  a  mystic  and  excitable 
diapoeition.  Their  religious  orgies,  accompanied  by 
wild  music  and  dancing,  are  frequently  mentioned 
by  chtsaic  writere,  and  appear  to  have  exercised  a 
very  material  influence  on  Hellenic  worship.  Cybele, 
'the  great  mother  of  the  gods,'  was  the  chief.' 
Phrygian  divinity  ;  others  were  Sabadus  (Dionysus), 
Olympus,  Myngnis.  Lityersea,  and  Marsyna. 

PHRV'N^  one  of  the  most  celebtnted  courtesans 
of  antiquity,  was  the  daughter  of  Epiclfs,  and  was 
horn  at  Thespin  in  B<Botia.  Her  position  in  Ufe 
woa  oricinally  Tciy  humble,  and  she  is  said  to  have 
at  one  time  earned  a  livelihood  by  gathering  capers  i 
but  as  the  fame  of  her  marvellous  bpnuty  spread, 
she  obtained  numerous  lovers,  who  lavished  gifts 
on  her  so  profusely  that  she  became  enormously 
rich.  In  proof  of  this,  the  story  goes  that  she 
offered  to  rebuild  the  walls  of  Thebes,  if  the  citi- 
jtens  would  allow  her  to  pUce  this  inscription  on 
them  :  '  Alexander  destri^ed  them  ;  Phiyoe,  the 
coartcsan,  rebuilt  them.'  The  Thebans  declined  the 
proposaL  Her  enemies  accused  her  of  profiling 
the  Kleusinian  mysteries.  Summoned  before  the 
trihuoal  of  the  Heliasts,  she  was  defended  by  the 
rhetorician  Hyocridea,  one  of  her  lovers,  who, 
perc^eiving  that  his  eloquence  failed  to  convince  the 
Judges,  threw  back  her  vail,  and  displayed  her 
naked  shoulders  and  bosom.  .  She  was  immediately 
acquitted,  and  carried  in  trinmph  to  the  Temple  of 
VenoB-  The  famoiiH  picture  of  Apelles  (q.  v.) — the 
'  Venus  Anadyomene — is  said  to  have  been  a 
representation  of  P.  Praxiteles,  also  a  lover  of 
hera,  employed  her  aa  a   model   for  his  '  Cnidian 

PHTHI'SIS.    See  CosscMPnoK. 

PHULWABA  TBBB.    See  Bassia. 

PHTLA'CTEBY  (from  Gr.  phyUam,  to  gnard), 
Ml  •millet  or  charm  worn  by  the  Oreeka  against 
demoniac  influences.  Certain  strips  of  porciunent, 
iiuicribed  with  oertain  passages  from  the  Scriptnre 
(Erodas  liii.  1—10,  11—16  ;  Deuteronomy  vi.  4— B, 
xL   13 — 21),  enclosed  in  amall  cases,  and  fastened 


Fhflastery. 


to  the  forehead  and  the  left  arm  { TV^tu)  — also,  in 

another  form,  to  door-postH  {Afauaan) — in  use  witb 

the  Jews,  in  imagined  accordance  with  Exudun  xiU, 

9—16,  Ac,  are  alao  called  in  the  New  lestamenj 

phylacteries.     The  writing  of  these  iB  in  the  bands 

of  privileged  scribes  {So/erim)  only, . 

and  many  and  scrupulous  are  tl 

ordinances   which    they   have   1 . 

follow   in   the   execution   of   this 

task.      Only    vellum    of    a    very   I 

superior  kind  is  to  be  used ;  the   | 

characters   must   be   traced    witii    ( 

the  greatest  c; 

correctiuus  are  allowed;  the  tines 

and  letters  must  be  of  eoual  length ) 

&C.     The  case  in  which   they  are 

enclosed  consists  of  several  hiyeis 

of  calfskin  or  iiarcbment.    It  may 

be  observed,  by  the  way,  that    not    the  wearing, 

but  the  exaggerated  form  of  the  phylacteries  worn 

by  some  of  the  Pharisees,  is  inveighed  against  by 

Oirist. 

PHYLLOSO'MA.    See  GLAsa-CRABa. 

PHYSA'LIA,  a  genus  of  AcaUphiE,  having  an 
oval  or  oblong  body,  which  consists  in  great  part 
of  an  air  sac,  bo  that  the  creature  floats  on   the 
surface  of  the  sea,  with  numerous  apgiendagea  of 
various  kiniis  hanging  from  its  under  side.     The 
shorter  of  these  ap[iendages  are  nickere,  which  ara 
kept  in  constant  motion  for  procuring   prey,  and 
which  seem  also  to  be  em- 
ployed in  eitractiag  nutri- 
ment  from   it,   aa   the    P.    ' 
has   no   proper   mouth   nur 
alimentary   canaL      Among  j 
these    shorter    appendages, 
alao,sf »~l.-  J — .-J 


length,  being  capable  of 
extension  to  twelve  or 
eighteen  feet— are  rope-like 

tentacles,    possessing  a   re-  "<'™P"'"  Man-of-Wsi 
markable    stinging    power,      [Phinalu  pclaffuM). 
which  is  probably  used  for 

benumbing  prey.  It  is  a  common  trick  with 
sailors  to  make  a  novice  pick  up  a  P.,  the  beautiful 
colours  of  which  always  attract  admimtion.  The 
ng  power  is,  however,  such  as  not  merely  to 
-  local  pain,  but  constitutional  irritation. 
11  was  at  one  time  supposed  that  the  P.  has 
the  power  of  expelling  air  from  its  bladder, 
and    sinking    at    pleasure    i        " 

of    Sir  r 


^c! 


observations  of  Mr  Bennett  {Oai/ietinga  of  a 
Naturalitt  in  AvetraOa)  render  it  more  probable 
that  it  always  floats  on  the  snrface,  and  is  driven 
about  by  the  winds.  The  name  Pirrtugueae  Sfan-of- 
War  is  often  popularly  given  to  the  species  of  P., 
ind  particularly  to  F.  pdagka.     The  Phmnlia  a 


PHY'SALIS,  a  genua  of  planta  of  the  natural 

order  Soianaeeit,  remarkable  for  the  calyx,  which 
becomes  large  and  inflated  after  flowering  is  over, 
and  enolosea  the  ripened  berry.  The  species  are 
annual  and  perennial  herbaceous  plants  aud  shrubs, 
natives  of  temperate  and  warm  climates,  and  widely 
scattered  over  the  world.  The  Commoh  Wintik 
Chekrv  [F,  ativkengi)  is  a  perennial,  native  of  the 
south  of  Europe  and  great  part  of  Asia,  grewing  In 
vineyards  and  bushy  places.    It  is  not  a  native  ol 


PHYSETEtt-PEySIClAHa 


Britun,  but  is  pretty  frequent  in  flower-gardenR. 
It  has  ovate  tnangnlu'  downj^  leave*,  dirt^-whita 
flowen  1  and  the  fruit  when  ripe  is  a  shiamg  red 
beny,  enclosed  in  a  very  iiu^B  vermilion -colon  red 
bladder.  The  berries  have  a  sweetlah  subacid  taste  i 
they  are  aeldom  eaten  in  Britain,  bat  very  generally 


Love  Apple  [Phylalu  tdtilU). 

in  many  part*  of  the  cootiticnt  of  Earope.  They 
are  refrigerant  and  diaretic,  and  were  formerly 
einployed  in  medicine  on  account  of  tbeie  m^ipertics. 

— The    DoWIfV     WltfTER     CfiERRV,    OF    PeBITTIAS 

GoosEBERBV  {P.  pubtactnt  or  P.  iVrumaiin),  is  an 
annual  Americaa  apeciet,  deeaeljr  clothed  with 
down;  with  heart-shaped  leaves,  yellow  Sowers, 
and  yellowish  berries  which  are  eatable,  and  when 

{reserved  with  sugar,  make  an  excellent  sweetmeAt 
t  is  cultivated  and  naturalised  in  many  of  the 
warmer  parte  of  the  world,  and  sometimes  rinens  its 
fruit  in  England,  and  even  in  ScoUand. — Some  of 
tbe  other  species  of  P.  are  among  the  must  common 
weeda  of  Uie  West  Indies  and  tropical  Ameiica ; 
and  the  fruits  of  some  of  them  are  occMionallf 
eaten,  although  not  esteemed. 
PHTSE'TER.  See  Caorolot. 
PHYSIO  NUT  (PurwM),  a  genus  of  plants  of 
the  natural  order  ^i(p/«»rWace<i,  having  a  5-partite 
calyx,  A  (letala,  and  8—10  unequal -united  stamena. 
The  species  are  not  numerous.  They  are  tropical 
shrubs  or  trees,  having  alternate,  stalked,  angled  or 
lobed  leaves,  and  corymbs  of  flowers  on  lone  stalks ; 
and  notable  for  the  acrid  oil  of  their  seeds.  The 
CoHHO.v  P.  N-  of  the  East  Indies  {C.  purrjang),  now 
also  common  in  the  West  Indies  and  other  warm 
parta  of  the  world,  is  a  small  tree  or  bush,  with  a 
milky  juice.  It  is  osed  for  fencea  in  many  tropical 
conntnes,  and  serves  the  purpose  well,  being  much 
branched  and  of  rapid  growth.  The  seeds  are  not 
nnpleasnnt  to  the  taste,  but  abound  in  a  very  acrid 
fixed  oil,  which  makes  tliem  powerfully  emetic  and 
purgative,  or  in  large  doses  poisonous.  Instances 
have  recently  occurred  of  very  alarming,  although 
not  fatal,  results  from  the  eating  of  the  seeds, 
imported  into  Britain  under  the  name  of  PAj/nc 
NuU,  Jatroplia  Nutt  or  Jalfoplia  Sredt  (the  Lin- 
mean  name  of  the  plant  being  Jairopha  /mf^ofu), 
■ud  Barbadar*  ifvlt  or  Sarbadoa  Serdii.  The 
expreaaed  oil,  commonly  called  Jatropiia  OH,  is  used 
in  medicine  like  croton  oil,  although  less  powerful ; 
it  is  also  used  In  lampe.  The  miJky  juice  of  the 
•hnib  is  used  by  the  Chinese  for  makins  a  black 


varnish,  i^  order  to  which  it  is  boiled  with  otide  li 

iron The  Frb.s-ch  P,  N,  or  Sp*mish  P.  N.  (K 

mvltijuiiu),  a  ihrub,  native  of  the  tropical  put*  oi 
America,  with  many-lobed  leaves,  yields  a  pni^tire 
acrid  oil,  called  Oil  of  Pinhoett.  It  is  ver^  aimilir 
in  its  qualities  to  the  oil  obtained  from  the  inaaa 
species,  perhajis  strooger.  To  this  genus  belongi  tie 
PiNONCILLO  {C.  lobatve)  of  Peru,  the  seed  of  whicii 
il  eaten  when  roasted,  and  has  an  agreeable  SaTimr, 
although  when  raw  it  is  a  violent  pur^tive,  Whii 
on  incision  is  made  in  the  stem  of  this  tree,  a  dw 
bright  liquid  flows  out,  which  after  same  ^oe 
becomes  black  and  homy.  It  is  a  very  pDwuiol 
caustic,  and  retains  this  jsoperty  for  yean. 

PHY'SICAL  GEOGRAPHY.   See  Geogiufet. 

PHYSI'CIANS,  Thb  Botal  Collbob  or  (of 
London),  was  founded  in  1618  by  the  mnoificeDce  el 
Thomas  Liaacre,  a  priest  and  distmgniahud  phyaimn, 
who  was  bom  in  1460,  and  4ied  in  1524.  Id  1518, 
through  the  inflnence  of  Cardinal  Wolsey,  h» 
obtained  from  Henry  VIIL  letters- patent  gnnC- 
ing  to  John  Chambre,  himaelf,  and  FerdinanduB  At 
Victoria,  the  acknowledged  phyaiciBna  to  the  kii^, 
together  with  Hicholas  Halsewell,  John  Ftancij, 
Kobert  Yaxley,  and  all  other  men  of  the  same  ficaley 
in  London,  to  be  incorporated  as  one  body  and  per- 
petual community  or  college.  They  were  pemitlfll 
to  hold  aaaembliea,  and  to  make  statutes  and  urdin' 
ances  for  the  government  and  correction  of  tin 
College,  and  of  all  who  exercised  the  some  fuiiltj 
in  London  and  within  seven  miles  thereof,  with  in 
interdiction  from  practice  to  any  individual  anlesi 
previously  licensed  by  the  Freeident  and  Colle'..'F. 
Liuacre  was  the  first  president,  and  held  the  uOi» 
till  his  death  in  1524.  The  meetings  of  the  CoUcct 
were  held  at  his  house  in  Knigbtrider  Street,  whini 
he  bequeathed  to  the  College,  and  which,  until  tba 
year  1860,  continued  in  the  possession  of  that  bod}'. 
About  the  time  of  the  accession  of  Char!t«  L.  thi 
College, reqiiiriog  more  acoommodation,tookaboii9e 
at  the  bottom  of  Amen  Comer,  which  was  enb- 
sequentty  purchased  by  Dr  Harvey,  and  in  1649  ts 
given  by  him  to  his  colleagues.  This  was  the  uit 
of  the  College  till  166G,  nhea  it  was  destroyed  bf 
the  great  fire  ot  London.  A  new  College  was  t)ii?a 
built  in  Warwick  Lane,  and  opened  in  1G74  w-aAa 
the  presidency  of  Harvey's  friend.  Sir  George  £iit; 
and  here  the  meetings  were  held  till  1825,  wlien  tlie 
present  edifice  in  Pall- Mall  East  was  opened  uudei 
the  presidency  of  Sir  Uenry  Halford. 

The  reason  for  forming  the  incorporation,  as  set 
forth  in  the  original  charter,  is  '  to  check  men  irtio 
profess  physic  rather  from  avarice  than  in  good  ^tli, 
to  the  daniage  of  credulous  people;'  and  the  bicK 
(following  the  example  of  other  nations)  founds  *t 
college  of  the  learned  men  who  practise  physic  m 
London  and  within  seven  miles,  in  the  hojie  tliu 
the  ignorant  and  rash  practisers  be  reetraiDCil  ur 
punished.'  The  charter  further  declares,  tli.tt  'no 
one  shall  exorcise  the  faculty  of  phj-gic  in  the 
said  city,  or  within  seven  miles,  without  the  Coil(p« 
licence,  under  a  penalty  of  £5  ; '  that,  in  adilitmn  ta 
the  president,  '  four  censors  be  elected  annually  to 
have  correction  of  physicians  in  London  and  svren 
miles'  circuit,  and  of  Uieir  medlcmea,  and  to  punish 
by  fine  and  imprisonment ;'  and  that '  the  Fr^drat 
and  College  be  exempt  from  serving  on  jaii«.' 
Four  years  later,  in  1622—1523,  an  act  was  mtaei 
continuing  the  charter,  and  enacting  that  'the  eii 
persons  boforeaaid  named  as  principals  and  firel- 
named  of  the  said  commonalty  and  fellowship,  shil] 
choose  to  them  two  men  of  the  said  comnionaltr 
from  henceforward  to  be  called  and  cleaped  E3«u, 
and  that  the  same  electa  yeaHy  choose  one  of  that 
to  be   president  of    the   said   r 


PHYSICS— PHYSIOGNOMY. 


fuiiher  directing  tfaat^  in  case  of  a  vacancy  by  death 
or  otherwise,  the  surviving  elects  'shall  choose, 
Qame,  and  admit  one  or  two,  as  need  shall  require, 
of  the  most  cunning  and  expert  men,  of  and  in  the 
•aid  faculty  in  London ; '  and  that  *  no  person  from 
henceforth  he  suffered  to  exercise  or  practise  in 
physic  except  he  be  a  graduate  of  Oxfora  or  Cam- 
bridge, until  such  time  as  he  be  examined  at 
London  by  the  said  president  and  three  of  the  said 
elects,  and  have  from  them  letters  testimonials  of 
their  approving  and  examination.* 

In  1540  an  act  was  passed  (32  Hen.  YIIL  a  40) 
by  which  the  President  and  College  were  exempted, 
in  consequence  of  their  professional  duties,  'from 
keeping  watch  and  ward,  and  from  being  chosen  to 
the  office  of  constable  and  other  offices;'  and  the 
censors  were    authorised   *to    enter    apothecaries* 
houses,  to  search,  view,  and  see  their  wares,  drugs, 
and  stuffs,  aud  to  cause  to  be  brent,  or  otherwise 
destroyed,  such  as  they  find  defective,  corrupted, 
and  not  meet  nor  convenient  to  be  ministered  in 
any  medicine  for  the  health  of  man's  body.'    In 
this   act  it  was    further  declared   explicitly  that 
*  surgery  ia  a  part  of  physic,  aud  may  be  practised 
by  any  of  the  company  or  fellowship  of  physicians  * 
— a  doctrine  which  in  later  times  has  oeen  totally 
repudiated  by  the  collegiate  body,  who,  imtU  a  few 
years  ago,  would  not  admit  to  their  privileges  a 
member  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  unless  he 
formally  resigned  his  surirical  diploma  (for  which 
act  of  resignation  the  College  of  Surgeons  charged 
him  a  fee  of  £5).    Other  *Acts  touching  the  Corpor- 
ation of  the  Physicians,  London,'  were  passed  in 
1553,  1814,  and  lS5d  (the  last  being  known  as  'the 
Medical  Act '),  which  require  no  special  notice,  except 
that  the  Medical  Act  provides  for  the  granting  of  a 
new  charter  to  the  College,  which  was  obtained  in 
1862.     Finally,  in   1860,  *  an  Act  to  Amend  the 
Medical  Act '  was  passed,  which  repeals  the  provi- 
sions of  the  act  of  Henry  VIIL  (1522—1623)  as  to 
the  elects,  on  the  ground  that  their  main  function 
was  licensing  coimtry  physicians  (the  class  recognised 
as  Licentiates  extra  urban),  and  that  it  has  virtually 
ceased;  and  declares  that  'the  office  and  name  of 
elects  of  the  said  College  shall  henceforth  wholly 
cease,'  and  that  the  Presidencv  shall  in  future  be  an 
annual  office,  open  to  the  fallows  at  large,  who 
shall  also  be  the  electing  body. 

The  College  has  consisted,  till  the  last  few  years,  of 
Fdlows  (amongst  whom  were  the  eight  Elects),  who 
are  a  self-electing  body,  and  were,  until  about 
20  years  ago,  almost  invariably  graduates  of  Oxford 
or  Cambridge;  LicenHaieHy  who  were  examined  by 
the  president  aud  censors,  and  who  alone,  excepting 
the  Fellows,  had  the  privilege  of  practising  in  and 
within  seven  miles  of  London ;  and  Extra-licentiate, 
who  were  examined  by  the  Elects,  and  had  the 
privilege  of  practising  in  any  part  of  England  except- 
uig  in  and  within  seven  miles  of  London.    As  at 

E resent  constituted,  it  consists  of  FeUows,  Members, 
icentiates,  and  Extra-Ucentiates.  The  Fellows  are 
elected  from  members  of  at  least  four  years'  stand- 
ing, who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
practice  of  medicine,  or  in  the  pursuit  of  medical  or 
(general  science  or  literature.  The  government  of  the 
College  IB  vested  in  the  President  and  Fellows  only. 
The  present  Members  consist  of  persons  who  had 
been  admitted  before  February  1859  licentiates  of 
the  College  ;  of  extra-Ucentiates  who  have  complied 
with  certain  conditions ;  and  of  persons  who  have 
Attained  the  ace  of  25  years,  who  do  not  dispense 
or  supply  medicine^  and  who,  after  being  duly 
proposed,  have  satisfied  the  College  *  touching  their 
tiiowledge  of  medical  and  general  science  and  litera- 
ture,' and  that  they  have  *  been  engaged  in  the  studv 
of  physic  during  a  period  of  five  years,  of  whicn 


four  years  at  least  shall  have  been  passed  at  a 
medical  school  recognised  by  the  College.'  The 
mefiiberB  constitute  a  portion  of  the  corporation,  in 
so  far  as  they  have  the  use  of  the  library  and 
museum,  and  the  privilege  of  admission  to  all  lec- 
tures, but  they  do  not  take  any  share  in  the  govern- 
ment, or  attend  or  vote  at  meeting&  The  Licentiates 
are  not  members  of  the  corporation,  and  in  their 
qualifications  very  much  resemble  those  who  have 
diplomas  both  from  the  College  of  Surgeons  and 
the  Apothecaries'  HaU.  They  must  be  21  years  of 
age,  and  must  have  been  engaged  in  professional 
shidies  for  four  years  before  being  admitted  to 
examination. 

The  fee  for  admission  as  a  Fellow  is  30  ^lineas, 
exclusive  of  stamp-duty ;  the  fee  for  admission  as  a 
Member  is  30  guineas ;  and  the  fee  *  for  the  licence 
to  practise  physio  as  a  Licentiate  of  the  College'  is 
15guinea8. 

The  following  by-laws  of  the  College  should  be 
generally  known.  1.  No  Fellow  of  the  College  is 
entitled  to  sue  for  professional  aid  rendered  by  liim. 
This  by-law  does  not  extend  to  Members.  2.  No 
Fellow,  Member,  or  Licentiate  of  the  College  is 
entitled  to  assume  the  title  of  Doctor  of  Medicine 
unless  he  be  a  graduate  in  medicine  of  a  universi^. 
3.  No  Fellow  or  Member  of  the  College  shall  offi- 
ciously, or  under  colour  of  a  benevolent  purpose, 
ofier  medical  aid  to,  or  prescribe  for,  any  patient 
whom  he  knows  to  be  under  the  care  of  another 
legally  quaUlied  medical  practitioner. 

PHYSICS,  or  PHYSICAL  SCIENCE  (Gr.  physi- 
kos,  natural),  comprehends  in  its  widest  sense  all  that 
is  classed  under  the  various  branches  of  mixed  or 
applied  mathematics,  natural  philosophy,  chemistry, 
and  natural  history,  which  branches  include  the 
whole  of  our  knowledge  regarding  the  material 
universe.  In  its  narrower  sense,  it  is  equivalent 
to  Natural  Philosophy  (q.  v.),  which,  until  of  late 
years,  was  the  term  more  commonly  used  in  Great 
Britain,  and  denotes  all  knowledge  of  the  properties 
of  bodies  as  bodies,  or  the  science  of  phenomena 
unaccompanied  by  essential  change  in  the  objects ; 
while  chemistry  is  concerned  witn  the  comi)08ition 
of  bodies,  and  the  phenomena  accompanied  by 
essential  change  in  the  objects ;  and  natural  history, 
in  its  widest  sense,  includes  all  the  phenomena  of 
the  animid,  vegetable,  and  mineral  world  The 
application  of  the  term  Physic  to  a  branch  of  this 
last— viz.,  the  science  of  medicine— is  peculiar  to 
the  English  language. 

PHYSIO'GNOMY  (Gr.),  the  art  of  judging  of 
the  character  from  the  external  appearance,  especi- 
ally from  the  countenance.  The  art  is  foimded 
upon  the  belief,  which  has  long  and  generally  pre- 
vailed, that  there  is  an  intimate  connection  between 
the  features  and  expression  of  the  face  and  the 
qualities  and  habits  of  the  mind ;  and  every  man 
is  conscious  of  instinctively  drawing  conclusions  in 
this  way  for  himself  with  more  or  less  confidence, 
and  of  acting  upon  them  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  affairs  of  life.  Yet  the  attempt  to  reach  this 
conclusion  by  the  application  of  certain  rules,  and 
thus  to  raise  the  art  of  reading  the  human  counten* 
ance  to  the  dignity  of  a  science,  although  often 
made,  has  never  yet  been  very  successful.  Com- 
parisons have  been  instituted  for  this  purpose 
between  the  physiognomies  of  human  beings  and 
of  species  of  animals  noted  for  the  possession  of 
peculiar  qualities,  as  the  wolf,  the  fox,  &c.  This 
was  first  begun  by  Delia  Porta,  a  Neajjolitan,  who 
died  in  1615,  and  was  afterwards  carried  further  by 
Tischbein.   The  subject  of  physiognomy  was  eagerly 

Erosecuted  by  Thomas  CampaneUa ;  and  when  his 
bbours  4ad  nearly  been  forgotten,  attention  was 

521 


PETTSIOLOGY— MACENZA. 


riD  sbonely  attroded  to  it,  althou);h  only  for  a 
rt  time,  by  the  writing*  of  Lavater  (q.  v.). 
PHTSIO'LOGY   (Gr.  phyiig,   natora;   logot,    a 
discourse)    a    the    BcieDce    which     treats    of    the 

Ehenomena  which  normallj  present  themselves  in 
ving  beiQQB,  of  tha  laws  or  principtea  to  which 
they  are  subject,  and  of  the  causes  to  which  they 
are  attributable.  It  is,  in  short,  the  leitnee  of  life, 
and  hence  tha  term  Biology  (Gr.  bios,  life)  has 
been  adopted  by  some  writers  in  place  of  physi- 
ology. Bioiogy  is,  however,  rerarded  by  some 
anthorg  {and,  we  think,  correctly)  u  including 
in  ttB  scope  more  than  physiology,  as  will  be  seen 
from  the  following  extract  from  Professor  Greene's 
remarks  '  On  the  Prinoiples  of  Zoology  : '  '  Biology,' 
he  obserres,  'is  that  branch  of  scientific  inquiry 
which  undertakes  to  inveetigate  the  nature  and 
relations  of  living  bodies.  Every  living  being  ma^ 
be  regard»i  from  two  points  of  view,  which  it  is 
necesssry  to  distinguiBD  clearly  from  one  another. 
The  first  of  these  exhibits  to  us  living  beiags  M 
possessing  definite  forma,  which,  in  most  instances, 
are  fonnd  to  be  mode  up  of  a  number  of  dissimilar 
parts  or  argant;  while  the  second  takes  cognizance 
of  the  vital  actions  oifanelion*  which  these  organs 
perform.  That  department  of  biology  which  deter- 
mines the  former  is  termed  Morphology  ;  that  which 
investigates  the  latter,  Pkynology.  Hence  the 
naturt  of  living  beings  is  twofold — morykblogiccd 
and  j^yiiologia3.'~A  Mmual  nfOu  Protmoa,  1859, 
pp.ii— I. 

FHTTOLA'CCA,  a  genos  of  exogenous  plants, 
of  the  natural  order  PhyUiiaaaixie.  This  order 
Contoina  about  70  known  species,  balf-ahrubby  and 
herbaceous  plants,  natives  of  warm  parts  of  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America,  and  is  nearly  allied  to  the 
order  Chenopodiacea,  from  which  it  is  distinguished 
by  the  frequently  numerous  carpels,  the  corolla-like 
perianth  when  tne  carpel  is  single,  and  the  stamens 
either  exceeding  the  number  of  the  aegmenta  of  the 
perianth,  or  alt«mate  with  them.  It  is  also  nearly 
aUied  to  Pdiigonea.  The  genus  Phytolacca  has  for 
its  fmit  a  berry  with  8— 10  cells,  each  cell  oue- 
■eeded.  P.  dtcandra,  the  Poke  or  Pocan,  a  native 
of  North  America,  now  naturalised  in  some  iiaits  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  is  sometimes  cultivated  for  its 
young  shoots,  which,  whan  blanched,  aro  eaten  like 
asparagus.  Yet  the  leaves  are  acrid,  and  the  root 
is  an  emetic  almost  or  altogether  equal  to  ipeca- 
cuanha. The  root  ia  also  externally  applied  to  cure 
itch  oud  ringworm.  A  tincture  of  the  ripe  berries, 
which  are  nilly  largor  than  Black  Currants,  and 
grow  in  rocemeH,  is  emcsciona  in  chronic  rhcumstiam 


ia  employed  in  the  adulterati 
young  shoots  of  P.  adnota  are  boiled  and  eaten  in 
the  Himalayas,  those  of  P.  otiaadra  ia  Cayenne, 
and  a  Chinese  Bi>ecies  has  recently  been  introduced 
into  British  gardens  for  the  same  use  under  the 
Dame  of  P.  eacalenta. 

PHYTO'LUGY,  another  name  for  Botany,  not 

PHYTOZO'A  (Gr.  phyton,  a  plant ;  iBon.  an 
■nimal),  also  called  Aniherow/ida,  are  minute  bodit* 
produced  amidst  a  miicilaginouH  fluid  in  the  anthe- 


ju  moist  situations.  In  some  many-celled  antheridia 
of  the  higher  crypti^amouB  plants,  each  cell  is 
devoted  to  the  production  of  a  single  phytuzoon. 
When  the  ftutheridium  is  matur«^  and  hurstB,  the 
phytozoa  move  for  a  short  time  by  means  of  cilia- 
s  provision,  apparently,  for  their  reaching  the 
^il'iilia    the  spores   --■-■—-'  -■-  — i^-l     


m 


:intaiued  in  which — accoi 


ID  opinion  rapidly  gaining  ground  i^ong  botsn- 
— iitey  are  deatined  to  fertilise.  Groat  divet- 
ea  exist  in  the  phytozoa  of  diSeroat  cryjito- 
lous  plants.  The  annexed  figure  wiU  convey  & 
Better  notion  of  them  than  any  men  description. 


CryptogamouB  plants,  which,  as  lichens 
situations,  have  no  phytuzor 
posed  that  tL(^  have  oigans 


have  no  phytozoa,  although  i 

lat  tL(^  have  oigans  destined  to 

purpose,  but  destitute  of  the  power  of  n 


Pf  ACE'NZA,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  the  same  name,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po, 
2  miles  below  the  confluence  of  the  Trebbia  with 
that  river,  and  36  miles  west-north -weat  of  tbe  city 
of  Parma.  Beautifully  situated  on  a  line  plain, 
confined  on  the  south  by  well -cultivated  bills,  the 
city  itself  is  gloomy  and  desolate  in  appearance^ 
Its  streets  are  broad  and  regular— that  called  the 
Slradoae  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  Italy^but 
many  of  them  are  unfrequented  and  gi-ass-growo. 
It  contains  numerous  palaces,  and  about  50 
churches.  The  cathedral,  an  edilice  in  the  ancient 
Lombard  style,  founded  in  the  11th  c.,  is  famooa 
for  the  richly- curious  and  grotesque  character  of 
its  internal  decorations,  for  iU  numerous  aculp- 
tnres,  its  paintings,  and  for  a  number  of  frescoes 
of  great  grandeur,  by  Caracoio,  Guercino,  and 
others.  The  Church  of  Sant^  Antonio,  the  origi- 
nal cathedral  of  P.,  was  founded  in  324  a.  t>., 
but  has  been  seversj  times  rebuilt.  Among  the 
other  principal  buildings,  are  the  Fahtzzo  Far- 
nese,  founded  in  1558,  and  once  a  sumptuous 
edifice,  but  which  has  been  long  in  use  aa  a  bar- 
rack ;  the  Palazzo  del  Commune,  and  the  CoU^io 
dei  Merconti  are  fine  tnonnmenta  of  art.  "nie 
principal  square  is  tbe  Piazza  Cavalli,  so  called 
from  tbe  c<dossal  bronze  equestnan  statues  of  the 
dukes  Aleasaodro  and  liannuccio  Famese.  Tliia 
town  occupies  by  far  the  most  important  position, 
in  a  mihts^y  point  of  view,  in  Italy— a  fact  which 
vras  fully  appreciated  by  those  who  fortified  it 
with  solid  walls  and  a  strong  castle,  which,  till  ISSS, 


did  not  destroy  the  works,  and  Che  Italian  gav> .  _ 
ment  has  strengthened  and  extended  them  nj  tha 
formation  of  externally  defended  works,  and  of  a 
formidable  intrenched  camp,  which  unites  and 
protects  the  other  works  on  the  right  bank  oE  Ui»  Po. 


PIA  MATER-PIANOFORTE. 


MannfactureB  of  silks,  fustians,  linens,  hats,  &c., 
are  carried  on  to  some  extent.  Pop.  (1862),  which 
has  considerably  increased  within  the  last  few 
yearsy  39,387. 

P.,  called  by  the  Romans  PlacentiHt  on  account 
of  its  pleasing  situation,  first  mentioned  in  219  B.a, 
when  a  Roman  colony  was  settled  there.  In  200  B.  a, 
it  was  plundered  and  burned  by  the  Qauls,  but 
rapidly  recovered  its  prosperity,  and  was  long  an 
important  military  station.  P.  was  the  western 
terminus  of  the  great  ^milian  road,  which  began 
at  Ariminum  on  uie  Adriatic  In  later  history,  it 
plays  an  im)X)rtant  part  as  one  of  the  independent 
Lombard  cities. 

PI'A  MA'TEB.    See  NKavous  Ststbbc. 

PIA'NO  (ItaL  9oft)y  abbreviated  p,  is  used  in 
music  to  denote  that  the  strain  where  the  indication 
occurs  is  to  be  played  with  less  than  the  average 
intensity  of  force,  ppy  or  ppp,  for  pianissimo,  sig- 
nifies very  soft,  or  as  soft  as  possible.  In  contra- 
distinction from  pianOy  forte,  aobreviated  /,  is  used 
to  denote  a  more  than  usual  force ;  SkXiA  jf,  or  fff,  for 
fortissimo,  a  still  greater  degree  of  force.  The  gradual 
transition  from  piano  to  forte  is  indicated  by  the 
sign  -<. ;  from  forte  to  piano  by  the  sign  :>. 

PIANOFO'RTfi  (ItaL  jnano,  soft,  and  forte^ 
loud),  a  strin&ed  musical  instrument,  played  b^ 
keys,  developed  out  of  the  Clavichord  and  Harpsi- 
chord (q.  v.),  from  which  the  pianoforte  differs 
principally  in  the  introduction  of  nammers,  to  put 
the  strings  in  vibration,  connected  with  the  keys  by 
a  mechanism  that  enables  the  player  to  modify  at 
will  the  intensity  of  the  sounds ;  whence  the  name 
of  the  instrument. 

The  idea  of  the  pianoforte  was  conceived  inde- 
pendently about  the  same  time  by  three  persons  in 
different  parts  of  Europe — a  German  orcanist  of  the 
name  of  Schroter;  Marius,  a  French  harpsichord- 
maker;  and  Bartolomeo  Cristofali,  a  harpsichord- 
maker  of  Padua.  Priority  in  point  of  invention  (1714) 
is  due  to  the  Italian  maker.  Schroter*s  discovery  was 
followed  up  in  Qermany  by  Silbermann  of  Strasburg, 
Si)ftt  of  Katisbon,  Stein  of  Augsburg,  and  others. 
The  first  pianoforte  seen  in  England  was  made  at 
Rome  by  Father  Wood,  an  Enelish  monk  there.  A 
few  German  manufacturers  and  workmen  settling  in 
London,  gave  an  impetus  to  the  new  instrument.  The 
English  pianoforte  has  been  brought  to  its  present 
state  of  perfection  by  a  succession  of  improvements 
received  at  the  hands  of  Broadwood,  Stodart,  Erard, 
dementi,  Gollard,  Womum,  Hopkinson,  and  other 
makers.  AU  the  really  important  later  inventions 
are  English.  The  compass  of  the  early  pianoforte 
was,  like  that  of  the  harpsichord,  four  to  five 
octaves,  from  which  it  has  been  gradually  increased 
to  6},  or  seven  octaves,  or  occasionally  more. 

The  most  natural  of  the  various  forms  which  the 
instrument  assumes  is  that  of  the  srand  pianoforte, 
derived  from  the  harpsichord,  with  tne  strings  placed 
horizontally,  and  parallel  to  the  keys.  The  strings 
are  stretched  across  a  compound  frame  of  wood  and 
metal,  composed  of  bars,  rods,  and  strengtheners  of 
various  kinds — appliances  necessaiy  to  resist  the 
enormous  tension.  This  framework  includes  a 
wooden  sound-board.  The  mechanism  b^  which 
hMnmers  are  connected  with  the  keys,  is  called 
the  action  of  the  instrument.  In  the  earliest  piano- 
fortes, the  hammer  was  raised  from  below  by  a 
button  attached  to  an  upright  wire  fixed  on  the 
back-end  of  the  key.  Tlie  impulse  given  to  the 
hammer  caused  it  to  strike  the  string,  after  which 
it  immediately  fell  back  on  the  button,  leaving  the 
string  free  to  vibrate.  This  was  called  the  single 
action.  As  the  hammer,  when  resting  on  the  button 
with  the  key  pressed  down,  was  thus  necessarily 

f 


at  a  little  distance  from  the  string,  the  effectual 
working  of  this  action  required  that  a  certain  im|)<y 
tus  should  be  communicated   to   the   hammer  to 
enable  it  to  touch  the  string.     Hence  it  was  mipob- 
sible  to  play  very  piano,  and  it  was  found  that  if 
the  hammer  was  adjusted  so  as  to  be  too  close  to 
the  string  when  resting  on  the  button,  it  w^as  apt 
not  to  leave  the  string  till  after  the  blow  had  been 
given,  thereby  deadening  the  sound.    This  defect 
was  remedied  by  a  jointed  upright  piece  called  the 
hopper,  attached  to  the  back-end  of  the  key,  in  place 
of  the  wire  and  button.    When  the  key  was  pressed 
down,  the  hopper,  en^gin^  in  a  notch  in  the  lower 
side  of  the  hiunmer,  lifted  it  so  close  to  the  hammer, 
that  the  lightest  possible   pressure    caused  it  to 
strike ;  and  at  this  moment,  when  the  key  was  still 
pressed  down,  the  jointed  part  of  the  ho])])er,  cominff 
in  contact  with  a  fixed  button  as  it  rose,  escaped 
from  the  notch,  and  let  the  hammer  fall  clear  away 
from  the  string.      To  prevent  the  hammer  from 
rebounding  on  the  string,  a  projection  called  the 
c?ieck  was  fixed  on  the  end  of  the  Key,  which  caught 
the  edge  of  the  hammer  as  it  fell,  and  held  it  firmly 
enough  to  prevent  it  from  rising.    A  necessary  part 
of  the  action  is  the   damper,   which    limits    the 
duration  of  each  particular  note,  so  us  to  cause  it  to 
cease  to  sound  as  soon  as  the  pressure  is  removed 
from  the  key.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  leather  resting 
on  the  top  of  the  string,  and  connected  with  the  back- 
part  of  tne  key  by  a  vertical  wire.    When  any  key 
IS  pressed  down,  its  damper  is  raised  off  the  string, 
so  as  to  allow  the  sound  produced  to  be  clear  and 
o])en ;  but  immediately  on  the  finger  being  lifted 
off  the  key,  the  damper- wire  falls,  and  the  dam|>er 
again  presses  on  the  string,  muffling  and  stopping 
the  vibration.     The  whole  range  of  dampers  may, 
when  required,  be  raised  by  the  use  of  the  damper 
pedal,  so  as  to  prolong  the  sound  of  one  note  into 
another. 

One  further  frequent  and  important  addition  to 
the  action  may  be  alluded  to.  In  the  mechanism 
above  described,  the  key  must  rise  to  its  position 
of  rest  beforo  the  hopper  will  again  engage  in  the 
notch  of  the  hammer  for  another  stroke ;  hence,  a 
note  cannot  be  repeated  until  time  has  been  allowed 
for  the  fuU  rise  of  the  key.  The  repetiiion  action 
is  a  contrivance,  varying  in  different  instruments, 
for  getting  rid  of  this  defect,  by  holding  up  the 
hammer  at  a  certain  height  while  the  key  is 
returning. 

Great  difference  of  detail  exists  in  the  actions  of 
different  makers.  Some  are  more  complicated  than 
others  ;  but  in  all  are  to  be  found  the  same  essential 
parts,  only  modified  in  shape  and  arrangement. 
The  subjoined  figure  represents  one  of  the  sim- 
plest grand  pianoforte  actions  now  in  use.    A  is  the 


key,  B  the  lever  which  raases  the  hammer,  0  the 
hammer,  D  the  string,  and  E  the  damper ;  F  is  the 
button  which  catches  the  lever  after  it  has  struck 
the  hammer,  G  the  check,  H  the  damper  pedal- 
lifter,  I  the  spring,  and  K,  K,  K  are  rails  •06 
sockets. 

Formerly,  the   stringsr  of    the   pianoforte   were 
all  of  thin  wire;   now,  the  bass-strings  are  very 


PIARISTS-PIAZZL 


th)ck,  and  coated  with  a  fine  ooU  of  copper-wire ; 
and  the  thickness,  strength,  and  tension  of  the 
strings  all  diminiflh  from  the  lower  to  the  upper 
notes.  A  grand  pianoforte  has  three  strings  to 
each  of  the  upper  and  middle  notes,  and  now, 
generally,  only  two  to  the  lower  notes,  and  one 
to  the  lowest  octave.  When  the  soft  pedal  is 
pressed  down,  the  hammers  are  shifted  sideways, 
80  as  to  strike  only  two  strings  instead  of  three, 
or  one  string  instead  of  two. 

Besides  the  grand,  the  kinds  of  pianoforte  in  use 
are  the  square,  in  which  the  strings  are  place<l  still 
in  a  horizontal  position,  but  oblif^uely  to  the  kejrs ; 
and  the  upright,  in  which  the  strings  run  vertically 
from  top  to  Dottom  of  the  instrument.  The  differ- 
ence in  form  necessitates  alterations  in  the  details 
of  the  action,  but  the  general  principle  ia  the  same. 

The  pianoforte  has  in  modem  times  attained  a 
widespread  popularity  beyond  that  of  any  other 
musical  instrument  It  possesses  nearly  all  the 
powers  of  expression  of  any  other  instrument ;  on 
no  other  except  the  organ  can  we  execute  such 
complete  suceesaions  of  harmonies  ;  no  other  repre- 
sents the  orchestra  so  well,  with  the  advantage  that 
the  various  parte  adapted  to  it  are  brought  out  by 
the  same  performer.  In  all  cities  of  the  civilised 
world,  there  are  numerous  manufacturers  of  the 
pianoforte,  employing  multitudes  of  workmen ;  and 
even  in  the  secondary  towns  of  Europe,  the  number 
of  makers  is  daily  increasing.  In  England,  the 
manufacturers  who  have  for  some  time  past  enjoyed 
the  highest  repute  are  Messrs  Broadwood,  CoUard 
^  Co.,  and  Erard;  but  other  makers  are  rapidly 
approaching  them  in  excellence.  Till  lately,  the 
Grerman  makers  adopted  a  much  less  perfect  action 
than  the  English,  producing  a  very  different  touch 
and  tone ;  but  they  are  now  largely  using  the 
English  action,  which  is  spreading  over  the  con- 
tinent. Music  for  the  pianoforte  is  written  in  two 
staves,  and  on  the  treble  and  bass-cleffs.  Many  of 
the  most  eminent  musicians  have  devoted  them- 
selves to  comi)osing  for  the  pianoforte,  and  some 
composers  of  note,  as  Hummel,  Ozerny,  Kalkbrenner, 
Chopin,  Thalber^,  Liszt,  and  Heller,  have  almost 
entirely  confined  themselves  to  that  instrument 
See  Rimbault,  Tlui  Pianoforte^  iU  Origin^  Progress, 
and  Constritclion  (Lend.  1860). 

PI'ARISTS,  called  also  familiarly  Scolopini,  or 
*  Brethren  of  the  Pious  Schools,*  a  religious  conCTCga- 
tion  for  the  education  of  the  poor,  founded  at  Kome 
in  the  last  year  of  the  16th  century.  The  originator 
of  this  institute  was  a  Spanish  priest,  named  Joseph 
of  Calasanza,  who,  while  in  Rome,  was  struck  with 
the  imperfect  and  insufficient  character  of  the 
education  which  then  prevailed,  even  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  higher  classiBS,  and  conceived  the  idea  of 
organising  a  body  for  the  puruose  of  meeting  this 
want,  which  the  Jesuit  Society  had  already  partially 
8npplie(L  The  school  which  he  himself,  in  oonjimc- 
tion  with  a  few  friends,  opened,  rapidly  increased  in 
number  to  100,  and  ultimately  to  700  pupils ;  and 
in  1617,  the  brethren  who,  under  the  direction  of 
Joseph,  had  a&iociated  themselves  for  the  work, 
were  approved  as  a  religious  con^egation  by  Paul 
V.  (q.  v.),  who  entered  warmly  mto  this  and  all 
other  projects  of  reformation.  In  1621,  Gregory 
XV.  approved  the  congregation  as  a  religious  order. 
The  constitution  of  we  order  was  several  times 
modified  by  successive  ponies,  down  to  the  time  of 
Innocent  XL  Its  field  of  operations  has,  of  course, 
been  confined  to  European  countries;  and  at  pre- 
sent it  can  reckon  communities  in  Italy,  Austria, 
Spain,  Hungary,  and  Poland.  In  Italy,  during  the 
revolutionary  wars,  the  P.  received  into  their  ranks 
many  members  of  the  suppresseil  Society  of  the 
Jesuits.  In  Spain,  their  establishments  were  spared, 
ft24 


on  the  general  suppression  of  religions  orden  in 
1836.  In  Poland,  eleven  houses  still  were  in  «sist- 
ence  in  1832.  The  number  of  members  in  Hunga^ 
is  said  to  be  about  400,  and  the  order  is  also  found 
in  the  other  dependencies  of  Austria^  See  WetKr'i 
Kirchen'  Lexicon* 

PIA'SSABA,  or  PIACABA,  a  remarkable  veffct- 
able  fibre  which,  during  the  last  twenty  years,  has 
become  an  article  of  much  importance  in  this 
country.  It  is  procured  from  Brazil,  chiefly  from 
the  ports  of  Para  and  Maranham,  and  is  produced 
by  one  or  more  species  of  palm.  That  whick 
furnishes  the  greater  part  is  the  Coquilla-nut  Palm 
{A  ttalea  fu  ni/era ) ;  but  Mr  Wallace  states  that  nmcU 
of  it  is  procured  from  a  species  of  Leopoldima,  which 
he  has  named  L,  puusaba.  The  fibre  is  pnxlnoed 
by  the  stalks  of  the  lar^e  Can-like  leaves.  When 
the  leaves  decay,  the  petioles  or  stalks  split  up  into 
bimdles  of  cylindrical  fibres  of  a  dark-brown  colour, 
and  of  a  hard  texture,  varying  in  thickness  from 
that  of  a  horse-hair  up  to  that  of  a  small  crow-quilL 
This  material  has  been  found  of  great  utility  in 
making  brushes  of  a  coarse  kind*  particularly  th(;se 
required  to  sweep  the  street ;  and  for  this  purpose 
they  have  almost  superseded  birch-brooms,  spUt 
whaIe-l)one  brushes,  and  Other  similar  means  fur 
scavengers*  work.  The  coarsest  tibr^  are  best  for 
such  purposes,  and  the  finer  ones  are  found  veiy 
valuable  lor  tiner  kiniis  of  brushes. 

PIA'STRB  (Gr.  and  Lat  emplasbron^  a  plaister; 
transferred  in  the  Romanic  langimges  to  anytbiug 
spread  out  or  flattened,  a  plate,  a  coin),  a  Spaaish 
sdver  coin  which  has  been  extensively  ailopted  by 
other  nations.      It  was   formerly  divided   into  8 
silver  reals,  and  hence  was  termed  a  piece  of  eitjk^ 
which  name  was  invariably  applied  to  it  by  the 
Bucaneers    of    the    Spanish    Main.      The    present 
Spanish  piastre,  commonly  known  as  the  p^-so  duro, 
peso  fuertCy  or,  briefly,  duro^  is  the  standard  of  the 
money  system,  and  is  e<^uivalent  to  about  4«.  S^i.  of 
our  money.      It  is  divided  into  20   copper  realj 
(reales  de  vdlon).     In  the  Levant,  the  piastre  i« 
called  a  colonnato,  on  account  of  the  original  coins, 
which  were  struck  for  use  in  Spanish  America,  bear- 
ing two  columns  on  the  reverse  side. — The  lUban 
piastre,  or  scudo,  is  an  evident  imitation  of  the 
Spanish  coin,  and  is  exactly  equal  to  it  in  value.— 
The  same  is  true  of  the  piastres  in  use  in  Chili, 
Mexico,  and  South  America,  with  the  sole  exception 
of  New  Granada,  where  it  is  about  2Jei.  sterling  less. 
The  Dollar  (q.  v.)  of  the  United  States  of  Xorth 
America  was  adopted  from  the  Spanish  piasti«,  but 
is  a  fraction  less  in  value,  owing,  it  is  said,  to  an 
error  in  the  original  estimate.    The  original  Spaai^h 
'pillar'  piastres  or  dollars  are  ciurent  nearly  all 
over  the  world. — ^The  coin  known  as  the  Turkish 
piastre  is  not  an  imitation,  but  is  an  independent 
national  silver  coin,  which,  in  1753,  was  worth  al>^t 
3s.  Gci  sterling,  but  has  since  gradually  and  rapidly 
deteriorated,  till  at  the  present  day  it  is  equal  to 
not  more  than  2^(2.  of  our  money. — The  Ei^'ptiau 
piastre  is  worth  about  2^  sterling.     Pieces  oi  t, 
5,  10,  and  20  piastres  are  struck  in  silver,  and  oi 
50  and  100  in  gold ;  the  piece  of  100  piastres  beiiig 
in  Egypt  the  exchange  at  par  for  ^1  sterling. 

PIA'ZZA,  an  open  place  or  square.  The  name  is 
also  appUed  to  a  portico  or  arcade,  such  as  often 
surrounds  a  piazza  m  warm  oonntries. 

PIAZZI,  Giuseppe,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  was 
born  at  Ponte  in  the  Valteline,  July  16,  1748.  He 
was  received  into  the  order  of  the  Theatins  at  Milaa 
in  1764 ;  and  studied  in  that  city,  and  subsequently 
in  the  houses  of  the  same  order  at  Rome  and  Tuna. 
Siunmoned  to  the  professorial  chair  of  Philosophy 
at  Grenoa,  he  so  alarmed  the  Dominions  hy  Uie 


PIBROCH— PICCOLOMINL 


freedom  and  boldness  of  his  opinions,  that  his  friend 
the  grand-master  thought  it  desirable  to  remove 
him   to  Malta,  where,  in  1770,  he  became  Professor 
of  JMathematics  in  the  newly-founded  university. 
On  the  breaking  up  of  this  seminary,  he  retiurned  to 
Italy,  and  after  teaching  philosophy  in  the  Nobles* 
College  at  Ravenna,  he  went  to  Kome,  where  he 
became  Professor  of  Dogmatic  l^eoloov  in  the  insti- 
tution of  San  Andrea  della  Valle.    He  was  trans- 
ferred  in  1780  to  the  chair  of    Mathematics    in 
Palermo ;  aud  after  some  time,  obtained  the  consent 
and  aid  of  government  to  establish  an  observatory 
at  Palermo,  which  was  put  in  working  order  in 
1789.     The  first  results  of  his  observations  were, 
the    rectification  of  some  errors  in  the  estimation 
of  tlie  obliquity  of  the  ecliptic,  the  aberration  of 
light,   the  ten^h   of   the  tropical  year,  and  the 
parallax  of  various  heavenly  bodies;  these  results 
were  published  in  1792.     P.  had  now  attained  a 
European  reputation,  which  was  further  heightened 
by  bis  discovery,  on  the  night  of  1st  January  1801, 
of  a  new  i)lanet>  the  first  known  of  the  great  group 
of  planetoids  between  Man  and  Jupiter.     P.  was 
only  able  to  give  a  description  ^of  it,  accompanied 
with  some  hypotheses  of  nis  own,  to  some  of  the 
German    and  Italian    astronomers,   when    it   dis- 
appeared ;  Gauss  (q.  v.),  however,  rendered  certain 
the  fact  of  its  being  a  planet    It  received  from  P. 
the  name  Ceres,  after  the  ancient  goddess  of  Sicily. 
P.  -was  so  sincerely  attached  tq  Sicily,  which  he 
regarded  as  if  it  were  his  native  coimtry,  that  all 
the  splendid  offers  of  Napoleon  were  insufficient  to 
induce  him  to  remove  to  Bologna.     In  1803,  he  pub- 
lished a  map  of  the  fixed  stars,  far  superior  to  any 
before  published,  the  result  of  ten  years*  observa- 
tionB  :  the  work  was  crowned  by  the  Institute  of 
France.     In  1814,  appeared  a  new  and  more  com- 
plete catalogue  (containing  7646  stars),  for  which 
he  mras  again  rewarded  with  a  prize  from  the  French 
Institute.    He  also  made  researches  into  the  nature 
of  comets,  aided  to  regulate  the  weights  and  measures 
of  Sicily,  and  devoted  the  later  years  of  his  life 
to  the  improvement  of  public  education  in  Sicily. 
He    wrote  a  number  of  works,  of  which,  besides 
the  two  catalogues  of  stars  above  mentioned,  the 
JLeziani  EUmentari  di  Astronomia  (Palermo,  1817) 
is  the  chief.   He  is  also  the  author  of  many  memoirs 
dra'wn  up  for  the  various  scientific  societies  of 
Kurope.    P.  died,  22d  July  1826,  at  Naples. 

PI'BBOCH,  a  species  of  martial  music  performed 
on  the  bagpix)e  of  the  Highlanders,  whicn  has  been 
found  to  have  a  wonderful  power  in  arousing  their 
military  instincts.  Its  rhythm  is  so  irregular,  and 
its  notes  in  the  quicker  parts  so  much  jumbled 
together,  that  a  sla^nger  has  difficulty  in  following 
the  modulations  or  reconciUng  his  ear  to  them.  The 
earliest  mention  of  the  mihtary  music  of  the  bagpipe 
is  in  1594,  at  the  battle  of  Balrinnes ;  indeed,  prior 
to  that  period,  the  bagpipe  can  hardly  be  lookcil  on 
as  a  national  instrument  of  Scotland.  There  are 
appropriate  ]>ibrochs  belonging  to  various  clans  and 
dis^cta,  but  some  of  these  may  not  be  older  than 
-fehe  beginning  of  last  century.  One  of  the  oldest 
known  pibrodis  is  called  the  *  Battle  of  Harlaw,'  but 
it  may  be  doubted  whether  it  was  contemporary  wiUi 
that  event  (1411).  In  the  ballad  account  of  that 
l^attle,  there  is  mention  of  trumpets  and  horns,  but 
done  of  the  bagpipe ;  and  the  pibroch  style  of  music 
bas  so  obvious  a  relation  to  the  bagpipe,  that  it  is 
difficult  to  suppose  that  it  preceded  tne  use  of  that 
iiistrument.  According  to  Sir  Walter  Scott,  the 
connoisseurs  in  pipe-music  affect  to  discover  in  a 
'well-composed  pibroch  the  imitative  sounds  of 
isiarch,  conflict,  flight,  pursuit,  and  all  the  current 
of  a  heady  fisht.  Many  remarkable  instances  have 
t>eeik  recorded  of  the  effect  of  the  pibroch  on  the 


Highlanders.  At  the  battle  of  Quebec,  in  ApriL 
1760,  whilst  the  British  troops  were  retreating  in 
confusion,  the  pipers  were  oniered  to  strike  up  a 
favourite  pibroch,  and  the  result  was  Uiat  the  High* 
landers,  who  were  broken,  raUied  the  moment  that 
they  heard  the  music,  and  fonned  with  great  alacrity 
in  the  rear. 

PI'GA.    See  Maopi& 

PICA.    See  Morbid  AppKriTES. 

PICA.    See  pRiNxnfO. 

PIOARDY  (Picardib),  an  ancient  province  in 
the  north  of  France,  was  bounded  on  the  W.  by 
the  English  Channel,  and  on  the  £.  by  Champagne. 
The  name  does  not  occur  tiU  the  13th  century.  Th' 
capital  of  this  province  was  Amiens.  The  territory 
now  forms  the  department  of  Scmiine,  and  portions 
of  the  departments  of  Aisne  and  Pas-de-CalaU. 

PrCCOLO  (ItaL  flauto  pkcdo,  small  flute),  a  flute 
of  small  dimensions,  having  the  same  compass  as  the 
ordinary  flute,  while  the  notes  all  sound  an  octave 
higher  than  their  notation.  In  joyous  as  well  as 
violent  passages,  this  instrument  is  sometimes  very 
effective  in  an  orchestra. 

PICCOLOMINI,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most 
distinguished  families  of  Italy,  was  originally 
settled  at  Bome,  but  afterwards  removed  to  Siena, 
and  subsequently  obtained  possession  of  the  duchy 
of  Amalfl.  It  has  produced  numerous  celebrated 
liUirateura  and  warriors,  one  pope  (Pius  IL),  and 
several  cardinals.  One  of  the  most  distinguished 
in  the  liistory  of  this  family  was  Ottavio  P., 
the  lirst  Duke  of  Amalfi,  bom  in  1509,  and  fifth 
in  direct  descent  from  Pope  Pius  II.  He  early 
entered  the  Spanish  mihtary  service,  and  after 
taking  part  in  the  Milanese  campaigns,  was  sent 
as  captain  with  a  Florentine  cav^ry  regiment 
to  aid  Ferdinand  IL  against  the  Bohemians.  As 
a  cavalry  leader,  he  distinguished  himself;  and 
from  the  regiment  of  cuirassiers  under  his  com- 
mand issued  the  death-dealing  bullet  to  Gustavus 
Adolphus.  In  1634,  he  was  ulaced  under  the 
orders  of  Wallenstein,  who  toolc  a  great  fancy 
to  him,  and  confided  to  him  his  secret  designs 
i^ainst  the  emperor;  P.,  however,  communicated 
these  designs  to  the  emperor,  and  received,  as  a 
reward  for  his  fidelity,  a  part  of  Wallenstein's 
estates.  During  the  remainder  of  this  year,  he  was 
actively  engaged  against  the  Swedes,  and  greatly 
distinguish^  nimself  in  the  first  batUe  of  Nordlin- 
gen.  In  the  following  season  he  was  sent  with 
20,000  troops  to  aid  the  Spaniards  in  the  Nether- 
lands, where  the  French  and  Dutch  were  carry- 
ing all  before  thom.  P.  speedily  drove  out  the 
French,  but  his  success  against  the  Dutch  was 
not  so  marked  He  was  withdrawn  by  the  emperor 
in  1640  to  stay  the  Swedes,  who,  under  Baner,  were 
threatening  the  hereditarv  possessions  of  Austria ; 
and  his  success  against  these  invaders  in  Bohemia 
and  the  Palatinate,  though  damped  by  the  defeat 
inflicted  on  him  in  Silesia  by  Torstensohn,  induced 
the  king  of  Spain  to  entreat  the  em|)eror  to  send 
him  again  to  tne  Netherlands  to  take  the  command 
of  the  Spanish  troo|)S.  But  his  success  was  not 
nearly  so  decisive  as  before,  the  prestige  of  the 
Spanish  infantry  having  been  completely  destroyed 
by  the  great  Condg  at  Eocroi  (19th  Mav  1643). 
P.,  however,  was  again  successful  against  both  the 
French  and  Dutch  till  1648,  when  he  was  anew 
simimoned  to  Germanv  to  encounter  the  victorious 
Swedes;  but  i^ter  a  orief  campaign,  the  peace  of 
Westphalia^  (1648)  put  an  end  to  his  career.  He 
was  created  a  field-marshal  by  the  emperor,  and 
was   sent  as   plenipotentiary  to  the    Congress   of 

Nuremberg  (1649),  and  soon  after  was  rais^  to  the 

fttt 


PICHEGRU-PICKET. 


high  dignity  of  a  prince  of  the  empire.  The  king  of 
Spain  conferred  upon  him  the  oixler  of  the  Golden 
Iieece,  and  bestowed  npon  him  in  fief  the  duchj 
of  Amalfi,  which  had  preyionsly  belonged  to  his 
family.  P.  died  at  Vienna,  11th  August  1656, 
leaving  no  children ;  his  son  Max,  who  figures  in 
Schiller's  Wcdlenstein^  is  only  a  poetical  fiction. 
His  fame  as  a  warrior  and  general  is  somewhat 
tarnished  by  his  cruel  treatment  of  a  number  of 
Hessian  and  Luneburger  prisoners  in  1640. 

PICHEGRXJ,  Charlies,  a  French  general,  was 
bom  16th  February  1761,  at  Arbois,  in  the  depart- 
ment of  Jura,  France.  Though  of  humble  parentage 
he  succeeded  in  gainine  acmiission  to  the  college 
of  his  native  town,  wnerej  and  subsequently  at 
Brienne,  he  received  a  thorough  education.  He 
was  speciallv  distinfi;uished  in  mathematics,  and  had 
some  thoughts  of  devotins  himself  to  teaching  as 
a  profession;  but  the  advice  of  Father  Perault 
induced  him  to  enter  an  artillery  resiment  in  1783, 
and  he  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  fieutenant  when 
the  Revolution  broke  out.  P.  became  an  ardent 
democrat ;  joined  the  army  of  the  Rhine,  and  by 
his  brilliant  soldierly  qualities  soon  attracted 
general  attention.  In  1793,  he  became  commander- 
m-chief  of  the  army,  and  in  conjunction  with  the 
army  of  the  Moselle  under  Hoche,  repeatedly 
defeated  the  Austrians,  took  from  them  many 
important  towns,  as  Gemersheim,  Spire,  Worms, 
ftc.,  and  established  himself  in  the  Palatinate; 
while,  after  the  arrest  of  his  coadjutor  Hoche, 
his  success  at  the  head  of  the  combined  Rhine 
and  Moselle  armies  was  not  less  decided.  The 
rapidilrjr  and  boldness  of  his  manoeuvres,  when  he 
took  the  command  of  the  army  of  the  north,  in 
1794,  disconcerted  the  allies ;  and  before  long  they 
were  compelled  to  retreat  beyond  the  Meuse.  Af  t^ 
a  brief  respite,  P.  crossed  this  river,  driving  the 
British  before  him ;  and  by  February  1795,  had  com- 
pleted the  conquest  of  the  Dutch  towns  and  provinces, 
endins  the  campaign  by  capturing  the  enemy's  fleet 
(which  had  been  frozen  in).  He  next  visited  Paris, 
and  while  there,  suppressed  an  insurrection  of  the 
feubourgs  (1st  April  1795) ;  but  soon  afterwards 
retumea  to  the  army,  which  was  now  opposed  to 
the  Austrians  on  the  western  frontier,  and  lor  some 
time  displaced  his  usual  skill  and  enersy,  crossing 
the  Rhine  m  the  face  of  the  enemy,  ana  capturing 
Mannheim,  the  chief  fortress,  on  its  banks.  But 
the  anarchy  which  he  had  foimd  at  Paris,  com- 
bined with  the  flattering  promises  and  bribes  held 
out  to  him  by  the  Pnnce  of  Cond6,  converted 
P.  into  a  secret  partisan  of  the  Bourbons.  His 
remissness,  the  unwonted  folly  and  awkwardness 
of  his  military  manoeuvres,  though  prearranged 
with  the  Austrian  generals,  was  not  suspected 
till  he  suffered  himself  to  be  shamefully  defeated 
at  Heidelberg,  and  then  retreated,  leaving  Jour- 
dan  (q.  V.)  without  support,  thus  compeUins  the 
latter  also  to  retire.  The  suspicions  of  the 
Directory  were  now  aroused,  and  being  confirmed 
b^  the  seizure  of  P.*s  correspondence,  he  was  imme- 
diately superseded  by  Moreau  (q.  v.),  and  retired 
to  his  native  town,  where  he  lived  till  1797,  when 
he  was  elected  one  of  the  council  of  Five  Hundred. 
He  soon  became  president;  but  continuing  his 
intrigues  with  the  Bourbons,  he  was  arrested,  and 
subsequently  transported  to  Cayenne.  Escaping  in 
June  1798,  he  made  his  way  to  Surinam,  whence  he 
sailed  for  England.  He  now  entered  heart  and 
soul  into  the  &urbon  conspiracy  along  with  (xeorge 
Cadoudal  (q.  v.),  the  two  Polignacs,  De  Riviere,  and 
others,  the  primary  object  being  the  assassination  of 
the  First  ConsuL  The  conspirators  secretly  reached 
Paris,  and  there  P.  attempted  to  persuade  Moreau, 
who  was  also  a  royalist,  to  join  with  them,  bat 

52S 


without  success.  But  the  plans  of  the  conspinton 
were  soon  known  to  the  police ;  and  an  intimate 
friend  of  P.,  with  whom  he  resided,  sold  the  secret 
of  his  retreat  to  the  police  for  100,000  crowns.  P. 
was  surprised  in  his  sleep,  and  carried  off  naked  to 
the  Temple,  where  he  was  found  dead  in  his  bed 
on  the  morning  of  6th  April  1804.  The  Royalisti 
have  endeavoured  to  fasten  a  charge  of  pri?ate 
assassination  on  Napoleon,  but  it  is  more  generally 
believed  that  P.  strangled  himself. 

PICHI'NGHA,  an  extinct  volcano  in  the  west 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecuador,  about  ten  miles 
north-west  of  Quita  It  is  of  irregular  form,  and  is 
14,984  feet  in  height.  Around  the  crater  are  two 
other  peaks  of  nearly  equal  elevation. 

PIGHLER,  Karolikb,  one  of  the  most  eminent 
novelists  of  Germany,  was  bom  in  1769  at  VienD^ 
where  her  father,  Franz  von  Greiner,  held  several 
legal  offices  and    court  dignities.      In    17%,  sbe 
married  Councillor  Andrew  Pichler,  and  published 
her  first  work  under  the  title  of  Oleichniste  (Wjen, 
1800).   This  was  quickly  followed  by  other  writings, 
as  the  novels  Olivier  (Wien,  1802) ;  Leonora  (Wien, 
1804) ;  Huth  (Wien,  1805),  &c.  ;  and  the  success 
which  attended  the  appearance  of  these  prodactiona, 
encouraged  her  to  try  a  more  ambitious  line  of  com* 
position.      In    1808    appeared   AgcUhoMea,  which, 
according  to  some  critics,  is  the  best  of  her  novels 
In  this  work,  she  endeavoured,  in  opposition  to  the 
views  expressed  by  Gibbon,  in  his  History  of  the 
Decline  of  the  Roman  Empire^  to  depict  the  en- 
nobling effect  of  Christianity  on  the  humui  mind. 
At  the  suggestion  of  Hormayr  and  other  literary 
friends,  who  had  been  struck  by  the  success  with 
which  she  threw  herself  into  the  spirit  of  the  times 
of  which  she  wrote,  she  turned  her  attention  to  the 
task  of  popularising  German  history,  with  the  view 
of  fostering  a  more  cenerai  feeling  of  patriotism. 
Among  her  best  wohlb  of  this  kind,  which  ap- 
peared between  1811  and  18f32,  and  the  earlier  of 
which  preceded  Scott*s  greatest  historical  novels,  we 
may  instance  Orafen  von  Jlo/tenberg  (Leip.  1811); 
Die  Bdageiiing  Wien*s  von  1683  (Wien,  1824);  Die 
Schtoeden  in  Prag  (Wien,  1827) ;  and  HannttU  row 
England  (Wien,  1832) ;  while  of  her  social  novels, 
the  following  are  among  the  most  popular :  Frauen- 
wdrde  (Wien,  1808) ;  Die  NebenbuMer  (Wien,  1821); 
and  ZeiOnlder  (Wien,  1840).     She  died  at  Yienisa 
in  1843.      Her  dramas  were  failures,  and  in  her 
novels    there   is  not  a  little   tedious  diffuseness, 
a  remark  which  applies  with  equal  truth  to  her 
autobiography,  which  appeared  at  Vienna  in  1^44 
under  the  title  of  Denkwiirdigkeilen  a,  m.  Leben,  and 
formed  part  of  the  edition  of  her  collected  worka, 
published  at  Vienna  in  1845  in  sixty  volumes. 

PI'CKET,  in  Military  Language,  has  several 
significations.  It  applies  to  a  stake  shod  and 
sometimes  ringed  witn  iron,  driven  into  the  ground, 
and  used  to  sustain  ropes,  which  mark  off  sections  in 
a  camping -groimd,  or  for  tying  horses  ta  These 
pickets  are  four  or  five  feet  long.  Short  pickets 
about  eight  inches  long  are  employed  as  anchors  for 
the  ropes  extending  tents. — In  Fortification,  pickets 
are  pointed  stakes  lor  pinning  gabions  together  and 
to  the  ground ;  also,  when  pomted  at  both  ends,  and 
laid  close  together,  of  dinerent  lengths,  and  in  a 
position  inclmed  towards  the  front,  they  form  a 
powerful  obstruction  to  the  advance  of  a  storming- 
party,  having  a  great  effect  in  breaking  a  hue  at 
soldiers. — Pwcet  was  formerly  a  military  pinishment 
where  the  culprit  was  hela  by  the  raised  arm  is 
such  a  position  that  his  whole  weight  fell  on  one 
foot,  which  was  supported  on  a  picket  with  a  Hunt 
point.  The  time  the  man  thus  stood  was  proinir* 
tioned  to  the  offence.     The  punishment   bc^aine, 


HCKLES-PICO. 


After  a  few  momenta,  extremely  painfol :  it  has  Ions 
been  discontinued  on  sanitary  crounds. — The  word 
picket^  when  applied  to  a  smaU  guard  of  men,  is 
ordinarily  written  Piquet  (q.  v.). 

PICKLES.  Although  the  \ATm  pickled  is  applied 
to  animal  substances,  such  as  beef,  pork,  fish,  &;c., 
preserved  in  salt,  yet  pickles  are  generally  under- 
stood to  be  the  various  parts  of  vegetables  preserved 
in  vinegar.    The  process  employ^  is  first  to  wash 
the  articles  intended  for  pickles  in  clean  cold  water, 
and  afterwards  to  soak  them  for  a  few  days  in  a 
strong  solution  of  salt  in  water.      They  are  next 
taken  out,  and  if  fruits  or  roots,  dried  in  a  doth ;  but 
if  vegetables,  such  as  cauliilower,  fta,  they  must  be 
well  drained,  and  then  placed  in  the  vessels  intended 
to  hold  them,  a  few  peppercorns,  or  any  other  spice 
which  is  suitable,  bein^  sprinkled  in  from  time  to 
time.     When  the  vessel  is  so  far  filled  that  it  will 
hold  no  more,  boiling  vinegar  is  poured  in  until  it 
is  quite  full,  and  tightly  covered  up.    Many  persons 
prefer  to  boil  the  spices,  of  whatever  kind  used,  in 
the  vinegar;  and  some  add  the  vinegar  cold  to  such 
vegetables  or  fruit  as  are  of  a  naturally  soft  sub- 
fltanoe,  because,  except  in  the  case  of  green  walnuts, 
and  one  or  two   other  fruits,  extreme  softness  is 
objectionable  in  pickles.     When  the  materials  to  be 
pickled  are    naturally  green,   as    in   the    case   of 
gherkins  or  small  cucumbers,  French  beans,  &c,  it 
IS  considered  very  desirable  to  preserve  their  colour 
as  much  as  possible  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  very  suc- 
cessfully accomplished  by  steeping  vine,  cabbage, 
spinach,  or  parsley  leaves  in  the  vinegar,  by  \«r-hich 
their  colour  is  imparted  through  the  vinegar  to 
the    pickles.      But  this    requires  great  cai-e    and 
patience,  more,  indeed,  than  is  generally  thought 
worth    applying  to  it,  and  dealers    consequently 
resort  to  very  reprehensible  methods  of  colouring 
their  pickles,  such  as  boiling  the  vinegar  in  copper 
vessels,  and  thereby  forming  an  acetate  of  copper, 
which  is  ereen ;  or  even  durectlv  adding  that  salt 
to  the  piclues.   Many  serious  accidents  have  resulted 
from  tne  presence  of  thia  poison. 

The  pnncii>al  pickles  made  in  this  country  are 
oablHxge,  almost  always  made  from  the  red  variety ; 
to  this  is  frequently  added  slices  of  beet-root,  which 
are  an  agreeable  addition,  and  improve  the  colour. 
The  celebrated  Spanish  pickle  is  a  mixture  of  the 
red  cabbage  and  slices  of  the  lai^e  Spanish  onion. 
Some  housewives,  in  their  efforts  to  outrival  their 
neighbours,  add  a  little  cochineal  to  improve  the 
colour.  TTie  spices  considered  most  suitable  for 
|iickled  cabbage  are  white  and  black  pepx)ercoms, 
ginger,  and  mace. — CauUfloioere,  Only  the  flower 
portion,  with  its  white  branches,  is  used,  and  in 
other  respects  they  are  treated  as  cabbage. — 
OherkinSy  or  very  young  cucumbers.  These  require 
the  same  spices  as  the  cabbage ;  but  much  care  is 
required  to  .keep  as  well  as  possible  their  green 
colour.  This  pickle  is  the  one  which  British  cooks 
luid  housewives  most  pride  themselves  upon  making 
-well;  and  almost  every  one  has  some  particular 
plan  for  its  preparation.  A  very  much  approved 
method  is  to  soak  the  gherkins  in  a  brine,  composed 
of  six  ounces  of  salt  to  the  quart  of  water  for 
twenty-four  hours,  then  drain  or  dry  in  a  cloth, 
place  them  in  jars,  and  pour  in  the  pickle,  composed 
of  vinegar,  with  an  addition  to  each  quart  of  one 
ounce  salt,  black  peppercorns  a  quarter  of  an 
ounce,  one  ounce  of  ginger  slightly  bruised,  one  or 
two  blades  of  mace,  and  a  dozen  bay-leaves.  After 
soaking  two  days,  they  are  set  on  the  fire  until 
they  sunmer,  and  then  replaced  in  the  jars,  which 
must  be  well  corked,  and  covered  witii  skin,  to 
exclude  the  air. — French  Beans,  The  young  green 
pods  are  prepared  in  the  same  way  as  gherluns. — 
Oiuont  ana  Eschalots  are  carefully  peeled,  and,  after 


two  days'  steeping  in  brine,  covered  with  boiling 
vinegar,  to  which  the  spice,  usually  black  pepper- 
corns, has  been  added.  A  small  variety  of  onion, 
called  the  silver-skin,  is  generally  used- —  Walnuts, 
These  are  gathered  green,  and  so  tender  that  a  pin 
can  easily  be  pushed  through  them  :  they  are  useless 
when  the  shell  has  begun  to  form.  They  require 
at  least  a  week's  steeping  in  the  brine.  The  vinegar 
must  be  poured  on  them  boiling  hot  The  spices 
used  are  peppercorns,  mace,  ginger,  and  sometimes 
a^  little  garlic  and  cloves. — Mushrooms  are  some- 
times picided  only  in  brine,  and  are  very  useful  for 
gravies,  &c.,  in  winter-time.  They  are  also  pre* 
served  in  vinegar,  and  must  be  washed  in  salt  and 
water  quickly,  and  then  boiled  in  the  vinegar,  to 
which,  besides  the  spices,  a  small  quantity  of  salt 
is  added. — Nasturtiums.  The  young  green  fruit  or 
seeds  of  the  Nasturtium  plant,  or  greater  Indian 
Cress  {TropcBoleum  nasturtium) ^  make  a  most  excel- 
lent pickle,  which  is  an  admirable  substitute  for  the 
foreign  capers  in  sauces  for  various  dishes,  and 
alone  is  an  agreeable  pickla — Several  kinds  of 
mixed  pickles  are  made,  the  chief  of  which  is  one 
called  PicaliUy^  or  *  Indian  Pickle,*  which  consists 
of  a  mixture  of  cucumber,  canUtiowers,  &c.,  with  a 
considerable  quantity  of  mustard-seed  and  flour  of 
mustard  used  as  a  spice,  which  gives  it  a  bright 
yellow  colour. 

Of  the  foreign  pickles  imported  from  other  coun- 
tries, we  have  the  unoi)enea  buds  of  the  beautiful 
Elant p'opparw  spinosa,  called  Ca//ers;  olives,  pickled 
oth  in  brine  and  vinegar,  but  chiefly  in  the  former 
— both  from  Southern  Europe.  From  tropical 
countries,  every  variety  of  tlie  capsicum— green 
shoots  of  bamboo— and  the  fruit  of  the  mango, 
which  is  in  much  esteem  wherever  it  is  known,  not- 
withstanding a  turpentine  flavour,  which  is  not 
agreeable  at  first.  Besides  these,  there  are  numer- 
ous other  pickles  of  less  importance,  almost  every 
soft  part  of  wholesome  vegetables  being  adapted 
for  this  mode  of  preparation.  Pickles  generally 
are  considered  provocatives  to  appetite,  and  if  used 
judiciously,  and  made  properly,  are  wholesome  and 
agreeable  additions  to  our  food. 

PI'CO,  one  of  the  Azores  Islands,  stands  midway 
between  the  eastern  and  western  extremities  of  the 
group,  a  few  miles  south-east  of  FayaL  It  is  45 
miles  long,  and  6  miles  in  average  width  ;  area  about 
225  square  miles ;  pop. — the  descendants  of  Portu- 
guese— about  30,000.  It  is  traversed  by  a  volcanic 
ridge,  which  rises  7613  feet  high  in  the  Peak  (Pico), 
whence  the  name  of  the  island.    See  Azobes. 

PICO,  Giovanni,  della  Mtrandola,  an  Italian 
philosopher  and  theologian,  whose  genius  is  decidedly 
inferior  to  the  reputation  he  once,  enjoyed,  was  the 
son  of  the  sovereign  prince  of  Mirandola  and  Con- 
cordia, and  was  bom  24th  February  1463.  At  the 
age  of  14,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Bologna, 
and  after  snending  some  years  there,  visited  ths 
principal  scnools  of  Italy  and  France,  everywhere 
distinguishing  himself  by  the  extraordinary  facility 
with  which  he  mastered  the  most  difficult  oranches 
of  knowledge.  His  linguistic  acquisitions  embraced 
Latin,  Greek,  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  and  Arabic,  besides 
Italian  and  French ;  he  was  familiar  with  the  diffe- 
rent phases  of  the  scholastic  philosophy,  and  he  was 
also  versed  in  mathematics,  logic,  and  physics.  At 
the  age  of  23,  he  returned  to  Kome,  when  Innocent 
VIII.  was  pontiff,  and  immediately  sought  an  oppor- 
tunity'of  snewin^  his  learning  in  the  most  striking 
manner,  by  pubhcly  posting  up  no  fewer  than  900 
theses  or  propositions  in  logic,  ethics,  physics, 
mathematics,  theology,  natural  and  cabalistic  macio, 
drawn  from  Latin,  Greek,  Jewish,  and  Arabic 
writers,  offering  to  maintain  an  argument  on  each 

5sr 


PICOTEE— PICTS. 


against  all  the  scholars  of  Europe,  and  undertaking 
to  pay  the  exi)enses  of  those  who  came  from  a 
distance.  P.  presumptuously  entitled  his  theses  De 
Omni  Re  Scibiti  (On  Lverythin^  that  can  be  Known), 
and  Voltaire  sarcastically  added,  et  de  quibiisdam 
cUiiJif  which  addition  is  as  true  as  it  is  witty.  P. 
had  several  encounters  with  notable  scholars,  and 
is  reported  to  have  come  o£f  victorious  on  every 
occasion.  But  his  very  success  was  the  cause  of 
misfortune.  The  church  appointed  a  committee  to 
report  on  the  propositions  of  the  young  prince, 
and  the  result  was  that  several  of  them  were 
condemned  as  *  heretical,'  although  the  author 
was  acquitted  of  any  heretical  intentions.  P.  now 
withdrew  from  Home,  and  after  a  short  time  settled 
m  Florence,  where  he  austerely  devoted  hia  whole 
time  to  the  composition  of  polemical  treatises  against 
ews  and  Mohammedans,  and  to  the  refutation 
of  judicial  astrology.  Among  his  closest  friends  were 
Politian  and  Ficino.  He  died  17th  November  1494, 
at  the  early  a^e  of  31.  A  complete  edition  of  his 
works  was  published  at  Bologna  in  1496 ;  it  has  since 
been  frequently  reprinted.  The  principal  are  Hepta- 
plus,  id  est  de  Dei  Creatoris  Opere  sex  DUarwm  lAbri 
Septem,  an  allegorical  explanation  of  Creation  as 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Genesis ;  Condusiones  PhUo- 
aophicce,  CabaUsticcB  et  Theologicce — these  are  the 
famous  propositions  which  excited  so  much  ferment 
at  Bome ;  Apologia  Concordics  Coniitis ;  Disputa- 
Uones  adversus  Astrologiam  DivincUricem  Libri  xii.; 
AurecB  ad  Familiares  Epistoloe;  De  Uominis  Dig- 
nitate,  P.  is  a  happy  illustration  of  the  immediate 
effects  produced  in  literature  by  the  'revival  of 
letters;  he  is  full  of  a  specious  kind  of  universal 
learning,  zealous  and  enthusiastic,  but  destitute  of 
originaUty,  depth,  or  creative  i)ower.  *He  was,' 
says  M.  Matter,  *a  prodigy  of  memory,  elocution, 
and  dialectics,  but  neither  a  writer  nor  a  thinker.' 

PIOOTBB.    See  Carnation. 

PICROTO'XINE  (Cija  A)  is  the  active  principle 
of  Cocculus  indicuSy  from  which  it  may  be  extracted 
by  boiling  alcohol,  or  by  water  containing  a  little 
hydrochloric  acid.  It  crystallises  in  colourless 
prisms.  This  substance  is  extremely  poisonous, 
one-third  of  a  grain  being  sufiicient,  when  intro- 
duced into  the  stomach  of  a  cat,  to  produce  tetanic 
convulsions  and  death  in  ten  minutes. 

PICTOU',  a  thriving  seaport  on  the  north  coast 
of  Nova  Scolna,  on  the  north  shore  of  an  ample  and 
perfectly  protected  harbour,  85  miles  in  direct  line 
north-north-east  of  Halifax.  Lat.  of  light-house, 
46^  41'  N. ;  long.  62*  40'  W.  It  stands  in  a  fertile 
and  well-cultivated  district,  with  extensive  coal- 
mines and  quarries  of  building-stone  in  the  vicinity. 
In  1859,  it  exported  105,528  tons  of  coal.  It  also 
exports  building-stone,  dried  fish,  and  potatoes.  Its 
commerce  is  rapidly  increasing.  I'he  mean  summer 
temperature  of  P.  is  63**  52',  and  the  mean  temper- 
ature for  the  year  is  42°  09'.  Pop.  (1861)  about 
3000. 

PICTS,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  north- 
eastern provinces  of  Scotland.  Everything  con- 
nected with  the  history  of  the  P.  has  been  made 
matter  of  controversy,  and  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain 
the  truth,  where  the  information  given  by  early 
writers  is  so  scanty,  and  where  most  modern  authors 
seem  only  to  have  looked  for  materials  to  support  a 
favourite  theory. 

^  It  will  be  unnecessary  to  enter  on  an  examina- 
tion of  the  name  itself.  The  '  Picti '  of  the  Bomans 
probably  represented  a  word  by  which  the  nation 
was  known  m  its  own  language,  as  well  as  the  bar- 
baric custom  to  which  the  weU-known  expression  of 
Claudian,  *  nee  false  nomine  Pictos,'  bears  reference. 
Of  much  more  importance  is  the  inquiry  regarding 


the  origin  and  language  of  the  Picis.  This  is  what, 
among  Scottish  antiquaries,  has  been  emphatically 
called  *  the  Pictish  question ; '  respecting  which  the 
best-known  and  most  amusing,  and  certainly  not 
the  least  useful  discussion,  is  that  between  Jonathan 
Oldbuck  and  Sir  Arthur  Wardour,  in  the  sixth 
chapter  of  The  Antiquary,  The  disputants  can 
hardly  even  now  be  said  to  be  agreed ;  but  the 
prevailing  opinion  is,  what  sound  criticism  always 
pointed  to,  that  the  P.  were  a  Celtic  race — perhaps 
the  first  known  inhabitants  of  Northern  Britain,  and 
(as  some  hold)  to  be  identified  with  the  Caledo- 
nians of  the  Boman  writers.  At  the  time  when  they 
became  generally  spoken  of  under  the  name  of  P., 
they  occupied  the  whole  territorjr  north  of  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  except  the  western  portion,  which  had  been 
colonised  or  subdued  by  the  Scots,  another  Celtic 
nation,  whose  chief  seat  was  in  Ireland — the  (nrojier 
and  ancient  Scotland.  The  southern  boundary 
of  the  P.  was  the  Boman  province  of  Valentia, 
embracing  the  territory  between  the  two  Boman 
walls.  At  a  later  period,  when  Britain  was  aban- 
doned by  its  imperial  rulers,  the  boimdaries  of  the 
various  nations  occupying  the  northern  part  of  the 
island  may  be  traced  with  considerable  distinctness. 
Making  allowance  for  partial  changes  at  various 
times,  these  boundaries  may  be  held  to  be  the  fol- 
lowing :  The  Pictish  territory  extended  along  the 
whole  sea-coast  from  the  Firth  of  Forth  to  the 
Pentland  Firth.  It  was  bounded  on  the  west  by 
the  country  of  the  Scots,  which  extended  along 
the  western  coast  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  to  the 
modem  Boss-shire;  but  the  precise  line  between 
the  two  nations  cannot  be  ascertained.  The  country 
of  the  P;  was  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Firth  of 
Forth  and  the  province  of  Lothian,  then  possessed 
by  the  English ;  while  the  country  of  the  Scots  had 
for  its  southern  boundaries  the  Firth  of  Clyde  and 
the  kingdom  of  Cumbria,  held  by  the  independent 
Britons. 

The  Pictish  nation  consisted  of  two  great  divi- 
sions, called  the  Northern  and  the  Southern  P.,  the 
boundary  between  them  being  the  mountain  range 
known  afterwards  as  the  Grampians.  These  divi- 
sions seem  at  some  times  to  have  been  ruled  by 
different  princes,  at  other  times  to  have  been  under 
one  sovereign.  The  P.  were  converted  to  Christianity 
at  different  periods.  The  Southern  P.  received  the 
faith  from  St  Ninian,  Bishop  of  Candida  Casa,  early 
in  the  5tJh  century.  This  is  mentioned  by  Bede,  and 
the  fact  itself  has  never  been  doubted  ;  but  contro- 
versy, as  usual,  has  been  busy  -with  the  details. 
The  point  in  dispute  is  the  situation  of  the  P.  who 
owed  their  conversion  to  Ninian  (q.  v.).  A  careful 
examination  of  the  statements  of  Venerable  Bede, 
and  the  fuller  but  less  trustworthv  narrative 
of  Ailred  of  Bievaux,  will  shew  that  the  Sou^em 
P.,  converted  by  Ninian,  had  their  seat  north  of  the 
Forth ;  that  they  were,  in  fact,  the  great  division 
of  the  Pictish  nation  occupying  the  country  between 
the  Firth  and  the  Grampians.  The  labours  of 
Ninian  were  carried  on  ana  completed  by  teachers 
whose  names  are  well  known  to  the  readers  of 
ecclesiastical  history — Palladius,  Serf,  Teman,  and 
others.  The  Northern  P.  owed  their  conversion  to 
a  teacher  of  higher  renown— St  Columba  (<^.  v.).  The 
life  of  that  abbot,  from  his  leaving  Ireland  m  563,  to 
his  death  in  597,  was  chiefiy  spent  in  converting  the 
Northern  Picts.  Their  ruler  at  this  time  vma  Brude, 
son  of  Mailcon,  whom  Bede  styles  a  very  powerful 
king.  His  chief  residence  was  on  the  banks  of  the 
Ness,  and  there  Columba  baffled  and  confuted 
the  heathen  Magi  in  the  manner  recorded  by  his 
biographer  Adamnan.  It  is  impossible  to  ascertain 
the  precise  character  of  the  superstitions  held  by  the 
P.  before  their  conversion.    Those  whom  Adamnaa 


PICTS. 


calls  Magi,  are  by  some  modem  writers  styled 
Druids,  and  their  religioa  is  said  to  have  been  a 
species  of  Bruidism — whatever  that  may  be  held 
to  mean. 

Brude,  the  first  Christian  king  of  the  P.,  died 
in  586.  Cakfclogues  are  preserv^  of  more  or  less 
authority,  of  the  sovereigns  who  succeeded  him. 
It  is  impossible  to  reconcile  the  discrepancies  of 
these  lists,  which  probably  contain  the  names 
of  princes  who  reigned  at  the  same  time  in  the 
northern  and  southern  divisions  of  the  kingdom. 
The  limits  of  the  Pictish  territories  continued  much 
the  same  till  the  middle  of  the  7th  c,  when  a  portion 
of  the  southern  province  was  subdued  by  Oswy, 
king  of  Northumbria.  In  the  be^ninff  of  the 
reign  of  Oswy's  son  and  successor,  ISgfrid,  the  P. 
made  an  attempt  to  recover  the  territory  which  had 
been  wrested  from  them.  It  was  unsuccessful ;  and 
the  power  of  the  English  was  so  firmly  established, 
that  the  conquered  province  was  erected  into  a 
diocese  separate  from  Lindisfarne,  the  seat  of  the 
bishop  being  fixed  at  Abercom.  Encouraged  by  the 
success  which  had  attended  his  enterprises,  ']&ftnd 
seems  to  have  contemplated  the  subjugation  of  the 
whole  Pictish  kingdom.  He  advanced  northwards 
with  his  army  ;  Brude,  son  of  Bill,  king  of  the  P., 
retreating  before  him.  The  English  sovereign  passed 
the  Tay,  and  the  P.  made  a  stimd  at  Nechtansmere, 
supposied  to  be  Dunnichen,  in  Anmis.  A  conflict 
ensued ;  the  English  were  utterly  defeated,  and 
their  king  was  slain.  The  consequences  of  this 
battle,  which  was  fought  on  the  20th  of  May  6S5, 
were  very  important.  The  P.  recovered  the  whole 
territory  which  they  had  lost,  and  even  subdued 
for  a  tmie  a  portion  of  the  proper  Northumbrian 
kingdom. 

Ae  next  Pictish  prince  whose  name  calls  for 
special  notice  is  Nectan,  son  of  Dereli,  who  suc- 
ceeded about  the  year  710.  He  cultivated  learning 
to  some  extent,  and  aspired  to  the  position  of  an 
ecclesiastical  reformer.  The  Pictish  Church  held 
precisely  the  same  doctrines  as  the  English;  but 
it  differed  in  various  points  of  ritual,  the  most 
important  of  which  related  to  the  prosier  time  of 
keeping  Easter.  The  king  applied  for  advice  to 
Ceolfrid,  Abbot  of  Jarrow,  and  the  answer,  which 
is  addressed  *  To  the  most  Excellent  Lord,  and  most 
Glorious  King,  Nectan,'  is  preserved,  aoaong  the 
works  of  Venerable  Bede.  Encouraged  by  this 
epistle,  he  summoned  a  council  of  his  de^cy  and 
nobles,  and  enjoined  them  to  observe  the  English 
usages.  The  royal  command  met  with  a  ready 
ob^enoe.  He  had  also  applied  to  the  Abbot  of 
Jarrow  for  architects  to  build  a  church  of  stone  in 
the  Roman  fashion,  which  he  proposed  to  dedicate 
to  St  Peter.  We  are  told  by  Bede  that  the  archi- 
tects were  sent,  but  have  no  further  information  on 
this  interesting  subject,  The  plans  of  the  king 
were  probably  interrupted  by  dissensions  among 
his  people ;  and  the  entire  assimilation  of  the  eccle- 
siastical institutions  of  Northern  Britain  to  those 
of  England  was  postponed  for  four  centuries. 

The  most  active  of  <dl  the  Pictish  sovereigns 
was  Hungus,  son  of  Urgust,  who  succeeded  in  730, 
and  reigned  for  thirty  years.  He  was  engaged  in 
constant  wars  with  the  Scots,  the  Britons,  and  the 
English,  in  which  he  was  generally  victorious. 
After  his  death,  the  kingdom  began  to  decline. 
The  history  of  its  latest  period  is  involved  in  impe- 
netrable obscurity  ;  all  that  we  know  for  certain  is 
the  final  result  Various  princes  claimed  the  crown, 
and  held  possession  of  xK>rtions  of  the  kingdom. 
But  the  most  powerful  competitor  was  Kenneth, 
son  of  Alpin,  king  of  the  Scots,  who  was  descended, 
in  the  female  line,  from  the  ancient  sovereigns  of  the 
P.,  and  was  probably  the  true  inheritor,  according 
346 


to  the  pNBCuliar  law  of  succession  which  is  said  to 
have  existed  among  that  nation.  Kenneth  was 
acknowledged  as  kin?  in  843,  and  fixed  his  residence 
at  Forteviot  in  Stratneme,  the  capital  of  the  Pictish 
kingdouL 

A  famous  passage  from  Henry  of  Huntingdon  has 
often  been  quotec^  in  illustration  of  the  supposed 
utter  destruction  of  the  P.,  of  their  princes,  their 
race,  and  their  language.  It  is  referred  to  in  that 
sense  at  the  close  of  the  following  sentences  of  a 
work  written  some  time  ago,  but  only  published 
in  the  present  year.  *  The  Pictish  vessd  is  seen 
in  the  distant  horizon ;  she  approaches  rapidly, 
till  you  clearly  distinguish  the  crew  upon  the 
deck ;  but  before  you  are  near  enough  to  hear  their 
voices,  she  sinks,  the  waters  close  over  her,  and 
the  wreck  never  can  be  raised.  The  total  extinc- 
tion of  the  Pictish  lanmiage  renders  any  further 
inquiry  impossible.  The  acumen  and  criticism 
of  the  19th  century  cannot  advance  beyond  the 
homely  wisdom  of  the  12th  century.'— Sir  Francis 
Palgrave's  History  of  Normandy  and  England, 
vol.  iv.  p.  294. 

The  impression  conveyed  by  such  words  is  an 
erroneous  one.  The  Pictish  princes  still  continued 
to  reign  in  the  persons  of  Kenneth  and  his  descend- 
ants. They  were  kings  of  the  P.  in  reality  and  by 
race,  as  much  as  James  I.  and  his  successors  were 
kings  of  England.  The  princes  did  not  cease  in  the 
one  case  more  than  in  the  other  to  be  soverei^s  of 
the  larger  kingdom,  because  they  had  previously 
ruled  in  the  lesser  one.  Neither  did  the  nation  of 
the  P.  cease  to  exist.  They  dwelt  as  before  in  their 
own  land ;  their  old  capital  was  the  capital  of  the 
new  kingdom ;  and  Pictavia  is  sx>oken  of  by  the 
chronicles  long  after  the  accession  of  Kenneth,  and 
long  before  Scotia  became  identified  with  Northern 
Britain,  or  ceased  to  be  the  ordinary  name  for 
Ireland.  Undoubtedly,  through  the  mfiuence  of 
the  kings,  and  perhaps  of  the  cleigy,  whom  the 
later  Pictish  ])rinces  had  held  under  an  oppressive 
bondage,  the  Scots  became  the  predominant  race» 
and  finally  gave  their  name  to  the  united  kingdom 
and  nation.  Neither  did  the  language  of  the  P. 
cease  to  be  spoken.  It  continued,  as  oefore,  to  be 
the  dialect  of  the  north-eastern  provinces,  till,  first 
in  the  extreme  north,  it  yielded  to  the  Scandi- 
navian invader,  and  afterwards — more  than  two 
centuries  subsequently  to  the  accession  of  Kenneth 
— it  began  to  recede  slowly  before  the  Teutonic 
tongue  of  English  and  Flemish  colonists.  The 
same  process  which  destroyed  the  Celtic  langua^ 
of  the  Pictish  people,  destroyed  also  the  Ueltic 
language  of  the  British  kingdom  of  Cumbria.  There 
is  no  more  reason  to  question  the  causes  which 
overthrew  the  ancient  dialect  of  Fife  and  Buchan,. 
than  there  \&  to  question  those  which  subverted 
the  old  speech  of  Carrick  and  Clydesdale.  If  any- 
thing were  wanting  to  refute  completely  the  popular 
error  in  resard  to  the  destruction  of  the  Pictish. 
language,  it  would  be  supplied  by  the  redent 
discovery  at  Cambridge  of  a  manuscript  of  the- 
11th  or  12tii  c  (see  Dkkr,  Old)  which  contains  the 
Celtic  record  how  Columba  and  Brostan  came  from 
lona  to  Aberdour,  and  how  Bede  the  Pict,  YtYih  was 
then  Maormor  of  Buchan,  gave  them  the  cities  of 
Aberdour  and  Deer. 

The  chief  ancient  authorities  for  the  history  of 
the  P.  are  Adamnan's  Life  of  St  Columba^  edited, 
by  Dr  Reeves ;  the  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Vener- 
able Bede ;  the  L\fe  of  St  Ninian,  by  Ailred  of 
Bievaux,  in  Pinkerton's  Ancient  Lives  of  Scotlisht 
Saints;  the  Pictish  Chronicle,  in  the  appendix 
to  Innes*s  Critical  Essay  on  the  Ancient  Inhabit^ 
ants  qf  Scotland,  and  in  the  appendix  to  Pinker- 
ton's  Immiry  into   the  History  qf  Scotland;   and 

629 


PICTS'  HODSiS— PIEDMONT. 


the  /rwA  Annale.  edited  by  O'Conor.  Tte  best 
modera  works  on  tbe  subject  are  lanes's  Critical 
Es^ay,  and  Lis  CivU  and  Ecdeiaaatical  HiitoTU  of 
Scotland;  Pinberton's  Inquirr/;  Chabners's  Ca' 
donia,  voL  L  ;  Ritaoa'a  AnnaU  of  the  Caledonia  , 
Piela,  and  ScoU;  Mr  Gnib'a  £(xleeiaitieal  SuUny 
of  Scotland,  vol.  L  ;  and  a  disBertation  '  0: 
the  Probable  Relations  of  the  Picts  and  Gael  witi 
tbe  other  Tribes  of  Great  Britain*  in  Oaniett'i 
PhOological  Eaenya,  pp.  106-204. 

PICTS'  HOUSES,  the  name  pa[iu1ar1y  givea  in 
tDaDV  parts  of  Scotland  to  the  rude  underground 
buildings,  more  commonly  and  accurately  cal'' 
Eabtk-housk  (q.  v.).  The  name  is  often  gi' 
tiao  to  ft  mora  advanced  class  of  buildings  of  the 
same  kind,  found  in  the  more  Dorthem  counties  of 
Scatlaod.  The  ground-plan  of  one  of  these  at 
Kettleburn,  in  Caithness,  explored  and  described 
by  tbe  late  Mr  A.  H.  Bhind,  of  Sibater,  is  ligured 
in  the  McominDying  woodcut.    The  outmost  circle 


Kot'a  House  at  Eettlebon,  Groond-plui, 


B  tbe  extreme  limits  of  the  mound  which 
covered  the  atmcture ;  a,  a  bounding  wall,  three 
feet  thick,  and  three  feM  high,  rudely  built  of  large 
unahaped  stoDcs;  b,  an  iuner  wall,  four  or  five  feet 
high  ;  c  and  d,  fragments  of  walls  faced  outwards ; 
a  and  /,  passages  leading  to  the  inner  chambers ; 

th,  and  I,  passages  leading  to  smaller  side  cham- 
rs;  jt,  a  wall  within  the  wall  of  the  chamber  t; 
m,  a  cianiber,  ao  ruined  that  its  walls  could  not  be 
traced  all  round ;  n,  a  large  boulder,  which,  being 
difficult  to  remove,  had  been  built  over;  o,  a 
chamber  containing  a  regidarly  built  well  (l>etween 
p  and  p),  nine  feet  deep,  and  roofed  over.  The 
whole  walls  were  built  without  mortar.  The  objects 
found  within  them  were  remains  of  animals  and 
sbell-f  sh,  fraffmenta  of  pottery,  and  implementa  of 
•tone,  bone,  hom,  bronze  and  iron.  The  name  of 
Picts'  Houses  is  also  occasionally  given  in  the  north 
of  Scotland  to  rude  stone  structures  above  ground. 

PICTURES  are  now  protected  by  the  law  in  a 
manner  similar  to  books,  the  copyright  of  which 
belongs  to  some  individual  By  the  act  of  25  and 
26  Vict  0.  6B,  if  the  author  of  any  painting,  drawing, 
(v  photograph  in  which  there  shall  be  subsisting 
copyright,  alter  selling  the  same,  or  if  any  one,  with- 
out the  consent  of  tbe  progirietor  for  the  time  being, 
repeat,  copy,  colourably  imitate,  or  otherwise  miil- 
iil>ly  for  sale,  hire,  eidiibition,  or  distribution,  or 


canae  this  to  be  done,  or  knowingly  import  into  tbe 
United  Kingdom,  or  sell,  Ac  nncn  copies,  he  shal] 
forfeit  to  the  proprietor  of  the  oopyright  a  som  uot 
exceeding  £10,  and  the  copies  and  materials  diall 
belong  to  snch  proprietor.  Horeaver,  if  any  person 
affix  a  mark,  monogram,  or  initials  of  a  person  who 
did  not  execute  or  make  snch  work,  to  paintion 
drawings,  or  pbotographs,  or  fraudulently  Bell, 
exhibit,  or  offer  such  for  sale,  such  iierson  shall 
forfeit  £10,  or  double  the  price  of  the  thing  sold.  AiC, 
and  all  sjiurious  copies  and  imitations  become  for- 
feited to  the  real  owner.  This  statutory  protection 
to  artiste  and  owners  of  picturee.  engraving*,  and 
photographs  extends  to  the  United  Kingdom. 

PrcU3  AND  PI'CID.*:.    See  Woodpkkks. 

PIB,  a  well-known  cnlinary  preparation,  consist- 
ing of  a  crust  of  dough  or  pairtry,  eudoaiDj;  either 
meat  or  fruit,  and  bated  in  the  oven.  The  migia 
of  tbe  word  it  very  obsoure.  There  are  two  kinds 
of  pies,  one  in  which  a  dish  it  used,  as  in  ease* 
where  much  juice  or  gravy  has  to  be  retained  ;  tbe 
other,  without  the  dish.  The  tatter  are  called 
raised  pies,  and  a  particular  kind  of  paste  it 
required  -,  wbioh  is  made  with  hot  lard  and  water, 
and  must  have  sutGcient  consistency  to  stood  udl 
When  moulded  into  the  form  or  case  of  the  pie,  it 
i«  filled  with  meat,  nsually  came,  and  baked. 
Tbit  kind  of  crust  is  not  usu^y  eaten  with  it* 
contents  as  it  is  considered  unwholesome,  it  there- 
fore merely  serves  at  a  cose  for  the  enclosed  viands. 

PIEDMONT,  or  PIEMONT  (Fr.  pied,  foot, 
moni,  mountain),  an  Italian  principality,  which 
now  forms  the  north-west  part  of  tbe  kingdom  of 
Italy,  is  enclosed  mostly  by  natural  boundaries, 
having  on  the  N.  the  Pennine  Alps,  on  tbe  W.  the 
Groian  and  Cottian  Aljis,  on  the  S,  tbe  Mantime 
Alps  and  Genoa,  and  on  the  K  the  Ticino  and  tite 
duchy  of  Parma.  It  includes  the  former  duchy  of 
Montferrat  (q.  v.),  which  lies  in  its  south-eastern 
comer,  and  the  Sardinian  portion  of  the  old  dnchy 
of  Milan,  and  contains  11,777  English  square 
miles,  with  a  population  (1S57)  of  2.746.3M. 
Tbe  mountain  rasges  which  form  its  bonndary 
on  the  north,  west,  and  sontb,  attain,  in  various 

5 laces,  a  great  elevation  above  tbe  sea  ;  tbe  Col 
e  Tends,  Monte  Viso,  Mont  Cenis,  Mont  Inenn, 
Mont  Blanc,  Mont  St  Bernard,  Mont  Cervin, 
Monta  Rosa,  and  the  Simjdon,  being  all  on  tbe 
boundary-line.  As  to  its  general  character, 
tbe  country  is  partly  mountainous,  partly  hilly, 
and  much  diversified  with  hill  and  daJe ;  the 
ranges  which  traverse  tbe  coiintiy  being  spun  from 
the  alpine  bouudary,  and  converging  towards  the 
central  tract,  through  which  flow  the  Po  and  its 
chief  tributary  the  Tanaro.  The  vallevB  which 
arate  these  rangei  are  all  watered  by  riven 
ich  take  their  nso  in  tbe  Alps,  and  pour  their 
supplies  into  either  the  Po  or  tbe  Tanaro,  according 
as  they  come  from  the  north  and  west,  or  from  tbe 
Botith.  Tbe  amount  of  the  water-supply  in  the 
"untry  may  be  imagined  when  it  is  considered  that 
P.  the  Po  receives  no  fewer  than  10  tributaries 
on  the  left,  and  G  on  tbe  right,  all  oC  them  of  con- 
siderable aize,  and  some  of  them,  as  the  Tanaro  and 
Dora  Bactea,  worthy  of  beine  classed  at  riveia. 
The  valleys  of  the  Po  and  Tanaro  are  exoeed- 
abundant  crops 
'ves,  and  many 
are    the    cbirf 


xue  vaueys  oi  bue  fo  ouu  donaru 
ingly  rich  and  fertile,  produciag  abi 
of  grain,  pulse,  hemp,  chestnuts,  olivi 
kluda   of    fniiL    Maize   and  barley    a 


latter.     The  climate  is  mild  in 

winter;   but  in   summer,   especially  on   the    tevel 

itry  east  of  the  Dora  Baltea  and  the  Tai.aRi, 

the  heat  is  acorcbing,  and  this  portion  woula  be 


PIEPOWDER  COURT— PIETA. 


rendered  a  perfect  sandy  desert,  were  it  not  for 
tbe  complete  system  of  irrigation,  which  supplies 
moisture  to  more  than  half  a  million  of  acres, 
and  renders  the  eastern  districts  the  granary  of 
the  country.  So  valuable  is  the  privilege  of  using 
the  water  of  rivers  as  a  means  of  irrigation,  that  a 
considerable  tax  is  levied  upon  it.  The  other  pro- 
ducts of  P.  are  wine  and  suk,  which  are  produced 
in  great  abundance,  especially  silk,  which  is  the 
best  in  Italy,  and  is  generally  exported  raw.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  silk,  linen,  woollen,  and 
cotton  goods,  hosiery,  paper,4eather,  cutlery,  various 
fennented  liquors,  glass,  and  iron.  The  inhabitants 
are  active  and  industrious,  and  mostly  belong  to  the 
Roman  Catholic  religion,  but  are  more  tolerant 
than  in  other  parts  of  Italy.  The  Vaudois  or 
Waldenses  (q.  v.),  have  from  time  immemorial 
inhab.ted  the  wild  vales  at  the  foot  of  the  Cottian 
AIi)s,  in  the  western  comer  of  the  principality.  Many 
of  the  Piedmontese,  like  the  Swiss  and  Tyrolese, 
si^eud  their  youth  and  early  manhood  in  travelling 
turon^h  other  countries  as  dealers  in  engravings, 
jewellery,  and  other  articles  of  merchandise,  and 
returning  with  a  small  hoard  to  spend  the  rest  of 
their  days  in  comfort  in  their  native  land. 

P.,  in  the  10th  c.,  was  possessed  by  the  marquises 
of  Susa,  Ivrea,  Montferrat,  and  Saluzzo ;  and  it  was 
Dot  till  when,  a  century  afterwards,  the  marquisate 
of  Susa  passed  into  the  House  of  Savoy,  that  the 
latter,  then   coimts  of  the   Maurienne   (the  south 
portion  of  Savoy),  gained  a  footing  in  the  country. 
At  the  conmiencement  of  the  12th  c.,  the  possessions 
of  the  House  of  Savoy  were  divided,  and  the  lines 
of  Savoy  and  P.  formed ;  but  they  were  a&rain  united, 
in  1416,  by  Amadeus  VII L  (afterwards  Fope  Felix 
v.),  who,  in  the  following  year,  obtained  from  the 
Emperor  Sigismund  the  title   of  Duke  of  Savoy, 
which  they  exchanged  for  tliat  of  king  in   1684. 
During  the   Spanish   War  of    Succession,   P.   was 
increased   by   the    addition    of    the    provinces   of 
Alessandria,  Valence,  Lomellino,  and  the   Val  di 
Se:«ia  (1703),  by  Tortona  and   Novara  in    1735— 
1736,  and  by  Vigevanase  and  Bobbio  in  1743.    In 
171M>,  it  was  seized  by  the  French,  a^d  parcelled  out 
into  six  departments,  five  being  incorporated  with 
France,  ana  one  with  the  kingdom  of  Italy ;   but 
aftcT   the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  House  of  Savoy 
rtcr»vered  possession  of  it.    See  Italy,  Sardinia, 
Savoy.     Since  1860,  the  name  P.,  as  a  provincial 
designation,  has  been  disused ;  and  in  the  new  divi- 
sion of   Italy  into  59  provinces,  the  boundaries  of 
P.  as  a  distinct  country  have  been  disregarded. 

PIE'POWDER  COURT,  in  England,  an  ancient 
court  held  in  fairs  and  markets  to  administer  justice 
in  a  rough  and  ready  way  to  all  comers,  called  also 
the  Court  of  Dusty  Foot  (Fr.  pied  poudreux).  Its 
jurisdiction  seems  to  have  been  confined  mostly  to 
petty  vagabonds,  pedlers,  and  other  wanderers. 
The  oonrt  has  long  been  obsolete,  the  only  juris- 
iliction  of  that  kind  being  now  merged  in  the  court 
of  Petty  Sessions  (q.  v.). 

PIBRy  the  block  of  solid  wall  between  doors,- 
win'lowB,  ftc ;  also  a  solid  mass  of  masonry  built  to 
receive  the  arch  of  a  bridge.  The  term  is  also  used 
ly nonymooaly  for  the  Pillars  (q.  v.)  of  a  church ; 
;huB,  we  apeak  of  nave-piers,  &c 

PIERCE,  Franklin,  the  fourteenth  President 
if  the  U.S.  of  America,  was  bom  in  Hillsborough, 
S'ew  Hampshire,  November  23,  1804.  His  father, 
^t'neral  Benjamin  Pierce,  was  a  soldier  of  the  war 
•f  independence,  and  governor  of  New  Hampshire, 
^mn  klin  P.  was  educated  at  Bowdoin  College,  Maine, 
114  i  was  an  officer  in  a  college  military  company,  in 
irhich  his  biographer,  Nathaniel  Hawthorne,  was  a 
nvate.     He  spent  his  first  vacation  in  teaching  a 


country  school,  studied  law  with  Levi  Woodbury, 

fovemor  and  senator,  was  admitted  to  the  barin  1827, 
ecame  Speaker  of  the  State  House  of  Representa- 
tives in  1829,  and  was  elected  to  the  3dd  congress,  a 
democrat  of  the  school  of  Jackson.  In  1837,  he  was 
elected  to  the  U.S.  senate,  of  which  he  was  the 
youngest  member.  He  declined  the  office  of  Attor- 
nev-general,  offered  him  by  President  Polk,  and 
refused  the  nomination  for  governor  of  New  Hamp- 
shire ;  and  at  the  commencement  of  the  Mexican 
war,  volunteered  aa  a  private,  but  was  appointed 
briflndier-general,  and  led  his  brigade  in  the  battles 
of  Contreras  and  Churubuaco.    In  1852,  in  conse- 

2uence  of  the  conflicting  claims  of  the  leaders  of  the 
democratic  party  at  the  Baltimore  Convention,  he 
was  nominated  as  a  compromise  candidate  for  the 
presidency,  against  General  Scott,  the  Whig  nomi- 
nee, and  received  the  votes  of  all  but  four  states. 
He  appointed  an  able  cabinet,  including  Jefferson 
Da^  is  as  Secretary  of  War.  During  his  administra- 
tion, the  Missouri  Compromise  was  repealed ;  the 
treaty  for  reciprocity  of  trade  with  the  British 
American  colonies  was  made,  and  a  treaty  with 
Japan ;  and  the  Kansas  difficulties  which  then  arose, 
with  the  growing  animosity  between  the  North 
and  South,  Ted  to  secession,  and  the  war  of  1861.  At 
the  close  of  his  term  of  office  in  1857,  he  travelled 
in  Europe,  and,  having  no  sympathy  with  the  party 
which  subsequently  came  into  power,  has  taken  no 
part  in  politics.  His  biography  was  written  in 
1852,  by  his  friend  and  classmate,  Hawthorne,  whom 
he  appointed  U.S.  consid  at  LiverpooL  Mr  P.  is 
a  man  of  marked  abihty,  but  probably  owed  the 
high  ixMition  he  attained  more  to  amiable  personal 
qualities,  than  to  talent  and  statesmanship. 

PIERCED,  in  Heraldry,  a  term  used  to  indicate 
that  a  charge  is  perforated  so  as  to  shew  the  field 
beneath  it.  The  aperture  is  presumed  to  be  circular, 
unless  some  other  fonn,  as  square-pierced  or  lozenge- 
pierced,  be  specified  in  the  blazon. 

PIERRE,  Jacques  Henri,  Bernardin  de  St,  a 
celebrated  French  writer,  was  born  at  Havre,  19th 
January  1737.  He  received  his  education  at  Caen 
and  Rouen,  and  afterwards  entered  the  government 
department  of  civil  engineers.  On  his  dismissal 
from  this  service  in  1761,  he  wandered  about  the 
continent  for  several  years,  endeavouring  to  realise 
his  dream  of  a  republican  colony.  His  adventures 
at  St  Petersburg,  Moscow,  Warsaw,  and  Dresden 
shew  what  an  utter  simpleton  and  sentimentalist 
P.  was  in  his  ideas  of  life.  He  returned  to  France 
in  1766,  and  soon  after  obtained  a  commission  as 
engineer  for  the  Mauritius,  but  parted  from  his  com- 
panions ;  and  after  a  residence  of  three  years  in  the 
island,  he  returned  to  Paris,  where  he  made  many 
literary  acquaintances.  At  this  time,  he  wrote  the 
story  of  Paul  et  Virginie^  while  his  remembrance  of 
tropical  scenery  was  still  fresh.  The  little  book,  with 
its  passion,  its  simplicity,  its  tenderness,  achieved 
an  mimense  success,  and  has  been  translated  into 
almost  ev&ry  language.  St  P.  passed  through  the 
storms  of  the  Revolution  in  safety,  and  was  lucky 
enough  to  secure  the  patronage  of  Napoleon.  From 
the  Emperor,  he  received  the  legion  of  honour  and 
a  pension.  He  died  at  Erangy-sur-Oise,  2lBt  Jan- 
uary 1814.  Besides  Paul  et  Virginie^  he  wrote 
La  Chaumiire  Indienne  (*The  Indian  Cottage'), 
essays,  a  narrative  of  hisjoumey  to  the  Mauritius, 
and  several  plays.  His  (Euvrea  uampUtes,  preceded 
by  a  life  of  the  author,  have  been  edited  by  M. 
Aim6-Martin  (12  vols.,  1818—1820). 

PIETA'  (an  Italian  word  signifying  pi^Vt  in  the 
sense  in  which  that  term  indicates  or  mcludes  affec- 
tion for  relatives),  the  name  given  in  the  language 
of    art   to   representaUons    of   the    Virgin    Mary 

631 


PIETISTS-PIETRA-DURA. 


embracing  the  dead  body  of  her  son.  It  is  a  coun-  ,  Spener  and  his  disciples,  not  without  reason,  of  a 
terpart  to  the  Madonna  with  the  infant  Jesus  in  her  I  tendency  to  make  all  goodness  and  virtue  consist  in 
arms.  The  one  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  repre-  I  mere  religii  >U8  feeling,  or  pious  sentimentaliam ;  to 
sentation  of  the  purest  joy  and  highest  motherly  represent  the  divine  grace  as  operating  in  too  sadden 
love ;  the  other,  of  the  utmost  pain  and  grief.  The  and  abrupt  a  manner ;  to  exaggerate  the  valae  of 
piet4  has  Ipng  been  a  favourite  subiect,  not  only  good  works;  to  depreciate  the  v^ie  of  learning  and  of 
with  painters,  but  with  sculptors.  A  famous  one  by  clear  intellectual  perception  in  the  study  of  Scnptore; 
Michael  Angelo  is  in  the  Church  of  St  Peter  at  and  to  indulge  in  a  strictness  of  judgment  upon  the 
Rome.  religious  character  of  the  ordained  clergy,  tending  to 

PI'ETISTS,  ft  designation  given  since  the  end  of    aectarianism,  and  indeed  incompatible  with  eccle- 
the  17th  c.  to  a  religious  party  in  Germany,  which,  ;  siastical  unity.   The  weapons  of  argument,  howerer, 


without  forming  a  separate  sect,  is  distinguished 
not  only  by  certoin  peculiarities  of  religious  opinion, 


were  not  the  only  weapons  employed  against  them. 
The  docents  were  compelled  to  give  up  their  prelec- 


but  also  by  the  manner  in  which  these  are  mani-  *i<>n«.  ^^^  finally  to  leave  Leipzig ;  the  meetings  for 
fested.  The  peculiar  character  of  their  religion  is  mutual  edification  were  suppressed  by  the  govern- 
very  generally  denoted  by  the  term  pietism,  which  '  ment  as  disorderly  conventicles ;  and  Francke  (q.  v.), 
is  fi^uently  employed  with  reference  to  the  same  ,  *^® .  ™<»*  distinguished  of  the  Leipzig  dooenta, 
tendencies  of  opinion,  feeling  and  conduct,  where-  i  having  gone  to  Erfurt,  was  prevented  from  lecturing 
soever  and  whensoever  exhibited.  Pietism  may  be  ^^^  quickly  compelled  to  retire.  Spener*s  influence, 
regarded  as  consisting  in  an  exaltation  of  the  im-  •  however,  procured  a  refuge  for  his  friends  in  the 
portance  of  religious  feeUng,  and  of  the  practical    ^i^wly  founded  university  of   Halle,  and   Francke 

S art  of  religion,  with  a  corresponding  depreciation  of  obtamed  a  professorship  there.  Halle  became 
octrinal  mfferences,  and  a  contempt  for  outward  ,  thenceforth  the  soiu-ce  of  new  religious  influences, 
ecclesiastical  arrangements ;  and  has  been  more  or  and,  indeed,  of  a  new  religious  We  to  Germany, 
less  strongly  developed  from  time  to  time  in  all ,  The  Pietists,  although  spiritually  exclusive  -disr 
sections  of  the  church,  a  tendency  towards  it  always  V^^^  ^  regard  themselves  as  the  *  chosen  of  God,* 
existing  in  a  large  class  of  earnestly  religious  minds.  ■  *°^  *<>  ^^^  down  on  all  others  as  *  children  of 
In  the  churt^h  of  the  middle  ages,  this  tendency  was  ^^  world,'  or  even  of  the  devil— did  not  attemj^t 
displayed  in  an  endeavoiur  to  attain  to  a  superior  ,  *<>  fo'"^  *  separate  sect  To  do  them  justice, 
spirituality  and  purity  by  means  of  religious  con-  they  were  as  tar  as  possible  from  being  ecclesias. 
templation  and  asceticism,  and  many,  consequently,  tically  ambitious ;  all  their  desire  was  to  excel  in 
embraced  a  monastic  life.  The  Reformers,  adopting  *  labours  of  love,*  and  to  cultivate  feelings  d 
the  Augustinian  doctrines,  rejected  this  mode  ol  intensest  j)iety.  The  rise  of  the  Wolfian  or 
seeking  delivemnce  from  indwelling  sin,  and  pro-  Rationalistic  theolojgy,  the  spread  of  that  s  -rt 
claimed  the  efficacy  of  faith  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  of  sceptical  anti-clerical  philosophy  which  flourished 
But  the  controversies  which  arose  among  them,  and  ^o^a  while  under  the  name  of  Au/iMrung  (Eulighten- 
increased  among  their  successors,  gradually  gave  nient),  exercised  an  injurious  and  depressing 
a  too  exdusiv^y  doctrinal  and  polemical  char-  influence  on  Pietism;  yet  through  all  the  lon^ 
acter  to  the  sermons  and  writings  both  of  the  obstinate  warfare  maintained  against  the  doctrint-* 
Lutheran  and  Calvinistio  divines,  particularly  in  of  the  church  by  the  Rationalists  during  the  last 
Germany,  and  a  reaction  ensued,  not  in  favour  of  ^^^  of  the  18th,  and  the  most  part  of  the  19th  c^ 
the  Church  of  Rome,  but  in  favour  of  a  religion  of  Pietism  continued  to  number  some  adherents ;  and 
feeling  and  good  works,  or  of  the  heart  and  life,  it  can  hardly  be  doubted  that  it  is  to  the  Pietists,  and 
Disgust  at  the  sectarian  bitterness  and  exclusive-  not  to  the  Lutheran  dogmatists,  that  Germany  is 
nesa  which  prevailed,  led  even  to  an  imdervaluing  in  a  great  measure  indebted  for  that  revival  of  reli- 
of  disputed  points ;  and  thus  the  Pietism  of  Ger-  gious  faith  and  feeling  which,  begun  with  the  great 
many  was  generated  and  developed.  The  origin  of  ochleiermacher— himself  trained  up  under  pietistic 
it  is  referred  to  a  work  entitled  Vom  wahren  Chris-  influences— has  since  widely  diffused  itself  throng 
tenthumej  by  John  Amd,  published  in  1605 ;  to  the  ^er  biblical  scholars  and  theolojpns.  The  patriotic 
Invitaiio  FraiernHatis  Christi  of  John  Val.  Andrese,  enthusiasm  called  forth  by  the  msolent  conquests  of 
published  in  1617,  both  of  them  Lutherans ;  and  to  ^^^  French,  naturally  allied  itself  to  pietistic  tenden- 
the  writings  of  Cocceius,  a  Calvinist  But  its  fuller  oies,  for  inGermanv,  the  triumphs  of  Xapoleon  even 
development  is  unquestionably  to  be  ascribed  to  ^  emperor  were  looked  upon  as  the  triaraphs  of 
Spener  (q.  v.),  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  c,  and  revolutionary,  republican,  and  infidel  principles ; 
to  his  friends  and  disciples.  The  name  Pietists  was  and  after  the  general  restoration  of  ^aoe,  the 
first  given  in  contempt  to  certain  young  docents  in  statesmen  and  upper  classes,  especially  ih  Prussia^ 
Leipag,  who  began  in  1689  to  give  prelections  on  believing  that  political  security  could  only  be 
the  New  Testament  both  to  students  and  citizens,  and  obtained  by  a  return  of  the  populace  to  the 
to  addict  themselves  much  to  a  meditative  mode  aimple,  obedient,  and  unquestioning  piety  of  earlier 
of  life,  Spener  had  held  meetings  of  a  somewhat  times,  countenanced  this  party  in  the  church ; 
similar  kind  in  his  own  house  when  preacher  at  *nd  amiable  tea-drinking  societies  of  devout  men 
Frankfurt-on-the- Maine,  and  in  liis  writings  had  *nd  women  were  formed  to  distribute  tracts^  and  to 
urged  the  necessity  of  a  reform  in  the  Protestant  inoculate  the  radical  and  heathen  masaiw  with 
church  and  theology.  He  and  his  followers  !  pieti^tic  sentiments.  But  this  attempt  to  Uie 
dwelt  much  upon  the  importance  of  studying  the  I  *  piety'  for  reactionary  political  pui^Kises  sullied  its 
Scriptures  rather  than  the  symbolical  books,  upon  '  parity,  and  alienated  from  it  the  very  parties  whoa 
the  unfitness  of  any  unconverted  or  unregenerate  ^t  wished  to  influence.  Still,  however,  Pietissn 
person  for  the  office  of  the  ministry,  upon  the  '  exists  as  a  distinct  element  in  the  religioiis  life  vi 
right  and  duty  of  the  laity  to  take  part  in  the  exer-  Germany,  and  now,  aa  ever,  its  strongholds  are 
cises  of  Christian  assemblies,  and  upon  the  necessity  .  Prussia   (Berlin,  Sileaia,  Wupperthal),   Hease,  and 


Wiirtemberg. 

PIE'TBA-DU'KA,  a  name  given  to   the  finest 
kinds   of   Florentine   mosaic-work,  in   which  the 


of  a  practical  rather  than  a  systematic  reli^on.  But 

many  of  the  more  extreme  Pietists  earned  their 

antipatiiy  to  the  doctrinahsm  and  the  established 

services  of  the  church  to  a  degree  that  alanned  the  '  inlaid  materials  are  hard  stones,  saeh    as    jas|)er, 

theologians  of  the  old  school,  the  high  and  dry    carneUan,  amethyst,  agate,  ftc.     The  lenl    pietra- 

Lutherani,  or  German  'moderatea»'  "Wm  aocosed    dura  work  dates  aa  far   back   aa  the    16th  c. 

Mi 


PIEZOMETER— PIOEON. 


iboiit  11170  1  »nd  from  that  time  to  the  preaent,  hu 
been  almoat  Confined  to  Florence,  where  a  govem- 
Ueiit  alfiiT  baa  existed  ever  since  the  be^nning 
of  the  ITth  c,  which  was  originated  in  order  to 
tap]>ly  decorations  for  the  Cajiella  Medicea.  It  is 
•nmetimea  called  Pittrt  C'uni;«f««f,  and  Lavoro  di 
L\>inniesso.  In  the  iDferior  kinds,  which  are  sold  in 
Italy.  unJ  are  manufactured  now  pretty  eiteusivcly 
in  Dttrbyshire  and  other  part*  of  Britain,  jiieces  of 
coloured  Bea-sbells  are  used  instead  of  the  harder 
and  more  valuable  colouied  st«nes. 
PIBZO'METER  (Qr.  piao,  I  press;  micron,  a 

pressibility  ot  fluids.  Oersted's  [ti.  v.)  inBtruroent, 
the  first  by  which  the  compressibility  ot  water  was 
■atiafactonly  detenuioed,  consisted  of  a  cylindrical 

Slass  jar,  into  the  neck  of  which  a  narrower  cyliii- 
rical  tube  ot  glass,  open  aE  both  etids,  was  lirmly 
filed.  In  this  tube  worked  on  air-tight  piston  by 
means  of  a  screw.     In  the  interior  of  the  jar  was 

Iilaced  a  bottle,  whoso  neck  was  drawn  out  into  a 
ling  capillary  graduated  tube,  and  alongside  this 
h"ttte  was  aus|>ended  a  cylindrical  tube,  closed  at 
the  to|>,  but  open  at  the  bottom.  When  the  com- 
preasibility  of  any  liquid  was  to  be  determined,  the 
iD^tniinent  was  adjusted  in  the  following  manner  ; 
the  bottle  inside  was  filled  almost  to  the  top  ot  the 
capilt.-uy  tube  «ith  the  fluid,  and  bein^  iciiloced 
inside  the  jar,  the  latter  was  completdy  liUed  with 
water  np  to  the  piston  in  the  aeok.  Tht  liquid  in 
the  solimerged  bottle,  then  under  pressure  of  the 
water  above  it,  tell  sligbtly  in  the  ca[iillary  tube, 
being  kept  from  contact  with  the  water  by  on  air- 
bubble,  the  motion  of  which  up  or  down,  according 
as  the  prussure  was  less  or  greater,  served  as  an 
induK  fur  reacting  off  the  graduation.  The  sus- 
pended tube  alongside  being  at  first  only  filled 
with  air,  the  water  rose  in  it  to  some  extent, 
and  by  graduations  on  the  tube  it  was  made  to 
indicate  the  pressure  in  atmospheres  or  parts  of 
atmospheres.  Preaaura  was  now  aiiplied  to  the 
water  in  the  jar  by  screwing  down  the  piston  ;  the 
comiiressed  water  communicated  the  pressure  to 
tbe  liquid  in  the  bottle  and  to  the  air  in  the  slu- 

|>eudcd  tube;  the  descent  of  the  air-bubble  in  the 
unuer  indicating  the  amount  of  diminution  in 
bulk  the  hquid  had  undergone  (the  capilLuy  tube 
being  graduated  La  inches  and  parts  of  inches,  and 
each  inch  of  tube  being  known  to  contain  a  certain 
fraction  of  the  contents  of  the  bottle),  while  the 
ascent  of  the  water  in  the  ausjiendcd  tube  shewed 
the  amount  of  pressure  which  had  been  applit^ 
PIG.    See  Hoo. 

PIGEON  (It*L  piglone,  pkdonf,  or  jnptonr,  from 
pipiare,  Lat  pipire,  to  peep  or  cheep),  a  name  some- 
times applied,  like  Dova  (q.  v.),  to  all  the  species  of 
Coli'ialiitia  (q,  v.),  and  sometimes  almost  restricted 
to  those  still  included  by  ornithologists  in  the  genlll 
Columba;  having  a  bill  of  moderate  length,  hard, 
and  a  little  arched  at  the  point,  the  base  of  the 
upper  mandible  covered  with  a  soft  thick  skin,  in 
frbich  the  nostrils  are  pierced ;  the  feet  with  toea 
divided  to  the  base,  and  fomieil  both  for  walking 
and  perching ;  the  wings  rather  large  and  pointed  ; 
the  tsil  ot  moderate  length,  and  gt-nerolly  square  at 
the  end.  The  species  of  this  group  are  numerous, 
and  occur  iu  almost  all  parts  of  toe  worliL  Some 
of  them  build  their  nests  in  trees,  and  some  in  holes 
of  Tocka ;  they  lay  only  two  eggs  at  a  time,  bnt 
breed  twice  or  oftener  in  a  year,  and  both  the  male 
aod  tlie  female  take  part  in  incubation.  The 
original  of  all  the  varieties  of  the  DouBOTia  P.  is 
DOW  almost  nniversalty  believed  to  be  the  Rock  P. 
•r  Rock  Dovs  {C.  leta),  the  Bi»et  of  the  French,  a 
tard  of  extensive  geographical  range,  being  found  aa 


for  north  a*  the  FarSe  Islands,  and  oa  many  parti 

of  the  coasts  of  Europe,  Asia  as  far  sa  Japan,  and 
the  north  of  Africa,  breeding  in  orevices  of  mcks, 
and  often  within  caverns  which  open  on  the  sea.  It 
swarms  in  prodigious  numbers  in  soma  of  the  rooky 
islands  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  and  even  in  the 
British  coasts,  great  numbers  ore  fonnd  in  soma 
localities,  particularly  in  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrides. 
Its  food  consiats  partly  of  moUusca  and  other  small 
animals,  partly  of  grain  and  seeds ;  and  it  often 
makes  unwelcome  visits  to  the  corn-fields  of  its 
vicinity.  In  a  wild  state,  this  bird  exhibits  great 
uniformity  both  of  size  and  plumage ;  being  not 
quite  twelve  inches  in  length  from  the  tip  of  the 
hill  to  the  end  of  the  tail ;  the  prevailing  colour 
hluish-gray,  in  some  parts  with  green  and  purple 
reflections,  two  broad  and  distinct  bars  of  block 
across  the  closed  wings  ;  the  lower  p.irt  of  the  bock 
white ;  the  tail  deep  gray,  with  a  bntad  black  bar 
at  the  end ;  the  bill  blackish-brown ;  the  legs  and 
toes  reddish-orange.— Until  recently,  naturalist* 
very  generally  confounded  this  species  with  the 
Stock  Dovb  or  Smaller  Wood  F.  (C.  imai), 
a  species  which  inhabits  woods,  and  generally  builds 
in  trees,  preferring  the  hollows  of  old  decaying 
trees,  or  Uie  tops  of  such  as  have  been  pollarded 
and  have  become  bushy — whence  the  name  Slock 
Dove.  In  some  of  the  open  parts  of  England, 
however,  it  makes  its  nest  in  rabbits'  barrows  or 
other  holes  in  the  ground.  It  is  rather  larger  than 
the  Kock  P. ;  its  prcvailins  colour  is  bluish  gray,  in 
aome  parts  passing  into  pole  gray,  bnt  nowhere  into 
white ;  the  wings  destitute  of  bands ;  the  sides  of 
the  neck  with  greea  reflections  ;  the  breast  purplish 
red.  It  congregates  in  large  flocks  in  autumn  and 
winter.  It  is  iiortially  migratory  in  some  parte  of 
Europe  ;  a  summer  visitant  of  the  northern  regions. 
In  Britain,  it  is  found  only  in  the  southern  pitfta  of 


L  Bins  Dove,  Cushat,  or  Wood-pigeon ;  2,  Blset,  or 
Wild  Bock  Pigeon ;  3,  Collared  Turtle. 

the  island.    Its  geographical  nmge  includes  g 

parts  of  Europe  and  Asia,  and  "- "■   -'  ' 

11   feeds  on  beech- n 


PIGEON  PEA— PIKE. 


Its  flesh  ia  of  v^ry  fine  flavour. — ^The  Ring  Dovs, 
Wood  P,  or  Cushat  [C.  valumbus),  is  the  most 
oomnum  British  species,  ana  is  diffused  over  great 
part  of  Europe,  either  as  a  permanent  resident  or  a 
summer  bird  of  passage,  although  it  is  not  found  at 
all  in  some  of  the  most  northern  regions;  and  occurs 
also  in  the  temperate  parts  of  Asia,  and  the  north 
of  Africa.  Its  soft  loud  coo  is  one  of  the  pleasant 
intimations  of  approaching  spring.  It  mhabits 
woods,  and  builds  its  nest  among  the  branches  of 
trees.  It  is  the  largest  of  the  British  spedes, 
being  about  seventeen  inches  in  entire  length. 
It  feeds  on  green  com,  youne  clover,  turnip-tops, 
grain,  pulse,  acorns,  &c.  Where  it  abounds,  its 
v>)racity  is  often  very  injurious  to  the  farmer. 
It  is  gregarious  in  winter.  It  is  in  consider- 
able estimation  as  an  article  of  food;  but  it  is 
very  shy  and  wary,  not  easily  approached  by  an 
inexperienced  sportsman. — These  are  all  the  British 
species  of  pigeon.  Our  limits  quite  preclude  us  from 
noticing  almost  any  other.  The  Kino-tail  P.  (C. 
Caribbea)  may  be  mentioned  as  a  West  Indian 
species,  much  valued  for  the  richness  and  delicacy 
of  its  flesh,  which  is  reckoned  one  of  the  greatest 
luxuries  of  that  part  of  the  world.  The  Bald-pate 
or  White-headed  P.  {C,  leucocephala)  is  another 
large  and  fine  si)ecies,  plentiful  in  the  West  Indies. 
It  migrates  to  the  Keys  of  Flonda  in  summer. — 
The  BouBLE-CRESTED  P.  (C  dilopha)  is  a  large 
species,  inhabiting  the  north  of  Australia  and 
warmer  regions  to  the  northward,  remarkable  for  its 
erest,  whidk  consists  of  two  parts,  one  on  the  back 
of  the  head,  and  another  of  lax  recurved  feathers 
springing  from  the  forehead,  and  even  from  the  base 
of  the  bul. 

Only  one  s^iecies  of  P.  has  been  truly  domesti- 
cated, and  having  long  been  so,  it  has  undergone 
many  remarkable  changes,  and  there  are  numerous 
varieties  or  breeds ;  some  of  them,  exhibiting  very 
strange  peculiarities,  and  known  as  fancy  ptgeons, 
bein^  carefully  preserved  and  tended  by  pigeon- 
fanciers.  Pigeon-fancying  is  nowhere  carried  further 
than  in  London,  where  there  are  many  persons  who 
give  great  part  of  their  time  to  it,  and  whose 
pigeons  are  their  chief  delight.  The  prices  of  such 
fancy  pigeons  as  are  deemed  most  perfect  of  their 
kind,  are  very  high.  The  ordinary  domestic  pigeons, 
kept  for  profit  as  a  kind  of  poultry,  differ  from  the 
wild  rock  dove  chiefly  in  colour,  in  which  they  are 
often  very  unlike  it,  although  a  tendency  always 
manifests  itself  to  return  to  the  original  colours, 
and  the  bars  on  the  wings  are  apt  to  reappear  in  the 
progeny  even  of  what  may  be  called  the  most 
artificial  varieties.  Of  these  may  be  mentioned,  as 
among  the  most  interesting,  the  Rough-footed  P., 
having  the  feet  feathered ;  the  Jacobin,  which  has 
a  range  of  feathers  inverted  over  the  head,  and 
extending  down  each  side  of  the  neck,  as  a  hood ; 
the  Fan-tail,  or  Fan-tailed  Shaker,  in  which  the 
number  of  the  tail-feathers  is  greatly  increased,  and 
tiie  bird  has  the  power  of  erecting  its  tail  like  that 
of  a  turkey-cock,  whilst  it  has  also  a  peculiar  vibra- 
tory motion ;  the  Tumbler,  so  called  from  tumbling 
in  the  air  in  its  flight,  and  further  characterised  bv 
a  very  short  bill ;  and  the  Pouter  or  Cropper,  which 
has  the  power  of  blowing  up  its  crop  to  an  extraor- 
dinary degree,  so  that  the  head  seems  fastened  on  the 
top  of  an  inflated  bladder.  The  Carrier  P.  (q.v.) 
is  regarded  as  a  variety  of  the  Common  Pigeon. 

The  law  regarding  pigeons  is  stated  in  the  article 
Dovecot.  For  the  profitable  keeping  of  pigeons,  it 
is  necessary  to  have  a  properly-coustnicted  dovecot, 
divided  into  cells,  a  cell  for  each  pair,  each  cell 
sixteen  inches  broad,  by  twelve  from  front  to  back, 
and  the  door  towards  one  side,  so  that  the  nest  may 
not  be  seen  from  without ;  a  slip  of  wood  in  front 

B3i 


of  each  cell  for  the  birds  to  sit  and  coo  on.  The 
dovecot  must  be  placed  at  such  a  height  as  to  be  oak 
of  the  way  of  rats  and  other  depredators;  and  musi 
be  frequently  cleaned,  otherwise  it  may  probably 
be  deserted  by  its  occupants.  It  ought  to  be 
painted  white,  that  colour  being  very  at&active  to 
pigeons,  and  contributing  to  retain  them  when  i 
new  dovecot  is  established,  in  which  there  is  often 
found  to  be  not  a  little  difficulty.  Pigeons  begin  to 
breed  at  the  age  of  nine  monUis,  and  breed  eveiy 
month  except  in  veiy  cold  weather.  The  male  and 
female  continue  faithful  to  each  other  from  year  to 
year,  a  circumstance  noted  by  Pliny  and  oUien  of 
the  ancients,  and  evidently,  as  well  as  their  some- 
what demonstratively  manifested  affection,  a  reason 
of  the  poetic  references  often  made  to  the  dove. 

PIGEON  PEA  {Cajanus),  a  genus  of  riants  of 
the  natural  order  Leijuminosa^  suborder  PapQian- 
ace(B,  of  which,  according  to  some  botanists,  there  is 
only  one  species  (C  jiavus),  a  native  of  the  Eagt 
Indies,  but  much  cultivated  also  in  the  West  Indies 
and  in  Africa ;  according  to  others,  there  are  tvo 
sx>ecies,  C.  flavua^  with  flowers  entirely  yellow,  the 
\HyX  marbled  with  dark  streaks,  and  two  or  tiire^; 
seeds  in  each  pod ;  and  (7.  bicolor,  called  Congo  Pea 
in  the  West  Indies,  the  pulse  of  which  ia  macb 
coarser,  and  is  used  chiefly  by  negroes.  The  finer 
kind  is  nearly  equal  to  the  Common  Pea.  Tha 
kind  of  pidse  is  very  much  used  in  tropical  ooon* 
trios.  The  plant  is  a  shrub  {Cytisua  cajasi  of 
Linnaeus)  about  eighteen  inches  high.  It  is  ball- 
hardy  in  the  south  of  Blngland.  In  tropical 
countries,  the  plants  stand  and  are  productive  for 
several  years.  They  throw  ofi*  their  leaves  annually, 
and  reproduce  them  along  with  their  flowers.  Tbfi 
P.  P.  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  tropical 
kinds  of  pulse.  It  grows  either  on  rich  or  poor  soik 
It  is  called  DoH  and  Urhur  in  the  £a8t  Indies.  lbs 
name  P.  P.  is  West  Indian. 

PrOMENTS.    SeePAiKTS. 

PIKE,  PIKBMAN.  Previously  to  the  use  d 
the  bayonet,  infantry  of  the  line  of  battle — ^th&t  b, 
the  heavy-armed  troops — were  from  the  earlieist 
times  armed  with  pikes  or  spears.  The  Macedonians 
carried  pikes  24  feet  long ;  those  of  modem  warfare 
averaged  12  or  14  ifeet.  They  were  of  stout  wood, 
and  tipped  with  a  flat  iron  spearhead,  which  some* 
times  had  cutting  edges.  As  a  defence  'against 
cavalry,  the  pike,  from  its  len^h  and  rigidity,  was 
of  great  value;  bnt  though  it  long  survived  the 
introduction  of  gunpowder,  that  event  was  really 
fatal  to  it.  For  success  wit^  the  pike,  eajjedaliy  in 
offensive  war,  a  depth  of  several  men  was  essential, 
and  this  depth  rendered  the  fire  of  artillenr  peco- 
liarly  fataL  The  pike  is  now  superseded  by  the 
bayonet  on  the  end  of  the  musket. 

PIKE  {Ewz)^  a  genus  of  malacopterous  fishes, 
including  all  the  species  of  the  family  MeoddcR^  as 
restricted  by  MUller,  and  c)uiracterised  by  ao 
elongated  body,  covered  with  scales,  a  depressed 
head^  and  broad  blunt  muzzle,  witii  very  lar^ 
mouth,  abundantly  furnished  with  teeth  of  various 
sizes  on  the  jaws,  palatine  bones,  and  vomer;  so 
adipose  fin;  and  the  dorsal  fin  placed  very  bx 
back  over  the  anal  tin.  The  siiecies  are  zh>4 
numerous ;  they  are  all  inhabitants  of  fresh  waten 
in  the  northern  hemisphere.  Only  one  is  found  ia 
Europe,  the  Common  r.  (E,  JitcitM),  a  native  also  i^ 
Asia  and  North  America.  It  ia  very  generally 
diffused  over  Europe,  and  is  abundant  even  in  its 
most  northern  regions;  and  is  now  abundant  a 
lakes,  ponds,  and  slow  rivers  in  all  parts  of  Iht 
British  Islands,  although  it  is  s^ippoavd  not  to  be 
truly  indigenous  to  them,  but  mtrodooed.  The 
statement^  whioh  has  been  often  made^  how«T«, 


PIKB-PIKE-PBRCH. 


that  it  WM  introduoed  in  Om  rmga  of  Hemy  YIII.,    attached  to  them,  the  line  beiag  to  listened  tliat 

is  certainly  erroaooui,  ■•  Uiare  la  evidence  ot  its    t""'    ""    ''  —  -  — -   -^  -   i-_..i.    __  i   ..i    a   _  . 

exiitence  in  England  at  a  much  earlier  date. 
Edwaitl  I,,  graciomly  regniatina  the  price  of  com- 
modities for  his  subjects,  tized  the  price  of  the    I 


Elbe  higher  than  that  of  the  salmon,  and  U 
\aher  th&n  that  of  the  tiirbot  and  the  ci   , 
which  we  may  perhaps  infer  ita  comparative  rarity 
at  that  period.     Some  of  the  watere  in  the  fenny 
districts  of  England  am  peculiarly  adapted  to  pike, 
which  are  there  found  in  very  great  quantity,  and 
of  Buperior  quality. 

Tie  P.  i«  of  a  dusky  olive-brown  ooloaT  on  the 
npper  parts,  becoming  lighter  and  mottled  with 
green  and  yella«  on  the  sides,  and  pasung  into 
■ilvery  white  on  the  belly;    the  tins  brovm;    the 
lai^er  fins  mottled  with  wiiite,  yellow,  and  dark 
ereen.     The  taU-tin  is  forked,     lie  P.  groirt  to  a 
urge  nze,  occasionaUy  attoinioR  a  weiuht  of  sixty 
or  seventy   ponnds,  although  the  stories  of  pikes 
muoh    larger   than   thia    are    liable  to    suspicion. 
The  eic«asive  voracity  of  the  P.  has  lone   been 
proverfaiaL      No  animal   sntntanoe  which   it   ean 
swallow,  and  which  is  capable  of  being  digested, 
■eems  to    be   unpalatable   to   it;   and  no  animal 
large  enough  to   attract  its  attention,  and  which 
.-.   —  ..  ....^^  escapes  being  devoured.     Mr  Jesse 

inatsnce   of    eight   pike,    oE    about 


ach,  each  about  four  inches  in  length,  in  rapid 
Bucoession,  and  seized  the  fifth,  but  kept  it  in  liis 
mouth    for    about  a  quarter  of   an   hoar   before 


Kke,  or  Jack  [Ems  laeiut). 

•wallowing  it.  The  P.  readily  attacks  a  flsh  of  its 
owD  size,  and  preys  freely  on  the  smaller  of  its  own 
■neci«a  Frogs  are  frequent  prey;  water.rats  and 
ducklings  are  sometimes  devoured.  A  large  P. 
often  takes  pMsession  of  a  particular  hole  ia  the 
bonk  of  a  river,  from  which  it  issues  to  seize  any 
creature  that  may  pass. — The  P.  s|>awns  in  the 
beginning  of  spnng,  for  that  purpose  ascending 
narrow  creeks  and  ditches,  in  which  it  is  very  easily 
fraught  by  nets.  large  quantitiee  ore  caught  at  the 
qnwoing  season  in  Lapland,  and  dried  tor  future 
oae.  The  P.  grows  very  rapidly  when  the  supply  of 
food  is  abundant,  reacmng  a  length  of  8  to  10  inches 
io  it*  first  year,  12  to  14  in  the  second,  18  to  20 
ia  the  third,  and  afterwarde  increasing  for  a  number 
of  years  at  the  rate  of  about  four  pounds  every 
year.  A  young  F.  is  sometimes  called  a  Jari  or 
PielxM.  The  name  Lwx  (Lat.  Uuiae)  is  still  known 
■a  an  English  name  of  the  nike.  The  Scotch  name 
ia  Oedd,  a  name  similar  to  those  in  the  Scandinavian 
litBguage*. 

Tlie  flesh  of  the  P.  it  mnoh  esteemed,  but  that 
at  pikes  of  moderate  site  is  reckoned  superior  to 
tbat  of  small,  or  of  very  large  ones. 

The  P.  ia  not  only  caught  by  means  of  nets,  bat 
bj  the  rod,  by  set  lines,  and  by  trimmeri  or  ligifun, 
^tueh  may  be  briefly  described  as  floats  with  lines 


yariU  of  liue  ri 

floats  are  sometimes  made  of  wood  or  cuik,  some 
times  of  bundles  of  rushes,  sometimes  of  bottlea. 
In  angling  for  P.,  vaiiuiis  bijta  nre  used,  such  ak 
a  minnow,  par,  or  other  small  tish,  a  jiorticiu  of  a 
li^  ftc,  and  sometimes  an  ortiflcial  fly  is  employed 
with  great  success,  made  of  two  large  hooks  tied 
together,  and  adorned  with  two  moom  from  a 
peacock's  taiL  The  angler  unat-fustomed  to  the 
P.  must  be  cautioned  as  to  the  manner  of  the 
taking  the  hcxik  from  its  mniith,  as  aay  raehnest 
may  lead  to  severe  laceration  of  his  hand  by  itt 
teeth.  P.  may  be  tishol  any  time  from  May  to 
February  inclusive,  eicej>t  when  it  is  actually 
freezing.      The  beat   month    it    considered  to  b« 


KkeSpi 


November ;  the  P.  are  then  in  the  best  condition. 
One  of  the  most  approved  tackles  for  angling  for  th« 
P.  is  the  SptnruT,  baited  with  a  small  dace,  bleak, 
gtidceoD,  or  par  of  about  two  ounces,  as  represented 
m  the  lig.  The  mode  of  using  it  is  thus  described 
in  Bailey'a  Angtei't  fnitructor  (Longman  &  Co, 
1867);  'Having  cast  your  bait  as  far  as  possible^ 
allow  it,  if  yon  are  hshing  in  a  pond,  or  lake,  or 
deep  water,  to  sink  a  little,  say  two  feet,  then  wind 
away  at  a  brisk  rate,  holding  your  rod  on  one  side 
rather  low ;  if  no  run,  wind  out  and  throw  again, 
but  this  time  wind  brisk  four  or  five  yards,  then  all 
of  a  sudden  atop  a  moment,  then  off  again,  doing  so 
tbree  or  four  times  in  one  cnat.  I  have  often  found 
this  a  good  plan.  If  yoti  ettll  have  no  run  try  another 
throw  and  wind  brisk  as  before,  but  occasionally 
^ving  your  rod  a  sharp  but  short  twitch.'  See  also 
Otters  Modem  Angler  (Alfred  and  Son,  London), 

Other  species  of  P.  ore  found  in  the  lakes  and  riven 
of  North  America,  as  B»ox  ator,  which  is  sprinkled 
with  round  blackidh  spots,  and  K  reliazlarii,  which 
is  marked  with  a  network  of  brownish  lines. 

TheGsr-fish  (t^.v.)  is  sometimes  called  the  Sea  Pike. 
The  same  name  is  also  given  to  certain  large  voracious 
fishes  of  warm  seas,  belonging  to  the  perch  family. 

-The  Saury  P.  ia  noticed  m  a  separate  article. 

PIKE-PERCH  {Liicii^xrca),  a  genua  of  fishes  of 
the  iierch  family,  having  two  dorsal  fins,  of  which 
the  nrst  has  strong  spiny  rays,  but  resembling  the 

I  like  in  its  elongated  form,  large  mouth,  and 
ormidable  teeth.  The  muiile  is  not,  however, 
brood  and  depressed,  as  in  the  pike.  Several  species 
are  known,  of  which  one  {L,  sandra)  is  common  in 
the  Danube,  and  in  most  of  the  rivers  and  lakes  of 
the  north-east  of  Europe:  extending  westward  to 
the  Odor  and  the  Elbe,  ollJiough  not  found  in  Italy, 
France,  or  Britain.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  tlia 
table,  and  its  introduction  into  British  rivers  seems 
particularly  desirable.  Salted  and  emoked,  it  is  a 
considerable  article  of  trade  in  some  parte  of  Europe, 
a  fish  of  rapid  growth,  and  attains  a  weight 
of  25  or  30  pounds.  This  flsh  readily  t^es  the 
LOW  and  the  artificial  fly.  It  is  c^ed  Sander, 
Saiulel,    or   Sand(U,    in    some    ^rCa   of    Germany; 

Nagmavl   in   Bavaria ;    and    SdiUi   at   Vienna 

Another  specita  (L.  ATnerkana),  much  resembling 
it,  of  a  gruenish -yellow  colour,  is  found  in  tha  lakM 
and  rivers  of  North  America. 


PIKE'S  PEAK— PILCOMAYO. 


PIK^S  PEAK,  »,  pe»k  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tnini,  in  the  U.S.  territory  of  Coloradft,  Ut  39 
N.,  long.  106'  W.,  discovered  by  General  Pike, 
U.S.A.,  m  1806.  It  is  made  by  different  measure- 
menli  lU.OOO  ind  14.500  feet  high,  and  eommands  a 
Tiew,  of  100  wiiles'  radiUs,  ot  a  ragged,  mountainoiis 
country,  oont^ning  maDj  lakes,  and  the  aources 
of  four  great  rivers — the  Pl»tt«,  Arkaniiw,  Rio 
Grande,  and  Uoiorado  of  California.  In  1859,  lar^ 
deposits  of  gold  were  discovered  in  thii  region  ;  and 
in  1860  it  ha-j  a  (Kipidation  of  60,000,  and  produced 
4,000,000  dollars    m   gold.      It   abounds    in   rich 

S Id-bearing  quartz.  The  mining  country  i»  6000 
tt  above  the  se^k,  with  a  dry  c1itnat«,  havine  a 
niny  eeanon  of  only  seven  weeks.  Denver  City,  the 
capital  of  the  territory,  has  a  population  of  6000. 

PILA'STEK,  in  ClMWcal  Architecture,  a  square 

pillar,  sametimeB  standing  free,  bnt  usually  attached 

to  a  wait  from  which   it  projecta 

— — -^— ■     jth,  ith,  or  other  deSnito  proportion 

^S^^B    of  ita  breadth.    Greek  pilasters,  or 

'-'■<i)h- 'n*.      ant^B,   were   of   the   same   breadth 

■■■i^,  from  top  to  bottom,  and  had  differ- 
ent capitals  and  bases  from  those 
ot  the  orders  with  which  they  were 
aaaociated.  The  Romans  gave  them 
a  taper  like  the  columns,  and  the 
same  capitals  and  basrs. 
ttHfllllH',  . '  PILAU,  or  PILAW,  a  dish  com- 
ftrnllll'';''  '"'"'  '"  ""'*'*'  Turkey,  Ei;y(it,  and 
Syria,  consists  generJly  o£  nee,  but 
occasionally  some  animal  food  is 
added.  It  is  sometimes  seen  at 
tables  in  this  country,  prepared  for 
those  who  have  been  accustomed  to 
it  abroad.  The  correct  method  of 
prejiariiig  it  is  to  boil  the  rice  for 
twenty  minutes,  with  sufficient  water 
I  to  soak  it  thorouglily,  and  swell 
the  grains  to  their  ntmoet,  taking 
care  not  to  break  them  by  mnking 
them  too  soft ;  it  ia  then  dnined,  and  gently 
stirred  with  butter,  pepper,  and  finely -chomied 
onions,  and  served  up.  This  is  the  way  in  which 
the  pilaus  of  the  poorer  classes  are  prepared ;  but 
foi  the  tables  of  the  more  wealthy,  fowls.  Iamb, 
mntton,  shreds  of  ham  or  bacon,  variously  cooked, 
but  always  much  boiled  or  roasted,  ore  jiloeeil  on  the 
top  of  the  rico,  and  served  up  with  it.  In  India, 
very  numerous  and  elaborate  receipts  are  in  use. 

PI'LGHARD  {Civpea  padtardu*,  or  Alauta 
piidtardvs),  an  important  fish  of  the  family  Ctvprfdix 
(q.  v.),  referred  by  some  naturalists  to  the  same 
genua  with  the  Herring  {Clupea),  and  by  others  to 
the  same  genus  with  the  Shad  {Alausa).    The  P.  is 


Pilaster. 


Pilchard  {Clupea  pUAardui). 

nearly  equal  in  size  to  the  herring,  but  rather 
thicker,  and  the  lines  of  the  back  and  belly  an 
Itnughter ;  the  scales  are  also  larger  and  fewer ; 
•ad  the  dorsal  6n  is  rather  further  forward.  The 
month  is  araall,  and  in  the  adult  Aah  destitute  <^ 


teeth  ;  the  under  jaw  lon^  than  the  upper.  Tb* 
ujiper  part  of  the  body  is  bluish-green ;  the  sides 
and  belly  silvery  white  ;  the  cheeks  and  gill-coven 
tinged  with  golden  yellow,  and  marked  with  radiat- 
ing strife ;  the  dorsal  tin  and  tail  dusky.  The  P. 
it  an  inhabitant  of  more  southern  seas  than  the 
herring,  being  nowhere  plentiful  on  the  British 
c(  asts,  except  in  the  eitreme  south,  and  chiefly  on 
the  coasts  of  Devonshire  and  Cornwall ;  whilst  it 
oocors  on  many  parts  of  the  Atlantic  coasts  d 
France  and  Spain,  and  on  the  coasts  of  Portngal, 
and  ia  found  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  like  the 
herring,  it  wsa  formerly  supposed  to  be  a  raigratory 
fish,  annually  visiting  the  coasts  of  Englsjid  and 
other  countries  ;  but,  as  in  the  case  of  the  herring, 
this  opinion  bos  now  been  relinquished ;  and  (b* 
shooU  of  pilchards  which  ore  seen  on  the  coasts  are 
believed  merely  to  issue  from  deeper  waters  near  at 
band,  for  the  purpose  of  spawning.  The  spawning 
season  of  the  P.  begins  early  in  summer;  bnt  on 
the  coasts  of  Devonahire  and  Cornwall,  the  prin- 
cipal fishery  is  in  August  and  September.  Pilchards 
are  caught  either  with  drift-nets  or  sean-net*.  but 
princip^y  with  sean-nets.  By  means  of  one  or 
more  aeana,  each  360  feet  long  and  36  feet  deep,  a 
sboal  is  encloaed;  the  bottom  of  the  net  is  thai 
drawn  together  by  a  peculiar  contrivance,  and  the 
pilchards  are  taken  out  at  low  water  by  small  b>g> 
nets.  Prodigious  numbera  are  sometimes  enclosed 
in  a  single  scan.  Twenty-four  millions  and  a  half 
are  said  to  have  been  taken  at  once  from  a  sin^ 
shoal,  which,  however,  may  have  been  spread  ova 
several  square  miles.  The  ariproach  of  &  shoal  of 
pilchards  is  known  by  the  nppling  of  the  water, 
and  the  sea-birds  hovering  above,  and  is  often 
watched  for  and  marked  mm  the  shore.  The  P. 
fishery  on  the  English  coast  has  of  late  been  com- 
paratively unauccBMful,  probably  undergoing  one  of 
those  unaccoimtable  mntations  of  wbidi  there  are 
so  many  eiampies  in  the  herring  fishery  in  different 

K3GS;  but  in  some  years  the  qnantity  taken  has 
n  very  great,  and  the  capital  invested  in  the 
P.  fishery  in  Devonshire  and  Cornwall  is  probably 
not  much  Qnder  one  million  sterling.  The  Ejigliih 
F.  fishery  is  rt^ulated  by  several  acts  of  parha- 
ment,  the  first  of  which  are  of  the  days  of  Eliiabeth. 
Great  qiiantities  of  pilchards  are  annnally  exported 
to  the  West  Indies  and  elsewhere.  Those  intended 
for  exportation  are  pickled,  and  packed  in  barrds 
by  means  of  great  pressure,  by  which  the  bulk  is 
reduced,  and  oil  is  expressed  to  the  amount  of  thi«« 
or  four  gallons  from  a  hogshead  of  fish.  The  oil, 
with  the  blood  and  pickle  with  which  it  is  mingled. 
Is  generally  used  for  manure.  A  favourite  Devon- 
shire dish  ia  a  pia  made  of  pilchards,  with  their 
bends  protruding  from  the  cruet. — A  great  anmber 
of  boats  are  employed  in  the  P.  fishery  in  and  new 
the  estuary  of  the  Taeus. — The  P-  is  known  on  tha 
coasts  of  Scotland  as  the  Gipsy  Herring. 

PILCOMAV'O,  a  river  of  South  America,  whow 
ooDTse  has  not  as  yet  been  thoroughly  explored,  drawi 
its  waters  from  the  Bolivian  Andes,  and  is  formed 
by  the  confluence  of  two  rivers,  the  Snipacha  and 
the  Pilaya.  Of  these  head-watera,  the  south  one. 
the  Suipocha,  rises  in  the  mountains  imuiodiati-ly 
south  of  Fotosi ;  while  the  northern  branch,  the 
Pilaya,  druns  the  valleys  around  Chnqnisaca, 
These  streams  unite  in  lat.  about  21*  35'  3.,  to  form 
the  P.,  which  flows  in  a  general  directian  south- 
east, crosses  the  Bolivian  frontier,  waters  the  north- 
east region  of  the  Argentine  Cunfederation,  and 
foils  into  tha  Paraguay  a  few  miles  below  Asuncion. 
It  is  at  least  1200  miles  in  length  i  but  its  wafTi 
ore  much  spent  in  lagunes  on  ita  coui«b,  bo  thfct  it 
adds  no  great  volume  to  the  waters  of  the  Paraguav. 
It  is  navigable  for  ftbout  000  miles ;  bat  nameioos 


PILE-PILES. 


hordes  of  hostile  Indians  render  navigation  perilous. 
Before  enterins  the  Paraguay,  it  divides  into  two 
arms,  of  whicn  the  norUiem  is  called  Araguay- 
Guaso;  and  the  southern,  which  is  again  divided 
into  two  branches,  the  Araguay-Mina  The  mouths 
of  the  P.  are  narrow,  deep,  and  much  obstructed  by 
water-plants. 

PILE,  in  Heraldry  (from  Lat  pilum,  a  javelin ; 
or  from  the  pile  or  stake  used  in  the  construction 
of  a  bridge),  an  ordinary,  or,  according  to  some 

heralds,  a  subordi- 
nary,  in  the  form  of 
a  wedge,  issuing 
generally,  as  in  fi^.  1, 
trom.  the  middle 
chief,  and  extending 
I \      y         2\.  "/        towaids  the   middle 

>^  base  of   the    shield. 

Pile.  It  is  said  that  a  pile 

should  occupy  one- 
third  of  the  breadth  of  the  chief,  or,  if  charged, 
double  that  breadth.  When  a  pile  is  borne  issuing, 
not  from  the  middle  chief,  but  from  some  other  part 
of  the  boundin)?-line  of  the  shield,  this  must  be 
specified  in  the  olazon.  Three  ])iles  are  sometimes 
M)me  conjoined  in  point,  as  in  fig.  2,  A  pile 
transposed  is  one  whose  point  is  upward. 

PILE-BRIDGE,  a  bridge  of  which  the  piers  are 
built  with  piles.  These  may  be  either  temporary 
wooden  structures,  in  which  wooden  piles,  driven 
into  the  ground,  serve  also  as  piers,  or  they  may  be 
permanent  bridges,  with  iron  cylinders  forming  the 
piles  below  the  suif ace,  and  piers  above.  See  Piles. 

PILES  are  usually  squared  logs  of  wood  used  in 
engineering  operations,  such  as  dams,  bridges,  roads, 
&c     They  are  sharpened  at  the  point,  and,  if  neces- 
sary, protected  with  iron  points,  to  enable  them  to 
cut  through  the  strata  they  encounter  as  they  are 
driven  into  the  ground.     When  used  for  coffer- 
daois,  or  such  temporary  purposes,  they  are  placed 
close   together,  and  driven  fiirmly  into  the  earth; 
the  water  is  then  pimiped  out,  and  the  piles  form 
a  dam,  to  enable  workmen  to  lay  foundations  of 
piers,  &C.    When  the  force  of  the  water  round  the 
dam   is  great,  two  rows  of  piles  are  driven  in  all 
round,  and  the  space  between  the  rows  filled  with 
clay,   and  puddled.    Piles  are  also  used  for  per- 
n  anent  works,  when  they  are  driven  through  loose 
soil  till  they  reach  a  firm  bottom,  and  thus  form  a 
foundation  on  which  buildings,  roads,  &c.,  may  be 
placed. 

Cast  iron  is  frequently  used  for  piles,  which  are 
cast  hollow.  Wharf-walls  are  sometimes  built  pf 
plies  ;  they  are  then  cast  with  grooves  on  the  sides, 
into  which  cast-iron  plates  (forming  the  walls)  are 
fitted. 

A  kind  of  pile  has  been  inventod  by  Mr  Mitehell, 
which  is  of  ^eat  use  in  very  loose  and  shifting 
substances.  It  is  called  the  screw-^ile,  and  consist^ 
of  a  long  shaft  (of  wrought  iron),  with  a  broad  cast- 
iron  disc,  of  a  screw  form  at  the  lower  end.  These 
piles  are  especially  useful  for  light-houses,  beacons, 
&C.,  which  have  to  be  placed  on  sands.  They  are 
fixed  by  means  of  capstans,  which  eive  them  a 
rotatory  motion.  Common  piles  are  driven  in  by 
machines  called  pile-drivers.  In  these,  a  heavy 
weight  (or  monkey)  is  raised  to  a  considerable  height 
between  two  guides,  and  then  let  fall  on  the  head 
of  the  pile.  The  application  of  stoam  to  these 
drivers  nas  made  them  very  x)owerful  engines — . 
^asmyth's  steam-hammer  oeing  a  well-Known 
instance. 

In  1S43,  Dr  L.  H.  Potts  obtained  a  patent  for  a 
new  kind  of  pile,  which  consists  of  holiow  tubes  of 
iron,    from  which  the  sand,  &c.,  within  them  is 


removed  by  means  of  an  air-pump,  and  the  pipes 
are  then  sunk. 

In  recent  railway  bridges,  cylinders  have  been 
much  used  to  form  both  piles  and  piers.  They  are 
of  cast  iron,  and  made  in  pieces  (of  about  6  feet  ih, 
height),  which  are  applied  one  on  the  top  of  another. 
The  sand  or  ^vel  is  i-emoved  from  the  inside  of  the 
first  laid,  which  thus  sinks  down  ;  another  cylinder 
is  placed  above  it,  and  the  same  process  continued 
till  it  also  has  sunk  sufficiently ;  and  so  on,  cylinder 
over  cylinder,  till  a  solid  foundation  is  reached. 
The  requisite  number  of  cylinders  is  then  piled  up 
to  form  the  pier  above  ground. 

PILES,  or  HAEMORRHOIDS,  an  small  tumours 
situated  either  within  or  on  the  verge  of  the  anus. 
They  consist  of  folds  of  mucous  and  sub-mucous 
membrane  in  an  inflamed,  infiltrated,  or  perma- 
nently thickened  condition,  and  usually  contain 
enlarged  veins.  There  are  several  varieties  of  these 
tomours.  Sometimes  the  pile  is  mainly  composed 
of  a  little  knot  of  varicose  veins  in  the  sub-mucous 
tissue ;  in  this  case,  it  is  readily  emptied,  by  pressure, 
of  the  fluid  blood  contained  in  it,  which,  however, 
returns  when  the  pressure  is  removed.  Sometimes 
the  blood  in  a  duated  vein  coagulates,  forming  a 
solid  tumour  surrounded  by  tissues,  thickened  in 
consequence  of  inflanunation ;  or  the  tumour  may 
consist  of  a  kind  of  erectile  tissue  formed  by  an 
abnormal  condition  of  the  vessels  of  the  mucous 
membrane ;  this  variety  is  especially  liable  to  bleed. 
These  tumours  are  divided  mto  bleeding  and  blind 
piles,  according  as  they  are  or  are  not  accDmpanied 
with  haemorrhage ;  and  into  internal  and  external 
piles,  according  as  they  are  within  or  without  the 
sphincter  muscle  of  the  anus. 

The  following  are  the  general  symptoms  of  this 
affection.  The  patient,  after  having  experienced 
for  a  varjdng  time  a  feeling  of  heat,  fulness,  and 
diUl  pain  about  the  lower  part  of  the  bowel,  becomes 
conscious  of  a  sensation  as  if  there  were  a  foreign 
body  in  the  anus;  and  on  examination  after  an 
evacuation,  discovers  a  small  tumour,  usually  about 
the  size  of  a  grape,  which  either  remains  outside,  or 
is  retracted,  according  as  it  originated  without  or 
within  the  sphincter.  This  tumour  ^adually 
increases,  and  others  form  around  it,  until  a  mass 
at  length  results  as  large  as  a  pigeon's  egg,  or  lareer. 
In  its  ordinary  indolent  state  the  tumour  nas 
little  sensibility,  and  occasions  comparatively  little 
annoyance;  but  when  it  is  inflamed  (from  stranffa- 
lation  of  the  sphincter  muscle,  or  from  any  other 
cause),  it  is  exquisitely  tender  to  the  touch,  and  is 
the  seat  of  burning  and  stinging  sensations,  render- 
ing the  evacuation  of  the  bowels  (and  sometimes  of 
the  bladder  also)  difficult  and  painful.  In  women, 
an  inflamed  pile  may  cause  pain  in  the  back, 
irritation  of  the  womb,  with  mucous  discharge,  and 
many  other  anomalous  symptoms.  In  severe  cases, 
the  patient  can  neither  stand  nor  sit  with  comfort, 
and  only  finds  relief  in  the  horizontal  position. 

Piles  may  be  caused  by  any  circumstances  which 
cause  congestion  in  the  lower  bowel,  such  as  luxu- 
rious and  sedentary  habits  of  life,  pregnancy,  and 
such  diseases  of  the  liver  as  tend  to  check  the 
return  of  blood  from  the  veins  of  the  rectum. 
Moreover,  anything  that  causes  irritation  of  the 
rectum,  such  as  acnd  purgatives  and  especially  aloes, 
dysentery,  inflammation  of  the  prostate  gland,  fta, 
may  cause  piles.  But  of  all  causes,  constipation 
is  probably  the  most  frequent ;  it  o])erates  in  pro- 
ducing them  partly  by  the  pressure  of  the  accumu- 
lated and  hardened  fseces  upon  the  veins  carrjdng 
the  blood  away  from  the  rectum,  and  partly  by  the 
straining  and  irritation  such  faeces  occasion  during 
their  evacuation. 

In  the  treatment  of  piles,  it  is  expedient  to  reUeve 

M7 


PILEUS-PILLAB. 


the  congested  state  of  the  lower  bowel  by  one  or 
two  doses  of  sulphate  of  magnesia,  and  a  cooUnff 
▼efletable  diet,  after  which  the  continued  use  of 
nuld  laxatives  should  be  resorted  ta  A  teaspoon- 
ful  of  an  cdectuaiy,  consisting  of  an  ounce  of  con- 
fection of  senna,  half  an  ounce  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur,  if  taken  in  the  middle 
of  the  day,  usually  acts  genUy  about  bedtime,^ 
which  is  far  the  best  time  for  the  bowels  of  patients 
of  this  kind  to  act,  as  the  parts  irritated  by  the 
passace  of  the  evacuation  become  quieted  during 
the  night  In  loog-standing  cases^  in  which  there 
is  general  relaxation  of  the  muoous  membrane,  th.e 
confection  of  pepper  in  doses  of  a  drachm  may  be 
given  thrice  amy  with  advantage,  or  a  scruple  of 
common  pitch  may  be  taken  at  bedtime  in  the 
form  of  pills  or  in  capsules.  Amongst  the  milder 
forms  of  local  treatment  must  be  mentioned  (1)  the 
injection  of  the  rectum  with  cold  water  both  before 
and  after  the  motion ;  (2)  washing  the  anus  with 
yellow  soap  and  water  after  each  evacuation ;  (3) 
the  appUcation  of  gall  ointment  or  of  other  astrin- 
cents ;  and  (4)  the  injection  of  astringent  lotions,  as, 
for  instance,  of  sulphate  of  iron,  in  the  proportion 
of  a  grain  to  ^an  ounce  of  water.  If  these  fail, 
recourse  may  be  had  to  pressure  by  means  of  instru- 
ments specially  devised  for  the  punKise;  to  the 
appUcation  of  strong  nitric  acid,  wiiich,  in  the  case 
of  mtemal  piles,  affords  the  most  speedy  and  effec- 
tive means  of  relief  (the  operation  must,  of  course, 
be  performed  by  a  surgeon,  and  if  the  parts  cannot 
be  protruded,  the  acid  must  be  applied  through  the 
speculum) ;  to  ligature ;  or,  in  the  case  of  external 
piles,  to  excision.  When  the  piles  are  inflamed, 
Jteeches  to  the  anus  (but  not  applied  directly  to  the 
tumours)  are  sometimes  required ;  but  the  inflam- 
mation generally  subsides  under  the  influence  of 
rest  in  the  horizontal  position,  fomentations,  poul- 
tices, aud  low  diet. 

The  treatment  of  the  hiemorrhagethat  frequently 
accompanies  piles  requires  a  few  words.  If  the 
bleeding  is  modei-ate  in  (quantity,  and  has  continued 
for  some  time  without  mducing  weakness  or  any 
other  bad  symptom,  it  is  not  expedient  to  interfere 
with  it  When,  however,  it  obviously  requires 
checking,  the  effect  of  cold  water  injected  into 
the  rectum,  as  already  recommended,  should  be 
tried,  and,  in  case  of  its  failing,  astringent  injections 
should  be  had  recourse  ta  At  the  same  time,  the 
patient  should  remain  in  the  horizontal  position, 
and  take  the  medicines  usually  prescribed  for 
internal  haemorrhage,  amongst  wluch  may  be  espe- 
cially mentioned  oil  of  tuq)entine,  in  doses  of 
twenty  drops  three  or  four  times  a  day,  or  ergot  of 
rye  in  divided  doses  to  the  extent  of  a  drachm 
daily.  In  rare  cases,  it  is  necessary  to  tie  a  vessel, 
or  to  touch  it  with  a  red-hot  wire  (through  the 
^eoulum),  or  to  plug  the  anus. 

PIXEXJ8.    See  FuNOL 

PILEWOBT.    See  IUnuncultxs. 

PI'LGRIM  (ItaL  pellegrino,  Lai  peregrinttaf  'a 
foreigner,'  '  a  visitor  of  foreign  lands  *).  A  pilgrim 
is  a  person  who  has  undertoken,  especially  under 
TOW,  to  visit,  for  the  purpose  of  prayer  and  religious 
worship,  some  shrine,  sanctuary,  or  other  pace, 
reputea  to  possess  some  especial  holiness  or  religious 
interest  That  the  early  Christians — as  had 
been  the  habit  of  the  Jews,  and  indeed  of  the 
pagan  Gentiles  also— re^rded  certain  places  with 
some  sort  of  religious  mterest,  seems  oeyond  all- 
question ;  and  among  all  the  places  thus  reputed  as 
sacred,  or  at  least  venerable,  the  first  rank  was 
given  to  the  Holy  Land,  and  particularly  to  the 
scenes  of  the  Passion  of  our  Lord  at  Jerusalem. 
8t  Jerome  (Ep.  zliv.)  speaks  ol  the  practice  of 
MS 


visiting  Jerosalem  as    established  ever  onoe  tht 
discovery  of  the  Holy  Cross  by  St  Helens,  tin 
mother  of  Constantino.     He  himself  was  a  zealou 
pilfi^rim,  and  was  followed  by  many  of  his  frieoda 
and  disciples ;  and  throughout  the  4th,  5th,  and  6dx 
centuries,  pU^ims  habitually  undertook  the  Iod^ 
and  perilous  lourney  to  the  Holy  Land  from  almobt 
every  part  of  the  west     Other  sacred  places,  too, 
were  held  to  be  fit  objects  of  the  same  visits  of 
religious  veneration,      rhe  tombs  of  the  apostles 
Peter  and  Paul,  and  the  many  tombs  of  the  martyn 
in  the  catacombs  at  Home,  are  so  described  by 
St   Jerome    {Commentar.    in    Ezdtid).       St  fiasQ 
speaks  in  the  same  terms  of  the  tomb  of  the  Foitj 
Martyrs;  and  the  historian  Theodoret  tells  of  s 
practice  exactly  similar  to  that  still  seen  in  Catholic 
countries,  of  not  onl^  visiting  such  sanctuaries,  bat 
of  hanging  up  therem  as  offerings,  gold  and  ulver 
ornaments,  and  even  models  of  hands,  feet,  eyes, 
&c.,  in  commemoration  of  the  cures  of  diseases  d 
their   several    members,    believed    to    have  been 
supernaturally  obtained  as  the  fruit  of  these  pioiu 
visits.   The  Pilgrim  age,  however,  pre-eminently  w 
called,  was  that  of  the  Holy  Land ;  and  even  iitsf 
Jerusalem  had  been  permanently  occupied  by  the 
Saracens,  the  Uberty  of  transit  for  pilgrimage,  on 
payment  of  a  stated  tax,  was  formally  secured  by 
treaty ;  and  it  was  from  the  frequent  violation  of  this 
immunity,  and  the  necessity  of  protecting  inlgnDi 
from    outrage,    that   the    well-Known    MiLriAsr 
Orders  (q.  v.)  had  their  origin.  The  Cru8ads»  Iq.  t.) 
may  in  some  sense  be  regarded  as  a  pilgrimaa 
on  a  ^;reat  scale;  and  the  direct  object  of  all  the 
expeditions  was  to  secure  for  the  Latin  Christisos 
the  permanent  immunity  of  pilgrima<re.      Oo  the 
other  hand,  the  closing  of  the  Holy  £and  against 
western  pilgrims,  consequent  on  the  final  absmdon- 
ment  of  the  Crusades,  led  to  a  great  extension  of 
what  may  be  called  domestic  pilgrimage;,  and  drew 
into  religious  notice  and  venenition  many  shrinei 
in  £uroi)e,  which,  after  the  lapse  of  time,  became 
celebrated  places  of  pious  resort    The  chief  places 
of  pilgrimage  in  the  West  were :  in  Italy — Home, 
Lorette  (q.  v.),  Cenetsano,  Assisi ;  in   SjKun— Com- 
postella,  Guadalupe,  Montserrat ;  in  France — Four* 
vieres,  Puy,  St  Denis ;  in  Germany  -Getting,  Zell, 
Cologne,  Trier,  Einsicdeln;  in  England — Walsin^- 
ham,  Canterbury,  and  many  ethers  of  minor  note. 
The  pilgrim  commonly  bound  himself  only  by  a 
temi)orary  vow  (differing  in  this  &om  the  palmer), 
which  terminated  with  the  actual  visit  to  the  place 
of  pilgrimage,  or  at  least  with  the  return  home,  and 
by  which  he  was  bound  for  the  time  to  chastity 
and  to   certain  other  ascetic    observances.      Ths 
costume  consisted  of  a  black  or  eray  gabardine,  girt 
with  a  cincture,  from  which  a  shell  and  scrip  were 
suspended,  a  broad  hat,  ornamented  with  scallop* 
ah^ls,  and  a  long  staff    Many  abuses  arose  out  of 
these  pilgrimsges,  the  popular  notions  regarding 
which  may  be  gathered,  although,  probably,  with 
a  dash  of  caricature^  from  Chaucer^a   Ca»UcriiLr§ 

PILLAR^  a  detached  support  like  a  cduBm; 
but  its  section  may  be  of  any  shape,  whereas  the 
column  is  always  round.  Pillars  tiave  been  used 
in  all  styles  of  architecture,  and  their  forms  asd 
ornaments  are  usually  amoncst  the  most  chano* 
teristio  features  of  the  stjde.  The  Greek  aad 
Homan  pillars  (or  columns)  are  the  distingoishisg 
elements  in  the  various  orders.  In  Gothic  arck- 
.tecture,  also,  the  pillars  are  of  different  foov 
at  the  various  epochs  of  that  style.  f\rst,  in  tki 
Norman  period,  we  have  plain  massive  piUaia. 
square,  circular,  and  octagonal,  freauently  ono- 
mented  with  ai^|zatf  ornaments,  spural  b.'tnds^  &&, 
on  the  surface  (h^^l).    Ab  vaulting  progi  sased,  tihf 


PILLAE  SAINT&  -PILLORY. 


system  of  breaking  the  plain  surface,  and  giving 
to  each  portiou  of  the  vaulting  a  separate  little 

column  or  shaft  to  sup- 
port it,  was  introduceo. 
This  was  done  either  by 
attaching  shafts  to  the 
circular  pillars,  or  by 
cutting  nooks  in  the 
pillar  and  setting  little 
shafts    in    them,  thus : 

<h  ^  fig-  2. 

In  the  Early  Pointed 
Style  a  plain  circular 
or  octagonal  pillar,  with 
a  number  of  small  shafts 
attached  around  it^  is 
a  favourite  arrangement, 
thus :  c,  dy  fig.  2. 

In  this  style,  the 
attached  shafts  are  very 
frequently  banded  to 
the  main  pillar  at  dif- 
ferent heignts,  and  they 
are  sometimes  made  of 
a  finer  material,  such  as 
Furbec  marbla  In  the 
Decorated  Style  the 
pillar   is   of   a   lozenge 

Fig.  1. — ^Norman  Clustered   lorm,  and  not  so  much 
Pill*'*  ornamented    with     de- 

tached shafts   as   with 

moTildings;    plain,  circular,  or    octagonal   pillars, 

however,  are  used  in  this,   as  in  all  the  styles. 

The  mouldings  and  shafts  are  usually  filleted ;  and 


I 

c 


a 


n 


■  I  1.  iJW      I  Pi.g 


^ 


^ikJ'H 


.<. 


c 


ft- 

I.- 


P 


€>^<-—-^ 


Fig.  & 

0ome  of  the  mouldings  ran  up  into  the  aroh  with- 
oot  any  cap.  In  Perpendicular  the  same  idea  is 
fnrtiier  cairied  oat ;  the  mouldings  become  thinner, 
And  are  more  frequently  ran  up  into  the  arch 
without  caps.    See  Flamboyant. 

PII.LAR  SAINTS— called  also  '  Stylites  '  (Gr. 
from  stylosy  a  column),  •  Pillarists,'  *  Holy  Birds,'  *  Air 
Martyrs,*  and  several  similar  names — a  very  remark- 
able class  of  anchoretical  Ascetics  (see  AscsnciSM), 
chiefly  of  Syria,  who,  with  a  view  to  separating 
themselves  more  completely  from  earth  and  fellow* 
men,  took  up  their  abode  on  the  tops  of  pillars,  on 
which  they  remained  withoat  ever  descending  to 
eartb,  and  exposed  to  all  the  variations  of  a  Syrian 
clinutte.  The  earliest  of  them,  and  the  most  cele- 
bntted,  Simeon  (called  also  Simon)  the  Stylite,  had 
been  a  monk,  and  had  lived^  in  the  beginning  of  the 
9th  c,  in  extreme  sedtlsion  in  his  monastery  for  nine 
vears,  without  ever  movins  from  his  narrow  celL 
Increswing  in  enthusiasm,  he  withdrew  to  a  place 
About  40  miles  from  Antioch,  where  he  built  a  pillar, 


oil  the  top  of  which,  only  a  yard  in  dixuneter  he 
took  up  his  position.  From  this  piUar  he  removed 
to  several  others  in  succession,  each  higher  tJian  its 
predecessor,  till  at  last  he  attained  to  40  cubits,  or 
about  60  feet,  in  height.  In  this  mode  of  life  he 
spent  37  years,  his  neck  loaded  with  an  iron  chain, 
and  his  ups  engaged  in  constant  prayers,  during 
the  recitation  of  which  he  bent  his  body  so  that 
his  forehead  touched  his  feet.  His  powers  of 
fasting  were  no  less  marvellous;  he  is  said  to 
have  frequently  limited  himself  to  a  single  meal 
in  the  week,  and  during  the  forty  days  of  Lent 
abstained  entirely  from  food.  The  fame  of  his 
sanctity  brought  crowds  of  pilgrims  from  the  most 
distant  countries,  even  Britain  itself,  to  see  him; 
and  the  admiration  of  his  austerities  is  said  to 
have  converted  many  pagans  and  Saracens  to  the 
church.  In  trial  of  nis  virtue,  through  the  test  of 
humility,  some  neighbouring  monks  reproaching  him 
with  vanity,  and  the  love  of  novelty  m  this  extra- 
ordinary mode  of  life,  ordered  him  to  come  down 
from  his  pillar.  Simeon  prepared  without  hesitation 
to  comply,  and  the  compliance  was  accepted  as  an 
evidence  of  his  perfect  humility  and  holiness  of 
puri)Ose.  It  is  said  that  in  consequence  of  an  ulcer 
which  was  formed  on  one  of  his  le^s,  he  was  obliged 
for  the  last  year  of  his  life  to  remain  on  his  piSar 
upon  one  foot.  In  this  position  he  died  in  460,  a^ed 
72  years.  A  disciple  of  Simeon,  named  Daniel, 
succeeded  to  his  reputation  for  sanctity ;  and  to  his 
mode  of  life,  which  he  maintained  for  33  years, 
in  the  still  more  trying  climate  of  the  shores  of  the 
Bos))orus,  about  4  miles  from  Constantinople.  The 
nuirvcls  of  Daniel^s  career  are  still  more  startling 
He  was  sometimes  almost  blown  by  the  storms  of 
Thrace  from  the  top  of  his  pillar.  At  times  for 
days  together  he  was  covered  with  snow  and  ice. 
How  he  sustained  life,  what  nourishment  he  took, 
was  a  mystery  even  to  his  diijciplea  The  emperor 
at  length  insisted  on  a  covering  being  placed  over 
the  top  of  the  pillar,  and  Daniel  survived  till  the 
year  494.  In  Syria  there  were  many  pillar  saints 
as  far  down  as  tne  12th  c. ;  but  in  the  west^  Daniel 
is  all  but  a  solitary  example.  A  monk  named 
Wulf aihch,  near  Trier,  attempted  the  pillar-life  in 
the  6th  c.,  but  the  neighbouring  bishops  compelled 
him  to  desist,  and  destroyed  his  pillar. 

PI'LLNITZ,  a  palace  and  ordinary  summer  resi* 
dence  of  the  royal  family  of  Saxony,  in  a  beautifol 
situation  seven  miles  south-east  of  Dresden.  The 
grounds  are  finely  diversified,  and  the  walks  asoend 
to  the  summits  of  hills,  of  which  one  is  nearly  1000 
feet  high.  P.  acquires  a  historic  interest  from  the 
meeting  of  princes  held  in  the  castle  in  August 
1791,  when  tne  Declaration  of  Pillnitz  was  framed, 
according  to  which  Austria  and  Prussia  agreed  to 
declare  the  circumstances  of  the  kin^  of  France 
(then  a  prisoner  in  the  Tuileries,  after  his  ineffective 
flight  to  Varennes)  to  be  a  matter  of  common 
interest  to  the  soverdgns  of  Europe,  and  to  express 
the  hope  that  common  cause  woidd  be  made  for  his 
restoration.  The  emperor  and  the  king  of  Prussia 
were  resolved  to  use  force  in  order  to  effect  this 
result;  but  any  immediate  interference  on  their 
part  was  render^  unnecessary  by  Louis's  acceptation 
of  the  constitution  as  modified  by  the  National 
Assembly,  after  which  he  was  again  placed  on  tho 
throne. 

PIXLOBY,  an  engine  for  the  public  punishment 
of  criminals,  disused  in  Britain  since  1837 ;  but 
previous  to  that  time  commonly  employed,  as  it 
also  was  in  France  and  Germany.  It  consisted  of  a 
stout  plank  fixed  like  a  sign-board  on  the  top  of 
a  pole,  the  pole  being  supported  on  a  wooden 
platform  elevated  above  the  ground.    Above,  and 

539 


PILLS— PILOT. 


parallel  to  this  plank  another  of  aimikr  dimen- 
sions was  placed  in  a  similar  position  with  respect 
to  the  pole,  and  fixed  to  the  former  by  a  hinge, 
i)eing  thus  capable  of  being  moved  upwards 
from,  it  or  closed  upon  it,  when  necessary.  A  large 
circular  hole  is  cu^  with  its  centre  in  the  line  of 

i 'unction  of  the  two  planks,  and  two  corresponding 
Loles  of  smaller  size  are  formed,  one  on  each  side 
of  it ;  the  large  hole  is  for  receiving  the  neck,  and 
the  two  smaller  the  wrists.  When  a  criminal  is 
to  be  placed  in  the  pillory,  he  is  made  to  mount 
and  stand  upon  the  platform ;  the  upper  of  the  two 
hinged  planks  is  raised  to  allow  the  culprit's  neck 
ana  wrists  to  be  inserted  in  their  proper  grooves, 
and  then  brought  down  into  its  place,  and  fastened 
by  a  padlock,  or  in  some  other  way.  See  for 
wustration  the  wood-cut  to  the  article  Gates,  Titus. 
The  pillory  seems  to  have  existed  in  England  before 
the  Conquest,  in  the  form  of  the  stretch-neck  (an 
instrument  by  which  the  neck  only  was  confined), 
and  was  originally  intended,  according  to  the  *  Statute 
of  the  Pillory'  (61  Hen.  III.  c  6),  for  '  f orestaUers, 
users  of  deceitful  weights,  perjury,  forgery,  &c.,* 
and  all  such  dishonourable  offences.  Its  use  was 
exclusively  confined  to  this  class  of  offenders  till 
1637,  when  restrictions  were  put  upon  the  press,  and 
all  who  printed  books  without  a  licence  were  put 
in  the  pillory.  From  this  time  it  became  the 
favourite  mode  of  punishing  libellers  (or  those  who 
were  considered  to  be  such  by  the  government), 
authors  and  publishers  of  seditious  pamphlets,  or  of 
strictures  on  the  government ;  and  many  eminent 
men  were  accordingly  from  this  time  put '  in  and  on 
the  pillonr,'  among  whom  may  be  mentioned 
Leighton,  Lilburn  and  Warton  the  printers,  Prynne, 
Br  Bastwick,  Daniel  Defoe,  &c.  The  insufficiency 
of  the  pillory  as  a  means  of  inflicting  a  definite 
amount  of  punishment  was  now  apparent,  for  to 
those  who  were  popular  favourites  it  was  no  punish- 
ment at  all,  while  those  who  were  objects  of  popular 
dislike  were  ill-used  to  such  an  extent  as  occasionally 
to  cause  death.  The  sufferers  above  mentioned 
being  popular  favourites,  or  having  at  least  a 
numerous  class  of  supporters,  were  shaded  from  the 
sun,  fed,  and  otherwise  carefully  attended  to  ;  while 
the  encouragement,  api>lause,  and  svmpathy  of  the 
crowd  around  converted  the  inten(ied  punishment 
into  a  triumph ,  but  such  men  as  Titus  Gates,  and 
the  class  of  offenders  including  perjurers,  swindlers, 
polygamists,  &c.,  who  were  objects  of  popular 
hatr^  and  disgust,  were  pelted  with  rotten  eggs 
(the  favourite  missile),  garbage,  mud,  sometimes 
even  with  more  dangerous  missUes.  In  1814  the 
celebrated  naval  hero  Lord  Cochrane  (see  Dundon- 
▲LD,  Eabl  01")  was  sentenced  to  the  pilloiy,  but  the 
government  of  the  day  was  not  prepared  to  brave 
the  consequences  of  such  an  act,  and  the  sentence 
was  not  carried  into  effect.  In  France  the  pillory 
was  anciently  called  pilorif  and  in  recent  times 
careariy  from  the  iron  collar  by  which  the  criminal's 
neck  was  attached  to  the  post ;  but  punishment  by 
this  mode  was  abolished  in  that  country  in  1832. 

PILLS  are  txie  most  generally  convenient  and 
popular  of  aU  forms  of  medicine.  They  are  formed 
from  masses  of  a  consistence  sufficient  to  preserve 
the  globular  shape,  and  yet  not  so  hard  as  to  be 
of  too  difficult  solution  in  the  stomach  and  intes- 
tines. This  form  is  especially  suitable  for  (1)  all 
remedies  which  operate  in  small  doses,  as  metallic 
salts ;  (2)  those  which  are  designed  to  act  dowly 
and  gi^ually,  as  certain  alteratives;  (3)  those 
which  are  too  readily  soluble  when  exhibited  in 
other  forms ;  (4)  substances  whose  operation  it  is 
desirable  to  retard  until  they  have  reached  the 
lower  intestines,  as  in    certain  ]>ills  for  habitual 

costiveness ;  (5)  bodies  whose  specific  gravities  are 
6i0 


too  inconsiderable  to  allow  their  suspension  in 
aqueous  vehicles;  and  (6)  fetid  substances:  while 
it  is  unsuitable  for  (1)  medicines  whiph  require 
to  be  given  in  large  doses;  (2)  deliqoescent 
salts  ;  (3)  fluid  or  semi-fluid  substances,  such 
as  oils,  balsams,  &c.,  which  require  a  very  bu-ge 
proportion  of  some  dry  powder  to  render  them 
sufficiently  tenacious  to  form  into  a  mass;  (4) 
substances  so  insoluble,  that  when  exhibited  in 
solid  form  they  pass  through  the  intestinal  canal 
unaltered,  as  extract  of  logwood  (Paris's  Fharma- 
cotogia^  9th  ed.  p.  550).  Many  substances,  such  as 
vegetable  extracts,  may  be  at  once  formed  into  pills 
without  any  addition ;  but  most  substances  require 
the  addition  of  a  material  termed  an  excipient,  for 
converting  it  into  a  pill-mass.  The  excipients  in 
most  common  use  are  bread-crumbs,  hard  soap, 
extract  of  liquorice,  mucilage,  syrup,  treacle,  honey, 
castor  oil,  and  conserve  of  roses.  From  the  pro- 
perty of  preserving  pills  for  a  long  time  in  a 
properly  soft  state,  the  most  valuable  excipient  is 
the  conserve  of  red  roses ;  and^  perhaps,  next  to  it 
treacle  is  the  most  valuable  excipient,  as  it  does 
not  undergo  any  change  by  time,  but  maintains  a 
proper  consistence,  and  preserves  the  properties  of 
vegetable  powders  unimpaired  for  years.  It  is 
common  to  place  pills  in  some  fine  powder,  to 
prevent  them  from  adhering  to  each  other,  and  ts 
conceal  their  taste.  For  this  purpose,  lic^uorice 
powder,  wheat  flour,  starch,  and  magnesia  are 
generally  used  in  this  ooimtry,  and  lycopodium  on 
the  continent  Pills  retain  their  moisture  and 
activity  far  longer  in  small  bottles  than  in  the 
ordinary  pasteboard  boxes. .  The  ordinary  weight  of 
a  pill  is  five  grains ;  if  it  much  exceeds  that  weight, 
it  is  too  bulky  to  swallow  conveniently  if  it  consist 
of  vegetable  matter.  It  is  very  common  to  meet 
with  patients  who  express  their  inability  to  take 
this  form  of  medicine.  If,  however,  they  practise 
ynth.  a  small  globular  mass,  towards  which  they 
feel  no  repugnance,  as  a  pellet  of  bread  or  a  currant, 
placing  it  on  the  back  of  the  tongue,  and  gulping 
it  down  with  water,  they  will  soon  get  over  the 
difficulty. 

PIXOT  is  a  person  specially  deputed  to  take 
charge  of  a  ship  while  passing  tnrongh  a  particular 
sea,  reach,  or  dangerous  channeL  l%e  intricacy  of 
almost  all  coast  navigation  renders  it  impossible 
that  any  navigator,  however  skilful,  can  be  master 
of  all  the  waters  to  which  he  may  have  to  sail  hi& 
ship ;  and  the  risk  of  failure,  through  ignorance  ot 
local  dangers,  is  therefore  avoided  by  transferring 
the  direction  of  her  course  to  some  one  perfectly 
acquainted  with  the  spot.  The  man  to  whom  so 
much  is  intrusted  must  be  a  resiionsible  person, 
and  therefore  in  all  countries  qualified  sailors  are 
officially  licensed  to  act  as  pilots  in  their  districts, 
and  they  are  granted  the  mono}K)ly.  The  origin  of 
the  word  pilot  is  uncertain;  but  it  is  probably  taken 
from  or  nearly  identical  with  the  Dutch  pijUoot, 
which  is  compounded  of  peUeii,  to  soimd  the  depth, 
and  the  root  which  appears  in  D.  lootsmariy  0.  K 
lodeamant  and  signifies  to  lead,'' direct  Pilot  thus 
means  one  who  conducts  a  vessel  by  sounding.  The 
laws  of  Wisby,  promulgated  at  least  as  early  as 
the  14th  c,  and  subsequently  incorporated  in  nearly 
every  maritime  code,  render  it  compulsory  on  the 
master  of  a  ship  to  employ  a  pilot  when  sailing  near 
a  coast. 

The  British  laws  relating  to  pilots  were  revised 
and  consolidated  by  the  act  16  and  17  Vict.  c.  129. 
Certain  fees  are  established*  in  proportion  to  the 
distance  and  responsibility ;  and  the  master  of  every 
vessel,  above  50  tons,  i>aaaing  ujp  the  Channel  or 
the  Thames,  or  vice  versA,  is  required  to  accept  the 
services  of   the  first,  pilot  tendering,  provided  hs 


HLOT  FISH— PIMENTO. 


•bewB  his  licence  aa  a  proof  of  qnalification.  Except 
in  matters  of  <)iaci]>line,  the  command  of  the  vessel 
ii  then  vested  entirely  in  the  pilot,  who  can  have 
the  sails,  steering,  &c.,  of  the  ship  carried  on 
entirely  at  his  diBcretioQ  until  the  limit  of  the 
pilot's  district  is  paaeed,  eicept  that  the  Captain 
resumes  hie  powers  when  t^e  question  ot  tating  up 
groond  in  a  harl)our  is  coucemed.  The  fees  vary 
with  the  draught  of  the  ship  and  the  distance ;  as 
specimens,  may  lie  cited  the  highest  and  lowest  in 
the  London  district  i  a  ship  drawiur  22  feet  of 
water  is  piloted  from  Orfordness  to  Blackwall  for 
£27,  12«. ;  a  ship  drawing  not  more  than  7  feet  w 

Eided  from  Gravesend  Reach  to  Long  B«ach  for 
3d. 

Pilots  are  associated  in  guilds  called  Brother- 
hoods, of  which  the  principal  ore  the  BrotJierhood  of 
the  Trinity  House  of  Deptford-Stroud,  situated  on 
Tower  Hiil  which  has  jurisdiction  over  the  Thames, 
Medu'ay,  and  the  coast  from  Harwich  to  the  Isle  of 
Wight ;  and  the  Trinity  Houses  of  Eingston-upon- 
HiilJ  and  Newcaatle-on-Tyne.  There  are  also 
societies  of  plots  at  tlie  larger  ports  out  of  these 
districta,  the  government  in  such  case  heing  vested 
in  certain  officials  lawfully  appointed  as  'pilotage 
anthorities.'  Tbeir  powen  over  the  members,  Ac., 
are  defined  in  the  act  ahove  quoted,  and  in  ths 
Merchant  Shipping  Act  of  1S54,  17  and  IS  Vict. 
&  KM,  sections  .ISO— 3S8. 

Pilots  board  vessels  entering  their  districtB  in 
boats  conspicuously  painted^  on  the  bows  and  sails 
of  which  most  be  the  man's  distinguishing  number 
as  shewn  by  his  ticenc&  The  boat  also  beara  a  flag 
of  comparatively  larj  '      '       ■■■■>-■' 


e,  of  red  and  white  divided 


presuming  U 
In  the  ns 


must  bear  a  pilot ;  but  her  master  or  tirst-mate 
may  act  by  bcence  in  that  capacity,  if  he  have 
paiued  the  necessary  examination.  A  master  is 
sabject  to  a  penalty  for  sailing  without  a  pilot ;  and, 
on  the  other  hand,  so  also  is  any  person,  without 
licence,  or  whose  licence  has  been  forfeited, 
t  or  offering  to  act  as  a  pilot. 
I  of  some  countries  the  pQot  is  a 
._..  .  ir  of  the  ship,  and  has  charge  ot  her 
course ;  but  his  functions  in  that  case  approach 
nearer  to  those  ot  the  British  Master  (q.  v.).  Large 
French  veeads  have  often  several  sailing  pilots 
ciiled  pUotxa  haulvrien,  and  t,pUole  cdtier  or 
lamanrur.  The  ancient  laws  of  Prance  contained 
provisions  for  the  education  and  regnlation  of  both 
these  cUsses. 

The  general  rule  aa  to  the  responsibility  of  the 
3wner«  ot  the  ship  is,  that  no  owner  or  master  of  a 
Rhip  is  answerable  to  any  peraon  whatever  for  any 
lotM  or  damage,  occasioned  by  the  fault  or  incapacity 
of  any  qualified  pilot,  acting  in  charge  of  sucn  ship 
within  any  district  where  the  employment  of  the 
pilot  is  compulsory. 

PILOT-FISH  {NaKCTota  duefttr),  a  fish  of  the 
family  ScomberiiUr,  and  belonging  to  a  section  of 
that  family  in  which  the  first  donol  fin  is  repre- 
sented by  mere  spines,  and  there  are  no  finleta 
behind  the  second  dorsal  and  the  anal  line  as  in  the 
mackerel,  ftc  The  shape  ot  the  P.  is  very  similar 
to  that  of  the  mackerel  It  is  usually  about  a  foot 
long ;  the  general  colour  (ilvery  gray  ish-bl tie, 
five  dark-blue  transverse  bands  passing  round 
the  whole  body.  Its  flesh  is  very  delicate,  and 
resembles  mackerel  in  flavour.  It  is  common 
tn  the  Mediterranean,  and  appears  to  be  widely- 
diffused  through  the  warmer  parts  of  the  ocean, 
often  following  ships  for  a  long  time  and  very  far. 
In  which  way  it  has  bean  known  to  come  from 
Alezaodria  to  Flymoutb.    It  it,  however,  uf  tare 


1  on  the  southern  coasts  of  Britain- 
It  ia  supposed  to  be  the  Pompitivii  of  the  ancients, 
which  was  believed  to  point  out  their  desired  course 
to  aoilora.  It  is  often  seen  in  the  company  of  a 
shark,  and  is  therefore  very  commonly  supiiosed  to 
direct  the  shark  to  its  prey.  Concemmg  this  many 
wonderful  stories  are  to  be  found  ia  ttia  writings 
both  of  voyagers  and  of  naturalists.    It  has  be^ 


Pilot-fish  (Wcatcrat«$  dtietor). 

contended,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  P.  merely 
foUowB  the  ship  along  with  the  shark  for  the  same 
object  that  gulls  follow  the  steam-boats  on  our 
coasts,  to  feed  ou  anything  eatable  that  may  fall 
or  be  thrown  overboard ;  or  that  it  attends  the 
shark  in  order  to  seize  small  morsels  of  its  large 
prey.  The  following  statements  of  Dr  Bennett  may 
be  received  with  confidence  :  >  I  have  observed  that 
if  several  sharks  swim  together,  the  pilot-fishes  are 
generally  absent ;  whereas,  on  a  solitsjy  shark  being 
seen,  it  is  equally  rare  to  find  it  unaccompanied  by 
one  or  more  of  these  reputed  guides.  .  .  .  The 
only  method  by  which  I  could  procure  this  fish  was, 
that  when  capturing  a  shark  I  was  aware  these 
faithful  little  fishes  would  not  forsake  him  until  b« 
was  token  on  board ;  tberefore  by  keeping  the 
shark,  when  booked,  in  the  water  nntil  be  was 
exhausted,  or,  as  the  sailors  term  it,  "  drowned,"  the 
pilot-fish  kept  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water  over 
the  shark,  and  by  the  aid  of  a  dippine-net  fixed  to 
the  end  of  a  long  stick  I  was  enabled  to  secure  it 
with  great  facility'  {OatAerings  qfa  Naiuralut}. — 
A  laaoti  larger  species  of  Savcmlei  is  found  on  the 
ooasts  of  South  America, 

PILPAI.     See  Bipfal 

PI'LSEN,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  in  a  fertile  and 
beaatiful  valley  at  the  confluerce  of  the  Miea 
and  the  Beraun,  62  miles  west-souili-west  of  Prague. 
The  cburcb  of  ly.  Bartholomew  (bnilt  in  129^, 
the  town-boll,  and  the  house  of  the  Teutonic 
Enights  are  interesting  Gothic  ediflcea.  The  town 
also  contains  a  gymnosiam  and  other  educational 
institutions,  an  arsenal,  theatre,  and  a  number  of 
churches  and  convents.  P.  has  leather  and  clatb< 
&ctories,  a  great  alum-work,  iron  and  ooal  mines, 
and  an  important  brewery.    Pop.  11,600. 

PIMENTO,  PIMENTA,  ALLSPICE,  or  JAM. 
AICA  PEPPER,  B  well-known  spice,  is  the  dried 
fruit  of  Eugenia  Pimento  (see  Euoenia),  a  small  West 
Indian  tree,  which  grows  to  the  height  of  twenty 
or  thirty  feet,  and  has  oblong  or  oval  leaves  about 
fonr  inches  long,  of  a  deep  shining  green,  and  num- 
erous axillary  and  terminal  trichotomous  panicles  of 
white  flowers,  followed  by  small  dark-puriilo  berries. 
The  P.  tree  is  much  cultivated  in  some  of  the  West 
In^n  Jdonds.  It  is  a  very  beautiful  tree,  with 
straight  trunk  and  much  branching  head ;  and 
abont  tbe  month  of  July  is  covered  with  an  exuber- 
Mtce  of  Howen,  wMch  diffuse  a  lioh  ammstio  odour. 


PIMPEENEL-PIN. 


The  staves  and  bark  purtake  of  the  aromatic  pro- 
perty for  which  the  fruit  is  yalaed.  The  fniit, 
when  ripe,  a  filled  with  a  »weet  pnlp,  and  the 
•romatic  property,  which  bo  strongly  cnarftcterises 
it  in  an  imnpe  state,  has  in  a  great  measure  dis- 
•ppeared.  The  gathering  of  the  beiriei,  therefore, 
tatei  place  aa  Boon  aa  they  have  reached  tbeir  full 


but  very  abundant  in  Bome  parta  ot  Etirtme.— TTw 
BoQ  P.  (A.  ttnella),  frequent  m  bora  in  England,  bat 

tare  in  Scotland,  is  an  eiqiiisitely  oeaiitifm  plant 

Several  apeciea  are  cultivated  in  our  flower-gardeoa. 
— Acrid  propertieB  prevail  in  this  genus,  and  A. 
amauit  baa  been  naed  medicinally  io  epilepsy, 
dropsy,  and  mania.— The  name  Water  P.  is  given 
to  Bamohu  Valerandi,  also  called  Broolmved,  another 
British  plant  of  the  same  order,  with  raceraee  of 
(mall  white  flowers,  growing  in  watery  gmTelly 
placM.  It  il  suppoBed  to  be  the  Samo/us  which 
Pliny  Bays  the  Druids  gHtliered  faeting,  with  the 
loft  nand,  and  without  looking  at  it,  ascribing  to  it 
magical  virtues  in  the  cure  and  prevention  of 
diseases  in  cattle.  Ita  geographic  distribation 
extends  over  almost  all  the  woHd. 

PIS'.  As  a  requisite  of  the  toilet,  Ac,  pins  were 
first  used  in  Britain  in  the  liitter  part  of  the  15th  c  j 
they  were  at   fiiat  made  of  iron  wire,  but  in  15*) 


Pimento. 

^n,  which  il  abont  that  of  peppeT.corQi.  They  are 
gathered  by  the  band,  and  tmed  in  the  son  on 
raised  wooden  floors,  durine  which  process  great 
care  is  taken,  by  turning  and  winnowing,  to  prevent 
them  from  being  injured  by  moiature.  Their  colonr 
changes  in  drymg,  from  men  to  reddish-brown. 
When  dry  tbey  are  packed  in  bags  for  the  market. 
Bome  planters  kiln-dry  them. — The  name  AlUpiee 
waa  given  to  P.  from  a  supposed  resemblance  in 
flavour  to  a  mixture  of  omnamon,  nutmeg,  and 
cloves.  P.  is  much  employed  in  oookery,  and  is 
alao  Dsed  in  medicine  as  a  carminative  and  stim- 
nlant,  to  prevent  the  griping  of  purgatives,  and  to 
disguise  the  toate  of  nauseous  drugs.  It  depends 
for  its  properties  chiefly  on  a  volatile  oil.  Oil  of  P., 
which  IS  obtained  from  it  by  distillation  with  water, 
and  is  sometimes  used  to  relieve  toothache,  and  for 
making  the  Spirit  of  P.  (or  of  j4M»piee)  and  F.  (or 
AOap'ox)  WaJfrr  of  the  shops. 

PI'MPERNEL  {Aiiagams\  a  genus  of  pknts  of 
the  natnral  order  Primubcaz,  having  a  wheel- 
shaped  corolla,  and  the  capsule  opening  oy  division 
round  the  middle.  The  species  are  elegant  little 
annual  and  perennial  plants,  natives  chiefly  of  tem- 
perate climates.  The  flowers  are  not  large,  but 
very  beautifiU. — Tbe  Scahlet  P.  {A.  arBeiaii)  is  a 
common  plant  in  Britain,  occurring  aa  a  weed  in 
fields  and  gardens  ;  it  is  common  also  in  most  parts 
ot  Europe,  and  in  many  parta  of  Asia.  The  flowers 
are  of  a  fine  scarlet  colour,  with  a  purple  circle  at 
the  eye.  ThetB  is  a  common  belirf  m  England, 
mentioned  hy  Lord  Bacon,  that  when  this  plant 
opens  its  flowers  in  the  mornins  a  fine  day  may  be 
vxpect^d  ;  and  they  certainly  cloaa  very  readily  o 

the  approach  of  rmn.    They  r — ""   

eight  m  tbe  morning,  and  clos« 
Blcb  P.  [A.  camlea)  ia  Ux  leea 


previously  in  use  for  holding  together 
parti  of  the  dress,  such  as  buckli>s,  brooches,  laces, 
claapB,  hooka,  &c.  At  first  pins  were  made  by  liliag 
%  point  to  a  pro|ier  length  of  wire,  and  then  twisting 
k  piece  of  fine  wire  around  tbe  other  extremity,  or 
fixing  it  after  twisting,  in  order  h>  form  a  knob  or 
headj  and  nltimate^  these  operations  were  so 
skilfuUy  conducted,  that  a  comjjletely  round  bead 
wasmadeof  very  small  size,  and  Bcarcdyahcwiiigthe 
natnra  of  ita  constnictioD.    Some  pins  are  still  made 


as  follows  :  1.  Slraiffhlaibig  and  Cutting  0, 
The  straightening  is  necessary,  because  the  wire- 
dtawel-B  coil  the  wire  as  they  make  it  upon  a 
cylinder,  and  when  it  is  unrolled,  the  coils  remain. 
It  is  therefore  drawn  through  an  arrangement  of 
□pright  iron  rods  which  completely  straiiihten  it, 
after  which  it  is  cut  into  Icngtlis  of  30  feft,  and 
these  are  again  reduced  to  lengths  of  four  pins. 
2.  Pointing. — Thia  is  done  by  two  operations  and 
different  workmen,  each  standing  at  a  Bei>araC« 
grindstone ;  the  first  is  the  rough  grinder,  and  the 
second  the  finisher.  Each  holds  with  the  thumb  on 
the  palm  of  the  hand  a  number  of  the  wires  amoont- 
ing  to  30  or  40,  and  by  a  movement  of  his  thumb 
he  manages  to  make  the  wires  turn  rotmd  so  aa  to 
make  a  point  t^  each  aa  he  holds  them  to  the  grind- 
stones, me  second  of  which,  being  of  a  fine  material, 
gives  them  a  smooth  finish  ;  they  are  then  reversed, 
and  the  other  end  pointed,  a  CVMmff— The  length 
of  a  single  pin  is  cut  off  of  each  end  of  these  pieces  ; 
the  intermediate  portions  are  then  handed  back  to 
the  pointers,  and  each  end  receives  a  point,  after 
which  they  are  divided  into  two,  and  thus  the  fonr 

E in  piece  is  reduced  into  single  pin  lengths,  each 
avmg  a  point  4.  Tmistiag  Oe  ^eorfs.— These  an 
made  of  very  thin  wire,  which  is  coiled  twice,  by 
meana  of  a  lathe,  around  the  end  of  another  piece  of 
wire  the  same  thickness  as  the  pins.  B.  Culling  At 
Head*.— The  head  being  formed  on  the  thin  wire,  it 
is  haniled  to  another  workman  who  cuts  it  off; 
these  two  operations  are  performed  with  great 
rapidity,  so  great,  indeed,  that  as  many  aa  12.000 
have  b^^  made  in  an  hour.  S.  Annealing  Iht 
Headt. — This  is  softening  them  by  putting  some 
thousands  into  an  iron  latUe,  and  after  making  them 
red  hot,  plunging  them  into  cold  water.  7.  Stamp- 
ing or  Shaping  the  Heads. — This  is  pressing  the 
heads  into  a  better  shape  by  means  of  a  amalllever 
press,  and  at  the  same  time  fixing  them  on  the  pins ; 
a  good  worker  will  do  as  many  as  12,000  ti>  15.0UO 
perday.  8.  Tdloteingor  Cieaning  At PiTUi.—Tba  \n 
done  by  a  process  which  is  often  called  fmring ;  it 
conmsta  in  boiling  them  for  about  half  an  hoar  in 


&e  dreg*  of  ■onr  beer,  or  >  aolution  of  »rgol  or 
ereun  of  tartar,  Bnd  then  waabioK  tbem  in  clean 
water.  9.  WhiUning  or  Tinning. — In  thia  procen  a 
Urge  copper  pan  is  oseil,  and  in  it  La  Brat  placed  a 
layer  of  about  aii  poaoda  of  the  cleaned  or  yellowed 
pina,  and  over  these  a  layer  of  grain-tin  to  the 
amount  of  about  ei^ht  poiinda.  &veral  Alternate 
llyen  of  pina  and  tin  are  pat  in  one  veaael,  and 
then  b^  a  pipe  arranged   innde  tbe    copper  pan 


water  !•  eently  poatetf  in,  and  goea  through  the 
pipe  to  the  bottom,  Sr«t  riaing  ap  tbnragh  tbe 
diflereat  layera  ao  gently  aa  not  to  dittorb  them. 
Fire  ia  now  applied  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan,  and 
when  it  is  nearly  boiling  its  surface  ia  aprinkled 
with  a  quarter  nf  a  pound  of  cream  of  tartar, 
and  the  whole  ia  alowly  boiled  for  half  an  boor, 
th?n  piinred  into  a  atrainer  and  abaken,  to  acporate 
the  piuB  from  the  grain-tin  and  liquid ;  by  thia 
proc<ai  H  thia  deposit  of  tin  haa  been  thrown  on  th« 
pins,  which  now  are  white  instead  of  yellow  ;  with- 
out the  louring  thia  would  not  take  place,  it  being 
esuential  that  they  should  be  quita  free  from  any 
oxidation  or  soil  la  n^athing.—The  pioa  are  now 
thoroughly  washed  in  pure  water.  U,  Drying  and 
piAiAing. — They  are  now  put  into  a  large  leathern 
hag  with  a  quantity  of  bran,  and  violently  shaken 
backwards  and  forwards  by  two  men.  12.  Winnovy 
ing. — The  hroa  is  next  separated  by  fanning.  1.1. 
Prickinrj  the  Papers  lo  rrctine  the  /■ini-Thia  U 
now  dune  by  an  ingenious  machine,  throudi  which 
Qie  papers  are  passed,  and  which,  at  regular  inter- 
Tata,  arranged  according  to  the  size  of  the  pins, 
pinchea  up  a  fold  of  the  paper,  and  at  the  same 
time  pricks  the  holes  to  rocei*e  the  pins,  and  then 
places  the  pina  in  their  places.  Formerly  this 
reqnired  a  aepnrate  operation.  Thus  fourteen  per- 
•oos  were  required  to  make  and  put  up  for  aale  a 

Ein,  and  in  aome  manufactories  this  is  still  the  case ; 
at  io  all  the  large  establishments  machines  are 
nuir  euiplnved,  and  ao  immense  reduction  of  hand 
labour  in  effected  by  them 

The  first  machine  was  invented  by  Lemuel 
Wellinan  Wngbt,  of  the  Umted  States  m  1824. 
This  did  very  little  more  than  make  solid  heads 
to  tbe  pina,  by  a  process  in  pnnciple  tike  that 
used  for  noil  making — viz.  by  dnnog  a  portion 
of  the  piD  itflelf  mto  a  counter  sunk  nole.  The 
action,  bowe\er  was  atitomatio  and  consisted  in 
an  armngemeDt  by  which  the  wire  waa  seized  in 
two  aioaJl  grooved  cheeks  as  in  figs.  I  and  2, 
which  represent  tJiem  aeparated-    Fig    1  has  tbe 


in  the  jiroceaaei  for  hand-made  pins.  Since  Wrisbf » 
invention  many  remarkable  improvements  have 
been  effected  in  these  machines,  which  have  oon- 


aequently  b 
althongh  t1 


lon^h  tbe  nrinciplea  upon  which  they  a 
very  simpla  iio  description  would  convey  a  aatia- 
faotory  idea  of  these  wonderful  pieces  of  mechanisni, 
which  now.  without  the  aid  of  baoda,  complete  the 
pin  in  all  reepects  ekoept  the  colourms  and  polish- 
ing; but  a  slight  account  of  the  lcB<ling  features 
will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  their  mode  of 
working.  First,  then,  a  reel  of  wire  as  it  comts 
from  the  wire-drawer  is  placed  in  the  rear  of  the 
machine,  and  the  end  of  the  wire  is  taken  hold  of 
by  a  pair  of  nippers,  which  pull  it  over  a  fixed 
ttraighlening  board,  and  pass  it  on  completely 
straightened,  until  it  is  seized  by  two  cheeks  similar 
to  those  in  tigs.  1  and  2,  when  a  cutter  descends 
and  cuta  it  on.  leaving  the  projecting  part  for  the 
bead  ;  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  cutter,  the  hammer 
flies  forward,  and  makes  the  head  as  before 
described ;  the  cheeks  open,  and  the  nins  drop  on  to 
a  sloping  metal  plate  finely  gronveil,  down  which 
they  alip  with  the  beads  upwards,  until  the  end 
which  ia  to  be  pointed  comes  in  contact  with  a 
cylindrical  roller  with  a  grinding  sorfnoc,  which 
soon  grinds  points  upon  theni,  owing  to  two  or  three 
ingenious    arrangements :    tbe    first    ia,    that    the 

nved  surface  of  the  plate  by  which  the  pina 
end  terminatea  a  little  above  the  grinding 
roller,  then  a  alight  depression  is  given  to  the 
sloping  plate  and  also  to  the  roller,  so  that  one  end 
■-  m  inch  or  two  lower  than  tbe  other;  therefore, 
..  tbe  pin  descends  the  groove  (n,  fig.  4),  and  is 
thus  brought  down  the  inclined  plate  until  it  Ilea 

._  .1. .1.  pgrt(J,  fig.  4].  where  it  ia  highest, 

end  in  contact  with  the  grinding 
roller  («)  which  ia  revolving,  the  pin  itself  ia  com- 
pelled by  tbe  friction  of  the  roller  to  turn  ronnd, 
and  gradually  descends  from  the  up|ier  to  the  lower 
part  of  the  inclined  plate  (J),  and  then  falls  off  into 


placed  face  to  faoe  and  the  wire  la  held  tightly 
in  the  groove  with  the  amall  portion  fa)  project- 
ing, a  small  ram  or  hammer  conneoted  with  the 
macbiae   strikes  on  a. 


a  afterwarda  camad  on  a 


Pig.  4 

box  placed  to  receive  it.  Thia  ia  attempted  to  b« 
shewn  in  lig.  4.  These  operations  are  performed  ao 
rapidly  that  they  can  scarcely  be  followed  by  the 
eye,  and  tbe  pns  fall  into  the  box  beautifully 
pointed  in  a  complete  stream.  They  are  then 
ytiloiBtd,  Anned,  and  prepared  for  papering,  which 
IB  a  reniarkable  process.  The  machine  by  which  it 
is  done  is  worked  by  two  children ;  one  feeds  ttu 
machine  with  pins,  the  other  with  papers.  The 
first  port  of  the  machine  is  a  box,  abuaC  12  incbea 


PINA  CLOTH-PINDAR. 


loog  by  6  iauhea  broad  uid  4  inches  deep ;  the 
bottom  is  mode  o!  BinaJl  square  steel  bars.  ""' 
cieotly  iride  apart  to  let  the  shaak  of  the  ^ii 
throngh  but  not  the  head,  and  the;  ore  jiut  aa 
as  the  qxwe  betweeo  pajiered  iiins ;  the  bottoia  of 
the  box,  with  iiie  row  of  pins  haagiog  through  it,  are 
•Mn  in  fig.  S.    The  lower  part  of  tlui  bottom  of  the 


box  at  a  h  made  to  detach  itself  as  soon  a«  the  row 
«f  piDB  Is  complete,  and  row  after  row  at  regular 
intervals  is  received  and  paaeeJ  down  a  corre- 
sponding set  of  grooves,  nntU  they  reach  the  paper 
which,  OS  before  described,  is  pinched  into  regular 
folds  and  pierced  to  receive  the  pins,  which,  by 
thenicest  imaginable  adjustment*,  come  exactly  to 
their  places,  and  ar«  pre«aed  into  them.  In  this 
way  many  thousands  of  -Uiose  neat-tooking  paper 
packages  of  pins,  with  which  all  are  familiar,  are  put 
up  in  one  day  by  two  little  girls,  aided  by  these 
wonderful  machines. 

PI'.VA  CLOTH,  a  verybeauUful  fabric  made  of  the 
fibres  ofthe  leaves  of  the  pine-apple  plant  (A/ianatm 
aatieaj,  and  other  allied  sjiecies.  This  cloth  is  only 
made  in  Manilla,  and  in  its  manufacture  resembles 
horse-hair  cloth,  because  the  threads  both  of  warp 
and  weft  ore  each  siugle  uuspua  fibres,  consequently 
only  small  pieces  can  ba  made  ;  the  workers  have, 
however,  a  plau  of  joining  the  fibres  of  the  coarser 
hinds  end  to  end,  so  as  to  make  warp  threods  of 
eoraiderable  longth.  Pina  cloth  is  very  strong,  and 
the  better  sorts  far  eicel  the  finest  lawna  in  texture. 
It  is  chiefly  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  ladies' 

E^ket-handkoichiefs,  which  often  have  their  cost- 
esB  much  increased  by  beautiful  embroidety, 

PI'NCHBBCK  is  an  alloy  of  xino  and  copj^r,  in 
which  the  proiwrtioos  slightly  differ  from  those 
which  constitute  brass;  3  parts  zino  to  16  of 
copper  constitute  this  material,  instead  of  one  x>art 
of  the  fonnec  to  two  of  the  latter  as  in  common 
brass.  Pinchbeck,  when  new,  has  a  colour  resem- 
bling red  gold,  and  it  was  at  the  beginning  of  the 
present  century  much  employed  in  making  watch- 
cues  and  other  small  articles  in  imitation  of  gold. 

FIND  DADU'N  KHAN,  a  town  in  the  Punjab, 
stands  on  a  narrow  verdant  pUin  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Jhelum,  and  at  the  touthem  bate  of  the  Salt 
Range  or  Kalabash  Mountains,  110  miles  norUi. 
west  of  Lahore.  The  town  consists  of  three  groups 
of  houses,  four  miles  from  the  Jhelum.  The  housM 
are  built  of  mud,  but  the  framework  is  of  cedar- 
wood.  In  the  vicinity,  salt  is  extensively  raised  in 
the  Salt  Range,    See  Pdniax.    ihitire  population, 

i3jm. 


Thebea,  at  Cynosocphato,  a  village  in  that  territorj'. 
His  genius  for  music  was  hereditary,  and  at  so 
early  age  he  was  sent  by  bis  father,  himself  a  Qut«- 
player,  to  receive  instniction  in  the  same  art  from 
ScopelinuB.  At  this  time  his  genius  for  poetry  too 
— foreshadowed,  according  to  later  writeia,  bj  a 
swarm  of  bees  miraculously  resting  on  his  lips  When 
asleep — began  to  develop  itself,  aad  so  he  went  to 
Athens  to  be  placed  onder  the  tuition  of  Losns  of 
Hermione,  the  founder  of  the  Athenian  school  of 
dithyrombic  poetry.  Before  completing  hii  20th 
year  he  returned  b>  Thebes,  where  he  continued  to 


pursue  his  studies  under  Myrtia  and  Corinn 
T&nagra,  two  poetesses  theu  famous   in    Bteoiia. 
With  both  of  his  instructresses  he  contested  the 


at  Thebes,  but  was  five  tim«* 
defeated  by  Corinno.  He  was  still  a  young  man 
when  he  entered  on  faia  profession^  career  as  a 
poet,  and  his  services  soon  came  to  be  in  great 
i«queBt  on  festive  occssions  throughout  all  the 
Hellenio  states.  He  composed  choral  songs  for 
Hiero,  tyrant  of  Syracuse ;  Aleiander,  son  of 
Amyntaa,  king  of  Macedonia ;  Theron,  tyrant  of 
Agngentum ;  Arcesilaus,  kin^  of  Cyrene ;  and  also 
for  many  free  states  and  private  individuals.  He 
won  not  only  the  admiration  ot  hia  employers  for 
his  lyrical  genius,  but  also  their  rBB|)ect  for  his 
independent  character,  which,  amid  all  the  presents 
and  rewards  conferred  upon  him,  never  degenerated 
into  that  of  the  poet  who  merely  performed  for 
hire.  He  was  especiaUy  the  favourite  of  Aleiander, 
king  of  Macedonia,  and  of  Hiero,  tyrant  of  SynKUse ; 
and  it  is  said  that  to  the  praises  be  lavished  on  ths 
former  of  these  monarch!  his  house  owed  its  pre- 
servation at  the  ^nds  of  AlexanJcr  the  Great, 
when  he  rodnced  the  rest  of  Thelies  to  ruins.  His 
life  was  for  the  moat  part  spent  abroad  at  the  c«nrts 
of  kings,  and  at  the  scenes  of  the  great  nubhc 
;ames ;  and  at  one  period,  473  B.C.,  he  r™idcd  at 
Jyracuse  at  the  court  of  Hiero  for  the  space  of  foiur 
years.  He  died  most  probably  in  442  b.c,  in  hii 
80th  year.  Of  the  immense  number  of  his  poemi, 
conaisting  of  hymns  to  the  gods,  paeans,  dithyramU, 
odes  for  processions  {pt^todia),  m  aide  us  sonn 
(pai;tAeiifia),  mimic  danciag  songs  {lll/po^chalUlla^, 
convivial  songs  (Kolia),  dirges  {l/irmoi),  and  encomia 
minces,  we  only  possess  fragments.  Hia  Epinikia, 
Triumplial  Odes,  however,  have  come  down  to 
entire;  and  it  is  from  these  — divided  into 
four  books,  and  celebrating  the  victories  won  in 
the  Olympian,  Pythian,  Nemean,  and  Isthmian 
games  respectively— that  we  must  form  an  opinion 
of  P.  as  a  poet.  A  victory  at  these  gunea  conferred 
honour  not  upon  the  winner  and  his  family  only. 
hut  also  on  the  cily  to  which  he  belonged ;  and  lor 
its  celebration — which  began  with  a  proccBsion  to 
the  temple,  where  sacrifice  was  offered,  and  ended 
with  a  convivial  banquet — a  poem  was  apedally 
composed,  and  waa  sung  by  a  choral  either  dnring 
the  procession,  or.  more  frequently,  at  the  banqnel 

'  - -'      P.'s  poetical  style  is  peculiar.     FdIIoI 

options  and  striking  metaphors,  his  manner 

is  so  rapid  and  oo  subject  to  abnijit  transitioni,  as 
to  render  him  not  only  a  difficult  hut  an  obscnr* 
oposer.  Typical  examples  of  his  strength,  oa  well 
of  his  weakness,  will  be  found  in  the  Second 
Olympian    and    First   Pythian   Odes,  where   tb* 
description  of   the  Islands   of   the  Blest    in  the 
former,  and  of    an   eruption   of    Mount  .£tna  is 
the    latter,   are   brilliant  oCbets   to   the   shadovy 
mythological  allusion  and  tile  nndeveloped  meta- 
phor which  alao  characterise  them.      His  mctn^ 
'-  spite  of  the  able  efforts  of  Btlckh.  stilt  remain  is 
r  aatiafaotorily  elucidated ;  and  all  that  we  c«* 


PINDAR— PINE. 


here  SAJ  of  them  ii,  tbat  he  mafcea  diief  uaa  of  the 
Dnriac  rhythm,  and  not  anFrequentlf  of  the  Lilian 
mil  Lyclian.  He  hiu  been  fortnnite  neither  in  bis 
DninerouB  imitaton    nor  translatori— Ony  being, 


.       Ltely  e  _ 

n  Schmidt's  Pindar's  LtMn  vnd  Dklitung  (Bonn, 
iSSZ] ;  while  his  reUtioa  to  lyrio  poetry  in  general 
fonns  the  aubject  of  Villemain'ti  brilliant  BaaU  >ar 
le  Oinie  de  Ptndare  et  tar  la  PoetU  Lyriqi't  IParis, 
1S59).  The  beat  editiooa  ara  thoaa  of  Buckh;  of 
DiMen,  re-edited  by  Schneidewin;  and  of  Hartung. 
PINDAR,  Petkr.  See  Walcott. 
PI'NDUS,  anciently  the  name  of  a  chain  <A 
giountaina  in  Greece  (q.  v.). 

PINE  {Plnut),  a  genii*  of  trees  of  the  Datiu«1 
order  Com/enf.  The  LinnKan  genus  iDcIiidea  ali 
kinds  of  Fir,  Larch,  and  Cedar  ;  but  as  now  limited, 
the  genus  Pinus  is  distinguished  by  moncecioua 
Hovers,  and  woody  cones  with  nnmernua  two-seeded 
scales,  the  scales  having  an  angular  truncated  apei. 
Tie  leaves  am  Unear  and  very  narmw,  of  a  veiy 
dark-green  colour,  growing  in  chiaters  or  in  pairs, 
ind  sarronnded  by  scarious  scales  at  the  base.  To 
this  geniis  belong  many  noble  and  useful  tmea. 
They  mostly  grow  in  mountainous  or  other  exposed 
•itiiatioDS,  and  their  narrow  leaves  are  admirably 
adapted  to  evade  the  force  of  winds,  which  produce 
in  the  tops  of  pines  a  peculiar  sound,  much  noticed 
by  the  ancient  poetH,  more  soft  and  continuous  than 
in  trees  of  richer  foliage  Mort  of  the  pines  are 
more  or  less  social,  one  kind  often  covering  a  consi- 
derable tract ;  some  of  them  clothing  the  sides  and 
even  the  summits  of  monotains  with  ma;;ni(icent 
but  sombre  forests;  some  growing  in  lower  situa- 
tions, on  othersrise  unproductive  sa»dy,^roiuids,  as 
the  Fiat  Barrtnt  of  North  America.  The  pines 
growing  in  the  most  barren  soils,  or  in  the  coldest 
climates  and  most  exposed  situations,  are  often  very 
small ;  and  although  very  unlike  any  other  shrubs 
or  bushes,  are  scarcely  to  be  called  trees.  I'incs 
are  widely  diffused  over  the  northern  hemisphere, 
hein^  found  on  mountaias  within  and  near  the 
tropics,  and  in  the  colder  temperate  and  the  arctic 
regions  desccDding  to  the  level  of  the  sea. 

The  SciiTCH  P.  or  Scotch  Fir  {P.  tylvatrit)  is 
the  only  species  indigeuoua  to  Britain.  It  has 
leaves  in  paira,  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long ;  the 
ccnea  about  the  same  length,  obtuse,  and  with 
onarmed  scales.  On  verj  poor  soils  and  at  great 
elevations  it  is  reduced  to  a  kind  of  shrub,  but  in 
favourable  dtiiatioos  it  becomes  a  lofty  tree  A 
plank  five  feet  and  a  half  in  diameter  has  been 
obtained  from  a  Scottish  forest.  The  Scotch  P.  is 
of  quick  growth,  but  has  been  known  to  attain 
the  age  oE  401)  years.  Its  head  is  somewhat 
conical  or  rounded,  and  the  lojrer  branches  die  off 
as  the  tree  grows,  leaving  the  older  trees  bare  of 
hnujches  for  the  greater  part  of  their  height ;  but 
it  is  more  apt  to  send  off  large  braochea  than  most 
of  the  Conifene.  There  are  still  native  forests 
of  Scotch  P.  at  Braemar  and  elsewhere  in  the 
Highlands  of  Scotland ;  and  even  in  the  south  of 
Scotland  noble  trees  are  to  be  seen  which,  probably, 
were  not  planted  by  man.  The  Scotch  P.  is  not 
indigenous  to  the  south  of  England,  hut  having  been 
introduced,  is  spresding  rapidly  and  spontaneously, 
along  with  the  Pinaster,  in  some  of  the  heaths  and 
other  nnfcrtile  tracts.  Immense  forests  of  it  exist 
in  some  countries  of  Europe,  in  soma  of  which  it 
is  mingled  with  the  Spruce  Fir.  In  the  middle  and 
north  of  Europe  and  of  Asia,  it  is  found  even  in 
plains  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  especially  where 
the  soil  i>  somewhat  aandy ;  in  the  BODth  of  Europe 
U7 


it  grows  onlj^  on  mountains.  Its  timber  is  highN 
valuable,  being  very  resinous  and  dnrable,  an3 
is  the  Red  Deal  or  Btd  Piite  used  in  house  and 
sbip-carpentry.  There  is  very  great  difference, 
however,  in  the  timber  of  Scoteh  P.  growing  ia 
different  soils  and  situations,  rich  soils  and  sheltered 
situations  being  unfavourable  to  the  quality  of 
the  timber,  which  becomes  white,  soft,  and  compar- 
atively worthless;  and  there  eiist  several  varieties 
of  Scotch  P.,  some  of  which  yield  timber  very 
superior  to  others.  Many  plantations  in  Britain 
have,  unfortunately,  been  made  of  inferior  kinds. 
One  of  the  best  varieties  ia  that  which  forms  the 
northern  Scottish  foraata,  often  desigmited  Braemar 


Braemar  Pine. 

P.  by  nurserymen.    It  is  remat^ble  for  its  very 

horizontal  branches,  and  is  therefore  sometime* - 
called  P.  liariiontalU.—The  Scotch  P.  is  not  only 
valuable  for  its  timber,  which  is  available  for  some 
purixjse  at  every  stage  of  its  growth,  but  on  account 
of  other  products.  Common  Turpentine  is  in  great, 
part  obtained  from  it,  and  much  Tar,  Pitch,  Kesin, 
3,nd  X^mp-black.  See  these  heads.  Oil  of  Turpen- 
tine is  sometimes  distilled  from  the  cones,  and  even 
from  the  leaves ;  the  leaves  have  also  been  used 
in  Germany  for  the  manufactnre  ofa  substance- 


suitable  ii 

roots  are  dug  oat  of  the  ground  in  many  parts  of' 
the  HIgh]ani&  of  Scotland,  and  being  divided  into 
small  splinters.  ar«  used  to  give  light  in  cottages 
instead  of  candles.  Fishermen,  in  some  places,  make- 
ropes  of  the  inner  bark,  which  is  applied  to  a  very 
diSerent  use,  when  moat  soft  and  succulent  in 
spring,  by  the  Kamtchatdales  and  Laplanders,  being 
dried,  ground,  steejied  in  water  to  remove  the 
resinous  taste,  and  used  for  making  a  coarse  kind 
lad.— The  Dwarf  P.  {P.  PamUio.  or  P.  Uughta 


found  oo  tlie  Alps  and  Pyrenees,  its  trunk  ofteni 
e  ftround,  although  sumetinL._         r, 
bush  or  low  tree.    The  recumbent  trunks  a 


lying 


called  KTumm^ioU  (Crooked- wood)  and  Knkholi 
(Knee-wood}  by  the  Germans.— The  leaves  are  ini 
pairs,  very  like  those  oE  the  Scotch  P.,  but  a  littlo 
longer ;  uie  cones  are  also  similar.  From  the  yoims 
shoots  an  oil  resembling  oil  of  turpentine  i>  obtained 


PIKR 


by  distillation,  which  is  a  kind  of  universal  medicine 
among  the  peasantry  of  Hungary,  as  is  also  the 
resin  si)oiitaueously  exuding  from  the  tree,  which 
is  known  as  Hungarian  Balsam. — The  Black  P., 
or  Black  Fir  (P.  nigricans,  or  P.  Ansti'iacn),  is 
another  species  closely  allied  to  the  Scotch  P.,  but 
remarkable  for  its  very  Ions;  leaves.  It  is  a  native 
of  Austria.  It  abounds  in  resin  more  than  any 
other  European  tree. — To  the  same  group  of  pines 
belon!:;s  the  Seaside  or  Taitrian  P.  (P.  PaUamana, 
nuiritima,  or  Taurica),  which  also  affords  resin  in 
great  q^uautity,  and  of  a  very  pleasant  odour.  It  is 
found  m  many  parts  of  the  south  of  Europe.  Its 
timber  is  of  little  value ;  but  gi'eat  part  of  the 
turpentine  of  the  Landea  and  other  maritime 
districts  of  France  is  obtained  from  it.  It  yields 
also  part  of  the  Burgundy  Pitch  of  the  apothecaries' 
shops. — The  Aleppo  P.  (P.  Ualepensis),  a  native  of 
the  south  of  Europe,  Syria,  &c.,  is  a  very  gi-aceful 
tree  of  moderate  size,  with  leaves  in  pairs  and 
slender.  It  yields  a  liquid  resin  or  turpentine, 
which  is  extracted  from  it  in  Provence  and  else- 
where, and  sold  as  Venice  Turpentine.  The  >vood 
is  extensively  used  in  the  Levant  for  shipbuilding. 
— The  Larioio  (P.  Laricio)  has  leaves  in  pairs,  lax, 
and  4 — 8  inches  long,  cones  2—4  inches  long,  with 
the  scales  sliglitly  pointed.  It  is  often  called  the 
Oorstcan  Pine.  It  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  is  valuable  both  for  its 
timber  and  for  its  resinous  products.  In  the  island 
of  Corsica,  it  frequently  attains  the  hei^^ht  of  140 
feet  It  grows  well  in  sandy  soils,  and  has  been 
made  particularly  useful  for  preventing  the  drifting 
of  the  sand,  and  turning  to  account  the  otherwise  \ 
useless  tracts  between  the  mouths  of  the  Garonne  ' 
and  the  Adour  in  France,  thus  also  preserving 
valuable  lands  which  the  sand  threatened  to  over- 
whelm.— The  Pinaster  or  Cluster  Pine  [P.  Pin- 
aster) is  another  of  the  most  important  European 
specicd.  It  has  cones  in  whorls  of  3,  4,  or  even  8 
together,  4—6  inches  long,  leaves  in  pairs,  and  very 
long.  It  is  found  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  also  in  the  Himalaya  and  in  China. 
It  has  been  used  in  France  to  a  great  extent,  in  the 
same  way  as  the  Laricio,  for  covering  waste  sandy 
tracts.  The  timber  is  of  inferior  quality,  but  great 
quantities  of  resin  are  procured  from  it.  It  yields 
Bordeaux  Turpentine.— £he  Pvrenean  P.  [P.  Pyre- 
naica)  is  a  majestic  tree,  a  native  of  the  Pyrenees, 
and  producing  very  line  timber. — The  Calabrian  P. 
{P.  BruUia)  somewhat  resembles  the  Pinaster. — The 
Stone  P.  {P.  pinea)  a  tree  with  a  bixjad  umbrella- 
fihapcd  head,  a  foi-m  often  seen  also  in  the  Scotch 
fir^  forms  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  scenery  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  very  often  introduced 
in  paintings.  It  is  the  Pinle  of  the  Germans,  the 
Pignon  of  the  French.  The  leaves  are  in  pairs, 
4 — 5  inches  long ;  the  cones  very  large,  ovate,  and 
obtuse.  The  seeds,  which  do  not  ripen  till  the 
fourth  year,  are  large,  abound  in  a  fixed  oil,  and  when 
fresh,  have  a  sweet  taste  resembling  that  of  almonds. 
They  are  used  in  Italy  and  other  countries  in  the 
same  way  as  almonds  and  pistachio  nuts  for  the 
dessert,  in  various  dishes,  also  in  emulsions,  &&, 
under  the  names  of  pinies,  pinioles,  and  pignons. 
The  use  of  them,  however,  is  almost  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  countries  in  which  they  are  produced, 
as  they  very  soon  become  rancid.  They  are  some- 
times imported  into  London  in  the  cone,  in  which 
way  they  can  be  kept  longer,  but  the  cost  of  impor- 
tation is  much  increased.  The  wood  of  this  tree 
is  very  useful  and  beautifuL  It  yields  resinous 
products  only  in  small  quantity. — The  Cembra  P., 
or  Swiss  Stone  P.,  which  grows  in  the  central  parts 
of  Europe  and  the  south  of  Siberia — a  stately  tree, 
with  the  lower  branches  more  persistent  than  they 

546 


are  in  most  pines,  and  rigid  leaves  in  groups  of  tliTt» 
to  five— also  produces  eatable  seeds  {Cembra  X>jte\ 
which,  although  they  are  extracted  with  difficulty, 


Stone  Pine  (P.  Ptnea). 

are  much  usetL  The  cuticle  contains  a  resiants 
juice ;  but  in  Siberia,  this  fruit  is  so  much  prized, 
that  nol)le  trees  are  often  cut  down  to  obtain  it 
The  Cembra  P.  yields  a  pellucid,  whitish  oil,  resem- 
bling oil  of  turpentine,  and  known  as  CarpaUiiin 
Balsam. 

North  America  produces  many  species  of  P., 
some  of  them  very  beautiful  and  very  valuable. 
Besides  those  long  known,  and  which  are  found 
in  the  states  ancl  colonies  near  the  Atlantic,  & 
number  of  the  noblest  species  of  this  g«»nus  have, 
since  the  commencement  of  the  present  century, 
been  discovered  in  California  and  the  north-western 
parts  of  America.— The  Ked  Canadian  P.  (P. 
resinosa)  is  found  from  Canada  to  the  Pacific,  buf 
does  not  reach  far  south  in  the  United  States.  It 
is  the  Yellow  P.  of  Canada  and  Nova  Scotia.  It 
delights  in  dry  and  sandy  soils,  and  attains  a  heiuht 
of  70 — 80  feet,  with  a  diameter  of  two  feet  nt  the 
base,  the  tnink  continuing  of  uniform  diameter  for 
two-thinls  of  its  length.  The  leaves  are  in  pairs, 
and  are  congregated  towards  the  extremities  of  the 
branches.  Tne  timber  is  highly  esteemed  for  strength 
and  durability,  and  furnishes  excellent  planks  for 
ship-building.  It  is  also  used  for  masts.— Some- 
what resembling  this  in  botanical  characters,  is  the 
Scrub  P.,  or  Gra\»  P.  (P.  Banksiana),  generally 
only  3—10  feet  high,  which  bemns  to  appear  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  United  States  upon  hi^h 
mountains,  and  is  interesting  as  an  arctic  sj^ecie^ 
extending  further  north  than  any  other.— ITie 
Yellow  P.  (P.  variabilis^  or  P.  mitis)  abounds  in 
the  Atlantic  States  from  New  Jersey  to  Virginiai 
It  is  a  tree  of  60—60  feet  high,  15—18  inches 
in  diameter  at  the  base,  with  leaves  4 — 5  incites 
long,  usually  in  pairs,  but  sometimes  in  threes 
upon  the  younger  shoots.  The  timber  is  veiy 
extensively  used  for  ship-building,  and  is  largely 
exported  to  Great  Britain.  At  LiverpcK)!,  it  is 
known  as  New  York  Pine. — The  Jersey  P.,  or 
Scrub  P.  (P.  niops),  abounds  in  the  lower  parta  of 
New  Jersey,  and  thence  to  the  south-west  The 
leaves  are  in  pairs,  1 — 2  inches  long,  the  copies 
armed  with  strong  spines.    The  tree  is  rarely  30  or 


40  feet  high.     Great  qnnntitiea  of  tar  are  made 

Ircra  it  in  Ktntoeky.— Tbc  Pitch  P.  {P.  rioida)  is  a  j 
LiaCive  of  the  northern  and  miilille  purta  of  the  : 
United  States,  often  ((rawiiiK  in  great  miry  awamp", 
and  attaining  a  height  of  70—80  feet,  and  a 
diameter  of  two  feet  at  tlie  base.  The  leaves  are  in  , 
threes,  varying  much  id  len^h,  aa  the  cones  do  in 
size.  Immenaa  quantities  of  it  are  used  for  fuel.  I 
Tar  and  lamp-black  aro  aomi'timcs  made  from  it, 
—The  LoBLOi.LV  or  Old  Field  P.  [P.  T<eda) 
grows  in  dry  and  aandy  soils  in  the  lower  parts  of 
the  Si'iithem  States, often  occupying  lands  exliansted 
by  cultivation.  Vast  trarts  never  cultivated,  in  the 
Southern  States,  ore  Pine  JJarrtiii,  in  great  pait 
covenid  with  this  spceioi  of  pine.  It  attains  a 
heii,'ht  of  SO  feet  and  upwards,  and  has  a  wido- 
spri'ading  crown.  Tlio  li'avea  are  fi  inches  long,  in 
threes,  sometimes  in  fiiurs  on  jouug  branches  ;  the 
cooes  four  inches  high,  with  strong  spines.  The 
timber  is  not  of  much  vahie. — Tbe  I^ngleaved  P., 
or  SoL-THEBN  P.  (/".  piUutlHt,  Of  P.  Australia),  ia 
perhaps  tba  most  imiiortant  of  Nurtb  American 
forest  trees.  It  furuiahea  the  greater  part  oE  the  tar, 
resin,  pitch,  and  turpentine  need  in  the  Uaite>t 
States,  The  timber  is  also  very  vahiabte,  and  is 
mnch  used  for  ship-building.  In  England  and  the 
West  Indies,  it  is  known  aa  Georgia  Pitch  Fine. 
The  tree  attains  a  height  of  60—70  feet,  and  a 
diameter  oE  about  16  — IS  inches;  tlie  leaves  are 
in  threes,  and  al)ont  a  foot  long;  the  cones  7—8 
i.ichea  long,  and  4  inches  in  diameter,  with  small 
spines.  The  seeds  are  aometimcs  eaten.— Tlie  Wey- 
uoiTH  P.,  or  WmTE  P.  {P.  iilrobut),  attains  a 
height  of  150  feet,  and  a  diameter  of  5  feet  and 
upwards.  It  has  laic  sub-triangular  leaves  in 
griiiiiM  of  five ;  and  pendulous  cones  4—5  inches 
loui;,  with  tliin  smooth  scales.  It  is  frequently 
pbiuteil  in  Britain  and  on  tlie  continent  of  Eiirojie 
for  its  beauty.  In  its  native  country,  it  abounds 
chiefly  from  tat  47°  to  lat.  43',  and  southward 
on  the  Alleghaniei.  The  timber  is  not  strong, 
but  easily  wrought  and  dnrable, — Of  the  sjieciea 


attains  a  height  of  160 — 200  feet,  and  a  dlunctei 
of  7  feet  and  upwards,  almost  to  20  feet.  Tho 
trunk  is  remark atily  straight,  aUd  destitute  ol 
branches  for  Iwo-vUirds  of  its  height ;  the  leaves 
inSveSitbeconeaupwar^lsof  afootlong.  Thetimher 
is  white,  soft,  and  light ;  and  the  tree  produces 
great  quantities  of   a  pure  amber- coloured   resin, 


Lambert's  Pine  {P.  Lambertiana). 

beton^ng  to  the  north-western  parts  of  America, 
one  of  tiie  moat  magnificent  is  P.  Lambertiana, 
which  ia  found  on  the  Rocky  Mountains,  between 
lat.  40°   and  lat.   43%  cbietly  in  sandy  sails.     It 


natives  aa  a  substitute  for  sugar.  The  seeds  a  . 
eaten  either  masted  or  pounded  into  coarse  cake*. 
-P-fi-xiliit  a  found  on  tbo  Rocky  Mouutains,  near 
tbe  head. waters  of  the  Arkansas,  and  occurs  abiiost 
to  the  limit  of  per])etual  snow.  It  has  a  dense 
cmwii.  farmed  of  numeroiK  and  remarkably  Hexile 
branche.".  The  leaves  are  in  fives.  The  seeds  are 
useil  as  food  by  hiiuters  and  Indiana— -P.  pondetota, 
another  native  of  the  Itocky  &Ioiintains,  is  a  magni- 
ficent tree,  remarkable  for  the  heaviness  of  its 
timber,  which  almost  sinks  in  water.  The  leaves 
are  in  threes,  ami  9—14  inches  long. — P.  Sabiniana, 
P.  C'oulleri,  and  P.  iatUjaig,  are  uso  noble  species 
from  the  west  of  North  America.  The  Himalaya 
Mountains  abound  in  pines,  some  of  which  rival  in 
magnitioenee  those  of  North-west  America.  The 
Bhotan  p.  (P.  tjxtUii),  much  resembling  the  Wey- 
mouth P.  in  its  botanical  characters,  and  attaining 
a  heiijbt  of  90— 1'2U  feet,  abounds  in  Bhotan, 
attliuugh  it  is  not  found  in  the  neighbouring 
couiitrica  oE  Sikkim  and  Ne^iauL  The  wood  is 
liis;hly  valuable,  being  durable,  close-grained,  and  so 
resinous  as  to  be  usetl  for  flambeaux  and  caudica — 
Tlie  OiiEER  P.  (P.  tongifolia)  of  India  is  a  tree  of 
remarkable  oud  most  graceful  appearance ;  with 
leaves  in  threes,  vet;  lou",  very  slender,  and  gener- 
ally pendulous.  It  is  abuuduit  on  the  crests  of 
hills  in  the  lower  Himalaya,  growing  at  a  lower 
elevation  than  the  other  pines.  It  is  cultivatd  in 
some  (Kirts  of  India  as  an  oruamental  tree.  It  is 
mucli  valued  for  its  resin.  The  wood  is  used  in 
India  as  a  substitute  for  European  deal- The 
KiiAsiA  P,  {P.  Khatiana)  is  peculiar  to  the  Khasia 
Mountains.  au<l  has  very  much  the  general  appear- 
ance of  the  Scotch  pine.— J*,  Gerarifiana,  a  sjit-ciee 
with  leaves  in  threes,  is  a  large  tree,  a  native  of 
Neiaul.  The  seeds  are  eatable,- Tbe  mountains  of 
India  and  the  north-western  parts  of  America 
proitnce  numerous  other  species ;  Mexico  has  a 
nnmber  oE  very  flue  ooes  peculiar  to  itself ;  the 
mountains  of  St  Domingo  have  one ;  the  Canary 
Islanils  have  one  ;  China  and  Japan  also  have  some. 
Most  of  tboae  which  have  been  named,  and  a 
number  o£  otliers,  ans  now  readily  to  be  procured 
in  nurseries  in  Britain,  although  some  of  them  only 
at  prices  which  prevent  any  attempt  at  wtensive 
plantation.  Some  wealthy  noblemen  and  aentlu- 
men  devote  a  portion  ol  their  grounds  to  a  collectioQ 
o(  different  kiuda  of  P.,  called  a  Piiitlum.  A  few 
foreign  species  have  bei'ome  pretty  common  in 
pljint-itious.  Most  of  the  pines  are  quite  hanly  in 
Britain,  but  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  Cheer  P. 
and  some  ot  tlie  Mi^xican  spcoies.  The  name  P.  is 
often  popularly  extended,  and  even  in  scientific 
woiks,  to  other  Ciriiijei-a. 

ri.«;E.TiiiBKB.— This  term  Is  in  general  use  for 
the  timber  of  the  pine-tribe  (sec  Co.mfkr.«1,  and 
is  not  confined  to  that  oE  the  genus  Pinus,  but 
euihraces  the  wood  of  species  of  Abies,  Larix, 
Araucaria,  Dammara,  4c.  From  the  Baltic  ports 
'     id  white  pine,  or  deal-timber.     ■^'•~ 


former  is  yielded  by  the  Scotch  Fir  (Piiiiu  lylees&it), 
and  tlie  latter  by  tlio  Siiruce  Fir  {Abia  raatsa). 
■bcae  two,  with  the  Lareh  {Larix  Europan],  yield 


the  greatest  part  of  tiie  pine-timber  of  Europe 
and  of  these,  the  imports  into  Britain  from  ♦'" 
north  of  Euroiie  (or  the  year  1S62  were  8!),<»00. 


PINEAL  BODY— PINE-APPLE. 


eobio  feet.  Next  in  imnortance  to  these  is  the 
pine-timber  of  the  British  North  American  coloDies, 
which  is  chiefly  yielded  by  the  Weymouth  Pine 
{Pintis  Strobvs)^  although,  doubtless,  the  wood  of 
other  coniferous  trees  is  often  substituted  for  it. 
The  celebrated  pitch-pin&  of  Savannah,  in  the 
Southern  States,  is  the  produce  of  Piniia  rigida. 
It  is  much  used  for  ships^  masts  and  yards,  and 
for  all  purposes  requiring  great  strength  and 
durability,  in  both  of  which  quaUtiee  it  excels  most 
others  oi  its  kind.  The  American  war  has,  for  the 
last  three  years,  cut  off  the  supply  of  this  useful 
timber;  but  from  her  colonies  in  North  America 
Great  Britain  imported,  in  1S62,  upwards  of 
55,000,000  cubic  feet  of  ^ther  kinds  of  pme  timber. 
The  kinds  above  mentioned  are  those  which  con- 
stitute the  greater  part  of  the  pine- timber  used  in 
ship  and  house-buuding,  carpentry,  &c.,  in  Great 
Britain.  In  France,  the  timber  of  the  Corsican 
Pine  {Pinua  Laricio)  and  tiie  Seaside  Pine  {Pinus 
pinaster)  are  greatly  used.  In  Italy,  the  pine- 
timber  is  chiefly  yielded  b^  the  Stone  Pine  {P. 
pinea)  and  the  Calabrian  Pme  (P.  Bruttia) ;  that 
of  Spain  is  from  the  Pyrenean  Pine  (P.  Pyrenaica), 
In  Germany,  and  especially  in  Austria,  the  Black 
Pine  (P.  Ausiriaca)  furnishes  the  greater  portion; 
but  the  flue-grained,  soft  white  pine,  or  deal,  so 
much  used  for  sounding-boards  of  musical  instru- 
ments, is  the  wood  of  the  Silver  Fir.  See  Fir.  The 
trade  in  this  timber  is  very  great,  for  not  only  do 
the  Germans  use  it  almost  exclusively  in  their  vast 
toy-manufactories  and  for  lucifer-matchea,  but  con- 
sioerable  quantities  are  exported.  The  finest  is  cut 
in  the  forests  of  Bohemia,  where  large  establish- 
ments are  formed  for  dressing  and  preparing  the 
wood  for  various  purposes. 

The  timber  of  the  Norfolk  Island  Pine  {Arau- 
carta  excelsa)  is  sometimes  imported  for  making 
ships'  masts,  as  several  other  kmds  of  pine-timber 
are  imported  from  time  to  time,  but  those  men- 
tioned form  the  great  staples  of  the  timber- 
trade.  The  chief  value  of  this  class  of  timber- 
woods  is  in.  the  combination  of  lightness  and 
strength  with  softness  of  texture  and  ease  in 
workmg  with  ordinary  tools;  they  constitute,  in 
fact,  the  principal  materials  of  our  builders,  and 
are  more  used  than  all  other  kinds  of  wood  together. 
Much  confusion  prevails  as  to  their  common  desig- 
nations, for  in  this  country  alone,  fir,  pine^  and 
deal  are  terms  applied  to  all  and  each  of  them, 
according  to  the  caprice  of  the  individiiaL  The 
two  first  names  are  used  because  the  material  is 
derived  from  one  or  other  of  those  genera ;  but  the 
last  is  a  misuomer  altogether,  as  the  term  deal 
belongs  onl^  to  pieces  of  fir  or  pine  timber  cut  to 
particular  sizes :  they  are  three  inches  in  thickness, 
nine  inches  broad,  and  of  variable  length  ;  if  of  less 
width,  they  are  called  battens, 

PI'NEAL  BODY,  is  a  small  reddish-eray 
body,  of  a  conical  form,  and  deriving  its  name  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  fruit  of  the  pine.  It  rests 
upon  the  corpora  quadrigemina  of  the  brain,  in  front 
oi  the  cerebellum.  It  is  about  four  lines  in  length, 
and  from  two  to  three  in  width  at  its  base.  It  is 
larger  in  the  child  than  in  the  adult,  and  in  the 
female  than  in  the  male.  It  consists  chiefly  of  gray 
matter,  and  in  its  base  is  a  small  cavity,  which 
contains  a  transparent  viscid  fluid,  in  which  are 
granules  composed  chiefly  of  phosphate  and  carbonate 
of  lime,  and  termed  acermdas  cerebri.  This  organ 
was  regarded  by  the  ancients  as  the  seat  of  the 
souL 

PINE- APPLE,  or  ANANAS  (Ananassa  sativa) 
a  plant  of  the  natural  order  Br&mdiacea^  hifi|hly 
esteemed,  and  much  cultivated  for  its  fruit.    The 
M8 


fruit   is   a   sorosis,  formed   by  the    calyces  and 
bracts  of  a  close  spike  of  flowers,  becoming  saccuknt 
and  combined.    This  is  the  distinctive  character  of 
the  genus  Ananassa,   The  P.  has  a  number  of  lon^ 
serrated,  sharp-pointed,  rigid  leaves,  springing  from 
the  root,  in  the  midst  of  which  a  short  flower-stem 
is  thrown  up,  bearing  a  single  spike  of  flowers,  and 
therefore  a  single  fruit.     From  the  summit  of  the 
fruit  springs  a  crown  or  tuft  of  small  leaves,  capable 
of  becoming  a  new  plants  and  very  generally  used 
by  gardeners  for  planting ;  the  P.,  m  cultivation, 
being  propagated  entirely  by  crowns  and  suckers, 
as,  in  a  state  of  high  cultivation,  perfect  seed  a 
almost  never  produced.    The  P.   is   a   native  of 
tropical  America  ;  it  is  found  wild  in  sandy  man- 
time  districts  in  the  north-east  of  South  America, 
but  it  has  been  very  much  changed  by  cultivation. 
It  has  also  been  gradually  diffused  over  tropical 
and  subtropical  countries,  and  not  only  as  a  colti- 
vated  plant,  for  it  is  fully  naturalised  in  many  parts 
both  of  Asia  and  Africa.    It  delights  in  a  moist 
climate,  and  oonsequently  does  not  succeed  well  in 
the  dry  climate  of  the  south  of  Italy,  although  the 
warmth  is  sufficient.    The  first  particular  account 
of  the  P.  was  given  by  Oviedo  in  1535.    It  was  in 
Holland  that  it  first  began  to  be  cultivated  in  hot- 
houses ;  but  it  was  introduced  into  England  in  the 
end  of   the  17th  c.,  and  its  cul$vatipn   rapidly 
became  ^neral  in  the  gardens  of  the  wealthy.   It 
is  only  since  the  peace  of  1815  that  it  has  recdred 
similar  attention  in  continental  Europe.    Great  care 
is  requisite  in  the  cultivation  of  tke  P.,  wbidi, 
without  ity  is  generally  fibrous  and  coarse,  with 
little  sweetness  or  flavour  ;  and  with  it^  one  of  tlis 
most  delicate  and  richly  flavoured  of  fruits.    Its 
size  also  very  much  depends  on  cultivation.    The 
size  varies  from  2^  lbs.  to  12  lbs.  in  weight    The 
pine-apples  ^rown  in  British  hot-houses  are  geoeially 
much  superior  to  those  of  the  West  Indies,  because 
the    latter    grow   almost    or   altogether   without 
cultivation ;  but  the  importation  of  pine-apples  fnm 
the  West  Indies  having  now  been  carri«i  on  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  promising  to  add  to  He 
sources  of  wealth  for  these  colonies,   has  led  to 
greater  care  in  cidtivation  there,  and  consequent 
unprovement  of  quality. 

In  the  cultivation  of  the  P.  in  Britain,  a  tropical 
heat  must  always  be  maintained.  It  is  generally 
cultivated  in  hot-houses  specially  appropriated  to 
it,  called  Pineries  or  Pine^stoves;  sometimes  abo 
in  flued  pits ;  and  sometimes  even  without  fire-heat, 
in  frames  continually  supplied  with  fresh  tannen^ 
bark  and  dung.  The  universal  practice,  till  of  late, 
was  to  grow  the  plants  in  pots,  planned  to  tiie 
requisite  depth  in  tanners*  bfirk  or  otherlermenting 
matter,  and  these  were  transferred  from  one  boose 
or  one  compartment  to  another,  according  to  their 
stage  of  aavancement;  three  years'  oulture  being 
deemed  requisite  from  the  planting  of  a  crown  or 
sucker  to  tne  production  of  the  ripe  fruit ;  but  the 
P.  is  now  often  planted  in  beds,  and  fruit  of  the 
best  quality  is  sometimes  obtained  in  fifteen  montha 
The  best  soil  is  a  rich  and  rather  sandy  loam.  It 
is  often  formed  from  the  turf  of  old  pastures,  with 
dung,  peat,  sand,  &c.,  thoroughly  mixed.  Ventila- 
tion must  be  freely  allowed  m)m  time  to  time,  bat 
care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  atmosphere  moist 
A  P.  which  has  borne  fruit  is  thzown  away  as 
useless. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  P.  in  cnltivatica 
Of  these,  some  are  referred  by  some  botanists  td 
distinct  species.  But  the  greater  number  « 
varieties  are  universally  referred  to  A.  aatwa,  ssd 
differ  in  the  more  or  less  spiny  serratures  of  tha 
leaves,  the  globular,  cylindrical,  or  pyramidal  fmi^ 
its  size,  &C. 


PINE-CHAPER— PINK. 


A  spirituoiu  liquor  {Pine-apple  Bum)  is  made 
from  the  P.  in  some  warm  countries. 

The  use  of  the  fibre  of  the  P.  is  noticed  in  the 
article  BROMBUACEiV. 

PINE-CHAFER,  or  PINE-BEETLE  {ffylurgys 
piniperda),  a  small  coleopterous  insect  of  the  family 
Xylophagu  See  Bark-beetls.  It  is  often  very 
destructive  to  Scotch  firs  in  rich  soils  and  low 
situations,  attacking  the  young  terminal  shoot  in 
summer,  and  soon  eating  its  way  into  the  heart, 
which  it  proceeds  to  excavate  so  as  to  convert  the 
shoot  into  a  tube.  Pines  growing  in  open  situations 
are  little  liable  to  the  attacks  of  this  insect ;  and 
trees  of  thirty  feet  in  height^  or  upwards,  are  very 
rarely  attacked.  The  insect  is  about  the  size  of  a 
seed  of  the  Scotch  fir,  and  of  a  black  or  dark-brown 
colour. 

PINE-FINCH,  or  PINE  GROSBEAK  (C(W^tw), 
a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  Fringillida,  nearly 
allied  to  Bullfinches  and  Crossbills,  the  bill  nearly 
resembling  that  of  the  former,  but  the  tongue  very 
similar  to  the  tongue  of  the  crossbills,  with  the 
same  peciUiar  bone  articulated  to  the  hyoid  bone. 
See    Crossbill.      One   species,   the    Common    P. 
[C.  enudeator),  is  a  very  rare  visitant  of  Britain, 
bat  is  abiwdant  in  many  of  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.     It  is  larger  than  a 
bullfinch,  b^t  much  resembles  the  bullfinch  in  form, 
wings,  tail,  &c.    The  general  colour  of  the  male 
is  r^     This  bird  frequents  pine-forests,  and  asso- 
ciates in  flocks  in  winter.    It  is  easily  tamed.    Its 
song  is  rich  and  full. — There  are  other  species  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  world. — The  name  P.  is  given 
in  North  America  to  a  vexy  dififerent  and  much 
smaller  bird  (CardueUs  pinus), 

PINEL,  Philippe,  a  celebrated  French  physician, 
was  born  20th  April  1745,  at  Saint-Andr6,  in  the 
department  of  Tarn,  France ;  and  after  receiving 
a  gcHid  classical  education  at  the  college  of  Lavaur, 
removed  to  Toidouse,  where  he  studied  medicine, 
and  took  his  degree   in  1773^     He  continued  his 
medical  studies  at  Montpellier,  maintaining  himself 
meantime  by  teaching  mathematics;  and  in  1778 
removed  to  Paris,  where  he  acquired  some  repu- 
tation   by  a   translation  into  French   of  Cullen's 
Nosology  (1785).  and  the  works  of  Baglivi  (1788), 
and  alao  by  some  Memoirs  on  subjects  connected 
with  zoology  and  comparative  anatomy.     Having 
applied  himself  with  success  to  the  study  of  mentu 
alienation,  he  was  charged,  in  1791,  to  make  a  report 
on  the  insane  inmates  of  the  Bicdtre,  became  chief 
physician  of  this  institution  in  1793,  and  in  1795, 
waa  chosen  to  the  same  office  at  the  Salp^tri^re 
(a  similar  asylum,  but  for  females).    In  the  latter 
institution,  P.  commenced  a  class  of  clinical  meiiicine, 
which  he  continued  after  his  appointment  to  the 
chair  of  Medical  Physics  and  Hygiene,  and  subse- 
quently that  of  Pathology,  at  the  Scixool  of  Medicine 
in  Paria.    He  was  admitted  as  a  member  of  the 
Institute  in  1803,  and  died  at  Paris,  26th  October 
1826.      His  most  valuable  works  were  his  TraiU 
Jlediro-philoaophique  de  V Alienation  Mentale  (1791), 
and  La  Nosographie  Philoeophique  (1798),  with  its 
commentary.  La  M6decine  Clinique  (1802).  P.  gained 
for  himself  undying  fame  by  his  reformation  of  the 
old  harbarous  methods  of  treating  the  insane.    The 
physicians  brought  up  under  the  old  system  were 
not  aahamed  to  offer  a  vigorous  opposition  to  P.'s 
philanthropic    opinions;   but    he  fortunately   suc- 
ceeded in  thoroughly  establishing  their  correctness, 
and  his  system  m  a  few  years  prevailed  over  the 
whole  of  Europe. 

PIKEBCLO,  or  PIGNEROL,  a  town  in  the 
north  of  Italy,  on  the  Clusone,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
valley  of  Perosa^  in  the  province  of  Turin,  and  23 


miles  by  railway  south-west  of  the  city  of  that 
name.  It  was  formerly  strongly  fortified,  and  was 
the  residence  of  the  rulers  ol  Piedmont.  It  con- 
tains a  new  cathedral,  a  bishop's  palace,  seminaries, 
barracks,  &c.  The  ruins  of  the  citadel,  for  some 
time  the  prison  of  the  Man  with  the  Iron  AfoJtk 
(q.  v.),  are  still  to  be  seen  on  the  hill  of  St  Brigide. 
Broad-cloth,  i)aper,  leather,  iron,  and  silk,  are 
manufactured.     ro\i.  14,260. 

PINE-WOOL.  Several  attempts  have  been 
made  of  late  years  to  utilise  the  leaves  of  pine  and 
fir-trees,  whicn  are  cut  down  in  vast  numbers  for 
their  timber  only.  The  leaves  contain  a  consider- 
able quantity  of  fine  vegetable  fibre,  which,  when 
separated,  has  much  the  a[qpearance  of  cotton.  In 
Germany,  several  works  have  been  established  for 
preparing  this  fibre,  and  fitting  it  for  various 
applications ;  and  under  the  name  of  pine- wool,  it  is 
now  sold  for  stuffin^cushions,  making  waddiujo^,  &c. 
The  principal  manufacture  is  near  Breslau  in  Silesia, 
where  it  is  carried  on  by  the  inventor,  Herr 
Pannewitz. 

PINEY  TREE.    See  Calophyllum. 

PINEY- VARNISH.    See  Dammar. 

PlNGUrCULA.    See  Bottkewort. 

PINHOEN,  Oil  of.    See  Physic  Nut. 

PINK  {Dianthiu)y  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Caryophyllacece,  of  whicn  there  are  many 
species,  annuals  and  perennials,  with  beautiful  and 
often  fragrant  flowers,  chieHy  natives  of  Europe  and 
the  temperate  parts  of  Asia.  The  calyx  is  tubular, 
5-toothed,  with  two  or  four  scales  at  the  base ;  there 
are  five  petals  suddenly  contracted  at  the  throat 
of  the  corolla  into  a  Unear  claw.  There  are  ten 
stamens,  and  one  germen  with  two  styles.  The 
capsule  is  cylindriciu,  and  one-celled.  The  ex(^uisite 
beauty  of  the  flowers  has  attracted  admiration  in 
all  ages ;  and  some  of  the  species  have  lou^  been 
much  cultivated  in  gardens,  particularly  the  Garden 
P.  and  Carnation  (q.  v.),  which  are  often  referred 
to  one  original,  the  Clove  P.  (Z>.  caryophyllus)^  a 
native  of  the  south  of  Europe,  growing  wild  on 
rocks  and  old  walls,  and  naturalised  in  some  places 
in  the  south  of  England ;  whilst  some  botanists 
refer  the  garden  pinks  in  part  to  the  Maiden  P. 
(Z>.  ddtoides),  a  pretty  common  British  species,  and 
those  called  Pheasant-eye  pinks  to  the  Feather  P. 
(D.  plumarius),  a  native  of  some  parts  of  continental 
Europe,  differing  from  the  Clove  P.  chiefly  in 
having  the  leaves  rough  on  ihe  margin,  and  th^ 
petals  bearded  and  much  cut  Nearly  allied  to 
them  is  D,  aupet'hus,  found  in  moist  places  in  some 
parts  of  Europe,  and  not  unfrequeutly  to  be  seen  in 
flower-borders.  It  has  very  fragrant  flowers.  All 
the  varieties  of  Garden  P.,  whatever  their  origin, 
have  been  much  changed  by  cultivation,  and  careful 
cultivation  is  requisite  to  preserve  them  in  perfec- 
tion. Both  single  and  double  pinks  are  generally 
propagated  by  pipings,  which  are  short  cuttings  of 
the  younger  shoots.  They  are  also  sometimes  pro- 
pagated by  layers.  A  rich  loamv  soil  is  the  best 
for  pinka  The  Clove  P.,  in  a  wild  state,  has  flesh- 
coloured  flowers.  The  leaves  are  linear-awl-shaped, 
grooved,  and  glaucous.  The  Maiden  P.  is  a  small 
much  branched  plant,  growing  in  grassy  places,  on 
gravelly  and  sandy  soils ;  it  has  rose-coloured 
flowers  spotted  with  white,  and  a  white  eye 
encircled  oy  a  deep  purple  ring. — The  De|)tford  P. 
(Z>.  Armeria)  and  the  Clustered  P.,  or  Childino  P. 
(D.  proltfer),  also  natives  of  England,  differ  fron 
these  in  being  annuals,  and  in  having  clustered 
flowers.— The  Bearded  P.,  or  Sweet  William  (D. 
barba,tus)y  a  native  of  the  middle  of  Europe  and  thf> 
south  of  France,  with   lanceolate  leaves,  flowen 

549 


PINK  COLOUES— PINSK. 


crowded  in  dense  dustera  at  the  top  of  the  stem, 
acuminated  bracts,  and  bearded  petals,  has  long 
been  a  favourite  garden-flower,  still  retaining  its 
place  alike  in  palace  and  cottage  gardens.  Although 
perennial,  it  is  sown  annually  by  florists,  to  secure 
fine  flowers,  and  there  are  many  varieties,  single 
and  double,  exhibiting  much  diversity  of  colour. 
— The  Indian  P.  or  China  P.  (Z>.  Chinetisia)  is  now 
also  common  in  flower-gardens. 

The  Clove  P.  was  formerly  regarded  as  possess- 
ing medicinal  properties,  and  was  used  in  nervous 
maladies.  ^^Sea  P.  is  a  common  name  of  Thrift 
(q.  v.). 

PINK  COLOURS,  very  light  shades  of  rose- 
red  colour :  they  are  usually  produced  by  extreme 
dilution  of  cochineal  or  carmine,  Brazil  and  Braziletto 
wood  colours,  with  whiting.  Some  mineral  pinks 
for  oil  colours  are  obtained  from  preparations  of 
manganese,  &c.  See  Red  Colours.  The  term  pink 
is  also  applied  to  several  Yellow  Colours  (q.  v.). 

PINKERTON,  John,  an  industrious  and  learned 
litterateur,  was  bom  at  Edinburgli,  17th  Febniary 
175S,  and  educated  at  the  grammar-school  of 
Lanark,  where  he  was  noted  for  the  unusual 
excellence  of  his  classical  attainments,  and  for  lus 
hypochondriacal  tendency.  He  was  afterwards 
apprenticed  to  a  Writer  to  the  Signet,  his  father 
refusing  to  let  him  proceed  to  the  university; 
and  while  engaged  in  the  irksome  and  distasteful 
practice  of  law,  ne  published  an  Ode  to  CraUpniUar 
Castle  in  1776,  which  he  dedicated  to  Dr  Beattie. 
In  1780,  he  went  to  London,  where  he  settlu<l  as  a 
man  of  letters.  Next  year,  he  gave  to  the  public  a 
volume  of  Rimes  (as  he  called  his  pieces),  and  a 
collection  of  Scottish  Tragic  Ballads,  followed  in  1783 
by  a  second  collection  of  Ballads  qf  tlte  Coviic  Kind 
— both  of  which  subsequently  api)eared  under  the 
title  of  Select  Scottish  Ballads,  They  professed  to 
be  ancient,  but  many  of  them  were  really  composi- 
tions—;/b;i7«rie«,  some  might  say,  of  P.'s  own,  and 
would  hardly  deceive  a  critical  archaeoloc:i3t.  In 
17Si,  he  published  an  Essay  on  Medals,  which  went 
through  several  editions,  and  long  held  a  high  place 
among  books  on  numismatics  ;  aud  in  1785,  Letters 
on  Literature,  marked  chiefly  by  a  novel  system  of 
orthography  (e.  g.,  the  use  of  a  instead  of  «  in  form- 
ing plurals),  intended  to  soften  the  harshness  of  the 
English  language,  and  which  was  abused  as  heartily 
as  it  deserved.  These  Letters  were,  however,  the 
means  of  introducing  him  to  Walpole,  through  whom 
he  became  acquainted  with  Gibbon  aud  other 
literary  celebrities.  P.'s  next  publication  was  a 
moat  valuable  one,  Ancient  Scottish  Poems  never 
be/ore  in  Print,  from  the  MS.  Collections  of  Sir 
Bicltard  Maitlafid  oj  Lethinyion,  KiwjIU  (2  vols. 
Loncl  178G).  It  was  followed  in  1787  by  his  once 
notable  Dissertation  on  the  Orufin  ami  Progress  of 
the  Scythians  or  Ooths,  in  which,  for  the  first  time, 
appears  that  grotesquely  virulent  hatred  of  the 
Britanno-Celtic  race — Scotch  Highlanders,  Welsh, 
and  Irish — ^that  reaches  its  climax  in  his  Inquiry 
into  the  History  of  Scotland  preceding  the  Revjn  of 
Malcolm  II L  (2  vols.  Loud.  1790),  whei*e  he  afi^rms 
again  and  a^n,  obviously  with  the  extremest  gusto, 
that  the  Hie^hlanders  are  *mere  savages,  but  one 
degree  above  brutes ; '  that  they  are  just  as  they  were 
*  in  the  days  of  Julius  Csasar ; '  that  *  like  Indians 
and  Negroes,*  they  *wiIL  ever  continue  absolute 
savages,  and  that  *  all  we  can  do  is  to  plant  colonies 
among  them,  and  by  this,  and  encoura^ng  their 
emigration,  try  to  get  rid  of  them.'  But  m  spite  of 
this  extravagant  truculence  of  B})eech,  the  Inquiry 
contains  a  great  deal  of  important  matter — rare 
and  curious  historical  documents,  some  of  which 
are  to  be  foimd  nowhere  else  in  print.  P.  left 
650 


'  England  in  1802,  and  fixed  his  residence  at  Parii, 
!  where  he  died   10th  March  1826,  nfter  a  life  d 
hard   literary   work.     His    principal  publicatiou, 
besides  those  ali'eady  mentioned,  are,  The  MedaHic 
'  History  of  England  to  the  Revolution  (1790) ;  ScnttiA 
Poems  (3  vols.  1702),  reprinted  from  scarce  editioM; 
Iconographia  Scotica,  or  Portraits  of  I Kiutriovt  Per- 
sons of  Scotland,  with  Biographical  Notes  (2  vols. 
1795—1797) ;    The  History  of  Scotland  from  the 
Accession  of  the  House  of  Stuart  to  tliat  of  Mnry 
(2  vols.  1797),  valuable  for  its  laborious  inYesti> 
tion  of  original  materials,  but  disfigured,  in  a  lite- 
rary poiut  of  view,  by  an  imitation  of  the  grandioae 
style  of  Gibbon ;    Walpoliana,  a  collection  of  his 
notes  of  his  friend  Horace  Walpole's  c<">nversatioD, 
I  in  2  vols.  ;    7Vie  Scottish   Gallery,   or  PortraiU  of 
I  Eminnit  Persons  of  SrotUind,  wi'Ji  their  Cftarnd^n 
'(1799);    Molern  Geography   (3  vols.  18()2-ISo7); 
Gewi'ol  Collect/on  of  Voyages  and  Tixivds  {16  vols. 
1808  -1813) ;  New  Modern  Atlas  (1809—1815);  and 
Petra'ogy,  or  a  Treatise  on  Rocks  (2  vols.  1811). 

PINK  ROOT.    Soe  Spigelia. 

PrNNA,  a  genits  of  lamellibrancliiate  mollnsci  of 
the  same  family  with  the  Pearl  Mussel  (Acicui'U), 
and  having  a  shell  of  two  equal  wedge-shaped  valves, 
closely  uuited  by  a  ligament  along  one  of  tkir 
sides.  The  mantle  is  closed  on  the  side  of  the  liga- 
ment ;  the  foot  is  small  and  conicaL  The  byasiu 
is  remarkably  long  and  silky ;  and  by  it  the  species 
'  atfix  themselves  to  submarine  rocks  and  other 
bodies,  sometimes  even  to  sandy  or  muddy  hottonn. 
The  best  known  species  is  P.  nobilis,  a  native  of  tlie 
Mediterranean,  the  byssus  of  which  was  used  by  the 
ancients  for  ^brics,  but  chiefly  as  an  article  of 
curiosity,  to  which  a  great  value  was  attached.  It 
is  still  so  used  in  Sicuy  and  elsewhere.  It  is  y&y 
strong  and  lustrous.  The  only  reason  against  its 
more  general  use  is  the  difiiculty  of  procuring  it  io 
sufiicient  quantity.  The  byssus  of  this  species  is 
sometimes  two  feet  long,  the  shell  is  about  the  same 
length.  Pinnaa  are  often  foimd  in  large  beds,  with 
only  the  edges  of  their  shells  appearing  above  the 
mud  or  saniL    The  animal  is  eaten. 

Pl'NN ACE  (from  the  ItaL  pinaeda,  a  diininati\-e 
of  piiw,  a  ship)  was  originally  a  small  vessel,  nsualiy 
schooner-rigged,  employed  as  tender  to  a  large  sliip, 
for  the  purpose  of  communicating  with  the  shore, 
&c  At  present,  however,  the  signification  is  limitrii 
to  a  large  boat  carried  by  great  ships.  It  is  smaller 
than  the  launch,  but  larger  than  the  cutters ;  and 
is  generally  rowed  '  double-banked,*  by  from  ten  to 
sixteen  oars. 

Pl'NN ACLE,  an  ornamental  termination  moch 
used  in  Gothic  architecture.  It  is  of  simple  form 
in  the  earlier  periods  of  the  style,  having  a  }>}ain 
square  or  octagonal  shaft  and  sloping  roof  or  top, 
I  terminating  with  a  finial ;  but  in  later  examplt^ 
,  the  pinnacle  is  greatly  developed,  and  becomes  one 
of  the  most  varied  and  beautiful  features  of  the 
style.  It  is  ornamented  with  shafts  bearing 
canopies,  and  niches  tilled  with  statues.  Finnacks 
are  most  frequently  used  on  buttresses  and  para- 
pets, and  when  placed  over  the  former,  serve  as  a 
deadweight  to  increase  their  power  of  resisting  a 
thrust. 

PI'NNULE,  in  Botany,  a  leaflet  of  a  pinnata 
leaf,  or  of  one  which  is  bipinnate,  tripinuate,  && 
See  Leaves^  The  term  is  more  frequently  u^ 
however,  to  designate  the  ultimate  divisions  ot  it* 
fronds  of  ferns,  when  divided  in  the  same  manner. 

PINSK,  a  town  of  West  Russia,  in  the  govew 
ment  of  Minsk,  suirounded  by  vast  marshes  calW 
the  Pinsk  Marshes,  stands  on  the  banks  of  t^a 
Pina,  a  branch  of  the  Pripet,  752  miles  south-south- 


PINT— PlOZZt 


west  of  St  Peterebnra;.  lat  ST  T  N.,  long.  20'  6'  E. 
It  was  foaadcd  in  tli«  I2th  c,  naa  conixu.?r<jd  liy 
the  Priuce  nf  Litliiiaiiia  in  1320,  wns  aniiexeil, 
together  with  L.thuaoiii,  to  Piil.-vod  in  ICU!),  snd 
came  at  last  into  the  |)0S3es3ioii  of  Russia  in  1795. 
lliH  trnile  of  P.,  cbieHy  transit,  had  increased, 
csiieclally  since  the  openiiig  of  tUa  Ogliinsky 
Cinat,  which  eonnects  the  Dnieper  and  the 
black  Si'a  with  the  Niemcn  and  the  Baltic  Sea. 
A  very  rniisii  lerahle  ntiiuber  nf  ahi]>s  aud  bar^^ 
enter  and  o!eir  the  port  They  are  laden  princi- 
pally with  Bait,  com,  hemp-seed,  iri>n,  glass,  tar, 
talliiw,  wni.l,  tuliacco,  and  timlwr.  These  goods  arc 
torn-ariiod  to  the  west  and  north-weat,  beina  cun- 
vpytii  hy  lanil  to  J\.nBtria,  and  by  water  to  Komo, 
Kiini^x'i;:!,  Danzig,  aud  Warsaw.  Tlie  maniifoc- 
tiirln'.'  activity  of  the  town  i«  not  grimt  I'op, 
1 1.325 :  SilUU  of  wkoiD  are  Jewi. 

PINT,  a  measure  of  capacity  used  both  fiir  liquids 
■nd  dry  puoiU.  and  equivalent  to  the  eighth  part  of 
a  Gallon  (q.  v.|,  or  34'G3i)-.>j  ciihic  iuchcH.  The 
Scotch  pint,  still  in  use,  thon;{h  8U|ierjedetl 
'       '    nu.isure  hv  the  ii         -  ■     ■    ■     -  -      ' 

d  impcnaj  pints. 
PINTA'BO.  See  Guise*  Fowu 
Pl'NTAIL,  or  PIMAIL  DUCK  (i>«rff«|. 
ecniis  of  ducks,  of  the  section  with  the  liind-toe 
dcatitnic  of  membrane.  The  bill  is  without  tnliercl 
at  the  base,  narrow,  with  lamiuce  not  limjeetin 
beyond  the  margin.  The  tail  of  the  niolc  is  loa^ 
and  ta[K;rs  to  a  point— Tha  OoMHON  if.  ID.  acuta 
is  a  haudsoma  hitd,  rather  longur  in  shape  than  mos 


Pintail  Duck  (Dufila  acuta). 

of  the  ducks  ;  the  neck  also  louder  and  more  slender. 
It  is  aluut  equal  in  si^e  to  the  mallar,L  The  head 
is  brown,  with  a  white  lon>;itudinal  line  on  each 
side  extending  down  the  neck ;  the  back  aud  sidi 


tail-fonthers  black.  It  is  a  native  at  all  "the  Dorthei 
jiarta  of  tlie  world,  migrating  southwants  in  winter, 
and  a  regular  visitant  of  many  pails  oE  the  British 
coasts.  It  also  frequents  fresh-water  lakes  and 
poiuls,  and  is  common  in  winter  in  the  valley  of  the 
MississippL  Ita  winter  range  cxteiiJs  southwards 
to  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexi<;0,  and 
even  to  Africa  and  the  West  Indian  IsUnda.  Its 
flight  is  very  r;i]iid  and  noiseless.  It  is  very  much 
esteemed  for  the  table.  It  has  been  tamed,  and  has 
bred  in  conlineinent 

PIOMBI'NO.  a  principality  now  incorporated  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy,  lies  along  the  Italian  coast 
opposite  the  island  of  Elba,  the  greater  ]>art  of 
which  belonged  to  it.  Its  extent  was  about  132 
Bn£li»ii  ii^uore  miles  i  and  its  poiiulation,  previous 


t'l  its  incorpirjtinn  with  the  rest  of  Italy,  about 
■J.).'i(K).  P.  was  originally  a  fief  of  tlie  emjiire,  and. 
at  the  end  of  the  14th  c,  came  into  the  possession 
of  the  family  of  Appiani,  which,  after  ruling  it  for 
nearly  300  years,  made  way  for  a  new  dynasty,  tha 
family  of  BuoncompagnL  This  latter  dynasty  was 
mostly  under  the  suitcrainty  of  the  neighlionring 
states  of  Sardinia  aud  Naples  alternately.  In  1801, 
the  Buoncuini>n^ui  family  wereex{ielled  by  Napoleon, 
and  the  prindp^ility  given  to  his  sister  Eliea,  the 
wife  of  Felice,  Prince  Bacioechi ;  but  the  latter  wa« 
ejectwl,  and  the  old  dynasty  restored,  by  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna ;  the  principality  being  then  put 
under  the  suzerainty  of  Tuscany,  whose  gr.ind-diike 
indeumilied  the  Buoncompa^ni  for  their  loss  of 
sovereijjnty.  It  is  now  a  part  of  the  province  of 
Grosaeto,  in  the  kingrlnm  of  Italy.  The  Strait 
between    P.    and    Elba  is   called   the  'Oluumel   of 

PIONEE'R,  a  military  kbourer  employed  to 
form  roads,  dig  trenches,  aud  make  bridges  aa 
an  army  advances ;  and  to  preserve  cleanliness  in 
the  camp  nheu  it  h.ilts.  Formerly,  the  pioneera 
were  ordinary  labourers  of  the  country  in  which 
the  army  was,  impressed  for  military  pur^Kises; 
but  now  such  persons  are  only  brought  in  ai 
auxiliaries,  a  few  men  being  attached  to  every  corps 
aa  a  permanent  body  of  pioneera.  In  the  British 
army,  one  man  is  selected,  for  bis  intelligence,  from 
evury  couijKiny.  These  pioneers  march  at  the  head 
of  the  rogiment,  aud  the  senior  among  them  com- 
maiuts  OS  coqiorol.  Instead  of  a  musket,  each 
man  carries  a  saw-backed  sword,  which  is  at 
once  t<iol  and  weapon.  Each  bears  also  an  axe  and 
two  gun-spikes,  other  necessary  tools  bcieg  dia- 
tribntcd  among  them.  There  is  something  rather 
conllit-ting  between  the  functions  of  the  piuneen 
and  those  of  the  engineer  force. 

PIOTftKO'W,  a  town  of  Pohmd,  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Warsaw,  and  01  miles  south-west  of  the 
city  of  that  name,  close  to  the  Warsaw  aud  Vienna 
Itailway.  It  is  known  to  have  existed  in  the 
15th,  e.  1  but  it  is  now  a  decaying  town,  carrying 
on  no  proiniuent  and  special  branches  of  trade  or 
manufacture.    Pup.  11,209. 

PIOZZI,  Mrs  {nfe  UstTER  Lynch  Salusbury), 

who  cannot  bo  forgotten  while  the  great  Dr  Samuel 

Johnson    continues    to  be    TememTiered,   was   the 

ilauglilerof  John  Salnsbuiy,  Esq.,  of  Bodvel,  inCaer- 

-on^^hire,  where  she  was  bom  in  the  year  1739. 

'         '       '    into  the   fashionable  world   of 

led  by  her  beauty  auil  her  livelj 

, 1TG3,  waa  married  to  Mr  Heniy 

hralc,  a  rich  brewer,  with  a  recognised  position  Id 
society,  and,  at  the  time,  one  of  the  members  for 
the  borough  of  Sonthwark.  Her  aeqnaintanoe 
with  Dr  Johnson,  which  speedily  became  an 
imauy  of  the  closest  and  most  affectionate  kind, 
jnn  shortly  after.  Of  all  Johnson's  many  friend- 
ships, this  was  jfcrhaps,  in  certain  essential  resjiects, 
the  most  valuable  to  him.  To  Johnson,  widowed 
and  alone,  and  subject,  as  he  had  been  thTonghout, 
'  frightful  gloomy  hypochondria, 
;  times  to  him  an  almost  intoler- 
able burden,  the  society  of  Mrs  Thrale,  and  of  the 
irele  which  she  gathered  round  her,  was  a  source  of 
icalculable  solace.  Mrs  Thrale  in  particular,  with 
er  warm  heart,  and  bright  womanly  intelligence, 
OS  always  a  comforting  presence ;  and  lier  unfailing 
cheerfulness  and  vivacity  enlivened  for  him  many  aa 
cloudy  hour.  Her  married  life,  thoiidi 
I,  was  not  an  eminently  happy  one,  Mr 
irale,  though  always  a  pfeasant  and 
kindly  gentleman,  being  no  miracle  of  conjusal 
"  '   -      If  Johnson  owed  her  much,  it  may   M 


PIPA— PIPE-FISH. 


■nnnised  tbat  the  benefit  wm  in  aome  sort  recip- 
rocali  and  tliat,  by  her  affectionate  reverence  and 
•nlicitude  for  her  eage,  she  a  little  oonsoled  herself 
for  the  gentiemBoly  indifference  of  her  hueband. 
On  the  death,  in  1781,  of  her  husband,  Mrs  Throle 
retired  with  her  four  daughters  to  Bath,  where,  in 
17S4,  ihe  niarned  Mr  Gabriel  Fiozzi,  an  Italian 
teacher  of  muaic  This  mdaUiance — as  it  wai  held 
— was  deeply  censured  b^  all  her  frieadl,  and  to 
nnreasoaably  excited  the  ire  of  Di  Johosoa  in  par- 
tLcnlar,  that  a  rupture  of  friendly  relations  was  the 
naolb  In  the  correspondenoa  between  them  on 
the  subject,  it  must  be  admitted  the  lady  has 
much  (he  better  of  the  phUoaopher,  whose  tone  of 
unmannerly  rudeness  gives  some  connteaanco  to  the 
good-natured  suspicion  of  his  friends,  that  he  had  an 
eye  to  the  widow  hunBelL  Though  the  fend  was 
ostensibly  healed,  the  friends  never  again  met ; 
Mn  P-  leaviog  England  for  Italy  with  her  hnsband, 
•nd  Dr  Johnson  dying  soon  after.  Some  little  time 
subeequtnt  to  his  death,  she  published  an  octavo 
volume,  entitled  Antcdota  of  Dr  Samuel  Johuaon 
during  ihe  last  Tinfnty  Yean  oflua  Lift,  ia  which  it 
seemed  to  the  indignant  Boswell  and  others,  that 
her  main  intention  was  to  take  her  little  feminine 
revenge  on  the  deceased  for  his  outrage  in  the 
matter  of  FiuzzL  This  work  she  supplemented  in 
1788  by  a  collection  ot  LtlUri  to  and  from  Dr 
Samutt  Johnson,  in  2  vols.  Svo.  Of  works  mora 
properly  her  own,  may  be  mentioned,  ObKrvaiiom 
am  lirfieclioiis  made  in  l!ie  courae  of  a  Journeg 
tkrou'jh  France,  Italy,  and  On-many  (2  vols.  Svo, 

1789) ;  BritUh  Synonymy,  or  an  Attempt  at  rttja- 
taliag  Oit  Choke  of  Words  in  Familiar  Conreraalion 
(2  vols.  8vo,  1794) ;  and  RetroapeciUm,  or  a  Review 
of  tlir,  molt  ttrildng  and  important  Events,  Cliar- 
aeters,  Situationi,  and  their  ConsequeTKes,  ickich  the 
last  Eighteen  Hundred  Ytara  have  prtataled  to  Ihe 

View  of  Mankind  (2  vols.  4to,  1801)— books  lone 
since  utterly  forgottrai,  if  ever  they  were  at  all 
read  and  rememb^^  Having  survived  her  second 
husband,  her  own  celebrity,  and  almost  in  some 
sort  that  of  the  great  Dr  Johnson,  with  whom  her 
name  remains  indissolably  connected,  Mrs  P.  died 
kt  Clifton,  near  BrUtoI,  on  the  2d  May  1821. 

PIFA,  a  genus  of  batrachionl,  in  general  form 
lesembling  frogs  and  toads,  and  characterised  '-~ 


large  in  the  true  toads  ;  the  eyes  small,  and  situated 
near  the  margin  of  (he  lower  jaw  ;  the  ear  concealed 
beneath  the  skin  ;  -Uie  tongue  merely  rudimentary ; 
the  jaws  destitute  of  teeth  ;  the  fore-feet  not 
webbed,  but  divided  into  four  lingers,  each  of  which 
divides  at  the  ertremity  into  four  amall  points, 
these,  again,  being  minutely  divided  in  a  similar 
manner;  the  hind-feet  iive-toed  and  completely 
webl>ed  ;  (he  larynx  of  the  nuile  extremely  large — 
»  triaogulal'  bony  box,  within  which  are  two  small 
movab^  bones  for  occasionally  closing  the  entrance 
of  the  bronchi ;  the  back  of  the  female  furnished 
with  numerous  cells  or  pouches,  in  which  (he  eggs 
are  hatched,  and  the  young  undergo  all  their  trans- 
formations (ill  they  have  attaint  a  form  similar 
to  that  of  (heir  parents.  These  characters  are  to 
remackahle  as  to  make  the  creatures  of  this  genus 
objects  of  peculiar  interest,  but  particularly  the 
mode  of  tearing  the  young.  It  was  at  first  sup- 
poeed  that  the  young  were  iffojJuced  in  some  unusual 
way  in  the  cells  from  which  they  were  sten 
finally  to  emerge ;  but  this  is  no(  the  case.  The 
^gs  are  deposited  by  (he  female  in  (he  ordinary 
manner,  ancl  are  carefully  placed  by  the  nude  in  the 
cell*  of  her  back,  which  close  over  them.     When 


inly  called  the  Surinam  Toad  {P.  i^uruianouu), 
a  native  of  Guiana  and  other  warm  parts  of  cisti- 
nental  America,  where  it  inhabits  iwunps  ud 
ditches,  and  is  occasionally  found  in  damp  ud 
dirty  comers  of  houaee.  It  is  sometimes  UTcn 
inches  long ;  its  culour  is  brownish-olive  strive, 
whitish  below ;  the  skin  covered  with  snull  hud 
graoules,  mingled  with  occasional  homy  tubftcla. 
The  whole  aspect  of  the  creature  ia  pecciliuly 
hideous. 

PIP.      See  PODLTBT. 

PIPE,  a  measure  of  quantity  commonly  emplojed 
in  Portugal,  tjpain,  France,  and  in  some  oUki 
countriea  which  trade  with  these.  It  ia  used  ilmoM 
excluairely  for  wine  and  oil,  and  has  a  partiimlu 
value  for  almost  each  locahty.  The  pipe  ia  called 
in  England  a  butt,  and  is  equal  to  two  nngsheadi,  di 
half  a  tun.  The  pipe  of  Oivrto  is  larger  than  thaw 
of  Lislion  and  of  Spain  in  the  proportion  of  93  te 
7e.  There  are  three  different  meaaurea  of  this  nung 
in  France  ;  and  there  was  formerly  a  pipe,  a  meanre 
ot  capacity  for  dry  goods,  in  use  by  the  Bretons. 
But  the  pi]>e  in  Eliiglaud  varies  with  the  descriptioii 
of  wine  it  contains  i  a  pipe  of  port  contains  114 
imperial  gallons;  of  sheiry,  103  in]]>erial  galluu; 
and  of  Disdeim.  92  imperial  gallons  ;  wmlt  tbo 
common  English  pipe  contains  12S  wine  gallcD^  « 
105  imperial  gallons  nearly. 

PIPECLAY  is  a  fine  Clay  (q.  v.),  free  from  in* 
and  other  impurities,  having  a  grayish-white  calMu-, 

greasy  feel,  and  an  earthy  fracture.  It  silhem 
strongly  to  the  tongue,  and  is  veir  plaatic,  tenacjou, 
and  mfusiblo.  It  is  used  for  tLe  manufactare  d 
tobacco -jiipes  and  white  pottery.  The  localilia 
where  it  is  chiefly  obtained  are  Devonshire,  and  the 
Trough  of  Foole  in  Dorsetshire.  It  is  also  found 
in  various  places  in  France,  Belgium,  and  Gemuny. 

PIPE-FISH  {Sifognalhss),  a  genus  of  owam 
fishes  of  the  order  Lop/iobranchii  (q.  v.),  and  of  tbe 
family  Syngaalhid/B,  In  this  family  the  form  ii 
elongated,  there  is  little  flesh,  and  the  body  n 
almost  covered  with  partially  oasilied  plates;  the 
head  is  long  ;  the  jaws  are  elongated  so  as  (a  tons  > 
tubular  snout — whence  the  names  P.  and  SyiyptaUiu 
(Gt.  tyti,  Isgether ;  and  ^naihoa,  a  jaw) ;  and  th* 
males  hove  pouches,  variously  situated,  in  which 
they  receive  the  eggs  ot  their  mate,  and  carry  them 
till  they  are  hatched.  The  family  Sjfngiuwiidix  is 
sometimes  restricted  to  (hose  in  which  the  egg-pooch 


Kpe-Fish  {Byngnathta  ociu], 

of  the  males  is  on  the  tail,  and  is  opea  thronghout  ill 
whole  length,  and  the  tail  is  not  prehensile.  Thu 
restricted,  it  containa  a  nnmber  of  jzenera,  of  wiA 
one  only,  Syngnalhiu,  it  British.— One  of  the  mn> 
common  Bntish  species  is  the  Oiixat  P.  (S^n^aortu 
acus),  which  is  sometimes  fonnd  in  deep  itater,  aai 
sometimes  at  low  tide  among  (he  ae»-weed  in  rock- 
pools.  The  specimens  commonly  seen  are  from  1  ftot 
to  16  inches  m  length ;  but  (his  fish  is  said  to  attn 


PIPERACE,^:— PIPES. 


a  length  of  2  or  3  feet.  Its  food,  and  tliat  of  the 
other  species,  is  believed  to  consist  of  small  marine 
animals  and  the  eggs  of  fishes ;  and  it  may  be  seen 
slowly  moving  about,  with  curious  contortion9, 
poking  its  long  snout  into  every  crevice  in  search 
of  fooil,  and  sometimes  assuming  a  vertical  position 
with  the  head  downwards,  pokmg  into  or  stirring 
the  sand.  This  and  the  other  pitie-fishes  shew 
great  affection  for  their  young,  which  are  believed 
to  return,  on  the  appearance  of  danger,  to  the  pouch 
of  their  male  parent,  after  they  have  begun  to  leave 
it,  and  to  swim  about  in  the  sea. 

The  name  P.  is  sometimes  also  given  to  the  fishes 
forming  the  family  FistularidcB  (q.  v.),  or  Flute- 
mouths,  sometimes  called  Pipe-mouths* 

PIPERA'CEiB,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  natives  almost  exclusively  of  the  hottest 
parts  of  the  globe,  particularly  of  Asia  and  America. 
None  of  them  found  in  cold  regions.  About  600 
species  are  known,  to  most  of  which  the  name  Pepper 
in  sometimes  given,  although  some  are  also  known 
by  other  names,  particularly  those  of  which  the  fruit 
is  not  used  as  a  spice,  but  of  which  some  part  is 
employed  for  some  other  pur()Ose,  as  Betel,  Cubebs, 
Matico,  and  Ava.  See  tnese  heads.  But  Pepper 
(q.  V.)  is  the  most  important  product  of  the  orcter. 
Of  the  P.,  a  few  are  almost  trees ;  but  they  are 
generally  shrubs  or  herbaceous  plants,  often  climb- 
ing. They  have  jointed  stems;  opposite  whorled 
or  alternate  leaves,  with  or  without  stipules,  and 
inaignificaut  greenish  iiowers  in  slender  spikes, 
unisexual  or  hermaphrodite,  the  different  kinds 
generally  mingled  in  the  same  spike;  the  flowers 
without  calyx  or  corolla,  but  each  with  a  bract,  the 
stamens  2—6,  the  ovary  with  one  cell  and  one  ovule, 
and  crowned  with  one  or  three  stigmas ;  the  fruit 
somewhat  succulent,  containing  one  seed. 

PI'PERINE  (Cs^HijjNOg)  is  an  alkaloid  possess- 
ing very  weak  basic  properties,  which  is  found  in 
the  Pepper  tribe.  It  may  be  obtained  by  heating 
powdercd  pepper  with  alcohol,  which  extracts  the 
pil>erine  and  some  resinous  matter,  which  may  be 
removed  by  digestion  in  a  solution  of  potash.  It 
occurs  in  colourless  well-formed  prisms,  which  are 
insoluble  in  cold  water,  but  dissolve  readily  in  alco- 
hol and  ether.  According  to  Miller,  piperine  '  has 
an  acrid  taste,  resembling  that  of  pepper;'  while 
Gorup-Besanez  asserts  that  *it  is  devoid  of  odour 
or  taste,  and  that,  consequently,  the  well-known 

Eroperties  of  pepper  are  not  dependent  on  it.*  On 
eating  pipenne  with  soda-lime,  a  remarkable  oily 
base,  Piperidine  (C,oHiiN),  is  obtained,  with  a 
pungent  odour,  resembUng  both  that  of  ammonia 
and  pepper. 

PIPES,  or  TUBES,  are  made  of  various  materials 
and  for  various  purposes.  Thus,  we  have  draining- 
pipes  for  agricultural  and  sanitary  purposes,  made  of 
earthenware,  wood,  and  metal ;  pipes  of  various 
kinds  of  metals  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  and 
Tobacco-pipes  (q.  v.)  of  various  materiats.  Formerly, 
-wooden  pipes  were  extensively  used  for  conveying 
-w^ter  and  for  draining ;  but  so  great  an  improve- 
ment has  been  effectea  of  late  years  in  the  manu- 
facture of  metal  and  earthenware  pipes,  that  they 
have  now  become  exceedingly  rare,  and  will  soon 
disappear.  For  agricultural  purposes,  drain-tiles 
are  made  of  ordinary  brick-day  ;  and  owing  to 
the  use  of  machinery  in  their  manufacture,  they 
jure  produced  very  rapidly  and  cheaply.  They 
axe  of  various  sizes,  but  the  most  general  is  15 
inches  in  length  by  2^  inches  diameter.  The 
o|3eration  of  the  drain-tile  machine  is  to  squeeze  a 
continuous  length  of  soft  plastic  clajr  through  a  ring- 
shax)e  orifice,  the  centre  of  which  is  occupied  by  a 
ccwe  otr  mandrel  of  the  size  of  the  hollow  part  of  the 


pipe.  Another  arrangement  of  the  machine  is  tp 
cut  the  pipe  to  the  proper  lengths  as  it  passes 
through,  and  by  means  of  a  travelling- table,  to  carry 
them  forward  to  be  removed  to  tne  sheds,  whers 
they  are  dried,  previous  to  being  burned  in  tbrn 
kilns. 

Within  the  last  twenty  years,  earthenware  pipes 
have  been  made  of  almost  every  size,  from  an  inch 
or  two  in  diameter  up  to  the  enormous  size  of  fif^- 
fo  ir  inches.  They  are  usually  made  of  fire-clay,  and 
aie  glazed  like  common  pottery.  See  Pottert. 
Thev  are  wider  at  one  end,  so  as  to  form  a  socket,  as 
in  fig.  1,  to  receive  the  end  of  another,  and  thus 
form  a  continuous  tube.  These  are  greatly  used  for 
the  drainage  of  houses,  and  for  sewering,  for  which 


Pi«.L 

they  are  admirably  adapted :  the  inner  surface  being 
glazed  as  well  as  the  outer,  offers  no  resistance  to 
sedimentary  matters,  which  are  consequently  carried 
away  readily.  These  pipes  are  of  such  great 
strength,  that  many  small  towns  in  England  are 
now  sewered  with  them  almost  entirely.  Another 
kind  has  been  introduced  for  chimney  flues.  They 
are  also  made  of  fire-clay,  but  unglazed  externally, 
and  so  thick,  that  there  is  little  fear  of  breaking. 
They  are  placed  one  on  another,  and  are  built  into 
the  waUs  of  houses,  instead  of  the  ordinary  chimneys, 
and  in  this  way  save 
much  labour  in  building, 
and  afford  a  much  more  p^ 
effective,  and  easily  ^ 
cleaned  flue  (fig.  2). 
Caoutchouc  vulcanised 
and    gutta    percha 


are 


fig.  2. 


also  extensively  used  for 
making  pipes  for  a 
variety  of  purposes,  their  flexibihty  rendering  them 
very  usefuL  Leathern  pipes  are  used  chiefly  for  the 
conveyance  of  water  temporarily,  as  in  the  case  of 
fire-engines  :  they  are  generally  called  fiose.  Metal 
pi|ies  are  made  of  iron,  lead,  tin,  or  an  alloy  of  tin 
and  lead,  copper,  brass,  &a  Iron  pipes  are  usually 
cast,  and  the  manufacture  of  such  pipes  has  become 
of  enormous  extent,  in  consequence  of  the  vast 
works,  bv  which  almost  all  large  towns  in  this  king- 
dom ana  in  many  foreign  states  are  now  supplied 
with  water  and  gas,  the  pipes  for  which  are  largely 
exported  from  Great  Britain.  A  great  proportion 
of  the  trade  in  cast-iron  pi])cs  is  carried  on  in  Scot- 
land. The  water-works  which  supply  the  ^eat 
towns  of  Lancashire  have  nearly  all  been  furnished 
with  pipes  from  Scotland;  and  the  magnitude  of  the 
supply  can  be  best  understood  when  it  is  known 
that  for  the  Rivington  Pike  Works,  which  supply 
Liverpool,  upwards  of  twenty  miles  of  iron  pipes, 
nearly  four  feet  in  diameter,  are  req^uired-  It  would 
be  impossible  to  make  a  correct  estimate,  but  it  has 
been  stated,  with  great  reason  for  belief,  that  in 
Great  Britain  the  gas  and  water-pines  laid  and  in 
use  exceed  half  a  million  of  miles  in  length. 

Pipes  made  from  the  ductile  metals,  such  as 
brass,  copper,  and  tin,  are  made  by  first  casting  an 
ingot  of  the  metal  into  the  shajie  shewn  in  fig.  3, 
with  a  hole  through  its  length  of  the  same  diameter 
the  bore  of  the  pipe  is  intended  to  have.  Into 
this  is  placed  an  iron  rod,  called  the  mandrel 
(a,  fig.  4),  which  exactly  tits,  and  which  projects 
slighUy  at  the  tapered  end  {b,  fig.  4).     It  is  thoi 


PIPE-STICKS-  PIPPIN. 


btonght  to  the  drawing-table,  and  here  the  small 
end  with  its  projecting  mandrel  ia  put  into  a  fimnel- 
■haped  hole,  drilled  through  a  steel  post  (a,  tig.  5), 


80  as  to  allow  the  point  to  be  griped  on  the  other 
Bide  by  a  pair  of  pincers,  at  the  end  of  a  strong 
chain  ;  the  machine-power  is  then  applied  to  the 
other  end  of  the  chain,  and  the  soft  metal  and  its 
mandrel  are  drawn  through,  the  former  being 
extended  equally  over  the  surface  of  the  latter, 
which  is  then  removed,  and  the  length  of  pipe  is 
complete.  Some  metals  require  repeated  drawing 
through  holes,  getting  gradually  smaller,  and  have 
to  be  softened  or  annealed  at  intervals,  as  the 
metal  hardens  under  repeated  drawing.  In  this 
way,  brass,  copper,  tin,  and  pewter  pipes  are  made  ; 
and  a  patent  has  just  been  taken  out  for  making 
steel  ones  ;  but  lead  pipes  are  made  of  great  lengths 
by  squce2dng  the  soft  metal  through  a  hole  in  a 
steel  plate  in  which  there  is  a  fixed  core  or  man- 
drel projecting,  which  forms  and  regulates  the  size 
of  the  bore  of  the  pipe.  Pipes  are  also  made  from 
copper,  brass,  and  malleable  iron  b^  rolling  out 
narrow  strips  of  metal,  and  then  passing  them  suc- 
cessively through  rollers,  which  are  deeply  grooved, 
and  which  turn  up  the  edges  (fig.  G).  A  mandrel  is 
then  laid  in  it,  as  in  fig!  7,  and  it  is  next  passed 
throuu;h  d(»ul)lc-grooved  rollers,  which  turn  the 
edges  in,  and  thus  form  a  complete  tube  round  the 


■iiB 


mau 


■lii^ 


iOMii 


z> 


mandrel  The  edges,  however,  require  soldering  or 
welding,  if  of  iron.  All  boiler  tubes  used  to  be 
made  in  this  way  ;  but  the  method  of  drawing  has 
lately  been  so  much  improved,  that  copper  and  brass 
pipes,  or  tubes,  as  they  are  frequently  called,  are 
now  drawn  of  considerable  thickness  and  diameter. 

PIPE-STICKS.  It  is  usiml  to  call  the  wooden 
tubes  used  for  some  tobacco-pi ]»es  by  this  name; 
and  unimportant  as  it  may  at  first  si^^ht  appear 
what  the  tube  is  made  of,  there  is  great  difference 
of  taste  in  this  respect ;  and  great  care  is  taken  by 
some  smokers  to  get  what  they  consider  the  eh(  icest 
material  rerhai>s  the  most  prized  are  the  Agriot 
or  Cherry  pi^Hi- sticks  of  Austria.  These  are  the 
young  stems  of  the  Mahaleb  Cherry  (Prunus 
Mafialeb),  which  is  extensively  grown  for  the  purpose 
in  the  envirous  of  Vienna.  An  astonishing  amount  of 
care  is  l}Ostowed  on  the  cultivation  of  these  shrubs, 
which  are  all  raised  from  seed.  When  the  seedlings 
are  two  years  old,  they  are  each  planted  in  a  small 
poty  and  as  they  continue  to  grow,  every  attem])t  at 
branching  is  stopped  by  removing  the  bud.  As  they 
increase  m  size  from  year  to  year,  they  are  shifted  to 
larger  pots  or  boxes,  and  great  care  is  taken  to  turn 
them  round  almost  daily,  so  that  every  part  is 


equally  exposed  to    the  sun.      When  they  have 
attained  a  sufficient  height,  they  are  alio  we  i  to 
form  a  small  bushy  head,  and  continue  to  receive 
the  same  attention  in  daily  turning,  &c,  until  they 
are  thick  enough  in  the  steuL    They  are  then  iiken 
up,  and  the  roots  and  branches  rvm'>ved,  and  the 
stem  put  by  to  season.     Afterwards,  they  are  U)red 
throu^^h,  and  are  ready  for  usa      These  pij^e- sticks 
have  an  agreeable  odour,  and  are  covered  with  a 
reddish-brown  bark,  which  is  retained.     Sometimes 
they    are  five  feet  in  length,  anil  as  sniotith  and 
straight  as  if  turned.     When  of  such  a  leuirth.  tjey 
command  high    prices.      In  Hungary,   ]»iie-fitirks 
made  from  the  stems  of  the  Mock  Orange  \PhU> 
delphus  coronarius)  are  much  used ;  and  the  jesi»a- 
mine  sticks   of  Turkey  are  in  great  esteem  in  all 
countries.     Orange  and  lemon-trees  and  ebony  are 
also  used.      The    chief  recommendation   of   these 
materials  seems  to  l>e  in  the  )x)wer  of  the  wood  to 
absorb  the  oil  produced  in   smoking  tobacco,  and 
consequently  to  render  the  smoke  less  acrid.    See 
Tobacco-pipes. 

PI  PI,  the  name  given  to  the  ripe  pods  of  Ccual- 
pinia  Papai  (see  OjESALPINIA),  which  are  used  in 
tanning,  and  are  not  unfrequently  imported  aloug 
with  Dividivi  (q.  v.),  and  sometimes  separately,  hut 
not  to  any  considerable  extent,  beiu^^  very  inferior 
to  di^'idivi.  They  are  easily  distinguish chI  from  the 
pods  of  dividivi,  not  being  curved  as  they  are,  but 
straight. 

PIPING  CROW.    See  Babitah. 

PI'PIT,  TITLING,  or  TITLARK   {Anthvf),  ^ 
genus  of  birds  included  by  Linnaeus  among  Larks 
{Alauda) ;    but  now  re;;arded  as   formin;^  even  a 
distinct  family,  Anthidce^  which  is  ranked  among 
the  Dentirostres,  whilst  the  lark  family  {AlawHl-:) 
is  ranked  among  the  Coniroatres.    The  bill  is  more 
slender  than  in  larks  ;  the  tips  of  the  mandibles 
slightly  bent  downwards  and  notchciL      Th?  hind- 
claw  is  long,  although  not  so  long  as  in  larks,  and 
more  or  less  curved.     The  ])lumage  reaenibles  that 
of  larks  ;  in  habits  and  motion  of  the  tail,  there  ia 
a  greater  resemblance  to  wagtails.     The  bill  is  not 
strong  enough  for  feeding  on  grain  or  hard  seeds, 
and  insects  and  worms  are  the  }>rincipal  fix>d  ol 
pipits.     The  most  common  British  species  is  the 
Meadow  P.,  Common   Titlark,  or  Titlino  {A, 
prat€nsis)j  familiarly  known  in  many  parts  of  fine- 
land  and  of  Scotland  as  the  M(m8'chtf>}>er.     It  is 
found  in  almost  all  parts  of  £urope,  and  the  north 
of  Asia,  in  Western  India,  in  Japan,  and  iu  IcelaiML 
It  is  a  small  bird,  its  colour  brown  of  vaiious  shades. 
It  fre<]uents  heaths,    mosses,  and   pastures;    and 
usually  makes  its  nest  on  a  grassy  bank,  or  t»eaide  a 
tuft  of  gi'ass  or  heath.     Its  song  is  weak  and  |ilain- 
tive,  and  it  generally  sings  in  the  air.       It  is  Lie- 
garious  in  winter.     Ihe  cuckoo  is  said  to  deposit  its 
egg  more  frequently  in  the  nest  of  the  Meadow  P. 
than  in  that  of  .any  other  British  binl  — A  rather 
larger  British  species  is  the  Trek   P.,  or  Field 
Titling,  which  has  a  shorter  claw,  and  perches  on 
trees,  frequenting  enclosed  and  wooded  districts.   It 
is  a  summer  visitant  of  Britain,  and  most  common 
in  the  south  of  England.    It  occurs  in  most  yxris  of 
Europe,  in  Asia,  and  the  north  of  Africa. — The  Rock 
P.,  or  Sea  Titling  (.4,  pefrosus),  is  to  be  found  on 
the  shores  of  all  parts  of  Britain  and  Irelaml.     It  is 
rather  larger  than  the  Tree  P.,  and  lias  a  lonjc  carved 
hind-claw.    It  feeds  chiefly  on  small  marine  animals, 
seeking  its  food  close  to  the  edge  of  the  retiring 
tide. 

PI'PPI  N  (so  called  probably  because  raised  from 
the  2npt  or  seed),  a  name  given  to  many  varietit^ 
of  apple,  amonz  which  are  some  of  the  6n«8t  i« 
cultivation,  as  l^e  Golden  P.,  Ribalon  i%  Ac.     Tb» 


PIQUfi  WORK— PIRAYaV. 


Bibston  P.  was  lone  sapposed  to  be  an  originally 
English  variety,  produced  at  llibston  Hall  in  York- 
shire, but  it  is  proved  to  have  been  introduceil  from 
Normandy  in  the  beginning  of  tlie  18th  century. 

PIQUE  WORK,  a  very  fine  kind  of  inlaying 
with  gold,  silver,  and  oth^r  costly  materials  ;  it  is, 
in  fact,  a  kind  of  Buhl-work  (q.  v.),  carried  out  on  a 
very  minute  scale.  It  is  only  applied  to  articles  of 
small  size,  such  as  snuff-boxes,  card-cases,  and 
similar  articles. 

PI'QUET  is  a  small  body  of  men  posted  at  some 
point  beyond  the  general  line  of  the  army  or  corps, 
for  the  purpose  of  observing  the  motions  of  an 
enemy,  or  giving  timely  notice  in  case  of  any  attack. 
Piquuts  are  either  outlying  or  inlying, 

PIQUET,  a  game  of  cards  played  between  two 

Ecrsons    with    thirty-two    canls — viz.,    the    four 
onours,    and    the    highest    four   plain  cards    of 
each   suit.      The   cards    are   shuffled   and  cut  as 
in  whist,  and  then   dealt,  two  by  two,  till  each 
player  has  twelve ;  and  the  remaining  eight,  called 
the  talon^  or  stock,  are  then  laid  on  the  table. 
The   first  player  must  then  discard  from  one  to 
five  of  his  bards,   replacing  them  with  a  similar 
numlier  from  the  talon;  and  after  him,  the  younger 
hand  may  discard  if  he  pleases,  similarly  making  [ 
up  his  proper  number  from  the  remaining  cards  of 
the  talon.    The  player  who  first  scores  100  wins  the 
game,  and  the  score  is  made  up  by  reckoning  in 
the  following  order — carte- blanche,  the  jwint,  the 
sequence,  the  qnatorze,  the  cards,  and  the  capot. 
CarU'Uanche  is  a  hand  of  twelve  plain  cards,  and 
counts  ten  for  the  player  who  possesses  it.      The 
point  is  the  greatest  niunber  of  cards  in  any  suit, 
or,  if  the  players  are  equal  in   this  respect,  that 
which  is  highest  in  value  (the  ace  counting  eleven, 
each  court-card  ten,  and  the  plain  cards  according 
to  the  number  of  pips),  and  counts  a  number  equzu 
to  the  number  of  cards  in  the  suit.     The  eerjuence  is 
a  regular  succession  of  three  or  more  cards  in  one 
finit,antl  the  highest  sequence  (i.  e.,the  one  containing 
the  greatest  number  of  cards,  or  if  the  plavers  have 
sequences  equal  in  this  respect,  the  one  of  the  two 
'which  begins  with  the  highest  card),  if  of  three 
cards,   counts  three  ;  of  four  cards,  four ;  of   five 
cards,  fifteen ;  of  six  cards,  sixteen,  &c  The  qnatorze 
is  a  set  of  four  equal  cards  (not  lower  than  tens),  as 
four  aces,  four  queens,  &c.,  and  the  highest  quatorze 
counts  fourteen  for  its  holder ;  but  uiould  neither 
player  have  a  qnatorze,  then  the  highest  set  of  three 
IS  counted  instead,  but  it  reckons  only  three.     The 
possessor  of  the  highest  sequence  or  the  highest 
qnatorze   also   counts    all   inferior   sequences   and 
quatorzes  (including  sets  of  three)  ;  while  his  oppo- 
nent's sequences  and  quatorzes  go  for  nothing.    The 
'first  player  reckons  his  t)oints,  and  plays  a  card ; 
the  dealer  then  reckons  his  points,  and  follows  his 
ox>ponent'8  lead,   and    cards    are  laid    and  tricks 
are   taken   as  in   any  ordinary  card-game.     Each 
player  counts  one  for  every  card  he  leads,  and  the 
talser  of  the  trick  (if  second  player)   counts  one 
for  it ;   the   possessor  of   the  greater  number   of 
-tricks  counting  ten  in  addition  (the  '  cards  \  or  if 
lie  takes  all  the  tricks,  he  counts  forty  in  addition 
(the  *  capot ').      If  one  player  counts  thirty — i.  e., 
29  by  his  various  points,  and  one  for  the  card  he 
leads,  before  his  adversary  has  counted  anything,  he 
a,%  once  doubles  his  score,  reckoning  sixty  instead  of 
"tixirty  (this  is  called  the  *  pique');  and  should  his 
ecorc  reach  thirty  before  ne  plays  a  card,  or  his 
adversary  begins  to  count,  he  mounts  at  once  to 
ninety  (the  *  re-pique  *). 

PI'BACY  is  robbery  on  the  high  sea,  and  is 
jkzi  offence  against  the  law  of  nations.  It  is  a  crime 
not  against  any  particular  state,  but  against  all 


mankind,  and  may  be  punished  in  the  competent 
tribunal  of  any  country  where  the  offender  may  be 
found,  or  into  which  he  may  be  carried,  although 
committed  on  board  a  foi*eign  vessel  on  the  hiijh  seas. 
It  is  of  the  essence  of  pira<'y  that  the  pirate  has  no 
commission  from  a  sovereign  state,  :r  from  '.ue 
belligerent  state  at  war  with  another.  Pirates  being 
the  common  enemies  of  all  mankind,  and  all  nations 
having  an  equal  interest  in  their  appreherision  and 

Eunishment,  they  may  be  lawfully  capture  I  on  the 
igh  seas  by  the  armed  vessels  of  any  partioidar 
state,  and  brou;;ht  within  its  territorial  jurisdiction 
for  trial  in  its  tribunals.  The  African  slave-tnkle 
was  not  considered  piracy  by  the  law  of  nations ; 
but  the  municipal  laws  of  the  United  Kingdom 
and  of  the  United  States  by  statute  declared  it  to 
be  so ;  and  since  the  ti-eaty  of  1841  with  Great 
Britain,  it  is  also  declared  to  be  so  by  Austria 
Prussia,  and  Russia. 

PIU.-K'US  (Gr.  Peirrsu8)f  the  principal  harbour 
both  of  ancient  and  modern  Athens  (q.  v.).  Only  a 
few  traces  remaiu  of  the  long  walls  which  formerly 
united  it  and  Munychia  with  the  caj)ital  city.  The 
modci*n  P.,  which  has  8i>nmg  up  suice  18.*^."),  is  a 
regularly  laid-out  town,  with  some  good  houses  and 
shons,  and  is  connected  with  Athens  by  a  carriage- 
roau  that  follows  the  line  of  the  more  northern  of 
the  ancient  walls.  The  po{)ulation  of  the  town  in 
1SG2  was  626  i.  The  harbour,  called  also  Porto 
Leone  or  Drakoni,  is  both  safe  and  deep;  but  the 
entrance  is  narrow.  In  185S,  the  number  of  vessels 
entering  the  P.  was  7137,  whose  tonnage  amounted 
to  347,469. 

PIRA'NO,  a  seaport  of  Austria,  in  the  mark- 
grafdom  of  Istria,  stands  on  a  peninsula  in  the 
l>ay  of  Largone,  15  miles  south-west  of  Trieste.  It 
contains  an  old  castle,  has  a  port  and  several  dock- 
yai*ds,  commodious  roads,  in  which  lar^e  vessels  find 
safe  anchorage,  and  is  the  seat  of  considerable  trade 
and  commerce.  Among  its  more  important  edifices 
are  an  interesting  Gothic  church,  a  town-house, 
and  a  Minorite  convent,  with  a  number  of  good 
pictures.  Wine  and  oil  are  made  in  considerable 
quantities,  and  there  are  salt-works  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood, which  produce  upwards  of  330,000  cwts. 
of  salt  annually.     Pop.  9200. 

PIRAYA,  or  PIRAI,  the  name  given  in  Guiana 
to  Serrasalmo  plraya,  and  other  species  of  SerrO' 
salmo,  a  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  Characiniilce^ 
regarded  by  many  as  a  section  of  Salmonidce  (q.  v.). 
The  fishes  of  this  genus,  of  which  numerous 
species  inhabit  the  rivers  and  other  fresh  waters 
of  tropicc'd  South  America,  have  a  comi)r«\«ssed  and 
deep  body,  the  belly  keeled  and  serrated  with  a 
double  rov  of  hard  serratures.  They  are  extremely 
voracious  Ashes,  and  not  only  consume  with 
great  rapidity  dead  carcases  thrown  into  the 
water,  but  attack  living  creatures  very  much 
larger  than  themselves,  biting  off  the  fins  of  large 
fishes,  and  then  devouring  them  at  leisure,  often 
mutilating  ducks  and  geese  by  depriving  them  of 
their  feet,  and  venturing  to  attack  even  oxen  and 
himian  beings.  The  latter,  however,  make  reprisals 
on  them,  and  find  them  very  good  food.  Serrnmlmo 
piraya  seldom  exceeds  10  or  12  inches  in  length, 
but  some  of  the  species  attain  a  considerably  larger 
size.  Some  of  them  are  very  brilliantly''  coloured. 
The  Indians  use  the  teeth  for  sharpening  the  arrows, 
made  of  the  very  hard  ribs  of  palm-leaves,  which 
they  use  for  their  blow-pii>es,  and  which  they 
sharpen  to  a  very  fine  point  by  drawing  them 
across  a  piraya's  jaw,  an  article  with  which  the 
Indian  of  Guiana  is  always  provided ;  nor  does  the 
edge  of  the  teeth  soon  begin  to  be  worn.  Pirayas 
are  readily  taken  by  a  baited  hook,  and  almost  any 

666 


PIRMASEKS— PISA. 


kind  of  bait  will  do ;  bat  they  at  once  cut  through 
any  line,  and  the  line  must  therefore  be  cased  above 
the  hook  in  tin-plate.  The  Indiana  often  shoot 
them  with  arrow^s. 

PI'RMASENS,  a  small  town  of  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  and  formerly  the  chief  town  of  the 
county  of  Hanau-Lichtenberg,  22  miles  west  of 
Landau.  It  has  6735  inhabitants,  who  manufacture 
•hoes  and  musical  instruments. 

PI'RNA,  a  small  town  of  Saxony,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  11  miles  by  railway  south- 
east of  Dresden.  It  is  surmounted  by  a  hill,  crowned 
by  a  castle,  now  used  as  a  lunatic  asylum,  contains  a 
beautiful  parish  church,  and  a  number  of  important 
benevolent  institutions.  The  manufacture  ot  stone- 
ware employs  many  hands.    Pop;  about  6000. 

PI'SA,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  beautiful  cities 
of  Italy,  and,  till  lately,  the  capital  of  the  now 
extinct  grand-duchy  of  Tuscany,  is  situated  in  a 
fruitful  valley,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Amo, 
which  intersects  the  city  and  is  spanned  by  three 
noble  bridges.  P.  is  situated  in  43^  43'  x^.  lat., 
and  ir  24  K  long.  The  population  was,  in  1862, 
51,057.  It  has  broad,  straight,  well-paved  streets, 
and  several  fine  squares.  Among  its  80  churches, 
the  most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  cathedral,  or 
Duomo,  begun  in  1068,  and  completed  in  1118, 
with  its  noble  dome,  supported  by  74  pillars, 
and  its  fine  paintings,  variegated  marbles,  and 
painted  windows.  Near  the  cathedral  stands  the 
round  marble  belfry  known  as  the  Leaning  Tower 
of  Pisa,  from  the  circumstance  that  it  deviates 
about  14  feet  from  the  perpendicidar.  This  cele- 
brated bnildiiiT,  which  is  180  feet  in  height,  and 
consists  of  seven  stories  divided  by  rows  of  columns, 
and  surmounted  by  a  flat  roof  and  an  open  gallery 
commanding  a  splendid  view  of  the  surrounding 
country,  was  erected  in  the  12th  c.  by  the  German 
architect  Wilhelm  of  Innsbruck.  The  Ba]>tiBtery, 
or  Church  of  St  John,  opposite  the  cathedral,  an 
almost  equally  remarkable  structure,  was  completed 
in  1162  by  DiotisalvL  The  main  building,  which 
is  circular,  and  raised  on  several  steps,  supports  a 
leaden- roof e<l  dome,  having  a  second  dome  above 
it,  surmounted  by  a  statue  of  St  John.  The  beau- 
tifully proportioned  interior,  noted  for  its  wonderful 
echo,  contains  a  pulpit,  which  ranks  as  the  greatest 
masterpiece  of  Nicola  Pisano,  various  pieces  of 
sculpture,  and  a  large  octagoniil  marble  font.  The 
Campo-Santo,  or  ancient  national  cemetery,  dates 
from  the  year  1228,  when  the  Pisans  caused  earth 
to  be  brought  from  Jerusalem  for  the  graves  of  the 
most  distinguished  citizens  of  the  republic.  In 
1283,  the  ground  was  surrounded  by  cloisters,  the 
walls  of  which  were  adorned  by  fresco-paintings,  now 
nearly  obliterated,  although  some  of  these  works  of 
art,  which  are  chiefly  by  Uiotto,  Veneziano,  Orcagni, 
and  Memmi,  still  retain  traces  of  their  ori^mal 
beauty.  Among  the  other  public  buildings  of  P., 
Bpecisd  notice  is  due  to  the  churchos  of  La  Madonna 
della  Spina  and  San  Stefano,  both  rich  in  paintings 
and  sculptures,  cind  the  latter  famous  for  its  organ, 
the  largest  in  Italy ;  the  grand  ducal  and  Lanfranchi 
palaces;  the  Torre  della  Fame,  so  called  from  its 
being  supposed  to  have  been  the  spot  in  which 
Ugolmo  Glierardesca  and  his  children  wcr  j  starved 
to  death  in  1288 ;  the  university,  founded  in  1330, 
and  restored  by  Cosmo  I.  de*  Medici,  which  enjoyed 
a  high  reputation  in  the  middle  ages,  and  still 
possesses  claims  to  consideration  in  its  library, 
botanical  garden,  observatory,  and  affiliated  schools 
and  art  collections,  &c.  The  population  of  P., 
which,  in  the  13th  c,  amounted  to  150,000,  had 
fallen,  in  the  present  century,  to  less  than  one- sixth 
d   that  numoer;   but   of   late   years,  trade  and 

M6 


industrial  arts  have  made  a  rapid  advance,  and  the 
population  has  increased  in  proportion.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  P.,  at  the  foot  of  San  Ginliano, 
lie  the  mineral  baths,  whose  fame  was  known  to 
Pliny,  and  which  continued  through  the  middle 
ages  to  attract  sufferers  from  every  part  of  Italy. 
The  waters,  which  are  rich  in  carbonic  acid  and 
chloride  of  sodium,  are  found  efficacious  in  various 
arthritic  and  rheumatic  affectiona 

History. — Ancient  P.,  like  other  Etroacan  cities 
subject  to  Rome,  retained  its  municipal  govemment, 
and  enjoyed  an  almost  unlimited  freedom  while 
nominally  under  Roman  protection;  but,  on  the 
decline  of  the  imperial  power,  it  was  compelled  to 
submit  in  turn  to  the  various  transalpine  nations 
who  successively  overran  Northern  Italy.  Early  in 
the  nth  c,  P.  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  a  powerful 
repifblic,  whose  sway  included  the  then  fertile  dis- 
trict known  as  the  Maremma  di  Lerici,  and  which 
yielded  little  more  than  nominal  homage  to  its 
suzerain  lords,  the  emperors  of  Germany.  Through- 
out the  11th  c,  P.  was  at  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity, and  to  this  period  belong  most  of  the 
splendid  monuments  of  art  that  still  adorn  the 
city.  Its  troo[)s  took  part  in  all  the  great  events 
of  the  Holy  Land ;  and  its  fleet  in  turn  gave  sid 
to  the  pope  in  Southern  Italy,  to  the  emperor  in 
Northern  France,  chastised  the  Moors,  and  exacted 
its  own  terms  from  the  Eastern  emperors.  In  thdr 
wars  i^dth  the  Saracens  of  Sardinia,  the  Pisans  had 
conquered  Sardinia,  Corsica,  and  the  Balearic  Islands, 
and  for  a  time  maintained  their  ground  against 
their  hereditary  enemies,  the  Genoese ;  but  having 
sided  with  the  Ghibellines  in  the  long  wars  which 
desolated  the  empire,  P.  suffered  severely  at  the 
hands  of  the  victorious  Guelphic  party.  Indeeil,  the 
rivalry  of  the  Guelphic  cities  of  Florence,  Lucca, 
and  Siena,  nearly  brought  P.  to  the  brink  of  ruin 
at  the  close  of  the  13th  c. ;  and  after  struggling  for 
more  than  a  hundred  years  against  external  foes 
and  the  internal  dissensions  between  the  demo- 
cratic mob  and  the  Ghibelline  nobles,  without  k«ing 
their  character  for  indomitable  valour,  the  Pisans 
finally  threw  themselves  under  the  protection  of 
Galeazzo  Visconti  of  Milan.  Tlie  son  of  the  latter 
sold  the  Pisan  territory  to  their  ^rreatest  enemies,  tiie 
Florentines,  from  whose  tyranmcal  rule  it  was  for  a 
time  relieved  by  Charles  VI IL  of  Fiance,  who,  in 
1494,  accepted  the  protectorate  of  the  city.  When 
the  Frencn  left  Italy,  the  old  struggle  was  renewed ; 
and  after  offering  a  desperate  resistance,  the  Pisans, 
in  1509,  were  compelled  by  hunger  to  surrender  the 
city  to  the  Florentine  army  besieging  the  walls. 
The  most  influential  families,  as  formerly  in  1406, 
when  P.  first  lost  her  independence,  preferred  emi- 
gration to  subjection,  and  removed  to  Sardinia  and 
Sicily,  since  which  time,  P.  has  remained  iocorpor* 
ated  with  the  Florentine  territories  of  Tuscany. 

PISA,  Council  of,  one  of  the  councils  commonly 
reputed  by  Roman  Catholics  as  OEscumenical  or 
general,  although  some,  especially  of  the  Ultra- 
montane (q.  V.)  school,  do  not  look  upon  it  as  such. 
It  was  assembled  in  the  time  of  the  great  Western 
Schism,  for  the  purpose  of  restoring  the  peace  of 
the  church,  and  the  unity  which  1^  been  inter- 
rupted by  the  rival  claims  of  two  comi)etitora  for 
the  papacy.  The  histoi^  of  this  rival  claim  will  be 
found  under  the  head  Western  Schis3L  For  our 
present  purpose,  it  is  enough  to  state  that  the 
adherents  of  both  the  claimants  of  the  see  of  Rome — 
those  of  Gregory  XII.,  as  well  as  those  of  Benedict — 
agreed  on  the  necessity  of  a  general  council,  as  the 
only  means  of  putting  an  end  to  the  schism ;  and 
the  rival  popes  having  themselves  either  evaded  or 
declined  the  demand,  the  cardinals  of  both  united 
in  issuing  letters  of  convocation,  and  in  summoning 


PISCATAQUA— PISCICULTtJRE. 


both  the  claimants  to  the  council  so    convened, 
Neither  of   them  complied  with  the  citation ;  but 
the  council  proceeded,  nevertheless,  to  examine  and 
deliberate  upon  the  cause.    It  was  opened  at  Pisa, 
March  25,  1409,  there  being  present  22  cardinals, 
4  patriarchs,  12  archbishops,  80  bishops,  together 
with    representatives  of  12  archbishops  and  102 
bishops,  and  a  vast  body  of  abbots,  doctors  in 
theology-,  and  other  eminent  ecclesiastics.    Of  the 
prooe^Dgs,  it  will  be  enough  to  say,  that  after  a 
formal  citation  of  the  rival  popes  to  appear  within  a 
stated  period,  the  council,  on  the  expiration  of  that 
period,  proceeded  to  declare  them  contimiacious,  and 
to  examine  their  respective  claims  as  though  they  had 
appeared.    The  result,  after  a  protracted  inquiry, 
was  a  decree  in  the  13th  session  by  which  they 
were  both  declared  schismatics,  and  their  conduct 
heretical,  and  calculated  to  lead  the  people  from 
the  faith ;  wherefore,  since  they  had  violated  the 
solemn  engagements  made  at  their  respective  elec- 
tions, they  were  deposed  from  the  papal  dignity,  and 
their  followers  released  from  obedience.      In  the 
17  th   session,  the    cardinals  having  first  pledged 
themselves  by  oath,  each,  that,  if  elected,  he  would 
continue  the  sittings  of  the  coimcil,  entered  into 
conclave  to  the  number  of  2i,  and  unanimously 
elected  Peter  Philargi,  one  of  the  cardinalpriests, 
imd  a  member  of  the  Franciscan  order.    He  took 
the  name  of  Alexander  V.    The  council  proceeded 
after  his  election  to  pass  a  number  of  decrees,  for 
the  puipose  of  giving  validity  to  the  acts  done  on 
either  side  during  the  schism.    A  vain  attempt  was 
made  to  obtain  tne  submission  of  the  still  recusant 
rivals,  and  it  was  resolved  that  a  new  council  should 
be  held  within  three  years.    The  authority  of  this 
council,  like  that  of  the  Council  of  Constance,  is 
alleged,  on  the  Gallican  side,  as  establishing  the 
superiority  of  a  general  council  over  the  pope.    But 
the  Ultramontanes  reply  that  both  these  councils, 
and  also  that  of  Basel,  must  be  regarded  as  abnormal 
assemblies,  called  to  meet  the  special  emergency  of 
a  disputed  succession  and  of  a  doubtful  pope,  and 
that  these  principles  cannot  by  any  means  be  applied 
to  the  orainary  circumstances  of  the  church,  or 
form  a  precedent  by  which  to  estimate  the  normal 
relations  between  a  pope   whose  title  is  certain 
and  undisputed,  and  a  general  council  regularly 
assembled  at  a  time  of  peace,  and  in  the  o^inary 
circumstances  of  the  church.    It  cannot  be  doubted, 
nevertheless,  that  the  spirit  of  the  fathers  of  Pisa 
was  the  same  which  ran  through  the  succeeding 
assemblies  of  Constance  and  Basel,  and  foimd  ito 

Ssrmanent  representation'  in  the  GaUicanism  (see 
▲LLiGAN  Ohxtbch)  of  later  centuries. 

PISOA'TAQUA,  a  river  about  80  miles  in  length, 
which  forms  the  southern  part  of  the  boun<£u7' 
between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  U.S.,  and 
empties  itself  into  the  Atlantic,  forming  at  its 
mouth  the  excellent  harbour  of  Portsmouth. 

PI'SCIOULTUBE,  or  FISH-CULTURE,  the 
breeding  and  rearing  of  iishes,  in  order  to  the 
increase  of  the  suppw  for  food.  Hitherto,  it  has 
been  almost  entirely  limited  to  fresh- water  fishes ; 
nothing  having  been  done  as  to  sea-fishes  but  by 
legislation— chiefly  in  the  case  of  the  herring— to 
prevent  the  destruction  of  the  very  young  fish,  and 
that  not,  apparently,  to  much  advantage.  Ponds 
for  sea-fishes  have,  indeed,  been  sometimes  con- 
structed, advantage  being  taken  of  natural  circum- 
stances favourable  for  the  purpose;  the  ancient 
Bomans  had  such  ponds,  and  some  have  been  made 
on  different  parts  of  the  British  coast ;  fishes  being 
caught  in  the  open  sea  and  placed  in  them  to 
be  fed  and  fattened  for  the  tMe.  Such  ponds, 
however^  are  of  little  real  ntility.    That  the  Bomans 


succeeded  in  keeping  sea-fishes  in  fresh-  water  pond% 
as  has  been  asserted,  must  be  regarded  as  mere 
fable,  or  as  an  exaggeration,  founded  on  the  power 
which  a  few  fishes  have  of  adapting  tiiemselves 
both  to  fresh  and  salt  water.  But  it  may  be  doubted 
if  in  modem  times  sufficient  advantage  has  been 
taken  of  this  power. 

Ponds  for  fresh-water  fishes  have  been  common 
from  a  very  remote  antiquity.  It  appears  £rom 
Isaiah,  xix.  10,  that  they  were  used  in  ancient 
Egypt.  In  the  times  of  Boman  luxury,  almost 
every  wealthy  citizen  had  fish-ponds.  The  Chinese 
have  long  bestowed  more  attention  on  pisciculture 
than  any  other  nation,  and  with  them  it  is  truly  a 
branch  of  economy,  tending  to  the  increase  of  the 
supply  of  food  and  of  the  national  wealth;  noti 
merely,  as  it  seems  to  have  been  among  the  Bomans, 
an  appliance  of  the  luxury  of  the  ereat.  In  some 
countries  of  modem  Europe,  this  branch  of  pisci- 
culture is  also  prosecuted  to  a  very  considerable 
extent,  particularly  in  Germany  and  Sweden,  and  of 
late  years  in  France,  in  order  to  the  supply  of  fish 
for  tiie  market.  In  Britain,  it  has  never  been 
systematically  prosecuted,  or  for  any  important 
purpose;  the  countiy-seats  of  the  nobility  and 
gentry  being,  indeed,  generally  provided  with  fish- 
ponds, but  in  most  cases  rather  as  ornamental 
waters  than  for  use.  In  the  northern  parts  of 
Britain,  trout,  perch,  and  pike  are  almost  the  only 
fish  kept  in  ponds;  in  England,  they  are  often 
stocked  with  carp  and  tench,  and  are  turned  to 
much  better  account  than  in  Scotland  In  Germany, 

Sonds  carefully  attended  to  are  found  very  pro- 
uctive  and  remunerative.  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  in  Britain,  also,  many  a  piece  of  land  at  present 
very  worthless,  might  easily  be  converted  into  a 
pond,  and  made  to  yield  large  quantities  of  excellent 
fish ;  but  such  a  thing  seems  almost  never  to  be 
thought  of. 

In  the  construction  of  ponds,  or  gteioa,  for  fish,  it  is 
recommended  to  have,  if  possible,  a  succession  of 
three  ponds  on  the  same  rivulet,  with  sluices,  by 
which  they  can  be  dried,  so  that  the  fish  may  be 
easily  taken  when  required,  the  different  ponds 
being  in  part  intended  for  fish  of  different  ages. 
But  all  this  must  be  very  much  regulated  by  local 
circumstances.  It  is  of  more  importance  to  note 
that  the  margins  should  be  shallow,  so  that  there 
may  be  abundance  of  reeds  and  other  water-plants, 
ana  that  only  a  small  part  of  the  pond  should  be  too 
deep  for  the  growth  of  pond-weeds  {PoiarnogHon), 
Much  depends  on  the  soil  of  the  neighbourhood  as 
to  the  supply  of  food,  and  consequently  the  growth 
of  fish  and  productiveness  of  the  i>  >nd.  Trees  over- 
hanging the  pond  nre  not  desirable  ;  the  decomposi- 
tion of  their  fallen  leaves  being  injurious  to  fish. 
The  growth  of  weeds  is  more  to  be  encouraged  in 
ponds  for  carp  and  tench  than  in  those  for  perch 
or  trout.  A  stony  bottom  is  very  advantageous 
to  perch  and  trout  ponds.  Ponds  for  pike  must  be 
lar^r  than  is  necessary  for  any  other  fish  known  to 
British  pisciculture :  an  extent  of  at  least  six  acres 
is  desirable.  A  nursery  for  minnows  may  be  estab- 
lished with  great  advantage  in  connection  with  a 
fish-pond,  as  they  afford  most  acceptable  food  to 
perch,  pike,  and  trout.  But  in  a  pond  where  carp 
and  tench  are  expected  to  spawn,  the  presence  of 
minnows  is  very  undesirable.  It  is  often  impossible 
to  provide  a  pond  with  a  place  suitable  for  the 
spawning  of  trout,  for  which  a  gravelly  stream  with 
a  quick  current  is  necessary ;  out  for  perch,  pike^ 
carp,  or  tench,  the  pond  itself  is  sufficient,  and  the 
stock  once  introduced  is  kept  up  without  replenish- 
ing. Indeed,  it  is  recommended  that  a  pond  stocked 
with  carp  should  also  be  stocked  with  pike,  that  the 
excessive  multiplication  of  the  carp  may  be  diecked, 

657 


PLSCICULTURR 


•whicb  would  otherwise  prevent  the  tiah  from  grow- 
ing rapidly  or  to  a  good  size. 

J. 'he  gi-eateat  improvement  in  pisciculture,  and  a 
most  imjiortant  braiTch  of  it,  to  which  the  term  is 
often  restricted,  is  the  breeding  of  fish  in  artificial 
breeding-places,  from  which  not  only  ponds  but 
rivers  may  be  stocked  ;  or  the  art  of  fecundating  and 
hatching  fish-eir.iis,  and  feeding  and  protecting  the 
young  animals  tUi  they  are  of  an  age  to  secure  their 
own  food,  and  protect  themselves  from  their 
numen)n3  enemies.  As  at  present  conducted,  pisci- 
culture has  become  in  many  instances  a  jjrofitable 
branch  of  industry;  and  the  art  has  been  employed 
in  France  with  great  success  for  replenishing  with 
fishes  many  of  the  most  im][X)rtant  streams  that  had 
become  barren  throui^h  over-fishing;  in  Britain, 
also,  this  artificial  sj^stem  has  become  a  profitable 
adjunct  of  one  or  two  of  our  larger  salmon-fisheries. 

Moilern  pisciculture  is  the  revival  of  an  old  art 
well  known  to  the  ancient  Italians,  but  which  had 
fallen  into  abeyance  for  a  number  of  centuries. 
The  art  of  breeding  and  fattenhig  fish  was  well 
known  to  the  luxurious  Romans,  and  many  stories 
are  told  about  the  fanciful  flavours  which  were 
imparted  to  pueh  pet  fishes  as  were  chosen  for  the 
sumptuous  banquets  of  Lucullus,  Sergius  Grata,  and 
others.  The  art  had  doubtless  been  borrowed  from 
the  ingjenious  Chinese,  who  are  understood  to  have 
practis.'d  the  art  of  collecting  fish-eggs  and  nursing 
young  fish  from  a  very  early  perioti.  Fish  forms 
to  the  (Jliinese  a  most  important  article  of  diet; 
and  from  the  extent  of  the  water-territory  of 
China,  au<l  the  qurmtities  that  can  be  cultivated, 
it  is  very  cli'  ap.  The  plan  adopted  for  procuring 
fish-egas  in  China  is  to  skim  off  the  impregnated  ova 
from  the  surface  of  the  great  rivers  at  the  spawn- 
ing season,  which  are  sold  for  the  purpose  of  being 
hatched  in  canals,  paddy-fields,  &c. ;  and  all  that 
is  necessary  to  insure  a  large  growth  of  fish  is 
simply  to  throw  into  the  water  a  few  yolks  of  eggs, 
by  which  means  an  incredible  quantity  of  the  5^oung 
fry  is  saved  from  destruction.  Although  all  kinds 
of  fish  are  enormously  fecund,  it  is  well  known  to 
naturalists  that  only  a  small  percentage  of  the  eggs 
ever  come  to  life,  and  of  the  young  fish,  very  tew 
ever  reach  the  table  as  food.  So  many  of  the  eggs 
are  destroyed  by  various  influences,  and  so  many 
likewise  escape  impregnation,  that  if  we  are  to 
keep  up  our  hsh  supplies,  pisciculture,  or  protected 
breeding  becomes  absolutely  necessary. 

Commercial  pisciculture,  as  at  present  carried  on, 
owes  its  origin  to  the  French,  the  art  having  been 
first  put  in  jjractice  by  M.  Remy,  a  poor  fisherman, 
who  gained  a  living  by  catching  fish  in  the  streams  of 
La  Bresso  in  the  Vosges.  This  re-discovery  of  the 
lost  art  of  fish-breeding  is  understood  to  have  been 
quite  accidental  on  the  part  of  Remy,  although  it  is 
tnought  by  some  zealous  Scotchmen  that  the  t  rench- 
man  must  have  heard  of  the  experiments  of  Mr 
Shaw  of  Drumlanrig,  who,  for  a  few  years  previous 
to  Remy's  discovery,  had  been  trying  to  solve  some 
problems  in  the  natural  history  of  the  salmon  by 
means  of  the  artificial  system.  The  art  had  also 
been  partially  revived  in  Germany  about  the  middle 
of  last  century  by  a  gentleman  of  the  name  of 
Jacobi,  who  practised  the  artificial  breeding  of  trout 
Whether  or  not  Remy  had  heard  of  either  of  these 
experimenters,  it  is  certain  that  to  him  we  owe  the 
revival  of  the  art  in  its  larger  or  commercial  sense ; 
the  others  only  used  it  as  an  adjunct  to  their  study 
of  the  natural  history  of  fishes.  In  one  sense, 
fish- culture  was  largely  practised  in  this  coimtry 
long  before  the  discovery  oy  Remy  of  the  system  of 
artificial  fecundation— we  allude  to  the  fact  of 
there  being  large  numbers  of  private  ponds  and 
stews  in  wbjch  country  gentlemen  bred  tish  for  the 

65S 


use  of  their  own  tables,  as  well  as  similar  places 
attached  to  monasteries  and  other  reUgious  edifices, 
in  which  fish  were  grown  for  fast-day  uses.  The 
ran^e  of  fish  suited  for  pond-breeding  was  veiy 
limited ;  and  to  render  them  at  all  good  in  flavoor, 
exi)ensive  food  had  to  be  obtained  for  them,  and 
they  had  to  be  served  up  accompanied  by  expen- 
sive sauces.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  our  ranst 
fishes  were  introduced  into  this  country  during 
these  old  monastic  times,  such  as  the  Lochleven 
trout,  the  vendace,  &c. 

It  was  the  great  waste  of  eegs  incidental  to  the 
natural  system  of  fish-breeding  that  led  Remy, 
about  184^2,  in  conjunction  with  Gehin,  a  coadjutor 
whom  he  assumed  as  a  partner,  to  try  what  he 
could  do  in  the  way  of  repeopling  the  tisb-streanu 
of  his  native  district.  His  plan  being  at  once  sue- 
cessfal,  attracted  the  favourable  notice  of  many  of 
the  French  savans,  and  led  to  rewards  and  prefer- 
ment for  Remy ;  the  new  art  was  taken  under  the 
protection  of  the  government ;  and  now,  after  the 
exj^erience  of  twenty  years,  artificial  lish-cultime 
has  been  so  perfected  in  France  that  there  has 
arisen  at  Huningue,  near  Basel,  on  the  Rhine,  a 
gigantic  fish-nursery  and  egg-d6pdt  for  the  supply 
of  eggs,  and  the  dissemination  of  the  art  both  in 
France  and  other  countries.  The  place  is  fitted 
up  specially  for  this  pur|)ose  with  egg-boxes  and 
reservoirs ;  and  millions  of  eggs  are  annually 
received,  and  sent  to  Germany,  Spain,  Englaiui,  and 
other  places.  A  drawing  is  given  on  the  next  j>as»e 
of  one  of  the  halls  of  this  interesting  establisliment 

The  course  of  business  at  Huningue  is  as  follows: 
the  eggs  are  chiefiy  brought  from  the  streams  of 
Switzerland  and  Germany,  and  embrace  those  ci 
the  common  trout,  as  well  as  the  Rhine  and  I)anul)e 
salmon,  and  the  tender  charr  or  ombre  chevaUer. 
Peojjle  are   appointed    to    capture   gravid   tish  of 
these  various  kinds,  and,  having  done  so,  t.t  com- 
municate the  fact  to  Huningue.     An  expert  ia  at 
once  sent  to  deprive  these  fishes  of  their  gprvwn, 
and  bring  it  to  the  breeding  or  resting  boxes,  where 
it  is  carefully  tended  till  it  is  ready  to  be  des- 
patched to  some  district  in  want  of  it     It  is,  of 
course,  much  more  convenient  to  send  the  eggs  tJian 
the  young  fish,  as  the  former,  nicely  packed  among 
wet  moss  in  little  boxes,  can  be  carried  to  a  di.<tan<» 
with  ^i-eater  facility.      The    mode    of    artifi<'i.illy 
spawning  a  salmon  is  as  follows.     It   should,  of 
course,   be   ascertained   that   the    spawn   is  in   a 
perfectly  matured  state,  and  that  being  the  case, 
the   salmon  is  held  under  water  in  a  lai^  tub, 
while  the  hand  is  gently  passed  along  its  alxlomen, 
when,  if  the  ova  be  rine,  the  eggs  will  flow  ont 
like  so  many  pease.     Tne  eggs  are  then  oamidly 
washed,  and  the  water  is  poured  off.     The  male 
salmon  is  then  handled  in  a  similar  way,  when  tl.e 
contact  of  the  milt  immediately  changes  the  es^s 
into   a  brilliant  pink  colour.      After   being  a^ain 
washed,  they  may  be  ladled  out  into  the  bretihng- 
boxes,   and    left  to   come  to   life   in   duo   seast^n. 
The  period  occupied  in   hatching   is   different  in 
different  climates.     At   Stormontfield,   where  the 
eggs  have  no  shelter,  the  usual  period  is  about  135 
days  ;  but  salmon  ova  have  been  known  to  hurst  in 
about  half  that  period,  and  to  yield  very  healthy 
fish.     Great  care  is  of  course  necessary  in  handling 
the  ova.     The  eggs  manipulated  at  Huningue  are 
all  carefully  examined  on  their  arrival,  nhcn  the 
bad  ones  are  thrown  out,  and  those  that  are  good 
are  counted  and  entered  in  a  record.     The  ova  arv 
watched  with  great  care,  and  from  day  to  day  all 
that  become  addleil  are  removed.    The  applica'titAS 
for  eggs,  both  from  individuals  and  associations,  are 
always  a  great  deal  more  numeroos  than  can  be 
supplied;  and  before  second  applications   can  be 


PISCICtJLTUBE. 

entertained,  it  is  necessary  for  the  parties  to  give  a  the  coat  of  piscicnltiira  at  Hnningne,  th&t  the  mo 
dttiilcl  (lecoiint  of  how  their  former  efforts  sue-  expensive  fish  is  the  ombre  chevalier.  01  son 
cci'deJ.     It  may  be  interesting  to  note,  m  regards  I  species,  as  many  as  sixty  or  seventy  per  cent  of  tl 


/!: 


's 


BeoepUon-hall  for  I^sh-egga  at  Haeingne. 


c^jn  are  lost.    The  general  calculation,  however,  is 
twelve  living  Gali  for  a  penny. 

The  total  Qumlier  of  nil  kinils  of  fiihea  dlstrib- 
uta.1  fioin  Hunini.'tte,  during  the  first  ten  years 
was  upwards  of  110  uiilli^iu.  I    See  Hu.siscl'k. 

A  very  successful  effort  in  pisciculture  has  been 
earned  out  in  connect'.on  with  t)ie  salmon* fisheries 
of  the  river  Tay.  At  Sturmontdelii,  near  Pertli,  a 
series  of  ponds  have  b^en  coostructcd,  and  a  T.tiige 
of  brcodin^'lioXFB  laid  down  ca|Ukble  of  Tcceivijig 
3OO,Ol>0  eK'^-s ;  ao<l  in  a  Inrgc  addition  to  their  rental, 
the  proprietors  of  the  Tay  fisheries  are  reaping  the 
reward  of  tbelr  enterprise.  The  operations  at 
Stormotitlield  were  bc;:^n  in  ISoII,  and  from  the 
ejid  of  Novembt^r  till  tlio  end  of  December,  300,01)0 
ova  were  depiaited,  and  these  coming  to  life  in 
Aj>ril  ISSt,  remained  in  th^  boxes  and  ponds  one 
half  for  one  year,  and  the  other  moiety  for  two 
years  before  they  astiiimed  the  scales  of  the  smolt; 
anil  were  seized  with  the  migratory  instinct.  See 
Salmon.  Every  two  years  since  the  completion 
of  the  ponds,  a  brood  has  been  obtained,  and 
upwards  of  one  million  of  salmon  have  by  means  of 
these  ponds  been  ailded  to  the  fish-stock  of  the 
river  Tay,  so  as  considerably  to  enhance  the  value 
of  the  tishrries.  Another  pond  (there  was  only 
one  originally)  baa  now  been  added  to  the  suite, 
for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  second-year  parrs, 
ao  that  a  brood  of  SDO.i'dO  will  now  be  obtaineil 
aDnualiy.  At  several  other  places  in  Scotland,  the 
•rtiScisJ  system  is  being  introduced  as  an  ailji 
to  the  natural  breeding  ■■"° "*  "'  ■*'-if~~"*  -• 


«  of  different  n 


The  art  of  pisciculture  has  also  been  introduced  into 
Ireland,  at  the  fisheries  of  Loiiehs  Mask  and  Cana, 
by  the  Messrs  Aebworth.  who  have  obtained  excel- 
lent practical  results  from  their  eateriii-ise.  Tbese 
lochs  contain  an  area  of  water  equal  to  thirty-five 
acres ;  and  a  commnaication  with  the  sea  having 
been  opened,  they  now  teeni  with  salmon  ;  and  the 
proprietors  are  conlident  that  it  is  as  easy  and  as 
profitable  to  cultivate  salmon  as  sheep.  The  latest 
experiment  in  fish-culture  with  the  salmon  consists 
in  the  introduction  of  that  lish  into  Australia  and 
Tasmania.  Impregnated  eggs  carefully  ]>acked  in 
ice  were  sent  out  in  a  faat-saiiing  ship,  and  were  at 
once  transferred  to  a  suitable  river,  where  (18G4) 
they  burst  into  life,  with  every  pros |)ect  of  becotning 
naturalised  in  that  vast  continent. 

A  series  of  piacicidtural  exjieriments  have  been 
very  aucccssfulty  carried  on  in  the  upper  waters  of 
the  Thames,  and  the  salmon  has  bern  breil  along 
with  various  otber  fishes,  U|iwards  of  120,<)l>0  fiylies 
h-iviog  been  added  to  tbe  stock  of  the  river ;  but  tba 
sncci'as  of  this  ex|ieriment  yet  remiuns  to  lie  deter- 
mined, as  it  is  not  certain  whether  the  salmon  will  be 
able  to  penetrate  to  the  sea,  in  cutiseijuencc  of  the 
lower  Thames  being  used  as  tbe  sewer  of  London. 

This  branch  of  pisciculture  has  begun  to  lie 
prosecuted  to  some  extent  in  several  countries  of 
Europe,  and  has  been  deemed  of  snfliciciit  import- 
ance to  demand  tbe  attention  of  governments.  It 
is  probable  that  tbe  attention  turned  to  tbe  whole 
subject  of  pisciculture,  and  the  example  of  the 
transportation  of  salmon  to  Australia,  may  lead  to 


PISCINA— PBTIL 


tiie  introduction  of  v&Inable  kindi  of  fiahes  iota 
w»t«n  where  thojr  &i«  now  unknown.  The  gr^Lytiog 
hu  thus  already  been  introduced  into  the  Clyde 
and  Tweed.  There  ii  no  apparent  reason  why  every 
valuable  fresh-water  fiafi  ot  Europe  should  not  be 
plentiful  ia  Britain. 

The  French  gorernnient  are  now  extending  thi 
■yBtem  of  artificial  culture  to  some  kinds  of  *ea-fi«) 
and    to   many    of   the    larger    ctuataceana.      8d>. 
OvffTiB.    At  ComaEchio  (q.  v.),  on  the  Adriatic,  a 
curious  industry  is  carried  on  in  the  cultivation  of 
tdt;  and  in  the  Bayot  Aiguillon,  there  is  an  ancient 
mussel -farm  in  which  large  quantities  of  that  shell- 
flih  are  annoally  grown  from  the  seed,  and  turned  io 
very  profitable  account- 
There    is    oo   practical 
difiiculty,  it  is  said,  ia 
renderiag    an    acre    of 
water  as  productive  as 
an  acre  of  land. 

PISCI'IfA,  the  larce 
buiu  (or  pond)  in  the 
Koman  thermte,  contain- 
ing tepid  water,  in  which 
the  bather  might  swim. 
PISCINA,  a  shallow 
ttone  buin  with  a  draiu 
(usually  leading  directly 
to  the  earth),  in  Roman 
Catholic     churches,    in 
1.  which  the  priest  washes 
!  hia  hands,  and  for  rins- 
ios  the  chalice  at  the 
cdehrabon  of  the  mass. 
Pbdna,  Wannfngton.         In  Endand,  it  is  almost 
invariably  placed  on  the 
south  side  of  the  choir,  at  a  oonvenient  neigh t. 

PI'S£,  a  kind  of  work  used  instead  of  brick,  tc, 
for  the  walls  of  cottages.  It  consists  of  loam  or 
earth  bard  rammed  into  framing,  which,  when  dry, 
forms  a  wall 

PI'SEK  (Bob.  PiKti,  sand),  a  smaU  town  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  rip;ht  bank  of  the  Wottawa,  an 
affluent  of  the  Moldau,  stands  on  a  sandy  plain 
(from  which  circumstance  it  probably  received  its 
name)  65  miles  south-aouth-west  of  Prague,  The 
town  is  old,  and  contains  the  remains  i»  a  royal 
castle.  Among  other  institutions  are  a  school  of 
arte  and  a  high  schooL  The  manufactures  are 
woollen  and  cotton  fabrics,  iron  wire,  and  muaical 

PISHAMIN.    SeeDATtPLint. 

PI'SOLITE  (Or.  pea-stone),  a  ooneretionary  lime- 
stone, differing  m>m  oolite  in  the  particles  being  as 
large  aa  peas& 

PISTA'CI  A,  a  genng  of  trees  of  the  natnral  order 
Anaairdiatea,  having  diocions  flowen  without 
petals,  and  a  dry  drupe  with  a  bony  stone. — The 
Pbtacia  or  PisTAcmo  Trek  (P.  vera)  is  a  small 
tree  of  about  20  feet  hish,  a  native  of  Persia  and 
Syria,  but  now  cultivated  in  all  parts  of  the  south 
of  Europe  and  North  of  Africa,  and  in  many  places 
naturalised.  It  baa  pinnate  leaves,  with  about  two 
pair  of  ovate  leaflets,  and  an  odd  one ;  flowers  in 
racemes ;  fruit  ovate,  and  about  the  size  of  an  olive. 
The  stone  or  nut  splits  into  two  valves  when  ripe  ; 
the  kernel,  which  ia  of  a  bright  green  colour,  is  veiy 
oleaginous,  of  a  delicate  flavour,  and  in  its  properties 
Tery  much  resembles  the  sweet  almondT  In  the 
■outh  of  Europe  and  in  the  East,  Pittadiio  tniti  are 
much  esteemed  j  but  as  they  very  readily  become 
rancid,  thej  are  little  exported  to  other  coontriea. 
Hey  are  sometimes  oaDed  Oreeit  AlmoruU  Oil 
1*  expressed  from  them  for  culinary  and  other 
tuea.    In  cultivation,  one  male  tree  is  allowed  to 


Ave  or  six  fertile  onea.  The  tTee  produoea  rioweia 
and  even  fruit  readily  enough  in  the  sonth  of 
England,  but  the  summers  are  not  warm  enough  to 
ri;>vn  the  fruit,  and  the  tree  is  ^  to  be  destroyed 
by  a  severe  frost. — The  Mastic  Tekb,  or  Lkstek 
(P.  lenliacua),  yields  the  pim-resin  called  Mastic 
(a.  v.).  It  is  a  native  of  the  countries  aroand  tha 
Mediterranean.— The  TtTBPENTlNK  TSEB  {P.  lere&ia. 
lAiu)  yields  the  Turpentine  (<!■  v.)  known  in  com* 
merce  aa  Cyprui  Turpentine,  Ckian  Turpeuiime,  or 
S<io  l^irpaitiiu,  which  is  of  a  consistency  socoa- 
what  like  that  of  lioney,  a  greenish -yellow  colour, 
an  agreeable  odour,  and  a  milil  taste,  and  in  its 
nropertiea  resembles  the  turpentine  of  the  Conifers, 
but  is  free  from  acridity.  It  is  obtained  by  iin«limg 
incisions  in  the  trees,  and  placing  atones  for  the 
turpentine  to  flow  upon,  from  which  it  is  BCra[i«d 
in  the  mominf^  before  it  is  liquefied  again  by  the 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  tree  is  about  30  or  35  feet  in 
beiEht ;  and  has  pinnate  leaves,  of  about  three  pair 
of  leaflets  and  an  odd  one ;  the  flowers  in  compound 
racemes,  the  fruit  nearly  globular.  The  kernel  of 
the  fruit  is  oleaginous  and  pleasant- — He  BaTom 
TliEB  (P.  Aliantica),  a  ronnd-headed  tree  of  about 
40  feet  in  height^  a  native  of  the  north  of  AJrica, 
produce*  a  fruit  much  used  by  the  Arabs ;  and  a 
giun-resin  of  pleasant  aromatic  smell  and  agreeaUe 
taste,  which  exudea  from  its  stem  and  brsncbes,  it 
chewed  to  clean  the  teeth  and  impart  a  pleasajit  smell 
to  the  breath. — The  fragrant  od  of  the  kernels  of  P. 
oleosa,  a  native  of  Cochin  China,  is  used  by  the  perils 
of  that  countiy  to  impart  a  perfume  to  ointmenta. 

PI'STIL,  in  Botany,  the  female  organ  of  fructifi- 
cation in  phanerogamous  plants ;  that  part  of  the 
Flower  (q.  v.)  which,  after  flowering  is  over,  is 
developed  into  the  fruit.  There  is  sometimea  ooa 
pistil  in  a  flower,  sometimea  mora ;  in  some  Sowers, 
which  liave  numerous  pistils,  they  form  a  number 
of  whorls,  one  within  another,  soioetimes  on  an 
elevated  receptacle  or  elongated  axis,  or,  more  rarely, 
they  are  sinrally  arrange.  In  every  case,  the 
of  the  flower  is  occupied  by  the  pistil  or 


when  there  are  numerous  iiistils,  or  of  sev«nl 
carpets  combined ;  and  the  number  ot  carpels  ti 
which  the  pistil  is  formed  is  often  indicateil  by  tb* 
number  of  the  cells  of  the  germen,  or  by  its  lobe* 
or  angles.  The  pistil  usually  consists  of  a  Oermen 
(q.  V.)  or  ovary,  in  which  the  Ovulea  (q.  v.]  ara 
contained,  and  which  is  surmounted  by  a  ttigma, 
either  immediately  or  through  the  interventioD  of 
ttyie  ;  but  in  Gymnogens  (q.  v.),  there  ia  neitlier 
irmen,  style,  nor  stigma,  the  female  organs  tj 
.  [ictification  being  mere  naked  ovules.  Tba 
germen  is  always  t£e  lowest  part  of  the  piatiL  Tba 
stigma  exhibits  an  endless  varie^  of  forma,  and 
is  adapted  to  the  reception  and  retention  o{  ths 
pollen  grains  requisite  for  fecundation,  partly  by 
the  roughness  of  its  surface — which  ia  of  a  some- 
what lax  cellular  tissue,  covered  with  prujat.nc 
cells,  often  in  the  form  of  minute  warta,  and 
often  elongated  into  hairs — and  partly  by  the 
secretion  ot  a  viscous  fluid.  The  stigma  when  not 
irmiU — or  seated  immediately  on  the  germen— is 
pported  by  the  style,  which  rises  from  the  gnmnt, 
id  on  the  top  of  which  the  stigma  ia  generally 
placed.      The  style  ia  sometimea   very   long   and 


•.,. 


passes  imperceptibly  into  the  styl^  and  sonie- 
times  the  style  rises  from  it  abruptly  ;  and  similar 
difierences  appear  in  the  relations  of  IJie  style  and 
stigma ;  the  stigma,  however,  may  be  regarded  ss 
always  an  expansion  of  the  top  of  Uie  style,  although 
it  ia  sometimes,  but  rarely,  situated  on  one  or  both 
sides  of  tiie  *tyl«^  beneath  ita  summit.    In  like 


PISTILLIDIDM  -PlSTOLa 


nuoiner,  by  pecnliai  iroilificatioiiB  taking  plnee  in 
the  i^wtli  of  the  geruicu,  the  style  lometimes 
leemB  to  arise  from  beneath  ito  apex,  or  even  from 


PistilB: 
I,  Sntkin  of  Howir  nit  ifttltt  at  Primma.  duiwlnr  iha  piitil 
.  Uid  open  I  nmreriMU  otdIh  attiEbn]  U  nfTH  csntn)  pli- 
Mnli.  I,  ^ecilDii  oraowarnf  ComlKT,  wllh<»ri>11a  rimciTsil, 
■hawing  IvD  ot  tha  (Out  onrlcs,  (Bd  Iba  il^le.  J,  Pliiil  oC 
Um  Burbenji,  eoiuUiinr  at  Hnnl  nrptla  mnlilnnl ;  tha 
ujlc  nrr  ilMil  >nil  thliS,  th<  lUgBU  ebKld-Uka.  4,  ScoUoii 
of  lh«  DT117  of  ■  UlT.    t,  SnUim  of  flnner  of  Cnicrrj,  ahn- 

pRfRihm  In  fmli.    •,  Pls^rf  P«,  nnenW;  a.  o"X"  i.° 
nl.»nt«;  /.  smbiiiail  iiotd.-Fioni  BaUOnr'.  aau-book  o/ 


„      I  eepBi 

more  frequently  in  their  atigmoa,  »o  that  one 
germen  bean  eeveral  stflea,  or  the  etyle  divides  at 
some  point  above  tha  germen,  or  one  style  a 
crowned  b^  a  number  of  Btigmas.  The  style  ia 
OBually  cylindrical ;  and  when  this  is  not  the  case, 
it  is  often  owins  to  the  combination  of  several 
style*  into  one,  ^though  sotnetimce  the  style  is  flat 
and  even  petal-like.  It  is  traversed  throughout  its 
whole  length  by  a  canal,  which,  however,  is  in 
gpaeral  partly  tiUed  up  by  cells  projtctinj:;  from  ita 
sides.  Slid  often  also  t>y_  very  slender  tubes  extend- 
ing in  the  direction  of  its  length  ;  the  function  of 
the  auai,  to  wbidi  in  some  way  or  other  Qm 
eoclosed  sleoder  tubes  are  subservient,  being  to 
bring  about  the  connection  between  thepotten  and 
the  ovniee  for  Fecnndation  (q.  v.).  lis  length 
of  the  ih'le  is  adapted  to  the  ready  tecundation  of 
the  ovules,  being  such  tliat  the  pollen  may  most 
easily  reach  the  stigma;  and  in  erect  flowt'rs,  the 
■tylea  are  usually  shorter  than  the  stamens  ;  in 
drooping  Bowers,  tbey  are  longer  than  the  stamens. 
After  flowering  is  over,  when  fecundatioa  has  taken 
place,  the  /oramen  of  the  ovules  closes,  the  germen 
enlarges  and  ripens  into  the  fruit,  whilst  each  ovule 
is  developed  into  a  seed.  The  style  and  stigma 
meanwhile  either  fall  off,  or  remain  and  dry  np,  or 
they  increase  in  size,  and  are  changed  into  various 
kinds  of  appendages  of  the  (niit,  as  feathery  awns, 

-PISTILUDIUM,  in  Botany,  a  term  which, 
tjon^  with  AntAeridiam  (q.  v.),  must  be  regarded  as 
proviaional,  and  as  expressive  of  an  opimon,  prob- 
able, but  not  yet  ascertained  to  be  true.  The 
evidence  in  favour  of  it,  however,  seems  continually 
to  increase,  and  its  gteat  probability  is  more  and 


more  generally  acknowledged.  The  jiistillidium  ia 
an  organ  of  cryptogninous  plants,  supposed  ta 
perform  fuuctious  in  fructifieatioii  analogous  to 
those  ot  the  pistil  in  phaneroganiouB  plants.  It 
consists  of  a  germen-ttke  body — the  tj/orangium, 
Ihtfa,  or  spare->MM— hollow,  and  containing  Snor^ 
(q.  v.),  by  which  tha  species  is  propaaated.  These 
sjiore-casea  are  veiy  various  in  their  "^forms  and  in 
the  situations  which  they  occupy  in  different  ordera 
and  genera;  beins  sometinies  immersed  in  the 
■ubatance  of  the  pknt,  sometimes  distinct  from  it, 
sometimes  sessile,  sometimes  stalked.  &c  See  the 
articles  on  the  diflerent  cryjitogamouH  oitlors. 

PISTO'JA  (anc  Piatorium),  a  mauufacturing 
town  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of  Florence,  and  21 
miles  by  railway  north-west  of  the  city  of  that 
name,  stands  on  a  gentle  rising  ground  at  the  foot 
of  the  Apennines.  It  ia  well  buut ;  its  streets  are 
thoroughly  Tuscan,  and  it  is  BUirouuded  by  lofty 
and  wdl-preservad  walls.-  The  chief  buildings  ore 
the  cathedral,  built  at  various  tiroes,  and  containing  a 
number  of  good  pictures  ;  several  old  and  ioterestioa 
palaces,  and  a  number  of  churches,  some  of  which 
-re  of  importance  in  tbe  history  of  medieval  orcbitec- 
ira  and  sculpture.  Tbe  principal  manufactures  are 
on  and  steel  wares,  and  paper.  Fop.  about  12,000. 
PIBTOIi  is  the  smallest  description  of  fire-arm,  and 
intended  to  be  used  with  one  hand  only.  Pistols 
vary  in  «z«  from  the  delicate  soloon-pistol,  often 


lix  inches  long,  to  the  horse-pistol,  which  may 
ure  18  ioches,  and  sometimes  even  two  feet 
They  are  carried  in  bolsters  at  the  saddle-bow,  in 
the  belt,  or  in  the  picket    Every  cavalry  soldier 


shonld  hftva  pistols,  for  a  fire-arm  is  often  of  great 
service  for  personal  defence,  and  almost  indispen- 
sable in  giving  an  alarm  or  signaL  Sailors,  wlien 
boarding  an  enemy's  ship,  carry  each  two  in  thmr 
waistbelta. 

A»  early  as  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  the  Eng- 
lish cavalry  carried  dumay  pistols  called  'd«^' 
Tbe  latest  improvement  on  the  pistol  ia  the 
Kevolver  (q.  v.|. 

PISTCLE,  the  name  given  to  certain  gtdd 
coins  current  in  Spain,  Italy,  and  several  ports  of 
Germany.  The  pistole  was  first  used  in  Spun, 
and  was  originally  equivalent  to  about  11  old. 
French  livres,  but  till  1728  it  was  merely  an 
irregular  piece  of  cold.  From  this  time  till  1772,  its- 
value  was  17s.  la.  sterling ;  but  it  was  after  this 
date  decreased  till  it  reached  its  present  value  ot 
80  reals,  or  16s.  2d.  sterling.  Gold  coins  of  4,  2, 
I,  and  J  pistoles  are  at  the  present  day  current  in 
Spain.  The  Italian  pistoles  are  also  g»id  coins,  and 
vary   considerably    m   valne:    that    of   Bonje  ^3 


PI8UM -PITCH. 


ISa.  9cL ;  of  V^-nice  =  16*.  2id, ;  of  Florence  and 
Parma  =  16&  hi^d  ;  and  the  old  coin  of  Piedmont  = 
£1,  28.  7Jrf.,  or  24  old  liras.  These  will,  however, 
in  all  probability,  be  soon  superseded  by  the  new 
pistole  of  20  liras,  or  francs,  which  is  equivalent  to. 
i6s,  sterling.  Gold  coins  of  this  name  are  cur- 
rent in  Hesse-Cassel,  Switzerland,  Brunswick,  and 
Hamburg,  but  are  in  most  cases  merelv  convenient 
multiples  of  the  ordinary  thaler  and  gulden. 

PI'SUM.    See  Pea. 

PIT,  in  Gardening,  is  an  excavation  in  the 
ground!,  intended  to  be  covered  by  a  Frame  (q.  v.), 
and  to  afford  protection  to  tender  plants  in  winter, 
or  for  the  forcmg  of  vegetables,  fruits,  &c.  Pits  are 
often  walled  on  all  sides,  although,  in  many  cottage 
gardens,  excellent  use  is  made  of  pits  which  are 
mere  excavations.  The  walls  are  often  raised  above 
the  ground,  particularly  the  back  wall,  the  more 
rea(^y  to  give  slope  to  the  glazed  frame.  A  pit  in 
which  no  artificial  heat  Ib  supplied,  is  called  a  cold 
pit ;  but  when  forcing  is  intended,  flued  pits  are 
often  used.  Artificial  heat  is  sometimes  also  given 
b^  means  of  fermenting  matter.  The  ventilation  of 
pits,  as  much  as  the  weather  will  permit,  is  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

PI'TA-HBMP,  one  of  the  names  of  the  Agave  or 
Aloe  fibre.    See  Agave. 

PIT'AKA  (Uterally,  'basket')  is,  with  the 
Buddhists,  a  term  denoting  a  division  of  their 
sacred  literature,  and  occurs  esi)eciall^  in  combina- 
tion with  tri,  *  three ; '  tripitfaka  meaning  the  three 
creat  divisions  of  their  canonical  works,  the  Vinaya 
(discipline),  Abhidharma  (metaphysics),  and  Sittra 
(aphorisms  in  prose),  and  collectively,  therefore,  the 
wnole  Buddhistic  code.  The  term  *  basket  *  was 
applied  to  these  divisions,  because  the  palm-leaves 
on  which  these  works  were  written  were  kept  in 
baskets,  which  thus  became  a  part  of  the  profes- 
sional utensils  of  a  Bhikshu,  or  religious  menaicant. 

PITCAI'RN  ISLAND,  a  solitary  island  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean,  lying  at  the  south-eastern  comer  of 
the  great  Polynesian  Archipelago,  in  lat.  25®  3'  6"  S., 
and  long.  130''  6'  W.  Its  length  {2\  miles)  is  about 
twice  its  breadth,  and  the  total  content  is  approxi- 
mately 1^  square  miles;  so  that,  except  from  its 
being  the  only  station  (with  the  exception  of  the 
Ganibier  Islands)  between  the  South  American 
coast  and  Otaheite  at  which  fresh  water  can  be 
procured,  it  would  be  too  insignificant  to  deserve 
notice,  were  it  not  for  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
colonised.  The  island  is  wholly  surrounded  by  rocks ; 
it  has  no  harbour,  and  its  soil  is  not  very  fertile. 
It  was  occupied  in  1790  by  the  mutineers  of  the 
Bounty  (see  Blioh,  William),  who,  after  touching  at 
Toobouai,  sailed  for  Tahiti,  where  they  remained  for 
some  time.  Christian,  the  leader  of  the  mutineers, 
however,  fearing  pursuit,  hastened  their  departure ; 
and  after  leaving  a  number  of  their  comrades  who 
preferred  to  stay  on  the  island,  they  brought  off 
with  them  18  natives,  and  sailed  eastward,  reaching 
P.  I.,  where  they  took  up  their  residence,  and 
bumcMl  the  Bounty.  They  numbered  then  9  British 
sailors — for  16  of  the  sailors  had  preferred  to  remain 
at  Tahiti,  and  of  these,  14  were  subsequently 
captured,  and  (September  1792)  three  of  them 
executed — and  6  Tahitian  men,  with  12  women.  It 
was  impossible  for  concord  to  subsist  in  a  band 
of  such  desperate  character;  and,  in  the  course  of 
the  next  ten  years,  all  the  Tahitian  men,  all  the 
sailors,  with  the  exception  of  Alexander  Smith 
(who  subsequently  changed  his  name  to  John 
Aduns),  and  several  of  uie  women,  had  died  by 
violence  or  disease.  From  the  time  of  their  leaving 
Tahiti,  nothing  had  been  heard  of  them,  and  their 
fate  was  only  known  when  an  American,  Captain 
66S 


Folger,  touched  at  P.  L  in  1808,  and  on  his  retnni, 
reported  his  discovery  to  the  British  government; 
but  no  ste])s  appear  to  have  been  taken  by  the 
latter.  On  September  17,  1814,  a  British  vessel, 
the  Britain,  called  at  the  island,  and  found  old 
Adams  still  alive,  commanding  the  respect  and 
admiration  of  the  whole  little  colony,  by  his 
exemplary  conduct  and  fatherly  care  of  them. 
Solitude  had  wrought  a  powerful  change  in  Adams; 
and  his  endeavours  to  instil  into  the  young  miodB 
I  of  his  old  companions'  descendants  a  correct 
sense  of  religion,  nad  been  crowned  with  complete 
success,  for  a  more  virtuous,  amiable,  and  religioos 
community  than  these  iblanders,  hail  never  been 
seen.  They  were  visited  by  British  vessels  in  1825 
and  1830,  and  the  reports  transmitted  concemiDg 
them  were  full^  corroborative  of  the  previoni 
accounts;  but,  m  1831,  their  numbers  (87)  had 
become  too  great  for  the  island,  and  at  their 
own  request,  they  were  transported  to  Tahiti,  in 
the  Lucy  Anii,  by  the  British  government.  But, 
disgusted  at  the  immorality  of  their  Tahitian 
friends  and  relatives,  they  chartered  a  vessel, 
defraying  the  cost  of  it  in  great  part  with  the 
copper  bolts  of  the  Bounty,  and  most  of  them 
returned  to  P.  I.  at  the  end  of  nine  months.  In 
1839,  being  visited  by  Captain  EUiot  of  H.MS. 
Fhj,  they  besought  to  be  taken  under  the  protection 
of  Britain,  on  account  of  the  annoyances  to  which 
they  had  been  subjected  by  the  lawless  oews  of 
some  whale-ships  which  had  called  at  the  island; 
and,  accordingly,  Captain  EUliot  took  possession  of 
it  in  the  name  of  Her  Majestv,  gave  tnem  a  Union 
Jack,  and  recognised  their  self-elected  magistnte  as 
the  responsible  governor.  He  also  drew  np  for 
them  a  code  of  laws,  some  of  which  are  amusing 
from  the  subjects  of  which  they  treat,  but  the  coile 
was  of  great  use  to  the  simple  islanders.  From 
this  time,  they  were  fre<}uently  visited  by  Enropean 
ships ;  and,  in  1855,  finding  their  numbers  again  too 
great  for  the  island,  they  petitioned  government  to 
grant  them  the  much  more  productive  >'orfolk 
island,  to  which  they  were  accordingly  removed  in 
1856.  In  1859,  however,  two  famihes,  numbering 
in  all  17,  returned  to  P.  L,  reducing  the  number  ^ 
those  lej^  on  Norfolk  Island  to  202.  From  their 
frequent  intercourse  with  Europeans,  the  Pitcaim 
Islanders  have,  while  still  retaining  their  virtuous 
simplicity  of  character  and  cheerful  hospitable 
disposition,  acquired  the  manners  and  polish  of 
civilised  life,  with  its  education  and  taste.  They  are 
passionately  fond  of  music  and  dancing,  the  latter 
evidently  a  legacy  from  their  maternal  ancestry. 
The  men  are  engaged  in  whaling  and  herding  cattle, 
or  in  cultivating  their  gardens  and  plantations ;  while 
the  women  (who  seem  to  be  the  more  industrioos 
class)  attend  to  their  families,  manaee  the  dairies, 
and  take  an  occasional  part  in  field-labour. 

P.  L  was  first  discovered  by  Carteret  in  1767,  asd 
was  named  by  him  after  one  of  his  officers ;  bnt  it 
was  never  visited  by  Europeans  till  taken  pcssessioa 
of  by  the  mutineers,  though  the  latter  found  satis- 
factory indications  of  its  having  previously  been 
occupied  for  a  considerable  period  by  sara^ 
probably  from  the  neighbouring  islands. 

PITCH.  The  common  kind  of  pitch  \m  the  bbck 
residue  which  remains  after  distilling  wood-tar. 
See  Tar.  It  is  made  extensively  in  Husaia,  Xor- 
way,  and  North  America.  It  is  a  must  usk^ 
material  for  protecting  wood  from  the  action  d 
water,  hence  it  is  used  for  calking  the  seams,  and 
coating  the  outsides  of  ships  and  ooats ;  it  is  abo 
applied  to  the  inside  of  water-casks,  and  maar 
similar  uses.  A  variety  of  pitch  is  now  obtaiB^ 
from  l^e  distillation  of  coal-tar,  and  another  bm. 
bone-tar :  the  latter  is  said  to  be  nearly  equal  ia 


PITCH— PITRX 


▼alae  to  that  from  wood,  bnt  coal-pitch  wants  the 
tongfaness  which  is  one  of  the  more  valuable  quali- 
ties of  wood-pitch.  It  ia,  however,  much  used  in 
making  artificial  asphalt  for  building  and  paving 
purposes ;  and  for  the  black  varnish  used  for 
coating  iron- work  to  keep  it  from  rusting.  Pitch  is 
sohd  at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  our  climate,  but 
softens  and  melts  with  a  small  accession  of  heat. 

PITCH,  Burgundy.    See  Burgundy  Pitch. 

PITCH,  the  degree  of  acuteneas  of  musical 
BOimds.  A  musical  sound  is  produced  by  a  series 
of  vibrations  recorring  on  the  ear  at  precisely 
equal  intervals ;  the  greater  the  number  of  vibra- 
tions in  a  given  time,  the  more  acute  or  higher 
is  the  pitch.  In  stringed  instruments,  the  pitch 
is  dependent  on  the  length,  the  thickness,  and 
the  degree  of  tension  of  the  strings ;  the  shorter 
and  thinner  a  string  is,  and  the  greater  its  tension, 
the  higher  is  the  pitch  of  the  note.  In  wind 
instruiuents,  where  the  notes  are  produced  by  the 
vibration  of  a  column  of  air,  as  in  the  mouth-pipes 
of  an  organ,  the  pitch  is  dependent  on  the  length  of 
the  column  set  in  motion  ;  the  shorter  the  column 
of  air,  the  higher  the  pitch  becomes. 

The  pitch  of  musical  instruments  is  adjusted  by 
means  of  a  tuning-fork,  consisting  of  two  prongs 
springing  out  of  a  handle,  so  adjusted  as  to  lent^ui 
tnat,  when  struck,  a  ])articular  note  is  produced,  tnat 


note  being 


i°gC^gEi 


—  in  Britain,  and  A 


^ 


in  Germany.    It  is  obviously  important  to  have  a 
recognised  standard  of  pitch,  by  which  instruments 
and  voices  are  to  be  regnlatetl :  but  there  is,  unfor- 
tunately, not  the  uniformity  that  might  be  desired 
in  the  pitch  in  actual  use.     For  a  long  time  prior  to 
1S59,  concert- pitch  had  been  gradually  rising,  to 
the  detriment  of  the  voices  of  public  singers.     The 
C  tuning-fork,  in  use  in  1690,  made  489  vibrations 
per  second,  while  in  1859,  the  number  of  vibrations 
nad  increased  to  538.     Mr  Hullah,  in  1842,  in  the 
numerous  classes  instituted  by  him  under  the  sanc- 
tion of  the  Committee  of  Council  on  Education,  foimd 
it  necessary  to  secure  a  uniform  standard  of  pitch, 
and  adopted  512,  which  has  an  especial  convenience 
na  being  a   power  of    2.      The   French    Imperial 
j^ovemment,  in   1858,   fixed  on  522.      In   1859,  a 
Committee  of  the  Society  of  Arts  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  subject   of  a  uniform  musical  pitch. 
Tbeir  deliberations  lasted  12  months.      Sir  John 
Herschel,  in  a  letter  to  the  Committee,  strongly 
recommended  the  number  512.     It  was  agreed  on 
all  hands  that  the  then  existing  opera-pitcn  of  546 
was  too  hish  and  painful  to  the  singers  of  soprano 
music.     The  instrimiental  performers  stated  that 
they  could  lower  the  pitch  to  528,  but  if  they  had 
to  lower  it  to  512,  some  of  them  would  have  to 
purchase  new  instruments ;   and,   in   consequence 
apparently  of  their  representation,  the  Committee 
rex>orted  m  favour  of  528. 

PI'TCHBLENDE,  a  mineral  which  is  essentially 
Oxide  of  Uranium  (q.  v.),  with  sbght  mixtures  of 
other  Bubstancea  Its  colour  is  grayish- black  or 
brownish-black.  It  is  infusible  before  the  blowi)i])e, 
-without  the  addition  of  borax,  with  which  it  fuses 
into  a  dull  yellow  glass. 

PITCHER  PLANT.    See  Nepenthes. 

PITCHSTONE,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  a 
variety  of  common  Ops!  (q.  v.),  brown,  black,  gray, 
red,  3r  of  mixed  colours ;  the  lustre  more  resinous 
t'laa  in  opal,  and  the  fracture  less  perfectly  con- 
choidaJL  It  occurs  in  several  localities  in  the 
British  Islands,  in  Saxony,  Sec. — The  same  name  is 
gJLven  to  another  mineral  (Ger.  Ptdusteia)^  a  variety 


of  Febpar  (q.  v.),  occurring  as  a  rock  in  dikes  whick 
traverse  strata  or  in  overlying  masses ;  compact, 
slaty,  or  in  concentric  slaty  concretiona  It  exhibits 
great  variety  of  colour,  ana  has  a  somewhat  resinous 
appearance.  It  often  contains  numerous  imbedded 
crystals  of  felspar,  and  is  then  called  P.  porphijrtf. 

PITCHURIM  BEANS,  or  SASSAFRAS  NUTS, 
an  occasional  article  of  importation  from  South 
America,  are  the  seed-lobes  of  Nectandra  Pttchury, 
a  tree  of  the  same  genus  with  the  Greenheart  (q.  v.), 
growing  on  the  banks  of  the  Rio  Negro  and  else- 
where in  the  rich  alluvial  parts  of  the  oasin  of  the 
Amazon.  They  are  about  an  inch  and  a  half  long, 
and  half  an  inch  broad.  They  are  much  in  request 
among  chocolate  manufacturers  for  flavouring 
chocolate,  as  a  substitute  for  vanilla  They  ai*e 
sometimes  called  Wild  Nutmegs,  because  of  a 
resemblance  to  nutmeg  in  flavour.  The  name 
Sassafras  Nuts  is  also  due  to  the  flavour,  which 
approaches  that  of  Sassafras  bark;  and  the  tree 
belongs  to  the  same  natural  order  with  the  Sassa- 
fras tree. 

PITH  (Medulla),  the  light  cellular  substance 
which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  stem  and  branches 
in  Exogenous  Plants  (q.  v.).  In  the  earliest  stage  of 
a  young  stem  or  branch,  it  is  entirely  composed  of 
pith  and  bark,  by  which  alone,  therefore,  young 
Duds  are  nourishea ;  the  vascular  bundles  or  woody 
fibre  appearing  afterwards,  and  in  trees  and  shrubs, 
generally  inci-easiug,  so  as  to  constitute  the  greater 
part  of  the  substance  of  the  stem  and  branches, 
whilst  the  pith  is  ultimately  reduced  to  a  very 
small  column  in  the  centre.  The  pith,  however, 
exists  even  in  the  most  mature  woody,  stem,  and 
maintains  its  connection  with  the  bark  by  means 
of  Medullary  Bays,  analogous  in  their  character  to 
the  pith  itself,  and  which  exist  even  in  the  most 
compact  wood,  although  much  compressed  by  the 
woody  layers,  and  in  a  transverse  section  appearing 
as  mere  lines.  The  medullary  rays  convey  1^  the 
central  parts  of  the  stem  the  secretions  of  the  bark 
necessary  ior  their  nourishment.  P.  is  in  general 
entirel}^  composed  of  cellular  tissue ;  vessels  occur- 
ring in  it  only  in  a  few  plants.  Its  cells  diminish  in 
size  from  the  centre  towards  the  circumference.  In 
a  few  plants,  it  exhibits  cavities  which  have  a 
regular  arrangement ;  in  many  herbaceous  plants  of 
rank  ^owth,  large  irregular  cavities  occur  in  itb 
The  pith  is  immediately  surrounded  by  a  thin 
vascular  layer  called  the  Medullary  Sheatfi,  consist- 
ing chiefly  of  spiral  vessels,  which  continue  to 
exercise  their  functions  during  the  life  of  the  plant. 

PITHE'CIA.    See  Sakl 

PITHE'CUS.    See  Orano. 

PI'TON  BARK.    See  Caribbee  Bark. 

PI'TB'I  (a  Sanscrit  word  literally  meaning  father 
=  Latin  patei\  in  the  plural  Pitaras,  but  m  En2- 
lish  translations  from  the  Sanscrit  usually  Angfi- 
cised  to  PUr'is),  a  name  which,  in  a  general  sense, 
means  the  deceased  ancestors  of  a  man,  but  in  the 
special  sense  in  which  it  occurs  in  Hindu  mythology, 
denotes  an  order  of  divine  beings  inhabiting  celes- 
tial regions  of  their  own,  and  receiving  into  their 
society  the  spirits  of  those  mortals  for  whom  the 
fimeral  rites  (see  S'rAddha)  have  been  duly  per- 
formed. They  include,  therefore,  collectively  the 
manes  of  the  deceased  ancestors ;  but  the  principal 
members  of  this  order  are  beings  of  a  difierent 
nature  and  origin.  According  to  Manu,  they  were 
the  sons  of  Martchi,  Atn,  Angiras,  and  the 
other  R'ishis  or  saints  produced  by  Manu,  the  son 
of  Brahm& ;  and  from  them  issued  the  gods,  demons, 
and  men.  According  to  several  Purftuas  (q.  v.), 
however,  the  first  Pitr'is  were  the  sons  of  the  gods ; 
and  to  reconcile  this  discrepancy,  a  legend  relates 

•9# 


PITE'I— PITT. 


that  the  gods  having  offended  Brahm&  by  neglecting 
to  worship  him,  were  cursed  by  him  to  oeoome 
fools ;  but  upon  their  repentance,  he  directed  them 
to  apply  to  tneir  sons  for  instruction.  Being  taught 
accordingly  the  rites  of  expiation  and  penance  by 
their  sons,  they  addressed  the  latter  as  fathers, 
whence  the  sons  of  the  gods  were  the  first  Pitr'is 
(fathers).  See  Wilson's  Vishn'u-Purdn'cu  Manu 
enumerates  various  classes  of  Pitr'is  in  defining  those 
who  were  the  ancestors  of  the  gods,  those  who  were 
the  ancestors  of  the  demons,  and  those  from  whom 
proceeded  the  four  castes  severally;  but  he  adds, 
at  tbe  same  time,  that  these  are  merely  the  prin- 
cipal classes,  as  their  sons  and  grandsons  indefinitely 
must  likewise  be  considered  as  Pitr'is.  The 
Purftn'as  divide  them  generally  into  seven  classes, 
three  of  which  are  without  form,  or  composed  of 
intellectual,  not  elementarv  substance,  and  assuming 
what  forms  they  please,  while  the  four  other  classes 
are  corporeal  In  the  enumeration,  however,  of 
these  classes  the  Purftn'as  differ.  The  Pitr'is  reside 
in  a  world  of  their  own,  called  Pitr'i-loka,  which  is 
sometimes  supposed  to  be  the  moon ;  according  to 
the  Pur&n'as,  it  is  below  the  paradise  of  Indra,  and 
is  also  the  abode  of  the  souls  of  devout  Brahmans. 
The  time  at  which  the  Pitr^is  are  to  be  worshipped, 
the  libations  which  they  are  to  receive,  the  benefit 
which  they  derive  from  them,  and  the  boons  which 
they  confer  on  the  worshipper,  are  all  minutely 
described  in  the  Pur&n'as.  8ee  S'raddha.  A  song 
of  the  Pitr'is,  as  given  by  the  Vishn'u-Purdn'a^  m&y 
convey  an  idea  of  the  importance  attributed  to  this 
worship,  and  of  the  maimer  in  which  the  Brahmans 
turned  it  to  their  profit  It  runs  as  follows :  *  That 
enlightened  individual  who  begrudges  not  his 
wealth,  but  presents  us  with  cakes,  sh^l  be  bom  in 
a  distinguished  family.  Prosperous  and  affluent 
shall  that  man  ever  be  who,  in  honour  of  us,  gives 
to  the  Brahmans,  if  he  is  wealthy,  jewels,  clothes, 
lands,  conveyances,  wealth,  or  any  valuable  presents ; 
or  who,  with  faith  and  humility,  entertams  them 
with  food,  according  to  his  means,  at  proper 
seasons.  If  he  cannot  afford  to  give  them  dressed 
food,  he  must,  in  proportion  to  his  ability,  present 
them  with  unboiled  grain,  or  such  ^fts,  however 
trifling,  as  he  can  b^tow.  Should  he  be  utterly 
unable  even  to  do  this,  he  must  give  to  some 
eminent  Brahman,  bowing  at  the  same  time  before 
him,  sesamum  seeds,  adheriug  to  the  tips  of  his 
finders,  and  sprinkle  water  to  us,  from  the  palms 
of  nis  hands,  upon  the  ground ;  or  he  must  gather, 
as  he  may,  f odaer  for  a  day,  and  give  it  to  a  cow ; 
by  which  he  will,  if  firm  in  faith,  yield  us  satisfac- 
tion. If  nothing  of  this  kind  is  practicable,  he 
must  go  to  a  forest,  and  lift  up  his  arms  to  the  sun 
and  otiier  regents  of  the  spheres,  and  say  aloud :  **  I 
have  no  money,  nor  property,  nor  grain,  nor  any 
thing  whatever  fit  for  an  ancestral  offering ;  bowing 
therefore  to  my  ancestors,  I  hope  the  progenitors 
will  be  satisfied  with  these  arms  tossed  up  in  the 
air  in  devotion." '    See  Wilson's  VisHm'U'Pur&n'a, 

PITT,  William,  the  second  son  of  the  Earl  of 
Chatham  and  of  Lady  Hester  Grenville,  daughter 
of  the  Countess  Temple,  was  bom  on  the  28th  Iday 
1759.  His  genius  and  ambition  displayed  them- 
selves with  an  almost  unexampled  precocity.  *  The 
fineness  of  William's  mind,'  his  mother  writes  of 
him,  when  he  was  but  twelve  years  old,  'makes 
him  enjoy  with  the  greatest  pleasure  what  would 
be  above  the  reach  of  any  other  creature  of  his 
small  age.'  Owing  to  the  excessive  delicacy  of  his 
constitution,  it  was  found  impossible  to  educate 
him  at  a  public  schooL  His  studies  were,  however, 
prosecuted  at  home  with  vigour  and  success.  In 
1773,  he  was  sent  to  the  university  of  Cambridge, 
where  his  knowledge  of  the  classics  seems  to  have 


astonished  veteran  critics.  To  modem  literaton^ 
he  appears  to  have  been  utterly  indifferent— he 
knew  no  continental  language  except  French,  and 
that  very  imperfectly.  Among  English  poets,  he 
liked  Milton  best;  the  debate  in  Paudemoniiun 
being  his  favourite  passage.  In  1780,  P.  was 
called  to  the  bar.  He  took  chambera  in  Linoob's 
Inn,  and  joined  the  western  circuit.  A  genenl 
election  having  taken  place  in  the  autumn  of  the 
same  year,  he  stood  for  the  university  of  Cam- 
bridge; but  he  was  at  the  bottom  of  the  pdL 
Through  the  influence,  however,  of  the  Duke  of 
Rutland,  he  obtained  a  seat  in  parliament  sa 
member  for  Appleby.  Lord  North  was  now  prime- 
minister.  The  Opposition  consisted  of  two  jiarties; 
one  being  led  by  Kockingham  and  Fox,  the  other 
by  Lord  Shelbume.  The  Tatter  consisted  chiefly  of 
the  old  followers  of  Chatham ;  and  to  this  party 
Pitt  naturally  became  attached.    On  26tli  Febroaiy 

1781,  he  made  his  first  speech  in  parliament  It 
was  in  favour  of  Burke's  plan  of  economical  refonn, 
and  was  a  si)lendid  success.  '  It  is  not  a  chip  of  tiie 
old  block,*  said  Burke ;  *  it  is  the  old  block  himself.* 
Shortly  before  the  meeting  of  parliament,  in  the 
autumn  of  1781,  the  news  arriv^  of  the  surrender 
of  Comwallis  and  his  army.  In  the  debate  on  the 
address,  P.  spoke  with  even  more  energy  and 
brilliancy  than  on  any  former  occasion.  Ko  one  vas 
so  loud  m  eulogy  as  Henry  Bundas,  Lord  Advocate 
for  Scotland ;  and  from  this  night  dates  a  con- 
nection between  him  and  P.,  which  was  only  broken 
by  death.  After  several  defeats,  the  ministry 
resigned,  and  Kockinjgham  was  called  on  to  constmct 
a  cabinet.  P.  was  offered  the  vice-treasurership  of 
Ireland  ;  but  he  declined  to  accept  a  position  which 
did  not  confer  a  seat  in  the  cabinet.     On  7th  May 

1782,  he  made  his  first  motion  for  a  reform  in  the 
representation  of  the  people ;  which  motion  was  lost 
by  only  20  votes  in  a  house  of  more  than  300 
members.  The  reformers  never  again  had  so  good 
a  division  till  1831.  At  the  end  of  three  months 
after  his  accession  to  office,  Rockingham  died  ;  Lord 
Shelbume  succeeded  to  the  head  of  the  treasury; 
and  P.,  at  the  age  of  23,  became  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  In  opposition  to  the  government,  there 
was  then  formed  a  coalition  emphatically  known  as 
*The  Coalition.*  On  Lord  Shelbnme*8  resignation 
in  1783,  the  king  himself,  who  hated  the  Coalition, 
tried  to  persuade  P.  to  take  the  helm  of  affairs; 
but  he  resolutely  declined.  The  Duke  of  Portland 
succeeded,  with  Fox  and  North  as  Secretaries  of 
State.  P.,  from  the  Opposition  benches,  bronght  for 
a  second  time  the  miestion  of  parliamentary  reform 
before  the  House,  ilis  motion  was  lost  by  293  votes 
to  149.  On  the  prorogation,  he  visited  the  continent 
for  the  first  and  last  time.  In  1783,  the  ministry 
having  been  defeated  on  a  motion  for  transfsring 
the  government  of  India  to  parliament,  P.  became 
First  Lord  of  the  Treasury  and  Chancellor  of  the 
Exchequer.  But  parliament  was  dead  a^unst  him : 
between  17th  December  1783  and  8th  March  17S1^ 
he  was  beaten  in  sixteen  divisions.  The  nation, 
however,  was  in  his  favour ;  both  on  acoonnt  of  his 
policy,  and  from  admiration  of  his  private  char^ 
acter.  Pecimiary  disinterestedness  is  what  all  caa 
comprehend;  and  even  when  known  to  be  over^ 
whelmed  with  debt,  when  millions  were  passing 
through  his  hands,  when  the  greatest  men  in  the 
land  were  soliciting  him  for  honours,  no  one  ev9 
dared  to  accuse  him  of  touching  unlawful  gain.  At 
the  general  election  in  1784,  160  sup}K>rteis  of  the 
Coalition  lost  their  seats,  P.  himself  heading  the 
poll  for  the  university  of  Cambridge.  He  was  ikvs, 
at  25  years  old,  the  most  powerful  ^ubjoH.  that 
England  had  seen  for  many  generationa.  He  ril*-! 
absolutely  over  the  cabinet,  and  was  at  once  tW 


PITTACUS^PITTSBTJRG. 


bvoTurite  of  the  BovereigD,  of  the  parliament,  and  of 
the  nation ;    and  from  this  date,  the  life  of   P. 
becomes  the  history  of  England  and  of  the  world. 
For  seventeen  eventful  years,  he  held  his  great 
position  without  a  break.     In  17Si,  he  established  a 
new  constitntion  for  the  East  India  Company.    In 
1786,  he  carried  through  a  commercial  treaty  with 
France  on  liberal  principle&     In  the  same  year,  he 
established  a  new  sinking  fund;  a  scheme  which 
experience  has  shewn  to  be  wrong  in   principle, 
though  it  was   long  viewed  with  tavour  by  the 
nation.      To    exertions    which    were    now    oegun 
for  the  abolition  of  the  slave-trade,  he  gave  the 
help  of  his  eloquence  and  power.     In  17S8— 1789, 
he  maintained  against  Fox  the  right  of  parliament 
to  supply  the  tem2K>rary  defect  of  royal  authority 
occasioned  by  the   incapacity  of  the   king.     The 
year  1793  saw  the  beginning    of   the   great  war 
with  France.     Authorities  differ  as  to  the  cause. 
It  iBf  however,  certain  that  P.*s   military  admini- 
stration   was    eminently    unsuccessfuL      But     no 
disaster  could  daunt  his  spirit.  When  a  new  French 
victory,  a  rebellion  in  Ireland,  a  mutiny  in  the  fleet, 
and  a  panic  in  the  city  had  spread  dismay  through 
the  nation,  P.  from  his  place  in  parliament  poured 
forth   the  langimge  of  mextinguishable  hope  and 
inflexible   resmution.     Disaster  abroad  was   regu- 
larly followed  by  triumph  at  home,  until  at  last 
he  had  no  longer  an  opposition  to  encounter.     In 
1799,  he  effected  the  union  with  Ireland.     It  was 
part  of  his  scheme  to  relieve  the  Roman  Catholic 
laity  from  civil  disabilities,  and  to  grant  a  public 
maintenance  to  their  clergy ;  but  the  obstinacy  of 
the  king  frustrated  this  design.     Chagrined  by  this 
failure,  P.  resigned  oflSce  in  1801.      He  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Mr  Addington,  to  whom  for  a  while  he 
gave  his  support.     In  1804,  he  returned  again  to 
the  head  of  the  treasury,  which  ]>usition  he  con- 
tinned  to  hold  till  his  death  on  23d  January  1806. 
This  event  was  doubtless  hastened  by  the  stupend- 
ous success  of  Napoleon.    The  peculiar  look  which 
he  wore  during  the  last  days  of  his  life  was  patheti- 
cally termed  by  Wilberforce  *the  Austerlitz  look.* 
The  impeachment  also  of  his  friend.  Lord  Melville,  is 
8up()Oded  greatly  to  have  hastened  his  end.     It  gave 
him,  he  said  in  parliament,  a  deep  pang.     His  voice 

Suivered  as  he  uttered  the  word ;  and  it  seemed  as 
'  the  man  of  iron  were  about  to  shed  tears.     *  He 
was,'  sa^s  Macaulay,  *a  minister  of  great  talents, 
honest  intentions,  and  liberal  opinions,  ....  but 
unequal  to  surprising  and  terrible  emergencies,  and 
liable  in  such  emergencies  to  err  grievously,  both  on 
the  side  of  weakness  and  on  the  side  of  violence.' 
But  what  man  ever  lived,  we  may  ask,  who,  placed 
in  such  circumstances  as  P.,  would  not  often  have 
greatly  erred?    His  policy  was  liberal  beyond  his 
age,  at  least  he  wished  it  to  be  so,  althou^  he  was 
often  obUffed  to  yield  to  the  prejudices  of  nis  sove- 
reign,     ae  resigned  office  because  he  could  not 
carry  Catholic  emancipation.    He  laid  before  the 
king  unanswerable  reasons  for  abolij^hing  the  Test 
Act.  He  was  more  deeply  imbued  with  the  doctrines 
df  free- trade  than  eitner  Fox  or  Grey.    It  cannot 
indeed  be  denied  that  he  was  addicted  to  port- wine, 
and  that  lie  died  overwhelmed  with  debts  ;  parlia- 
•neat  voting  £40,000  to  his  creditors.    High  as  his 
character  stands,  it  would  have  stood  even  higher 
had  he  onited  the  virtue  of  frugality  to  that  of 
disinterestedness.    See  L^/e  of  Pitt  by  Lord  Stan- 
hope (Lond«  1861) ;  also  Lord  Macaulay's  Biographies 
(Edin.  1860).    In  the  former  work,  voL  ii.,  p.  185, 
will  be  found  a  valuuble  criticism  on  Macaulay's 
memoir. 

PI'TTAOUS,  one  of  the  *  Seven  Wise  Men '  of 
ancient  Greece,  was  bom  at  Mitylene,  in  the  island 
«f  Lesbos,  about  the  middle  of  the  7th  c  B.a    The 


incidents  of  his  life  do  not  perhaps  rest  on  a  very 
secure  historical  basis,  but  he  is  by  no  means  to  bt 
regarded  as  a  merely  traditionary  personage.  \V6 
may  feel  quite  certain  that  his  career  and  ^aractei 
were  substantially  what  later  history  represents 
them.  About  612  b.  a,  in  conjunction  with  the 
brothers  of  Alcteus  the  poet,  he  overthrew  the 
'tyrant'  Melanchnis,  and  put  him  to  death.  He 
next  figures  in  the  contest  between  tlie  Lesbians 
and  the  Athenians  for  the  possession  of  Sigeum  in 
the  Troad,  and  displayed  as  much  valour  on  the 
battle-field  as  Alcseus  did  cowardice.  His  towns- 
men, the  Mitylemeans,  were  so  pleased  with  his 
deeds  of  prowess,  that  they  gave  him  a  {>ortion  of 
the  city-territory,  which  he  dedicated  to  sacred 
uses,  and  which  was  known  long  after  as  the  '  Pit- 
taceian  land.'  Meanwhile,  the  civic  struggles  did 
not  cease  ;  the  democratic  party,  however,  roughly 
represented  by  a  series  of  popular  *  tyrants,'  were  in 
the  ascendant,  and  the  oligarchic  aristocrats,  at  ths 
head  of  whom  was  Alca^us,  were  finally  banished. 
P.  was  sul)sequentiv  chosen  dictator,  589  B.  c,  to 
prevent  the  turbulent  exiles  from  returning  to 
Mitylene,  and  ruled  absolutely  with  great  success 
for  ten  years,  after  which  he  voluntarily  resigned 
his  power,  and  withdrew  into  honoured  retirement. 
He  died  in  569  b.  a  Many  of  the  anecdotes  pre- 
served by  tradition  concerning  P.  are  probably 
apocryphal ;  but  they  all  attribute  to  him  the 
same  characteristics — ^great  moral  sagacity,  a  con- 
tempt of  outward  pomp,  and  a  plain  practical  under- 
standing. His  favourite  maxim,  Gnothi  Kairdn 
[  *  Know  the  fitting  moment ' ),  may  be  recommended 
to  all  statesmen  and  politicians.  To  P.  is  also 
ascribed  the  saying  which  has  so  often  been  verified 
in  actual  history,  Ohalepdn  esthldn  emmenai  ( *  It  is 
a  misfortune  to  be  eminent ' ).  Of  his  600  didactic 
verses,  only  four  are  extant,  and  these  prove  that 
he  was  strongly  impressed  with  the  falsehood  and 
insincerity  of  men.  See  Schneidewin's  DeUctua 
Faesia  Grcecorum  ElegiaeoB,  &c.  (Gott  1839.) 

PITTOSPORA'CE-ffi,  a  natural  order  of  exo- 
genous plants,  allied  to  Vitacea  (the  Vine,  &c.),  and 
containmg  nearly  100  known  species  of  trees  and 
shrubs,  chiefly  Australian,  although  a  few  are 
natives  of  diflSerent  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Pacihc.  To  this  order  belongs  the 
genus  Billardiera  (q.  v.).  The  genus  SoUya  also 
deserves  notice,  as  containing  some  of  our  most 
beautiful  green-house  dimbers. 

PI'TTSBURG,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.  of 
America,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Alleghany  and 
Monongahela  rivers,  at  the  head  of  the  Ohio,  lat. 
40"  26'  34"  N.,  long.  80"  2!  38"  W.  It  is  situated 
among  some  of  the  richest  deposits  of  bituminous 
coal  and  iron  in  America,  supplying  coal  to  the 
extent  of  1,600,000  tons  a  year  to  the  whole  Missis- 
sippi Valley,  and  having  65  mining  companies,  23 
iron  and  steel  works,  16  foundries,  extensive 
machine-shops,  manufactures  of  steam-boilers, 
engines,  nails,  spikes,  rivets,  files,  wire,  foundries 
for  cannon,  &c.  There  are  also  copper-smelting  and 
rolling  mills,  6  cotton-mills,  white-lead  and  glass 
works.  The  numerous  foundries  and  factories  fill 
the  atmosphere  with  smoke,  and  have  given  P.  the 
name  of  the  Birmingham  of  America.  It  is  con- 
nected by  steamboats  with  the  whole  Mississippi 
Valley,  and  by  railways  and  canals  with  Phila- 
delphia and  Cleveland.  Among  its  public  buildings 
are  a  fine  court-house,  the  largest  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  in  the  country,  115  churches,  railway, 
aqueduct,  and  other  bridges.  United  States  arsenal, 
schools  and  colleges,  western  state  penitentiary,  &a 
There  are  10  or  12  newspapers,  2  German.  P. 
occupies  the  site  of  Fort  Pitt,  and  the  older  French 


PITTSFIELD— PIUS. 


Fort  Daqueane,  in  an  expedition  against  which,  the 
British  eenend,  Braddock,  was  defeated  in  1755, 
by  an  allied  force  of  French  and  Indians.  It  was 
taken,  on  a  third  attempt,  by  General  Forbes  in 
k7oa  The  city  was  chartered  in  1816;  in  1845,  it 
uas  nearly  destroyed  by  fire.  The  i)opalation  in 
1840  was  21,115;  in  1860,  49,220;  or,  including 
the  towns  which  cluster  around  it,  115,000. 

PI'TTSFIELD,  a  village  in  Massachusetts,  17.8.  of 
America,  on  the  Western  Railway,  151  miles  west 
of  Boston,  and  the  terminus  of  the  Housatonio  and 
Pittsfield  Railway.  It  has  two  cotton  and  nine 
woollen  factories,  various  manufactories,  the  Berk- 
shire Medical  College,  two  banks,  nine  churches,  &c. 
Pop.  (1860)  8045. 

PITUITARY  BODY,  a  small  reddish-gray 
iiass  of  an  oval  form,  weighing:  from  six  to  ten 
grains,  and  situated  on  the  sella  turcica  of  the 
sphenoid  bone,  on  the  floor  of  the  cavity  of  the 
skull.  It  is  very  vascular,  and  in  its  structure  it 
resembles  the  ductless  glands.  In  the  foetus,  it  is 
relatively  larger  than  in  the  adnlt,  and  contains  a 
cavity  which  subsequently  disappears.  It  derives 
its  name  from  its  having  been  formerly  supposed  to 
secrete  the  fluid  which  (as  we  now  know)  is  yielded 
by  the  Schneiderian  or  pituitary  membrane  of  the 
nostrils.    Its  function  is  not  known. 

PITYRI'ASIS  (from  the  Greek  word  pityron, 
bran)  is  the  term  given  to  one  of  the  squamous  or 
scaly  diseases  of  the  skin,  in  which  there  is  a  con- 
tinual throwing  off*  of  bran-like  scales  of  epidermis, 
which  ar&  renewed  as  fast  as  they  are  lost.  It  may 
occur  upon  any  part  of  the  body,  giving  rise  to 
brown  patches,  in  which  there  are  sensations  of 
itching,  tingling,  or  pricking.  It  is  more  easily 
cured  than  the  other  scaly  diseases,  and  its  removal 
can  generally  be  effected  by  the  frequent  use  of  the 
warm  bath ;  or,  if  it  fails,  recourse  may  be  had  to 
alkaline  or  sulphur  baths ;  due  attention  being  at 
the  same  time  paid  to  the  general  health.  It  some- 
times occurs  on  the  scalp,  when  it  is  known  as  dan- 
■  drif,  and  must  be  treated  with  weak  alkaline 
lotions,  or,  if  these  fail,  with  tar  ointment,  provided 
there  is  no  inflammation.  There  is  a  variety  known 
as  Pihjriasis  versicolor,  which  is  probably  due  to  the 
presence  of  a  parasitic  fungus,  the  Microsporonfur/u' 
rans;  but  whether  the  fungus  is  the  positive  cause 
of  the  disease,  or  only  an  attendant  on  it,  finding  a 
suitable  nidus  in  the  diseased  epidermis,  is  not  cer-<« 
tain.  This  variety  may  be  detected  by  a  microscopic 
examination  of  the  exfoliated  scales,  when  the  spores 
and  filaments  of  the  fungus  will  be  detected.  The 
treatment  of  this  affection  must  be  solely  locaL  Dr 
Watson  mentions  a  case  which  yielded  at  once  to  a 
couple  of  sulphur  baths.  Probably  the  best  remedy 
is  tne  application  of  a  saturated  watery  solution  of 
sulphurous  acid  gas,  or  of  one  of  the  sulphites 
dissolved  in  diluted  vinegar. 

PI'C  (in  ItaL  more),  as  a  musical  term,  when  pre- 
fixed to  another  word,  intensifies  its  meaning — e.  g., 
piit  mo8so,  with  more  movement. 

PI'US,  the  name  of  nine  among  the  Roman 
pontiffs,  of  whom  the  following  only  api)ear  to  call 
tor  particular  notice. — Pius  II.,  originally  known  as 
iEneas  Sylvius,  was  a  member  of  the  noble  family 
of  Piccolomini,  and  was  bom  (1405)  at  Corsignano, 
in  the  duchy  of  Siena.  His  early  life  was  not  free 
from  serious  irregularities,  but  he  made  amends  by 
his  subsequent  decorous  conduct ;  and  his  eminent 
abilities  as  a  canonist  led  to  his  being  employed, 
when  but  26  years  of  age,  as  secretary  of  the 
Cardinal  of  Fermo,  in  a  post  of  the  highest  con- 
fidence at  the  council  of  Basel  (^.  v.).  He  was 
intrusted  by  that  council — the  views  of  which, 
in  its  conmct  with  the  pope,  he  fully  shared — 
566 


in  several  commissions  of  ji^reat  importance ;  and 
on  the  election  of  the  antipope,  Felix  V.,  iEneas 
Sylvius  was  chosen  as  his  secretary.  But  having 
been  sent  by  him  as  ambassador  to  the  Emperor 
Frederick  III.,  he  was  induced  to  accept  office  in 
the  imperial  court,  and  served  on  sevenu  embaasies 
and  otner  missions  of  importance  on  behalf  of  the 
emperor.  In  the  difficulties  between  Frederick 
ana  the  Pope  Eugenius  IV.,  which  arose  after 
the  council  of  Florence,  ^^Eneas  conducted  so  skil- 
fully a  negotiation  with  which  he  was  intmsted, 
that  the  pope  was  indncod  to  retain  hlxn  in  Iiis 
own  court,  in  the  capacity  of  secretary.  His 
views  of  church  matters  having  undergone  a  con- 
siderable change,  he  continued  in  equal  favour 
under  the  successor  of  Eugenius,  Nicholas  V.,  1447; 
and  under  Callistus  II L,  he  was  elevated  to  the 
cardinalate.  On  the  death  of  Callistus  in  1458,  he 
was  elected  pope,  and  took  the  name  of  Pius  XL 
His  pontificate  was  embarrassed  by  some  contests 
on  German  affairs,  but  it  is  cniefly  rendered 
memorable  by  the  sustained  efforts  which  P. — the 
first  in  this  policy  of  a  long  line  of  pontiffs,  to  whom 
the  public  security  of  Europe  owes  a  deep  obligation — 
made  to  organise  an  armed  confederation  of  ChiistiaD 
princes  to  resist  the  progress  of  the  Turkish  arms. 
This  organisation,  however,  for  a  long  time  did  not 
lead  to  any  considerable  results.  P.  died,  August 
14,  1464.  The  literary  reputation  of  the  scholar, 
^neas  Sylvias,  has  partially  eclii)8ed  the  historical 
fame  of  the  Pope  I^us.  He  was  one  of  the  mtyat 
eminent  scholars  of  his  age.  His  works  were  pub- 
lished at  Basel  (1  voL  fol,  1551),  but  many  ot  his 
works  are  not  included  in  that  edition.  They 
consist  chiefly  of  histories,  or  historical  dissertatiaos 
and  materials  of  history;  but  the  most  interesting 
portion  of  his  collected  works  are  his  letters,  which 
are  very  numerous,  and  full  of  details,  characteristic 
as  well  of  the  writer  as  of  the  age.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  a  biographical  commentary,  which  is  in 
truth  an  autobiography,  being  chiefly  w^ritten  from 
his  own  dictation,  by  his  secretary,  John  GobeHinns, 
published  at  Frankfort  in  1614.  See  Voighrs  Lift 
of  Pius  (BerL  1856).— Pius  IV.,  Giovanni  Angeb 
Medici,  uncle  of  Saint  Carlo  Borromeo,  deserves 
to  be  noticed  from  his  connection  with  the  cele- 
brated creed  known  under  his  name.  He  was 
elected  in  1560 ;  and  lus  pontificate  is  chiefly 
memorable  as  that  in  whidi  the  protracted 
deliberations  of  the  Council  of  Trent  (q.  ▼.)  were 
brought  to  a  close.  P.  had  the  duty,  in  jDecemlier 
1563,  of  issuing  the  bull  confirmatory  of  its  decreea 
The  well-known  creed  called  the  Creed  of  Pius  IV^ 
and  sometimes  the  Tridentine  Creed,  was  issued  by 
P.  IV.  as  an  embodiment  of  all  the  doctrines 
defined  in  that  counciL  P.  died,  December  8,  1565, 
in  the  arms  of  his  nenhew.  Carlo  Borfomea 
—Pius  V.,  a  saint  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
originally  named  Michele  Ghisleri,  was  bom  of  poor 
parents,  in  the  village  of  Bosco,  near  Alessandria,  in 
1504,  and  at  the  age  of  fourteen,  entered  the 
Dominican  order.  His  eminent  merits  were  recog- 
nised by  Paul  IV.,  who  named  him  Bishop  of  Satri, 
in  1556,  and  cardinal  in  the  following  year.  Of 
austere  and  mortiHed  habits,  he  carried  into  his 
administration  the  same  rigour  which  distinguished 
his  personal  conduct;  and  when  appointed  inquisitor- 
general  for  Lombardy,  he  employed  the  most  rigor- 
ous measures  in  repressing  the  progress  oi  Um 
Reformation,  which  had  begun  to  effect  an  enUtinoa 
He  was  afterwards  translated  to  the  see  of  Mondovi ; 
and  immediately  after  the  death  of  Pius  IV.,  he  ait 
chosen  unanimously  as  his  successor,  January  8,  lo(j& 
P.  carried  into  his  pontifical  Ufe  the  same  persoail 
austerity  and  administrative  rigour  which  he  hA 
evinced  as  a  bishop.    Applying  to  others  the  saiui 


piua 

rules  which  he  enforced  upon  himself,  he  enacted  .  created  cardinal,  was  translated  to  the  see  ot  ImoUk 
a  nnmber  of  severe  laws  for  the  regulation  of  public  !  After  the  deatii  of  Pius  VI.,  Cardinal  Chiaramonte 


morals,  prohibiting  bull-fights,  suppressing  prosti- 
tution, and  proscribing  a  variety  of  popular  but 
demoralisine  exhibitions.  The  Koman  Inquisition, 
too,  under  his  government,  exercised  a  severity  of 
which  no  other  pontificate  has  shewn  any  example. 


was  chosen  his  successor  (March  14.  1800U  Komo, 
which,  up  to  this  time,  had  been  in  the  occupation 
of  the  French,  was  now  restored  to  the  papal 
authority,  and  in  the  July  of  that  year,  P.  VIL 
entered  mto  his  capital ;  and  in  the  following  year, 


He  endeavoured  to  enforce  everywhere  the  discip-  the  French  troops  were  definitively  withdrawn  from 
linary  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent;  and  the  the  papal ^rritory,  with  the  exception  of  the  Lega- 
whole  spirit  of  his  pontificate  is  most  strikingly  j  tions.  From  this  time  forward.  P.,  ably  seconded 
exhibited  in  the  decree  by  which  he  ordered  the .  by  his  secretary  of  state.  Cardinal  Consalvi,  was 
yearly  publication  of  the  celebrated  bull.  In  Ccena   destined  to  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  the  poli- 

Domini  (q.  v.).    It  was  an  application  to  the  16th  c    *  *    '  "        " '  ""  '        '  ^ 

of  the  principles  and  the  legislation  of  the  Hilde- 
brandine  epoch.    But  the  most  momentous  event 


tical  as  well  as  the  ecclesiastical  affairs  of  Europe. 

Bonaparte  had  resolved  to  restore  religion  in  France 

on  the  ancient  basis  of  connection  with  Kome.   With 

of  the  pontificate  of  P.  was  the  expedition  which  |  this  view,  he  entered  into  negotiations  with  P.  VII. 

"^     '  '  ^  ^'      for  the  establishment  of  a  concordat  suited  to  the 

new  order  of  things  which  had  arisen.  These 
negotiations  were  conducted  at  Paris,  and  were 
attended  with  many  difi^culties  and  delays,  until 


he  organised,  with  Spain  and  Venice,  against  the 
Turks,  and  which  resulted  in  the  great  naval  en- 
casement of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto,  on  7th  October 
1571.     P.  died  in  the  following  May,  1572.  He  was 


canonised  by  Clement  XL  in  1712. — Pius  VI.,  origin-  at  length  Cardinal  Consalvi  repaired  in  person 
aUy  named  Angelo  Bi'aschi,  was  bom  at  Cesena,  to  the  conference,  and,  by  his  energy  and  decision, 
December  27,  1717.  He  was  selected  by  Benedict  disentangled  the  complicated  embarrassments  in 
XIV.  as  his  secretary ;  and  under  Clement  XIII.,  he  which  it  was  involved.  It  was  agreed  to  at  Paris, 
wasnamedtoseveralimportantappointments,  which  July  15,  1801;  ratified  in  Rome,  August  14; 
led  finally,  under  Clement  XIV.,  to  his  elevation  to  and  published  in  Notre-Dame  on  Easter  Sunday 
the  cardmalate.  On  the  death  of  Clement  XIV.,  |  1802.  But  simultaneously  with  the  concordat, 
CardinalBraschiwaschosen  to  succeed  him,  February ,  and  as  if  forming  part  of  the  same  arrance- 
15,  1775.  The  conflict  with  the  civil  power  in  the  ment,  was  published  a  code  of  what  were  called 
various  states  of  Europe,  in  which,  from  the  days  of ,  *  Organic  Laws,'  seriously  afi^ecting  the  discipline  of 
Innocent  XL,  the  lioman  see  had  been  almost  the  church  on  marriage,  on  the  clergy,  and  on  public 
unceasingly  involved  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  worship,  which  had  never  been  submitted  to  P.,  and 
assumed  under  P.  what  may  he  called  its  complete  to  which  he  not  only  had  not  consented,  but  to 
and  scientific  development.  His  relations  to  the  which  he  found  himself  compelled  to  offer  every 
[Emperor  Joseph  of  Austria  and  the  Grand  Buke  opposition.  For  the  first  year  which  succeeded  the 
Leopold  of  Tuscany,  who  persisted  in  the  reformation  '  puolicatitm  of  the  concordat,  no  occasion  of  difiiculty 
of  the  religious  orders,  &c.,  were  far  from  amicable,  arose ;  but  conflict  of  principles  was  in  the  end 
The  internal  administration  of  P.,  however,  was  inevitable.  In  1804,  Bonaparte  having  resolved  on 
enlightened  and  judicious.  To  him,  Pome  owes  the  assuming  the  imperial  crown,  invited  P.  to  come  to 
drainage  of  the  Pontine  Marsh,  the  improvement  Paris  for  the  purpose  of  crowning  him,  and  the 
of  the  port  of  Ancona,  the  completion  of  the  church  pope,  although  with  much  hesitation,  consented. 
of  St  Peter's,  the  foundation  of  the  new  Museum  of  He  took  advantage  of  his  visit  to  demand  the  recall 
the  Vatican,  and  the  general  improvement  and  or  modification  of  the  articles,  but  without  success ; 
embellishment  of  the  city.  These  and  other  similar  and  although,  during  his  visit  to  Paris,  he  was 
projects  were  interrupted  by  the  outbreak  of  the  treated  with  great  distinction  and  reverence,  his 
French  Eevolution.  In  1793,  a  popular  tumult  at  ^  relations  with  Napoleon  from  that  date  began  to 
Rome,  which  was  caused  by  the  imprudence  of  a  assume  a  less  friendly  character.  The  French 
French  political  a^ent  named  De  Basseville,  and  emperor  now  proceeded  from  one  petty  outrage  to 
-which  resulted  in  hib  death,  gave  the  French  Birec-  '  another,  until  finally,  in  February  1808,  the  French 
tory  an  opportunity  of  hostile  demonstrations  against  troops,  under  General  Miollis,  entered  Home,  and 
the  pope.  In  1796,  Bonaparte  took  possession  of  the  took  possession  of  the  castle  of  St  Angelo ;  and  on 
Legations,  and  afterwards  of  the  March  of  Ancona, :  the  2d  of  April,  a  decree  was  issued  annexing  the 
ana  by  a  threatened  advance  upon  Rome,  extorted  !  provinces  of  Ancona,  Fermo,  Urbino,  and  Macerata 
from  P.,  in  the  Treaty  of  Tolentino,  the  surrender  of  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  P.,  besides  protesting 
these  provinces  to  the  Cisalpine  Republic,  together  against  the  usurpation,  declared  himself  a  prisoner 
'with  a  heavy  war  contribution.  The  year  1797  was  in  the  French  hands,  and  confined  himself  to  his 
marked  by  a  continuance  of  the  same  vexatious  palace^  The  papers  of  the  cardinal  secretary  were 
measures ;  and  at  length  the  Directory  ordered  violently  seized,  and  the  pope  was  compelled  to 
the  invasion  of  Rome ;  Berthier  entered  the  city,  appoint  a  pro-secretary  ;  and  hnally  (May  17,  1809), 
February  10, 1798,  and  took  possession  of  the  castle  |  the  usurpation  was  consummated  by  a  decree  annex- 
of  St  Angelo.  P.  was  called  on  to  renoxmce  his  ing  Rome  and  all  the  remaining  papal  territory  to 
temporal  sovereignty,  and  on  his  refusal,  was  seized, '  the  Fi*ench  empire.  This  was  the  signal  for  the 
February  20,  and  carried  away  to  Siena,  and  after-  \  pope  abandoning  his  lengthened  policy  of  forbear- 
wards  to  the  celebrated  Certosa,  or  Carthusian  ance.  On  June  10,  P.  issued  a  bull  of  excommu- 
monastery,  of  Florence.  On  the  threatened  advance  nication,  directed  (without  naming  Napoleon)  against 
of  the  Austro- Russian  army  in  the  following  year,  the  perpetrators  and  abettors  of  the  invasion  of  the 
he  was  transferred  to  Grenoble,  and  finally  to ,  rights  and  the  territory  of  the  holy  see.  Soon 
Valence  on  the  Rhone,  where,  worn  out  by  age  \  afterwards,  the  French  general  ordered  the  removal 
and  by  the  rigour  of  confinement,  he  died  in  August '  of  the  pope  from  Rome ;  and  P.,  without  ofiering 
1799,  in  the  82d  year  of  his  age  and  the  24th  of  |  any  resistance  beyond  the  declaration  that  he 
his  pontificate. — Pius  VIL,  originally  Gregory  !  yielded  to  force,  was  removed,  first  to  Florence, 
Barnabas  Chiaramonte,  was  bom  at  Cesena  in  1742.  '  then  to  Grenoble,  thence  for  a  longer  time  to 
He  entered  the  Benedictine  order  at  an  early  age,  Savona,  whence,  in  June  1812,  he  was  finally  trans- 
and  was  employed  in  teaching  philosophy  and  theo-  !  ferred  to  Fontainebleau.  During  this  prolonged 
logy  at  Parma,  and  afterwaras  at  Rome.  He  was  captivity,  P.  firmly  but  (quietly  resisted  every  enort 
appointed  Bishop  of  TivoU;  and  afterwards,  being ;  to  compel  or  seduce  him  from  his  policy.     At 

667 


pros— PIUS  IX 


Fontunebleau,  he  was  treated  with  much  external   he  oontinued  to  reside  in  his  see.    On  the  death  of 


respect ;  and  on  Napoleon's  return  from  the  Russian 
campaign,  in  December  1812,  orders  were  given 
that  the  cardinals,  with  certain  exceptions,  should 
be  admitted  to  the  presence  of  the  pope.  Under 
much  pressure,  both  from  the  emperor  himself — who 
is  alleged  by  some  to  have  acted  with  great  rude- 
ness, and  even  with  personal  violence — and  from 
the  ecclesiastics  to  whom  the  emperor  confided  his 
plans,  P.  was  induced  to  sign  a  new  concordat,  an 
miportant  provision  of  which  was  the  recognition  of 
the  annexation  of  the  Soman  states  to  the  empire. 
Having  obtained  the  concession.  Napoleon  at  once 


Gregory  XVL  in  1846,  Cardinal  Mastai  Ferretti 
was  elected  by  acclamation  to  succeed  him ;  and 
having  learned,  by  long  intercourse  with  the  people 
of  the  Legations,  the  prevalence  and  the  causes  of 
discontent — which  had  been  concealed  under  the 
repressive  system  of  Gregory,  following  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Austrians,  by  whom  a  protectorate  waa 
exercised — ^he  entered  at  once  on  a  course  of  reforms, 
by  which  he  hoped  to  establish  the  papal  goFern- 
ment  on  a  popular,  but  yet  on  a  firm  basis.  He 
resolved  to  extirpate  all  abuses  of  administration, 
financial  as  well  as  political,  to  withdraw  as  far  as 


permitted  the  absent  cardinals  to  return,  and  of   possible    the   restrictions    of   personal    liberty,  to 
these  many  remonstrated  so  earnestly  against  the    secularise  in  many  details  the  local  administratirji, 


concordat,  that,  on  March  24,  P.  wrote  to  revoke 


and  to  extend  the  rights  of  self-government  as  far 


his  consent.  Napoleon  took  no  notice  of  the  revo-  !  as  was  compatible  with  the  essential  institutions  of 
cation ;  nor  was  it  till  after  the  disasters  of  1813  j  the  Roman  states.  His  first  step  to  tiiis  end  was 
that  he  began  to  seek  an  accommodation.  P.  refused  ,  to  grant  an  amnesty ;  and  this  measure,  however 
to  treat  until  he  should  be  restored  to  Rome ;  and  humane  and  necessary,  had  the  unfortunate  result 
on  January  22, 1814,  orders  were  sent  for  his  imme-  j  of  drawing  together  into  the  Roman  states  a  body 
diate  return  to  his  capital  Unattended  by  his  .  of  men  whom  an  unhappy  experience  of  foreign 
cardinals,  he  was  escorted  to  Italy,  and  remained  exile  had  embittered  against  the  existing  order 
at  Cesena  until  the  fatal  campaign  of  the  spring  of  things,  and  who  had  served  in  foreijp  zevcAjt- 
of  1814  placed  Paris  in  the  hands  of  the  allies,  when  tions,  and,  in  the  secret  councils  which  their  poaiti<m 
P.  re-entered  Rome  amidst  the  gratulations  of  the .  had  necessitated,  an  apprenticeship  to  the  arts  of 
people  on  May  24,  1814 — a  day  since  that  time  political  intrigue.  For  a  time,  the  reforming  policy 
hela  sacred  in  the  Ronuin  calendar.  Durins  the  of  P.  carried  with  it  the  affections  of  the  people; 
Hundred  Days,  he  was  again  compelled  to  leave  but  he  soon  began  to  fall  short  of  the  expecta- 
Rome ;  but  after  the  campaign  of  Waterloo,  he  tions  which  he  had  created.  The  outbreak  of  the 
finally  resumed  possession,  which  was  undisturbed  revolution  of  February  1848  precipitated  the  crisis 
for  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  which  extended  to ,  of  popular  excitement  and  of  popular  discontent 
the  whole  of  the  ancient  territory,  including  the  Reform  assumed  the  shape  of  revolution.  In 
Lerations.  {  November  of  that  year.  Count  Rossi,  whom  the  pope 

The  last  years  of  his  pontificate  were  devoted  to  had  appointed  as  his  minister,  was  assassinated ;  and 
measures  of  internal  adnunistration ;  and  imder  the  violent  demonstrations  were  daily  employed  to 
enlightened  government  of  Cardinal  Consalvi,  were  compel  the  pope's  assent  to  measures  which  he  re- 
marKed  by  much  wisdom  and  moderation.  But  pudiated.  He  was  driven  to  confine  himself  a  dose 
the  administration  chiefly  by  ecclesiastics  and  the  prisoner  in  the  Quirinal ;  and  at  length,  in  December, 
secrecy  of  law  procedure  were  resimied.  P.  |  ne  fled  secretly  from  Rome  and  established  himself 
repressed,  too,  with  great  vigour  the  disorder  and  at  Gaeta,  a  Neapolitan  seaport,  not  far  beyond  the 
brigandage  which  the  long  wars  had  introduced,  |  Roman  frontier.  A  repuolic  was  proclaimed  in 
and  a  wnole  village  of  notorious  and  incorrigible  '  Rome,  the  provisional  heads  of  which  proceeded  to 
criminality,  that  of  Somma,  was  razed  to  the  ground  a  complete  and  radical  remodelling  of  the  civil 
in  1819.  He  was  equally  vigorous  in  repressing  '  government  of  the  state.  P.  from  his  exile  addressed 
secret  societies,  especially  that  of  the  Carbonan  '  a  remonstrance  to  the  various  sovereigns.  In  April 
(q.  v.).  The  ecclesiastical  measures  of  his  later  period  1849,  a  French  expedition  was  sent  to  Civita 
were  also  of  much  importance.  In  1814,  he  formally  j  Vecchia,  which  eventually  advanced  apon  Rome, 
restored  the  suppressed  order  of  the  Jesuits  (q.  v.).  and  after  a  siege  of  about  90  days  took  possessioa 
In  1817  and  the  following  years,  he  concluded  con-  of  that  city,  and  established  a  French  army  of 
cordate  with  Naples,  with  Prussia,  WUrtemberg, '  occupation  within  the  Roman  state.  The  pope's 
and  other  courts  of  Germany.  In  this  and  every  government  was  re-established,  but  he  hims^f  did 
other  period  of  his  life,  P.  was  a  model  of  gentle-  not  return  tiU  1850,  when,  once  again,  he  entered 
ness,  simplicity,  benevolence,  and  Christian  charity,  upon  the  administration.  In  consequence  of  the 
In  July  1823,  having  reached  the  patriarchal  age  I  unsettled  condition  of  Italy  and  the  failure  of  many 
of  81,  he  fell  accidentally  in  his  own  apartments,  <  of  his  early  measures  of  improvement,  he  declan?^ 
and  broke  his  thigh.  Under  the  inflammation  himself  unable  to  proceed  with  the  reformations 
which  ensued,  he  simk  gradually,  and  died  August   which  he  had  contemplated.    Since  that  time,  his 


20, 182a 
PIUS  IX.,  GiovAKNi  Mabia  Mastai  Ferretti, 


authority  has  been  maintained  without  interruption ; 
but  it  has  always  been  believed  that  the  discontent 


the  reigning  pontiflE;  was  bom  at  Sinigaglia,  May  13,  ^^^^  *^e  government  still  continues,  and  that,  if 

1792.     He  was   originally  destined  for  the   mili-  t^^e  French  army  were  withdrawn,  violent  changes 

tary  profession,  and  was  sent  to  Rome  to  enter  would  be  imminent.     In  consequence  of  the  war 

the  Noble  Guard ;  but  symptoms  of  an  epileptic  ^or  *he  unification  of  Italy,  the  Legations,  Ancona, 

tendency  led  to  his  abandoning  his  intended  profes-  and    a  considerable   part    of    the   papal  territory 

sion,  and  entering  an  ecclesiastical  seminary.     He  southward  in  the  direction  of  Rome,    have  been 

received  holy  orders,  and  for  a  time  exercised  his  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  but  P.  has  per- 

ministry  in  connection  with  several  works  of  charity  sistently  refused  to  cede  any  portion  or  to  enter 

and  benevolence  in  Rome  ;  but  was  sent  to  South  into  any  compromise.     His  ecclesiastical  administra- 

America  as  *  auditor  *  of  Monsignor  Mugg,  the  vicar-  ',  *ion  has  been  very  active,  and  has  proceeded  up«i 

apostolic  of  Chill  On  his  return,  he  became  domestic  ^^  strongest  assumption  of  the  right  of  independent 

prelate  of  Leo  XIL,  and  President  of  the  Ospizio  of  action  on  the  part  of  the  church.    In  this  view. 

San  Michde;  and  in  1829  he  was  named  Archbishop  he  re-established    the    hierarchy  in    England,  h« 

of  Spoleto,  whence  he  was  translated  to  Imola*  sanctioned  the  establishment  in  Ireland  of  a  Catholic 

He  was  soon  afterwards  sent  to  Naples  as  nuncio ;  university,    and    condemned    the  principles  upos 

and  in  1840,  was  named  r4vH'"<^l»  from  whidi  date  ^  which  the  Queen's  Colleges  in  that  country 
66a 


PIVOT— PIZABRO. 


ooDBtitated.  He  condnded  with  Austria  a  con- 
gordat  much  more  favourable  to  church  authority 
than  the  existing  ecclesiastical  laws  had  permitted. 
In  1854,  he  issued  a  decree  propounding  as  a  doctrine 
of  the  church  the  faith  of  the  Immaculate  Conception 
of  the  Blessed  Vircin  Maiy  (q.  v.).  In  the  internal 
administration  of  xiis  states,  notwithstanding  the 
embarrassed  condition  of  finances  produced  by 
the  curtailment  of  his  territory,  he  has  introduced 
many  ameliorations,  and  has  done  much  for  the 
advancement  and  improvement  of  the  city  of  Home 
and  of  its  institutions.  In  this  he  has  been  aided 
by  the  voluntaiy  contributions  of  the  several 
churches,  as  well  in  special  gifts  as  in  the  organisa- 
tion of  the  permanent  tribute  called  Peter-pence 
(^.  v.).  His  health  has  for  some  years  been  preca- 
rious ;  but  with  the  exception  of  occasional  interrup- 
tions, he  continues  (1864)  to  attend  personally  to  all 
the  public  affairs,  civil  as  well  as  ecclesiastical,  of 
his  government. 

PI'VOT,  the  point  on  which  a  body  revolves,  has 
a  like  signification  in  military  afiairs — the  pivot- 
man  being  that  soldier  who  marks  the  centre  while 
a  line  is  wheeling. 

PIYADASI,  one  of  the  names  of  the  celebrated 
King  As'oka.  See  Buddhism,  India.  He  is  often 
designated  by  this  name  in  inscriptions. 

PIZARRO,  Francisco,  the  conqueror  of  Peru, 
was  an  illegitimate  son  of  Qonzalo  Pizarro,  a 
colonel  of  infantry,  and  a  soldier  of  some  distinction. 
He  was  bom  at  Truxillo,  in  Estremadura,  Spain, 
about  1471.  Of  his  youth,  little  is  known,  but  it 
appears  that  he  was  wholly  neglected  by  his  parents, 
was  taught  neither  to  read  nor  write,  and  that  in 
his  youui  his  principal  occupation  was  that  of  a 
swineherd.  Abandoning  this  uncongenial  employ- 
ment, he  sought  the  port  of  Sev^e,  and  there 
embarked,  to  seek  fortune  in  the  New  World.  He 
was  in  Hispaniola  in  1510 ;  later,  he  joined  Balboa, 
and  was  with  that  cavaher  when  he  crossed  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  discovered  the  Pacific.  In 
1515,  he  was  engaged  in  traffic  with  the  natives  on 
the  shores  of  the  newly-discovered  ocean,  but  was 
afterwards  chiefly  employed  in  military  service,  in 
which  he  shewed  great  bravery,  resource,  and  power 
of  endurance.  About  this  time,  when  a  fresn  and 
powerful  impulse  was  given  to  adventure  by  the 
■plendid  achievement  of  Cortes,  rumoius  of  a 
countiy  far  south,  in  which  gold  and  silver  were 
said  to  be  as  abundant  as  iron  in  Spain,  reached 
Faniama,  and  kindled  P.'s  ambition.  He  formed 
a  sort  of  copartnery  with  Diego  de  Almagro,  an 
adventurer  and  a  foundling  like  himself,  and 
Hernando  Luque,  an  ecclesiastic;  and  with  the 
funds  which  the  three  friends  amassed,  they  were 
enabled  to  fit  out  a  small  expedition,  of  which  P. 
took  command.  In  November  1524,  he  set  sail 
southward,  but  went  no  further  thim  Qaemada 
Point.  Mi^ung  an  agreement  (dated  March  10, 1526), 
that  all  lands,  treasures,  vassals,  &a,  that  should  be 
discovered,  were  to  be  equtdly  divided  between  them, 
the  three  friends,  P.,  Almagro,  and  Luque,  organised 
a  second  expedition,  consisting  of  two  ships,  which 
set  sail  for  the  South  Seas.  Having  reached  the 
port  of  Santa,  in  lat.  about  O"*  S.,  and  having  really 
discovered  Peru,  P.  returned  to  Panama,  carrying 
•with  him,  however,  many  beautiful  and  valuable 
ornaments  in  gold  and  silver,  which  he  had  obtained 
Crom  the  friendly  and  generous  natives,  as  well  as 
specimens  of  woollen  cloths  of  silky  texture  and 
brilliaat  hue,  and  some  lamas  or  alpacas.  Unable 
to  find  in  Panama  a  sufiicient  number  of  volun- 
teers for  the  invasion  of  the  newly-discovered 
eoontry,  the  indomitable  adventurer  returned  to 
IgjMun  in  1528,  narrated  the  story  of  his  discoveries 


before  Charles  V.  and  his  ministers,  described  thr 
wealth  of  the  territories,  and  shewed,  as  proof,  the 
gold  ornaments  and  utensils,  the  manufactures,  fta, 
which  he  had  brought  with  him.  The  result  of  his 
representations  was,  that  the  right  of  the  discovery 
and  conquest  of  Peru  was  secured  to  him,  and 
honourable  titles — among  otiiers,  those  of  Governor 
and  Captain-general  of  Peru — were  conferred  on  him. 
On  his  side,  he  agreed  to  raise  a  certain  number  of 
followers,  and  to  send  to  the  crown  of  Spain  a  fifth 
of  all  the  treasures  he  should  obtain.  Returning 
to  Panama,  he  set  sail  for  Peru  for  the  tliird  ana 
last  time,  with  a  well-equipx)ed  but  small  force,  the 
number  being  not  more  than  180  men,  of  whom  27 
were  cavalry.  The  chief  events  of  the  conquest  of 
Peru  are  detailed  at  sufficient  length  in  the  article 
Peru,  and  also  the  articles  Almaoro  and  Atahtt- 
ALP  A.  Within  ten  years,  the  great  conquistador 
made  the  empire  of  Peru  his  own ;  but  he  who 
had  surmounted  so  many  stupendous  difficulties, 
who  had  broken  through  the  lofty  barrier  of  the 
Andes,  and,  with  his  group  of  followers,  been  a 
victor  in  so  many  field^  fell  a  victim  to  a  conspi- 
racy, June  26,  1541. 

P.  was  a  soldier  of  the  most  undoubted  courage, 
inflexible  constancy  of  purpose,  and  infinite  resource; 
yet  his  success  in  Peru  appears  to  have  been  more 
the  result  of  chance  than  of  calculation.  His  boldest 
stroke  was  the  seizure  of  the  Inca  Atahualpa  (q.  v.), 
when  surrounded  by  thousands  of  his  followers ; 
but  in  doing  so,  he  deserved  credit  neither  for  ori- 
ginality nor  policy,  because  the  idea  was  borrowed 
from  Cortes,  and  the  step  itself  was  so  foolhardy 
and  desperate,  that  its  success  can  be  regarded  only 
as  luck.  Although  on  many  occasions  he  appears 
to  have  been  guided  by  noble  and  generous  impulses, 
he  was  eminently  selfish,  perfidious,  and  relentless. 
His  conquest  of  Peru  is  a  drama  in  every  act  of 
which  there  is  bloodshed ;  but  the  drama  is  at  least 
consistent  to  the  end.  P.  lived  a  life  of  violence, 
and  died  a  violent  and  bloody  death. 

PIZARBO,  GoNZALO,  threw  in  his  fortunes  with 
those  of  his  brother  Francisco,  on  the  occasion  when 
that  leader  returned  to  Spain  in  1528.  He  was, 
like  the  great  conqueror,  illegitimate.  He  became 
a  soldier  at  an  early  age,  distinguished  himself, 
before  he  joined  his  brother's  expedition,  by  his 
skill  in  martial  exercises,  and  when  he  reached 
Peru,  was  esteemed  the  best  lance  in  the  Spanish 
troop.  The  territorv  of  Quito  was  assigned  to  him 
by  Francisco,  and  he  was  enjoined  to  undertake 
an  exploring  expedition  to  the  east,  where  a  land, 
reputed  to  oe  extremely  rich  in  spices,  was  said  to 
lie.  At  the  head  of  850  Spaniards  and  a  great 
concourse  of  Indians,  P.  set  out  on  his  famous 
journey  in  the  beginning  of  1540.  Marching  east, 
they  reached  a  country  traversed  by  lofty  branches 
of  the  Andes.  Here  the  icy  winds  benumbed  the 
limbs  of  the  adventurers  as  they  rose  to  the  higher 
plateaux,  and,  rendered  helpless  by  the  cold,  many 
of  them  sank  and  died.  Descending  the  eastern 
slopes  of  the  Andes,  they  reached  tiie  *Land  of 
Cinnamon ;'  but  as  they  could  not  transport  the 
trees  across  the  mountains,  their  discovery  was 
almost  valueless.  Hearing  of  a  land  abounding 
in  gold  at  ^e  distance  of  ten  days'  journey,  the 
leader  resolved  to  reach  it.  Pushing  forward,  the 
Spaniards  enteo^  great  forests,  where  often  they 
had  to  hew  a  passage  with  their  axe&  Their 
clothes  were  now  torn  to  shreds,  and  their  pro- 
visions had  been  long  exhausted.  They  killed  and 
ate  the  dogs  they  had  brought  with  them,  after 
which  they  lived  on  the  herbs  and  dangerous  roots 
of  the  forest.  At  length  they  struck  the  broad  but 
desolate  waters  of  the  Napo,  an  important  affluent 
of  the  Amazon.    On  the  surface  of  tius  broad  river. 


PIZZICATO— PLACENTA- 


no  fe8«el  floated,  and  it  ran  amii*  cloomy  woods, 
the  iilence  of  whicli  wm  undiaturbcd  save  by  the 
•Oluid  ol  the  rushing  waters.  Here  P.  caaaed  a 
rude  bark  to  be  constructed  for  the  trauBport  of 
the  'ipaHgage  and  of  the  weaker  traveller.  Pranciaoo  , 
de  Orellaua  was  Intrusted  with  the  oommand  of  the 
;  of  a  po|iuloua  nati'j 
'lys'  journey,  who  d 
I  Kapo  with  a  larger 
forward  Orellsna  to  obtain  and  bring  back  siipjiliea 
for  the  starviDg  travellers,  who  had  Bftten  the  last 
of  their  horses,  and  were  now  redaced  to  the  leather 
of  their  saddles  and  belts.  Orellana  reached  the 
Amazon;  but,  unable  either  to  obtain  supplies,  or 
to  return  against  the  current  of  the  river,  abandoned 
the  expedition,  and  with  his  fifty  followers  resolved 
to  sail  down  the  Amazon,  reach  the  Atlantic,  and 
make  for  Spain.  This  wonderf  id  design  was  success- 
fully carried  out.  P.,  after  waiting  in  vain  for  the 
Tetnm  of  the  barque,  resolved  to  return  to  Quito, 
which,  after  enduring  terrible  sufferings,  and  seeking 
fruitlessly  for  the  rich  regions  of  which  he  hod 
heard  so  much,  he  reached  in  June  1542,  after  an 
absence  of  mora  than  two  years.  The  fatal  char- 
acter of  this  expedition  may  be  inferred  from  the 


except  at  that  part  of  the  chorion  whioh  is  in  eon- 
tact  with  the  uterus ;  and  here,  about  the  second 
month  (in  the  human  subject),  they  divide  into 
branches,  as  shewn  in  £g.  2.  White  these  chinNi 
are  going  on  in  the  membrane  of  the  orimi.  Un 
uterus  is  also  undergoing  modiQcation  ;  and  it  ii 
on  the  nature  and  extent  of  these  uterine  chuns 
that  the  character  or  type  of  the  placenta  depeiut. 


Spaniards,  only  eighty  remained ;  and  these,  clad 
in  skins,   blacken^  by  the  sun,   and  wai '   '   ' 
hunger  and  fati^e,  with  long  matted  locks. 


the  sun,   and  wasted   by 
s,  aeemi  ' 


This 
stands  unmatched  in  the  annals  of 
oovery  for  its  dangers  and  sufferings,  for  the  length 
of  their  duration,  and  for  the  heroic  fortitude 
with  which  they  were  endured.  For  the  fate  of 
Oonjalo  P.,  sea  article  Pkbu. 

PIZZICATO  (Ttal.  twitched),  abbreviated  pkz., 
n  phrase  used  in  Music  for  the  violin  or  violoncello, 
to  denote  that  the  strings,  Instead  of  being  played 
M  usual  by  the  bow,  are  to  be  twitohed  with  the 
lingers  in  the  manner  of  a  harp  or  guitar.    The 


with  the  bow). 

PLACE'NTA,  or  AFTER-BIRTH,  a  tem- 

Sorary  organ  that  is  developed  within  the  uterus 
oring  pregnancy,  aud  is,  as  its  popular  name 
implies,  expelled  from  the  maternal  organism 
shortly  after  the  birth  of  the  child  or  young  animaL 
It  is  a  spongy  vascular  mass,  existing  in  some  form 
or  other  in  all  mammals,  excepting  the  Harsupialia 
And  ilanolremala,  as  an  appendage  to  the  fcetal 
membrane  called  the  e/iorwa.  In  the  human  sub- 
ject (fig.  1).  it  is  of  considerable  size  at  the  period  of 
delivery,  being  of  a  rounded  or  oval  form,  with  a 
diameter  of  6  or  8  inches,  and  a  thickness  of  some- 
what moi-e  than  an  inch.  Its  outer  surface,  which, 
till  the  iwriod  of  its  detachment  and  expulsion,  is 
attached  to  the  walls  of  the  uterus,  ia  uniform  and 
level  (unless  it  has  been  morbidly  adherent),  being 
covered  by  a  membrane,  shortiy  to  be  noticed, 
callud  the  deciilua  aerolina;  and  on  peeling  off  this 
membrane,  the  various  lobes  of  which  the  placenta 
ij  composed  ore  apparent  The  internal  or  free 
■urfice  is  smooth  and  shining,  and  gives  attach- 
ment to  the  umbilical  cord  or  navel-string,  whioh 
connectfl  it  with  the  fistus.  To  render  the  mode  of 
formation  of  the  placenta  clear,  we  must  premise 
that  the  impregnated  ovum,  when  it  reaches  the 
uterus,  is  invested  with  an  outer  membrane,  the 
e/iorio«,  which  forma  a  shut  sac,  eitomally  covered 
with  short  villi.  As  the  ovnm  advances  in  age, 
these  villi  diminish  in  number,  until  few  remam. 


Fig.  L— Hum 

There  are  two  such  types,  the  first  of  which  is  bat 
represented  by  the  human  placenta,  and  the  latta 
by  that  of  the  piff. 

In  animals  exliihiting  the  first  type  of  placental 
structure,  the  mucoua  membraue  liiiiag  toe  ideiv 


undergoes  a  rapid  growth  and  modification  d 
texture,  becoming  connected  with  the  imembmM 
decidua,  which  is  so  caUed  from  its  being  thrown  'ifl 
at  each  parturition.  For  brevity,  it  is  nsoal  v 
termed  the  dfcidua.  This  decidua  is  from  an  e«-lr 
period  separable  into  three  portions — the  dtadm 


PLACENTA. 


vent,  or  decidna  uteris  which  lines  the  general  cavity 
of  the  utcnis ;  the  deddua  reflexa,  which  imme- 
diately invests  the  ovum ;  and  the  deddua  aerotina, 
which  is  merely  a  special  development  of  a  port  of 
the  decidua  vera  at  the  part  where  the  villi  of 
the  chorion  are  becoming  converted  into  the  fuetal 

E>rtion  of  the  placenta.  The  arrangement  of  these 
yers  is  distinctly  seen  in  fig.  2.  At  first,  the  viUi 
of  the  chorion  ue  loosely  in  the  corresponding 
depressions  of  the  decidua ;  but  subsequently,  the 
foetal  and  maternal  structures  (the  vilU  and  the 
decidua  vera)  become  closely  united,  so  as  to  form 
one  inseparable  mass,  by  the  following  means  :  the 
deeper  substance  of  the  uterine  mucous  membrane  in 
the  region  of  the  placenta  is  traversed  by  vessels 
which  enlarge  into  what^  in  the  case  of  the  veins,  are 
termed  ginusea,  dip  down  between  the  villi,  *  and  at 
last  swell  round  and  betweeu  them,  so  that  finally 
the  villi  are  completely  bound  up  or  covered  by  the 
membrane  which  constitutes  the  walls  of  the 
vessels,  this  membrane  following  the  contour  of  all 
the  viUi,  and  even  passing,  to  a  certain  extent,  over 
the  branches  and  stems  of  the  tufts.' — Goodsir's 
Anatomical  and  PaOwloglcal  Observations,  p.  60. 

The  pure  maternal  blood  is  conveyed  to  the 
placenta  by  what  are  termed,  from  their  tortuous 
course, '  the  curling  arteries  *  of  the  uterus,  and  is 
returned  by  the  lar^  veins  termed  sinuses.  *  The 
foetal  vessels,'  says  i>r  Carpenter, '  being  bathed  in 
this  blood,  as  the  branchiie  of  aquatic  animals  are 
in  the  water  that  surrounds  them,  not  only  enable 
the  foetal  blood  to  exchange  its  venous  cnaracter 
for  the  arterial,  by  parting  with  its  carbonic  acid 
to  the  maternal  blood,  and  receiving  oxygen  from  it, 
but  they  also  serve  as  rootlets,  by  which  certain 
nutritious  elements  of  the  maternal  blood  (probably 
those  composing  the  liquor  sanguinis)  are  taken  into 
the  system  of  the  foetus.  It  is  probable,  too,  that 
the  placenta  is  to  be(  regarded  as  an  excretory 
organ,  serving  for  the  removal,  through  the  mater- 
mu  blood,  of  excrementitions  matter,  whose  con- 
tinued circulation  through  the  blood  of  the  foetus 
would  be  prejudicial  to  the  \a,tter,*^  Human  Physio^ 
logy,  3d  ed.  ppi  1013,  1014  Moreojver,  the  recent 
investigations  of  Bernard  shew  that  tiie  placenta 
secretes,  like  the  liver,  the  saccharine  matter  known 
as  Glycogen  (q.  v.),  which  probably  takes  part  in 
keeping  up  the  animal  heat.  The  vascular  connection 
between  tne  foetus  and  the  placenta  is  efifected  by 
the  umbilical  vein  (containmg  arterial  blood)  and 
the  two  umbilical  arteries  (containing  venous  blood), 
aU  of  which  lie  in  the  umbilical  cord  which  connects 
the  Foetus  (q.  v.)  with  the  placenta.  The  placenta 
may  be  formed  at  any  point  of  the  uterus,  but  is 
most  commonly  on  the  left  side.  Occasionally  (in 
11  cases  out  of  600,  according  to  Kaegele),  it  is 
situated  partially  or  entirely  over  the  mouth  of  the 
womb  {os  uteri),  in  which  case  dangerous  flooding 
takes  place  previous  to  or  at  the  period  of  labour. 
This  condition  is  known  as  placenta  proBvia,  and 
Mnder  ordinary  manafipement,  *  one  in  three  of  the 
mothers  are  lost,  and  more  than  65  per  cent,  of 
the  children.' — Churchill,  Theory  ana  Practice  of 
Midvfi/ery^  dd  ed.  p.  473.  By  substituting  the 
detachment  and  extraction  of  the  placenta  for  the 
old  method  of  turning  the  child  in  utero,  Professor 
Simpson  finds  that  tne  mortality  sinks  to  one  in 
fourteen  of  the  mothers,  but  slightly  rises  (to  69  per 
cent)  in  the  case  of  the  children. 

Another  difficulty  in  midwifeij  practice,  but  far 
less  serious  than  the  preceding,  is  undue  retention 
of  the  placenta.  In  ordinary  cases,  the  average 
interval  between  the  birth  of  the  child  and  the 
expulsion  of  the  after-birth  is  a  quarter  of  an  hour. 
"W^n  the  expulsion  does  not  take  place  within  an 
liour  or  an  hour  and  a  hal^  the  case  is  r^arded  as 


coming  under  the  head  of  'retained  placenta.'  It 
occurs  in  about  1  case  in  400,  and  in  these  cases  is 
fatal  to  about  one  mother  in  five ;  the  cause  of 
death  being  haBmorrhage.  The  principal  causes  of 
retention  are  either  imperfect  and  insufficient,  or 
irregular  contraction  of  the  womb,  after  the  birth  of 
the  child.  In  the  first  of  these  cases,  if  the  uterus 
cannot  be  excited  to  sufficient  action,  the  placnta 
must  be  withdrawn  by  steady  traction  or  the 
umbilical  cord,  and  if  it  fail,  extraction  by  the 
introduction  of  the  hand  (an  operation  always  to  be 
avoided  if  possible)  must  be  resorted  to ;  in  the 
latter  case,  manual  extraction  is  commonly  neces- 
sary. Sometimes,  im  consequence  of  inflammatory 
or  other  affections  of  the  placenta,  there  maj  be 
adhesion  between  its  outer  surface  and  the  inner 
surface  of  the  womb.  This  is  the  most  dangerous 
form  of  retention,  there  being  usually  excessive 
flooding,  and  additionally  the  peril  arising  from  the 
decomposition  of  any  portion  that  cannot  be 
removed  without  undue  violence. 

The  placenta  acquires  its  proper  character,  in  the 
human  subject,  during  the  tnird  month,  and  it  Hiib- 
sequently  goes  on  increasing  to  the  full  period  of 
gestation.  At  about  the  fourth  month,  tne  blood, 
moving  through  the  enlarged  uterine  vessels,  pro- 
duces a  i)eculiar  murmur,  which  is  known  as  the 
placental  bruit,  resembling  the  sound  made  by 
blowing  gently  over  the  lip  of  a  wide-mouthed 
phial,  and  increasing  in  intensity  and  strength  as 
pregnancy  (of  which  it  is  one  of  the  characteristic 
signs)  advances. 

In  animals  exhibiting  the  second  type  of  placental 
structure— as,  for  example,  the  pig — the  placenta  is 
comparatively  simple  in  its  structure.  *  No  decidua 
is  developed ;  the  elevations  and  depressions  of  the 
uoimpregnated  uterus  simply  acquire  a  greater  size 
and  vascularity  during  pregnancy,  and  cohere  closely 
with  the  chorionic  villi,  which  do  not  become 
restricted  to  one  spot,  but  are  developed  from  all 
parts  of  the  chorion,  except  its  poles,  aud  remain 
persistent  in  the  broad  zone  thus  formed  throughout 
foetal  life.  The  cohesion  of  the  foetal  and  maternal 
placentae,  however,  is  overcome  by  slight  maceration 
or  post-mortem  change ;  and  at  parturition,  the  foetal 
villi  are  simply  drawn  out  like  fingers  from  a  glove, 
no  vascular  substance  of  the  motner  being  thrown 
offi'  Professor  'Huxley,  from  whose  Elements  of 
Comparative  Anatomy  (1864,  p.  103)  the  preceding 
extract  is  borrowed,  follows  the  opinion  adopted 
by  De  Blainville,  Von  Baer,  Kscnricht,  Milne- 
Edwards,  Gervais,  and  Vogt  in  regarding  'the 
features  of  the  placenta  as  affording  the  best 
cluu-acters  which  have  yet  been  proposed  for 
classifying  the  monodelphous  [or  placental]  mam- 
mals.' He  proposes  to  apply  the  term  decicluate  to 
those  animals  whose  placenta  presents  the  human 
tvpe,  and  which  throw  off"  a  decidua ;  and  to  term 
tnose  animals  non-dedduate  in  which  the  placenta 
is  constructed  on  the  same  plan  as  that  of  the  pig. 
*  Thus,'  he  observes,  *  man ;  the  apes,  or  so-called 
Quadrumana  ;  the  Inseetivora;  the  Clmroptera  ;  the 
Bodentia,  to  which  the  lowest  apes  present  so  many 
remarkable  approximations ;  and  the  Camimora,  are 
all  as  closely  connected  by  their  placental  structure 
as  they  are  by  their  general  affinities.  With  "the 
pig,  on  the  other  hand,  the  ungulate  quadrupeds, 
and  the  Cetacea  which  have  been  studied,  agree 
in  developing  no  decidua,  or,  in  other  words,  in 
the  fact,  that  no  vascular  maternal  parts  are 
thrown  off  during  parturition.  But  considerable 
differences  are  ooserved  in  the  details  of  the 
disposition  of  the  foetal  villi,  and  of  the  parts  of 
the  uterus  which  receive  them.  Thus,  in  the  horse, 
camel,  and  Oeta^iea,  the  villi  are  scattered  as  in  the 
pig,  and  the  placenta  is  said  to  be  diffuse;  while 

571 


PLACENTA— PtACETUM  REGlUlt 

h  klmaat  bU  true  Avmtnant*,  the  fretal  villi  are  be  oairect  u  to  different  orden  of  pl&nta.  It  a 
g&thered  iuto  bnodlei  or  co^ledoiu  (fig.  3),  which  cert&in  that  in  many  caiea  in  which  the  placenta 
ui  tha  aheep  are  oonves,  and  aie  received  into  cupa  |  appear  as  aiile,  thtry  are  formed  from  the  edga 
of  the  carpellary  leaves  which  fold  in  to  mte% 
in  the  axis,  and  form  DitteptmenU  (q.  t.) 
between  the  cella  of  the  germen.  Tfae  num- 
ber of  placeote  correiponds  with  the  nninhn 
of  car]ieU  in  the  gennen,  or  appear*  to  be 
the  double  of  it,  each  carpel  ptixliicing  tao 
rowa  of  uvulea  instead  of  one.  See  figure*  in 
article  PiHTiL. 

FLACEIfZA.    See  Piaceku. 
PLACBTUM    BEGIUH.  called  alu 
PlICIT,   ExEQUATUB,  LRTtltB  Patkntk,  h 


t  eiecnted  in  virtue  of 
)   the  privilege  claimed  by  the  goTemnieDt  ig 

certain   kin—^"™  *~  —»—;--  ~ ;-— 

over    the 


lunicatiooi    of    the     Roi 


lunyiend  or  prevent  tbe 
publication  of  any  bhei,  bull,  or  other  papal 
instrument  which  may  apjiear  to  contravene 
the  laws  of  the  kingdom,  or  to  compromiM 
the  pubUc  iQten?Bt.  The  early  Christian 
emperofB.  it  is  well  known,  freely  stretched 
their  lei;i8l  at  ion  into  the  affairsof  the  church; 
and  one  constant  cause  of  conflict  between 
church  and  state,  in  the  medieval  period,  mt 
Vlf.  8. — TJtertll  of  a  Cow  in  the  middle  of  Ficgnanoy,  laid  the  attempt,  on  the  part  of  the  sovereign!, 
open  :  to  control  Uie  free  intercourae  of    the   pops 

I,  utema  ]  A,  chorion ;  c',  uterine  ootyledoni ;  with  the  aeveral  churches,  In  the  Pragmatio 
t>auctiiin  in  France,  and  in  tbe  similar  legit- 
lation  of  Spain,  Portngal.  Sicilj.  and  the  L<>* 


roa:   t»,  cnaoun;    c,  ui 
c*,  (iBtal  eotf  ledona 


of  the  mnaona  membrane  of  the  otenu;  while  in 
the  cow,  on  the  contrary,  they  are  concave,  and  fit 
upon  correapouding  convexities  of  the  uterus.' 

The  remarks  which  have  been  made  on  tbe  func- 
tions of  the  human  placenta,  are  equally  applicable 
to  all  placental  mammals  generally. 

The  dueiviei  of  the  human  placenta  had  not  been 
■tudied  with  any  accuracy,  until  the  sabject  was 
taken  up  by  Professor  Simpson.  This  distinguished 
physician  and  subsequent  oliaerven  have  ascer- 
tained that  the  placenta  is  liable  to  (1)  conffestion, 
ending  in  the  ejlusion  of  blood  into  the  subatance 
of  the  organ  upon  its  surfaces,  or  between  tbe 
membranes ;  (2)  InBammation.  giving  rise  to  adhe- 
sions, or  terminating  in  suppuration,  which  may 
occasion  very  serious  constitutional  disturbances ; 
(3)  Partial  or  entire  hypertrophy  or  atrophy ;  and 
(4),  Fatty  degeneration,  affectmg  ita  small  vessels. 
Whatever  be  the  form  of  disease  by  which  tbe 
placenta  is  attacked,  tbe  result  is  usually  fatal  to 
the  fffitiis. 

PLACENTA,  in  Botany,  a  membrane  of  the 
interior  of  the  Gennen  (q.  v.)  or  ovary,  to  which  the 
ovules  are  attached  either  immediately  or  by  Umbi- 
lical Cords  (q.  v.).  Tbe  placenta  sometimes  appears 
as  a  mere  thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  germen. 
In  many  cases,  it  is  a  more  decided  projection  from 
the  wnlls  of  the  germen.  When  thus  connected 
with  the  walls  of  the  germen,  the  placentie  are 
described  as  parUlal  (Lat  porta,  a  wall).  But  in 
some  plants,  tbe  placentte  of  the  different  cells  of 
the  germen  are  united  together  in  a  column  in  its 
axis,  and  they  are  then  described  lU  aj-.7-  This 
distinction  is  of  great  importance  as  character- 
ising different  natural  orders.  Parietal  placenta 
are  formed  where  the  edges  of  carpellary  leaves 
nnit«  ;  but  great  difficulty  has  been  experienced  by 
vegetable  phyainlogists  in  explaining  the  formation 
of  oiile  pWents ;  some  regarding  them  as  also 
originally  formed  in  this  manner,  and  others  sa 
formed  in  a  quite  different  manner  from  the  aiis 
itself ;  nor  ia  it  impossible  that  both  theories  may 


Countriee-during  tbe  15th  c,  the  claimi 
on  the  same  beail  are  mnre  than  once  asaertnl;  and 
amonjf  the  so-called  '  Uberties'  of  the  later  Gallicaa 
Church  was  a  certain,  though  not  a  complete  su  bj<-c< 
tion  to  tbe  state  in  this  particnlar;  bnt  it  waa  in  tbe 
German  states  that  this  claim  was  moat  diatinrtly 
asserted,  and  most  formally  embodied  in  the  c«n- 
stitutional  law-  The  principle  upon  which  the 
Peace  of  Westphalia,  so  far  as  rea^mls  it)i  religious 
provisions,  is  based,  is  that  the  wdl  of  the  sovereign 
of  tbe  state  is  supreme  and  final  in  all  the  concerm 
of  religion.  Cujui  regio  illiut  el  rdirjio  ('  Whose  tbs 
territory,  his  also  the  relinon'),  became  the  maiiia 
of  church  government;  and,  of  course,  within  oertain 
limits,  the  Catholic  sovereigns  acted  as  freely  npon 
it  as  tbe  Protestant.  This  intermixture  of  ibs 
spiritual  and  the  temporal  prevailed  eepecially  in 
the  mixed  govemmenta  of  the  ecclesiastical  sove- 
reigns of  Germany,  the  princo-bishojw  of  the  Khine; 
hut  without  the  same  foundation,  the  system  was 
carried  to  its  height  in  Austria  under  Joseph  IL  (see 
Febbonlakism,  Pirs  VI.).  the  excessive  minuteiKsi 
of  whose  ecclesiastical  ordinances  procmod  tor  bim 
tha  sobriquet  of  'The  Sacristan.'  Uoder  him.  all 
l)onti6cal  bulla,  briefs,  and  constitutiona.  and  oil  the 
ordinances  of  the  local  bishops,  were  mode  inbject 
to  the  imperial  censorship,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
publish  any  of  them  without  its  Teceifing  the  /iJoctl 
of  the  emperor.  The  only  exception,  in  the  case  nf 
pontifical  decrees,  regarded  those  emanating  fn>m 
the  Roman  Penitentiaiy  (q.  y.),  which,  aa  being  of 
their  nature  secret,  were  not  held  subject  to  revi- 
sion. In  Prussia,  tbe  same  law  was  enforced, 
ai  also  in  Baden  and  Saxony,  no  less  than  in 
the  Protestant  govemmenta  of  Wtittemberg.  Soxe- 
Qotha,  Saie- Weimar,  &c  Thme  claims  of  the  atata 
had  always  been  the  subject  of  protest  on  the  pgut 
of  the  Roman  see,  but  tbe  church,  nevertheless,  had 
been  compelled  to  acquiesce  silently  in  At  enforce- 
ment. In  many  cases,  however,  they  have  led 
to  serious  disputA,  of  which  the  miied-morria^ 
question  in  Pnuaia  fnniished  a  recent  and  very 


PLACOED  FISHES— PLAGUE. 


remarkable  example.  On  the  whole,  nevertheless, 
the  results  have  involved  less  of  conflict  than  might 
have  been  expected.  The  general  relaxation  of 
absolntist  principles  in  the  government,  whether  of 
state  or  of  church,  which  foUowed  the  revolution  of 
1848,  has  led  to  very  considerable  modiflcations  of 
these  regulations  in  almost  all  the  Oerman  states ; 
and  in  Austria  especially,  the  concordat  has  involved 
many^  important  changes  in  every  department  of 
ecclesiastical  ordinance. 

PLA'COID  FISHES,  an  order  of  fishes,  in  the 
classitication  proposed  by  Agassiz,  characterised  by 
having  placoid  (6r.  plaxj  a  broad  plate)  scales, 
irregular  plates  of  hard  bone,  not  imoricated,  but 
placed  near  together  in  the  skin.  These  scales  or 
plates  are  of  considerable  size  in  some  fishes,  but 
m  others  they  are  very  small  tubercles,  as  in  the 
dogfish,    of   which    the    skin    forms   fine-grained 


Placoid  Scales : 

a  and  ft,  placoid  soale^  of  Aleut ere»  trasmUat,  one  of  the  Balis- 
tldiB,  from  Australia ;  e,  d.  #,  scales  from  different  parts  of 
tlie  bod}-  of  AUuteres  vatiabilis, 

abagreen.  Agassiz  includes  among  the  P.  F.  those 
cartilaginous  fishes  which  have  no  scales.  The 
order  is  exclusively  composed  of  Cartilaginous  Jiskea 
(q.  v.).  The  existing  P.  F.  are  few  in  comparison 
-with  the  fossil  genera  and  speciea  Placoid  scaJes 
are  often  elevated  in  the  middle,  the  centre  some- 
times rising  into  a  strongly  projecting  point  or 
spine.  They  exhibit  great  variety  of  forms,  some- 
tunes  even  in  di£ferent  parts  of  the  same  fish. 

PIjA'OAL,  a  musical  term,  principally  applicable 
to  Canto  Fermo  and  signifying  collateral  Gregory 
the  Great,  in  revising  ike  labours  of  Ambrose,  and 
remodelling  the  Plainsong  (q.  v.)  of  the  church, 
added  to  the  scales  of  Ambrose,  which  he  distin- 
guished as  authentic,  certain  other  collateral  scales, 
-which  he  called  plagal,  ]>ossessing  the  peculiarity  of 
liaving  the  octave  so  divided  that  the  fourth  was 
above  the  fifth.  Melodies  are  now  known  as  plagal 
-which  have  their  principal  notes  contained  between 
the  fifth  of  the  key  and  its  octave  or  twelfth.  The 
cadence,  consisting  of  the  subdominant  harmony 
followed  by  the  tonic,  is  caUed  the  plagal  cadence — 


PLAGIO'STOMI  (Gr.  transverM-mouthed),  an 
order  of  fishes,  in  the  system  of  MuUer,  containing 
-the  cartilaginous  fishes  with  Placoid  (q.  v.)  scales, 
ajid  divided  into  two  sub-orders,  one  containing 
sharks,  and  the  other  rays.  The  P.  have  five  or 
criore  gill-openings.  They  have  no  air-bladder. 
Impregnation  takes  place  before  the  eegs  are 
tleposited,    and   the    males    are    furnishea    with 

PliAGUE,  a  very  malignant   kind    of   conta- 
ons  fever  prevailing  at  certain  times  and  places 


epidemically,  characterised  by  buboes,  or  swel- 
lings of  the  lymphatic  glands,  by  carbuncles  and 
petechiiB,  and  not  apparently  furnishing  any  security 
against  its  recurrence  in  the  same  in£viduaL  For 
a  history  of  the  origin  of  the  plague  in  the  ^ar  East 
(China),  and  its  gradual  spread,  under  the  name 
of  the  Black  Deatfi  (q.  v.),  tlurongh  Asia  and  Europe, 
in  the  14th  c.,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Hecker's 
EpiderMC9  qf  the  Middle  Ages  (1844,  published  by 
the  Sydenham  Society).  Its  true  and  permanent 
home  seems  to  be  in  the  regions  bordering  upon 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Mediterranean.  At 
different  periods  of  uie  15th,  16th,  and  17th  cen- 
turies, it  visited  Western  Europe.  It  last  attacked 
London  and  England  almost  generally  in  the  yean* 
1663—1665 ;  whUe  so  late  as  1720,  it  destroyeo^ 
nearly  half  ^e  population  of  Marseille ;  and  seventy 
years  afterwards,  prevailed  in  Russia  and  Poland, 
since  which  time  it  has  been  almost  unknown  in 
Western  Europe.  It  is  now  limited  chiefly  to 
Egypt,  Syria,  Anatolia,  Greece,  and  Turkey,  occa- 
sionally extending  northward  towards  Russia,  and 
westward  as  far  as  Malta. 

The  disease  usually  commences  with  a  sensation 
of  intense  weariness  and  fatigue,  slight  shivering, 
jiausea  and  sickness,  confusion  of  ideas,  giddiness, 
and  pain  in  the  loins.  These  svmptoms  are  rapidly 
followed  by  increased  mental  disturbance,  with 
occasional  stupor  and  delirium,  by  alternate  pallor 
and  flushing  of  the  face,  by  suffusion  of  the  eyes, 
and  a  feeling  of  intense  constriction  in  the  region 
of  the  heart.  Darting  pains  are  felt  in  the  groins, 
armpits,  and  other  parts  of  the  body,  which  are  soon 
followed  by  enlargements  of  the  lymphatic  glands. 
or  huhoea  (which  K>metime8  appear  on  th*  first  and 
second  day,  sometimes  not  till  near  the  close  of  the 
disease,  and  sometimes  are  altogether  absent),  and 
by  the  formation  of  carbuncles  on  various  parts  of 
the  body.  As  the  disease  advances,  the  tongue 
becomes  dry  and  brown,  while  the  gums,  teeth,  and 
lips  are  covered  with  a  dark  fur;  the  bowels,  at 
first  constipated,  become  relaxed,  the  stools  being 
dark,  ofi^ensive,  and  sometimes  bloody.  The  power 
of  the  will  on  the  muscles  is  much  impaired; 
and  altogether  the  patient  resembles  a  person  under 
the  influence  of  intoxication.  Throughout  the 
disease,  there  is  more  or  less  tendency  to  faint- 
Aess;  and  usually  about  the  second  or  third  day, 
petechial  spots,  hvid  patches  like  bruises,  and  dark 
stripes  (called  vtbices),  appear  upon  the  skin, 
especially  in  severe  cases.  Tnese  discolorations  are 
owing  to  the  extravasation  of  blood,  and  are  often 
accompanied  with  heemorrhadc  discharges  from  the 
mucous  membranes.  In  fatal  cases,  th6  pulse  grad- 
ually sinks,  the  siirface  becomes  cuid  and  clammy, 
blood  oozes  from  the  mucous  surfaces,  there  is 
coma,  or  low  delirium ;  and  death  occurs  usually  in 
five  or  six  days,  either  without  a  struggle,  or  pre- 
ceded by  convulsions. 

Great  difference  of  opinion  exists  as  to  the 
cause  of  pla^e.  Some  maintain  that  it  is  propa- 
gated exclusively  by  a  peculiar  contagion ;  others, 
while  admittiog  its  contagious  nature,  maintain 
that  it  may  also  be  spontaneouslv  engendered  by 
endemic  or  epidemic  influences ;  while  others,  again, 
reject  the  contasion  view  altogether,  and  assert  that 
it  originates  exclusively  in  local  causes  or  epidemic 
influences.  Of  these  three  views,  the  great  mass 
of  evidence  goes  to  shew  that  the  second  is  the 
correct  one.  Whatever  may  be  the  cause  of  the 
disease,  temperature  appears  to  exert  a  considerable 
influence  over  itb  In  epical  climates,  the  disease  is 
unknown,  and  the  cold  weather  of  northern  climates 
has  been  observed  to  check  its  ravages.  In  Europe, 
it  has  always  been  most  fatal  in  the  summer  and 
autumn,  especially  in  September.      Thus,  in  the 

VII 


PLAICE— PLANARIA. 


great  plague  of  London  in  1665,  the  deaths  from 
the  plag\ie  were,  in  June,  590 ;  in  July,  4129 ;  in 
August,  20,046 ;  in  September,  26,230 ;  in  October, 
14,373;  in  November,  3449;  while  in  December, 
they  were  less  than  1000. 

The  exact  nature  of  the  disease  is  unknown.  A 
poison  whose  characters  evade  all  chemical  and 
microscopical  examination,  is  absorbed,  and  alters 
at  once,  or  after  a  short  stage  of  incubation,  the 
composition  of  the  blood  and  the  condition  of  the 
tissues. 

With  respect  to  treatment,  little  can  be  done  to 
arrest  the  progress  of  the  disease  in  any  individual 
case.  The  patient  should,  if  possible,  be  removed 
at  once  from  the  soiurce  of  the  disease ;  he  should 
be  exposed  freely  to  fresh  air")  his  secretions  should 
be  duly  regulated,  and  his  strength  supported  as 
far  as  possible.  Friction  with  oUve  oil  nas  been 
strongly  recommended,  but  subsequent  experience 
has  not  confirmed  the  first  reports  in  its  favour. 
But  although  treatment  is  comparatively  valueless, 
much  may  be  done  towards  guarding  against  the 
attacks  of  the  disease.  There  can  be  liUle  doubt 
that  it  is  in  consequence  of  the  free  external  use  of 
cold  water,  perfect  cleanliness,  moderate  habits  of 
life,  and  superior  ventilation,  that  European  (espe- 
cially English)  residents  in  the  infected  cities  of 
the  Levant  are  comparativelv  exempt  from  this 
disease.  It  is  very  possible  that  inunction  of  the 
body  with  olive  ou  may  be  (as  has  been  asserted) 
a  useful  prophylactic  agent,  although  it  fails  to  cure 
the  disease,  it  is  almost  needless  to  add,  that  all 
unnecessary  communication  with  the  sick,  or  con- 
tact with  clothes  or  other  mat^r  that  may  have 
been  inf  Ated  with  the  poison,  uiould  be  as  much 
as  possible  avoided. 

PLAICE  (Platessa  vulgaris),  a  species  of  Flounder 
(q.  v.),  much  resembling  the  common  flounder,  but 
rather  broader  in  proportion  to  its  length;  the 
upper  surface  of  the  body  and  the  fins  oUve-brown, 
marked  with  large  bright  orange  spots;  a  row  of 
similar  spots  on  the  dorsal  fin  and  on  the  anal  fin  ; 
no  tubercular  asperities  on  any  part  of  the  body, 
but  a  curved  row  of  bony  tubercles  on  the  eye-side 
of  the  head.  The  P.  inhabits  sand^  and  muddy- 
banks,  not  in  very  deep  water,  and  is  very  abund- 
ant on  most  parts  of  tne  British  coasts,  as  well  as 
on  those  of  continental  Europe.  Like  the  common 
flounder,  it  often  ascends  slow  rivers  to  some 
distance  from  the  sea,  and  it  has  even  been  found 
to  thrive  well  when  transferred  to  fresh-water 
ponds.  It  feeds  on  worms,  molluscs,  small  crus- 
taceans, and  young  fishes.  It  has  been  known  to 
attain  the  weight  of  fifteen  poimds,  but  a  P.  of 
seven  or  ei^ht  pounds  is  accounted  large.  It  is 
taken  both  by  fines  and  trawl-nets.  It  is  in  con- 
siderable esteem  for  the  table,  although  so  plentiful 
in  the  British  markets,  that  it  is  in  general  very 
cheap. 

PLAID,  a  woollen  garment,  in  the  form  of  a  larffe 
scarf,  to  wrap  round  the  body,  and  used  chiefly 
among  the  rural  population  of  Scotland.  See 
Tabtan. 

PLAIN,  in  (Geography,  is  an  extensive  tract  of 
country  which,  on  the  whole,  preserves  a  nearly 
uniform  elevation.  When  refened  to  the  level  of 
the  sea,  plains  may  be  distinguished  into  low  plains 
or  lowlands,  and  elevated  plains  caUed  plateaux  or 
Table-lands  (q.  v.).  Plains  differ  much  in  appear- 
ance, according  to  the  nature  of  their  soil  and 
climate,  from  the  frightful  sandy  wastes  of  Africa, 
to  the  luxuriant  feitifity  of  the  South  American 
silvas.  They  are  occasionally  crossed  by  hills 
of  moderate  altitude,  which,  however,  are  gener- 
ally detached,  and  exhibit  no  connection  with 
B7« 


any  neighbouring  mountain  tysteuL  These  hillg 
often,  as  in  the  North  American  plains,  de^- 
erate  into  mere  undulations,  perfectly  onitorm 
in  structure.  The  term  'plains  is,  in  a  limited 
sense,  confined  to  the  plains  of  Western  Europe ; 
those  of  other  parts  of  the  world  receiAnng  special 
designations,  and  differing  from  each  other  in  many 
important  points;  thus,  we  have  the  Steppes  (q.  v.) of 
Eastern  Europe  and  Asia;  the  Deserts  (o^  v*}  f^ 
Arabia  and  Africa ;  the  Savannahs  (q.  v.)  and  rradriei 
(q.  V.)  of  North  America ;  and  the  Llanos  (q.  ?  \, 
Pampas  (q.  v.),  and  Silvas  (q.  v.)  of  South  AmerioL 
The  chief  plains  of  Europe  are,  the  country  stretch- 
ing from  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians  in  Galicia  to 
the  Ural  Mountains  (including  Poland  and  Kussia), 
the  drainage-area  of  the  Danube  in  Hungary,  sod 
the  portion  of  Europe  which  is  bound^  by  the 
Elbe,  the  Harz  Mountains,  France,  and  the  seft. 
Plains  of  comparatively  small  extent,  but  presenting 
the  necessanr  characteristics  in  perfection,  are  fonnd 
in  almost  all  countries. 

PLAI'NSONG,  or  CANTO  FERMO  (ItsL),  a 
name  nven  by  the  (Church  of  Rome  to  the  eccle- 
siasticiu  chant.  It  is  an  extremely  simple  melmiy, 
admitting  only  notes  of  equal  value,  rarely  extend- 
ing beyond  the  compass  of  an  octave,  and  never 
exceeding  nine  notes,  the  staff  on  which  the  notei 
are  placed  consisting  of  only  four  lines.  The  defi 
are  U  and  F.  St  Ambrose  is  conaidered  to  hare 
been  the  inventor  or  systematiser  of  Plainsong. 
His  labours  consisted  in  selecting  from  the  extremely 
complicated  system  of  the  Greeks  a  set  of  scales 
sufficiently  few  and  simple  for  a  very  rude  people. 
During  the  two  centuries  succeeding  the  death  of 
Ambrose,  his  institutions  fell  into  utter  confusion. 
Gregory  the  Great  revived  and  perfected  them, 
recasting  them  into  an  Antiphony,  or  authorised 
body  of  ecclesiastical  music,  and  brought  Plainsong 
into  the  state  in  which  it  is  yet  used  m  the  Human 
church.  See  Ambrosiak  Chant  and  Gregorias 
Chant. 

PL  AI'NTIFF,  in  English  and  Irish  Law,  is  the 
name  given  to  the  person  who  institutes  and  main- 
tains a  civil  action  or  suit  against  another,  who  is 
called  the  Defendant  In  Gotland,  a  plaintiff  ii 
called  a  Pursuer.  But  in  both  countries,  many 
proceedings  and  applications  of  a  civil  nature  are 
commenced  by  petition ;  and  hence  the  party  taking 
the  initiative  is  called  the  Petitioner. 

PLAN,  a  word  frequently  applied  to  all  kinds 
of  architectural  drawings,  but  which  ought  to  be 
limited  to  those  which  represent  the  horiz<mtal 
sections  of  the  various  floors  of  buildings.  Plans 
shew  the  disposition  of  the  apartments  and  walk, 
with  the  situation  of  the  nreplaces,  cupboards, 
doors,  Ac. ;  they,  in  fact,  represent-  the  different 
stories  as  thev  actually  appear  as  seen  from  above, 
when  the  wiuJs  are  built  two  or  three  feet  above 
the  level  of  each  fioor. 

PLANA'BIA,  a  genus  of  worms  placed  by  Cnrier 
among  EtUozoa,  altnough  not  parasites,  but  inha- 
bitants of  stagnant  waters,  because  of  their  great 
resen^Mance  to  some  of  the  entozoic  parasites,  an*i 

Particularly  to  flukes.  The  species  are  numenxis. 
ome  inhabit  fresh,  and  others  salt  water ;  th«rj 
feed  on  small  annelids,  molluscs,  ftc  They  are 
generally  found  creeping  among  confervao,  or  <« 
the  stems  of  plants.  Alany  of  the  larger  marine 
species  are  able  to  swim  freely  by  flappings  of  ibe 
broad  margins  of  their  bodies.     The   body  of  a 

Slanaria  seems  to  be  entirely  gelatinotts ;  but  M. 
e  Quatrefages  has  detected  under  the  skin  .m 
arrangement  of  muscular  fibres.  Two  red  specb 
in  the  fore-part  of  the  body  of  many  species  hains 
been  supposed  to  be  eyes ;  but  there  is  no  proof  ^ 


it.  Plsoarue  are  hermaplirodite,  hat  copulate  for 
tnntDal  impregnutinn.  Their  power  of  multipli- 
cation hy  divisioD  ii  very  great ;  if  an  individual 
be  cat  ia  pieces,  each  piece  continues  to  Uveaand 
feel,  and  '  even  if  it  ba  the  end  of  the  tail,  m  toon 
as  the  first  moment  of  pain  and  irritation  hu  pUBed, 
beging  to  move  in  the  «ame  direction  u  that  in 
which  the  entire  animal  was  advancing,  aa  if  the 
body  wM  actuated  throusbout  by  the  same  impulse ) 
and,  moreover,  every  division,  even  if  it  ia  not  more 
than  the  eighth  or  tenth  part  of  the  creature,  will 
become  complete  and  perteot  in  all  it«  orgaot.' — 
Bymer  Jona. 

PLAHE,  in  Geometry,  ii  a  mrfaee  without  cur- 
Tkture,  and  the  test  of  it  is,  that  any  two  points 
whatever  being  taken  in  the  surface,  the  sU^ight 
line  which  joins  them  lies  wholly  in  the  sarface. 
When  two  planes  cross  or  intersect  one  another, 
their  common  sectioa  is  a  straight  line ;  and  the 
inclinatioD  of  the  planes  to  each  other  is  meiisuced 
by  taking  any  point  in  their  common  section,  and 
drawing  from  it  two  straight  linee,  one  in  each 
plane,  perpendicular  to  the  common  section ;  the 
angle  coDtained  by  these  lines  is  the  ani;Ie  of  inclin- 
»iitm  fit  the  planes.  When  the  angle  is  a  right 
Angle,  the  planes  are  perpendicular  U>  each  other. 

FLANB   IPlatanua),  a  genus  of  trees,  the  sole 
genua  of  the  natural  o^ec  PUUauaeat,  regarded  by 
many  aa  a  sub-order  of  Amtalaceie  (q,  v.).     Tl 
flowers  are  in  globose  atalked  oatkins ;  the  ovai7 
one-celled,   and  contains   one   or   two   penduloi 


Plana  Ti«e  {PltUmnu  orimtalit). 

OTTde«.      The  spedei  of  P.  are  few;    nativei  of 

temperate  climates  in  the  nortbem  hemisphere ; 
tall  trees,  with  smooth  whitish  bark,  which  amia- 
ally  scales  off  in  larae  pieces,  and  Urge  palmate 
deciduDiu  leaves.  The  catkins  are  email,  and 
cnriouely  placed  one  above  another  on  the  same 
■talk  ;  they  are  pendulous,  with  long  stalks,  and 
give  plane  trees  a  Very  peculiar  appearance,  especi- 
ally in  winter,  when  they  remain  after  the  leaves 
have  fallen.— The  Oriental  P.  {P.  oriailalu),  a 
native  of  Greece  and  the  Eaat,  was  much  admired 
Knd  planted,  botlk  by  the  Greeks  and  the  Romans, 
Bs  an  ornamental  tree ;  no  other  tree,  indeed,  com- 
manding equal  admiration ;  and,  for  centuries,  the 
youth  of  Greece  assembled  under  the  shade  of 
planes,  in  the  groves  of  Academus  and  elsewhere, 


the  south  of  Enrope.  Many  fine  trees  exist  in 
England,  but  the;  were  at  one  time  much  mora 
numerous,  great  port  having  died  in  the  end  of  last 
century,  probably  from  some  disease  similar  to  the 
potato  disease.  The  injury  often  done  to  the 
youDjj  leaves  by  late  frusta,  and  the  insufficient 
duration  of  the  summer  tor  the  proper  ripening  o( 
the  wood,  render  the  P.  less  suitable  tor  Scotland ; 
vet  there  is  a  tree  at  Gordon  Castle  66  feet 
nigh.  No  tree  better  endures  the  atmuaphere  of  a 
large  city,  and  there  are  no  finer  trees  within  tha 
precincts  of  London  than  the  P.  trees  which  are 
to  be  seen  in  some  places  there.  In  its  nativa 
regions  the  F.  attains  an  immense  size.  One  tree, 
which  grows  in  the  meadow  of  Buyukdere  on  the 
banks  of  the  Bosporus,  is  141  feet  in  circum- 
ference at  the  base—its  tniak  being  apparently 
formed  of  several  which  have  grown  together — 
extends  its  branches  46  feet  from  the  trunk, 
and  is  believed  to  be  more  than  2UU0  years  old. 
The  wood  of  the  P.,  when  young,  is  yellowish- 
white  ;  when  old,  it  is  bmwni^,  tine  erained,  takes 
a  high  polish,  and  is  esteemed  for  cabinet-making. 
A  rich  alluvial  soil  and  the  vicinity  of  water  ar« 
most  suitable  to  this  tree.— The  North  American 
P.,  or  BcrnoNwooD  {P.  oeaittntalis),  is  a  very  similar 
tree.  It  is  the  Jargest  deciduous  tree  of  the  United 
States,  and  abounds  on  the  banks  of  the  great 
rivers  of  the  middle  states.  Its  timber  is  not  very 
valuable,  and  is  very  liable  to  dec.iy.  It  is  some- 
times  called  the  Cotton  Trff.  from  the  wool  which, 
as  in  the  former  species,  covers  the  under  tide  of 
the  young  leaves,  and  which,  being  cast  off,  Uoata 
about  on  the  wind.  A  tree  oF  this  apedes  on  tha 
bank  of  the  Thomea,  in  Chelsea  Hospital  gardens, 
ia  116  feet  high,  with  a  trunk  live  feet  in  iliameter. 
— The  name  P.-tree  ie  commonly  given  in  Scotland 
to  the  Sycamore  {Aerr  ptetido-jilatamu),  which 
re«embIeB  the  true  planes  in  its  foliage. 

PLANE,  a  tool  used  for  rendering  the  surface  of 
wood  smooth  and  level.  It  consists  of  an  oblong 
block  of  wood  or  metal  (the  tatter  is  only  ju£ 
coming  into  use),  with  an  opeiiing  through  the 
centre  ;  this  opening  is  square  on  the  np[>er  side, 
—  J  :-  always  large  enough  to  admit  the  cutting 
lent ;  it  diminishes  down  to  a  mere  slit  on 
the  under  side,  merely  wide  enough  to  allow  the 
cutting  edge  of  the  plane-iron  anil  the  shaving  of 
wood  which  it  cuta  off  to  pass  through.    The  rann 


Fig.1. 

this  opening  will  be  seen  at  a,  fl^  I,  which  repre- 
sents the  section  of  a  common  jack-jilaiie.  The 
essential  part  of  the  tool  is  the  plane-iron,  a  piecs 
of  steel  with  a  chisel-ahaped  edge,  and  a  slut  in  ita 
centre  for  a  large  headed  screw  to  work  and  to 
attach  to  it  a  strengthening  plate.  Fig  2  shews 
plane-iron,  and  fig.  3  the  same  with  the 
streogtbeaiiig  plate  attached ;  these  are  shewn  in 
their  proper  position  at  6d  in  the  section  fig.  1,  and 
they  are  held  in  place  by  the  hard-wood  wedge 
(fig.  4),  keen  also  in  Oie  section  at  c  By  driving  in 
the  wedge,  the  irons  are  held  very  firmly  in  theiT 
[ilace,  and  they  are  so  adjusted  that  only  the  line 


PLANETA— PEANETOIDS. 


•barp  chiflcl-edfe  of  the  catting-tool  projects  through 
the  slit  in  the  oottom  of  the  Dody  of  the  plane,  so 
that  when  the  tool  is  pushed  forward  by  tne  force 
of  the  hand,  the  cutting  edge  pares  off  all  irresu- 
larities,  until  the  wood  is  as  smooth  aa  the  under 


■orface  of  the  plane.  There  are  many  modifications 
in  this  tool,  which  can  have  its  cutting  edge  and 
under  surface  made  to  almost  any  contour,  so  that 
mouldings  of  all  kinds  may  be  made.  The  two 
commonest  are  the  jack-plane  for  rough  work,  and 
the  smoothing-plane  for  fmishing  off  plane  surfaces. 
Planinq-machines  have  lately  been  much  in 
use,  by  which  both  wood  and  metal  are  planed.  In 
the  case  of  those  intended  for  wood,  the  cutting 
instruments  are  moved  forward  over  the  wood  hv 
machinery  in  the  same  manner  as  in  the  hand- 
plane.  The  precision  and  rapidity  with  which 
these  machines  work  have  given  great  facilities  for 
building,  as  one  machine  wdl  do  as  much  work  as 
sixty  men.  The  planing-machines  used  for  metal 
are  different  in  principle.  A  well-tempered,  chisel- 
edged  steel  cutter  is  held  in  a  fixed  position,  press- 
ing downwards  upon  the  metal  plate,  which  is 
moved  forward  by  pow^fnl  machinery.  The  action 
of  this  movement  is,  that  a  groove  is  ploughed  into 
the  metal  of  the  size  of  the  steel  cutter;  when 
the  metal  has  travelled  its  full  length,  and  has 
made  the  groove  complete,  the  downward  pressure 
of  the  tool  is  removed,  and  by  the  action  of  the 
double  screw  which  has  carried  it  forward,  it  ia 
returned,  and  readjusted  for  another  groove  to  be 
formed  by  the  side  of  the  first ;  and  this  is  repeated 
until  the  whole  surface  of  the  plate  is  reduced  to 
the  required  level  However  tedious  this  process 
may  appear,  it  offers  such  faciUties  for  metal 
working  as  were  previously  unknown. 

PLANE'TA,  the  Greek  name  of  the  vestment 
called  by  the  Latins  Casi^a,  and  in  English  '  Cha- 
suble,' which  is  worn  by  priests  in  the  celebration 
of  mass.  The  form  of  this  vestment  in  the  modem 
Koman  church,  differs  both  from  the  ancient  form 
and  from  that  in  use  in  the  Greek  churclL  The 
change  appears  to  date  from  the  9th  a,  but  has 
been  gradual  A  certain  modification  of  the  Roman 
planeto  was  recently  introduced  in  England  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  late  Mr  Pucin,  the  great 
reviver  of  Gothic  architecture  ana  ecclesiastical 
coBtume  and  decoration.  But  its  use  has  been  only 
partial  even  in  England. 

PLANETA'RIUM,  a  machine  much  employed 
by  astronomers  in  the  17th  and  18th  centuries,  and 
first  constructed  by  Huyghens  and  R(5mer,  for  the 

Eurpose  of  exhibiting  clearly  the  motion  of  the 
eavenly  bodies  in  conformity  with  the  Copemican 
doctrine.  The  P.  exhibited  only  the  orbital  motions 
of  the  planets  about  the  sun,  either  in  circles  or 
ellipses,  and  with  constant  or  varying  motions, 
according  to  the  perfection  of  the  machine.  It 
was  suMcquently  supplemented  by  the  eombined 
teUurian  and  lunarian^  which  exhibited  at  one  and 
the  same  time  the  motion  of  the  moon  about  the 
earth  and  that  of  the  latter  round  the  sun,  with  the 
principal  phenomena  (such  as  the  succession  of  day 
and  nigh^  the  vaiying  length  of  each,  eclipses,  and 


the  motion  of  the  moon's  apogee  and  nodes)  which 
accompany  these  motions.  A  aatdUU  machxM  wu 
also  invented  to  illustrate  the  motions  of  Jupiter'i 
satellites.  All  these  machines  are  now  combined 
in  the  Orrery  (q.  v.),  which  exhibits  in  the  b^ 
manner  possible  the  varied  motions  and  phenomena 
of  the  bodies  in  the  solar  system. 

PLA'NETOIDS,  or  A'STEROIBS,  the  nams 
given  to  that  numerous  group  of  very  small  pUneti 
which  are  situated  in  the  solar  system  between 
Mars  and  Jupiter.  Till  the  present  century  they 
remained  undiscovered ;  but  for  some  yean  before, 
their  existence  had  been  suspected,  mainly  owing  to 
the  remarkable  hiatus  in  the  series  of  the  planetary 
distances  when  compared  with  the  law  of  Bode 
(q.  v.).  On  the  first  day  of  the  present  oentory 
the  first  of  them  was  detected  by  Piazzi  of  Palermo, 
and  his  success  roused  his  brother  astronomen  to 
search  for  more  planets.  Their  search  was  snc- 
cessful,  for  Gibers  ((^.  v.)  discovered  two  in  1802 
and  1807,  and  Hardmg  one  in  1804;  but  as  all 
researches  for  some  time  subsequent  to  1807  were 
unavailing,  astronomers  gradually  allowed  them- 
selves to  settle  down  into  the  belief  that  no  more 
Slanetoids  remained  to  be  discovered,  when  the 
etection  of  a  fiftih  by  Hencke  in  1845,  revived  the 
hope  of  fresh  discoveries,  and  from  this  period  no 
year  (excepting  1846)  has  passed  without  adding  to 
the  list.  The  number  at  present  (1864)  known  n 
81.  This  remarkable  success  of  the  astronomers  of 
our  time  is  due  to  the  systematic  manner  in  which 
the  zodiacal  belt  has  been  explored,  and  the  pb» 
and  apparent  size  of  every  star  of  this  region  dis* 
tinctly  determined;  so  that  the  presenoe  of  a 
wandering  body  can  at  once  be  detected. 

The  magnitudes  of  these  celestial  bodies  have 
not  been  accurately  ascertained,  but  it  is  certain  that 
they  are  exceedingly  small  as  compared  even  with 
Mercury,  the  least  of  the  other  plauets ;  the  diameter 
of  the  largest  among  them  being  generally  bdiered 
not  to  exceed  450  miles,  while  most  of  the  othen 
are  very  much  smaller  than  this.  They  also  differ, 
generally  speaking,  from  the  rest  of  the  planets  in 
other  respects;  dieir  orbits  are  of  greater  excen- 
tricity,  are  inclined  to  the  ecliptic  at  a  greater 
angle,  and  are  interlaced  in  a  most  intricate  manner, 
crossing  each  other  so  frequently  as  to  form,  when 
viewed  perpendicularly,  a  kind  of  network.  Hie 
consequence  of  this  is,  that  a  planetoid  which  is 
nearest  the  sun  at  one  part  of  its  orbit,  is,  when 
at  another  part  of  its  orbit,  further  from  it  than 
are  several  of  the  others,  and  a  mutual  edipung  of 
the  sun  at  difTerent  periods  by  two  planetdtls 
must  be  of  very  frequent  occurrence.  From 
the  generally  large  size  of  their  angle  of  indina* 
tion  to  the  ecliptic,  many  of  them  occasionally 
travel  far  beyond  the  limits  of  the  xodiac,  and  are 
thence  termed  tdtra-zodiacal  plajiets.  Of  the  plane- 
toids. Flora  has  the  shortest  period  of  revolution 
(1193  days),  and  consequently,  by  Kepler's  third 
law,  its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  is  a  littk 
over  209  millions  of  miles ;  Maximilian*  has  the 
longest  period  (2343  days),  and  its  mean  distance 
from  the  sun  is  about  330  millions  of  miles.  Con- 
cordia's orbit  has  least  excentricil^,  that  element 
amounting  to  little  more  than  ^  of  the  major  axis, 
while  in  rolyhymnia  it  amounts  to  more  than  |. 
Massalia*8  orbit  makes  a  smaller  angle— only  41'  7 
— with  the  ecliptic  than  that  of  any  other  planet 
in  the  solar  .system,  while  the  inclination  of  the 
orbit  of  Pallas  is  no  less  than  34*"  42'  41'.  After 
the  first  two  or  three  of  these  bodies  had  been 
discovered,  the  opinion  was  propounded  by  Olbos 
that  they  were  out  the  fragments  of  some  large 
planet ;  and  this  hypothesis  received  corroboratioa 
from  the  intimate  connection  which  was  shews 


FLANBTOroS— PLANETS. 


to  Bubsbt  among  them ;  bnt  of  late  years  it  has, 
to  a  conaiderable  extent,  faUen  out  of  favour  with 
utronomera. 


The  81  planetoida,  with  the  names  of  their  dis- 
coverers, tne  dates  of  their  discovery,  and  their 
periods  of  revolution,  are  as  follows : 


1.  Gerev,      • 

2.  Pallas, . 
S.  Juno,       • 

4.  Vnta,  • 

5.  Astraea,    . 

6.  Hebe,  • 

7.  Irlfl, .       • 
a.  Flora,  • 

9,  Meils       • 

10.  Uygieia, 

11.  Parthenope, 

13.  Victoria, 
IS.  Kgerla,     • 

14.  Irene,   . 

15.  Kunomia, 

16.  Psyche, 

17.  Thetis,      • 

18.  lIelpomeD«^ 

19.  Furtuna,  .  ' 

20.  HaKsalifl^ 
31.  Lutetta,    • 
ti.  Calliope, 
SS.  Tbaliu,      . 
34.  Themis, 
25.  Phocea,     • 
88.  Proaerpine, 

37.  Euterpe,  . 

38.  Bellona, 

29.  Amphitrite, 

30.  Urania, 

31.  EapbruRjne^ 
33.  Puinona, 

33.  Polyhymnia; 

34.  Circe,    • 
85.  Leueothea, 

36.  AUlanta, 

37.  Fidea, 

35.  liAita,    . 

39.  Laetltln,    . 

40.  IlarinoDia, 

41.  Diiphne,   . 
43.  I>i9,      . 

43.  Ariadne,  . 

44.  Ny«a,    . 

45.  Eu^enlSt  • 

46.  Ilestia, 

47.  Melete,     . 

48.  Aglaia, 

49.  Boris, 

50.  Pales,    • 

51.  Virginia,  • 

62.  Neoiaasa, 

53.  Europa,    • 

54.  Calypso. 

55.  Alrzandra, 

56.  Pandora, 

57.  Mnemoff^e^ 

58.  Coneoidia, 
69.  Oiyinpia,  . 

60.  Ecno,    . 

61.  D«nle, 

63.  Erato^  . 

63.  Auaonia,  • 

64.  Angelina, 

65.  Maximilians, 

66.  Mala,     . 

67.  Asia, 

68.  Hejtperia, 

69.  Leti,        • 

70.  Panopea, 

71.  Niobe,       , 

74.  Feronis, 
73.  Clytie,      , 
74    Galatea, 

75.  K.urydioe, 

76.  Freya,  . 

77.  Frigga,      . 
7S.  IHaaa,  . 

79.  Earynome, 

80.  Sappho, 

81.  Terpsiohore, 


Date  of  Otoeofwy. 


1801,  January  1,     • 

1802,  March  28,  . 
1804,  September  1, 
1807,  March  29,      • 
184),  December  8, 
1847,  July  1,  .        • 
1847,  August  IS, 

1847,  October  18»    • 

1848.  April  25,    • 
18^9,  April  13,        • 
1850,  Muy  il,      • 
18o0,  September  IS, 

1850,  NoTember  8, 

1851,  Muy  19. .  • 
IBM,  Jnly29,      • 

1852,  March  17,      • 

1852.  April  17,     . 

1853,  June  34,  • 
1852,  August  22, 

1852,  September  19, 

1853,  Norember  10, 
1852.  November  16, 

1852,  Dc'ccmber  16, 

1853,  April  5,  . 
1S53,  April  7,       • 
1853,  Muy  5,   .       . 

1853,  Noyember  8, 

1854,  March  1, 
1854,  M  irch  1,     . 
1864,  July  33, .        • 
1854,  S<-pieinber  1, 
1854,  0  to  her  26,    . 

1854,  OL-tcber  28, 

1855,  A  pi  116,  .        • 
1K55,  April  19,     . 
1850,  October  6,      • 
185  i,  October  6,  . 
1S56,  Jnnuary  12,   • 

1856,  February  si, 
1656,  March  31,  . 
1856.  May  22, 

1856,  Mnv  28,       . 

1857,  April  15, 
1857,  May  27,      • 
1857,  June  37,        • 
1857,  AtigURt  16,  • 
1857,  Sf-ptembcr  9, 
1867,  S<*ptember  15, 
1857.  S«pte.*nber  19, 
1857,  Septemder  19, 

1857,  October  4,      • 

1858,  January  33, 
1858,  February  6,  . 

1858,  April  4,       • 
1853,  September  10, 
185'^,  September  10, 

1859,  September  23, 

1860,  March  24,  . 
1860,  September  12, 
1860.  September  16, 
1860,  September  19, 

1860,  September  14, 

1861,  February  10, 
1861,  March  4,         • 
1861,  March  8,     • 
1861,  April  9,.       • 
IStil,  AprU  17,    • 
1861,  April  29,        • 
1861.  April  29,     . 
1861,  May  5,    .        . 

1861,  AttgVAtlS, 

1862,  February  13, 
1862,  April  7, . 
1862,  Aiigu«t  29, 

1862,  S«*ptember  33, 

1863,  October  31,    . 

1862,  November  13, 

1863,  March  16, 
1883,  September  19, 

1864,  May  3»   . 
1864,  September  30, 


DiteoTtfcr. 


Piasxl,  Palermo,    .       .       • 

Olbers,  Bremen,         .       • 

Harding,  Ulienthal  (Bremen), 

Olbers,  Bremen,         .        • 

Hencke,  Driesen  (Prussia),  • 

Hencke,  Driesen  (Prussia), 

Hind,  London, 

Hind,  London, 

Graham,  Sligo,      .        • 

Pe  Gasparie,  Naples, . 

Be  Gaaparis,  Naples,     . 

Hind,  London,  .       .       t 

Be  GaM>aris,  Naples,     • 

Hind,  London,   .       .       « 

Be  Ga«pariB,  Naples,     . 

Be  GaspariH,  NajileA, . 

Luther,  Bilk  (Du^eeldorf), 

Hind,  London,    . 

Hind,  London,        .        • 

De  Gasparis,  Naples, 

Goldachntldt,  Paris,       • 

Hind,  London,    .        •       « 

Rind,  London,        .        • 

Be  Gaitpari*,  Naples,  . 

ChaODrnao,  Marseille,   • 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Hind,  London, 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Uarth,  London, 

Hind,  Lond>>n, 

FergUHon,  Washington, 

Uoldschmldt,  Pari^,  . 

Chacornuc,  Paria,  . 

Chacornuc,  Paria, 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Goldschnidt,  Paris,  . 

Luther,  Bilk, 

Chaoornae,  Paris,      • 

Chacornac,  Paris, .        , 

GoUischntidt,  Paris,  . 

Goldschmi^t,  Paris,      . 

Pogson,  Oxford,        • 

Pogson,  OxTord,    .       , 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,  • 

Goldsehmidt,  Pari.i, 

Pogfton,  Oxford. 

Goldsehmldt(F«xli\*  Schubert  (StFaunimif) 

Luther,  Bilk,      .... 

GoldHchntidt,  Paris,       .       .        . 

Goldschmidt,  Paria,  .       • 

Frrguaon,  Washington,        .       • 

Laurent,  Nimes  (France), 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,       •       •       • 

Luiher,  Bilk,      .        •        •       • 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,       •       •       • 

Searle,  Albany,  New  York, 

Luther,  Bilk,         •       •       •       . 

Luther,  Bilk,      •       •       •       . 

Chaoornae,  Paria,  •       .       .       • 

Fergtison,Washington,      •       • 

Goldschmidt,  Paris,       •       •       • 

F0rsier,  Berlin,  •       •       .       . 

Be  Ganparis,  Naples,     •       •       • 

Tempel,  Marseille,     .        •       • 

Tempel,  Marseille,        •       .       • 

Tut  tie,  Cumb  idge,  Massaobnsetts, 

PogHon,  Madras,    •        .        •        • 

ScliiApar«*lli,  Milan,    .       . 

Luther,  Bilk,         .       .       •       • 

Gold(>chmidt,  Chatillon  (Paris), 

Luther,  Bilk,  .        .  . 

Peters  (CIlnton.Nw.Toric).  a  SalTord  (WuUagta) 

Turtle,  Cambridge,  Maasaehu  e  ta, 

Tempel,  Mnr^ilie,     .      *•       • 

Pel  era,  Clint  m.  New  York,  • 

D'Arresi,  Copenhagen,      .        • 

Petirs,  Clinton,  New  York,  • 

Luther,  Bilk,      .        •        •        • 

Watson,  Ann  Arbor,  America, 

Pogi-on,  Madras, 

Tempel,  Marseille, 


•       •       • 
•       •       • 


Period  of  SMvnal 

Kerolulioa 

In  Dajh 


1631. 

1684. 

l-^^3. 

1325. 

1511. 

U80. 

1346. 

1193. 

1347. 

2043. 

1402. 

1301. 

1511. 

1518. 

1d70. 

1826. 

1420. 

1270. 

1398. 

1366. 

138S. 

Ibli. 

l.>56. 

3034. 

1359. 

1581. 

1314. 

1689. 

14U2. 

1:29. 

3048. 

15.0. 

1778. 

1609. 

]»08. 

1666. 

156^. 

16  >7. 

1684. 

1247. 

1779. 

1893. 

1195. 

1379. 

16  <0. 

1470. 

1529. 

1788. 

1998. 

1980. 

1677. 

1330. 

]»9d. 

1543. 

1629. 

1674. 

3049. 

1619. 

16  3. 

1352. 

1902. 

2023. 

1356. 

1601. 

3143. 

1588. 

1375. 

1893. 

1688. 

1557. 

167L 

1148. 

1590. 

1509. 

1590. 

208ti. 

1360. 

Mot  dPtMiiiln€4JL 
Hot  dttiermlnvd.. 
Not  detenn(n«d.. 
Not  d  tmninod.. 


PliA'KBTS    (Gr.  planStes,  'a  "wanderer*),  are 
those  heavenly  bodies  (including  the  Earth)  which 
belong  to  our  aolar  syatein,  and  revolve  in  elliptio 
349 


orbits  round  the  sun.  They  are  often  denominated 
primary  planets,  to  distinguish  them  from  their 
moons  or  satellites,   which   are   called  secondary 

677 


PLANETSL 


planrts.  The  name  planet  is  of  considerable  anti- 
quity, and  was  applied  to  these  de|)endent8  of  the 
sun  to  distinguish  them  from  the  myriads  of  luminous 
bodies  which  stud  the  sky,  and  which  present 
to  the  naked  eve  no  indication  of  change  of  place 
(see  Stars).  The  planets  at  present  known  are,  in 
the  order  of  their  distance  from  the  sun,  Mercury, 
Venus,  the  Earth,  Mars,  the  Planetoids  (^.  v.), 
Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune.  Six  of 
these,  Mercury,  Venus,  the  Earth  (which  was  not, 
however,  then  reckoned  a  planet).  Mars,  Jupiter,  and 
Saturn,  were  known  to  the  ancients;  Uranus  was 
discovered  by  Sir  William  Herschel  (q,  v.)  in  1781 ; 
and  Neptime,  after  bavins  its  |)08ition  and  elements 
determined  theoretically  by  Leverrier  and  Adams, 
was  discovered  by  M.  Challis,  and  afterwards  by  Dr 
GiUle,  in  184C.  The  Planetoids,  which  now  number 
81,  have  all  been  discovered  during  the  present 
century.  Five  of  the  planets,  the  Earth,  Jupiter, 
Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune,  are  attended  by  one  or 
more  satellites ;  Uranus  (generally),  Neptune,  almost 
the  whole  of  the  Planetoids,  and  all  the  satellites 
except  the  Moon,  are  invisible  to  the  naked  eye. 
The  visible  planets  can  be  at  once  distinguished 
from  the  fixed  stars  by  their  clear  steady  light, 
while  the  latter  have  a  sparkling  or  twinkling' 
a|>])earance.  The  comparative  proximity  of  the 
planets  may  be  proved  by  examining  them  through 
a  telescoi)e  of  moderate  power,  when  they  appear 
as  round  luminous  disks,  while  the  fixed  stars 
exhibit  no  increase  of  magnitude.  The  planets,  as 
observed  from  the  Earth,  move  soroetmies  from 
west  to  east,  sometimes  from  east  to  west,  and 
for  some  time  remain  stationary  at  the  point  where 
progression  ends  and  retrogression  commences. 
This  irregularity  in  their  movements  was  very 
puzzling  to  the  ancient  astronomers,  who  invented 
various  hy}X)theses  to  account  for  it  See  Ptolemaic 
SvsTEiAi  and  Epicycle.  The  system  of  Copernicus, 
by  assumins  the  sun,  and  not  the  earth,  as  the 
centre  of  the  system,  explained  with  admirable 
simplicity  what  seemed  before  a  maze  of  confusion. 

Tne  planetary  orbits  differ  considerably  in  their 
degrees  of  excentricity,  the  Planetoids,  Mars,  and 
Mercury  being  most,  and  the  larger  planets  least 
excentric.  No  two  planets  move  exactly  in  the 
same  plane,  though,  as  a  general  rule,  the  planes 
of  the  larger  planets  most  nearly  coincide  with  that 
of  the  ecliptic.  The  latter  are  consequently  always 
to  be  found  within  a  small  strip  or  the  heavens 
extending  on  both  sides  of  the  ecliptic ;  while  the 
others  have  a  far  wider  range,  Pallas,  one  of  them, 
having  the  angular  elevation  of  its  orbit  no  less  than 
34"  35'  above  the  ecliptic.  According  to  Kepler's 
Laws  (q.  v.),  the  nearer  a  planet  is  to  the  sun  the 
shorter  m  the  time  of  its  revolution.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  planets  in  the  solar  system  bears  no 
known  relation  to  their  relative  ^ze  or  weight,  for 
though  Mercury,  Venus,  and  the  Earth  follow  the 
same  order  in  size  and  distance  fh>m  the  sun,  yet 
Mars,  which  is  further  from  the  sun,  is  much  less 
than  either  the  Earth  or  Venus,  and  the  Planetoids, 
which  are  still  further  off,  are  the  least  of  alL 
Jupiter,  which  is  next  in  order,  is  by  far  the  largest, 
bemg  about  1 4  times  as  large  as  all  the  ouiers 
together ;  and  as  we  proceed  further  outwards,  the 
planets  become  smaller  and  smaller,  Saturn  being 
less  than  Jupiter,  Uranus  than  Saturn,  and  Neptune 
than  Uranus. 

With  reference  to  their  distance  from  the  sun,  as 
compared  with  that  of  the  Earth,  the  planets  are 
divided  into  superior  and  inferior;  Mercunr  and 
Venus  are  consequently  the  only  *  inferior  *  planets, 
all  the  others  being  '  sui)erior.'  The  inferior  planets 
must  always  be  on  the  same  side  of  the  Earth  as 
the  sun  is,  and  can  never  be  above  the  horizon  of 
•78 


any  place  (not  in  a  ver^  high  latitude)  at  mid- 
night; they  are  always  mvisiole  at  their  superior 
and  inferior  conjunctions,  except  when,  at  the  Utter, 
a  Transit  (q.  v.)  takes  place.  The  superior  phneti 
are  likewise  invisible  at  conjunction,  but  when  in 
opposition  they  are  seen  with  the  greatest  distinct' 
ness,  being  then  due  south  at  midnight.  The  time 
which  elapses  from  one  conjunction  to  its  corre- 
sponding conjunction  is  called  the  synodic  period 
01  a  planet,  and  in  the  case  of  the  inferior  pla&eti 
must  always  be  greater  than  the  true  period  of 
revolution. 

Mercury,  the  planet  which  is  nearest  the  sun,  is 
also,  with  the  exception  of    the  Planetoids,  the 
snudlest    (being    only    3    times   the    size    c^  the 
moon),  and  performs  its  revolution  round  the  son 
in  the  shortest  time.     Its  greatest  elongation  ia 
never  more  than  28"  45',  and  consequently  it  is 
never  above  the  horizon  more  than  two  hours  after 
sunset,  or  the  same  time  before  sunrise;  on  this 
account,  and  from  its  small  apparent  size  (5"  to 
12"),   it   is    seldom   distinctly  observable    by  the 
naked  eye.     It  shines  with  a  peculiarly  vivid  white 
or   rose-coloured  light,  and    exhibits   no  spots.— 
Venus,  the  next  in  order  of  distance  and  peiiod,  ii 
to  us  the  most  brilliant  of  all  the  planets.     Its 
orbit    is  more   nearly  a   circle   than    any   of  the 
others,   and  when  at   its  inferior  conjunction,  it 
approaches  nearer  the  Earth  than  any  other  planet 
Its  apparent  angular  dimensions  thence  vary  from 
10"  at  the  superior,  to  70"  at  the  inferior  conjonc- 
tion.     Its  greatest  elongation  varies  from  45*"  to 
47"  12*,  and  therefore  it  can  never  be  above  the 
horizon  for  much  more  than  three  hours  after  sim- 
set,  or  the  same  time  before  sunrise.     While  moWng 
from  the  inferior  to  the  superior  conjunction,  Venus 
is  a  morning  star,  and  dunng  the  other  haUf  of  its 
synodic  period  an  eveninrj  star.    When  this  planet 
is  at  an  elongation  of  40",  its  brilliancy  is  ffreatest 
far  surpassing  that  of  the  oUier  planets,  and  render- 
ing a  minute  examination  through  the  telescope 
impossible.      At  this  period  it  sometimes  becomes 
visible  in  the  daytime,  and  after  sunset  is  so  bright 
as  to  throw  a  distinct  shadow.    Astronomers  have 
repeatedly  attempted  to  ascertain  the  nature  and 
characteristics  of  its  surface,  but  its  brightness  so 
dazzles  the  eyes  as  to  render  the  correctness  of  their 
observations  at  best  doubtfuL    From  the  changes 
in  the  position  of  dusky  patches  on   its  surface, 
which  have  been  frequently  noticed,  it  is  concluded 
that  it  revolves  on  its  axis,  and  that  its  equator 
is  inclined  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit  at  an  angle  of 
75",   but    many   astronomers   (Sir   John    Herschel 
included)  profess  to  doubt  these  conclusioD&     Both 
Venus  and  Mercury  necessarily  exhibit  phases  like 
the  moon. — The  A'art/t,  the  next  planet  in  order, 
^ill  be  found  under  its  own  name ;  it  has  a  single 
satellite,  the  Moon  (q.  v.). — Mars,  the  first  of  the 
superior  planets,  is  much  inferior  in  size  to  the 
two    previous,    its    volume    being    about    fUi    of 
the  Earth^s,  and,  after  Mercury,  its  orbit  is  much 
more  excentric  than  those  of  the  other  planets. 
When  it  is  nearest  to  the  Earth  (l  &,  in  oppoaitioDt, 
its  apparent  angular  diameter  is   30";  but   when 
furthest  from  it  (l  e.,  in  conjunction),  its  diameter  is 
not  more  than  4".     Mars  is  less  known  tfaAo  the 
rest  of  the  superior  planets,  owing  to  its  not  possess- 
ing a  satellite,  by  the  motions  of  which  its  attractive 
force  (and  hence  its  mass  and  density)  coold   be 
estimated.    It  shines  with  a'  fiery  red  light,  and  is 
a  brilliant  object  in  the  heavens  at  midnight  when 
near  opposition ;  when  seen  through  the  telescope 
its  surface  appears  to  be  covered  ^ith  irr«f:ulir 
blotches,  some  of  them  of  a  reddish,  others  of  a 
greenish  colour,  while  at  each  pole  is  a  spot  of 
dazzling  white.    The  red  spots  are  sunrised  to  be 


PLANETS-PLANT. 


land;   the  |][reen,  water;    while  the   white   spots 
at  the  poles  are  with  some  reason  supposed  to  be 
9110W,  since  they  decrease  when  most  exposed  to  the 
sun,  and  increase  luider  the  contrary  circumstances. 
The  Phases  (q.  ▼.)  of  Mars  range  between  full,  half, 
full  (in  conjunction,  if  visible),  and  half. — After  Mars 
in  order  come  the  Planetoids  (q.  v.),  formerly  but 
improjierlv  called  Asteroids. — Jvpiter,  the  neirt  in 
orcier,  is  the  largest  of  all  the  planets,  its  bulk  being 
more  than  1400  times  that  of  the  Earth,  though, 
from  its  small  density,  its  mass  is  only  338  times 
more.     After  Venus   it  is  the  brightest   of   the 
planets   and    the    largest    in    apparent    size,    its 
an^ilar  diameter  varying  from  30"  to  45".    When 
looked  at  through  a  telescope,  it  is  seen  to  be  con- 
siderably flattened  at  the  poles,  owing  to  its  rapid 
revolution    on  its   own  axis ;   and  its   surface  is 
crossed  in  a  direction  parallel  to  its  equator  by 
three  or  four  distinct  and  strongly-marked  belts, 
and  a  few  others  of  a  varying  nature.    S}>ots  also 
appear  and  remain  for  some  time  on  its  surface,  by 
means  of  which  its  revolution  on  its  axis  has  been 
ascertained.    This  planet  is  attended  by  four  satel- 
lites, which  are  easily  observable  through  an  ordinary 
telescope,  and  which  have  rendered  immense  ser- 
vice in  the  determination  of  longitudes  at  sea,  and 
of  the  motion  and  velocity  of  light.    The  satellites, 
which  were  discovered  by  Galileo,  were  proved  by 
Sir  William  Herschel  to  revolve  on  their  own  axes 
in  the  same  time  that  they  revolve  round  their 
primary.    The  smallest  is  about  the  same  size  as  our 
Moon,  the  others  are  considerably  larger. — Saturn, 
the  next  in  ])osition,  is  about  735  times  larger  in 
volume,  though  only  about  100  times  greater  in  mass 
than  the  earth.      Its  apparent  diameter  when  in 
opixxsition  is  18",  aAd  there  is  a  considerable  flatten- 
ing towards  the  poles.     Its  surface  is  traversed  by 
dusky  belts  much  less  distinctly  marked  than  those 
of   Jupiter,  owing  doubtless  in  great  part  to  its 
inferior  brightness  ;    its  general  colour  is  a  dull 
white  or  yellowish,  but  the  shaded  i>ortions,  when 
seen  distinctly,  are  of  a  glaucous  colour.    The  most 
remarkable  peculiarity  of  Saturn  is  its  ring,  or  series 
of  concentric  rings,  each  one  parallel  and  in  the 
same  plane  with  the  others,  and  with  the  planet's 
equator;  the  rings  are  at  present  supposed  to  be 
three   in  number,   the  two   outermost  are  bright 
like  the  planet  itself,  while  the  innermost  is  of  a 
purplish  colour,  and  is  only  discernible  through  a 
powerful  telescope.      The    rings    are    not    always 
visible  when  Saturn  is  in-  the  *  opposite'  half  of  its 
orbit,  for  when  the  plane  of  the  rings  is  intermediate 
between  that  of  the  earth's  orbit  and  of  the  ecliptic, 
their  dark  surface  is  turned  towards  us,  and  when 
the  sun  is  in  their  plane  only  the  narrow  edge  is 
illumined  ;  in  both  of  these  cases  the  ring  is  invis- 
ible from  the  Earth.    Its  plane  being  inclined  at  an 
angle  of  28°  to  the  ecliptic,  we  see  the  two  surfaces 
of  the  ring  alternately  for  periods  of  15  years  at  a 
time ;    ana  at  the  middle  of  each  period,  the  rings 
attain  their  maximum  obliquity  to  the  ecliptic,  and 
are  then  best  seen  from  the  Earth.     It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  remark  that  at  the  end  of  each  period 
they  become  invisible.    Saturn  has  also  no  less  than 
eight  *  satellites,  seven  of  which  revolve  round  it  in 
orliits  little  removed  from  the  plane  of  the  ring, 
while  the  eighth,  which  is  the  second  in  size,  is  con- 
siderably inclined  to  itb     Two  of  the  satellites  were 
discovered  by  Herschel  in  1787  and  1789,  four  by 
Cassini  in  1672  and  1684,  one  by  Huygheiis  in  1655, 
one   by  Mr  Lassell  in  England  and  Professor  Bond 
in  America  in  1848.    The  satellites  are  all  situated 


*  The  existence  of  a  ninth  satellite  was  suspected  by 
M.  Goldschmidt  in  April  1861,  but  his  observation  has 
not  been  verified. 


outside  of  the  ring,  and  the  largest  of  them 
is  nearly  equal  to  the  planet  Mars  in  size. — Uranus^ 
the  next  planet  in  position,  was  discovered  acciden- 
tally by  the  elder  Herschel  on  13th  March  1781, 
and  was  named  *the  Georgium  Sidus'  and  'Her- 
schel,' but  these  names  soon  fell  into  disuse.  It  is 
about  96  (some  astronomers  say  82)  times  greater 
than  the  Earth  in  volume,  and  20  (according  to 
others,  15)  times  in  mass ;  but  though  so  large,  its 
distance  is  so  much  greater  in  proportion  that 
astronomers  have  been  unable  to  ^ain  much  infor- 
mation concerning  it.  No  spots  or  belts  have 
hitherto  been  discovered  on  its  surface,  and  conse- 
quently its  time  of  rotation  and  the  position  of  its 
axis  are  unknown.  It  is  attended  by  a  number  of 
satellites,  but  so  minute  do  these  bodies  appear,  that 
astronomers  hitherto  have  been  unable  to  agree 
as  to  their  exact  number  j  Sir  William  Herscliel 
reckoned  six,  while  other  astronomers  believe  in 
the  existence  of  four,  five,  and  eight  respectively. 
That  there  are  at  least  four  is  without  doubt. — The 
next  and  outermost  member  of  the  solar  system  is 
Neptune,  which,  at  ^  distance  of  nearly  3000  millions 
of  miles  from  the  centre  of  the  system,  slowly  per- 
forms its  revolution  round  the  sun,  accomplishing 
the  complete  circuit  in  about  165  solar  years.  It  is 
about  84  times  larger  than  the  Earth,  but  from  its 
extreme  remoteness  is  of  almost  inappreciable  mag- 
nitude when  seen  through  an  ordinary  telescope. 
It  was  the  disturbance  in  the  motion  of  Uranus 
caused  by  the  attractive  force  of  this  planet  which 
led  Leverrier  and  Adams  to  a  calculation  of  its  size 
and  position,  on  the  supposition  of  its  existence,  and 
the  directions  which  were  given  by  the  former  to 
Dr  Galle  of  Berlin,  specifying  its  exact  position  in 
the  heavens,  led  that  astronomer  to  its  discovery 
on  23d  September  1846.  Mr  Lassell  of  Liverpool 
has  discovered  that  Neptime  is  attended  by  one 
satellite.  The  satellites  of  Uranus  and  Neptune 
differ  from  the  other  planets,  primary  and  secondary, 
m  the  direction  of  their  motion,  which  is  from  east 
TO  west,  and  in  the  case  of  the  former,  in  planes 
nearly  perpendicular  to  the  ecliptic.  Both  Uranus 
and  Neptune  were  observed  long  before  the  times 
of  Herschel  and  Leverrier,  but  they  were  always 
supposed  to  be  stars.  Uranus  is  known  to  have 
been  observed  by  Flamsteed  between  1690  and 
1715,  and  Neptune  by  Lalande  in  1795.  For  the 
periods,  distances,  size,  density,  &c.,  of  the  planets, 
see  Solar  Systes*!.  In  astronomical  tables,  al- 
manacs, &c.,  the  phinets  are  for  convenience  denoted 
by  symbols  instead  of  their  names,  as  follows : 
Mercury,  g  ;  Venus,  J  ;  Earth,  0 ;  Mars,  ^ ;  the 
Planetoids,  in  the  order  of  their  discovery,  ©,  <D, 
(D ,  &c. ;  Jupiter,  'iL ;  Saturn,  Tj  or  I)  ;  Uranus, 
\j. ;  Neptune,  ^  ;  tne  Sun,  O  ;  the  Moon,  ([. 

PLANT,  a  living  organic  being,  destitute  of  any 
indication  of  mind  or  feeling,  and  sometimes  de6ned 
as  essentially  differing  from  an  animal  in  the  want 
of  voluntary  motion.  Plants  are  the  organisms 
which  form  the  Vegetable  Kingdom.  The  science 
which  treats  of  plants  is  called  Botanv  (q.  v.),  of 
which  there  are  several  imx}ortant  branches. 

The  difference  between  plants  and  animals  is 
sometimes  difficult  to  discern,  but  only  in  some  of 
the  groups,  which  must  of  necessity  be  referred  to 
the  lowest  place  whether  in  the  animal  or  vegetable 
kingdom.  Plants  of  higher  organisation  can  never 
be  mistaken  for  animals,  nor  animals  of  higher 
organisation  for  plants.  Instead  of  a  regular  ascend- 
ing and  descending  scale  of  organisms,  from  the 
highest  animal  to  the  lowest  plant,  we  find  a  widely- 
extended  base  from  which  the  ascent  seems  to  begin 
at  once  in  both  the  organic  kingdoms,  with  moiny 
ramifications  in  each ;  and  perhaps  that  we  do  not 
at  once  recognise  the  difi'erence  even  in  the  lowest 

579 


PLANT. 


organiAms,  may  be  owing  to  oar  ignorance  and 
inca*)acity  of  proper  observation. 

Something  M-hich  resembles  the  voluntary  motion 
of  animals  is  to  be  seen  in  some  plants,  in  various 
phenomena  of  Irritability  (q.  v.) ;  and  there  is  even 
locomotion  in  the  vegetable  kingdom  wonderfully 
simulating  voluntary  locomotion,  a  provision  of 
nature  for  the  diffusion  of  some  of  the  lower  veget- 
able organisms ;  the  Gonidia  (q.  v.)  of  Algre  and  the 
SpemuUozMia  (q.  v.)  of  some  other  cryptogamous 
orders  moving  ia  a  surrounding  fluid  by  means  of 
cilia,  so  that  they  have  often  been  mistaken  for 
animalcules.  But  no  motion  which  can  really  be 
deemed  voluntary  takes  place  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom ;  and  no  animal,  certainly  to  be  pronounced 
Buch,  fails  to  exhibit  it— even  when  tliere  is  no 
power  whatever  of  locomotion — in  the  prehension  of 
food,  or  for  some  of  the  pur^)oses  of  life. 

The  general  laws  wliich  govern  life  prevail  in 
plants  aa  in  animals.  There  are  organs  oi  nutrition 
and  organs  of  reproduction ;  the  w-hole  being  made 
up  of  organs,  and  every  or^an  destined  to  maintain 
the  existence  either  of  the  individual  or  of  the  race. 
But  there  is  nothing  in  plants  ccftresponding  to  the 
mouth,  stomach,  and  alimentary  canal  of  animals. 
Nutrition  takes  place  in  a  different  manner ;  assimi- 
lation being  effected  by  a  process  very  unlike  that 
of  digestion  in  animals.  There  are,  however,  animals 
destitute  of  a  mouth,  stomach,  and  alimentary 
canal;  so  that  the  distinction  between  plants  and 
animals  cannot  be  stated  so  absolutely  in  this 
respect  as  in  resj[)ect  to  voluntary  motion ;  and  as 
there  are  many  plants  which  have  no  roots,  nutrition 
bv  means  of  roots,  although  peculiar  to  the  veget- 
able kingdom,  is  not  its  distinguishing  characteri^ic 
The  nutriment  of  plants  is  derived  either  by  their 
roots  from  the  soil  (see  Koot),  or  through  the  integu- 
ments of  their  other  ]mrts  from  the  air  or  water  in 
which  they  live ;  and  all  their  nutriment  is  either 
liquid  or  gaseous,  being  taken  up  in  the  former  case 
by  Endosmose  (q.  v.),  and  in  the  latter  case  through 
Stomata  (q.  v.).  Many  plants,  and  among  them  the 
greater  number  of  phanerogamous  plants,  owe  their 
nourishment  both  to  the  soil  and  to  the  atmosphere, 
their  roots  deriving  it  from  the  former,  and  the 
Leaves  (q.  v.)  of  plants  that  have  leaves  being  the 

Erincipal  organs  by  which  they  derive  it  from  the 
itter.    When  leaves  are  wanting,  the  integument 

*  of  the  })arts  exposed  to  the  air  performs  the  functions 

•  ordinarily  assigned  to  them.  Solid  matter  cannot 
be  appropriated  by  plants  until  it  has  been  dissolved 
in  water,  or  decomposed.  See  Majeure  and  Soil. — 
The  nutriment  appropriated  by  the  plant  is  not 
assimilated  until  it  nas  undergone  chemical  changes, 
which  sometimes  take  place  entirely  within  the 
very  cell  through  the  integument  of  which  it  has 
entered,  some  of  the  lowest  kinds  of  plants  con- 
sisting altogether  only  of  a  single  cell ;  but  which, 
in  other  plants  of  higher  and  more  complex  organi- 
sation, depend  upon  a  Circulation  of  the  Sup  (q.  v.), 
and  a  very  various  action  of  many  different  organs, 
each  formed  of  a  multitude  of  cells.  These  processes 
are  still  very  imperfectly  understood.  By  them, 
not  only  is  the  plant  nourished,  but  vegetable 
products  of  every  kind  are  elaborated,  in  which, 
throughout  the  wide  domains  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, there  is  such  wonderful  variety,  and  often 
great  diversity  in  different  parts  of  the  same  plant. 

Whatever  the  source  from  which  plants  derive 
their  nutriment,  no  organic  substance  is  appropriated 
by  them;  but  in  oroer  to  their  use,  it  must  first 
undergo  decomposition.  Their  food  consists  wholly 
of  inorganic  matter,  and  the  value  of  organic 
substances  as  manures  depends  not  only  on  the 
abundance  which  they  contain  of  the  proper  ele- 
ments, but  of  the  readmess  with  which  they  undergo 
MO 


decomposition  so  as  to  present  these  elements  ia 
the  most  suitable  form  ;  which  is  not»  however,  as 
elements  uncombined,  but  in  various  combinations 
with  each  other.  Thus  carbon  and  oxygen  enter 
plants  together  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid,  oxygen 
and  hydrogen  together  in  the  form  of  water,  hydro- 
gen and  nitrogen  in  the  form  of  ammonia.  Carbonic 
acid  absorbed  by  the  leaves  from  the  air  is  decom- 
ix)sed  within  the  plant,  under  the  influence  of  light, 
and  particularly  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and 
its  carbon  enters  into  new  combinations  to  form 
vegetable  substances,  whilst  its  oxygen  is  exhaled 
again  into  the  atmosphere,  which  is  thus  maintained 
in  a  state  fit  for  the  support  both  of  vegetable  and 
animal  life  by  the  opposite  and  balanced  action  of 
animals  and  plants.  Of  the  elements  which  enter 
into  the  composition  of  vegetable  substances,  Carboa 
is  the  most  abundant ;  and,  along  with  it»  Oxygen, 
Hydrogen,  and  Nitrogen  constitute  the  chief  part 
of  every  plant  Other  elements,  both  metallic  and 
non-metallic,  are  found  in  comparatively  small 
quantity,  although  some  of  them  are  very  generally 
present  in  planto,  as  Calcium,  Potassium,  Sodium, 
Sulphur,  Phosphorus,  Silicon,  Iron,  Aluminium, 
Magnesium,  Chlorine,  and  Iodine.  Among  the  ele- 
ments found  in  plants  are  also  to  be  enumerated 
Bromine,  Manganese,  and  Copper,  which  occur  only 
in  minute  quantites,  and  Copper  vety  rarely. 

There  is  no  circulation  in  plants  uke  that  of  th« 
blood  in  animals,  nor  any  organ  at  all  analogous  to 
a  heart ;  although  there  is  a  constant  motion  or 
circulation  of  their  juices,  both  throughout  the  whole 
organism  and  within  individual  cells.  And  althocj^ 
the  term  respiration  has  been  often  employed  with 
reference  to  plants,  and  particularly  to  leaves,  yet 
there  is  not  only  no  action  analogous  to  that' of 
lungs,  but  no  oxygenation  of  the  juices  by  their 
being  brought  into  contact  with  the  air;  carbonic 
acid  and  ammonia — not  oxygen — beinff  imbibed 
from  it  for  nutrition.  And  there  is  nothing  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom  having  the  slightest  resemUanoe 
to  a  brain  or  a  nervous  system.  In  the  possession 
of  sexual  organs,  however,  there  is  a  wonderful 
agreement,  where  it  might  least  have  been  expected, 
between  plants — or  at  least  all  phanerogamous 
plants — and  animals.  As  to  this  and  other  import- 
ant  points  concerning  the  life  of  plants,  see  Vbckt* 
ABLE  Physioloqy.  See  also  the  article  Flower, 
and  those  on  the  different  organs  of  which  the  flower 
is  made  up ;  the  articles  Fruit,  Seed,  Spore  ;  Cells^ 
Cellular  Tissue,  Vascular  Tissits;  Metamob- 
pHOSis  OF  Orgaks  ;  Leaves,  Stem,  &g.  The  great 
divisions  of  the  vegetable  kin^om  are  notioed  in 
the  article  Botany,  in  connection  with  the  subject 
of  classification,  and  in  separate  articles.  The 
Geographical  Distribution  of  Plants,  and  the 
Diseases  of  Plants,  are  noticed  under  these  heads. 

Besides  the  relations  of  the  animal  and  vegetable 
kingdoms  already  noticed  in  this  article,  in  their 
joint  and  balanced  action,  keeping  tiie  constttutioa 
of  the  atmosphere  such  as  is  fit  both  for  *wiw*^i  and 
vegetable  life,  reference  may  be  here  made,  in  con- 
clusion, to  similar  relations  subsisting  in  plants 
and  animals  as  to  temperature  and  as  to  thdr 
mutually  providing  food  for  one  another.  *■  It 
would  almost  seem  as  if  plants  possessed  a  powa*  d 
producing  cold  analogous  to  that  exhibited  by 
animals  m  producing  heat,  and  of  this  beneficent 
arrangement  man  enjoys  the  benefit  in  the  luxurioos 
coolness  of  the  fruit  which  nature  lavishes  <m  thi 
tropics '  (Sir  J.  K  Tennent).  Flowers  indeed  pnh 
duce  heat ;  but  the  juices  of  plants  are  colder  tw 
the  soil  or  surrounding  atmosphere  during  the  timp^ 
of  active  vegetation ;  and  the  coolness  m  groves  k 
owing  not  only  to  shade  but  to  tiie  transpiration  ot 
moisture  by  the   innumerable   leaves. — lnoijgiU0 


PLANTAGENET— PLANTAGINE^ 


nrert*d  by  „  , 

iiitn  nr[:;uiii;  aubatancea  of  oianv  kinds,  man;  of  them 
■uiuble  food  for  animals,   which  i<fed 
tulieUiic«s  alone.     But  the  excrements 
I'/iin  furnisb  food  fur  pl^uits ;  and  when  animals 
die,   their    bodies  undergo  a  series  of    changes 
decompositiDii,  which  terminate  in  the  prodiicti 
of  tii«  substances  most  auitnble  foe  the  nourishme 
of  iil-ints.    There  is,  moreover,  not  only  this  convi 
siun  of  the  same  matter  into  animal  and  vegetable 
substances  alternately  ;  but  there  is  also  a  coutinual 
transformation  of  matter  which  has  remained  inor- 
gnnio  thronghoitt  lung  geologic  periods  into  organic 
■ul-stances,  and  in  this  some  of  the  lowest  kiada  of 

Slants  are  particularly  employed,  as  lichens,  which 
(compose  and  feed  upon  the  very  rocks  on  which 
they  ([TOW ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  the  fossil 
e  periods,  and  all  the  products  of 


PLANTA'GENET,  the  surname  of  the  French 
family  of  Anjou,  which,  id  1154.  succeeded  to  thu 
throne  of  England  on  the  extinction  of  tlie  Nurman 
dyn.isty  in  the   mole  line,  and   reigned  till  1485, 
<chen  it  w.-ii  supjilaiited  by  the  fainijy  of  TuiioR 
(q.v.).     The  name  P.  belonged  originally  to  the 
H'luse  of  Anjoui  and  is  aaid  by  antiigtianans  to  haw 
been  derived  from  the  circumstance   of   the  first 
count  of  this  house  having  causol  himself  to  he 
»conr);ed  with  branches  of  broonj  iplanla-;ffuista],  oa 
a  [leiiance  for  some  crime  be  had  cominittccL     On 
the  extinction  of   the  male  line  of   the  Xormoa 
dyna.<<ty  in  the  person  of  Henry  L,  tlie  crown  of 
Kii^land  waa  claimed  by  Stephen,  count  of  Blois,  \ 
the  xun  of  Henry's  sister  AdeLa,  or  Adcliza,  and  by 
Ei-i.rv'a     own    daughter    Matilda    ('the    Eni|ires3 
M^mt').   then  the  wife  of  Geoffrey  P.,  Count  of] 
Anjou,  for  her  son  Henry  Plantagenet.    Stephen. 
Iiy  favour  oC  the  nobles,  waa  the  successful  conijie- 
titor,  on  the  condition  that  Henry  should  sucited 
him  ;  and  accorliugly  on  Stephens  death,  in  1154, 
the   son   of  Geoffrey   P.   ascended    the   throne   of 
England    as   Henry   IL     His  sons  Richard  I.   and 
John  succeeded  him,  and  the  dcscend.ints  of  the 
Letter   in    the  direct   male  line—viz.,   Henry  fll., 
E.iward  I.,  Edwatd  II.,  Edward  III.,  and  {Edward 
Ill.'s    eldest   son,    the    Black   Prince,  having  died 
lit-forebia  father,  leaving  an  only  son,  who  as)  Richard 
II.  — succeeded   without  intemiption.      The  eldest 
male  line   now  became  extinct,  and  it  waa  neces- 
sary tu  choose  the  rightful  heir  to  the  throne  trom 
among    the    deacenilants    of    Edward    Ill.'s    other 
finn.     His  second  aon  had  died  without  heirs,  but 
Lionel,   Duke  of  Clarence;   John  of  Gaunt,  Duke 
of  Lancaster;  and  Edmtind  Langley,  Duke  of  York, 
his.tiiLd,  fonrth,  and  fifth  sons  respectively,  were 
slill   rtpresented  by   legitimate  issue.      Of   these, 
fylmuuil  Mortimer,  Earl  of  ^tarch,  and  Anue  Mor- 
timer, the  wife  of  Richard,  Earl  of  Conihridge  (who 
waa  the  eldest  son  and  heir  of  Edmund  Lan^'tey, 
Duke  of  York),  the  lineal  descendanta  of  LioLiel  of 
Clarence,  possesacd  the  prior  clnim  to  the  tljrone  ; 
but  Edmtiuil  was  put  in  prison  by  Heniy  lV.,'the 
eldest  son   of  Joho  of  Gaunt,  Duke  of  Lancaster, 
who  usurped  the  crown  in  1399.  and  transmitted  it 
to  his  lineal  descendanta  Henry  V.  and  Henry  VI. 
By  this    time    Edmund    Mortimer  had  died   with- 
out heirs,  And  the  descendants  of  the  marrin^'e  of 
hi.4    sister   Anne    (the    heiress  of    Clarence)   with 
Kichard,    Eftri  of   Cambridge   (the  heir  of  YoA), 
anitint;    the    claims  of   the   ihirii  and   ^flJi   sons, 
had,  througli  their  maternal  anceatresa,  a  snperjor 
claim   to  the   throne  over  Henry  VI.  the  Lancaa- 
trion   laoDArch,  who  only  rejiicsented  the  J'ourlh 


son  of  Edward  III.    Richard  Duke  of  York.  th» 

son  of  Richard  of  Cambrid^  and  Anne  Mortimer, 
attempted  to  obtain  the  crown,  but  he  was  taken  and 
executed,  leaving  to  his  sims  the  t.aak  of  avenging 
his  death,  and  asserting  the  claims  of  the  conibiued 
house  of  York  and  Clarence  to  the  tbnme.  in 
which  they  were  ably  assisted  by  lUchard  Neville 
Earl  of  Warwick  ('the  King-maker').  The  resull 
was  a  lon<;  and  desolating  civil  war  (1465— 14S5) 
between  the  partisans  of  York  and  Lancaster,  which 
is  known  in  history  as  the  'Wars  of  the  liosea' 
(the  Lancastrians  having  chosen  for  their  emblem  a 
red  andthe  Yorkists  a  icliile  rose),  in  which  more 
than  100,000  persons  perished,  and  many  noble 
families  were  either  extir|>ated  on  the  field  and  the 
scaffold,  or  completely  ruitidl.  During  this  dreailful 
contest,  in  which  the  Yorkists  generally  had  the 
advantage,  Edward  IV.  (the  eldest  son  of  the  Duke 
of  York  who  hod  been  executed),  his  son  Edward 
v.,  and  his  brotlier  Kichard  IIL  (q.  v.)  successively 
awaye<t  the  sceptre.  But  Rictard'a  emel  and 
tyrannical  government  added  new  vigour  to  the 
reviving  Lancosti'ians,  and  Henry  I'udor  (see 
He!ihv  VII.),  the  representative  of  their  claims, 
defeated  the  Yorkist  tyrant  on  the  field  of  Boa- 
^  ;  anil  then,  by  his  marriage  with  Elizalreth, 
the  ehlest  daughter  of  Edward  IV.,  and  the  rejire- 
seiitative  of  the  Yorkist  claims,  reunib^d  in  his 
family  the  contiieting  pretensions  to  the  throne, 
which  he  transmitted  in  jieaue  to  his  deacendaiits. 
'l'dori  and  for  the  events  of  this  contest,  see 
RosBi,  Wars  of  the.  ^ 

PLANTAGI'NB/E,  or  PLANTAGINA'CE.E,  a 
natural  order  of  eiogeuous  jilaiitB,  mostly  her- 
baceous ami  without  sterna ;  the  leavi-a  forming 
rosettes,  flat  and  ribbed,  or  taiier  and  Heahy ;  the 
flowers  generally  in  spikes,  and  generally  herma- 
phrodite ;  the  calyx  4-partcil,  [kersistent ;  the 
corolla  hypojo'nons,  memhrunous.  jiersisteiit.  it« 
limb  4-[iarted  ;  the  staniena  four,  bseited  into  the 


Greater  Plantain  [Phuttago  majt^). 

corolla,  with  long  filunents;  the  ovary  free,  of  » 
single  carjiel,  1— 4-celled;  the  cells  containing  one, 
two,  or    many  ovulee ;   the  fruit,  ft  membranoua 


PLANTAIN. 


capsob  with  a  lid.  The  testa  of  the  seeds  abounds 
ill  mucilage,  which  is  easily  extracted  by  boilins 
water,  l^e  order  is  allied  to  Plumbaginea  and 
Primukuxce,  There  are  about  120  known  species, 
dififused  over  all  parts  of  the  globe,  but  most 
abundant  in  temperate  and  cold  countries.  The 
most  important  ceuus  is  Plantago,  the  species  of 
which  often  receive  the  English  name  Plantain. 
Five  of  this  genus  are  found  in  the  United  Kingdom, 
the  chief  of  which  are  the  following :  the  Greater 
Plantain,  or  Waybread  {P.  major),  one  of  the 
most  common  of  British  plants ;  a  perennial,  with 
broad  ovate  stalked  leaves  and  long  cylindrical 
B[>ikes,  growing  in  postures,  wavsides,  &c.  It  is  very 
*  widely  diffused  over  the  world.  Its  seeds  are  a 
favourite  food  of  birds,  and  the  gathering  of  the 
Bi>ike8  to  feed  cage- birds  is  familiar  to  every  one. 
The  leaves  are  applied  to  wounds  by  the  peasantry 
in  many  districts.  They  are  said  also  to  l)«  a  useful 
application  to  ulcers  and  indolent  scrofulous  tumours. 
— The  Ribwort  Plaittain,  or  Ribgrass  {P,  lance- 
o!ata)j  is  another  very  common  British  plant,  form- 
ing no  small  part  of  the  herbage  of  many  meadows 
and  pastures,  and  sometimes  sown  by  farmers, 
because  its  foliage  is  produced  early  in  the  season, 
and  is  then  acceptable  to  oxen,  sheep,  and  horses ; 
but  deemed  most  suitable  for  poor  soils,  as  its 
spreading  leaves  occupy  too  much  of  the  ground, 
and  choke  better  grasses  in  rich  land.  Its  leaves 
are  lanceolate,  and  taper  at  both  ends ;  its  spikes 
are  short,  ovate  or  cylindrical,  and  placed  on  long 
angidar  stalks.  Its  seed  is  acceptable  to  cage-birds. 
This  is  the  plant,  commonly  known  as  '  bullies,'  or 
'  Bodgers,'  the  striking  off  the  heads  (or  spikes)  of 
which  is  such  a  favouiite  amusement  of  children. 
— The  mucilage  of  the  seeds  of  Plantago  ispaghula 
and  of  P.  psyllium  is  much  used  in  India  in  catarrhs 
and  other  complaints ;  and  P.  psyllium — called 
Fleawort,  and  its  seeds  Fleaseed — is  cultivated  in 
France,  for  the  sake  of  this  mucilage,  which  is  used 
by  paper-stainers  in  preference  to  that  obtained 
from  linseed,  and  is  also  extensively  used  by  muslin 
manufacturers  for  stiffening  their  goods.  The  plant 
has  a  branched  spreading  stem,  and  recurved  leaves. 

PLA'NTAIN  {Musa  Paradisaica)^  a  most  import- 
ant food-plant  of  tropical  countries,  and  one  of  the 
largest  of  herbaceous  plants,  belongs  to  the  natural 
order  Musacece  (q.  v.),  and  is  a  native  of  the  East 
Indies,  where  numberless  varieties  of  it  have  been 
cultivated  for  thousands  of  years.  It  is  now  diffused 
over  all  the  tropical  and  subtropical  regions  of  the 
glob&  It  must  have  been  carried  to  America  soon 
after  or  durins  the  days  of  Columbus,  for  its  fruit 
was  a  principal  article  of  food  there  in  the  first  half 
of  the  16th  c  ;  but  there  is  nothing  to  Bnp|)ort  the 
conjecture  of  Humboldt  that  there  may  be  different 
species  cultivated  under  the  name  of  P.,  and  some  of 
tnem  natives  of  America.  The  P.  is  now,  however, 
cultivated  to  the  furthest  depths  of  the  primeval 
American  forests,  accompanies  the  Indians  in  tneir 
frequent  changes  of  residence,  forms  the  wealth 
of  many  occupiers  of  land  in  the  vicinity  of  great 
towns,  where  large  plantations  of  it  are  made,  and 
is  a  true  staff  of  life  to  the  population  of  all  colours 
and  classes  in  tropical  countries.  In  many  regions 
it  is  the  principal  article  of  food. 

In  the  genus  Musa  there  arise  from  the  midst  of 
the  leaves— or  apparently  from  the  top  of  the  stem, 
the  sheathing  bases  of  the  leaves  f ormmg  a  tree-like 
false  stem — stalks  which  bear  great  spikes  of  flowers, 
each  enclosed  in  a  large  bract  or  spathe;  the 
flowers,  and  afterwards  the  fruit,  are  arranged  in 
clusters  or  almost  in  whorls  on  the  stalk;  the 
flowers  have  a  perianth  of  six  segments,  five  of 
which  cohere  as  a  tube  slit  at  the  back,  and  the 
aizth  is  small  and  concave ;  there  are  six  stamens.  | 
ua 


one  or  more  of  them  imperfect;  the  gennea  ii 
inferior,  3*celled,  with  two  rows  of  ovules  in  eadi 
cell;  the  fruit  is  fleshy,  and  has  many  leeils 
imbedded  in  its  pulp.  The  name  Musa  is  from  the 
Arabic  moz,  a  plantain ;  the  P.  seems  to  be  described 
by  Pliny  under  the  name  pala,  a  name  probably 
derived  from  an  eastern  root,  from  which  also  comes 
the  name  plantain.  The  specific  name  Paradifalca 
alludes  either  to  a  fancy  that  the  P.  was  the 
forbidden  fruit  of  Eden,  or  to  a  legend  that  the 
aprons  which  our  first  parents  made  for  themsdvea 
were  of  P.  leaves. 

The  stem  of  the  P.  is  usually  15  or  20  feet  hi^li, 
although  there  are  varieties  having  a  stem  of  only 
six  feet.  The  leaves  are  very  large,  the  blade 
being  sometimes  ten  feet  long  and  three  feet  broad, 
undivided,  of  a  beautiful  shinmg  green  ;  the  midrib 
strong  and  fleshy.  The  fruit  is  oblong,  varying  from 
its  usual  long  shape  to  an  almost  spherical  one, 
obscurely  angular,  eight  inches  to  a  foot  long  in  the 
varieties  commonly  known  by  the  name  P.,  ca  which 
the  fruit  is  usually  cookea  or  prepared  in  some 
way  in  order  to  be  eaten,  and  very  often  fonns  a 
substitute  for  bread;  whilst  the  smaller-fruited 
varieties,  of  which  the  fruit  is  eaten  raw,  are 
generally  known  by  the  name  Banana  (q.  ▼.) ;  these 
names,  however,  being  somewhat  vaiionaly  used. 

The  P.  is  generally  propa^ted  by  Backers ;  aad 
a  sucker  attains  maturity  m  about  eight  months 
or  a  year  after  being  planted.  The  stem  is  cnt 
down  after  fruiting,  but  the  plantatioD  does  not 
require  renewal  for  15  or  20  years.  Plantaim 
ought  to  be  at  least  ten  feet  apart  in  plantations 
of  them,  or  six  feet  in  single  rows  around  t>elds  or 
gardens.  The  P.  has  b^n  sometimes  cnltirated 
with  success  in  hothouses. 

With  the  exception  of  two  or  three  palms,  it 
would  not  be  easy  to  name,  in  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom,  any  plant  which  is  applied  to  a  greater 
number  of  uses  than  the  plantoin.  The  fruit  is 
sometimes  eaten  raw,  although  more  generally— 
except  that  of  the  banana — ^boiled  or  roasted,  aad 
variously  prepared.  It  is  both  farinaceous  and 
saccharine.  In  most  of  the  varieties  it  has  a  sweetish 
taste  ;  in  some  it  is  mealy  ;  and  in  some  it  is  sab- 
acid  or  austere.  It  is  as  much  used  before  bdng 
perfectly  ripe  as  when  it  is  so.  In  the  West  Indies 
the  P.  boiled  and  beaten  in  a  mortar  is  a  common 
food  of  the  negroes.  Plantains  baked  in  their 
skins,  or  fried  in  slices  with  butter  and  powdered 
over  with  sugar,  are  favourite  dishes  in  some  tropi- 
cal countries.  They  are  preserved  by  drying  in  the 
sun  .or  in  ovens,  and  pressed  into  masses,  in  which 
state  they  keep  foryears,  and  furnish  a  wholesome 
article  of  food.  The  unripe  fruity  peeled,  sliced, 
dried,  and  powdered,  is  called  P.  mfol,  and  io 
Guiami  Conquin-tay;  it  is  whitish  with  daik-r^ 
specks,  a  fragrance  Uke  orris-root,  and  a  taste  Uke 
wheat-flour;  and  is  made  into  excellent  and  nourish- 
ing dishes.  A  good  and  wholesome  starch  is 
obtained  from  the  P.  by  rasping  and  washing.— A 
decoction  of  the  fruit  is  a  common  beverage ;  and  a 
kind  of  wine  is  obtained  from  it  by  fermentation. 
— The  top  of  the  stalk  is  a  good  boiled  vegetable.— 
The  leaves  are  much  used  for  packing,  and  maay 
other  purix)Bes;  the  fibre  of  their  stalks  is  used 
for  textile  purposes  and  for  cordage;  and  it  is 
probable  that  it  might  be  used  for  paper-making ;  hot 
tutherto  the  leaves  and  stems  of  plantains  have  1>«d 
generally  burned  or  left  to  rot. 

So  ^at  is  the  food  produce  of  the  P.,  thst 
according  to  Humboldt's  calculation,  it  ii  to  thit 
of  the  potato  as  44  to  1,  and  to  that  of  wheat  as 
133  to  1.     The  P.  requires  little  attentioiL 

The  name  P.  is  frequently  extended  t«:  Uie  whJe 
genus  Muscu     Wild   species,  with  wffeere  fret 


PLANTAIN-EATEH— PLANTS. 


an  foncil  in  nuny  parts  of  the  Eait  One  ascenda 
*he  HimalavM  to  an  elevation  of  66(i0  feet.  A 
Speciea  found  in  the  South  Sea  Islands  {M.  troglody- 
larttm)  is  rem»rkable  for  bearing  its  clusters  of 
fmit  erect,  not  pendent  like  the  other  species.  Its 
fruit  is  eatable,  as  is  that  of  M.  Cavtnaitkii  and  of 
M.  Chinauag,  species  or  varieties  smaller  than  the 


I  or  Manilla  Hemp,  is  very  similar  to 
common  P.,  but  has  a  zreen,  hard,  and  austere  I 
It  is  generally  cut  when  about  a  year  and  •  half 
old,  before  flowering.  The  outer  layers  of  the  stein 
yield  the  coirsest  fibre  ;  that  of  the  inner  is  so  line 
that  a  garment  made  oE  it  may  be  enclosed  in  thi 
hollow  of  the  hand.— The  yonng  stems  of  M.  Enatte, 
the  EssrrB  of  Abyssinia,  are  used  in  that  cou"* — 
u  a  boiled  esculent. 

PLANTAIN -EATER  {iluxophaga],  a  genus  of 
birds  of  the  family  Musophaoidix,  to  the  whole  of 
which  the  same  English  name  is  often  extended. 
The  lluaophnijida  are  tropical  birds,  African  and 
South  American,  of  the  order  Iiueaiorea,  and  tribe 
Coiiiioairei,  allied  to  (inches,  but  many  of  tlium 
large,  and  more  tike  gailinaceous  birds  than  Bncliea. 
They  are  birds  o£  beautiful  plumage.  Thev  have 
rtroug  thick  bills,  more  or  less  curved  on  the  top, 
the  cutting  edges  jaggud  or  finely  serrated,  so  as  to 
render  tliom  veiy  etliuieut  Instruments  for  cutting 
soft  viigGtable  auustanccs,  on  which  they  feed,  as  the 
plantain  and  other  fruits,  and  for  dividing  the  suc- 
cnlent  stems  of  plauts,  which  they  cut  off  cluae  to  the 
ground.  Tiiey  live  much  among  the  boughs  of  trees, 
And  are  active  and  wary  birds.  The  true  plantain- 
eaters  [M ufopliaga)  have  the  base  of  the  bill  extend- 
ing upon  the  forehead;  the  TouuACos  (Cor^t/iatz) 
have  a  smaller  bill,  aod  the  head  created. 

PLANTATION,  a  term  sometimes  applied  to 
places  where  timber  trees  have  been  planted.  In 
that  sense,  aa  a  general  rule,  whoever  is  the  owner 
of  the  soil,  ii  entitled  to  the  treea  which  are  planted 
in  such  BoiL  When  land  is  let  by  lease  to  a  tenant, 
tlie  tenant  does  not  become  the  owner  of  the  trees, 
and  caiiniit  cut  them  down.  But  be  is  in  England 
and  Irolani!  entitled  to  re.isonable  estovers;  that  is, 
to  cut  aufhcient  wood  to  repair  or  build  the  houses, 
or  make  implements  of  hualiandry.  The  common  law 
of  Eiijriand  was  very  defective  in  protecting  plantji' 
tions.  for  it  was  held  that,  as  the  trees  were  pai-t  of 
the  realty,  or  soil,  and  nobody  could  steal  the  soil, 
hence  nobody  could  be  punished  for  larceny  of  trees. 
But  this  defect  was  cured  by  statute.  Whoever 
cnta,  breaks,  roots  up,  or  otherwise  destroys  or 
damages,  with  intent  to  steal,  the  whole  or  any 
part  of  a  tree,  sapling,  or  shrub,  if  the  damage  is 
of  the  amount  of  one  shilling,  may  be  convicted 
summarily,  before  justices  of  the  |«aee,  and  fined 
±'5 ;  for  a  second  oft'ence,  be  may  bo  committed  to 
the  house  of  correction  for  twelve  months  or  less  ; 
and  for  a  third  oETence,  he  is  guilty  of  felony,  and 
may  be  punished  as  for  larceny.  So,  whoever  steals 
or  damages  a  live  fence,  may  be  lined  by  justices 
a  aum  of  £5 ;  and  for  a  aecond  offence,  may  be  com- 
mitted to  the  house  of  correction  for  twelve  months. 
Jloreover,  if  any  person  is  found  in  piaaession  of  a 
piece  of  a  tree  or  live  fence,  and  do  not  give  a 
proper  account  of  his  cumins  into  lawful  possesaioa 
of  the  same,  he  may  be  hned  £2.— In  Scotland, 
various  acts  of  the  Scotch  parhament  were  directed 
against    oQences    of    damaging    trees,    which    aro 

Kiishable  as  malicioua  mischief ;  the  penalty 
ng  £10  Soots  for  each  tree  less  than  ten  years  old, 
and  jf20  Scots  for  each  older  tree.  Tenants  may  also 
be  fined  for  such  offences.  In  case  of  injunea  to  I 
feDcea,  old  Scotch  statutes  also  provide  a  pimiahment. , 


PLANTATION  AND  PLANTING  OP  TREES. 

See  A11BOIUCUI.TDRS. 

PLANTIGRA'DA,  in  Cuvier's  zoolo<iical  system, 
a  tribe  of  Caraivnra  (q.  v.),  characterised  by  placing 
the  whole  sole  of  the  foot 
on  the  ground  in  walking. 
The  sole  is  generally  des- 
titute of  hair.  Both  fore 
and  hind  feet  are  tive'toed 
in  all  the  plaut{k;rada    The 

less     nocturnal      in     their   , 

mode   of    life,    and    their  j 

movements  are  slower  and 

their    gait    more     clumsy         Plantigrade  Foot. 

than    those  of   the   Dii/iti- 

ffrada.     They  are  also,  in  general,  less  carnivorous  ; 

many    of    them   feed   in    [>art    or    occasioaally   on 

vegetable  food.     The  conlormation   of   th(.-ir  hmbs 

and  feet  eives  them  a  power  of  standing  erect  on 

their   hind-feet,   which   none   of   the   IHyiligrada 

possess,  and  of  which  advantage  is  taken  in  tame 

bears  for  the  amusement  ot  spectators. 

PLANTIN,  Christowie,  an  eminent  printefi 
was  bora  at  St  Avertin,  near  Tours,  in  1514,  and 
set  up  a  printiDg-estahlishmcnt  at  Antwerp  in  1550, 
which  soon  became  the  greatest  and  most  celebrated 
of  the  time.  He  had  often  twenty  presses  or  more 
in  active  operation.  Quicciardini  mentions  his 
printing-establishment  as  the  finest  ornament  of 
the  city  of  Antwerp,  and  as  one  of  the  wonders  ot 
Europe,  and  the  learned  agreed  in  regarding  him  oa 
the  first  printer  of  his  time,  although  he  was  the 
contemgiorary  of  Aldus  and  Estienne  (Stephens) ; 
but  this  is  true  only  as  regards  the  number  of  works 
which  issued  from  hja  establishment,  and  the  beauty 
of  their  typoyranhy;  for  the  services  which  the 
others  have  rendered  to  classic  literature  are  far 
beyond  those  of  Plantin.  P.  was  ncverthclesa  him- 
self  a  man  of  varied,  though  probably  not  very 
profound  learning.  He  superintended  the  publica- 
tion of  works  in  several  languages,  and  was  eitremety 
careful  of  their  accuracy,  employing  abU  and  learned 
correctors  of  the  press,  whom  he  remunerated 
liberally,  and  publicly  offering  rewards  for  the 
discovery  of  errors.  The  most  noted  of  all  his 
publications  is  the  Biblia  PUyyloUa  (8  vols.  1669— 
157^),  which  was  printed  under  the  personal  suuer- 
intendence  of  Arias  Montaaus,  the  court  chaplain 
of  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  and  towards  which,  Philip 
gave  6U00  ducats  for  the  purchase  of  paper.  But 
the  oldest  book  known  to  have  proceeded  from  the 

SBBB  of  P.  is  the  ImtUiition  dune  Fille  de  A'obU 
aimn,  traduile  de  haiigae  Toteane  en  FixinfoU,  by 
Jean  Bcller  (Ant  1555|.  P.  died  at  Antwerp  in  158ft 
He  had  set  up  printiiig-establialimeuts  in  Leydeu  and 
Paris,  and  these,  with  that  in  Antwerj),  were  carried 
on  by  the  husbands  of  bis  three  daughters. 

PLANTS,  in  point  of  law,  when  put  in  a  garden 
or  other  ground  let  to  a  tenant,  belong  to  the  land- 
lord, and  not  to  the  tenant,  for  they  become  part  of 
the  soiL     Hence,  a  tenant  cannot  dig  them  up  and 
remove  them,  at  the  termination  of  his  lease.    This 
right  of  the  landlord,  however,  is  seldom  enforced 
with  much  strictness,  partly  because  the  tenant  may 
alter  and  remove  the  plants  at  discretion  during  his 
lease,  and  thus  can  evade  the  rule  of  law.     In  the 
case  of  nursery-grounds,  however,  the  above  rule 
does  not  apply,  as  between  landloiil  and  tenant,  for 
the  plants  are  considered  the  stock-in-trade  of  the 
nuraeryman,  who  puts  them  in   the  ground,   not 
ith  a  view  to  let  them  grow  permanently,  but  as 
convenient  mode  of  keeping  them  for  sale.     Htnoe, 
,  the  termination  of   his  lease,   the  tenant  can 
move  them  all 


PLAKUDffl-PLATiEA. 


PLANUD^,  MAzniva.    See  Anthologt. 

PLASEN'GIA,  an  ancient  and  much-decayed, 
but  most  x)ictureflqae  town  of  Spain,  in  fietremadura, 
43  miltfs  north-north-east  of  Caceres,  stands  on  a 
steep  hill,  with  beautiful  and  fertile  vaJleys,  extend- 
ing on  the  north-west  and  south-east  sides.  It  is 
\lmo8t  wholly  girdled  by  the  clear  waters  of  the 
i^erte;  and  the  surrounding  scenery,  embracing 
•:ity,  castle,  river,  rock,  ana  mountain,  and  over- 
arched by  a  Bunuv  and  unclouded  sky,  is  remark- 
ably beautiful  The  city  contains  the  picturesque 
remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  and  is  surrounded  by 
crumbling  walls,  surmounted  by  68  towers,  and 
pierced  by  six  gates.  Water  is  brought  to  the 
town  by  an  aqueduct  of  80  arches.  There  are 
seven  Gothic  churches,  an  episcopal  and  several 
other  palaces,  and  the  cathedral,  an  ornate  Gothic 
edilice,  begun  in  1498,  and  some  portions  of  which 
4re  still  unfinished,  while  others  have  been  altered 
and  distlgured.  The  cathedral  contains  many  noble 
tombs,  with  e£Sgies.  P.,  once  a  flourishing  and 
important  city,  was  founded  in  1190.  It  now 
carries  on  some  minor  manufactures  of  cotton, 
woollen,  and  hempen  fabrics,  and  of  hats  and 
leather.    Pop.  about  6000. 

P  LA'S  MA,  a  silicious  mineral,  a  variety  of 
quartz  or  chalcedony,  of  a  dark-green  colour,  black 
when  unpolished  and  seen  by  reflected  light,  but 
very  translucent  when  held  between  the  eye  and 
the  light.  It  is  very  nearly  allied  to  heliotrope  or 
bloodstone,  but  has  no  red  spots,  is  more  translu- 
cent, and  is  not  susceptible  of  so  brilliant  a  ^lish. 
It  is  never  found  crystallised.  It  is  a  rare  mmeral, 
and  the  finest  s^iecimens  are  brought  from  India  and 
China.  It  was  highly  prized  by  the  ancient  Romans, 
who  wroiight  it  into  ornaments  of  various  kinds; 
and  very  mie  engraved  sj^^cimens  have  been  found 
among  the  ruins  of  ancient  Rome.  The  ancients 
are  said  to  have  obtained  their  plasma  from  Mount 
Olympus,  in  Asia  Minor.  The  name  plasma  is 
supposed  to  be  identical  with  the  Greek  prason,  a 
leek,  the  r  having  passed  into  L 

PLASTER  OF  PARIS.    SeeGTFsnii. 

PLA'STERING,  the  art  of  covering  walls, 
partitions,  ceilines,  &c,  with  a  composition  of  lime 
mixed  with  sand  and  hair.  It  is  usually  done  in 
three  coats.  The  first  coat  is  the  solid  foundation 
on  which  the  rest  is  placed ;  it  is  therefore  of  a  good 
thickness,  and  is  hatched  or  crossed  with  lines,  so 
as  to  give  a  bond  for  the  next  coat.  The  first  coat 
is  allowed  to  dry  thoroughly;  then  the  second  coat 
is  floated  over  the  first,  ana  rubbed  well  in  with  a 
flat  board,  about  12  inches  square,  so  as  to  bring  it  all 
to  a  fair  and  equal  surface  (in  Scotland  this  is  called 
the  'straightenm^') ;  and  before  the  second  coat  has 
thoroughly  dried,  'the  third  or  finishing  coat  is 
applied  in  finer  materials,  and  in  a  more  li(][uid  state. 
In  the  case  of  ceiling;  cornices,  mouldings,  &c., 
plaster  of  Paris  or  stucco  is  generally  used  This 
sets  or  hardens  more  rapidly  than  Ume,  and  has 
a  finer  and  whiter  surface. 

Oniaments  (called  enrichments)  are  generally 
composed  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and  cast  in  moulds. 
They  are  then  set  in  their  places  after  the  cornice 
has  been  made,  or  run, 

PLASTERS  are  a  class  of  medicinal  a^ts 
which  are  employed  externally  with  various  objects. 
They  are  solid  and  tenacious  compounds,  adhesive 
at  the  ordinary  temperature  of  the  body,  and 
owing  their  consistency — 1.  To  the  chemical  con- 
bination  of  oxide  of  lead,  with  one  or  more  fatty 
acids  ;  or  2,  to  a  due  admixture  of  wax,  or  fat,  and 
resin  ;  or  3,  to  the  chemical  action  of  the  component 
parts  of  the  plaster  on  each  other.  Strictly  speak- 
mg,  the  term  Plaster  should  be  restricted  to  the 
AM 


first  class  of  compounds ;  viz.,  to  combination  of 
oxide  of  lead  with  fatty  acids*  In  the  Britiih 
Pharmacopoeia,  there  are  directions  for  making 
12  plasters,  viz.,  ammoniac  and  mercury  plaster. 
Belladonna  plaster,  cantharides  plaster,  chalybeate 
plaster,  salbanum  plaster,  litharge  (or  lead)  plaster, 
mercunid  plaster,  opium  plaster,  pitch  plaster,  resiii 
plaster,  soap  plaster,  and  warm  plaster.  The 
litharge  (or  lead)  {ilaster,  directly  or  indirectly, 
enters  into  the  composition  of  all  the  twelve  officinal 
plasters,  excepting  those  of  ammoniac  and  mercmy, 
cantharides,  and  pitch.  Lead  Pkuter,  which  is 
usually  sold  imder  the  name  of  Diachj^on^  in  com- 
bination with  resin,  constitutes  the  ordinary  €uiJu»ce 
plaster.  The  best  plaster  of  this  kind  for  strapping 
is  composed  of  a  mixture  of  six  drachms  of  resin 
with  a  pound  of  lead  plaster.  The  cantharida 
pldster  and  the  ammoniac  and  mercury  platter,  an 
examples  of  the  second  and  third  varieties. 

Plasters  are  generally  kept  in  rolls ;  and  when  they 
are  to  be  used,  they  are  melted  at  a  temperatnrB 
of  not  more  than  212^,  and  spread  on  soft  leather. 
They  are  employed  to  answer  two  distinct  indica- 
tions, namely,  to  act  meclianicaUu,  as  by  affording 
artificial  support  to  weak  muscular  structures,  by 
preventing  tiireatened  or  tedious  excoriations,  h^ 
protecting  parts  already  excoriated  from  the  actioa 
of  the  air,  &c ;  and  to  act  medicinally  as  stimnlaot, 
diBcutient,  alterative,  anodyne,  &c. 

PLATA,  La.    See  Aboentins  REPTJBua 

PLATA,  Rio  db  la^  a  wide  estoary  of  SoaUk 
America,  between  Uruguay  on  the  north  and  the 
Argentine  Confederation  on  the  south,  fonns  the 
mouth  of  the  Parana  (q.  v.)  and  the  Uruguay  (q.  v.). 
It  is  180  miles  long,  29  nules  broad  at  Buenoi 
Ayres,  and  130  miles  broad  at  its  mioutb,  between 
Punta  Negra  and  Cape  San  Antonia  At  its  mouth 
it  is,  on  an  average,  only  about  10  fathoms  deep ; 
at  Monte  Video  it  is  only  3  fathoms  ;  and  at  Buenos 
Ayres  about  16  feet  deep.  Some  conception  of  the 
vast  volume  of  water  wnich  this  estuary  carries  to 
the  Atlantic  may  be  had  when  it  is  remembered 
that  with  its  afiluents  it  drains  an  area  of  1,250,000 
square  miles.  The  strong  and  irregular  currents, 
and  the  sudden  tempests  of  the  La  P.,  render  its 
navigation  extremely  dangerous.  It  is  estimated 
that  through  this  estuary  about  one-fourth  of  the 
produce  of  South  America  is  brought  to  market 
For  the  navigation  of  its  affluents,  see  Paraguat, 
Parana,  and  Ubuguay. 

PLATiE'A,  or  PLATJBiE,  a  city  in  tiis 
western  part  of  Bceotia,  on  the  borders  of  Attica, 
and  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cithteron.  It  was  aboot 
64  miles  from  Thebes.  In  480  b.  a,  it  was  destroyed 
by  the  Persians,  because  the  inhabitants  had  taken 
part  with  Athens  in  the  battle  of  Marathon ;  but  iit 
the  following  year,  it  was  the  scene  of  the  glorious 
victory  won  by  the  Lacedaemonian  Greeks,  under 
Pausanias  and  Aristides,  over  the  Persian  hordes 
commanded  by  Mardonius — a  victory  that  finally 
delivered  Greece  from  the  threatened  yoke  of  the 
invader.  In  the  third  year  of  the  P^oponnesian 
war  (429  B.  a),  it  was  attacked  by  a  Tfaeban- 
Lacedajmonian  force— for  the  Platssans  were  firm 
friends  of  Athens — ^and  heroically  defended  itsdif 
for  more  than  two  years,  until  it  was  starved  into 
surrender.  The  litUe  garrison  of  about  200  men 
were  put  to  the  sword,  and  the  city  was  razed  to 
the  CTOund.  Such  of  the  Platsaans  as  escaped 
were  nospitably  received  at  Athens.  By  the  treaty 
of  Antalcidas  (387  B.a),  their  children  were  allowed 
to  so  back  again,  and  rebuild  their  city,  after  an 
exile  of  40  years ;  but  they  were  again  driven  oat 
by  their  implacable  enemies,  the  Thebans;  and  half 
a  century  elapsed  before  the  victory  of  Philip  of 


PLATALEA— PLATmO. 


Macedon  at  Clueroiieia  enabled  the  Plat»aii8  to 
finally  return  to  their  homes.  After  this,  the  city 
remained  inhabited,  prol)ably  till  the  latest  days  of 
the  empire.  It  is  mentioned  in  the  6th  c.  A.D. 
Some  ruins  of  P.  are  still  visible  near  the  village  of 
Kokfdcu 

PLATA'LEA.    See  Spoonbill. 

PLAT-BAND,  in  Architecture,  a  flat  fascia  or 
band,  with  less  projection  than  breadth. 

PLATE,  in  Heraldry,  a  Roundle  (q.  v.)  argent.  It 
is  represented  flat,  and  in  the  heraldry  of  Scotland 
is  known  as  a  Bezant  argenL 

PLATE-MARKS  are  legal  impressions  made  on 
articles  of  gold  or  silver  at  the  various  assay  offices, 
for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  true  value  of  the 
metal  of  which  the  articles  are  made.  The  marks 
are  a  series  of  symbols,  which  are  embossed  in  a 
line  of  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  in  length! 
and  usually  on  every  separate  piece  of  which  an 
article  is  composed.  These  symbols  are — I.  The 
maker's  own  mark  or  initials.  2.  The  standard  or 
assay  mark ;  viz.,  for  gold,  a  crown,  and  figures 
denoting  the  number  of  carats  fine.  This  means 
that  pure  gold  is  reckoned  at  24  carats,  and  every 
part  of  alloy  added  reduces  that  standard  number 
(see  Carat)  ;  so  that  if  a  piece  of  gold-plate  or  jewel- 
lery is  marked  with  a  crown  and  18,  it  indicates 
that  it  consists  of  18  parts  of  pure  gold,  and  6  parts 
of  some  other  metal  alloyed  with  it.  Gold  of  eight 
carats  is  now  legal,  but  as  it  is  marked  by  the 
assay  office,  there  can  be  no  deception,  if  the  public 
understand  the  plate-marks.  If  not,  they  may  pay 
for  pure  gold,  relying  upon  the  hall-mark,  wnen 
in  reality  they  only  receive  a  third  part  gold.  For 
i^i/rer— England,  a  lion  passant;  Ireland,  a  harp 
crowned ;  Edinburgh,  a  thistle ;  Glasgow,  a  lion 
rampant  3.  The  Iml-mark  of  the  district  office — 
London,  a  leopard's  head  crowned ;  York,  three 
lions  and  a  cross ;  Exeter,  a  castle  with  two  wings ; 
Chester,  three  wheat-sheaves  or  a  dagger;  New- 
castle, three  castles ;  Birmingham,  an  anchor ; 
Sheffield,  a  crown ;  Edinburgh,  a  castle  and  lion ; 
Glasgow,  a  tree,  salmon,  and  ring;  Dublin,  the 
figure  of  Hibemia.  4.  The  duty-mark,  indicating 
the  payment  of  duty,  viz.,  the  head  of  the  reigning 
sovereign.  5.  The  date-mark.  Each  office  has  its 
alphabetical  mark,  indicating  the  date  of  the  stamp. 
In  London,  the  assay  year  commences  on  the  30th 
of  May,  and  the  date  of  the  current  year  is  indi- 
cated by  one  of  the  first  twenty  letters  of  the 
alphabet  used  in  regular  succession ;  thus,  the  €k>ld- 
smiths'  Company  of  London  have  used  the  following 
marks : 

From  1716  to  1755,  Roman  Capital  Letters. 

■  1756  ■  1775,  Roman  Small  Letters. 

„  1776  »  1795,  Old  English  Letters. 

.  1796  »  1815,  Roman  Capital  Letters  A  to  U. 

«  1816  ■  1835,  Small  Roman  Letters  a  to  u. 

p  1836  n  1855,  Old  English  Letters  ^  to  ^ 

ff  1856  »  Small  Black  Letters  «  to 

Thus,  I£  ^  i(  9  i  would  represent  the  mark 
on  Elkington's  plate,  made  in  the  present  year. 

PLATE-POWDER,  a  composition  used  for 
cleaning  gold  and  silver  plate  and  plated  articles. 
It  is  a£o  called  Rouge-powder  (see  Kouoe).  It  is 
made  by  levigating  rouge  with  three  times  its 
weight  of  prepared  chalk,  until  they  are  thoroughly 
mixed  into  an  almost  impalpable  powder.  Some- 
times Putty-powder  (q.  v.)  is  used  mstead  of  rouge, 
and  a  little  rose-pink  added  to  colour  it.  A  plate- 
powder  is  also  sometimes  made  by  levigating 
quicksilver  with  twelve  times  its  weight  of  prepared 
Chalky  until  it  is  thoroughly  incorporated,  cuid  forms 


a  gray  powder.    It  pnts  a  remarkable  brilliancy  ou 
silver-plate,  but  is  very  injurious  to  it 

PLATING  signifies  the  covering  of  an  inferior 
metal  with  one  of  the  precious  metals,  the  object 
being  to  give  the  appearance  of  silver  or  gold  to 
articles  chiefly  intended  for  table  use.  At  present^ 
the  articles  are  generally  made  of  German  silver,  or 
some  of  the  simiuir  white-metal  alloys ;  but  formerly, 
copper,  or  an  alloy  of  that  metal  with  brass,  was 
used ;  the  disadvantage  of  which  was  that,  as  the 
coating  of  silver  wore  off,  the  red  colour  of  the 
copper  became  disagreeably  apparent  through  the 
thm  covering  of  silver.  Gola  is  rarely  plated  on 
any  other  metal  than  silver,  except  for  purposes  of 
deception.  Previous  to  the  introduction  of  electro- 
plating, the  method  generally  pursued  was  that 
which  has  acquired  the  name  of  Sheffield- plating^ 
from  the  large  extent  to  which  it  was  carried  on  in 
that  town.  It  consists  in  soldering  on  to  one  or 
both  sidgs  of  an  ingot  of  the  baser  metal,  a  thin 
plate  of  silver.  The  ingot  is  always  of  an  oblong 
shape,  and  is  most  carefully  prepared  on  the 
surfaces  which  are  to  receive  the  silver,  so  that 
nothing  shall  prevent  the  complete  union  of  the 
twa  The  shape  and  relative  proportions  of  the 
ingot,  and  its 
plating  of  silver, 
are  seen  in  the 
figure :  aa  is  the 
suver  on  the 
upper  and  lower 
surfaces,  for  doable-plated  goods;  6,  the  body  of 
the  ingot,  of  copper  or  wfite-metal  alloy.  The 
soldering  is  a  process  requiring  much  care  and 
nicety:  the  plates  of  silver  are  thinly  coated 
with  a  concentrated  solution  of  borax,  and  are 
then  applied  to  the  prepared  surfaces  of  the 
ingot,  to  which  they  are  tirmly  bound  with  iron 
wire,  and  then  placed  in  the  plcUing-fumacet  and 
subjected  to  a  strong  heat.  This  furnace  is  so 
arranged  that  the  intenor  can  be  constantly  watched, 
and  when  the  proper  temperature  is  attained,  the 
workman  knovrs  the  exact  instant  to  withdraw  it 
The  act  of  soldering  is  almost  instantaneous,  and 
fusion  would  immediately  follow,  if  the  ingot  was 
not  quickly  withdrawn.  When  cooled,  the  wire  ia 
taken  off,  and  the  ingot  ia  taken  to  the  rolling- 
mill,  where  it  is  passed  backwards  and  forwards,  of 
course  with  the  silver  above  and  below,  until  it  is 
rolled  out  into  a  sheet  of  the  exact  thickness 
required.  However  thin  it  may  be  made,  it  ia 
found  that  the  relative  thickness  between  the  ingot 
and  its  layers  of  silver  ia  always  the  same.  As 
usual  in  all  cases  of  rolling  or  striking  metal, 
annealing  from  time  to  time  is  necessary,  to  remove 
the  brittieness  which  these  operations  cause. 

This  method  does  not  admit  of  the  manufacture 
of  any  portions  such  as  ornamental  moulded 
borders,  so. ;  these  had  therefore  to  be  formed 
separately  of  copi)er,  and  were  coated  by  the 
process  called  Silvering  (q.  v.).  Now,  however,  it  is 
found  better  to  make  them  of  silver  rolled  thin,  and 
fill  them  inside  with  lead,  to  give  them  solidity  ;  by 
this  plan  is  avoided  the  annoyance  of  the  silver 
rubbing  off,  and  exposing  the  copper.  Sheffield- 
plating  is  still  made  extensively,  but  the  manu- 
facture is  rapidly  declining  in  presence  of  the  newer 
art  of  electro-plating.    See  Galvanis&l 

Within  a  very  recent  period,  and  since  the 
subject  of  electro-plating  was  treated  under  the 
article  Galvanism,  some  very  remarkable  appli- 
cations of  the  process  have  been  discovered ;  for 
instance,  it  is  no  longer  confined  to  the  deposit 
of  silver  and  goldj  aluminium,  silicium,  titamum, 
tungsten,  molybdenum,  tin,  cadmium,  lead,  bis- 
muui,  palladium,  rhodium,  iridium,  and  the  alloys 

68« 


PLATINUM. 


bran  and  bronze,  are  all  now  deposited  under  patent 
procesk*^  Of  all  these,  by.  far  the  most  impor- 
tant IS  the  deposit  of  the  alloys,  and  a  very  large 
trade  has  sprung  up  in  manufactures  of  iron  coateid 
with  brass.  The  importance  of  being  able  to  cover 
a  metal  so  cheap,  yet  so  easily  corrodeid  as  cast  iron, 
with  so  ornamental  an  alloy  as  brass  or  bronze,  can 
hardly  be  overrated.  Many  extensive  and  satis- 
factory  pieces  of  this  work  have  already  been  made. 
PLA'TINUM  (symb.  Pt,  eauiv.  99,  sp.  or. 
21*5)  is  one  of  the  'noble  metals,  which  may  be 
obtained  in  more  forms  than  one.  It  is  only 
found  in  the  native  state,  usually  occurring  in  small 
glistening  granules  of  a  steel-gray  colour,  which 
always  contain  an  admixture,  in  varying  proportions, 
of  several  metals,  most  of  which  are  rarely  found 
except  in  association  with  platinum.  Sometimes, 
however,  it  is  found  in  masses  of  the  size  of  a 
pigeon's  egg,  and  pieces  weisjhing  ten  or  even 
twenty  pounds  have  occasionally  been  found.  The 
following  table  shews  the  composition  of  crude 
platinum  ore  as  obtained  from  different  parts  of  the 

flobe.     The  analyses  were  conducted   by  Messrs 
>eviUe  and  Debray. 


Colum- 
bia. 

CalU 
fornix 

Or*. 

SpAln. 
45-70 

lla. 

RoMla. 

Flatinnm,      .       • 

80*00 

79-86 

61-45 

59-80 

77-50 

Iridium,      • 

l-5o 

4-20 

0-40 

0-95 

2-20 

145 

Rhodium,       •        • 

350 

0  65 

0C5 

2-65 

1-50 

2-80 

Palladium, .       • 

1*00 

1-95 

0-15 

0-85 

1-50 

D-86 

Gold,      .        .        • 

1-50 

0'55 

0-85 

8-15 

340 

■  •• 

Copper, 

0'65 

0-75 

2-15 

1-05 

110 

8-16 

Iron, 

7-:>0 

4'45 

4-30 

680 

4  30 

9  60 

Osmide  of  Iridium, 

1*40 

495 

87  30 

3-85 

25-00 

335 

Sand,      .       .       . 

436 

860 

800 

35-95 

1'20 

100 

Osmium  and  loaa, 

... 

0*06 

0-05 

0-80 

880 

Buthenium  is  also  almost  always  present,  and  in  the 
above  analyses  is  probably  included  with  the  iridium, 
which  it  closely  resembles. 

There  are  two  modes  of  obtaining  platinum  in  the 
form  of  ingots  from  the  ore,  both  of  which  require 
notice.  The  method  which  has  been  universally 
employed,  till  within  the  last  five  years,  was  that 
discovered  by  Wolla^^ton,  the  leading  steps  of  which 
were  as  follows:  After  the  removal  of  the  metals 
associated  with  the  platinum,  by  the  successive  action 
of  nitric  and  hydrochloric  acids,  the  platinum  itself 
is  dissolved  in  a(|ua  regia,  from  which  it  is  precipi- 
tated by  a  solution  of  sal  ammoniac  in  the  form 
of  a  sparingly  soluble  double  salt,  the  chloride  of 
ammonium  and  platinum,  represented  by  the  formula 
H.NCl,PtCls.  This  salt  is  washed  and  heated  to 
redness,  by  which  means  the  chlorine  and  ammonia 
are  expelled,  leaving  the  metal  in  the  form  of  a 
gray,  spongy,  soft  mass,  known  to  chemLste  as 
spongy  platinum.  In  this  form,  it  is  very  finely 
powdered  under  water,  is  next  shaped  by  intense 
pressure  into  a  mass,  and  is  then  exposed  to  an 
intense  heat  in  a  wind-furnace,  the  ingot  being 
formed  by  hammering  it  upon  its  two  ends.  (If 
hammered  on  its  sides,  it  splits.)  This  heating 
and  foreing  must  be  repeated  till  the  metal 
becomes  nomogeneous  and  ductile. 

Deville  and  Debray  have  introduced  an  entirely 
new  method  for  the  extraction  of  platinum  from 
its  ores.  They  first  form  a  fusible  alloy  of  this 
metal  with  lead,  by  exposing  the  platinum  ore — 
2  cwt.  being  used  in  a  sin^e  experiment,  with 
eaual  weights  of  galena  and  litharge  graduallv 
aaded,  and  a  little  glass  to  act  as  a  flux — to  fuU 
redness  in  a  reverberatory  furnace  lined  with  clay. 
The  sulphur  of  the  galena  is  oxidised  and  expelled, 
and  the  liquid  alloy  of  lead  and  platinum  is  allowed 
to  rest  for  some  time,  to  allow  the  osmide  of 
iridium,  which  is  not  afifected  by  the  preceding 
operationB,  to  sink  to  the  bottom.  The  upper 
M6 


portions  of  the  alloy  are  then  decanted,  and  cast 
mto  ingot-moulds,  which  are  submitted  to  cnpeUa- 
tion ;  and  the  metallic  platinum  which  is  left  after 
the  cupellation  is  melted  and  refined  in  a  furnace 
of  lime — which  ia  employed  in  consequence  of  its 
being  a  very  bad  conductor  of  heat — -oy  means  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  blowoipe.  The  platinum  obtained 
in  this  manner  is  nearly  pure,  and  very  ductile  and 
malleable.  For  details  regarding  this  process,  which 
has  been  patented  both  in  France  and  in  this  coun- 
try, the  reader  is  referred  to  the  memoir,  *  On  Pla- 
tinum aud  the  Metals  which  accom]>any  it,*  in  the 
Annates  de  Chimie  et  de  Physique  for  August  1859. 

Platinum,  as  obtained  by  either  of  the  above 
processes,  exhibits  a  bluish- white  metallic  lustre; 
it  is  exceedingly  malleable  and  ductile,  aud  is  very 
infusible,  melting  only  before  the  oxyhydrogen 
blow-pipe,  or  in  a  very  powerful  blast- furnace,  such 
as  that  used  by  Deville  and  Debray.  It  expands  less 
by  heat  than  any  other  metal,  and  it  ia  usually 
regarded  as  the  heaviest  form  of  matter  yet  known ; 
but,  according  to  Deville  and  Debray,  oemium  and 
iridium  are  about  equally  dense.  It  is  unaffected 
by  atmospheric  action,  and  does  not  undergo  oxida- 
tion in  the  air  at  even  the  highest  temperatiu^ea.  It 
is  not  acted  qu  by  nitric,  hy&ochloric,  sulphuric,  or 
hydrofluoric  acid,  or  iu  short,  by  any  single  acid ; 
but  in  aqua  regia  it  slowly  dissolves,  and  forms  a 
soluble  bichloride.  In  consequence  t>f  its  power  of 
resisting  the  action  of  acids,  it  is  of  great  service  in 
experimental  and  manufactiuing  chemical  i»roceflses, 
platinum  spatulas,  capsules,  crucibles,  &c.,  being 
employed  in  every  laboratory ;  while  platinum  BtiUs, 
weiglung  sometimes  as  much  as  one  thousand 
ounces,  are  frequently  used  for  concentrating  oil 
of  viti-ioL  Platinum  is,  however,  corroded  if  heated 
with  the  alkalies  or  alkaline  earths,  and  especially 
with  a  mixture  of  nitrate  of  potash  and  hydrated 
|>otash,  an  oxide  being  formed  which  combines  with 
the  alkaline  bases. 

The  fonn  of  the  metal  known  as  spongy  platinum 
has  been  already  noticed.  The  metal  may,  how- 
ever, be  obtained  in  a  state  of  sulxli vision  much 
finer  than  that  in  which  it  is  left  on  heating  thb 
double  chloride  of  platinum  and  ammonium — 
namely,  in  the  state  known  as  Platinum  BlacL  In 
this  form  it  resembles  soot.  It  may  be  prepared  in 
various  ways,  of  which  one  of  the  simplest  is  to 
boil  a  solution  of  bichloride  of  platinum,  to  which 
an  excess  of  carbonate  of  soda  and  a  quantity  of 
sugar  have  been  added,  until  the  preciuitate  fonned 
after  a  little  time  becomes  perfectly  black,  and  the 
supernatant  liquid  colourless.  The  black  powder  it 
then  collected  on  a  filter,  washed,  and  dried  by  a 
gentle  heat.  In  its  finely  comminuted  state,  either 
as  spongy  platinum  or  platinum  black,  it  nossesset 
a  remarkable  power  of  condensing  and  absorbing 
gases,  one  volume  of  platinum  black  being  able  to 
absorb  more  than  100  volumes  of  oxygen.  This 
absorption  appears  to  be  accompanied  by  a  conver- 
sion of  some  or  all  of  the  oxygen  into  the  modifica- 
tion known  as  Ozone  (q.  v.),  since  the  metal  become* 
capable  of  exerting  the  most  energetic  oxidising 
action,  even  at  ordinary  temperatures.  For  ex- 
ample, it  can  cause  the  combustion  of  a  jet  of  hydro- 
gen, can  oxidise  sulphurous  acid  into  suluhunc 
acid,  ammonia  into  nitric  acid,  and  alcohol  into 
acetic  acid,  the  rise  of  temperature  in  the  last  case 
being  often  sufficiently  great  to  cause  inflammatioo. 
Platinum  in  the  compact  form,  as  foil  or  wire, 
possesses  similar  powers,  but  in  a  far  lower  degree. 

Platinum  may  be  easily  alloyed  with  most  of  the 
metals,  the  alloys  being  in  general  much  more 
fusible  than  pure  platinum.  Hence  car-^  mast  be 
taken  not  to  heat  the  oxides  of  metals  of  ejwy 
reduction,  such  as  lead  and  bismuth,  in  platirom 


PLATO« 


emciblea,  as,  if  any  reduction  took  i)lace,  the 
crucible  woiild  be  destroyed  by  the  fusion  of  the 
resulting  alloy.  An  alloy  of  platinum,  iridium,  and 
rhodium  is  found,  by  the  investigations  of  Deville 
and  Debray,  to  be  harder,  and  cajiable  of  resisting 
a  higher  temperature  than  the  pure  metal ;  and 
hence  is  admirably  adapted  for  the  formation  of 
crucibles,  &c. 

There  are  two  oxides  of  platinum,  a  protoxide, 
PtO,  and  a  binoxide,  PtO^  neither  of  which  can  be 
formed  by  the  direct  union  of  the  elements.  Ex- 
cepting that  the  change  which  platinum  vessels 
undergo  when  containing  the  caustic  alkalies,  &c., 
and  exposed  to  a  red  heat,  is  due  to  the  formation 
of  a  su|)erficial  hiyer  of  oxide  (probably  binoxide), 
these  compounds  are  of  little  interest.  The  sul- 
phides and  chlorides  correspond  in  number  and  com- 
position to  the  oxides.  Of  these  compounds,  the 
oichloride  (PtCl^)  alone  requires  notice.  It  is  formed 
by  dissolving  platinum  in  aqua  regia,and  evaporating 
the  solution  to  dryness ;  and  it  is  obtained  as 
a  deliquescent,  reddish-brown  mass,  which  forms 
an  orange-coloured  solution  in  water,  from  which,  on 
evaporation,  it  crystallises  in  prisms.  It  is  also 
freely  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  A  solution  of 
this  salt  is  much  used  for  the  recognition  and 
determination  of  potash  and  ammonia. 

By  the  action  of  ammonia  on  protochloride  of 
platinum  (which  is  obtained  by  heating  a  solution 
of  the  bichloride  to  a  temperature  of  400**),  several 
remarkable  compounds  are  formed,  which  possess 
strong  basic  characters,  and  ore  of  great  interest  in 
a  theoretical  point  of  view,  such  as  Platosamine 
(PtHjNO),  Pktinamine  (PtHjNO^),  &c. 

PLATO,  who,  along  with  Aristotle,  represents 
to  modem  Europe  the  whole  compass  of  Greek 
speculation,  was  bom  at  Athens  in  the  year  429  B.C., 
snortly  after  the  commencement  of  the  Peloi)onnesian 
and  the  same  year  in  which  Pericles  died. 


war. 


He  was  of  a  good  family — bcins  connected,  on 
the  mother's  side,  with  Solon  *,.  ana  on  the  father's 
side,  with  Codrus,  one  of  the  ancient  kings  of 
Athens.  He  received  a  good  education,  according 
to  the  common  practice  of  the  Greeks,  in  music, 
gymnastics,  and  literatui*e.  His  rich  and  gorgeous 
uuagination  is  said  at  first  to  have  essayed  its 
powers  in  poetry;  but  when  about  20  years  of 
age,  having  become  acquainted  with  Socrates,  he 
threw  all  his  verses  into  the  fire,  and  consecrated 
his  great  intellect  to  philosophy.  When  he  was 
20  years  old,  the  political  troubles,  of  which  the 
death  of  Socrates  was  only  one  terrible  symptom, 
forced  him  to  leave  Athens  for  a  season,  and  he 
resided  at  Megora,  with' Euclid,  the  founder  of 
the  Megaric  sect.  The  disturbed  state  of  his 
native  country,  doubtless,  also  was  one  cause 
of  the  frequent  travels  which  he  is  reported  to 
have  made.  Of  these,  his  three  visits  to  Sicily, 
during  the  time  of  the  elder  and  younger  Dionysius, 
are  the  most  celebrated  and  the  oest  authenticated. 
That  he  visited  Italy,  is  extremely  probable ;  at  all 
events,  he  was  most  closely  connected  with  Archytas 
and  the  pA'thagorean  philosophers;  though,  as 
Aristotle  (Jaeiaph,  I  6)  justly  remarks,  he  borrowed 
f rt>m  Heracleitus  as  well  as  from  Pythagoras,  and 

Ent  a  stamp  of  freshness  and  originality  on  all  that  he 
orrowed.  After  returning  from  his  first  visit  to 
Sicily,  being  then  in  his  fortieth  year,  he  commenced 
teaching  philosophy  publicly,  in  the  Academeia,  a 
pleasant  garden  in  the  most  beautiful  suburb  of 
Athens,  and  there  &;athered  around  him  a  large  school 
of  distinguished  followers,  who  maintained  a  regular 
auccession  after  his  death,  under  the  name  of  the 
Fhilosophers  of  the  Academy.  He  lived  to  the  age 
of  82  ;  was  never  married ;  and  must  have  possessed 
acme  independent  property,  as  he  expresses  himself 


strongly  against  teaching  philosophy  for  fees,  and 
we  nowhere  read  of  his  having  held  any  public 
office  from  which  he  could  have  cierived  emolument. 
Such  are  the  few  reliable  facts  known  as  to  the  life 
ofPkto. 

The  principles  of  his  philosophy  are  happily 
better  known;  for  all  his  great  works  have  been 
preserved,  and  have  always  been  extensively  read 
wherever  the  Greek  language  was  known.  The  only 
danger  to  which  the  students  of  his  philosophy 
have  been  exposed  is  the  confusion  of  the  doctrines 
distinctly  taught  by  him  with  the  exag£;eration 
of  these  as  afterwartls  worked  out  by  the  Neo-Pla- 
tonists  of  Alexandria  ;  but  this  is  a  danger  which 
the  exact  critical  scholarship  of  modern  times  has 
put  out  of  the  way  for  all  persons  who  exercise 
.common  precaution  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge. 
The  distinctive  character  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
is  expressed  by  the  ^^'ord  idealism,  as  oi)po8eu  to 
realism,  materialism,  or  sensationalism,  using  these 
words  in  their  most  general  and  least  technical 
sense,  the  capacity  of  forming  and  using  ideas  being 
taken  as  an  essential  virtue  or  quality  of  mind,  as 
contrasted  with  matter;  of  thought  as  contrasted 
with  sensation ;  of  the  internal  forces  of  individuals 
and  of  the  universe,  as  contrasted  with  the  external 
forms  by  which  these  forces  are  manifested.  As 
sucli,  the  ideal  philosophy  stands  generally  opposed 
to  that  kind  of  mental  action  which  draws  its  stores 
principally  from  without,  and  is  not  strongly  deter- 
mined to  miould  the  materials  thus  received  by  any 
type  of  thought  or  hue  of  emotion  derived  from 
witiiin.  In  other  words,  the  philosophy  of  P.  is 
essentially  a  poeticxd  and  an  artisticat  philosophy  ; 
for  poetiy,  painting,  and  music  all  grow  out  of 
idealism,  or  those  lofty  inborn  conceptions  by  which 
genius  is  distinguished  from  talent  It  is  also, 
at  the  same  time,  a  scientific  philosophy,  for  the 
purest  science,  as  mathematics — on  which  P.  is 
well  known  to  have  placed  the  highest  value— is  a 
science  of  mere  ideas  or  forms  conditioned  by  the 
intellect  which  deduces  their  laws  ;  and,  above  all, 
it  is  essentially  a  moral  and  a  theological  philosophy, 
for  practice,  or  action,  is  the  highest  aim  of  man, 
and  morality  is  the  ideal  of  action ;  and  God,  as 
cause  of  all,  is  the  ideal  of  ideals,  the  supreme 
power,  virtue,  and  excellence  to  which  all  contem- 
plation recurs,  and  from  which  all  action  and 
original  energy  proceed.  The  distinctive  excellence 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy  is  identical  with  its 
distinctive  character,  and  consists  in  that  grand 
union  of  abstract  thought,  ima^rinative  decoration, 
emotional  purity,  and  noble  activity,  which  is  the 
model  of  a  complete  and  richly  endowed  humanity. 
The  poetical  element  in  P.,  so  wonderfully  com- 
bined with  the  analytical,  shews  itself  not  only 
in  those  gorgeous  myths  which  form  the  peroration 
of  some  of  nis  profoundest  dialogues,  but  in  that 
very  dialogic  form  itself,  of  which  the  situation  is 
often  extremely  dramatic ;  though  this  form  of  phil- 
osophic discussion  perhaps  owes  its  existence  more 
to  the  lively  temper  ana  out-of-door  habits  of  the 
Greeks,  than  to  the  special  dramatic  talent  of  Plato. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  defects  of  the  Platonic 
philosophy  arise  from  its  essential  one-sidedness,  as 
a  polemical  assertion  of  the  rights  of  thought  against 
the  claims  of  the  mere  senses,  of  the  stability  of  the 
eternal  type  against  the  constant  change  that  char- 
acterises tne  ephemeral  form.  In  his  zeal  to  submit 
all  that  is  extemal  to  the  imperatorifd  power  of 
internal  conception,  the  philosopher  of  ideas  is  apt 
to  forget  the  obstinate  and  unpliable  nature  of  that 
extemal  world  which  he  would  regulate,  and  after 
projecting  a  grand  new  scheme  of  society,  according 
to  what  appears  a  perfect  model,  shews  like  the 
architect  who,  after  drawing  out  the  model  of  a 

667 


PLATO. 


marble  temple,  finds  he  has  only  bricks  to  build 
it  with.  For  this  reason,  extremely  practical  men, 
and  those  who  are  compelled  to  reason  chiefly  by  an 
extensive  induction  from  external  facts,  have  ever 
felt  an  instinctive  aversion  to  the  Platonic  phil- 
osophy ;  and  P.  himself,  by  some  of  the  stranj^ 
and  startling  conclusions,  in  matters  of  social 
science,  to  which  lus  ideal  philosophy  led,  has,  it 
must  be  confessed,  put  into  the  hands  of  his  adver- 
saries the  most  efficient  weapons  by  which  his  ideal 
system  may  be  combated. 

The  starting-point  of  the  Platonic  philosophv,  as, 
indeed,  it  must  be  of  all  philosophy,  properly  sq 
called,  is  the  theory  of  knowledge.  This  is  set 
forth  in  the  TheoBtetua,  the  SophisUs,  and  the  Par- 
tnenkUs;  and  in  the  Cratylus^  the  foundations  are 
laid  for  a  science  of  language,  as  the  necessary 
product  of  a  creature  energising  by  ideas.  The 
Platonic  theory  of  knowledge,  as  developed  in  the 
ThecRtetuSy  will  be  most  readily  understood  by 
ima^ning  the  veiy  reverse  of  that  which  is  vulgarly 
attributed  to  Locke  ;  yiz.^  by  drawing  a  strong  and 
well-marked  line  between  the  province  of  thought 
and  that  of  sensation  in  the  production  of  ideas, 
and  taking  care  that,  in  the  process  of  forming 
conceptions,  the  mind  shall  always  stand  out  as  the 
dominant  factor.  In  other  words,  the  hackneyed 
simile  of  the  sheet  of  blank  paper,  applied  to  the 
mind  by  extreme  sensational  philosophers,  must 
either  be  thrown  away  altogether  or  inverted  ;  the 
more  active  part  of  tiie  operation  must  always  be 
assigned  to  the  mind.  The  formation  of  knowledge, 
according  to  P.,  may  be  looked  on  as  the  gradual 
and  systematic  elimination  of  the  accidental  and 
fleeting  in  the  phenomenon  from  the  necessary 
and  permanent ;  and  the  process  by  which  the 
mind  performs  this  elimination  —and  it  can  be  per- 
formed only  by  mind — is  called  Dialectics.  This 
word,  from  diaUgomalf  originally  sigiiifles  only 
conversational  discussion;  thence,  that  discussion 
conducted  in  such  scientiflo  fashion  as  to  lead  to 
reliable  results,  Le.,  strictly  logicaL  The  product 
of  dialectics  is  ideas,  and  these  ideas  being  the  €idi, 
forms  or  types  of  things  which  are  common  to  all 
the  individuaU  of  a  species,  aU  the  species  of  a 
genus,  all  the  genera  of  a  family,  and  all  the  families 
of  a  class,  generate  classification— that  is,  knowledge 
of  the  permanent  in  phenomena— and  definition, 
which  is  merely  the  articulate  verbal  expression 
of  this  permanency.  The  construction  of  the  con- 
fused results  of  observation  into  the  orderly  array 
of  clear  conceptions,  by  a  sort  of  cross-examinatioh 
of  the  phenomena,  peru)rmed  by  minds  impassioned 
for  truth,  is  exhibited  as  the  great  characteristic  of 
the  teaching  of  Socrates,  in  the  Memorabilia  of 
Xenophon.  in  the  dialogues  of  P.,  the  same  purifi- 
cation of  the  reason,  so  to  speak,  from  the  clouds 
of  indistinct  sensuousness,  is  exhibited  on  a  higher 
platform,  and  with  more  comprehensive  results, 
f'or  between  Socrates  and  P.,  notwithstanding  a 
deep  internal  identity,  there  was  tliis  striking  differ- 
ence in  outward  attitude — ^that  the  one  used  logic 
as  a  practical  instrument  in  the  hands  of  a  great 
social  missionary  and  preacher  of  virtue  ;  while  the 
other  used  it  as  the.  architect  of  a  ^eat  intellectual 
s^tem  of  the  .universe,  first  and  chiefly  for  his  own 
time  and  his  own  place,  but,  as  the  event  has 
proved)  in  some  fashion  also  for  all  times  and  all 
places. 

We  should  err  greatly,  however,  if  we  looked  on 
P.  as  a  man  of  mere  speciilation,  and  a  writer  of 
metaphysical  books,  like  certain  German  professors. 
Keither  P.  nor  any  of  the  great  Greeks  looked  on 
their  intellectual  exercises  and  recreations  as  an  end 
in  themselves.  With  them,  philosophy  did  not 
mean  mere  knowledge  or  mere  specuuition,  but  it 
MS 


meant  wisdom,  and  wisdom  meant  wise  acticm,  and 
wise  action  meant  virtue.     The  philosophy  of  P., 
therefore,  with    all  its    transcendental   flights,  of 
which  we  hear  so  much,  was  essentially  a  practical 
philosophy ;   all  his  discussions  on  the  theory  of 
knowlc^dge  and  the  natiure  of  ideas  are  undertaken 
mainly  tnat  a  system  of  eternal  divine  types,  as  the 
only  reliable  knowledge,  may  serve  as  a  foundation 
for  a  virtuous  life,  as  the  only  consistent  coarse 
of  action.    Virtue,  with  Socrates  and  P.,  is  only 
practical  reason.    As  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon, 
aU  vice  is  folly,  so  in  the  philosophy  cf  P.,  the 
imperial    virtue    is    pkronesia — L  e.,    *  wisdom '   or 
practical  *  insight.*      The  other  two  ereat  Greek 
and  Platonic  virtues — sophrosyne^  *  moderation'  or 
*  souudmindedness,'  and  dikaiosynif  *  justice,'  or  the 
assigning  to  every  act  and  every  function  its  proper 
place — are  equally  exemplifications  of  a  reasonable 
order  applied  to  aiction — such  an  order  as  alone  and 
everywhere  testifies  the  presence  of  mind.     The 
theory  of  morals  as  worked  out  from  such  principles 
is,  of  course,  as  certain  as  the  necessary  laws  of  the 
reason  which  it  expresses;    and  accordingly,  the 
Platonic  morality,   like  the  Christian,  is  of  that 
high    order    which     admits    of     no    compromise 
with    ephemeral  prejudice    or    local    nsa^e.     The 
contrast  between  the  low  moral  standard  of  local 
respectability  and  that  which  is  congruous  with 
the  universal  laws  of  pure  reason,  stands  out  as 
strikingly  in  Plato,  as  the  morality  of  the  Sermon 
on  the  Mount  in  the  Gosi)els  does    against  the 
morality  of  the  Scribes  ana  Pharisees.      Splendid 
passages  to  this  efiect  occurs  in  various  parts  of 
F.'s  writings,  particularly  in  the  Republic  and  Uie 
Oorgiaa,      In  perfect  harmony  with  the  Platonic 
theory  of  noble  action,  is  his  doctrine  with  regard 
to  pure  emotion  and  elevated  passion.     Love  with 
P.  is  a  transcendental  admiration  of  excellence — an 
admiration  of  which  the  soul  is  capable  by  its  own 
high  origination  and  the  germs  of  godlike  excellence, 
which  are  implanted  into  it  from  above.     The  philo- 
sophy of  love  is  set  forth  with  imaginative  grandeur 
in  the  P/uEdrua,  and  with  rich  dram:itic  variety  in 
the  Banquet,  of  which  dialogue  there  is  an  English 
translation  by  Shelley.     The  philosophy  of  beau^ 
and  the  theory  of  pleasure  are  set  forth  with  great 
analytic    acuteness    in    the    Philebus,      With   P., 
the   foundation   of   beauty  is  a   reasonable  order, 
addressed  to  the   imagination  through  the  senses 
— L  e.,  symmetry  in  form,  and  harmony  in  sounds, 
the  principles  of  which  are  as  certain  as  the  laws  of 
logic,  mathematics,  and  morals — all  equally  neces- 
sary products  of  eternal  intellect,  acting  by  the 
creation  and  by  the  comprehension  of  well-oniered 
forms,  and  well-harmonisecl  forces,  in  rich  and  various 
play  through  the  living  frame  of  the  universe ;  and 
the  ultimate  ground  of    this   lofty  and   coherent 
doctrine    of    intellectual,    moral,    and    sostheticsl 
harmonies  lies  with  P.,  where  alone  it  can  lie,  in 
the  unity  of  a  supreme,  reasonable,    self -existent 
intelligence,  whom  we  call  God,  the  fountain  of  all 
force,  and  the  creator  of  all  order  in  the  universe ; 
the  sum  of  whose  most  exalted  attributes,  and  the 
substantial  essence  of    whose  perfection   may,  as 
contrasted  with  our  finite  and  partial   aspects  of 
things,  be  expressed  by  the  simple  term  to  agaffn'tn — 
the  Good.     From  this  supreme  and   all-excellent 
intelligence,  human  souls  are  offshoots,  emanations, 
or  sparks,  in  such  a  fashion,  that  they  partake  essen- 
tially of  the  essential  nature  of  the   source  fn>m 
which  they  proceed,  and  accordingly  p<»sess  unity 
as  their  most   characteristic  quality,   attest  their 
presence   everywhere  by  a   unifying   force   which 
acts  by  impressing  a  type  on  whatever  materi-ds 
are  submitted  to  it,  and  is  filled  ^ith  a  native  joy 
in  the  perception  of  such  types,  the  product  of 


PLATO-PLATOFF. 


the  same  diyine  principle  of  unity,  wheresoever 
presented.  The  undivided  unity  and  unifying  force 
which  we  call  the  soul  is  immortal,  being  &om 
its  nature  altogether  unaffected  by  the  changes  of 
decay  aud  dissolution  to  which  the  complex  struc- 
ture of  the  material  human  body  is  ez^)osed.  The 
doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul  is  most  fully 
Bet  forth  in  the  PhcedOf  a  dialogue  which  combines 
with  the  abstract  philosophical  discussion,  a  graphic 
narrative  of  the  last  hours  of  Socrates,  which,  for 
simple  pathos  and  unaffected  dignity,  is  unsurpassed 
by  any  human  composition. 

The  most  complete  and  systematic  exhibition  of 
the  opinions  of  P.  will  be  found  in  the  Hepvhlic,  or 
ideal  commonwealth,  of  which  an  excellent  English 
translation  has  been  recently  made  by  Davies  and 
Vaughan.  The  RepuMic  is  not,  as  the  title  would 
lead  us  to  suppose,  a  political  work,  like  the  Politics 
of  Aristotle.  It  is,  as  Baron  Bunsen  well  remarked, 
not  so  much  a  state  as  a  church  with  which  this 
great  work  has  to  do ;  or  at  least,  both  a  state  and 
a  church ;  and  the  church  is  the  superior  and  domi- 
nating  element.  In  the  Pepuhlie,  accordingly,  we 
find  the  necessity  of  virtue  to  the  very  idea  of 
social  life  proved  m  the  first  book  ;  then  the  whole 
process  of  a  complete  moral  and  scientific  education 
18  set  forth  wiui  such  fulness  as  to  throw  the 
strictly  political  part  of  the  book,  including  the 
germs  of  what  is  now  called  political  economy,  very 
much  into  the  shade.  The  principles  and  govern- 
ment of  an  ideal  moral  organism,  of  which  the 
rulers  shall  be  tyx>e8  of  fully  developed  and  per- 
fectly educated  men,  is  the  real  subject  of  the 
RepuhliCj  which  accordingly  forms  a  remarkable 
contrast  to  the  inductive  results  of  the  thoroughly 

fractical  work  of  Aristotle  on  the  same  subject. 
\^B  commonwealth  is  a  theoretical  construction 
of  a  perfect  ideal  state  of  society;  Aristotle's  is 
a  practical  discussion  on  the  best  form  of  political 

government  possible  under  existing  conditions, 
^f  the  value  of  P.'s  work,  both  suggestively  in  the 
world  of  politics,  and  dogmatically  in  the  region 
of  moral  and  religious  speculation,  there  can  be  no 
doubt;  but  as  a  practical  treatise  on  politics,  it  is 
vitiated  throughout,  both  by  its  originalscheme,  and 
by  an  inherent  vice  in  the  author's  mind,  which  pre- 
vented him  from  recognising  the  force  of  the  actual 
in  that  degree  which  necessarily  belongs  to  such  a 
complex  art  as  hiiman  government.  Of  this  fault, 
the  author  was  himself  sufficiently  conscious,  and 
has  accordingly,  in  another  large  political  treatise, 
the  LaioBf  endeavoured,  for  practical  purposes,  to 
make  some  sort  of  compromise  between  the  trans- 
cendental scheme  of  his  CommonioeaWi  and  the  con- 
ditions of  existing  society.  But  however  he  might 
modify  individual  opinions,  there  was  a  one-sided- 
nesa  about  P.'s  mind,  which  rendered  it  impossible 
for  him  to  stniggle  successfully  with  the  diffi- 
culties of  complex  practical  politics.  He  was  too 
much  possessed  with  the  idea  of  order,  and,  mure- 
over,  had  planted  himself  with  too  manifest  a 
polemical  attitude  against  Athenian  democracy,  to 

give  due  weight  to  the  opposite  principle  of  free- 
om,  proved  by  experience  to  be  so  indispensable  to 
every  healthy  and  vigorous  political  development. 

Physical  science,  in  the  days  of  P.,  stood  on  no 
basis  efficiently  sure  or  broad  to  authorise  a  philo- 
sophy of  the  material  universe  with  any  prospect 
of  Bucctisa.  Nevertheless,  in  his  Timeeus,  the  great 
philosopher  of  ideas  has  attempted  this;  and  it 
18  a  work  which,  however  valueless  in  the  face  of 
the  grand  results  of  modem  chemical  and  kinetical 
reeearcii,  will  ever  be  consulted  with  advantage,  as 
*  grand  constructive  summary  of  the  most  import- 
ant facts  and  theories  of  nature,  known  to  the 
Greeka,  before  the  accurate  observations  of  Aristotle, 


and  the  extended  mathematics  of  the  Alexandrian 
school.    The  great  question  as  to  what  matter  is, 
and  whence,  P.  nowhere  seems  to  settle  very  clearly ; 
but  the  general  tendency  of  ancient  thought  was 
towards  a  dualism,  which  recognised    the    inde- 
pendent existence  of  a  not  very  tractable  element 
called  matter,  in  which  P.  seems  to  have  acquiesced. 
The  works  of  P.  were  extensively  studied  by  the 
Church  Fathers,  one  of  whom  joyfully  recognises,  in 
the  great  teacher  of  the  Academy,  the  schoolmaster 
who,  in  the  fulness  of  time,  was  destined  to  educate 
the  heathen  for  Christ,  as  Moses  did  the  Jews.     A 
loftv  passion  for  P.  likewise  seized  the   literary 
circle  of  the  Medici  at  the  period  of  the  revival  of 
letters  in  Italy.   Since  that  time,  the  tyrannous  sway 
of  Aristotle,  characteristic  of  the  middle  i^es,  hai» 
always  been  kept  in  check  by  a  strong  band  of 
enthusiastic  Platonists  in  various  parts  of  Euroi)e. 
Since  the  French  Hevolution  particularly,  the  study 
of  Plato  has  been  pursued  with  renewed  vigour  in 
Germany,  France,  and  England;  and  many  of  our 
distinguished  authors,  without   expressly  profess- 
ing  Platonism — as   CJoleridge,    Wordsworth,    Mrs 
Browning,    Buskin,    &c— l^ve    formed   a   strons 
and  a  growing  party  of  adherents,  who  could  find 
no  common    banner  under  w^ich  they  could  at 
once  so  conveniently  and  so  honourably  muster  as 
that   of   Plata      The  amount  of  learned   labour 
expended  on  the  text  of  Plato  during  the  present 
century,  has  been  in  proportion ;  and  in  this  depart- 
ment the  names  of  Betker,  Ast,   and   Stallbaum 
stand    pre-eminent.      Professor   Jowett    also,    in 
Oxford,  has  made  P.  his  standxu*d  author  for  many 
years ;  and  a  new  edition  of  the  works  of  the  philo- 
sopher is  expected  immediately  from  his  hand.    Mr 
Grote,  the  historian  of  Greece,  is  engaged  in  a  work 
on  P.,  which  is  understood  to  be  nearly  finished. 
One  of  the  best  accounts  of  the  Platonic  philosophy 
in  the  English  language  will  be  found  m  Archer 
Butler's  liUtory  of  Greek  PhUosophy,^  vol.  ii 

PLATOFF,  Matvei  Ivanovitch,  Count,  the 
Hetman  of  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don,  and  a  Russian 
cavalry  general,  was  bom  on  the  banl^s  of  the  Don, 
6th  August  1757,  and  was  descended  from  an 
ancient  and  noble  family,  which  had  emigrated 
from  Greece.  Havine  acquired  a  considerable  repu- 
tation for  wisdom  and  bravery,  he  was  appointed  by 
the  Czar  Alexander  L  Hetman  of  the  Cossacks ;  ana 
subsequently,  as  a  lieutenant-general  in  the  Russia 
army,  and  aiterwards  as  comnyinder  of  the  Russian 
irregular  cavalry,  he  took  a  prominent  part  in  the 
wars  both  with  France  and  Turkev.  After  the 
French  had  evacuated  Moscow,  and  retreated,  P. 
hung  upon  their  rear  with  the  utmost  pertinacity, 
wearying  them  out  by  incessant  attacks,  cutting  off 
straggling  parties,  capturinj||  their  convoys  of  pro- 
visions, and  keeping  them  m  a  state  of  continual 
terror  and  apprehension.  The  French  historians 
state  that  Bonaparte's  army  suffered  more  loss  from 
the  attacks  of  P.'s  Cossacks  than  from  privation  and 
exhaustion.  He  defeated  Lefebvre  at  Altenburg. 
After  the  rout  of  the  French  at  Leipzig,  he  inflicted 
great  loss  upon  them  in  their  retread  and  subse- 
quently gained  a  victory  over  them  at  Laon.  The 
inhabitants  of  Seine-et-Mame  will  long  remember 
him  by  the  devastations  and  pillage  committed  by 
his  undisciplined  bands.  He  was  enthusiastically 
welcomed  by  the  Parisians  (to  their  shame),  and 
also  by  the  English,  who  presented  him  with  a 
sword  of  honour  on  the  occasion  of  his  visit  to 
London  in  company  with  Marshal  BlUcher.  The 
allied  monarchs  loaded  him  with  honoiuv  and  deco- 
rations, and  the  czar  gave  him  the  title  of  CoimtL 
He  retired  to  his  own  country,  there  to  mourn  the 
death  of  his  only  son  who  had  been  killed  in  the 
campaign  of  1812  and  died  near  Tcherkask  in  1818. 


PLATONIC  LOVE-PLAUTUS. 


N'o  other  Russian  general  ever  exercised  sacb  an 
influence  over  the  men  under  his  command,  and 
their  awe  of  him  was  uot  sreater  than  their 
affection ;  but  this  was  doubUess  owing  to  the 
inflexible  and  8pee<ly  justice  which  he  administered 
to  them,  and  to  the  freedom  with  which  he  left 
them  to  rob  and  pillage. 

PLATO'NIO  LOVE,  the  name  given  to  an  affec- 
tion subsisting  between  two  persons  of  different  sex, 
.  which  is  presumed  to  be  unaccompanied  by  any 
sensuoiia  emotions,  and  to  be  based  on  moral  or 
intellectual  affinities.  The  expression  has  originated 
in  the  view  of  Plato,  who  held  that  the  common 
sexual  love  of  the  race,  harassed  and  afflicted  with 
fleshly  longings,  is  only  a  subordinate  form  of  that 
perfect  and  ideal  love  of  truth  which  the  soul  should 
cultivate.  Whether  such  a  sentiment  as  Platonic 
love  can  really  subsist  between  persons  of  different 
sex,  has  been  frequently  disputed;   but  without 

Sronouncing  positively  on  a  ix>int  so  delicate,  and 
e|>endin^  so  much  on  differences  in  our  spiritual 
organisation,  it  may  be  safelv  affirmecC  that 
wherever  a  feeling — calling  itself  by  this  name — 
exists,  it  has  undoubtedly  a  tendency  to  develop 
into  something  more  deflmte  and  dangerous. 

PLATOO'N  (probably  from  the  French  ndoton) 
was  a  term  formerly  used  to  designate  a  body  of 
troops  who  flred  together.  A  battalion  was  com- 
monly divided  into  16  platoons,  and  each  company 
into  two  platoons,  the  j)latoon  thus  corresponding 
to  the  present  subdivision.  The  word  is  obsolete 
in  this  its  original  sense  ;  but  it  survives  in  the 
expression  '  platoon  exercise,'  which  is  the  course  of 
motions  in  connection  with  handling,  loading,  and 
firing  the  musket  or  rifle. 

PLATTR    See  Nebraska. 

PLATTBN-SEE.    See  Balaton. 

PLATTSliURG,  a  village  of  New  York,  XJ.S., 
on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Saranac,  which  furnishes  water-power 
to  several  mills  and  factories.  It  has  a  custom- 
house, academy,  and  nine  churches.  In  Plattsburg 
Bay  was  fought  the  naval  battle  of  Champlain,  in 
which  the  British  flotilla,  under  Commodore 
Downie,  was  defeated  by  the  American  commodore 
M^Donough,  September  11,  1814;  while  the  land 
forces,  amounting  to  14,000  men,  under  Sir  George 
Prfivost,  were  defeated  by  General  Macomb.  Pop. 
in  I860,  6680. 

PLA'TYPUa    See  Duck-bill. 

PLATYSTO'MA  (Gr.  broad-mouth),  a  genus  of 
^hes  of  the  family  SilurulcR^  having  a  very  flat 
(depressed)  snout,  and  a  very  large  mouth  with  six 
long  barbels ;  the  skin  quite  destitute  of  scales ; 
two  dorsal  flus;  the  eyes  lateral,  level  with  the 
nostrils.  The  species  are  numerous,  some  of  them 
attaining  a  large  size,  many  of  them  notable  for 
their  distinct  and  conspicuous  markings.  Several 
are  natives  of  the  rivers  of  the  north-east  of  Soutl; 
America;  and  among  these  are  some  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  delicious  of  fresh- water  fishes,  as  P, 
tigrinuniy  known  among  different  tribes  of  Indians 
by  various  names — Corutio^  Colite,  Oronnij  &a, 
which  has  an  elongated  body,  light  blue,  trans- 
versely streaked  wnth  black  and  white,  and  a 
spreading  forked  tail.  It  is  both  taken  by  baited 
hooks  and  shot  with  arrows  by  Indians,  as  are 
several  other  species,  some  of  which  are  found  as 
far  south  as  Buenos  Ayres. 

PLAU'EN,  an  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Saxony,  in  a  beautiful  valley  on  the  White  Elster, 
74  miles  south  of  Leipzig  by  railway.  It  was  the 
chief  town  of  the  Saxon  Voigiland  (q.  v.),  and  its 
castle  was  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  Voigt, 

690 


or  advocate,  but  is  now  used  as  the  seat  of  justice 
and  other  courts.  P.  contains  a  gymnasium,  a 
royal  palace,  and  numerous  educational  and  he9se> 
volent  institutions.  It  carries  on  extensive  mana- 
factures  of  muslin,  cambric,  and  jaconet  goods,  as 
well  as  embroidered  fabrics  and  cotton  goods.  la 
September  1844,  150  buildings  were  destroyed  by 
tire,  and  after  that  event,  &e  town  was  ahnost 
wholly  rebuilt    Pop.  14,817. 

PLAUTUS,  M.  Aocius,  or,  more  correctly,  T, 
Maccivs,  the  great  comic  poet  of  Rome,  was  bom 
about  254  B.a  at  Sarsina,  a  village  of  Umbria. 
We  have  no  knowledge  of  his  early  life  and  educa- 
tion ;  but  it  is  probable  that  he  came  to  Rome  while 
still  a  youth,  and  there  acquired  a  complete  mastery 
of  the  Latin  language  in  its  most  idiomatic  form,  as 
well  as  an  extensive  familiarity  with  Greek  hte^ 
ature.  It  is  uncertain  whether  he  ever  obtained 
the  Roman  franchise.  His  first  employment  was 
with  the  actors,  in  whose  service  he  saved  an  amount 
of  money  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  leave  Rome 
and  commence  business  on  his  own  account.  What 
the  nature  of  this  business  was,  or  where  he  carried 
it  on,  we  are  not  informed ;  we  know,  however,  that 
he  failed  in  it,  and  returned  to  Rome,  where  he 
had  to  earn  his  livelihood  in  the  service  of  a  baker, 
with  whom  he  was  engaged  in  turning  a  hand-milL 
At  this  time — a  few  years  before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Second  Punic  War — he  was  probably  about  30 
years  of  age;  and  while,  emploved  in  his  humble 
occiipation,  he  composed  three  plays,  which  he  sold 
to  the  managers  of  the  public  games,  and  from  the 
proceeds  of  which  he  was  enabled  to  leave  the  mill, 
and  turn  his  hand  to  more  congenial  work.  The 
commencement  of  his  literary  career  may,  therefore, 
be  fixed  al>out  224  b.  c,  from  which  date  he  con- 
tinued to  produce  comedies  with  wonderful  fertility, 
till  184,  when  he  died  in  his  70th  year.  He 
was  at  first  contemporary  with  Livius  Andronicus 
and  Nfflvitis;  subsequently  with  £nnius  and 
CflBcilius. 

Of  his  numerous  plays — 130  of  which  bore  his 
name  in  the  last  century  of  the  republic — only  20 
have  come  down  to  us.  Many  of  them,  however, 
were  regarded  as  spurious  by  the  Roman  critics, 
among  whom  Varro  in  his  treatise  {Qu(r«tion^£ 
PUiutina:)  limits  the  genuine  comedies  of  the  poet 
to  21.  With  the  exception  of  the  2l8t,  ihene 
Varronian  comedies  are  the  same  as  thoee  we  now 
possess.  Their  titles,  arranged  (with  the  exception 
of  the  Bacchi(les)  in  alphal^etical  order,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  1,  Ainphitn/o;  %Asinaria;  3,  Aulularh;  4, 
Captivi;  5,  Vurcutio;  6,  Ca&ina;  7,  CisieUaria ;  8, 
Epulicus ;  9,Bacchid€s;  10,  MoMeUaria;  II,  Men- 
cechmi;  12,  Miles;  13,  Mercator ;  14,  PsfiiMus; 
15,  P(enulu8;  16,  Persa;  17,  Rudejis;  18,  Stichtu; 
19,  Trinummus ;  20,  TrucuUnius;  21,  l^uiularia. 
As  a  conuc  writer,  Plautus  enjoyed  immense  popu- 
larity amons  the  Romans,  and  held  ^lossession  of 
the  stage  aown  to  the  time  of  Diocletian.  The 
vivacity,  the  humour,  and  the  rapid  action  of  his 
plays,  as  well  as  his  skill  in  constructing  plots, 
commanded  the  admiration  of  the  educateil  no  less 
than  of  the  unlettered  Romans ;  while  the  fact  that 
he  was  a  national  poet  prepossessed  his  audiences 
in  his  favour.  Altnough  he  laid  the  Greek  comic 
drama  under  heavy  contributions,  and  'adapted' 
the  plots  of  Menander,  Diphilus,  and  Philemon 
with  all  the  license  of  a  modem  playwright,  he 
always  preserved  the  style  and  character  native  to 
the  Romans,  and  reproduced  the  life  and  intellectual 
tone  of  the  people  in  a  way  that  at  once  conciliated 
their  sympathies.  The  admiration  in  which  he  was 
held  by  nis  contemporaries  descended  to  Cicero 
and  St  Jerome;  while  he  has  found  imitators  in 
Shakspeare,  MoHbre,  Dryden,  Addison,  and  lieeaing, 


PLAYFAER^PLEBEIANS. 


and  translators  in  moat  European  countries.  The 
only  complete  translation  of  bis  works  into  flnglish 
is  that  by  Thornton  and  Warner  (5  vols.,  1767 
— 1774).  Unfortunately  the  text  of  his  plays,  as 
they  have  come  down  to  us,  is  in  such  a  very 
corrupt  state,  so  defective  from  lacunae,  and  so 
filled  with  interpolations,  that  much  yet  remains  to 
be  done  by  the  ^.-ammarian  and  the  commentator 
before  they  can  be  read  with  full  appreciation  or 
comfort.  Of  complete  editions,  the  best  are  those 
of  Weise  and  Fleckeisen  ;  while  those  plays  edited 
by  Eitschl  are  treated  with  such  admirable  acute- 
ness  and  learning  as  to  cause  regret  that  they  are 
yet  so  few. 

PLAYFAIB,  John,  a  Scottish  mathematician 
and  natural  philosopher,  was  bom  at  Benvie  in 
Forfarshire,  March  10,  1748.  His  father,  who 
was  minister  of  the  united  parishes  of  Liff  and 
Benvie,  sent  him  to  the  university  of  St  Andrews 
at  the  age  of  14,  to  study  with  a  view  to  the 
ministry ;  and  here  P.  obtained  great  reputation 
as  a  diligent  and  successful  student,  especially 
in  mathematics  and  natural  philosophy;  so  much 
so,  that  while  a  student,  he  for  some  time  dis- 
charged the  duties  of  the  Natural  Philosophy  chair 
during  the  illness  of  the  professor.  In  1773,  he 
entered  the  ministry,  and  succeeded  hia  father 
in  the  parish  of  Liff  and  Benvie.  During  his  leisure 
hours,  he  still  prosecuted  his  favourite  studies,  the 
fruits  of  these  labours  being  two  memoirs.  On  the 
Arithmetic  of  Impossible  Quantities,  and  Account  of 
the  Litkologiccd  Swvey  of  Schihallion,  which  were 
communicated  to  the  Koyal  Society  of  London. 
In  1782,  he  resigned  his  ])arochial  charge,  to  super- 
intend the  education  of  the  sons  of  Mr  Ferguson 
of  Kaith ;  and  in  1785,  he  became  joint-professor 
of  Mathematics  alon^  with  Adam  Ferguson  in 
the  university  of  Edmburgh ;  but  exchanged  his 
chair  for  that  of  Natural  I^hilosophy  in  1805.  He 
took  the  part  of  Mr  (afterwards  Sir  John)  Leslie 
(q.  v.),  his  successor  in  the  Mathematical  chair,  and 
published  a  pamphlet  full  of  biting  satire  against 
the  'new-sprung  zeal  for  orthodoxy.*  He  became 
a  strenuous  supporter  of  the  '  Huttonian  theory'  in 
geology,  and  aiter  publishing  his  Illustrations  of 
the  Huttonian  Theory  of  the  Earth  (Edin.  1802),  he 
made  many  journeys  for  the  sake  of  more  exten- 
sive observations,  particularly  in  1815,  when  he 
visited  France,  Switzerland,  and  Italy.  He  died 
at  E<iinburgh,  19th  Julv  1819.  P.,  according  to 
Jeffrey  {Annual  Biography,  1820),  *  possessed  in  the 
highest  degree  all  the  characteristics  both  of  a  fine 
and  a  powerful  understanding ;  at  once  penetrating 
and  v.gilant,  but  more  distinguished,  perhaps,  by 
the  caution  and  success  of  its  march,  than  by  the 
bHlliancy  or  rapidity  of  its  movements.'  P.  was, 
during?  the  later  part  of  his  life.  Secretary  to  the 
Koyal  Society  of  Edinburgh.  From  1804,  he  was  a 
frequent  contributor  to  the  Edinburgh  Review,  criti- 
cising the  works  of  Laplace,  Zach,  and  Kater,  and 
the  great  trigonometrical  surveys,  both  French  and 
£DgLi8h,  which  had  just  been  com]>leted.  He  also 
wrote  the  articles  *  ^pinus '  and  '  Physical  Astro- 
nomy,' and  an  incomplete  '  Dissertation  on  the 
Progress  of  Mathematical  and  Physical  Science,*  for 
the  Encyclopcedia  Britannica.  His  contributions  to 
the  Transactions  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh 
are  numerous  and  exceedingly  varied,  a  treatise  on 
*  ^aval  Tactics '  even  appearing  among  them.  His 
separate  works  are  the  Elements  of  Geometry 
(Cdin.  1795),  containing  the  first  six  books  of  Euclid, 
^vith  supplementary  articles  on  Trigonometry,  SoUd 
Creometiy,  and  the  Quadrature  of  the  Circle;  and 
hia  (Jutlines  of  Naiural  Philosophy  (Edin.  1812  and 
1816),  bein^  the  heads  of  his  lectures  deUvered  in 
the  university  on  that  subjects    A  third  volume  oi 


the  Outlines,  completing  the  work,  was  promised, 
but  never  appeared. 

PLEA  is  a  technical  term  in  the  law  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  In  England,  it  has  a  very 
restricted  meaning,  being  contined  to  the  pleading 
of  a  defendant  to  an  action  at  common  law. 
It  has  a  similar,  though  still  more  restricted 
meaning  when  used  in  Chancery  proceedings. — In 
Scotland,  it  is  not  used  in  the  same  sense,  but 
denotes  the  short  legal  ground  on  which  a  party, 
whether  pursuer  or  defender,  bases  his  case  or 
pleading.  Hence  the  pleas  in  law  are  only  short 
propositions  of  law.  Pleas  are  subdivided  according 
to  their  subject-matter,  into  pleas  dilatory  and 
peremptory,  pleas  of  abatement,  pleas  to  the  juris- 
diction. Pleas  in  bar  are  the  same  as  peremptory 
pleas  ;  but  in  criminal  cases  in  England,  special 
pleas  in  bar  are  pleas  stating  some  ground  for  not 
proceeding  with  the  indictment,  such  as  a  plea  of 
former  acquittal,  or  autrefois  acquit ;  or  of  conviction, 
or  autrefois  convict;  or  a  plea  of  pardon. —  In 
ScotLind,  a  *  plea  of  panel '  means  a  plea  of  guilty  or 
not  guilty.  Pleas  of  the  crown  was  an  expression 
anciently  used  to  denote  the  divisions  of  criminal 
offences  generally,  as  in  the  well-known  work  called 
Pleas  ofiliA  Crown,  by  Sir  Matthew  Halo,  and  other 
writers.  The  phrase  was  so  used  because  the 
sovereign  was  supposed  in  law  to  be  the  j^erson 
injured  by  every  wrong  done  to  the  community, 
and  therefore  was  the  prosecutor  for  every  such 
offence. 

PLEADING,  as  a  Legal  term,  has  two  meanings 
— a  restricted  and  a  general  meaning.  In  the  former 
sense,  it  is  a  generic  term  to  denote  the  written 
formula  containing  the  subject-matter  of  a  litigant's 
demand,  or  claim,  or  of  his  defence  or  answer 
thereto.  In  its.  general  sense,  it  denotes  that  system 
of  rules  on  which  the  particular  pleadincs  of  liti* 
gants  are  framed.  In  tiie  practice  of  English 
common  law,  the  pleadings  in  an  action  are 
called  the  declaration,  plea,  replication,  rejoinder, 
surrejoinder,  rebutter,  surrebutter,  &c — the  first 
being  a  statement  of  the  plaintiifs  demand;  the 
second,  the  defence  thereto,  and  so  on,  each  alter- 
nately answering  the  other,  until  the  parties  arrive 
at  a  stop,  called  an  issue,  which  means  a  proposition 
of  fact,  which  the  one  affirms,  and  the  other  denies. 
When  an  issue  is  arrived  at,  the  parties  can  go  no 
further ;  and  the  next  step  is  to  send  the  issue  before  ■ 
a  jury,  that  they  may  decide  it  When  the  parties 
differ,  not  on  a  question  of  fact,  but  on  one  of  law, 
it  is  called  a  demurrer,  which  must  be  decided  by 
the  court.  In  the  practice  of  the  Enghsh  Court  of 
Chancery,  the  pleaaings  are  called  by  other  names. 
The  suit  begins  either  by  a  bill  or  a  petition,  or  a 
summons  on  the  part  of  the  plaintiff,  and  the 
defendant's  pleading  is  called  the  answer.  In 
Scotland,  the  pleadings  of  the  parties  are  called  the 
summons  (including  the  condescendence),  the 
defences  or  answers,  the  revised  condescendence, 
the  revised  answers,  &c.  The  peculiar  technical 
ndes  to  which  the  pleadings  of  parties  must  con- 
form, are  capable  of  being  understood  only  by 
lawyers. 

PLEBEI'ANS  (Lat.  pUSbs,  from  same  root  as  Lat. 
hnpleo,  to  till ;  and  Gr.  plethos,  multitude),  tho 
common  people  of  Bome ;  one  of  the  two  elements 
of  which  the  fioman  nation  consisted.  Their  origin, 
as  a  separate  class,  is  to  be  traced  partly  to  natural, 
and  partly  to  artificial  causes.  The  foimdation  of 
Bome,  probably  as  a  frontier-emporium  of  Latin 
traffic  (according  to  Mommsen's  suggestion),  would 
bring  about  the  place  a  number  of  inferior  employU, 
clients,  or  hangers-on,  of  the  enterprising  coni- 
meroial  agriculturists,  who  laid  the  primitive  basif 

Ml 


PLEBISGIT£-PLEIA1)E& 


of  the  material  and  moral  prosperity  of  the  city; 
These  hangers-on  were  the  original  plebeians,  or 
non-biirgeBses  of  Rome,  whoee  numbers  were  con- 
stantly mcreased  by  the  subjugation  of  the  sur- 
rounding cities  and  states.  Thus,  tradition  states 
that,  on  the  capture  of  Alba,  while  the  most  distin- 
guished citizens  of  that  town  were  received  amonj^; 
the  Roman  ^tricians,  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, likewise  transferred  to  Rome,  were  kept  in 
submission  to  the  popvlus  or  patricians  of  Rome — 
in  other  words,  swelled  the  ranks  of  the  plebeians. 
Similar  transfers  of  some  of  the  inhabitants  of 
conquered  towns  are  assisned  to  the  reign  of  Ancus 
MartiusL  The  order  oi  jdebeians  thus  gradually 
formed,  soon  exceeded  the  natricians  in  numbers, 
partly  inhabiting  Rome,  ana  partly  the  adjoining 
country.  Thougn  citizens,  they  were  neither  com- 
prehended in  the  three  tribes,  nor  in  the  curies,  nor 
in  the  patrician  penfes,  and  were  therefore  excluded 
from  the  comitia,  the  senate,  and  all  the  civil  and 
priestly  offices  of  the  state.  They  could  not  inter- 
many  with  the  patricians. 

The  first  step  (according  to  traditionary  belief) 
towards  breakmg  down  the  barrier  between  the 
two  classes  was  the  admission,  under  Tarquinius 
Prisons,  of  some  of  the  more  considerable  plebeian 
families  into  the  three  tribe«.  Servius  Tuliius 
divided  the  part  of  the  city  and  the  adjacent  country 
which  was  inhabited  by  plebeians,  into  regions  or 
local  tribes,  assigning  land  to  those  plebeians  who 
were  yet  without  it.  The  plebeian  tribes  with 
tribunes  at  their  head,  formed  an  organisation 
similar  to  that  of  the  patricians.  The  same  king 
further  extended  the  rights  of  the  plebeians  by 
dividing  the  whole  body  of  citizens,  patrician  and 
plebeian,  into  five  classes,  according  to  their  wealth, 
and  forming  a  great  national  assembly  called  the 
Comitia  Centuriatct,  in  which  the  plebeians  met  the 
patricians  on  a  footing  of  equality ;  but  the  patri- 
cians continued  to  be  alone  eligible  to  the  senate, 
the  highest  magistracy,  and  iSie  priestly  offices. 
These  newly-aoquired  privileges  were  lost  in  the 
reign  of  Tarquinius  Superbus,  but  restored  on  the 
establishment  of  the  Republic  Soon  afterwards, 
the  vacancies  which  had  occurred  in  the  senate 
during  the  rei^^n  of  the  last  kins,  were  filled  up  by 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  plebeian  e^uites,  and 
the  plebeians  acquired  a  variety  of  new  privileges  by 
the  laws  of  Valerius  Publioola.  The  encroachments 
on  those  privileges  on  the  part  of  the  patricians, 
began  the  long-continued  struggle  between  the  two 
orders,  which  eventually  led  to  the  plebeians  gaining 
access  to  all  the  civil  and  religious  offices,  acquiring 
for  their  decrees  (Mnscita)  the  force  of  law.  Under 
the  Hortensian  law  (286  B.C.),  the  two  hostile 
classes  were  at  last  amalgamated  in  one  general  body 
of  Roman  citizens  with  equal  rights.  Henceforth, 
the  term  poptUua  is  sometimes  applied  to  the 
plebeians  alone,  sometimes  to  the  whole  body  of 
citizens  assembled  in  the  Comitia  Genturiaia  or 
Tributa,  and  pl^  is  occasionally  used  in  a  loose 
way  for  the  multitude  or  populace,  in  opposition  to 
the  senatorial  party.    See  Patrician. 

PLEBISCITE,  the  name  given,  in  the  political 
phraseology  of  modem  France,  to  a  decree  of  the 
nation  obtained  by  an  appeal  to  universal  suffrage. 
Thus,  Louis  Napoleon,  tor  example,  was  chosen 
president,  and  subsequently  emperor,  bjr  a  plebiscite. 
The  word  is  borrowed  from  the  Latin ;  but  the 
pUbiedtum  of  the  Romans  mroperly  meant  only  a 
law  passed  at  the  Comitia  STn&uto,  L  &,  assembly 
of  the  plebSj  or '  commons,'  as  distinguished  from  the 
poptihu,  or  the  '  nobles  ;*  and  although  it  was  ulti- 
mately obligatory  on  both  classes  of  the  community, 
it,  of  course,  could  only  refer  to  such  matters  as  it 
within  the  province  of  the  CoTtiUia  Tr&nUa  to 


legislate  upon,  and  could  not  fundamentally  alter  or 
destroy  the  constituticm.  • 

PLEGTOGNATHI,  in  the  system  of  Curiei; 
and  also  in  that  of  MUller,  an  order  of  osseoos 
fishes,  but  having  the  skeleton  less  perfectly 
ossified  than  osseous  fishes  generally  ;  the  skin 
furnished  with  ganoid  scales  or  spines ;  and  }iarti- 
cularly  characterised  bv  having  tiie  maxillary  and 
premaxillarv  bones  anchylosed  or  soldered  together. 
The  gill-lid  and  rays  are  concealed  under  the 
thick  skin,  with  only  a  small  opening.  The  ribs 
are  very  short,  and  there  are  no  distinctly  deve- 
loped ventral  fins.  The  fishes  belonging  to  this 
oraer  are  not  many.  They  are  regarded  as  a 
connecting  link  between  we  osseous  and  the 
cartilaginous  fishes. 

PLEDGE  is  the  depositing  of  a  chattel  or  mov- 
able with  a  creditor  in  security  of  a  debt,  and  is  a 
contract  between  the  parties  that  the  pledgee  shall 
keep  the  chattel  till  the  debt  is  paid.  In  Kngland, 
when  A  pledges  property  with  B  for  a  debt,  and 
other  debts  are  incurred,  B  cannot  retain  tiie 
pledge  for  the  additional  debts ;  but  in  Scotland, 
this  can  be  done.  When  chattels  are  pledged  in 
England  for  debt,  the  pledgee  may  sell  the  giKxla,  if 
the  debt  is  not  paid  at  the  time  agreed,  or  within 
a  reasonable  time  after  notice  given;  but  in  Scotland 
this  can  only  be  done  by  getting  the  authority  of 
the  sheriff  and  a  warrant  to  sell  the  goods.  Owing 
to  the  frequent  occasions  of  poor  and  needy  persona 
to  pledge  their  goods  in  order  to  procure  aavances 
of  money  for  temporary  punKMies,  the  legislature 
has  enacted  a  code  of  special  laws  to  regulate  these 
contracts.    See  Pawnbrokino. 

PLEI'ADES,  in  Greek  Mythology,  were,  accord- 
ing to  the  most  general  account,  the  seven  daughters 
of  Atlas  and  Pleione,  the  daughter  of  Oceanna.  llieir 
history  is  differently  related  oy  the  Greek  mytholo- 
gists:  according  to  some  authorities,  they  com- 
mitted suicide  from  grief,  either  at  the  death  of  their 
sisters,  the  Hyades,  or  at  the  fate  of  their  father. 
Atlas  (q.  V.) ;  according  to  others,  they  were  com- 
panions of  Artemis  (Diana),  and  being  pursued  by 
Orion  (q.  v.),  were  rescued  from  him  by  the  gods  by 
being  translated  to  the  sky ;  all  authorities,  how- 
ever, agree  that,  after  their  death  or  translation, 
they  were  transformed  into  starsL  Only  six  of  these 
stars  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye,  and  the  ancients 
believed  that  the  seventh  hid  herself  from  shame 
that  she  alone  of  the  P.  had  married  a  mortal, 
while  her  six  sisters  were  the  spouses  of  diflierent 
gods.  Their  names  are  Electra,  Maia,  Taygete, 
Alcyone,  Celteno,  Sterope  (the  invisible  one),  and 
Merope. 

In  Astronomy,  a  gronp  or  oonstellatioii  of  six  stan 
placed  on  the  shoiuder  of  Taurus,  the  second  sign 
of  the  2«odiac,  and  forming,  with  the  pole>star  and 
the  twin  Castor  and  PoUux,  the  three  angular 
points  of  a  figure  which  is  nearly  an  equilateral 
triangle.  Many  believe,  from  the  uniform  agree- 
ment that  the  P.  were  *  seven  *  in  number,  that  the 
constellation  at  an  early  period  contained  *■  seven' 
stars,  but  that  one  has  since  disappeared ;  not  a 
v^  uncommon  occurrence. 

The  name  Poetical  Plnade$  is  frequently  applied 
to  reunions  of  poets  in  septenary  groups ;  aad  this 
use  of  the  word  dates  from  the  time  of  the  PtoJemies 
— the  originator  of  the  first  being  Ptolemy  Phila- 
delphus,  who,  from  the  number  of  the  Greek  poets 
that  flocked  to  Alexandria,  chose  out  seven,  whom 
he  treated  with  special  distinction,  and  daiominated 
his  pleiad.  His  example  was  foUowed  by  Cluurl<^ 
magne ;  and  the  same  system  was  kept  up  by 
the  *Compagnie  des  Sept  Mantenadors  del  gay 
Saber/  or  the  '  Gompagnie  des  Sept  Tix>iibsdo«iB  ds 


PLEIOCENR-PLEISTOCENR 


Toulouse,'  down  till  the  17th  century.  Such  asso- 
ciations were  valuable  as  promoting  an  interchange 
of  ideas  and  opinions  by  the  most  eminent  in  the 
same  department  of  letters,  and  creating  a  kind  of 
tsprit  du  corps  among  them. 

PLErOCENE  (Gr.  more  recent),  the  namejriven 
by  Sir  Charles  Lyell  to  a  section  of  the  Upper 
Tertiaries,  because  the  organic  remains  found  in  it 
contain  between  60  and  70  per  cent,  of  living  species ; 
a  greater  proportion  than  exists  in  the  older  Mio- 
cene, but  not  so  great  as  that  found  in  the  sacceeding 
Pleistocene. 

The  beds  belonging  to  this  period  are  veiy  local 
They  have  been  noticed  in  several  places  in  Europe, 
but  have  been  chiefly  studied  in  Suffolk,  the  only 
locality  in  which  thev  occur  in  Britain.  Here  they 
cover  the  upper  beds  of  the  London  Clay ;  and 
being  composed  of  shelly  sand,  they  have,  like 
similar  de|>osits,  been  used  for  fertilising  lands 
deficient  in  calcareous  matter,  and  ha^e  received 
the  local  name  of  *  Crag.'  They  are  divided  into  the 
(1)  Red  Crag,  50  feet ;  (2)  Coralline  Crag,  60  feet. 

The  Red  Cras  consists  of  beds  of  qiiartzose  sands 
and  gravel  with  a  mixture  of  shells,  for  the  most 
part  rolled,  and  sometimes  broken  up  into  sand. 
The  whole  dejiosit,  with  the  contained  fossils,  has 
a  deep  ferrugmous  or  ochreous  colour.  It  seems 
to  have  been  formed  in  shallow  water,  the  currents 
of  which  have  given  it  a  very  variable  character, 
and  frequently  confused  the  stratification,  as  in  some 
modem  sandbanks,  llie  fossils  have  a  somewhat 
boreal  character.  They  consist  chiefly  of  moUusca ; 
but  there  have  been  also  found  the  bones  and 
teeth  of  large  sharks,  skates,  and  other  fish,  and 
the  ear-bones  of  one  or  more  tame  whales. 

The  Coralline  Crag  is  generally  calcareous  and 
marly,  consisting  of  a  mass  of  shells  and  polyzoa, 
separated  in  some  places  by  thin  lavers  of  hard 
limestone,  and  coral-like  masses,  which  occupy  the 
position  in  which  they  lived.  It  is  easily  separated 
from  the  Red  Crag  by  its  white  colour.  It  has 
been  formed  at  a  greater  depth  and  in  more  tranquil 
water  than  the  newer  deposit.  The  fossils  have  a 
more  southern  facies  than  those  of  tlie  Red  Crag, 
and  indicate  that  they  lived  in  an  ocean  with  a  higher 
temperature.  Among  these  southern  forms  may 
be  mentioned  species  of  the  genera  Conus,  Oliva, 
Mitra,  Voluta,  and  Pyrula.  Ibe  calcareous  polyzoa 
are  abundant  and  very  beautifiU ;  and  several  inter- 
esting forms  of  echini  have  been  described.  A  few 
fossils  of  the  same  species  as  those  occurring  in  the 
London  Clay  have  been  found  in  this  and  the  Red 
Crag,  but  these  are  believed  to  have  been  washed 
out  of  the  inferior  deposits. 

Mr  Searles  Wood  has  obtained  345  species  of 
testacea  from  the  Coralline  Crag,  and  230  from  the 
Red  Crag,  of  which  about  150  are  common  to  both  ; 
about  70  per  cent,  of  the  newer  division  are  also 
recent,  and  about  60  per  cent,  of  the  older. 

Pleiocene  deposits  have  been  observed  in  the 
neii^'libourhood  of  Antweq)  and  on  the  banks  of 
the  Scheldt,  from  which  200  species  of  shells  have 
bc*en  obtained,  two- thirds  of  which  were  already 
known  from  Suffolk.  More  than  a  half  are  recent 
species  found  in  the  northern  seas,  and  a  few  are 
still  living  in  the  MediteiTanean.  Similar  deposits 
occur  in  Normandy.  The  low  hills  between  tJie 
Apennines  and  the  sea  on  each  side  of  Ital^  are 
formed  to  a  considerable  extent  of  beds  belonging  to 
this  period  ;  and  the  marine  strata  of  the  seven  hills 
of  Rome  are  of  the  same  ace.  Beds  of  a  brackish- 
water  origin,  observed  on  tne  shores  of  the  Caspian, 
Aral,  Azof,  and  Black  Seas,  have  been  referred  to 
this  period. 

PLSIOSAU'BUS  (Gr.  Uterally  *  more  a  lizard,' 
860 


ie.,  than  the  Plesiosaurus),  a  genus  of  fossil  sea-rep 
tiles  nearly  allied  to  the  Plesiosaurus,  but  having  > 
very  short  neck,  and  comparatively  a  larger  head. 
The  jaws  also  are  furnished  with  stronger  teeth, 
which  are  subtrihedral  in  cross  section,  with  one 
side  flattened,  and  bounded  by  prominent  lateral 
ridges  on  the  more  convex  sides.  Three  si>ecies  have 
been  described.  They  are  peculiar  to  the  Oxfoixl 
and  Kimmeridge  clays  of  the  Upper  OoHte  Period. 

PLEI'STOCENE  (Gr.  most  recent),  or  NEWER 
PLEIOCENE,  terms  introduced  by  Sir  Charles 
Lyell  to  designate  the  most  recent  Tertiary 
deposits,  the  orffanio  remains  of  which  belong 
almost  exclusively  to  existing  species  Within 
the  last  few  years,  no  section  of  tine  earth's  crust 
has  received  so  much  attention  as  the  strata 
included  under  this  name.  The  obscurity  arising 
from  great  antiquity  and  metamorphio  changes  in 
deposits,  and  the  consequent  necessity  of  calling  to 
some  extent  on  the  imagination  in  investigations 
into  the  older  strata,  have  always  thrown  a  j)eculiar 
charm  round  geology ;  but  the  examination  of  the 
little  changed  newer  deposits,  containing  animals 
scarcely  differing  in  genera  from,  and  many  of  them 
the  same  even  in  species  as,  those  now  living,  beins 
based  on  simple  observation,  has  been  overlooked 
although  the  best  method  in  all  obscure  inouiries 
is  that  which  starts  from  the  known,  ana  gra- 
dually proceeds  to  the  unknown.  The  Palseozoio 
rocks  have  been  carefully  grouped  and  classified, 
and  the  fossils  described  and  tigured;  while  the 
order  and  contents  of  the  Pleistocene  deposits  are 
little  known.  Their  isolated  nature  to  some  extent 
accounts  for  this ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  as  they 
exhibit  the  changes  that  have  immediately  pre- 
ceded the  present  order  of  things,  and  so  give  us 
the  first  sure  footing  in  our  progress  downwards, 
they  deserve  the  most  careful  attention. 

Not  only  in  organic  contents,  but  in  the  physical 
conditions  mder  which  they  were  depositeil,  the 
Pleistocens  strata  shew  that  the  earth,  as  regards 
its  general  temperature,  was,  at  the  time  of  their 
deposition,  in  a  condition  nearly  aiiproaching  to  ita 
present.  There  is  consequently  a  considerable  differ- 
ence in  the  dejxisits  and  fossils  of  this  period  in  the 
different  regions  of  the  world.  The  alluvial  ^mmpas 
of  South  America  and  the  gravels  of  Australia  ex- 
hibit, by  their  structure  and  contents,  a  temperature 
of  some  warmth ;  while  corresponding  deposits  of 
Britain  and  the  continent  shew  a  state  of  cold  that 
is  scarcely  conceivable  at  so  recent  a  period.  The 
whole  of  Northern  Europe  must  have  been  under 
ice  like  the  interior  of  Greenland  at  the  present  day. 
Perhaps  the  best  classification  of  the  deposits  is- 
one  based  on  the  relation  which  they  bear  to  the 
temperature  of  the  period  when  they  were  formed. 
The  oldest  Pleistocene  deposits  represent  a  time  of 
intense  cold.  They  were  formed  at  the  bottom  of 
a  sea  into  which  immense  glaciers  forced  their  way. 
The  fine  mud  in  which  the  organic  remains  are- 
buried  was  obtained  from  the  melting  glaciers.  All 
the  shells  belong  to  species  now  living  in  arctic  or 
boreal  seas.  The  Bridlington  beds,  near  Flam- 
borough  Head,  consisting  of  sand,  clay,  and  pebbles, 
>vith  numerous  marine  shells,  belong  to  this  ])eriod. 
Of  the  63  species  determined  by  Dr  Woodwaiti,  one- 
half  are  at  present  living  only  in  seas  north  of 
Britain.  The  clay  deposits  on  tne  east  of  Scotland,, 
at  Elie  and  Enrol,  lately  described  by  the  Rev- 
Thomas  Brown,  contain  fossils  that  have  a  similar- 
arctic  facies.  The  shells  of  the  Bridlington,  Elie, 
and  Enrol  deposits  differ  from  those  of  the  other 
Pleistocene  strata  in  being  much  more  arctic,  and 
they  consequently  shew  that  the  cold  had  reached 
its  climax  at  the  time  of  their  formation.    To  this 

period  most  probably  belongs  tlie  boulder-clay  of 

5W 


PLEISTOCENE. 


the  south  of  England,  which  oontainB  erratics  from 
Scandinavia.  Both  the  clay  and  the  boulders  seem 
to  have  been  transported  to  their  present  position 
by  floating  iceliergs. 

The  temperature,  however,  after  a  time  improved, 
reducing  the  extent  of  the  ice-ooYering,  and  driving 
the  arctic  faima  northwards  from  our  shores.  In  the 
Norwich  Crag,  we  find  a  larger  proportion  of  southern 
species,  only  one-sixth  of  these  being  truly  arctic 
This  deposit,  found  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Norwich, 
consists  of  beds  of  sand  and  gravel  which  contain 
fresh-water  and  marine  shells,  and  the  bones  of 
large  mammalia^  Contemporaneous  with  the  Nor- 
wicn  Crag  are  the  marine  deposits  of  the  Clyde,  at 
least  the  older  of  them,  for  though  the  fossils  of  all 
the  beds  have  hitherto  been  grouped  together,  they 
certainly  represent  two  periods  which  differ  from 
each  other  by  reason  of  the  increasing  temperature. 
While  these  beds  were  being  deposited  around  the 
shores,  the  ice  was  disappearmg  from  the  land.  The 
glaciers  were  gradually  creepmg  inwards,  leaving 
an  ever-iucreasmg  margin  of  bare  land  between  the 
glaciers  and  the  sea,  which  they  covered  with  a 
continuous  layer  of  mud  and  rubbed  stones — the 
materials  taken  up  in  their  progress  over  the  surface 
— and  so  forming  the  boulder- clay  of  Scotland  and 
the  north  of  England.  This  is  a  remarkable  deposit 
of  unstratified  mud,  the  character  and  colour  of 
which  is  influenced  by  the  rocks  on  which  it  rests, 
and  from  which  it  was  derived.  It  contains  numer- 
ous rounded  and  polished  blocks  of  stone  of  various 
sizes,  promiscuously  scattered  through  it,  the  whole 
seeming  to  be  the  result  of  an  irregular  pell-mell 
hurrying  forward  and  deposition  of  the  materials. 
It  has  been  always  a  puzzle  to  geologists  (see 
Boulder-clay)  ;  but  Mr  Geikie,  in  his  recently 
published  Memoir,  by  shewing  it  to  be  the  terminal 
moraine  formed  by  the  slowly  retreating  sheet  of 
glacier-ice,  has  given  an  explanation  which  meets 
all  the  singular  ^enomena  connected  with  it.  Con- 
nected with  the  disappearance  of  glaciers,  are  the 
lateral  moraines  which  exist  on  many  hillsides ;  and 
perhaps  a  little  later,  the  long  ridges  of  gravel 
which  are  called  Ejunes  in  Scotland,  and  Eskers  in 
Ireland.  The  loamy  deposits  of  the  valleys  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Danube,  known  as  the  Loess,  were 
formed  at  this  time  by  the  fine  mud  from  the 
glaciers,  with  which  every  torrent  rushing  from  the 
icy  caverns  at  the  termination  of  a  glacier  is  charged, 
and  which  is  now  forming  a  similar  deposit  in  some 
places  on  the  coast  of  Greenland. 

When  the  glaciers  began  to  disappear,  mammalia 
again  occupied  the  land;  their  remains,  we  have 
already  seen,  occur  in  the  Norwich  Crag.  They 
continued  to  increase  as  the  conditions  for  their 
existence  improved.  The  caves  of  the  British 
Islands  and  the  continent  were  inhabited  bv  hyenas, 
bears,  and  other  wild  beasts,  which  have  left  their 
remains  buried  in  the  mud  at  the  bottom  of  the 
caves.  The  raised  sea-beaches  of  this  period  contain 
the  shells  of  moUusca  now  living  in  the  neighbouring 
seas.  In  many  places  around  the  shores  of  Britain 
and  Ireland,  submarine  forests  are  met  with  dipping 
down  imder  low  water,  and  exhibiting  the  stumps 
and  roots  of  trees,  in  the  position  of  growth,  belong- 
ing to  s])ecies  now  living  in  Britain.  Some  of  the 
older  peat-bogs  require  to  be  placed  also  among  the 
later  rleistocene  deposits. 

The  classification,  then,  of  these  strata,  which  we 
propose,  from  the  light  thrown  on  them  by  recent 
observation,  may  be  put  into  the  following  tabular 
form.  The  subdivisions  are  the  names  of  recognised 
deposits,  and  though  arranged  in  tabular  series,  the 
order  is  not  one  of  strict  sequence,  representing  the 
superposition  of  the  different  beds;  they  are  all 
very  local  deposits,  and  many  of  them,  thou^ 


differing  in  character,  were  fonned  contempora- 
neously. 


Pofit-Gladil. 


GladaL 


Arotle. 


Peat-bon. 

Sabmarine  Forests. 

Modern  Raised  Sea-beaehfls. 

Cave  Deposits. 

Loess. 

KunoB  and  ERkera 

Lateral  Moraines. 

Bould^r-clay. 

Newer  Clyde  Beds, 
voider  Clyde  Beds, 
r  Elie,  Errol,  and  Tirie  CUj  Beds. 
\  Bridlington  Beds. 


f 


Many  speculations  have  been  made  as  to  the 
causes  of  the  remarkable  change  of  temperature^ 
from  the  comparatively  warm  period  of  the  Hdooene 
deposits,  to  the  extreme  cold  of  the  early  Pleistocene 
stnita,  and  the  subsequent  gradual  return  to  the 
warmer  temperature  of  the  present  period.  The 
most  probable  is,  that  it  resulted  from  an  extemivB 
depression«of  the  land  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
in  some  parts,  and  its  elevation  in  others  daring 
the  period.  Deposits  of  glacial  shells  have  been 
found  more  than  1000  feet  above  the  sea-level  in 
Wales.  A  depression  much  less  than  this,  in  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  would  give  a  different  direction 
to  the  Gulf  Stream,  and  so  deprive  Western  Europe 
of  its  benignant  influences.  It  would  also  pat  the 
immense  sandy  Sahara  under  water;  and  that  it 
has  been  so  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  has 
been  clearly  established  by  the  discoveiy  lately  of 
existing  marine  shells  (including  Cardium  edide) 
over  an  extensive  district  of  the  desert.  Without 
the  Sahara,  the  south  of  Europe  would  have  no 
burning  dry  sirocco,  which  now  melts  the  glacien 
of  the  Alps;  but  instead,  a  comparatively  cold 
sea-breeze,  la4en  with  moisture,  which  would  to 
a  large  extent  feed  theuL  The  existence  of  a 
greater  quantity  and  a  higher  elevation  of  land 
near  the  I^orth  Pole  would  also  depress  the  tempe- 
rature These  and  similar  causes  would  do  mach, 
if  they  were  not  in  themselves  sufficient^  to  produce 
the  extreme  cold  of  the  arctic  period. 

The  dassiiication  of  the  British  strata  will  suit, 
in  a  general  way,  the  whole  of  the  North  Temperate 
Zone,  for  throughout  the  whole  of  the  northern 
regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  similar  con- 
ditions existed,  producing  similar  physical  changes, 
and  the  whole  region  formed  one  zoological  prorinoe 
inhabited  by  the  Mammoth,  Mastodon,  and  their 
contem^raries.  A  warmer  climate  prevailed  at 
this  period  in  South  America,  and  the  fossil  animali 
there  belong  to  types  still  peculiar  to  that  con- 
tinent^  though  of  a  size  immensely  greater  than 
their  living  representatives.  The  Megatherium, 
Mylodon,  and  Megalonvx  were  the  gigantic  fore* 
runners  of  the  living  sloth ;  and  the  smul  armadilloes 
were  anticipated  by  the  Gl^todon.  The  Hamas, 
opossums,  tapirs,  and  prehensile- tailed  monkeys  are 
the  diminutive  representatives  of  similar  forms  in 
tiie  Pleistocene  period.  The  peculiar  marsupial 
fauna  of  Australia  had  also  its  gigantic  fore-numen 
during  this  period.  The  skuU  of  one  species 
(Diprotodon,  an  animal  between  the  kangaroo  and 
the  wombat),  now  in  the  British  Museum,  measurca 
three  feet  in  length.  The  huge  wingless  Dinomis, 
and  its  allies  of  New  Zealand,  were  nearly  alHed  to 
the  small  wingless  Apteiyx,  now  living  in  thai 
island. 

The  question  of  the  antiquity  of  man  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  Pleistocene  deposits.  Whatever 
be  the  age  of  the  beds  in  which  either  the  remains 
of  man  or  works  of  art  have  been  found,  it  b 
certain  that  none  of  them  pass  the  horizon  of  the 
boulder-clay.  It  is,  however,  equally  certain  that 
undoubted  evidences  of  his  existence  contempo^ 
aneously  with  the  mammoth  and  woolly  rhinooeroi, 


PLENISHING— PLESIOSAURUS. 


with  the  caye-lion  and  hysena,  have  been  found 
in  Britain;  and  setting  aside  the  various  French 
and  Belgian  caves  and  gravel  deposits  about  which 
^ologista  are,  with  ^o<kI  causej  so  divided,  there 
18  evidence  in  the  knives,  pins,  &c.,  manufactured 
from  the  bones  of  the  large  reindeer,  found  in  caves 
at  Bruniquel  and  elsewhere,  that  man  hunted 
this  huge  extinct  animal.  Its  contemporaries, 
as  far  as  the  associated  remains  from  these  caves 
have  been  determined,  yet  survive:  these  were 
the  chamois,  ibex,  horse,  fox,  wolf,  hare,  raven, 
partridge,  and  salmon.  However  far,  when  measured 
by  years,  this  carries  back  the  first  appearance  of 
man  on  the  globe,  geologically  speaking,  the  tune 
is  insignificant  as  compared  with  the  vast  lapse  of 
ages  represented  by  even  a  single  formation;  still 
it  represents  a  period  in  which  many  remarkable 
changes  have  taken  place,  both  in  the  climatal 
condition  of  Europe  and  in  its  animal  inhabitants. 

PLE'NISHING,  in  the  law  of  Scotland,  denotes 
the  furniture  of  a  house  or  stocking  of  a  farm.  The 
term  is  now  seldom  used,  except  in  the  law  relating 
to  heirship  Movables  (q.  v.). 

PLE'ONASM  (6r.  pteon,  more),  a  term  employed 
in  Rhetoric  to  denote  superfiuity  of  expression. 

PLESIOSAUItUa^  (Gr.  near  to  a  lizard),  a 
remarkable  genus  of  fossil  sea-reptiles,  the  8{)ecies 
of  which  are  found  in  the  Lias,  Oolite,  and  Creta- 
ceous measures.  Its  remains  are  so  abundant  and 
so  perfectly  preserved,  that  we  are  as  well  acquainted 
with  skeletons  of  many  of  its  species  as  we  are  with 
those  of  any  living  animals.  These  represent  a 
vtrange  animal,  the  structure  of  which  Cuvier  con- 
sidered to  be  the  most  singular,  and  its  character 


Plesiosauras. 

the  most  anomalous,  that  had  been  discovered  amid 
the  ruins  of  former  worlds.  In  the  words  of  Buck- 
land  :  *  To  the  head  of  a  lizard,  it  united  the  teeth 
of  a  crocodile,  a  neck  of  enormous  length,  resembling 
the  bod^  of  a  serpent,  a  trunk  and  tail  having  the 
proportions  of  an  ordinary  quadruped,  the  ribs  of  a 
chameleon,  and  the  paddles  of  a  whale.' 

The  skiiU  is  small  and  depressed.  From  the 
nostrils  backwards,  it  is  quadrate;  it  suddenly 
contracts  at  the  nostrils,  and  is  continued  into  a 
{»arallel-sided  apex,  which  is  sometimes  sUshtly 
swollen  at  the  point.  No  sclerotic  plates  have  oeen 
found  in  the  orbits.  The  rami  of  the  lower  jaw  are 
remarkably  expanded  at  their  anterior  anchylosed 
extremity.  No  intervening  vacuity  separates  the 
angular  and  surangular  pieces,  as  in  the  crocodiles, 
but  they  are  joined  throughout,  as  in  the  lizards. 
The  teeth  occupy  distinct  cavities ;  they  are  sharp- 
pointed,  long,  slender,  circular  in  cross  section,  and 
with  fine  longitudinal  ridges  on  the  enamel.  The 
most  striking  peculiarity  of  the  vei-tebrse  is  the 
great  length  of  the  neck-portion,  which  is  composed 
of  from  20  to  40  vertebrae.  The  articular  surfaces 
of  the  bodies  of  the  vertebne  are  either  flat  or 
sbghtly  convex  in  the  centre,  with  «   concavity 


round  the  periphery.  The  cervical  vertebrae  consist 
of  a  centrum,  neural  arch,  and  two  ribs,  which  arth 
culate  into  two  pits  on  the  sides  of  the  centrum. 
In  the  dorsal  vertebrae,  the  ribs  are  articulated  to 
diapophyses  from  the  neural  arch ;  and  in  the  tail, 
they  gradually  descend  again  to  the  sides  of  the 
centrum.  The  tail  is  much  shorter  than  in  the 
ichthyosaur.  In  the  abdominal  region,  the  extre- 
mities of  each  pair  of  ribs  are  connected  below  by 
the  development  of  the  haemal  spine. 

The  two  pair  of  limbs  were  equal  in  size  and 
shape,  with  probably  a  single  exception.  The  bones 
of  the  hind-limbs  closely  correspond  in  number, 
arrangement,  and  form  with  those  of  the  fore-limbs, 
so  that  the  descriptions  of  the  one  set  answer  to 
the  corresponding  bones  of  the  other.  The  humerus 
is  a  stout  and  moderately  long  bone,  curved  slightly 
backwards,  rounded  at  its  proximal  extremity,  and 
flattened  as  it  approaches  the  elbow  joints,  llie 
radius  and  ulna  are  short  and  flat  bones — the 
former  straight,  the  latter  renif orm,  with  ■  the 
concavity  toward  the  radius.  The  carpus  consists 
of  six  to  eight  flat  round  bones  in  a  double  row. 
The  five  metacarpals  are  long,  slender,  and  slightly 
expanded  at  both  ends.  The  numerous  phalanges 
are  alike  in  form,  but  progressivelv  decrease  in  size. 
ThB  radial  digit  has  generally  three;  the  second 
from  five  to  seven ;  the  third,  eight  or  nine ;  the 
fourth,  eight ;  and  the  fifth,  five  or  six  phalanges. 
The  limbs  were  covered  with  intejgnment,  so  as  to 
form  simple  undivided  paddles,  as  in  the  turtle. 

The  supposed  habits  of  the  plesioeaur  are  thus 
described  by  Conybeare :  '  That  it  was  an  aquatic, 
is  evident  &om  the  form  of  its  paddles ;  that  it  was 
marine,  is  almost  equally  so,  from  the  remains  with 

which  it  is  univers- 
ally associated ;  that 
it  may  have  occa- 
sionally visited  the 
shore,  the  resem- 
blance of  its  extre- 
mities to  those  of 
the  turtle  may  lead 
us  to  conjecture ;  its 
motion  must  have, 
however,  been  very 
awkward  on  land; 
its  lonj^  neck  must 
have  impeded  its 
progress  through  the 
water,  presenting  a 
strikins  contrast  to  the  organisation  which'  so 
admirably  fits  the  ichthyosaup  to  cut  through  the 
waves.  May  it  not,  therefore,  be  concluded— since, 
in  addition  to  these  circumstances,  its  respiration 
must  have  required  frequent  access  to  the  air— that 
it  swam  upon  or  near  the  surface,  archins  back  its 
long  neck  like  the  swan,  and  occasionally  darting  it 
down  at  the  fish  which  happened  to  float  within  its 
reach  ?  It  may  perhaps  have  lurked  in  shoal- water 
along  the  coast,  concealed  amons;  the  sea-weed, 
and,  raising;  its  nostrils  to  the  surface  from  a  con- 
siderable depth,  may  have  found  a  secure  retreat 
from  the  assaults  of  dangerous  enemies ;  whUe  the 
length  and  flexibility  of  its  neck  may  have  com- 
pensated for  the  want  of  strength  in  its  jaws, 
and  its  incapacity  for  swift  motion  thiH)ush 
the  water,  by  the  suddenness  and  i^;ility  of  the 
attack  which  they  enabled  it  to  make  on  ev^ry 
animal  fitted  for  its  prey  which  came  within  ito 
reach.' 

The  first  remains  of  this  animal  were  discovered 
at  Lyme  Reeis  in  1822.  Since  then,  twenty-two 
species  have  been  described,  the  specific  diflereuces 
chiefly  resting  on  peculiarities  in  the  form  and 

structure  of  the  vertebras. 

596 


PLETHORA— PLEnEIST. 


PLCTHORA  (Gr.  'fuIncM'  or  'eicem'),  deug- 
Dstea  a  general  excen  of  blood  in  the  aystem.  It  niaj 
•nae  either  from  too  mnch  blood  being  made,  or 
from  too  little  being  expended.    The  penoni  who 

became  plethoric  are  uiualljr  thoae  in  thorooeh 
health,  who  est  heartity  and  digest  readily,  but  who 
do  not  take  safficient  bodily  eiercise,  and  do  not 
duly  attend  to  the  action  of  the  excreting  orgam 
With  them,  the  process  of  blood-making  is  alwa 
the  increase,  and  the  vessels  beoome 
mors  and  more  filled,  as  is  seen  in  the 
red  face,  distended  veins,  and  full  palse^ 
The  benrt  ia  excited  and  over-worked, 
and  hence  palpitation,  shortness  of  breath. 


bat  these  eymptui 
a  warning,  too  often 
onment  of  all  exereiae,  by  which  the 
morliid  condition  in  aggravated.  Th« 
state  of  plethora  thns  gridnally  induced 
may  he  extreme  without  any  function* 
materially  failiug,  and  yet  the  subject  U 
on  the  verge  of  some  dangerous  milady, 
tach  as  apoplexy,  or  structural  disease 
of  the  heart  or  great  vessels,  or  of  tiM 
lungs,  hidnevs,  or  liver. 

Flethora  is  said  to  be  ttJimie  when 
the  strength  and  irritability  of  tho 
muscular  libres  (especially  of  the  heart 
and  arteries)  are  fully  or  excessively 
developed.  This  form  commonly  affects 
the  young  and  active,  and  uiose  of 
■anguineouB  natnre.  The  blood  is  rich 
in  red  cells  and  tibrine ;  and  there  is 
a  tendency  to  general  febrile  excite- 
ment, active  hcemoirhages,  Huies,  and 
inflammation.  A  natural  cure  is  thus 
ofteu  effected  by  the  supervcotit 


ahontd  be  taken  ■•  o 


e  bome  without  ei 


PLEUIIA  Each  lung  ia  invested  extemiUj 
by  a  very  delioate  serous  membrane  temied  tw 
pleura,  which,  after  encloidng  the  whole  oigMi, 
except  at  its  root,  where  the  great  vessels  enter  it, 
is  reflected  Dpon  the  inner  surface  of  the  thorax  or 
chest.  That  portioil  ot  the  plenra  which  i«  in 
coDtaot  with  t£e  ioriaoe  of  the  lung  ii  c*Ued  tin 


A  tiansvem  Section  Ol  the  Thorax,  shewing  the  refleetitna  «(  thi 

Flenra,  and  the  relative  position  of  the  ViMvn,  be. 

(Pr™Gr.r..*Mto«|r) 

I,  The  Ttanril  ud,  t.  (he  pnrleul  liytr  if  tha  plnn,  <a  tba  right  M>; 

a.  »,  lbs  ribi;  t,  B,  unlaa  uf  ihe  right  rnd  l»ft  lung.;  6,  Om  fc»1i 

tisi^hlMid  leh  pulmoil«'Tnln<T  B,   B",  tliu  Mcaniimg 


i  load,  and 


ThU 


attack  of  bleeding  from  the  nostrils  or 
from  piles,  or  ot  miicoua  or  bilione  diarrhoM.  The 
plethora  is  said  to  be  aalAenic  (Gr.  a,  not ;  and 
»thmo»,  strength)  when  there  is  a  deticiency  of 
contractility  and  tone  in  the  muscular  fibre.  In 
thia  case,  the  heart  and  vessels,  instead  of  being 
excited  (aa  in  sthenic  plethora]  by  thu  angmenl 
quantity  of  blood,  are  oppressed  by  its  lo  ' 
cannot  duly  eiiiel  their  accuiniilstef" 
The  face  is  purple  instead  of  red;  tbe 
cold,  and  the  excreting  organs  slui;gish. 
form  affects  persons  weakened  by  ai 
or  previous  disease.  It  tends  to  produce  conges- 
tions and  passive  bDemorrhages,  fluxes,  and  dropsies; 
and,  ,if  continued,'  atnictiiral  changes,  such  as 
dilatation  of  the  heart,  enlai^ed  liver,  varicme 
veins,  Ac. 

In  tlhente  plethora,  blood-letting  is  the  first 
remedy,  and  this,  with  the  continued  use  of  aperient 
medicine  and  a  sparing  diet,  ia  often  sufficient  to 
complete  the  care.  If  these  means  fail,  recourse 
must  be  had  to  antitconiala,  salines,  digitalis,  and 
sometimes  mercury  or  ciilcbicum.  In  the  aitftenie 
form,  Dr  Williams  [to  whose  article  on  'Plethora,' 
in  his  Prindplen  of  Medicine,  we  refer  our  readers 
for  further  details)  observes  that  'the  continued  use 
of  alterative  aperients  and  diuretics,  such  as  mild 
nierc'irials,  with  rhubarb,  aloes,  or  senna,  salines 
and  taraxacum,  nitric  acid,  iodide  of  potassium,  &&, 
may  prepare  the  way  for  various  tjmics,  sudi  as 
calumba,  bark,  and  iron.'  He  also. recommends  the 
use  of  the  Cheltenham,  Leamington,  and  Lland- 
rindod  waters  ;  first  the  saline,  which  are  aperient 
and  diuretic ;  and  afterwards  the  chalybeate,  which, 
although  tonic,  usually  contain  enough  of  saline 
matter  to  keep  the  secretions  frea  Food  may  be 
taken  more  freely  than  in  the  sthenic  fcrm  ;  and  in 
both  varieties,  a*  much  eiereise  in  the  open  air 


pleara  pull 
which  linei 

plffara  eottaUa,  or  parietal  layer ;  while  the  snaca 
intervening  between  these  two  layers  is  called  the 
cavity  of  Otf  pf«ura.  Ek<:Ji  pleura,  aa  will  be  at 
once  seen  b^  ft  reference  to  the  figure,  ia  a  cloBd 
sac,  and  quite  independent  of  the  other.  The 
interspace  between  the  plenna  on  the  right  and 
left  aide,  is  termed  the  meifiiuCuRiiis,  and  contains 
all  the  viscera  of  the  thorax  excepting  tbe  Innga. 
The  inner  surface  of  each  pleura  is  smooiJi,  glisten- 
ing, and  moistened  by  a  seroni  flnid ;  the  ontor 
surfaoe  is  closely  adherent  to  the  anrbwe  «f  the 
lung,  to  the  roots  of  the  polmoDM?  vessels  as  they 
enter  the  lane,  to  the  Dpper  eur6uw  of  the 
diaphrum,  and  to  the  waUs  of  the  cbesL  Tbe 
lobea  of  the  lungs  are  separated  from  one  another 
l>y  involntions  or  in-foldings  of  the  viaceral  layer ; 
two  such  involotiona— one  on  either  Bide—an 
shewn  in  the  figure.  The  use  of  these  serous  sacs 
is  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  PtriiotKMat  (q.  v.) ; 
each  pleura  retains  the  lung  and,  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  greater  vessels  in  position,  whQe  it  at 
the  same  time  facilitates,  within  certain  Umits,  tbe 
movements  of  those  parts  which  are  emtai^l  to 
tbe  due  performanoe  of  the  act  of  respiration. 

PI/EU'RISY,  or  inflammation  of  the  investing 
membrane  of  the  lung,  ia  one  of  the  most  aeriuBi 
diseases  of  the  chest  It  is  very  often,  but  by  b> 
means  invariably  associated  wiUt  inflanunation  li 
the  tiihstaivx  of  the  lung,  commonly  known  ai 
Pneumonia  (q.  v.).  Pleurisy  withoat  pneiunoiiis 
is  much  more  common  than  pnenmonw  without 
pleurisy.  When  both  are  present,  but  (menmiMiis 
preponderates,  the  correct  term  for  the  afiectian  a 
pfeuro-jmcumonia,  although  it  is  fre^ently  spokei 
of  limpty  BB  pneumonia  probaUf  nr 


PLEUEISY— PLEUBODYNIA. 


oC  &e  remedies  being  applied  mainly  to  it,  as 
the  more  important  <3  tne  two  elements  in  the 
eompoond  malady. 

The  pleara  beug  a  seroos  membrane,  its  inflam- 
matioa  is  attended  with  the  same  course  of  events 
as  have  been  already  described  in  our  remarks  on 
the  two  allied  diseases,  Pericarditis  and  Peritonitis, 
The  inflammation  is  of  the  adhesive  kind,  and  is 
accompanied  by  pain,  and  by  the  efiiision  of  serum, 
of  fibrinous  exudation  (the  coagulable  lymph  of  the 
older  writers),  or  of  pus,  into  the  pleural  cavity.    In 
consequence  of   the   anatomical   relations   of   the 
pleura — one  part  of  the  membrane  (the  parietal) 
lining  the  firm  walls  of  the  chest,  while  the  other 
part  (the  visceral)  envelops  the  soft  and  compressible 
long;    and  these    opposed   surfaces  being    freely 
movable    on    one    another — it    follows    that  very 
different  effects  may  be  produced  by  its  inflamma- 
tion.   For  example,  the  visceral  layer  may  be  glued 
to  the  parietal  layer,  so  as  to  prevent  all  gliding 
movement   between   them,  and  to  obliterate  the 
pleural  cavity  (similarly  to  what  often  happens  in 
Pericardilis,  q.  v.) ;  or  the  two  surfaces  wnich  are 
naturally  in  contact,  may  be  abnormally  separated 
by  an  infusion  of  serum  between  them ;  or  from  a 
combination  of  these  results,  the  opposite  surfaces 
of  the  pleune  may  be  abnormally  uuited  at  some 
points,  and  abnormally  separated  at  others. 

The   general   symptoms  of  pleurisy  are  rigors, 
pain  in  the  side,  fever,  difficulty  and  rapidity  of 
breathing,  cough,  and  an  impossibility  of  assuming 
certain  positions ;  and  of  these,  the  most  marked  is 
the  patu  or  stitch  in  the  siile,  the  Point  de  c6ti  of  the 
French  writers.    From  the  prominence  of  this  pain, 
which  occupies  a  single  spot,  and  is  of  a  sharp, 
stabbing  character,  the  Latin  writers  term  pleurisy 
Morbus  lateris.     This  spot  is  usually   about  the 
centre  of  the  mamma  of  the  affected  side,  or  just 
below   it ;  but  why    the  pain  should    be  usually 
restricted  to  that  one  small  spot,  when  the  inflam- 
mation pervades  a  considerable  extent  of  surface,  is 
a  question  that  has  never  received  any  satisfactory 
answer.     The  pain  is,  however,  occasionally  felt  in 
other  parts — ^as  in  the  shoulders,  in  the  hollow  of 
the   armpit,    beneath   the   collar-bone,   along   the 
breast- bone,  Ac.    Cruveilhier  observes  that  the  pain 
sometim.e8  affects  the  loins,  and  simulates  lumbago ; 
while  Andral  and  Dr  Watson  have  directed  atten- 
tion to  the  fact,  that  the  pain  often  affects  the 
hyx>ochondrium,  and  may  be  readily  mistaken  for  a 
symptom  of  peritonitis,  or  (if  occurring  on  the  right 
side)   of  hepatitis.    The  pain  is  increased  by  per- 
cussion,   by  pressure  between  the  ribs,  by  a  deep 
inspiration,  by  cough,  &c. ;  and  the  patient  is  often 
observed  to  suppress  a  natural  desire  to  cough,  or 
never  to  draw  more  than  a  short  and  irai>erfect 
insiuration.     The  cou^h  is  not  invariably  present, 
although  it  is  an  ordma^  symptouL     It  is  small, 
suppressed  as  far  as  possible  by  the  patient,  and  is 
either  dry,  or  accompanied  by  the  expectoration  of 
slight  catarrh.    If  much  frothy  mucus  is  brought  up, 
it  IS  a  sign  that  Bronchitis  (q.  v. )  is  also  present,  and 
the  appearance  of  rust-coloured  sputa  indicates  the 
co-existence  of  pneumonia.     Although  the  above 
named  symptoms,  especially  when  most  of  them 
occur  togetner,  afford  almost  certain  evidence  of 
the  existence  of  pleurisy,  yet  to  the  physician  the 
physical   Bigns  are  still  more  valuable,  especially 
those  f  urni^ed  by  percussion  and  auscultation. 

Pleurisy  far  more  commonly  arises  from  exposure 
to  oold  than,  from  any  other  cause,  especially  if  a 
poisoned  condition  of  the  blood,  predisposing  to 
mflammation  of  the  serous  membrane,  is  preseiit; 
but  it  may  be  occasioned  by  mechanical  violence 
'as  by  a  penetrating  wound  of  the  thorax  by  the 
iplintered   ends  of  «  broken  rib^  &c.),  or  by  the 


accidental  extension  of  disease  from  adjacent  partis 
The  disease  may  terminate  in  resolution  and  com* 
plete  recovery;  or  in  adhesion,  which  often  only 
causes  slight  embarrassment  of  breathina;:  or  it 
may  end  with  such  a  retraction  of  one  side  of  the 
chest  as  to  render  the  corresponding  lung  almost 
or  totally  useless:  or  it  may  cause  death  either 
directly  by  actual  suffocation,  if  the  effusion  is 
very  copious,  and  is  not  removed  by  tapping ;  or 
indirectly,  by  exhaustion.  It  is  seldom,  however, 
that  simple  pleurisy  proves  fatal 

In  acute  pleurisy,  occurring  in  a  robust  and  pre- 
viously healthy  subject,  free  blood-letting  shoidd 
be  at  once  resorted  to.  If  there  is  a  sharp  stitch  in 
the  side,  and  the  respiration  is  short,  quick,  and 
restrained,  the  patient  should  be  bled,  in  the 
upriffht  position,  from  a  large  orifice  in  the  vein, 
'until  the  pain  is  relieved,  and  he  can  draw  a  full 
breath  without  discomfort,  or  until  he  is  about  to 
faint ;  and  if  the  pain  and  difficult  breathing  should 
return,  and  the  pulse  continue  firm  and  hard,  either 
the  venesection  must  be  repeated,  or  leeches  must 
be  freely  applied  to  the  painful  side.  The  bowels 
should  be  freely  evacuated,  after  which  calomel 
should  be  given.  guaMed  with  a  little  opium,  to  the 
extent  of  producing  alight  mercnrialisation,  with  the 
view  of  checking  the  effusion  of  fluid.  The  more 
rapidly  the  system  can  be  thus  affected,  the  better, 
and  hence  it  has  l^een  recommended  (by  Dr  Walsh) 
that  during  the  first  six  hours  a  grain  and  a  half  of 
calomel,  combined  with  a  sixth  of  a  grain  of  opium 
(or  more,  if  the  pain  continues  acute),  shoiUd  be 
^ven  every  half-hour ;  while  mercurial  ointment 
IS  rubbed  mto  the  skin  of  the  affected  side,  near 
the  arm-pit,  every  fourth  hour.  Care  must  be 
taken  that  neither  decided  salivation  nor  narcotism 
is  induced ;  and  as  soon  as  there  is  any  evidence 
from  the  breath,  or  from  the  appearance  of  the 
gums,  that  the  mercurial  action  has  been  established, 
the  further  administration  of  the  calomel  and  the 
ointment  must  be  suspended.  After  the  pain  and 
fever  have  ceased,  we  must  facilitate  the  absorption 
of  the  fluid  by  diuretics.  A  pill  composed  of  half 
a  grain  of  digitalis,  a  grain  of  8<|uilts,  and  three 
grains  of  blue  pill  taken  twice  a  day,  usually 
acts  efficiently;  and  the  compomid  tincture  of  iodine 
of  tlie  London  {fwt  the  British)  Pharniaco^xBia,  in 
doses  of  twenty  minims,  taken,  largely  diluted,  three 
times  a  day,  has  been  strongly  reconiinended. 

There  has  been  considerable  discussion  of  late  years 
as  to  how  far  the  operation  of  ta]>]nng  the  cliest,  and 
letting  out  the  fluid,  is  justifiable  m  this  disease. 
The  best  authorities  are  of  opinion  that  in  simple 
pleurby  it  ought  never  to  be  ix^i-fornied  unless  (1) 
the  hfe  of  the  patient  is  in  immediate  danger  from 
the  continued  pressure  of  the  fluid  in  the  sac ;  (2) 
unless  all  other  means  of  getting  rid  of  the  fluid 
having  failed,  the  patient  is  evidently  losing 
strength  daily ;  and  (3)  unless  there  is  good  reason 
to  believe  that  the  fluid  consists  of  pus,  in  which 
case  it  should  be  let  out.  In  all  cases  in  which  the 
operation  is  contemplated,  a  grooved  needle  shmild 
be  introduced  into  the  pleura.  By  this  means,  we 
not  only  ascertain  the  actual  jiresence  of  fluid,  but 
we  discover  its  nature.  If  it  be  serous,  it  will  flow 
readily  along  the  groove,  and  trickle  down  the 
patient's  side ;  if  it  be  purulent  and  thick,  a  drop 
or  two  will  probably  be  visible  at  the  external 
oriflce,  and  when  the  needle  is  withdrawn,  its  groove 
will  be  found  to  contain  pus.  The  puncture  thus 
made  is  quite  harmleas,  and  inflicts  very  Uttle  pain. 

PLEURISY  ROOT.    See  Buttebfly  Weed. 

PLEURODY'NIA  is  a  rheumatic  affection  of  the 
intercostal  muscles,  and  is  characterised  by  acute 
pain  in  the  side  uuon  taking  a  full  breath  or  coughing, 

697 


PLEURONEOTIDA-PLICA  POLONICA- 


Ml  i  by  great  tenderness  on  pressure.  If  it  happens 
to  lie  attended  by  slight  febrile  excitement,  or  by  a 
coQgh,  it  is  impossiblr  to  diatingnish  it  from  pleurisy, 
except  by  attending  to  the  physical  signs  whi<m 
characterise  the  lat^ter  disease.  Cruveilnier  main- 
tains that '  pleurodynia  is  nothing  more  than  adhe- 
sive pleurisy  ;*  and  in  many  cases  of  assumed  pleuro- 
dynia, there  is  little  doubt  that  the  pain  is  due  to 
old  adhesions.  The  disease  generally  yields  to  local 
measures,  such  as  blistering,  or  couuter-irritation  in 
a  milder  form  by  rubefacient  liniments.  A  mixture 
of  soap-liniment  and  chloroform  rubbed  over  the 
affected  part  two  or  three  times  a  day,  often  gives 
relief.  In  the  more  persistent  cases,  leeches  may 
be  applied  with  benefit. 

PLEURONE'CTIDJE,  a  famfly  of  fishes  included 
in  Ouvier^s  order  Mcdacopterygii,  but  belonging  to 
the  order  AnacanUiini  of  MUller's  system  (see 
Malacopteryou),  and  remarkable  for  a  character 
to  which  there  is  nothing  similar  in  anv  other 
vertebrate  animals,  a  want  of  symmetry  in  the  head, 
and  for  swimming  not  with  the  back  uppermost, 
like  other  fishes,  but  with  one  side  upi>ermo6t. 
The  peculiar  structure  of  the  head  adapts  it  to 
this  mode  of  swimming,  both  eyes  being  on  that 
side  which  is  uppermost.  Some  of  the  bones  of 
the  head  are  oistorted  to  a  very  considerable 
degree,  but  there  is  no  want  of  symmetry  in 
those  of  the  body.  The  sides  of  the  mouth  are 
unequaL  The  body  is  extremely  compressed, 
whence  the  P.  are  popularly  termed  Flat  Fishf  the 
back  and  beUy  being  mere  edges  fringed  by  the 
dorsal  and  anal  fins.  The  pectoral  fins  are  gener- 
ally unequal,  also  the  ventral  fins,  those  of  the 
lower  side  bein^  smaller  than  those  of  the  upper. 
The  upper  side  is  often  brown,  or  of  some  darkish 
colour,  and  variously  marked  ;  the  lower  side 
whitish.  The  colour  of  the  upper  side  generally 
corresponds  so  much  with  that  of  the  bottom, 
close  to  which  these  fishes  swim,  that  they  readily 
escape  observation ;  and  on  this  they  seem  chiefiv 
to  depend  for  safety,  although,  when  hard  pressed, 
they  TtkUa  themselves  in  a  vertical  position,  and 
suddenly  throw  themselves  upward  and  forward 
to  some  distance,  but  then  resume  their  ordinary 
posture,  and  as  close  to  the  bottom  as  possible. 
Their  ordinary  swimming  is  by  a  kind  of  unaulating 
movement.  They  swim  with  great  activity.  They 
have  no  air-bladder.  They  sioound  chiefly  where 
the  bottom  is  smooth,  either  muddy  or  sandy.  All 
of  them  are  sea-fishes,  but  some  are  very  common 
in  brackish  water,  ascend  rivers,  and  can  be  kept 
in  fresh-water  ponds.  Many  of  them  are  in  great 
esteem  for  the  table.  The  turbot,  halibut,  brill, 
plaice,  and  flounder  are  examples  of  this  family. 

PLEU'RO-PNEUMO'NIA,  in  an  epizootic  form, 
first  appeared  amongst  the  horned  cattle  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  in  1841.  From  time  imme- 
morial it  had,  however,  been  known  in  the  great 
cattle-breeding  plains  of  Central  and  Noruiem 
Europe.  It  consists  in  a  sub-acute  inflammation  of 
the  structure  of  the  lungs  and  their  investing 
membrane,  shews  a  great  tendency  to  early  exuda- 
tion, and  is  accompanied  by  low  fever.  It  is  con- 
tagious, but,  like  many  other  contagious  disorders, 
it  occasionally  occurs  indei>endently  of  contagion, 
and  is  fostered  by  overcrowding,  exposure  to  cold 
and  wet,  damp,  dirty  hovels,  and  other  such  causes, 
which  depress  the  vital  powers.  The  symptoms 
come  on  insidiously,  appetite  and  rumination  are 
irregular,  there  is  fever,  dulness,  a  short,  half- 
involuntary  cough,  with  quickened  breathing  and 
pulse.  In  cows,  the  yield  of  milk  is  early  dimi- 
nished. After  three  or  four  days,  large  portions 
«f  the  lungs  become  tilled  with  the  products  of 

596 


inflammation,  hence  the  laboured  breathing,  quick 
indistinct    pulse,    wasting,    and    fatal    weakness 
Death  generally  occurs  in  ^om  ten  to  twenty  dm. 
When    pleuro-pneumonia    first   appeared    in   this 
country,  it  was  greatly  more  fatal  than  it  has  sines 
become,  and  ful^  four-fifths  of  the  cattle  attacked 
died ;  with  prompt  and  rational  treatment,  mors 
than  one-half  of  the  affected  cases  now  recover. 
But  as  a  favourable  result  is  uncertain  and  much 
flesh  is  lost  even  during  a  slight  attack,  it  is  still 
advisable,  when  pleuro-pneumonia  breaka  ont  in  a 
herd,  to  consign  to  the  shambles  any  of  the  cattle 
in  good    conmtion  that  have  mixed  with    those 
diseased.    The  best  treatment  consistB  in  aroiding 
bleeding  and  all  reducing  remedies,  supporting  the 
strength,  and  keeping  up  the  action  of  the  skin, 
bow£,  and  kidneys,  in  order  that  the  poisonous 
products  of  the  disease  may  be  rapidly  ^t  rid  oL 
For  this  end,  the  patient  should  be  provided  with 
a  cool  comfortable  house,  clothing  to  the  body, 
bandages  to  the  legs,  a  daily  doee  of  two  ounces 
each  of  nitre  and  common  salt  given  in  treacle  and 
water.    When  the  bowels  are  costive,  gentle  laxa- 
tives are  required.     Bv  the  second  or  third  day, 
counter-irritants  mav  oe  applied  to  one  or  hoik. 
sides,  which  should  nrst  be  bathed  with  hot  water 
and  thin  mustard  paste,  or  a  mixture  of  cantharides 
and  euphorbium  omtments  well  rubbed  in.     By  the 
third  or  fourth  day,  or  earlier,  if  there  is  weakness, 
arrested  secretion,  and  coldness  of  the  skin,  give 
several  times  daily  some  stimulant,  such  as  a  quart 
of  warm  ale,  witii  an  ounce  or  two  of  ginger  or 
other  stomachic,  some  ^ood  whisky-tod<^,  thiee- 
ounce  doses  of  sweet  spirit  of  nitre,  or  of  spirit  of 
ammonia.     Whilst  the  disease  continues,  and  even 
during  early  convalescence,  all  food  requiring  rumi- 
nation must  be  interdicted,  and  mashes,  flour  and 
treacle,  bruised  grain,  or  any  light  digestible  articles 
substituted  for  the  ordinary  hay,  straw,  or  roots. 
As  pleuro-pneumonia  is  in  many  cases  propagated 
by  contagion,  the  sick  should  be  separated  from 
the   sound  stock;    and   any  premises  they  have 
occupied  carefully  cleansed  by  white waahina  smd 
the  use  of  M*Dougall's,  Condy's,  or  other  effectual 
disinfectants.    When  pleuro-pneumonia  prevails  in 
a   neighbourhood,  all  fresh   purchases   shonld  be 
placed  in  quarantine,  and  kept  perfectly  away  &om 
the  home-stock  for  at  least  three  weeks.     Attention 
to   this    simple    precaution   has    preserved    many 
farmers  from  pleuro-pneumonia,  even  while  it  has 
raged  all  around  them. 

PLEXI'METEB.    See  PERCUBBioir. 

PLEYEL,  loNAZ,  a  musical  composer  of  some 
note,  bom  in  1757  at  Rupperstahl,  near  Vienna. 
He  studied  music  under  Vanhall  and  Haydn,  and 
made  in  early  life  an  extensive  tour  in  Italy,  to  hear 
the  works  of  the  best  composers.  In  17S3,  he  was 
made  Capellme'ufter  of  Strasbuig  Cathe^al,  and 
during  the  succeeding  ten  years,  composed  most  of 
the  works  on  which  Ms  popularity  rests.  In  1791, 
he  visited  London,  and  composed  there  three  sym- 
phonies. Two  years  afterwards,  during  the  frenzy 
of  the  French  Involution,  he  fell  under  suspicion, 
and  in  proof  of  his  acquiescence  in  the  new  order 
of  things,  had  to  compose  a  musical  drama  for  the 
anniversary  of  the  10th  of  August;  which  saved 
lus  life.  After  a  long  career  in  Paris  as  a  publisher 
of  music  and  pianoforte  manufacturer,  he  retired 
to  an  estate  which  he  had  purchased  near  PariA. 
and  died  in  1831.  His  comitositions,  consisting  of 
quartetts,  coucertantes,  and  sonatas,  are  full  of 
agreeable  melodies,  sometimes  light  and  trivial, 
but  occasionally  vigorous. 

PLFCA  POL(yNIOA  is  the  name  ^ven  to  a 
disease  of  the  scalps  in  which  the  hai/s  becone 


PLINTH-PLINY. 


mfttted  together,  b^  an  adhesive  and  often  foetid 
secretion,   and  which  is    especially  prevalent    in 
Poland,  although  it  occasionally  occurs  in  other 
oountriea  .Hie  hair  is  found,  on  microscopic  inves- 
tigation, to  be  infested  with  a  fungus  of  tne  genus 
Tridiophyton.   The  only  treatment  that  is  beneficial 
18  the  removal  of  the  hair,  and  strict  attention  to 
cleanliness;   but  as    it   is   popularly  believed   in 
Poland  that  this  affection  affords  a  security  from 
all  other  sickness  and  misfortune,  it  is  often  diffi- 
cult  to  persuade  patients  to  have  recourse  to  these 
means.    For  an  account  of  the  parasitic  fungus  that 
attacks  the  hair  in  this  disease,  and  of  the  changes 
of  structure  which  it  induces,  the  reader  is  referred 
to  KUchenmeister*8  Manual  of  Parcmitea^  voL  ii 
pp.  148—152. 

PLINTH,  the  square  m<>mbcr  at  the  bottom  of 
the  base  of  a  column.  Also  the  plain  projecting 
band  forming  a  base  of  a  wall. 

PLINY    (C.    Plinhts   Secukdus),  often   called 
Pliny  the    Elder,  and  author  of   the    celebrated 
Historia  Naturalw^  was  born  in  the  north  of  Italy, 
either  at  Novum  Comum  {Como)  or  Verona,  23  A.D. 
Whether  it  was  his  birthplace  or  not,  the   former 
town  was  certainly  his  family's  jplace  of  residence, 
since   he   bad    estates  in  its  neighbourhood;    his 
nephew,  the  Younger  Pliny,  was  bom  there,  and 
inscriptions  relating  to  members  of  his  family  have 
been  found  near  it.     While  still  young,  he  was  sent 
to  Home,  where  his  ample  means  and  high  connec- 
tions secured  him  the  best  education.    At  the  age 
of  23,  he  entered  the  army,  and  served  in  Germany, 
as  commander  of    a  troop  of  cavalry,  under  L 
Pomponius   Secundus,   of  whom,  in  later  life,  he 
wrote  a  memoir.    He  travelled  over  nearly  all  the 
frontier  of  that  extensive  province,  visited  the  Cauoi 
and  the  aonrces  of  the  Danube,  composed  during  the 
intervals  of  military  duty  his  treatise  De  Jacula- 
tioiie  Equegtriy  and  commenced  a  history  (afterwards 
completed  in  twenty  books)  of  the  Germanic  wars. 
On  his  return  to  Kome  in  52  with  Pomponius,  he 
entered   on  the  study  of  iurisprudeuce ;   but  his 
practice  as  a  pleader  proved  him  to  have  no  great 
capacity  for  the  legal  profession ;  and  accordingly, 
he  retired  to  his  native  place,  where  he  spent  the 
greater  part  of  the  rei^  of  Nero  in  miscellaneous 
authorship.    It  was  durmg  this  period  that  he  wrote 
his  Studio^us^  a  treatise  in  three  books  on  the  train- 
ing of    a    younff  orator  from  the   nursery  to   his 
entrance  on  publio  life,  and  apparentlv  intended  to 
guide  the  education  of  his  nephew ;  also  his  gram- 
matical   livork,    Dubiua    Sermo,    in    eight    books. 
Shortly  before  Nero's  death,  we  find  him  a  procu- 
rator in  Spain,  where,  in  71,  he  heard  of  his  brother- 
in-liM^^s  decease,  and  of  his  being  intrusted  with  the 
guardianship  of  his   nephew,  Pliny  the  Younger, 
whom  he  aaopted  on  his  return  to  Kome  before  73. 
Vespasian,  the  reigning   emperor,  whom   he   had 
known  while  serving  in  Germany,  received  him  as 
one  of  his  most  intimate  friends  ;  and  it  was  at  this 
period  that  he  completed,  in  thirty-one  books,  and 
Drought  down  to  his  own  time,  the  Roman  history 
of  Aufidius  Bassus.    His  mode  of  study  at  this  time 
was  a  model  of  sjrstematic  assiduity.    When  living 
in  the   busy  world  of  Rome,  he  would  benn  his 
studies  by  candle-light  in  autumn  at  a  late  hour  of 
the    night,  and  in  winter  at  one  or  two  in  the 
morning;.      Before  daybreak,  he  would  caU  on  the 
emperor,    for  whom  he  would  proceed  to  execute 
▼anoas   commissions;  this  done,  he  would  return 
home,   and  resume  his  studies.     A  slender  meal 
-would  follow ;  after  which  he  would,  in  summer 
weather,    lie  in  the   sunshine,  and  take  notes  or 
extracts  from  the  books  which  were  read  to  him. 
The  practice  of  jotting  down  important  facts  or 


observations  was  habitual  with  him.  and  he  was 
often  heard  to  say  that  there  was  no  book,  however 
bad,  from  which  some  good  could  not  be  got.    A 
cold  bath,  followed  by  a  light  meal  and  a  short 
sleep,  occupied   another  interval,  i^ter   which  he 
would  study  till  the  coena,  or  dinner-time.     Even 
at    this    meal,  some  book  was  read  to  him,  on 
which  he  would  make  comments.     When  in  his 
country  residence,  he  studied  nearly  all  the  time, 
except  when  in  the  bath ;  and  even  then,  while  his 
attendants  were  performing  the  duties  incident  to 
that  luxury,  he  would  be  listening  to  some  one 
who  read  to  him,  or  he  would  be  dictating  to  his 
amanuensis.    Wlien  on  a  journey,  again,  he  was 
never  without  a  secretary  at  his  elbow,  provided 
with  a  book  and  tablets.    By  this  mode  of  life,  he 
collected  an  immense  mass  of  materials,  from  which 
he  compiled  his  great  Ilistoria  NaturaUs^  published 
about  77.    No  fewer  than  160  volumina  of  notes  were 
found  at  his  death,  two  years  afterwards.      The 
great    eniption  which,   in   79,  submerged    Hercu- 
laneum  and  Pompeii  was  at  its  height  wnen  he  was 
stationed  off  Misenum,  in  command  of  the  Roman 
fleet.     Eaeer   to  examine  the  phenomenon   more 
closely,  he  landed  at  Stabise,  where  he  was  suffocated 
by  the  va{x>urs  caused  by  the  eruption.    He  was,  as 
his  nephew  tells  us,  corpulent  and  asthmatic,  and 
sunk  the  more  readily.      None  of  his  attendants 
shared  his  fate. 

Of  all  his  works,  only  his  Ulstoria  Naturalis  has 
come  down  to  us.  It  comprehends  a  greater 
variety  of  subjects  than  we  now  regard  as  included 
under  that  title.  Astronomy,  meteorology,  geo- 
graphy, mineralogy,  zoology,  botany,  everything,  in 
short,  which  is  a  natural  or  non-artificial  product, 
finds  a  place  in  P.'s  Natural  History.  Even  to  this 
elastic  mtcrpretation  of  the  term,  he  by  no  means 
rigidly  adheres ;  the  work  being  interspersed  with 
digressions  on  such  subjects  as  human  institutions 
and  inventions,  and  the  history  of  the  fine  arts.  It 
is  divided  into  37  books — the  first  of  them  being  a 
dedicatory  epistle  to  Titus,  with  a  table  of  contents 
of  the  remaining  books,  and  embraces,  as  we  are  told 
in  the  preface,  20,000  matters  of  importance,  extracted 
from  about  2000  volumes.  Its  scientific  merit  is 
not  great  There  is  little  attempt  at  philosophical 
arrangement ;  the  observations  are  nearly  all  taken 
at  second-hand,  and  shew  small  discrimination  io 
separating  the  true  from  the  false,  or  the  probable 
from  the  marvellous.  His  meaning  is  often  obscure, 
from  his  writing  of  things  with  which  he  was 
personally  unacquainted,  and  from  his  having  missed 
the  true  sense  of  the  authors  whom  he  cites  or 
translates  But  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  work 
is  a  great  monument  of  industry  and  research — 
most  praiseworthy  as  having  been  constructed  and 
completed  amid  the  labour  of  other  onerous  under- 
taking's, and  amid  the  distractions  of  a  life  engaged 
in  active  official  employment ;  and  most  valuable 
as  supplying  us  with  details  on  a  great  variety  of 
subjects,  as  to  which  we  have  no  other  means  of 
information.  The  best  critical  edition  of  the  text  is 
that  of  Sillig  (Leips.  5  vols.  1831-1836).  The 
best  commentary  is  that  of  Panckoucke,  which 
embodies,  along  with  a  French  translation,  the 
notes  of  Cuvier  and  other  distinguished  French 
savants.  Pliny's  work  has  been  translated  into 
almost  aU  European  languages. 

PLINY  (C.  PuNius  Cjecilius  Sbcundus),  nephew 

of  the  preceding,  and  son  of  C.  Ceecilius,  frequently 

called  Pliny  the  Younger,  was   bom  at  Novum 

Comum,  61  a.  d.    He  was  still  young  when  he  lost 

his  father,  and  was  adopted  by  his  uncle,  under 

whose  care,  and  that  of  his  mother,  Plinia,  and  his 

tutor,  Virginius  Rufus,  his  education  was  prosecuted. 

Passionately  devoted  to  literature,  he  wrote  a  Greek 

Mi 


PLOCARIA— PLOTINTJa. 


tragedy  At  the  age  of  13 ;  stadied  eloquence  under 
Qniutilian ;  and  became  so  famons  for  his  literary 
aocomplishments,  that  he  acquired  the  reputation 
of  being  one  of  the  moet  learned  men  of  the  ace. 
His  oratorical  powers  were  aUo  considerable ;  in  his 
19th  year,  he  began  to  speak  in  the  fomm ;  and 
liis  services  as  an  advocate  before  the  court  of  the 
Centumviri  and  the  Roman  senate  were  in  frequent 
request  He  held  numerous  official  appointments ; 
served,  while  a  young  man,  as  tribunus  militum  in 
Syria,  where  he  listen^  to  the  teaching  of  Euphrates 
the  Stoic,  and  Artemidorus ;  was  afterwards  qucBstor 
Ccesaris ;  was  prietor  about  93,  and  consul  in  100, 
when  he  wrote  his  Panegyneus,  an  adulatoiy 
etilogium  of  the  Emperor  Trajan,  and  containing 
little  information  as  to  the  author  and  his  times. 
He  was  apjMinted,  in  103,  propraetor  of  the  province 
Pontica,  an  office  which  he  vacated  in  less  tnan  two 
years ;  and  he  also  discharged  the  function  of 
curator  of  the  banks  and  channel  of  the  Tiber.  He 
was  twice  married,  his  second  wife  being  Oalpumia^ 
grand-daughtor  of  Calpumius  Fabatus,  and  consider- 
nbly  younger  than  her  husband,  by  whom  she  was 
much  beloved  for  her  accomplishments  and  amia- 
bility.    He  had  no  issue  by  either  marriage. 

Our  knowledge  of  P.  the  Younger  is  mainly 
derived  from  his  letters  or  EpUtolcBj  of  which  there 
aie  ten  books.  He  collected  them  himself,  and 
piobably  wrote  many  of  them  with  a  view  to  publi- 
cation. They  hold  a  high  place  in  epistolary 
lil^ratare,  and  eive  us  many  mteresting  glimpses 
into  the  life  of  their  author  and  his  contemporaries. 
P.  himself  appears  in  them  to  considerable  advan- 
tfl^e,  as  a  genial  and  philanthropic  man,  enamoured 
of  literary  studies,  and  fond  of  improving  his  estates 
bv  architectural  ornament.  His  ample  fortune  was 
lioerally  bestowed ;  and  his  slaves  always  foand  in 
liim  au  indulgent  master.  Intirm  health  impaired 
throughout  hie  his  constitution,  which  was  naturally 
weak ;  but  of  the  time  or  cause  of  his  death,  we 
know  nothing.  Of  the  facts  contained  in  his  letters, 
however,  the  most  interesting  to  us  are  those  relat- 
ing to  the  punishment  of  l^e  Christians.  Death 
appears  to  have  been  the  penalty  attached  even  to 
the  confession  of  being  a  Christian ;  although  the 
adherents  of  the  faith  admitted  no  other  acts,  on 
examination,  than  those  of  meeting  on  a  fixed  day 
before  dawn,  when  a  hymn  to  Chnst  was  sung,  and 
taking  an  oath  to  avoid  theft,  adultery,  breach  of 
faith,  and  denial  of  a  deposit  Nothing  more 
imf  avourable  to  them  than  this  could  be  extorted  by 
P.  from  two  female  slaves,  reputed  to  be  deaconesses, 
whom  he  put  to  the  torture.  P.  having  asked 
Trajan  how  he  was  to  stop  the  spreading  supersti- 
tion, the  emperor  replied  that  no  general  rule  could 
be  laid  down ;  that  he  oucht  not  to  institute  a 
search  after  persons  supposed  to  be  Christians ;  but 
if  any  were  brought  before  him,  and  the  charge  was 
proved,  such  were  to  be  punished,  if  still  impenitent 
The  best  edition  of  P.'s  Panegyricus  and  EpUtoloB 
together,  is  that  of  Schaefer ;  of  the  EpistoUB  alone, 
that  of  Grierig. 

PLOCA'BIA,  a  genus  of  AlgtKy  of  the  order  or 
•uborder  Ceramiace^By  having  a  cartilaginous  frond, 
composed  of  large  cells,  as  if  jointed,  and  dividing 
into  slender,  tufted,  and  densely  aggregated  branches. 
P.  helminOiochorton  is  the  Cobsican  Moas  of  the 
apothecaries'  shops,  once  of  some  reputation  as  a 
vermifuge,  but  now  little  used,  and  believed  to  be 
of  little  efficacy.  It  is  a  small  plant,  with  a  filiform 
entangled  frond,  and  grows  on  the  shores  of  the 
Mediterranean.  It  has  a  strong  marine  odour  and 
a  salt  taste.  It  consiste  in  great  part  of  a  vegetable 
jelly  or  mucilage,  which  renders  it  nutritious,  and 
contains  much  chloride  of  sodium,  sulphate  of 
lime,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  As  sold  in  the  shops, 
too 


it  is  always  much  mixed  with  other  alge.— P. 
ienax  ia  a  small  plant  with  filiform,  bnmched, 
and  somewhat  gelatinous  frond,  much  naed  by 
the  Chinese  as  a  slue.  It  is  also  naed  in  Chios 
as  an  article  of  food. — P.  Candida  is  used  to  i  con- 
siderable extent  as  an  article  of  food  in  the  But 
It  ii  popnlarlv  called  Cetloit  Mobsl  The  frond 
is  whitisn  and  much  branched,  the  brandies  long 
and  somewhat  clustered.  It  is  exported  to  Chins 
from  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ardupelaso,  fonning 
a  portion  of  the  cargo  of  almost  every  junL  The 
Chinese  make  it  into  a  jeUy  witii  sugar,  and  use  it 
as  a  sweetmeat  It  consists  in  ereat  part  of  s 
vegetable  jelly,  with  a  considerable  quantity  of 
starch.  It  has  been  introduced  into  Britain  as  a 
light  and  nourishing  food  for  children  and  inv^da, 
and  is  found  particularly  suitable  in  cases  of 
initation  of  the  mucous  sunaces. 

PLOCE'U&    See  Wr^vkr  BntD. 

PLOCK  (Buss.  Plotzkj,  a  town  of  Poland,  capi- 
tal of  the  government  of  the  same  name,  occapiea 
an  elevation  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Viatda, 
78  miles  west-north-west  of  Warsaw.  Ite  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  built  in 961,  the  bishops 
palace,  theatre,  &a  Agriculture,  and  the  export  of 
grain  to  Danzig  and  other  ports,  are  the  chief 
employments.    Pop.  10,604. 

PLOCK  (Buss.  Plotzk),  a  government  in  the 
north  of  Poland,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Prussia, 
and  on  the  south-west  by  Warsaw.  Area,  66U0 
square  miles ;  pop.  561,903,  80  per  cent  of  vhom. 
are  Poles.  Hills  occur  in  the  north  and  on  the 
banks  of  the  Narew  and  Vistula,  which  with  tha 
Bug  are  the  chief  rivers.  One-third  of  the  surface  is 
covered  with  foreste,  and  there  are  many  marshes 
and  lakes.  The  inhabitante  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
agriculture,  and  in  cattle  and  sheep  breeding. 

PLONG^B,  in  Artillery  and  Fortification,  means 
a  slope  towards  the  front.  Thus,  in  speaking  of  the 
course  of  a  shell  through  the  air,  its  plong^e  is  from 
the  point  of  greatest  altitude  to  the  point  at  which 
it  strikes  the  earth.  So,  in  fortification,  the  plongfe 
is  the  tep  of  the  parapet  sloping  gently  towards  the 
front  This  slope  is  ordinanly  1  in  6;  bat  a 
deviation  is  permissible  of  from  I  in  9  to  1  in  4: 
the  sharper  the  slope,  however,  the  more  liable  is 
the  crest  of  the  parapet  to  be  destroyed  by  an 
enemy's  fire.  Moreover,  as  flat  a  plong^  as  possible 
is  desirable,  that  sandbags  may,  when  required, 
be  laid  upon  it  to  form  a  cover  for  riflemen.  See 
FomuncATioN,  fig.  7. 

PLOTI'NUS,  the  most  origimd  and  important 
philosopher  of  the  Neo-Platonic  School,  was  oom  at 
Lycopoiis  in  Egrpt  205  A.D. ;  but  such  was  his  utter 
indifference  to  things  human,  *•  being  ashamed  almost 
to  live  in  a  body,'  that  he  never  would  divul^  even 
his  parentage.  He  would  never  allow  his  birthday 
to  be  celebrated,  although  he  gave  feasts  on  those 
of  Socrates  and  Plato ;  nor  would  he  ever  pennit  a 
paintor  or  sculptor  to  perpetuate  hia  features,  or,  as 
he  called  it,  to  produce  the  imag^  of  an  ima^— the 
body  beiuff  to  him  only  a  faint  image  of  existence. 
He  deem^  it  tedious  enough  already  to  have  to 
drag  about  this  image  whithersoever  he  went  in 
this  life.  His  body  was  altogether  contemptible  in 
his  eyes  ;  he  would  see  no  physician  in  his  illness, 
and  was  very  sparing  in  the  use  of  food,  refrainin? 
from  meat,  often  even  from  bread.  Strangelj 
enough,  hia  desire  for  the  study  of  philosophy  d;^ 
not  arise  within  him  before  his  28th  year,  when  be 
repaired  to  Alexandria,  and  there,  after  having  sat  ik 
the  feet  of  the  great  masters  for  some  time  without 
feeling  satisfied  with  their  teachiuffs,  he  at  last 
became  acquainted  with  Ammonina  Saocas,  and  in 
him  found  the  desired  teacher.    For  ten  years  k 


PLOTINUS—PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING. 


zealously  attended  his  lectures,  and  although  he 

had  agreed,  with  two  of  his  fellow-studenta,  never 

to  make  known  aught  of  Ammoniua's  teachings  to 

the  world,  he  yet  became  the  chief  representative 

and  author  of  that  school,  less  as  a  pupil  than  as 

an  independent  thinker,  who  taking  his  stand  upon 

its  theorems,  develoi^ed  them  to  their  full  extent.    In 

242  he  joined  Goroianus's  expedition  to  Persia,  in 

order  to  devote  himself  to  the  philosophy  of  India 

and  Persia;    but    the    emperor    being    murdered 

in  Mesopotamia,   he   had  to    repair  hurriedly  to 

Antioch,  whence,  in  244,  he  went  to  Rome.     His 

lectures  here  were  attended  not  only  by  crowds  of 

eager  youths,  but  men  and  women  of  the  highest 

circles  flocked  to  hear  him.     Not  only  Platonic 

wisdom,  in  Neo-Platonic  garb,  but  asceticism  and 

the  charm  of  a  purely  contemplative  life,  were  the 

themes  on  which  ne,  in  ever-new  variations,  and  with 

an  extraordinary  depth  and  brilliancy,  held  forth  ; 

and  such  was  the  impression  his  earnestness  made 

upon  his  hearers,  that  several  of  them  really  crave 

up  their  fortune  to  the  poor,  set  their  slaves  free, 

and  devoted  themselves  to  a  life  of  study  and  ascetic 

piety.     Dving  parents  intrusted  their  children  and 

money  to  him,  well  knowing  that  an  honester  giuir- 

dian,  and  one  more  anxious  for  his  chaises,  could 

not  be  found.    It  is  hardly  surprising  to  find  that 

his  contemporaries  coupled  with  his  rare  virtues  the 

gift  of  working  miracles.   Sixty  years  old,  he  thonght 

of  realising  rlato^s  dream,  by  founding  an  aristo- 

cratical  and  commumstic  commonwealth  like  the 

Iatter*8  '  Republic;'  and  the  Emperor  Gallienus  was 

ready  to  grant  the  site  of  two  cities  in  Campania 

for  his  *  ^atonopolis ; '  but  his  courtiers  prevented 

the   fulfilment  of  this  promise.     P.  died  from  a 

complication  of  diseases,  m  270,  at  Puteoli,  66  years 

of  age. 

Although  he  began  to  write  very  late  in  life,  he 
yet  left  54  books  oi  very  different  size  and  contents. 
His  MS.  being  very  carelessly  written,  he  asked 
his  pupil  Porphyry  to  revise  and  correct  it  for 
him.  The  latter  also  divided  it  into  six  principal 
divisions,  each  subdivided  again  into  nine  books 
or  Enneada.  The  most  important  parts  are  those 
which  treat  of  Beauty,  Fate,  Immortality  of  Soul, 
the  Good  or  One,  the  Three  Original  Substances, 
of  Free  Will,  against  Gnostics,  of  Providence,  of 
the  Genesis  of  Ideas,  of  the  Influence  of  the  Stars, 
of  the  Supreme  Good,  &c  The  language  is  very 
unequal  in  the  different  portions,  accordmg  to  the 
mood  and  circumstances  to  which  they  individually 
owe  their  existence;  but  it  always  is  original, 
compact,  and  graphic  in  the  extreme. 

P.  s  system  was  based  chiefly  on  Plato's  theorem 
of  the  Ideas ;  only^  that  while  Plato  assumed  the 
Ideas  to  be  the  hnk  between  the  visible  and  the 
invisible,  or  between  the  Supreme  Deity  and  the 
world,  P.  held  the  doctrine  of  Emanation,  that  is, 
the    couatant   transmission    of    powers    from    the 
Absolute  to  the  Creation,  through  several  agencies, 
the  first  of  which  is  *  Pure  Intelligence,'  whence 
flows    the   '  Soul    of   the  World,'   whence,   again, 
the    bonis    of  '  men '   and    '  animals,'  and   finally 
*  matter'    itsell      (For   a   fuller    account    of   this 
part    of   P.'s  system  in  its   historical   connection, 
see  Nso-PLATONiBrrs.)      Men  thus  belong  to  two 
worlds,  that  of  the  senses  and  that  of  Pure  Intelli- 
gence.   It  depends  upon  ourselves,  however,  to  which 
of  the  two  worlds  we  direct  our  thoughts  most  and 
belong  to  finally.    The  ordinary  virtues,  as  justice, 
moderation,   valour,   and   the   like,  are  only  the 
beginniog  and  very  first  preparation  to  our  elevation 
into  the  spiritual  realm;  purification,  or  the  exercise 
of  purifytnff  virtues,  is  a  further  step,  to  which  we 
attain  partly  through  mathematics  and  dialectic; 
and  the  abandonment  of  all  earthly  interests  for 


those  of  intellectual  meditation,  is  the  nearef# 
approach  to  the  goaL  The  higher  our  soul  rises  in 
this  sphere  of  intellect,  the  deeper  it  sinks  into  tha 
ocean  of  the  good  and  the  pure,  until  at  last  its 
union  with  God  is  complete,  and  it  is  no  longer 
thought  but  vision  and  ecstasies  which  pervade 
it  These  are  a  few  snatches  of  P.'s  philoso- 
phical rhapsodies,  to  which  may  be  further  added 
nis  mystenous  belief  in  a  kind  of  metempsychosis, 
by  which  souls,  not  sufficiently  pimfied  during  life, 
return  after  death,  and  inhabit  according  to  their 
bent,  men,  animals,  and  even  plants.  He  further 
held  views  of  his  own  respecting  gods  and  demons, 
whom  he  divided  into  different  classes,  according 
to  their  degrees;  and  professed  faith  in  Mantic, 
astrolo^,  and  magic,  the  conviction  of  the  truth 
of  whi^  sciences  he  derived  from  his  theory  of 
the  harmony  in  the  intellectual  world,  reflected 
by  the  material  world.  Yet  it  is  clear  from  his 
dicta  on  these  subjects  that  he  did  not  believe 
in  these  so-called  sciences  in  the  gross  sense  of 
the  herd,  but  that  he  had  a  vague  knowledge 
of  those  mysterious  laws  of  attraction  and  repul- 
sion  which  go  through  nature.  P.'s  philosophy, 
which,  as  it  were,  tried  to  combine  all  the  systems 
of  Anaxagoras,  Parmenides,  the  Pythagoreans,  Plato, 
and  Socrates,  and  the  Stoa  into  one,  was  the  last 
and  boldest  attempt  of  the  ancient  Greek  world  to 
explain  the  mystery  of  the  creation  and  of  existence. 
Its  influence  upon  modem  philosophy  is  remarkable. 
From  Spinoza  to  Sohelling,  the  reminiscences  of  P., 
irrespective  of  the  drift  of  particular  parts  of  their 
systems,  recur  constantly. 

P.'s  works  were  well-nigh  forgotten,  when  Mar- 
sihus  Ficinus  flrat  publish^  a  Latin  imraphrase  of 
them  (florence,  1492),  which  was  followed  by  the 
Ed,  Pr.  of  the  original  (Basel,  1580  and  1615). 
The  first  critical  edition,  however,  is  due  to  Creuzer 
(Oxford,  1835,  4to,  3  vols.).  Parts  of  his  works 
were  translated  into  German  by  Engelhard  (Erlan- 
gen,  1820,  kc) ;  and  into  English  by  T.  Taylor 
(1794  and  1817).  The  whole  of  the  Enneads  has 
been  translated  into  French  by  Bouillet  (Paris,  1861, 
8vo.  3  vols.). 

PLO'TUS.    See  Darter. 

• 

PLOUGH,  PLOUGHING.  The  first  in  order 
and  importance  of  agricultural  operations  is  the 
breaking  up  of  the  soil,  and  this  is  accomplished, 
in  all  countries  where  agriculture  is  in  an 
advanced  state,  by  inverting  the  upper  stratum 
of  earth  upon  which  the  plants  ^ow.  Such  a  mode 
not  only  effiectually  accomphshes  the  required 
object,  but  buries  and  destroys  all  weeds,  leaving 
the  surface  clean  and  unencumbered.  The  inversion 
of  ^e  upper  stratum  is  efiected  by  turning  over 
successive  sods  or  slices,  of  the  length  of  the  field, 
and  of  varying  thickness  and  depth,  according  to 
the  nature  of  toe  soil ;  and  the  implement  employed 
for  this  purpose  is  the  plough.  The  general  form 
of  the  plough  is  known  to  every  one,  and  to  the 
unobservant  eye,  it  appears  to  be  a  very  simple 
and  even  primitive  tool ;  nevertheless,  much  mechan- 
ical skill  and  ingenuity  have  been  expended  in 
Eerfectly  adapting  it  to  its  work.  It  is  a  com- 
ination  of  instruments  (fig.  1)  fastened  to  a  beam, 
GBL;  the  oanUeTf  K,  is  an  iron  knife- blade,  for 
cutting  the  sod  vertically ;  the  share,  CFD,  which 
is  merely  a  socket  fitted  on  and  not  fastened  to  the 
body  of  the  plough,  has  a  sharp  point,  C,  and  a  pro- 
jecting horizontal  ^ge,  00,  on  its  right-hand  side,  its 
part  of  the  work  beins  to  separate  tne  under-surfaoe 
of  the  sod  from  the  siuwoil ;  bv  means  of  the  mould- 
board,  H,  the  shce,  now  wholly  separated  from  the 
firm  ground,  is  raised  up  antl  turned  over  by  the 

forward  motion  of  the  plough;   and  the  stiUa,  or 

601 


PLOTJOH,  PLOUOHINa. 


IiuhUm,  one  of  wUoh,  BL^  u  a  oontiDiuttiim  of  Qia 
beam,  the  other,  M,  btnng  faatened  parttjr  to  the 
former  bj  roda,  and  partly  to  the  lowel  poitioa  of 


_„ ,..i  %  which  «Uo  ahewa  the  point 

o(  the  plough  with  the  abare  removed),  are  tor 
tba  piiipoM  of  guitUng  the  implemeiit.    The  front 


Tig.  3. 

part  of  the  beam  ia  formed  with  an  upward  ci 
at  its  extremity,  ia  placed  the  bridle,  N,  to  which 
the  hones  are  attached  hy-  roeang  of  anine-tn 
and  cbaina  or  traces,  and  the  object  of  which  ia 
enable  the  workman  to  elevate  or  depreu  the  line  of 
draa^t,  or  move  it  to  the  right  band  or  the  leFt. 
aa  m;iy  be  found  necewiuy.  The  left  aides  of 
the  oonlter,  ahare.  and  framework  ASEB,  ahould 
svidently  be  in  the  same  vertical  plane.  The 
form  of  the  mould-board  ii  of  the  utmoit  import- 
ance, and  baa  chiefly  attracted  the  attention  of 
agricultural  machiniata  linee  the  time  when 
improvementa  on  the  plough  were  first  pro- 
jected. Ita  office  being  to  raise  and  turn  the  sod, 
It  ia  neceaaan  that  the  surface  ahould  slope  iiuwarda 


.  , . ..__  completely  buried; 

secondly,  the  ridged  surface  thus  preaented,  affords 
the  means  of  coveriug  the  aeed  by  harrowing;  and 
lastly,  the  openings  below  increase  the  amount  of 
surface  accessible  to  air,  and  drain  off  BU|>erfluona 
water.  The  plough  is  wholly  formed  of  inm  ;  the 
shore  and  the  framework  of  malleable,  and  the  mould- 
board  of  cast  iron ;  while  the  coulter  ia  frequently 
welded  with  stvel  on  the  right-band  side,  the  better 
to  resiat  attrition.  In  moat  of  the  English  (aa  dis- 
tinguilhed  from  the  Scotch)  ploughs,  wheels  art 
attached  at  or  near  the  front  end  of  the  beam,  a 
eontrivance  which  renders  the  implement  mun 
steady  in  ita  motion,  more  easily  managed,  and 
ible  of  doing  better  work  in  the  hands  of  as 
rior  workman  ;  but  it  ia  generally  believed,  i> 
Scotland  at  least,  that  the  plough  without  wheels, 
or  awinff-plouyh,  aa  it  ia  technically  termed,  is  greatly 
more  efficient  in  the  bauds  of  a  thoroughly  skilled 
ploughman.  The  usual  dimensions  of  the  furrow- 
slice  in  lea  or  hsy-atubble  are  8  or  9  iuchea  in 
breadth  by  6  in  depth  ;  and  in  land  for  green  crop, 
10  inches  in  breadth,  and  7  or  8  in  depth  ;  thoogh 
sballower  ploughing  is  not  imfrequently  adopted, 
especially  on  thin  soils. 

Other  kinds  of  ploushs  are  used  for  special  pur- 
poses,  such  as  Irmeh-plougki,  which  are  nude  on  the 
same  principle  as  the  common  plough,  but  Jttpn 
and  stronger,  go  as  to  briiig  up  a  portion  of  the 
subsoil  to  the  surface  ;  tabtoU  plought,  which  hav« 
no  mould-board,  and  merely  stir  and  break  np  the 
■ubsoil,  thus  facilitating  dminage ;  douhU  ntouJd- 
board  plought,  which  ore  merely  common  ploughs 
with  0  mould-board  on  each  side,  and  are  employed 
for  water-furrowing,  or  for  earthing  up  ]>otat(i«,  4i 
Of  each  of  these  ploughs,  there  are  many  vaiietiea, 
each  maker  having  generally  some  peculiar-  vien 
regarding  the  form  and  proportion  of  some  ports  or 
the  whole  of  the  inatrument,  and  this  is  apecisSy 
the  case  at  the  present  time,  when  oompetitiaa 
between  makers  has  becume  so  active.  For  thne 
who  wish  to  study  minutely  the  best  form  of  nlon^ 


t  will  be  Deceasary  to  consult  works  o 


Ticultun 


surface  is  so  shaped  that  from  the  point  of  the  share, 
where  it  is  horizontal,  it  gradually  curves  upwards, 
till,  at  the  extremity,  F,  it  inclines  over  away 
from  the  body  of  the  plough.  The  gradual  change 
produced  on  the  position  of  the  furrow-slice  is 
•Mn  in  fig.  3,  where  ABOD  on  the  left-hand  nde, 


iwresents  the  slice  untouched  by  the  plough, 
AD  being  the  line  of  section  b^  the  coulter; 
J>C,  by  the  share ;  BC,  the  open  side  from  which 
the  previous  furrow  (E|  to  the  ri^t-hand  side 
has  been  separated ;  and  the  four  succeasive 
rectangles,  A  BCD  to  the  right,  illustrate  the 
anccessivo  changes  of  position  of  the  furrow  as  the 
mould-board  ia  pushed  forward  under  and  on  its 
left  side,  till  it  ia  finally  left,  aa  represented  in 
ABCD  on  the  right  hand;  E,  F,  O  are  furrows 
which  have  previously  been  laid  in  their  proper 
position.  The  advantages  of  laying  the  furrows  in 
Uie  position  shewn  are  these  :  in  the  first  place,  the 
weedy  side  of  eoch  furrow  being  closely  apiihed  to 
tiu  previous  furrow,  ond  kept  pressed  agamst  it  by 


__.      .._,   ,-.  - of  plough  BMch   used  in 

various  puis  of  England,  which  deserves  mnre 
particulu'  notice ;  this  is  the  tum-uTrest  jJmgk. 
Its  chief  peculiarity  is,  that  instead  of  one.  it  haa 
two  mould-boards,  one  on  each  side,  and  these  an 
oltemately  brought  into  operation,  so  that  the 
furrow  is  always  turned  over  in  the  same  dirsTtitiii. 
The  mould-boards  are  firmly  fastened  together  in 
front,  and  kept  at  a  constant  distance  from  each 
otberbehind.bymeanaof  atruta,  while  the  handles  an 
movable  with  refen'nce  to  them;  the  mnuld-board 
which  is  intended  to  be  used  being  pushed  away  from, 
and  the  other  (which  for  the  time  does  the  came 
ifork  SB  the  vertical  surface  ADEB  in  Hg.  I)  brought 
nearer  to  the  line  of  the  beam  ;  of  course,  when  the 
next  fnrrow  is  ploughed,  the  mould-boards  exchann 
adjustments.    This  form  of  ^ongh  ia  very  usetol  ii 


plonghing  along  a  hillside,  aa  tnr  it  all  the  forrowi 
can  be  tiunedover  towards  the  mll,tbns  prevents; 


PWUGH,  PLOUGHINQ. 


downw&rd^  leavuig  tlie  upper  portion*  bkre.  The 
form  (fig.  4}  here  given  u  the  rudeet  and  leut 
deairable  fonn  of  the  tam-wreat ;  it  ii  that  Thich 
ia  (ued  in  Kent,  and  there  much  eatecmed. 

Tfao  operation  of  ploushing  we  cui  only  notice 
briefly.     Tlie  nauol  breaiUh  of  a  ridga  being  talcen 
at  IB  feet,  the  ploughman  sets  up  a  lioe  of  polea 
along    the    middle  of    tlie  fint    ridge,   to    guide 
him  in  a  straight  line.      Along  this  line  marked 
with  polea  he   drives  hia  plough,  throwing  out  a 
furrow,  and  after  reaching  the  headland,*  tuma  hia 
horaea,  and  returning  on  uie  aame  track,  throva  out 
a  furrow  on  the  oppoaite  aide.    Ha  then  enteia  hia 
plough  on  the  left  aide  of  the  doable  furrow,  at  a 
distance  of  6  to  10  inches,  according  to  circnm- 
atancee,  and  throws  back  the   furrow   previoiuly 
thrown  out  on  that  aide ;  returning  by  the  other 
aide,  and  doing  the  aama  with  the  oUier  thrown- 
out  furrow.     This  proceoa  is  termed  fcermg.     He 
ha*    now   two    furrowa    turned    up    and   leaning 
against  each  other,  and  he  then  proceeds  to  add 
furrow  to  furrow  on  each  side  alternately  of  the 
first  pair,  till  a  whole  ridge  ia  completed;  or  he 
may  [which  is  the  preferable  plan)  plough  the  inner 
half  of  the  first  ridge  and  the  first  half  of  the  second 
lidge.     This  process  is  termed  gaVitring ;  and  a 
repetition  of  it  on  the  aame  land,  twice-gitiiKnag ; 
but  this  is   only  practised  on   strong  Wat   huuL  | 
Cleaoing  ia  the  oppoaite  to  gathering, 
the  furrows  in  the  former  case  form- 
iug   the  centre  of   the   ridge  of  the 
latter,    and   the    position   of   all  the 
furrows  bring  reversed.      Calling  or 
coupling  ridges  is  now   by  far  th« 
moat  common  method  of  ploughing, 
and    consists    in    the   formation    of 
riilccs  of  36  feet,  or  twice  the  usual 
width,  the  firat  feering  being  made 
doae  along  (he  side  of  the  field,  and  4 
the  next  at  a  distance  of  the  width  ' 
of  two  ridges,  and  so  on. 

The  first  essential  property  of  every 
plough   is,   that  it  shall  throw  tlM 
furrow  cleanly  off  the  mould-board; 
the  next,  that  it  sh&ll  lay  it  in  that 
position  which  beat  exposes  the  soil 
to  the  action  of  the  air,  hence  care  must  be  taken 
that  the  mould-board  be  neither  too  loog  nor  too 
short,  as  io  the  former  case  it  pListets  up  the  surface 
of  the  furrow,  and  in  the  latter  destroys  its  form. 

The  plough  is  one  of  the  moat  ancient  of  imple- 
meuta,  and  la  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament  at  a 


consisted  of  little  more  than  a  pointed 
stick,  which  waa  forced  into  the  ground  as  it  waa 
drawn  forward.  In  fact,  the  earliest  ploughs  were 
neither  more  nor  leaa  than  varieties  of  the  Hoe 
(q.  T.),  worked  by  presaingthe  point  into  the  ground 
instead  of  by  percua-  — 

aion.  The  earliest 
form  of  Uie  Greek 
plough,  the  autofiuon 
(«g.8,al,Um«™i.l. 
of  this ;  it  was  merely 
the  trunk  of  a  small 
tree,  which  had  two 
braochea  opposite  to 
each  other,  one  branch 
forming  the  share  and 
the  oUier  the  handle, 
while  the  trunk 
formed  the  pole  or 
beam.  The  more  im-  , 
proved  form,  the  -• 
ptktan,  in  use  among  Big.  & 

the    Greeka,  was  not 

aubatantially  different  from  the  modem  form  in 
use  in  Mysia  tfig.  5).  The  ancient  Egyptian 
plough  in  one  of  ita  early  atagea  is  represented  in 
iig.  6,  and,  like  the  two  forms  above  described, 
ia  devoid  of  *U  apparatna  enabling  the  labourer 


O, 


S,  tlu  jQkfl ;  B,  batJ  J  Omk  plonj^h. 


Egyptian  plough  was  wholly  of  wood,  and  in  some 

*  The  headlands  or  hesd  nd^es  are  two  ridges,  one 
liang  the  top,  and  one  along  the  bottom  of  the  field, 
which  are  not  ploughed  till  the  rest  of  the  field  has  been 
completed. 


Kg.  7.— Modem  S; 
guide  it,  all  that  he  c 


m  Plough, 
I  do  being 


all  that  he  can  do  being  to  prcst  (by 
applied  to  the  handle)  the  share  into 
the  earth.  The  Egyptians,  however,  gradnaUy 
improved  the  form,  bll  it  assumed  the  appearance 
of  a  hollow  wedge  formed  by  the  two  handles 
joined  at  the  bottuoi,  and  with  the  beam  fastened 
between  the  handle*  a  little  above  their  point 
of  junction.  The  share  was  the  point  ca  the 
wedge,  and  Uie  handles  were  placed  almost 
upright  ;  this  ia  in  all  essential  particulara 
the  '  araire '  still  used  in  many  rural  diatricts  of 
France,  and  also  corresponds  very  closely  to  the 
modem  Syrian  plough  (fig.  T)>  The  Konians,  an 
eeseotially  practical  nntion,  largely  improved  on  the 
plough,  addins  to  it  the  coulter  and  mould.board, 
and  DccasionaSy  attaching  wheels  to  the  beam  to 
prevent  the  share  from  going  too  deep  into  the 
earth  (fin.  8}.  A  later  and  more  improved  form,  iu 
which  the  handles  were  made  to  iiichne  backwoida 
and  the  coulter  was  placed  so  far  back  as  to  be 
directly  above  the  share,  is  still  in  use  in  the  north 
of  Italy.     The  ploughs  used  in  the  present  day  ii 


ments.  The  plough  was  almost  unknonn  a 
the  American  aborigines,  though  Preecott  describes 
a  mode  of  ploughing  practiaed  amoog  the  Peruviana, 
which  coQsiated  ia  the  drac^ag  forward  of  a  ahaip> 
pointed  stoke  by  six  or  eiSit  men,  it*  aharp  point, 
which  was  in  front,  being  kept  down  in  the  ooond 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHma 


b^  the  pressure  of  the  foot  of  another  man  who 
directed  it  Britain  and  America,  and  their  colonies, 
the  only  countries  in  which  tiie  plough  has  been 


ilg.  a 

brought  to  a  state  worthy  of  being  considered 
effective,  and  eyen  in  Britain  the  most  important 
amendments  on  it  are  not  two  centuries  old.  Eng- 
land took  the  lead  in  improvement  by  rendering  the 
form  more  neat  and  effectiye,  and  b^  attaching 
wheels  to  aid  in  keeping  the  plough  m  a  proper 
upright  position.  In  Scotland,  for  some  time  after 
tnis,  the  plough  was  extremely  rude  and  cumbrous, 
and  usmuly  £rawn  by  8  oxen ;  but  in  the  middle 
of  the  18th  a,  some  Dutch  ploughs  were  imported, 
and  being  found  more  effective,  an  impetus  was  thus 
given  to  attempts  at  improvement.  James  Small, 
who  may  justly  be  regarded  as  the  real  inventor 
of  the  Scotch  or  swing-plough,  made  great  and 
important  changes  in  the  form  and  efficiency  of 
the  coulter,  share,  and  mould-board,  producing  an 
implement  at  once  lighter  and  vastly  more  efficient 
All  the  swing-plou^is  of  successive  makers  are 
founded  upon  the  basis  of  Small's  plough.  Wilkie 
of  Uddingston  (Lanarkshire)  formed  it  wholly  of 
iron,  and  his  modification  has  been  universally 
adopted  in  the  modern  ploughs.  Among  the  various 
improvers  of  this  form  of  cultivator  may  be  men- 
tioned, besides  Wilkie  of  Uddingston,  Gray  of  the 
same  place,  Clarke  of  Stirling,  Cunningham,  Bar- 
rowman,  Ponton,  Sellars,  &c.  In  England,  swing- 
ploughs  are  occasionally  met  with,  but  the  whed- 
plough  is  the  one  generally  used ;  like  its  Scotch 
neighbour  it  had  m&Jij  defects,  which  have  been 
gradually  remedied,  chiefiy  by  Ransomes  of  Ips- 
wich (the  patentee  in  1785  of  the  cast-iron  share), 
Howard  of  Bedford,  Homsby  of  Grantham  (Lin- 
colnshire), and  Busby  of  Bedale,  the  last  of  whom 
fained  a  medal  for  his  mould-boards  at  the  Great 
Exhibition  of  1851.  The  English  and  Scotch 
ploughs  differ  from  each  other  in  many  important 
particulars,  especially  in  the  form  of  the  mould- 
boards  and  in  the  aaiustment  of  the  coulter,  the 
first  being  chiefly  adapted  for  shallow,  and  the 
latter  for  deep,  ploughing.  In  the  Cotswold  district, 
a  plough  construct^  of  wood,  and  with  a  wooden 
mould- Doard  (the  Bevergtone  Plough),  is  in  general 
use,  and  is  found  sufficiently  well  adapted  for  tiie 
shallow  plougliing  there  practised.  For  further 
information  concerning  the  plough  and  the  mode  of 
using  it,  see  Morton^  Cyclopcsdia  of  Agriculture 
(1856),  Stephens'  Book  of  the  Farm,  Book  of  Farm 
Implements,  by  Henry  Stephens  and  IL  Scott  Bum, 
and  other  works. 

Steam-ploughing, — ^Although  it  is  not  yet  ten 
years  since  cultivation  of  the  land  by  steam 
oame  into  successful  operation,  it  is  about  two 
centuries  and  a  half  ago  since  it  was  foreseen  to  be 
possible^  So  long  ago  as  1618,  David  Eamsey 
and  Thomas  Wild^sse  took  out  letters-patent  for 
engines  and  machinery  to  plough  the  ground  with- 
out the  aid  of  oxen  or  horses:  and  nine  years 


afterwards,  other  ingenious  men  obtained  letters* 
patent  for  machines  to  affect  a  similar  porpoae.   It 
18  the  opinion  of  Mr  Woodcroft  of  the  Patent  Office, 
who  compiled  the  AhridgmenU  of  the  Spe^ieatiom 
JRdatmg  to  Steam-eulture,  that  steam  was  the  motaTo 
power  intended  to  be  employed ;  bat  as  Ihe  fint 
patent  was  taken  out  nearly  40  years  before  the 
Marquis  of  Worcester  described  the  steam^engiiie 
in  his  Century  of  Inveniicns,  the  grounds  for  Boch 
an  opinicm  do  not  seem  quite  satisutctory.   In  17^ 
however,  after  the  steam-engine  had  been  applied 
to  other  purjxMes,  there  was  lodged  in  the  ritent 
Office  a  specification  for  a  new  machine  or  ensiine, 
to  plouffh,  harrow,  and  do  every  other  branda  of 
husban£y,  without  the  aid  of  horses.    The  patentee 
was  Francis  Moore ;  and  so  confident  was  he  of  the 
merits  of  his  plan,  that  he  sold  all  his  own  hones, 
and  ])ersuadea  lus  friends  to  do  the  same ;  *  becaoie 
the  price  of  that  noble  and  useful  aniinal  will  he 
so  affected  by  the  new  invention,  that  its  value  will 
not  be  one-fourth  of  what  it  is  at  present.'    Moore, 
however,  was  much  too  sanguine ;  his  method  of 
cultivating  the  land  without  the  aid  of  aninul 
power  failed,  as  those  of  others  before  him  had  done. 

The  next  invention  that  it  is  here  necessary  te 
mention  was  one  by  Major  Pratt,  patented  in  1810. 
His  plan  was  to  have  two  engines,  one  on  each 
headland,  drawing,  by  means  of  an  endless  rope,  as 
implement  between  them.  In  order  to  save  the 
labour  and  loss  of  time  in  turning  the  plough  at  the 
ends,  he  attached  two  ploughs,  \Mcik.  to  back,  making 
them  work  upon  a  fulcrum  in  the  centre  of  a  frame, 
so  that  one  could  be  raised  out  of  the  ground  when 
the  other  was  working.  This  was  the  m«t  adoption 
of  the  balance-princi{)le,  now  employed  in  nu^ 
implements  used  in  steam-cultivation.  Major 
Pratt's  apparatus,  like  those  of  his  predecesson^ 
never  came  into  practical  operation. 

In  the  interval  between  1810  and  1832,  when 
Mr  Heathcoat,  M.P.,  a  Tiverton    laoe-mercfaant, 
patented    the    first    steam -ploughing   machineiy 
that  ever  wrought  successfully  in  the  field,  there 
were  many  inventions,  but  these  being  of  little 
utility,   need   not  be   j^articularised.     Mr  Heath- 
coat's  machinery  was  pnncipally  intended  for  drain- 
ing and  breaking  up   soft  or  swampy  land.    It 
consiBted  of   a   locomotive   steam-engine,  with  a 
broad,  endless,  flexible  floor  or  railway  attached 
to  the  wheels,  so  as  to  prevent  them  from  onking 
in  the  boggy  soil.     Opposite  to  this  engine,  an 
auxiliary  carriage  was  placed,  and  between  the  two 
the  plough  was  drawn  backwards   and  forwards 
by  an  endless  chain  or  band — engine  and  carriage 
moving  along  as  the  work  proceeded.     In  1836,  this 
plough  worked  with  tolerable  success  in  Bed  Moss 
in    Lancashire,   and    in    1837  it  was    tried  near 
Dumfries,  under  the  auspices  of  the  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland ;  but  here  its  pe^ 
formance,  though  in  some  decree  satisfactory,  was 
not  sufficientiy  so  to  warrant  tne  jud^s  in  awarding 
to  it  the  prize  of  £500,  which  had  been  offered  for 
the  first  successful  ai>p]ication  of  steam-power  to  the 
cultivation  of  the  soil  by  the  Society.    The  appap 
atus  was  very  cumbersome  and  expensive  to  work, 
the  engine  being  25  horse-power,  and  the  number  of 
men  and  boys  employed  m  the  operation  no  less 
than  ten.    The  amount  of  work  aone  was  at  the 
rate  of  8f  acres  per  day.     Mr  Heathcoat  abandoned 
the  machine  after  having  spent  about  £12,000  on  it 

After  Mr  Heathcoat,  the  inventors  specially 
worthy  of  mention  are  Alexander  M*£ao,  wb^ 
arranging  his  motive-power  in  the  same  manner  a 
Major  raitt,  made  the  important  addition  of  a 
barrel  to  the  plough-frame  upon  which  the  b]s<^* 
rope  was  to  be  wound  up ;  Mr  Hannam  of  Baroot^ 
who^  in  1849,  designed  an  apparatus  to  be  diivei 


FLOnOH,  PL0V0HIN6. 


7  portable  engine,  to  be  stationed  at 
tbe  comer  of  tbe  field,  which  waa  imrrouDiied  with 
wirc-Topea  in  the  same  way  u  \ri11  be  ifterwanU 
deecribed  in  Howard's  method  ;  and  Mr  XuUob 
Osborn,  who,  in  1816,  patented  a  plan  for  two 
engines  mnoing  opposite  each  other  on  tbe  head- 
lands, bavins  two  drams  fixed  to  them,  one  for  the 
winding  of  we  tight,  and  tbe  other  for  letting  out 
the  slack,  gear.  rhiB  apparatua  was  tried  bj  the 
Marquis  of  Tweeddale  for  some  time  at  Yeeter ;  but 
it  was  found,  in  conaequence  of  the  great  power 
required,  and  other  deiecta  is  detail,  to  be  Teiy 
expensive,  and  waa  ultimately  given  up.  To  the 
Mar<|uis  of  Tweeddale,  therefore,  belongs  tbe  honour 
of  being  the  pioneer  of  steam-cultivation  in  Scot- 

In  1S55,  the  Mesan  Fisken  of  Stamfordhan), 
Newcaatle-upon-Tjne,  took  out  a  patent  for  s  much 
more  perfect  apparatus  for  cultivating  the  land  by 
(team  than  any  that  bad  previously  api>eared.  The 
power  was  transmitted  by  a  stationary  engine  to  a 
hempen  rope  {the  Messrs  Fisken  being  anxious  Co 
dispense  with  wire-ropes),  which  waa  worked  at  a 
hu^h  Telocity,  and,  piteaing  round  pulleys  on  two 
•elf-moving  anchots,  turned  a  dnim  npou  the 
ploDgb,  whose  revolution  imparted  motion  to  the 
implemetit  upau  which  it  was  fixed.  The  important 
features  in  this  system  were  the  self-propelling 
snchora,  the  arrangement  of  the  ploughs  on  the 
balance-principle,  and  tiie  mode  of  steerage.  This 
plough  wiu  exhibited  at  the  annital  show  of  the 
Boyu  Agnculturat  Society  of  England  in  the  year 
tbe  patent  waa  taken  oat,  and  excited  great  interest, 
but  failed  to  obtain  any  award.  Three  years  before 
this,  the  Elighlaud  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scot- 
land had  thought  so  hoiiefull;  of  the  idea,  that  a 
grant  waa  voted  out  of  its  f  unda  to  aasiat  the  author 
m  maturing  his  project. 

In  1864,  Mr  Fowler  exhibited  his  patent  steam- 
draioing  apparatus  at  the  Lincoln  meeting  of  tbe 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  England ;  and  from 
this  time  may  be  dated  the  practical  history  of 
cultivation  of  the  land  by  steam ;  for  the  idea  that 
«ach  an  apparatus  could  be  wrought  advantageonsly 
in  other  neld-operations  entered  the  mind  of  a 
prkctical   farmer,   Mr   Smith   of   Woolaton,   near 


Bletchley ;  and  under  the  direction  of  Mr  Fowler, 

he  got  constructed  an  apparatus,  which,  with  modi- 
fications, he  has  been   working  successfully  ever 


since  that  time  need  not  be 
enumerated.  It  may  be  stated  generally  that  they 
have  included  plans  for  engines  travelling  over  tbe 
surface  of  the  ground,  drawing  ploughs  or  other 
cultivating  implementa  along  with  them ;  engines 
working  on  tramways,  and  drawing  implementa 
after  them ;  engines  moving  along  opposite  head- 
lands, and  working  implements  between  tliem  by 
means  of  wire-ropes,  and  stationary  engines  driving 
implements  alao  by  means  of  wire-ropes.  The  first 
two  principles  have  been  abandoned — the  one  on 
acoonnt  of  the  great  consnmption  of  fuel,  and  Uiu 
lai^  amount  of  wear  and  l«ar  occasioned  to  move 
tbe  engine  over  uneven  and  soft  ground  ;  and  the 
other,  on  account  of  the  expense  necessary  to  lay 
down  rails  over  a  farm.  The  only  two  syetema  in 
practical  operation  are  what  are  oalled  Uie  direct 
and  ronnd-about — the  former  where  the  pull  of 
the  implement  is  directly  to  and  from  the  engine ; 
and  the  latter  where  the  implement  is  drawn  at 
right  angles. 

These  methods  are  best  known  as  Fowler's  and 
Howard'a,  though,  perhaps.  Smith  ahould  be  credited 
with  the  roond-abont  system,  but  Howard's  nama 
ia  now  much  more  generally  given  to  it 

Fowler's  aystem  we  hope  to  make  intelligible  by 
the  aid  of  cuts.  The  princi))al  elementa  are  an  engine, 
an  anchor,  a  wire-rope,  and  a  balance-plough.  In 
oommenciDg  operations,  the  engine  is  placed  at  the 
end  of  one  of  uie  headlands  of  the  field,  and  directly 
opposite  it  on  the  other  headland  is  placed  the 
anabor.  Beneath  the  engine  there  is  a  large  sheava 
or  drum,  five  feet  in  diameter,  the  groove  of  which 
drum  is  composed  of  a  series  of  smaU  leaf-like  pieCM 
of  cbilled  cast-iron,  each  moving  independently  upon 
its  own  axis.  The  object  of  these  ia  to  prevent  tho 
rope  from  slipping  (which  it  is  a^t  to  do  in  a  plain 
groove  under  great  strain),  and  this  they  do  in  a  very 


being  removed,  OT,  in  other  words,  as  soon  as  the  rope  |  aocbor,  as  will  be  aeen  &om  the  engraving  (flg.  10),  h 
cuiiiiDea  the  slawght  on  the  other  side  of  the  ahoave.    a  massive  square  framework  of  wood,  mounted  oi 
The  position  and  nature  of  this  drum  on  the  engine    sbarp  disc  wheels,  each  abont  two  feet  ii    " 
will  M  nndsntood  by  the  accompanying  cat.    xhe  [ '  '  


1 1  whi^  cut  deep  into  the  ground,  Mid  on  Uie  lightest 


PLOUGH  PLOUQKINQ. 

liud  they  take  Bonh  hold  aa  effectually  to  KiiBt  the  |  tka  power  being   c 

C'\  of  Uio  rope  which  ia  paiaed  loond  the  iheave   thtough    the    mjedimn    of   the   plonghiDg'M^-- 
•ath.    The  anchor  haa   a  aelf-acting  motion —  I  which  enablaa  it  to  nion  along  ttia  >m«J^r|^  ud 


Fig.  ItX— The  Anchor, 


keep  opposite  to  the  engine.  The  plouji^  (Be.  11) 
ii  a  framework  of  iron,  balanced  upon  two  large 
wbeebu  To  each  aide  of  this  frunework  there  are 
attached  four  plouch-hodiea  and  coulten,  to  that 
tonr  furrows  are  cut  at  one  'bout,' and  the  headland 
on  which  the  anchor  is  stationed  beins  reached,  the 
and  of  the  beam  that  wu  out  of  the  gr'^uDd  is 
depressed  (the  other,  of  courae,  being  raised),  and 
the  four  plough-bodies  that  were  out  of  the  ground, 
and   which  point    in  the    opposite   direction,  are 


inserted  in  the  soil,  and  torn  op  the  fnrTowi  oa  the 
way  back  to  the  engine.  By  alteriikg  the  position 
of  the  plough-hodiea  along  the  frvne-work,  a  bnod 
or  a  narrow  furrow  oan  be  cat  at  pleasure.  In 
ordiosiy  working,  an  aero  an  hour  is  accompliiliKL 
The  wire-rope,  by  which  tiie  plough  is  dr»f^ 
through  the  land,  passes  ronnd  the  BhesTea  on  tbe 
ajiohor  and  tbe  engine,  the  ends  are  attich«d 
to  two  drums  upon  the  plough ;  and  by  a  nics 
mechontcot  amugement,  the  pkraghman  who  lidM 


Tig.  II,— FowIbi's  Ploogh. 

■pen  the  implement  ia  enabled  to  wind  up,  or  let    necessary  precaution,  wiUiout  whicli  the  wear  and 

out  slack  if  necessary,  without  loss  of  time.  The  tear  would  be  alike  annoying  and  expenuTS— h; 
wire-rope  is  made  in  lengths,  which  are  easily  dia-  a  number  of  pulleys,  or  '  rope-porter* '  aa  the}  an 
joined,  m  order  th:it  it  may  be  adjusted  to  irregu-  called,  mounted  on  frames.  The  outside  onea,  thit 
larly  shaped  fields,  or  rather  to  iieldn  that  are  is,  those  farthest  from  tlie  work,  are  moved  alnng 
not  eiact  aquares  or  parallelograms ;  for  Fowler's  i  by  the  action  of  the  rope ;  those  in  front  of  tbe 
method  is  not  well  adapted  to  such  irregularities  as  plough  are  removed  by  boys,  aud  placed  behind  tbe 
prevent  the  engine  and  anchor  ixiing  opposite  each  I  imjilement  as  it  proceeds.  The  modtu  operandi 
other.    The  rope  ia  bone  oS  the  ground — a  very  I  will  be  patent  at  a  glance,  from  the  annexed  plan  of 


Ilfr  13.— FowWi  Anohor,  Engine,  and  Flon^  at  «oA> 


working  (fig.  12).  To  manage  this  apparatus  three 
men  and  two  boys  ai«  required — namely,  a  man  at 
the  engine,  another  on  the  plough,  a  third  at  the 
imclior,  and  tbe  lads  to  look  after  the  rope-porters. 
The  water  and  coals  needed  for  the  engine  must  be 
broittiht  by  other  men. 


The  plough-bodies  can  be  removed  Erom  the  fnms. 
and  in  their  place  '  digging-breasta '  be  attached,  bf 
means  of  wluch  the  ^id  ii  thrown  np  in  a  tnae- 
what  similar  manner  to  that  in  which  it  is  turned 
over  by  the  spade.  The  price  of  the  plouehin; 
and  cultivating  apporatui  la  as  follow* :   Il-horN 


PLOUGH,  PLOUGHnra. 


powar  double -cylinder  engine,  with  self-moving  and 
rerening  gear,  with  t*nk,  iteemge,  20-iuch  wheuls, 
clip-drum.  150  vards  headland  ru[>e,  snatch-block, 
tpudft,  tooli,  and  tool-boi,  complete  for  steaoi-culti- 
vation,  £614;  •elf-moving  ancbor,  witb  lis  discs, 
lifting  jack,  headland  ropes,  and  all  tools  complete, 
£59 ;  four-furrow  balaoce-plougb,  fitted  with  ilack 
eear,  digging  and  scarifying  breuta,  £97  ;  80)  ytrds 
best  st^  rone,  fitted  wi£  e;e«  and  ioints,  £84; 
10  large,  and  10  small,  rope  porten,  £25.  Total, 
£876.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  an  engine  of  lea 
faorse-power  being  required,  the  price  ii  propoi^ 
tionately  lower.  At  the  NewcasUs  show  ot  the 
Koyal  Agricultural  Society,  in  July  1864,  Mr  Fowler 
introduced  two  engines  of  7-hQrae  power,  working 
simultaneously  on  opposing  headlands.  The  eijiedi- 
tion  with  which  tbeae  engines  were  set  down  to 
and  completed  their  work  was  a  matter  of  admira- 
tion to  all  present,  and  the  subject  of  special  remark 
by  the  judges.  These  gentlemen  say :  '  The  enginet 
worked  amoothly ;  and  so  Ear  as  we  could  ascertain, 
appeared  to  bear  an  equal  share  of  work  in  either 
direction.'  They  got  up  steam  in  nearly  half  an 
hour  less  time  than  the  14-horte  engine,  and  working 
witb  them,  nkuch  less  lime  was  required  to  arrange 
Uie  tackle.  'The  engine*  were  nuutete  of  Uieir 
work  ;   and   acting  io  combinatiun,   appeared    to 


possess   more  power  than  the  large   engine   and 

anchor The    advantages    of    this    system 

appear  to  be,  that  hoTsea  are  not  required  to  mov« 
tackle  ;  that  there  is  ft  saving  of  time  in  eettioK 
dawn,  taking  up,  and  removing  from  field  to  field 
[no  unim[)ortant  consideration] ;  and  that  the  two 
small  engine*  are  both  available  for  ordinary  farm- 
work,  such  as  thrashing,  driving,  barn-work.  Ac' 
The  cost  of  the  two  engines,  with  their  apparatus,  it 
£1066-  The  nomber  ot  hands  employed  is  the  same 
aa  at  the  large  anchor  and  engine  ;  but  as  a  skilled 
labourer   is   necessary   where   only    an    unskilled 


i  oil,  i 


anchor,  including  the  cartage  of  n 

estimated  at  16a  per  day ;  the  two  engines  a.   

Fowler  has  been  most  successful  in  carrying  off  tha 

Cizea   at  all  the  competitions  oE  st«am-plougba, 
ving  received   in   this  way,   since   1856,  neatly 
£3200,  besides  gold  medals. 

Howard's  svstem  consists  in  a  stationary  engine 
driving  a  winillasa,  having  two  winding  drums,  with 
direct  and  reverse  action,  placed  in  front  of  it,  round 
which  is  coiled  about  1600  yards  of  wire-rope.  By 
a  simple  lever  movement,  the  man  can  drop  the 
winding  drums  out  of  ^ear  in  an  instant,  ft  oontriv- 
ftnce  which  enables  him  to  attend  to  the  proper 


^  lS,~-Howard's  General  Flan. 

ooiling  of  the  rope,  and  also  to  tnest,  in  case  of  i  rope  running  out  too  fast,  and  trailing  on  the 
accident,  the  plongh  in  >  moment,  without  stopping  |  ground.  The  plan  of  working  given  clearly  illus- 
the  engine.  The  engine  is  usually  placed  at  the  i  trates  the  arrangemeot  (fig.  13).  The  plough,  as  will 
comer  of  the  plot  to  be  ploughed,  the  rape  is  t  be  seen  from  fig.  14,  is  composed  of  two  strong  iron 
OirHed  round  the  field  on  rape-porter*,  and  fixed  frames  balanced  upon  four  wheels,  and  crossing  each 
at  the  comers  by  light  anchors.  A  snatch-block  [  other  at  their  inner  ends,  thereby  decreasing  the 
placed  in  front  of  the  windlass  prevents  the  slack-  /  length  of  the  plough,  and,  as  a  matter  of  course,  the 


Fig.  11— Howard's  Plough. 


breadth  of  the  headland. 

And  loweied  in  anoh  a  mi ___    __.    . 

XMC3^ka  oat  of  work  is  independent  of,  and  has  n 


1  taai  fniTows,  and  '  diggers '  < 


'  Bcarifiers  can  b* 


PliOUGHGATE  OP  LAND— PLOVER. 


attached  the  same  as  in  Powler^a.  It  should  be 
mentioned  that  the  Messn  Howard  prefer  the 
cultivator,  that  is,  a  machine  to  smash  up  the  land 
lather  than  the  plough,  and  the  plough  is  not 
included  in  the  cost  given  below.  In  this  method 
the  ploneh  is  not  pulled  direct  between  engine  and 
anchors,  but  at  rignt  angles  to  the  engine--oetween 
one  anchor  and  another,  the  anchors  being  removed 
inwards  by  manual  power,  and  nearer  tne  engine 
every  time  the  field  is  traversed  by  the  plough. 
With  this  system  there  are  five  men  and  two  bovs 
required ;  viz.,  a  man  at  the  engine,  another  at  the 
windlass,  a  third  on  the  plouffh,  two  at  the  anchors, 
and  the  boys  to  look  after  the  rope-porters.  The 
cost  of  this  apparatus— which,  exclusive  of  engine, 
consists  of  the  jtatent  windlass,  1600  yards  of  patent 
steel  wire-rope,  universal  joint,  for  connecting  the 
windlass  witn  engine,  patent  double-action  steam- 
cultivator,  with  Sve  tmes,  patent  double  snatch- 
block,  with  arrangement  for  slack-rope,  anchors, 
single  snatch-blocks,  rope-porters,  &c. — is  £250; 
and  a  10- horse  portable  engine  is  £295 ;  making  the 
whole  £545.  The  cost  of  working  this  apparatus, 
including  water-cart,  and  boy,  and  oil,  is  20a  6cL 
per  dav. 

In  Coleman's  system,  the  drums  upon  which  the 
rope  is  wound  are  attached  to  the  sides  of  the 
engine,  and  give  out  and  take  on  rope  alternately. 
The  engine  moves  along  the  headland;  and  the 
andhor,  upon  which  there  is  very  little  strain,  and 
which  is,  therefore,  a  very  light,  portable  article,  is 
shifted  opposite  to  it  by  a  man  as  the  work  is  per- 
formed ;  direct  action  being  obtained  here,  as  in  the 
case  of  Fowler^s.  The  peculiarity  of  the  plan  con- 
sists in  having  two  implements  instead  of  one  at 
work,  the  implements  being  grubbers,  which  smarii 
up  the  ground — a  practice  now  adopted  by  some 
farmers  m  England,  m  preference  to  turning  the  sod 
over  with  the  plough.  On  commencing  operations 
on  this  plan,  the  held  is  divided  into  two  equal 
parts.  The  cultivators  or  grubbers  work  only  one 
way — towards  the  engine.  They  are  attached  by 
the  front  to  each  end  of  a  strong  wire-rope,  while  a 
smaller  wire-rope  is  fastened  to  their  rear.  The  one 
cultivator  is  placed  at  the  far  side  of  the  field, 
where  its  teeth  or 'tines 'are  inserted  in  the  ground; 
and  it  is  pulled  towards  the  centre  of  the  field, 
tearing  up  the  soil  as  it  comes,  the  other  meanwhile 
going  out  empty  to  meet  it.  When  the  latter 
reaches  the  middle  of  the  field,  the  action  of  the 
engine  is  reversed,  and  it  is  dragged  back  to  the 
engine,  cultivating  the  land  as  it  travels,  while  the 
other  goes  back  to  the  headland  empty.  The  pull 
out  empty  and  working  in  is,  of  course,  continued 
until  the  whole  land  has  been  tilled. 

The  other  systems  before  the  pablio  are  in  prin- 
dple  the  same  as  those  described,  though  they  are 
variously  modified  in  detaiL 

With  regard  to  the  merits  of  each,  it  may  be 
stated  as  the  general  opinion  that  Fowler's  is  the 
b^t  for  large  helds.  Moving  along  the  headland, 
and  propelling  its  anchor  along  with  it,  this  apparatus 
could  cultivate  a  field  of  from  350  to  400  yards  in 
breadth,  and  of  any  length,  without  requiring  to  be 
shifted.  Its  direct  action  also  secures  tkat  there  is 
as  little  waste  of  power  as  possible.  The  advan- 
tages of  saving  time  and  conserving  force,  which 
these  two  features  secure,  can  hardly  be  over- 
rated. 

Howard's  system  seems  to  be  regarded  as  most 
desirable  where  fields  are  small  and  irregularly 
shaped,  as  the  rope  can  be  so  disposed  as  to  enable 
the  cultivating  implement  to  reach  almost  any 
angle.  The  engine  may  be  so  placed  that  40  or  50 
acres  may  be  cultivated  without  moving  it;  but 
the  anchon^  pulleys,  rope-porters,  ftc,  must  be 
SOI 


shifted  after  the  completion  of  every  ten  or  twelfe 
acres,  and  thus  a  considerable  time  is  lost  There 
must  also  be  some  little  waste  of  force  in  dragging 
so  much  rope  and  the  implement  at  right  aoijes 
to  the  engine.  By  this  method,  however,  a  tiiding 
saving  of  water-carriage  could  be  effected  aa  oom- 
paredwith  Fowler's,  by  having  tanks  at  the  engine- 
stations. 

With  Coleman's  method,  there  is  a  litUe  time 
saved  at  the  ends  in  comparison  with  the  other  two, 
and  there  is  also  some  economy  in  the  purchase  <A 
the  rope ;  but  then  there  is  loss  of  power  in  pulling 
an  empty  implement  half  through  the  field,  aod  a 
necessary  wear  and  tear  of  rope  m  dispensing  with 
rope-porters,  and  allowing  the  wire  to  tiail  upon 
the  ground. 

By  all  the  apparatus,  however,  tillage  is  much  more 
perfectly  and  even  cheaply  performed  than  by  hone- 
labour.  As  a  rule,  about  three-fourths  of  an  acre 
to  an  hour  can  be  cultivated  with  either  Fowler  or 
Howard's  apparatus.  Where  sral  and  climate  are 
so  variable  as  they  are  in  Great  Britain,  it  woold 
serve  no  good  purpose,  but  would  be  rather  mia- 
leading,  to  name  a  price  per  acre  at  which  steam- 
ploughing  can  be  effected ;  but  the  following  general 
statements  in  its  favour  may  safely  be  made^  That 
the  use  of  the  steam-plough  or  cultivator  enables  the 
farmer  to  perform  his  tiUage  operations  at  the  best 
season  of  the  vear,  and  to  free  his  land  more  quickly 
and  effectually  from  weeds.  Tenacious  soils  an 
rendered  more  friable  and  porous,  and  good  draiiuge 
promoted  by  the  efficient  manner  in  which  the 
subsoil  can  be  stirred  by  the  aid  of  steam.  The 
steam-cultivator,  plough,  or  harrows,  may  be  in- 
quently  worked  to  advantage  in  an  unfavourable 
season,  when  it  would  be  impossible  to  woric  with 
horses.  And  not  only  a  considerable  diminutian  in 
the  number  of  horses  emnloyed  can  be  effected,  but 
the  horses,  which  are  still  necessary,  can  be  kept  at 
less  expense.  Consequently  <»dtivatioii  by  steam- 
power,  besides  being  more  excellent,  is  actually 
cheaper,  monetarily  considered,  than  that  done  by 
horses. 

There  are  at  present  about  80O  or  900  steam- 
ploughs  at  work  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  demand 
for  inem  is  yearly  increasing.  Mr  Fowler  is  now 
turning  out  of  his  Leeds'  establishment  about  six 
engines  with  their  appurtenances  per  week ;  and  the 
Messrs  Howard  have  aUo  large  demanda  Many 
are  exported  to  the  continent,  to  the  West  Indiee^ 
to  I^gypt,  and  the  East  Indies. 

PLOU'GHGATE  OF  LAND,  in  the  Law  of 

Scotland,  is  an  expression  denoting  a  quantity  U 
land  of  ^e  extent  of  100  acres  Scots.  No  person  is 
qualified  to  kill  game  in  Scotland  who  has  not  a 
ploughgate  of  land,  and  this  is  still  the  law. 
I^aterson's  Oame-lawa  qf  United  Kingdom,  p.  158. 

PLOVER  {Chanuiritui),  a  genus  of  birds  of  the 
family  CharadriadcB  (q.  v.),  having  a  straight  com- 
pressed bill;  the  upper  mandible  alone  slightly 
inflated  and  slightly  bent  at  the  point ;  the  nasal 
groove  extending  about  two-thirds  of  the  length  of 
the  bill,  the  nostrils  longitudinally  cdeft  near  the 
base ;  the  legs  not  very  long,  naked  a  little  above 
the  tarsal  joint;  no  mnder  toe;  the  wings  rather 
long  and  pointed,  the  first  quiU-featlier  the  longest 
The  species  are  numerous,  and  are  found  in  every 
quarter  of  the  globe ;  many  of  them  are  birds  of 
passage.  They  chiefly  frequent  low  moist  gronndi, 
where  they  congre.c^to  in  targe  flocka,  and  feed  oa 
worms,  molluscs,  insects,  &c;  but  some  oi  thea 
visit  mountainous  regions  in  the  breeding-aeasoa 
They  fly  with  great  strength  and  rapidity,  and  ma 
with  much  swinness.  The  flesh  and  em  of  manv 
of  them  are  esteemed delioacieB.   One  <ntiie BiitiM 


PLOVER— PLDM. 


■pecica  U  the  Dotterel  (<{.  v.).  Another  is  the 
Golden  P.,  Yellow  P.,  or  Green  P.  {C.  pliwialU). 
ft  rather  larj^  bird,  of  a  blackiali  colnnr,  Bpeckled 
with  yellow  at  the  tip*  and  edge*  of  tbe  feathera  ; 
the  throat,  breaat,  and  belly  black  in  aiimmer, 
wbitiBh  in  winter.  Tbe  Ooldeo  P.  U  a  binl  of 
paaaage,  viiiticg  in  summer  the  northern  ])arta  of 
£urope,  of  tbe  weat  of  Asia,  and  of  North  America ; 
and  migntiiig  to  the  aouth  in  winter.  It  ia  known 
in  almost  all  part*  of  Europe,  and  is  common  In  many 

girta  of  Britain,  breeding  in  the  Dorthem  parU. 
reat  aomben  frequent  the  undy  paatures  and 
ahorea  of  the  Hebndei  and  of  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Iilandi.  It  makes  an  artlesa  nest,  little 
more  than  a  Blight  deprenion  of  the  ground,  and 
lays  (our  eggs.  The  parent  binls  shew  great  an^ciety 
for  the  protection  of  their  young,  and  use  various 
Etratagemi  to  divert  tha  attention  of  an  enemy. 
The  Golden  P.  exhibits  great  rcatlessncei  on  tbe 
approach  of  wet  and  stonny  weather,  whence  its 
si>«ciec  name  pluvialia.—The  Risoeo  P.  [C.  hiati- 
cuia),  a  rauch  smaller  bird,  not  lo  large  ai  a  song 


1,  Rinsed  Plover ;  2,  Qn^  Plover ;  S,  Galdea  Plover. 

'thrusli,  is  found  at  almost  all  seasons  on  the  shores 
of  the  British  Islands,  frequenting  sandy  and  shingly 
fiata,  from  which  the  sta  retirt>a  at  ebb-tide.  It 
ia  often  to  be  seen  also  on  the  banks  of  lar™  rivers, 
and  not  unfreijuently  of  lakes  and  ponds.  It  is 
found  in  most  of  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  and 
Asia,  and  in  Iceland  and  Greenland.  It  is  grayish- 
lirown  above,  whitish  beneath,  with  a  collar  of 
-wrhite  ronnd  the  neck,  and  belov  it  a  bl.-ick— in 
■printer,  a  brown— collar ;  the  head  marked  with 
black  and  white  j  a  white  bar  on  the  wing.  Very 
similar,  but  smaller,  ia  the  Kentisb  P.  (C.  Canti- 
txnut)  i  and  also  similar  and  of  similar  habits  is  tbe 
smallest  of  the  British  species,  the  Little  Rinoed 
J^.  (C.  minor).  Both  of  these  are  rare  in  Britain.— 
ZCorth  America  haa  a  number  of  species  of  P.,  one 
of  which,  the  Americah  Golden  P.  ((7.  VirgiuUicua), 
■very  closely  resemble*  tbe  Golden  P.  (rf  Europe ;  and 
smother,  the  Kildeer  P.  {C.  vod/emt),  abundant 
on  the  great  western  prairies,  and  not  unfrequent 
aj)  the  Atlantic  states,  utters,  when  «)proached  by 
xukiii  a  querulooa  or  plaintive  cry,  like  the  lap- 
-^ing- — The  name  P.  is  ofteu  extended  to  species 
<7f  VharadriadjB  belonging  to  other  genera,  as 
^i/tialarotn,  in  which  the  nasal  grooves  are  short, 
^he  tip  of  the  bill  is  tumid,  and  there  is  a  mdimen- 
C^Ary  hind-toe.  To  this  genns  belongs  the  OEiY  P. 
^>.9.  OKtrfa)  of  Britain,  a  spedea  rathsr  larger  than 
'fclie  OoUen  P.,   and  chlefiy  known  aa   a  winter 


visitant.  Its  geograi^tc  disfaribntion  eztenda  over 
most  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  world. 

PLUM  (Pruniii),  a  genus  of  trees  and  shrnha  of 
Uie  natural  order  Sotacra,  suborder  Ami/'jdalfm 
(q.  V.)  oi  Drapaeta  ;  the  species  of  wbich  have  the 
atone  of  the  fmit  sharp-pointed  at  each  end, 
with  a  longitudinal  furrow  passing  all  round, 
and  a  smooth  snrfac« ;  the  &uit  covered  n-ith 
a  tine  bloom,  and  the  yonng  leaves  rolled  up. 
Tha  Gomroon  P.,  the  Bullace,  and  tho   Sloe,   are 

Eenerally  reckoned  by  botanists  as  distinct  B]>ecies, 
ut  with  much  doubt  if  they  are  really  distinct, 
as  the  P.  passea  into  the  Bullace.  and  tbe  Bullace 
into  the  Sloe  by  insensible  gradations ;  although 
there  is  so  wide  a  difference  in  general  appearance, 
size  of  leaves,  and  aize  as  well  as  quality  of  fmit, 
between  the  best  cultivated  plums  niid  the  aloe, 
that  it  ia  not  without  an  effort  we  cnn  inutcnna 
them  lo  have  sprung  from  a  common  ntixk.  The 
CouHON  P.  {P.  domesilca)  appears  in  a  wi!d  etate 
ia  woods  and  hedges  in  many  parta  of  En^'land  and 
on  Uie  continent  of  Eiuope;  probably,  hoH-ever, 
often  derived  from  the  seeds  of  cultivated  trees. 
It  ia  commonly  described  as  destitute  of  spines, 
and  as  further  differing  from  the  bullace  in  having 
the  under-side  of  the  leaves  smooth  except  when 
they  are  very  yonng  ;  but  if  these  cbarot^tvrs  are 
adopted,  many  of  the  cnltivatcd  plums  must  be 
referred  to  the  bullace  (P.  iniirilia)  aa  tbcir  original; 
nor  does  the  ovate  fruit  afford  a  more  certain 
character,  some  of  the  hnest  garden  plums  being 
globose  or  nearly  so,  like  the  bullace.  'Ihe  varieties 
called  Damson  (q.  v.)  are  particularly  like  the 
hallace,  eicej^t  in  the  form  of  tbe  fruit.  Cultivated 
plums  vary  greatly  in  tha  aiie,  form,  colour,  and 
tlavour  of  the  fruiL  The  fniit  of  aomc  varieties, 
as  the  }Vhile  Jfopnmnfioniim,  is  two  inches  long; 
whQe  damsons  of  the  same  shape  are  not  quite  one 
inch,  and  a  single  fruit  of  the  one  is  equal  to  at 
least  eight  or  ten  of  the  other,  llie  best  varietJea 
of  P.  are  among  the  moat  deliciona  dessert  fruita; 
among  these,  the  Ortfn  Oage  {Reine  Claudt  of  tbe 
French)  is  one  of  the  most  esteemed  both  in  Britain 
and  on  the  continent  of  Europe  ;  and  is  unsurpassed 
both  ID  sweetness  and  flavour.  The  inferior  vorietiea 
are  used  in  pies,  conserves,  and  sweetmeats.  Some 
of  them  are  very  austere.    In  moderate  quantity, 

use  of  them  is  very  apt  to  produce  colic,  diarrhcea, 
and  cholera.  Tbe  danger  is  greater,  if  they  are 
eaten  before  being  perfectly  ripe.  A  very  j>leaaant 
wine  is  loade  from  ^ums;  and  in  some  parts  of 
Europe  a  strong  apint  is  distilled  from  them  after 
fermentation ;  but  for  this  purpose  they  are  mixed 
in  the  south  of  France,  with  honey  and  fiour,  and 
in  Hungary  with  apples, — The  dried  fruit,  variously 
known  as  Dried  Plunu,  or  French  Ptam»,  and 
Prune*  (q.v.),  is  much  used  for  the  dessert;  and 
the  somewhat  austere  fruit  of  the  Si  JuSiea  Plum, 
cnltivatod  in  the  aouth  of  France,  becomes,  when, 
dried,  the  medicinal  prune,  used  as  a  mild  laxative. 
The  drying  of  plums  is  effected  very  slowly  in 
□vena,  by  a  heat  which  ia  gradually  increased.  The 
process  requires  great  care.  The  prunes  called 
Brignotn  are  tbe  ]iroduce  of  a  variety  ^iwn  prin- 
cip^lv  near  tbe  little  town  of  Brignole  in  Provence. 
The  P.  haa  been  in  cultivation  from  ancient  times, 
and  the  first  fins  varieties  were  probably  intro- 
duced into  Europe  from  the  Ewb  The  tiner- 
varietiee  are  propagated  chiefly  by  budding  on. 
stocks  of  the  coarser  kinds,  which  ore  procured, 
either  from  seed  or  as  suckers  from  the  r"'-     ' 


PLUM-PLUMULARIA. 


of  ths  Tuiitiei  tttkia  m  height  of  more  than 
20  feet,  with  a  mo.tenttely  g|>rwdiiig  head.  The  , 
fruit  is  moatly  produced  on  spum  ;  but  iome  o£  the 
tineat  fruit  od  the  ihoota  o£  the  former  year.  Among 
the  Tarietiei  of  P.  are  Borne  which  ripen  their 
fruit  early,  and  others  which  ripen  late  in  the 
■eaion.  The  bliMSoiii  of  BOme  oF  Che  finer  kinds  ig 
often  protected  by  gudenera,  like  thut  of  wacheB 
uid  aiiricots. — The  wood  of  the  P.-tree  in  hard 
ftnd  tiae-grained,  and  ia  iised  in  cahinct-work,  in 
turnery,  and  for  making  musicat  in»trumentB. — The 
Casrmerb  F,  (P.  BoLUanitiiia),  cultivated  in  Cash- 
mere  and  Bokhara,  is  regardeil  as  a  diitiact  species. 
—The  Cherrv  P.,  or  MritOBAUN  P.  (P.  eeram/era 
or  Myroli'iliinuK),  ii  a.  hush  very  similar  to  the  sloe, 
with  peiiduloua  ('lobiUar  red  frulL  It  is  a  native  of 
North  America,  but  is  often  cultivated  for  its  fruit 
un  the  continent  of  Europe.  In  Britain,  it  seldom 
jirodiiccs  Emit.— P.  marilima  is  a  shrub,  indti^cnoui 
to  satidy  soils  on  the  sea-coast  of  North  America 
from  New  Jersey  to  Carolina.  It  has  a  dark  purple 
agreeable  fruit,  about  the  size  of  a  pij^eon'e  egg. 

The  Cocoa  P.  or  Icaco  of  the  West  Indies  is  the 
fruit  of  C/irytoholriitui  teno.  a  tree  oF  the  natural 
order  Romixa,  suborder  CAri)»oAo/rin«E.  The  fruit 
resembles  a  P.,  has  a  sweet  although  slightly 
austere  taste,  and  is  eaten  botli  raw  and  preservoil 
— The  fruit  of  Parinarium  aaUum,  another  of  the 
CItryaol-alaatte,  is  called  Gray  Plutn  at  Sierra  Leone. 

PLUM,  Date.    See  Datb  Pldm. 

PLUMAGE  OF  BIRDS,  ijee  Bnus  and 
Fbatheks. 

PL'UMATE'LLA,a^uBofHH>pb7tes(Pofyioa), 
haTins  the  jioh'pidoni  faxed,  raembranaceous,  con- 
ferva-like, and  branched  ;  the  polypes  issuing  from 


the  extremities  of  the  hranches,  with  a  cresceat- 
•baped  disc  surrounded  by  ■  single  series  of  many 
tentacles.  The  species  are  found  in  freeh  water, 
attached  to  stones,  Ac.  P.  Tepmi  is  a  common 
British  siiecies,  sometimes  spreading  over  a  square 
foot,  auit  haviiig  branches  three  inches  long, 
which  adhere  to  soma  surface  throughout  almost 
their  whole  lenifth.  The  tentacles  are  beautifully 
feathered  with  ciha  on  two  opjieaite  lidea. 

PLUMBAGI'NB.^,  or  PLUMBAGINA'CE«,a 
natural  orde^  of  exogenous  planta,  herbaceous  or 
half-shrubby ;  with  leaves  somewhat  sheathing  at 
the  base,  and  often  clustered  ;  flowers  in  panicles 
or  in  heads  \  calyx  tubular,  peniatent,  plaited ; 
corolla  very  thin,  of  One  or  five  petals  j  stamens 
five  1  ovary  superior,  l-celled,  with  a  aolitaj^  ovule  ; 
Styles  generally  five  ;  fmit  a  Utricle  (q.  v.).  There 
are  about  l&O  known  apedee,  chiefly  found  on  the 
sea-shores  and  in  the  salt  marshe«  of  temperate 


regions.  Some  are  Found  also  in  elevated  regioni,  in 
all  zones.  Many  have  flowen  of  great  beauty,  and 
are  therefore  favourites  in  gardens.  Some  are  occa- 
sionally used  in  medicine  as  tonics  and  astringents; 
others,  being  exceedingly  acrid,  as  veaicanto,  particu- 
larly species  of /"/uraii^o.  Thrift,  or  Sea-pink  (q.  v.), 
is  the  most  familiar  British  example  of  the  order. 

PLUMBA'GO.    See  B1.ACK  LSAS. 

PLUMED  MOTH,  the  popular  name  of  a  gronp 
of  '  Nocluraal  Lrputoptem,'  known  to  entomtdogisU 
as  Fittiptnna  and  Pt^ophorita;  remarkable  for 
having  at  least  a  pair  of  the  wings,  and  often  all  tba 
wings,  longitudinally  cleft  into  two  or  more — soaM- 
'- si  i--di visions,  which  are  beautifuBy  fringed 


which  usually  connects  the  nervures  is  interrrtpted. 
The  Plumed  Uoths  are  extremely  beautifnl.   but 

often  pass  unobserved  in  consequence  of  their  smaU 
size.  Some  of  them  have  the  power  of  Eoldinf;  up 
the  wing  like  a  fan.  Although  they  ore  ranked 
among  the  Noctumai  Lepidoptcm,  some  of  them  fly 
about  during  the  bright^  port  of  the  day. 

PLUMMET,  a  weight  of  lead  hung  on  a  abrinf^ 
and  attached  to  a  frame,  for  the  purpose  of  ahevins 
the  vertical  line. 

PLUMULATtlA,  a  geons  of  toophvtea  [Au- 
OuKXKt)  \   plant-like,  rooted,  simple,  or  branchod ; 


numliUria  Psloata  (natural  i 


the  ahoot  or  branch,  nfoallj 

spine.    The  species  "  "    

tea,  lome  of  tAemvi 


'ooa,  iobabitBiitB  of  tlM 
1  on  the  British  ooaati^ 


PLUMULE-PLUTARCH. 


attached  to  stones,  shells,  sea- weeds,  &a  They  are 
very  beautiful  objects,  even  as  seen  by  the  naked 
eye,  and  still  more  when  examined  by  the  micro- 
scope ;  combining  creat  delicacy  with  the  utmost 
elegance.  The  polypes  in  a  single  P.  are  often 
exceedingly  numerous ;  those  of  P.  falcaia^  a  very 
common  British  species,  often  to  be  found  at  low- 
water  mark,  have  been  calculated  as  80,000  or 
100,000  in  number. 

PLU'MULE.    See  Sssa 

PLU'RALISM,  in  Canon  Law,  means  the  posses- 
sion by  the  same  person  of  two  or  more  ecclesias- 
tical offices,  whether  of  dij^nity  or  of  emolument 
Pluralism  has  been  held  unlawful  from  the  earliest 
times,  and  is  forbidden  by  mnny  ancient  councils, 
as  Chalcedon,  c.  x.  (451  A.D.),  2d  Nicsea,  c.  zr.  (787 
A.  D.).    This  prohibition,  however,  was  not  regarded 
as  absolute  and  admitting  no  possible  exception ; 
the  natural  ground  of  the  pronibition  being  the 
imiioesibility,  in  ordinary  cases,  of  the  same  indi- 
vidual adequately  discharging  the  duties  of  more 
than  one  office.     It  has  been  held,  therefore,  that  in 
cases  in  which  this  impossibility  does  not  really 
exist,  the  union  of  two  or  more  offices  in  the  hands 
of  one  person  might,  speaking  absolutely,  be  per- 
mitted M'ithout  inmnging  the  £vine  law.    Canonists 
therefore    distinguish    *  compatible'    and    'incom- 
patible '  benefices  or  dignities.    Two  benefices  may 
DC  incompatible  in  three  ways — (1)  if  each  requires 
residence  {raUcne  reaidentice) ;   (2)  if  the  duties  of 
both  fall  to  be  discharged  at  one  and  the  same 
time  {ratione  servUii) ;  or  (3),  if  the  revenue  of  either 
fully  suffices  for  the  becoming  maintenance  of  the 
incumbent  {rxUione  austenlaiionis).      In  other  cases, 
benefices  or  dignities  are  considered  compatible,  and 
with  the  due  fspensation,  may  be  held  by  the  same 
person.    The  rules  by  which  dispensations  from  the 
law  of  residence  are  to  be  remilated,  as  w^ell  as  the 
penalties  for  its  violation,  miether  on  the  part  of 
the  patron  or  on  that  of  the  recipient,  have  formed 
the    subject   of  frequent  legislation,  as  in  the  dd 
and  the  4th  councils  of  the  Lateran,  in  the  decre- 
tals of  Innocent  III.  and  many  other  popes,  and 
esi>ecLally  in  those  of  the  Council  of  Trent.      In 
general,  it  may  be  said  that  the  canon  law  regards 
fts  incompatible  (I)  two  benefices  each  having  the 
cure  of  souls;  (2)  two  'dignities;'  (3)  a  'dignity* 
and  a  cure  of  souls ;  (4)  a  cure  of  souls  and  a  simple 
beneiice  requiring  residence.    In  other  cases  than 
these,  the  pope  is  held  to  have  the  power  of  dis- 

Eensing.  There  is  no  department  of  discipline, 
owever,  in  which  the  tcnaency  to  relaxation  has 
been  greater  or  more  persistent ;  and  one  of  the 
gravest  of  the  abuses  of  the  church  was  the  preva- 
lence  of  pluralism  of  *  incompatible '  benefices,  even 
of  bishoprics ;  and  although  a  constant  effort  was 
made  to  prevent  this  abuse,  the  evasions  of  the  law 
"were  not  only  frequent,  but  even  screened  from 
punishment.  In  later  tiumes,  the  evil  has  in  great 
measure  disappeared  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 
The  EngUsh  law,  before  the  Reformation,  in  the 
maiu  coincided  with  the  canon  law ;  and  the  legis- 
lation of  Henry  VIII.  preserved  the  same  general 
spirit,  only  substitating  tlie  dispensing  power  of 
the  crown  for  that  of  the  pope. 

By  13  and  14  Vict.  c.  98,  it  is  provided  that  no 
incumbent  of  a  benefice  shall  take  and  hold  together 
vrith  it  another  benefice,  unless  the  churches  are 
ivitbin  three  miles  of  one  another  by  the  nearest 
rood,  and  the  annual  value  of  one  of  them  does  not 
exceed  £100.  Nor  can  two  benefices  be  held 
together  if  the  population  of  one  exceeds  3000,  and 
taiat  of  the  other  exceeds  500.  The  word  benefice  in 
tliis  sense  imdudes  any  perpetual  curacy,  endowed 
public  chapel,  parochial  chapelry,  or  district  chapelry. 


But  a  dispensation  or  licence  can  be  obtained  from 
the  archbishop^  so  as  to  allow  two  benefices  to  be 
held  together;  and  if  the  archbishop  retui^  his 
licence,  the  party  may  appeal  to  the  Phvy  Council 
A  special  provision  is  also  contained  whereby  the 
head  ruler  of  any  college  or  hall  in  the  universities 
of  Oxford  or  Cambric^re,  or  warden  of  Durham 
University,  is  prohibited  from  taking  any  cathedral 
preferment  or  any  other  benefice,  If  any  spiritual 
person  holding  a  benefice  shall  accept  another 
benefice  contrary  to  the  statute,  the  first  benefice 
shall  ip90  facto  become  void.  At  the  same  time, 
provision  is  made  by  statutes  for  uniting  benefices 
where  the  agc^egate  population  does  not  exceed 
1500,  and  the  aggregate  yearly  value  does  not 
exceed  £500. — In  Irehmd,  no  faculty  or  dispensation 
can  be  granted  to  any  spiritual  person  to  hold  two 
or  more  benefices. — In  Scotland,  it  is  contrarv  to  an 
old  Scotch  statute  for  a  minister  of  the  Established 
Church  to  hold  two  or  more  charges;  but  the 
question  has  arisen  almost  exclusively  with  refer- 
ence to  clergymen  appointed  professors  before  or 
after  an  appointment  to  a  country  charge,  in  which 
case  a  resignation  is  necessary  of  one  of  the  offices 
within  a  certain  time  after  the  appointment ;  but 
this  disqualification  does  not  apply  to  city  chaises. 

PLUSH  (Fr.  p€luclie)y  a  variety  of  woven  clothi^ 
having  a  long  shaggy  pile  on  the  upper  surface. 
Although  woven  like  velvet,  it  differs  from  it  in 
the  greater  length  of  the  X)ile,  and  in  its  not  being 
clipped  or  shorn  to  a  uniform  length.  Formerly,  it 
was  made  of  a  double  warp,  one  thread  being  usually 
double  worsted  yam,  the  other,  intended  to  form 
the  i)ile,  of  goat's  hair,  and  the  weft  of  worsted ; 
occasionally,  only  worsted  was  used.  Now,  it  is 
made  very  extensively  of  silk  and  cotton,  the  silk 
taking  the  place  of  the  goat*s  hair  to  form  the  pile. 
This  silk  j^ush  is  the  material  now  almost  univer- 
sally used  for  making  gentlemen's  hats,  instead  of 
beaver-hair,  as  formerfy.  It  is  also  worked  in 
coloured  silks,  for  many  articles  of  ladies'  attire. 
See  Weaving. 

PLU'TARCH  {Ploutareho9),  the  biographer  and 
moralist,  was  bom  at  Chseroneia  in  Boeotia.  We  can 
only  approximate  to  the  year  of  his  birth.  He  tells 
us  himself  that  he  was  a  student  of  philosophy  at 
Delphi,  under  Ammonius,  when  Nero  was  making 
his  progress  through  Greece  in  66  a.d.  ;  and  we 
may  safely  infer,  therefore,  that  in  that  year  he  was 
beyond  the  age  of  puberty.  He  lived  for  some 
years  in  Rome,  and  in  other  towns  of  Italy,  where 
he  seems  to  have  been  much  occupied  witn  public 
business,  and  with  giving  lessons  in  philosopny---a 
circumstance  to  which  ne  attributes  his  naving 
failed  to  learn  the  Latin  language  in  Italy,  and  his 
having  to  postpone  his  studies  in  Roman  literature 
till  late  in  life.  During  the  reign  of  Domitian,  he  was 
delivering  lectures  on  nhilosophy  at  Rome ;  but  we 
have  not  sufficient  evidence  for  the  statement,  that 
he  was  preceptor  to  Trajan,  or  that  that  emperor 
raised  him  to  consular  rank.  The  later  years  of  his 
life  he  spent  at  Chieroneia,  where  he  discharged  the 
duties  of  archon  and  priest  of  Apollo.  He  lived 
down  to  106,  the  eighth  year  of  the  reign  of  Trajan; 
but  how  much  longer  is  not  known.  He  was  mar- 
ried to  an  amiable  wife  of  the  name  of  Timoxena,  bv 
whom  he  had  several  sons,  who  reached  manhood, 
and  left  descendants. 

The  work  by  which  P.  is  best  known  is  his  Par- 
allel Lives  of  forty-six  Greeks  and  Romans.  These 
are  arranged  in  pairs,  each  pair  forming  one  book 
(6t62ton),  consisting  of  the  life  of  a  Greek  and  a 
Roman,  and  followed  by  a  comparison  between  the 
two  men.  In  a  few  cases,  the  comparison  is  omitted 
or  lost    The  heroes  of  these  biographies  are  the 

611 


PLUTEUS-PLYMOUTH. 


following:  1.  Theseus  and  Romnlus;  2.  Lycurgos 
and  Noma;  3.  Solon  and  Valeiins  Publicola;  4. 
Themistocles  and  Camillus;  6.  Pericles  and  Q. 
Fabins  Maximus ;  0.  Alcibiades  and  Coriolanus ;  7. 
Timoleon  and  ^Emilius  Paulus;  8.  Pelopidas  and 
Maroellus;  9.  Aristides  and  Cato  the  Elder;  10. 
Philopoemen  and  Flamininus ;  11.  Pyrrhus  and 
Marius;  12.  Lvsander  and  Sidla;  13.  Cimon  and 
Lucnilus;  14.  Kicias  and  Crassus;  15.  £umenes 
and  Sertorius;  16.  Agesilaus  and  Pompeius;  17. 
Alexander  and  Caesar;  18.  Phocion  ana  Cato  the 
Younger;  19.  Agis  andCleomenes,  and  Tiberius  and 
Cains  Gracchus ;  20.  Demosthenes  and  Cicero ;  21. 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  and  M.  Antonius ;  22.  Dion 
and  M.  Junius  Brutua  In  addition  to  these  are 
placed  in  the  editions  after  the  46th  Parallel  Lives, 
the  biographies  of  Artazerzes  Mnemon,  Aratus, 
Galba,  and  Otho.  P.  has  no  equal  in  ancient^  and 
few  in  modem  times,  as  a  writer  of  '  Lives.*  His 
power  lies  in  his  felicitous  srasp  of  the  character  as 
a  whole,  and  his  skill  in  Keeping  minor  details  in 
subordination.  It  is  not  till  the  reader  has  seen 
the  portrait  in  its  completeness  that  his  attention 
is  attracted  to  accessory  points.  '  There  are  biogra- 
phers (says  an  admirable  writer  in  the  Quarterly 
Jieview)  who  deal  with  the  hero,  and  biographers 
who  deal  with  the  man.  But  Plutarch  is  the  repre- 
sentative of  ideal  bioCTaphy,  for  he  delineates  both 
in  one.*  Yet  with  all  uieir  artistic  harmony,  his  lives 
abound  with  anecdotes  and  bon-mott  in  such  profu- 
sion, that  they  form  one  of  our  chief  authorities  for 
the  table-talk  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  Their 
popularity  in  ancient,  medieval,  and  modem  times, 
with  readers  of  every  rank  and  age,  is  something 
extraordinary,  and  they  have  in  consequence  exerted 
a  very  powerful  and  a  very  salutary  influence  on 
the  art  of  biography,  as  subsequently  practised.  The 
other  writinra  of  r.,  more  than  60  m  number,  are 
included  under  the  general  title  of  Moralia,  or 
Ethical  WorksL  Several  of  these  are  not  purely 
ethical  in  their  teuor;  while  many  of  them  are 
probably  not  by  him,  or  if  they  are,  do  him  small 
credit  Even  in  the  best  of  the  Moralia,  there  is  no 
philosophical  sj'stem  to  be  found ;  their  merits  are 
not  speculative,  but  practical ;  and  their  valne  con- 
sists mainly  in  their  «K>d  sense,  in  the  justness  of 
their  views  on  the  ominary  afiairs  of  hiunan  life ; 
and  in  the  benevolence  of  tone  diffused  throughout 
theuL  The  best  text  of  the  Lives  is  that  of  Imma- 
nuel  Bekker ;  the  best  translation  in  English  is  that 
of  Dryden  and  others,  as  re-edited  by  Clough.  The 
best  edition  of  the  Moralia  is  by  Wyttenbach 
(Oxford,  1795—1800) ;  and  of  the  entire  works,  the 
editions  of  Keiske  (Leip.  1774—1782)  and  Hutten 
(Tubingen,  1791—1805). 

PLU'TEUS,  in  Classical  Architecture,  a  vail 
filling  up  the  space  between  two  columns.  Also  the 
space  between  two  orders,  placed  over  one  another, 
as  in  the  amphitheatres,  &a 

PLU'TO  (Gr.  Ploutdn,  from  PUmteo,  to  be  rich), 
originally  only  a  surname  of  Hades,  as  the  giver 
or  possessor  of  riches,  is,  in  the  Mythology  of 
Greece,  the  third  son  of  Kronos  and  Rhea,  and  the 
brother  of  Zeus  and  Poseidon.  On  the  tripartite 
division  of  the  universe,  he  obtained  the  sovereignty 
of  the  under-world — ^the  realm  of  darkness  and 
ghostly  shades,  where  he  sits  enthroned  as  a 
'  subterranean  Zens ' — ^to  use  the  expression  of 
Homer,  and  rules  the  spirits  of  the  dead.  His 
dwelHng-plaoe,  however,  is  not  far  from  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  P.  is  inexorable  in  disposition,  not 
to  be  moved  either  by  prayers  or  flatteries.  He  is 
bome  on  a  car,  drawn  oy  four  black  steeds,  whom 
he  guides  with  golden  reins.  His  helmet  maJces 
him  invisible,  whence,  according  to  some  soholan, 
•19 


his  name  of  Hades  (from  a,  priv.,  and  iddn^  to  see); 
although  otheiB,  with  at  least  equal  probability, 
derive  Hades  from  kado  or  chado^  to  receive  oi 
embrace,  and  translate  the  word  the  '  all-receiver.' 
In  Homer,  Hades  never  means  a  place,  but  always 
a  person.  Moreover,  it  is  to  be  noticed  that  t£e 
poet  does  not  divide  the  realm  of  the  shades  into 
two  separate  r^^ns.  All  the  souls  of  the  dead 
— good  and  bad  alike— mingle  tosetber.      Subse- 

?[uently,  however,  when  the  ethicu  ooncqition  of 
atiure  retribution  became  more  widely  developed, 
the  kinfiniom  of  the  dead  was  divided  into  Elysinm 
(q.  v.),  the  abode  of  the  good,  and  Tartarus  (q.  v.), 
the  place  of  the  wicked.  This  change  also  ezer- 
dsea  an  important  influence  on  the  conception  of 
Pluta  The  ruler  of  the  under-world  not  only 
acquired  additional  power  and  majestv,  but  the 
very  idea  of  his  character  was  essentially  modified. 
He  was  now  regarded  as  a  beneficent  deity,  who 
held  the  keys  of  the  earth  in  his  hand,  aiid  poa* 
sessed  its  metallic  treasures  (whence  his  new  name 
Pluto  or  PlutvLs),  and  who  blessed  the  year  with 
fmits,  for  out  of  the  darkness  undeiground  come  all 
the  riches  and  swelling  fulness  of  the  soiL  Heace^ 
in  later  times,  mortals  prayed  to  him  before  pro- 
ceeding to  dig  for  the  wealth  hidden  in  the  bowels 
of  the  earth. 

P.  married  Persephone  (Proserpina),  the  daughter 
of  Demeter  (Ceres),  after  cairying  her  off  from  the 
plains  of  Enna.  He  assisted  his  brothers — according 
to  the  piythological  story— in  their  war  against  the 
Titans,  and  received  from  the  Cydops,  as  a  reward 
for  delivering  them  from  Tartarus,  tne  hdmet  that 
makes  him  invisible,  which  he  lent  to  HenDea 
(Mercury)  in  the  aforesaid  war,  to  Perseus  in  his 
combat  with  the  Gorgona,  and  which  ultimately 
came  to  Meriones.  The  Erinnyes  and  Charon  ob^ 
his  behests.  He  sits  in  judgment  on  evexy  open 
and  secret  act,  and  is  assistea  by  three  snbordinato 
judges,  iSacus,  Minoe,  and  Rhadamanthus^  The 
worship  of  P.  was  widely  spread  both  among  the 
Greeks  and  Romans.  Temples  were  erected  to  his 
honour  at  Athens,  £Us,  and  Olympia.  Amn*^  trees 
and  flowers,  the  cypreas,  boxwood,  nardssus,  and 
maidenhair  were  sacred  to  him;  bulls  and  goats 
were  also  sacrificed  to  him  amid  the  shadows  <A 
night,  and  his  priests  had  their  brows  garlnnded 
with  cypress  wreaths.  In  works  of  art»  he  resembles 
his  brothers  Zeus  and  Poseidon ;  only  his  hair  hangs 
down  somewhat  wildly  and  fiercely  ov«r  his  brow, 
and  his  appearance,  though  majestio,  as  becomes 
so  mighty  ft  god,  has  sometmns  gloomy  and  terrible 
about  it.  There  can  be  little  doubt  that  he,  as 
well  as  Pan  (q.  v.),  helped  to  trick  out  the  con- 
ception of  the  devil  prevalent  during  tiie  middle 
ages,  and  not  yet  extinct.  U  it  was  from  Pui  that 
the  devil  derived  those  physical  characteristics 
alluded  to  in  the  famous  AddSrtM  to  the  D61  by  the 
poet  Bums: 

O  thou,  whatever  title  suit  thee, 
Auld  Homie,  Satan,  Nick,  or  Ofoel^ 

it  is  no  less  certain  that  it  is  to  P.  he  owes  bis 
position  as  *king  of  Hell,'  'his  Blackness^*  and 
many  of  the  insignia  of  his  infernal  royalty. 

PLUTCNIC  ROCKS,  the  name  given  by  Lyefl 
to  the  Granitic  Rocks,  from  the  supposition  that 
they  were  formed  at  considerable  depth  in  the 
earth,  and  were  cooled  and  crystaUised  uowly  onds 
great  pressure.  Thev  were  so  designated  in  eonti>- 
distinction  to  the  Volcanic  Bocks,  which,  though 
they  have  risen  up  from  below,  have  cooled  from,  a 
melted  state  more  rapidly  upon  or  near  the  suriaoa 
SeeGRANiTB. 

PLT'MOUTH,  an  English  seaport  and  market 
town,  and  a  parliiunentaiy  and  mnnidpsl  bocoi^ 


PLYMOUTH—PLYMOUTH  BRETHKEN, 


in  the  sonth-west  of  Devooshire,  246  miles  west- 
soath-west  of  London.     It  stands  in  the  hi^ht  of 
Plymouth  Sonnd  (q.  v.)  between  the  estuanes  of 
the  Plym  snd  Tamar.      To  the  west  of  it  is  Stone- 
house  (q.  v.),  a  township  and  coast-guard  station, 
and  still  farther  wesfc  is  Devonport  (q.  v.),  the  great 
naval  and  militanr  station.    The  two  former  pkices, 
however,  having  become  united  by  continuous  lines 
of  houses,  have  lost  their  individuality,  and  are 
(with  Devonport,  which  is  walled,  fortified,  and 
surrounded  by  a  moat)  now  generally  considei%d  as 
one  great  town.    Of  this  great  centre  of  fashion, 
trade,  and  naval  and  military  preparation,  P.  proper, 
which  covers  an  area  of   one  square  mile,  may 
be  called  the  city,  and  Devonport  the  west-end ; 
while  Stonehouse  is  an  intermediate  district,  con- 
taining chiefly  factories,  barracks,  victualling  yards, 
hospitals,   and  other  institutions.     P.  proper  ex- 
tends from  Mill  Bay  on  the  west  to  the  ^  mouth  of 
the  Plym  on  the  east    Its  site  is  somewhat  rugged 
and  uneven ;   an  eminence  forming  the    suburbs 
runs  along  its  north  side,  and  another  eminence, 
partly  occupied  by  the  citadel,  fronts  the  Sound. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  Royal  Hotel,  compris- 
ing an  immense  inn,  assembly-rooms,  a  theatre,  and 
the  Athenjeum,  all  partially  destroyed  by  tire  in 
1862,  and  rebuilt  in  1863 ;  public  library,  containing 
in  its  Cottonian  collection  300  sketches  by  the  old 
Italian  masters ;  St  Andrew's  Church,  the  tower  of 
which  dates  from  14dO ;  and  Charles  Church  (1646 
—1658),   dedicated,  with   fervent   loyalty,  at  the 
Restoratiop,  to  *St  Charles  the  Martyr.'     There 
are  also  several  important   educational  establish- 
ments, some  of  which  are  endowed,  as  well  as  many 
charitable  institutions.    Mill  Bay  and  Sutton  Pool 
are  two  small  inlets  of  the  Sound,  in  which  Ue 
all    the    merchant-vessels    bound    for  P.    proper. 
Between  these  inlets,  and  running  along  the  shore, 
is  the  eminence  or  hi&:h  plateau   of  land,  called 
the   Hoe.     From  this  ridge,  whence  the  approach 
of    the   Spanish   Armada   is    said  to   have    been 
first    descried,   magnificent   shore   and   sea   views 
may  be   obtsuned.      Its  eastern   end  is   occupied 
by    the    citadel,   a   fortress    mounting    150    guns, 
ivhich  commands  the  entrance  of  the  Cutwater  (the 
low^er  estuary  of  the  Pl^),  and  of  Sutton  PooL 
Mill  Bay,  on  the  west,  is  so  deep  that  vessels  of 
3000  tons  can  lie  at  the  pier  at  low- water.     Here 
are  the  important  Great  Western  Docks,  covering 
an  area  of  fourteen  acres,  and  having  a  depth  of 
22  feet,  constructed  about  the  years  1855 — 1858. 
Close  to  these  docks,  and  connected  with  them  by  a 
tram-line,   are  the  termini  of  the   South  Devon, 
Tavistock,  and  Cornwall  railways.     In  1863,  5645 
vessels,  of  804,540  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the 
port^     Commerce  is  carried  on  to  a  considerable 
exteot  with  the  Cape  of  Oood  Hope,  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  Mediterranean ;  tfie  coasting  trade 
is    also  important,  and  the  fisheries  are  productive. 
Pofi.  (1861),  62,599. 

P.,  described  by  Leland  as  bein^,  in  the  reign  of 

Senxy  II., '  a  mene  thing,  an  inhabitation  of  fishars,' 

-vraus  called  by  the  Saxons  Tameorworth  (town  on 

tlie  Tamar) ;  after  the  Conquest  it  was  called  Sutton 

(South  Town) ;  and  it  was  not  till  the  reign  of  Henry 

V^I.  that  it  received  the  name  of  Plymouth  (mouth 

of  the  Plym).    During  the  14th  and  15th  centuries 

i^  -was  frequently  attacked  and  set  on  fire  by  the 

FVench,  and  in  1512   an  act  was  passed  for  the 

crfcrengthening  of   its    defences,  which   since  then 

ASbve  greatly  increased,  until  now  the  whole  shores 

«»£   iihe  Sound  are  well  defended  by  cannon,  and  a 

oorolon  of  inland  forts  is  (November  1864)  being 

ooo^Btructed   at   immense   coast,   surrounding  the 

Xh.ree  Towns  at  a  distance  of  from  two  to  three 


PLYMOUTH,  a  town  in  Massachusetts,  U.S, 
on  Plymouth  Bav,  37  miles  south-east  of  Boston 
famous  in  the  history  of  New  England  as  the 
landing-place  of  the  *  Pilgrim  Fathers'  from  the 
Matifiower,  December  1 1, 1620, 0.S.  Plymouth  Rock 
is  a  granite  boulder  at  the  water's  e<lge  on  which 
they  landed.  In  Pilgrim  Hall  in  a  museum  is 
preserved  many  reUcs  of  the  first  settlement  of  the 
country,  among  which  are  Oovemor  Carver's  chaii 
and  the  sword  of  Miles  Standish.  The  village  has 
a  good  harbour  and  flourishing  trade.  Pop.  ^1860) 
6272. 

PLYMOUTH  BRETHREN,  a  religious  sect 
which  sprang  into  existence  about  183^— 1835  in 
Plymouth,  Dublin,  and  other  places  in  the  British 
islands,  and  which  has  extended  itself  consider- 
ably throughout  the  British  dominions  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  particularly 
among  the  Protestants  of  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Italy,  and  also  in  the  United  States  of  America.  It 
seems  to  have  originated  in  a  reaction  against 
exclusive  High  Church  principles,  as  mainlined 
in  the  Church  of  England,  with  everything  of  a 
kindred  nature  in  other  churches,  and  against  a 
dead  formahsm  associated  with  '  onevangelical' 
doctrine.  Many  of  the  first  members  of  the  new 
religious  communities  formed  in  Plymouth  and 
elsewhere  were  retired  Anglo-Indian  officers,  men 
of  un<|uestionable  zeal  and  piety;  and  these  com- 
munities began  to  appear  almost  simultaneously 
in  a  number  of  places.  Their  origin  is,  however^ 
very  much  to  be  ascribed  to  the  labours  and  influ- 
ence of  Mr  Darby,  from  whom  the  P.  B.  on  the 
continent  of  Europe  are  very  generally  known  as 
Darbyites.  Mr  Darby  was  a  barrister,  moving  in 
the  highest  circles  of  society;  and  under  deeply 
religious  impressions,  became  a  clergyman  of  the 
Church  of  Eneland,  and  lived  for  some  time  in  a 
mud-hovel  in  the  county  Wicklow,  devoting  himself 
to  his  work ;  but  afterwards  left  the  Church  of 
England  from  conscientious  scrui^les,  and  became  an 
evangelist  imconuected  with  any  church.  In  this 
character,  he  laboured  both  in  England  and  on  the 
continent  of  Europe,  preaching  in  French,  English, 
and  German.  He  also  gave  utterance  to  his  opinions 
in  numerous  pamphlets,  and  in  a  quarterly  period- 
ical called  The  Christicm  WUneaSy  which  for  a 
number  of  years  was  the  *  or^an  *  of  the  Plymouth 
Brethren.  He  continues  to  visit  from  time  to  time 
the  communities  or  meetings  of  Plymouth  Brethren. 
His  tenets,  and  those  of  the  P.  B.  in  general,  are 
strictly  Calvinistic :  original  sin  and  predestination, 
the  efficacy  of  Christ's  sacrifice,  the  merit  of  his 
obedience,  the  power  of  his  intercession,  the  gracious 
operations  of  the  Holy  Spirit  in  regeneration  and 
sanctitication,  are  prominent  points.  Millenarian 
views  are  also  generally  entertained  by  the  P.  B. ; 
and  they  usually  practise  the  baptism  of  adults 
without  regard  to  previous  infant  oaptism.  They 
acknowledge  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper^ 
and  administer  it  to  one  another  in  their  meetings, 
usually  on  every  Sunday,  or  *  first  day  of  the  week ;  * 
in  this,  as  in  everything  else,  refusing  to  acknow- 
ledge any  special  ministers.  They  utterly  reject 
confirmation.  Their  most  distinctive  peculiarity, 
when  contrasted  with  other  Calvinistic  oiurches,  is 
their  complete  rejection  of  ecclesiastical  organisa- 
tion. They  suppose  the  whole  Christian  body  in  the 
world  to  have  declined  from  truth  and  duty,  like 
Israel  of  old,  and  therefore  to  have  been  *  corpor- 
ately  rejected  of  Qod,*  and  believe  the  true  church 
to  consist  of  themselves  and  of  other  chosen  one«  in 
the  various  Christian  churches.  They  refuse  to 
recognise  any  form  of  church  government,  or  any 
office  of  the  ministry;  they  insist  much  on  the 
equal  right  of  every  micde  member  of  the  church  to 

6U 


PLYMOUTH  SOUND— PNEUMATIC  DISPATCH. 


'prophesy'  or  pleach;  and  in  their  meetings,  after   them.    He  alao  planned,  as  an   alteniatiTe^  how 
each  hymn  or  piuyer,  there  is  usually  a  pause,  that   there   might    be    a  paroela'   carriage    within   the 

"  '    '  tunnel  or  tube,  and  a  iiassenger  carriage  numing 


amr  one,  moved  by  the  Spirit,  may  undertake  this 
office.  They  exclude  persons  known  to  have  been 
guilty  of  gross  sins  from  i>articipation  with  them 


along  the  top   of   the  tube:   the  two  oeing  con- 
nected by  an  upri^t  bar  passing  throo^  a  valved 


m  the  Lord's  Supper,  until  proof  is  afforded  of  I  slit  in  the  tube.  Medhurst  was  lauded  at  by  his 
repentance.  The  P.  B.  reject  every  distinctive  ;  contemporaries  as  a  visionary ;  but  his  specolations 
appellation  but  that  of  Christians  ;  although  a  !  wire  called  to  mind  in  later  years,  and  led  to  the 
s|>ecial  denomination  is  found  necessary  to  designate  :  attempts  noticed  under  Atmosphbkic  Bailway. 
them  ;  and,  in  fact,  no  one  not  holding  their  views  |  In  1861,  was  announced  a  PMumaHc  Dispatch 
could  remain  associated  with  them.  A  great  schism  ,  project,  based  on  a  reconsideration  of  the  causes  of 
took  place  among  them  in  consequence  of  doctrines  failure  in  the  earlier  schemes.  The  conveyance  of 
preached  at  Plymouth  and  Bristol  concerning  the  '  passengers  and  of  bulky  goods  is  not  here  contem 


human  nature  of  Christ;  Mr  Darby  vigorously 
opposing  what  he  deemed  a  dangerous  error,  and  he 
and  his  adherents  utterly  sei)arating  from  the 
fellowship  of  those  who  maintained  or  even  refused 
to  condemn  it.      One   of  the  most  noted  (if  not 


plated;  parcels  and  mail-bags  are  the  articles  held 
chiefly  in  view.  To  test  the  theory,  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  of  iron  tube  was  experimentally  laid  down  near 
Battersea,  with  a  fair  average  oi  gradients  and 
curves  purposely  given  to  it.      The  tube  was  about 


notable)  converts  to  the  principles  of  the  sect  was  '  30  inches  in  diameter,  not  cylindrical,  but  somewhat 
the  revivalist  Guinness,  who  was  ba))tiBed  in  1860  bee-hive  shape  in  section,  and  flat  at  the  bottom,  to 
by  another  Plymouth  brother,  Lord  Con^eton.  admit  two  lines  of  rail  inside.    Iron  carriages  were 

On  tile  continent  of  Euro^ie,  the  P.  B.  have  in  made  to  fit  the  tube  almost  as  accurately  as  a  piston. 
many  places  given  great  trouble  to  the  Protestant  A  steam-engine  was  set  up  near  one  end  of  the  tube, 
churches,  by  their  opposition  to  all  ecclesiastical  to  draw  out  the  air  by  means  of  a  sort  of  centrifugal 
order  or  organisation.  See  Mrs  H.  Grattan  fan.  When  the  eni^ine  had  been  at  work  some 
Guinness's  Anaioer  to  tlie  Question:  Who  are  tJie  little  time,  it  rarefied  the  air  in  the  tube  to  such  a 
Plymouth  Brethren  F  (Philadelphia,  1861).  |  degree  that  the  ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosi>here 

PLYMOUTH  SOUND  a  well.b,own.  «>ad.  ^^  ^nte^^SKrl'^wS^'l^^rlw 
stead   on  the  south-west    of  Devonshire,  import-  -    nrooel  in  this  wav  a  trainl  oonsistine  of  two 

ant  as  a  naval  station,  has  considerable  claims  - -^/^.S^^^.  ^x  7  ^,^  Ji„y.  «4.  S^  »«f^  ^Jfon  «.;!^ 
.     ji_     J-  X-    J.*        e  u  ■  11  J         -i.  xu    .      XI      iron  carnages  01  7  cwt.  eacn,  at  tne  rate  ox  dO  miles 

to  the  distinction  of  being  called,  as  it  frequently         v         ^*  ^ 

has   been,    the    most    beautiful    estuary    on    the ,     j^^^^  ^        financL-d  discouracements.  a  Pwat- 

an^ahaU  „«le,^de,a„d  extend.  mlandiorU^^^ 

mles.    It  penetoites  into  the  oountiy  by  means  of  ^^      ^^  ^,^    ^  ^  Seymoir  Street.   Euabm 

the  harboure  of  Hamoaze  and  Catwater,  the  eshiwies  ^         ^^  ^^^  g  J^^  4^^/ „  „j  ^y^^  Lo^^^  ^ 

of  the  Tamar  Mid  Plym  respectively.    On  its  west  N^orth-weatern  Railway  to  the  N.  W.  district  port. 

400  Lt.  «id  ^  dotted  over  with  wood,  and  with   IS^^'porSil  b«f  S'^ffi^H^h^w^r^^u^ 


lages,  ana  oouna  oy  coasis  wmcn  are  eeneraiiy ^j'^  a^    ■*■      Q^„^^^  ±i^^  «„«•.,  j«,,  /^-.w-j. 

,  ^    '  J     1        .       -av       .  -n  1  1 iv   1     .x/  ,  ness  of  the  plan.    Sseveral  times  every  day  (excens 

beauIifu?'e^'o7SLi^lTM^r^g^mb?ic^!  '  8-'^^^.  -Jl-*'^  "^7  '*  "^{^^  ^ 
uvaritvuu  o^^v  VA  **  ^^.    ,  J     ^4.  j,uZ^  ^\\.    vanous  parts  of  the  country.    Such  letters  as  sre 

pies  the  west  shore  of  the  sound.     At  the  mouth    j^i.-  ^**r,  j^i:„«,„  :„  au^  Itr  -wr  .ww.4^.1  ^;<.4^^  ^ 
If  fi.«  T««,«^  «  fi,«  ««,*n  ,-«u«^  «♦  s+  Nr:^u^u«  ^^   destined  for  dehvery  m  the>._W.  poeUl  district  of 


villages,  and  bound  by  coasts  which  are  generally 
rocky  .ind  abrupt.  Mount  Edgecombe  Park,  the 
beautiful  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mount  Edgecombe,  occu- 
pies the  west  shore  of  the  sound.    At  the  mouth 

tX^'S!^nt  a*^y?^i^1c'^^*n J^'Sel'   E^iiSJxrS  SvSfi^ 
The  Sound  is  ope^JT^he  «.uth.west,Uni  which   ^T  ^S^ar^^^ffi-TvIT t  *^P^i^ 

.r^te'dl^'Tc'o^'if iCt^ai^r^^cTpl^  j  ^1  titW^  Z^^AZ  "th^«.Son1: 
4«  ift^i     fi^  Ti»»*ir«rAnn.»     r>«  a  ««nir««  wv.t  i»^.   *«*>«  southward  by  rarefaed  air :  the  compression  m 


in  1841.  See  Breakwater.  On  a  sunken  rock  just 
inside  the  breakwater  and  at  its  centre,  a  strong 
stone  fort  is  (November  1864)  in  course  of  erection ; 


the  one  case  and  the  rarefaction  in  the  other  being 
very  slight,  only  a  few  ounces  on  the  square  inch. 


Bwu«  luiu  «  v^^v^""/*"  *?^'  *"  uuu««  u.  cx^uiu^ ,       rj.^    -^  (October  1864)  in  pnieress  may  be 

and  an  extensiye  series  of  stone  batteries  are  being   briefly  ^described  "as  follows  VThei/3^  ?YuK 

erected  at  Bovisand  and  Picklecombe  on  the  main-   ^.^  /       ^        j,    ^    ^  ^    ^      ^  p 

land  on  either  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  harbour.  ,  ^^      .     g^  Martin's-le^rand,  by  wa^of  Drum! 

Fourteen  mi  es  sonth-south-west   of  ^^  is    ^^^^  ^^^^  Hampstead  RcSd,  Wnham  cZt 


Eddystone  Light-house.    See  EDDYaTON& 

PNEUMATIC    DISPATCH.      This  name   is 


Road,  High  Street,  Broad  Street,  Holbom,  Skinner*s 
Street,  and  Newgate  Street — a  distance  of  2|  miles. 


given  to  a  mode  of  sending  parcels  and  mail-bags  I  The  tube  is  of  large  size,  nearly  44  feet  in  diameter, 
through  a  tube  by  atniosi)Leric  pressure,  or  by  a  laid  down  at  as  small  a  depth  beneath  the  carnage- 
partiiQ  vacuum.  Early  in  the  present  cen-  1  way  of  the  several  streets  as  the  water  and  gas  pipes 
tury,  Mr  Medhurst  conceived  the  idea  of  some  wiU  permit.  It  is  chiefly  of  cast-iron ;  but  some 
such  contrivance.  He  published  two  pamphlets, '  portions  on  a  sharp  curve  are  of  biiok  When  tht 
one  under  the  name  of  A  New  Method  of  arrangements  are  completed,  there  will  be  a  large 
Conveying  Letters  aiui  Goods  by  Air;  and  the  engine-house  on  the  south  side  of  Holboni,  neai 
other,  A  New  System  of  Jn'and  Conveyance  for  Lincoln's  lun  Fields,  which  will  supply  Jdl  the 
Goods  and  Passengers,  He  p.oposed  to  construct  |  power  for  working  the  whole  tube  in  ooth  diiee- 
air-tight  tunnels,  with  carnages  muving  through  |  tions.  Karetied  air  in  one  half  of  the  tube  will 
them  on  rails ;  and  these  carriages  were  to  be  pro-  ;  draw  a  train  of  iron  carriages,  laden  with  parcels  and 
pellcd  by  compressed  air  from  oehind,  or  else  by  mail-l>ags,  from  Euston  Station  to  Holbom ;  aod 
suction,  in  virtue  of  a  vacuum  formed  in  front  of .  compressed  air  wUl  drive  them  thrcttgh  the  othsi 
614 


PNEUMATIC  TROUGH— PNEUMATICa 


length  of  tube  from  Holbom  to  the  General  Post- 
office — there  being  suction  in  the  one  case,  and 
pressure  in  the  other.  A  rererse  action  will  bring 
trains  in  the  other  direction.  The  necessary 
amount  of  rarefaction  in  the  one  case,  and  of  com- 
pression in  the  other,  will  be  determined  by  experi- 
ment; but  both  will  be  produced  by  means  of 
a  revolving  fan  of  peculiar  construction  and  large 
dimensions,  worked  by  a  powerful  steam-engine  at 
the  Holbom  Station.  The  sectional  area  of  the  tube 
being  very  much  greater  than  that  of  the  experi- 
mental tube  at  work  in  Seymour  Street,  carriages  of 
much  greater  length,  width,  height,  and  strengui  can 
be  accommodated,  and  more  of  them  in  one  train — 
provided  the  steam-power  be  sufficient.  If  the  plan 
succeeds,  other  tubes  will  be  laid  down  from  Holborn 
to  Charing  Cross,  and  in  other  directions,  to  connect 
the  General  Poet-office  with  the  district  offices,  and 
with  the  chief  railway  termini.  With  regard  to 
parcels,  provisional  agreements  have  been  made 
with  Messrs  Pickford  and  other  carriers  for  extend- 
ing the  tube  to  certain  great  d^pdts  in  the  city,  and 
for  carrying  railway  parcels  to  and  fro  between 
those  d6p6ts  and  the  railway  termini  If  the 
anticipations  are  borne  out*  tiiere  will  be  great 
saving  of  time  in  the  delivery  of  letters  and  parcels, 
and  a  material  lessening  of  the  number  of  pa^rcels 
and  mail-vans  and  carts  m  the  over-crowded  streets 
of  the  metropolis.  The  work  will  be  silently  going 
on  underground,  instead  of  visibly  and  noisily 
occupying  the  roadways. 

The  problem  of  passenger  conveyance  within  a 
pneumatic  tube  has  recently  been  partiallv  solved ; 
but  the  value  of  the  system  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  long  and  varied  experience.  During  the 
parliamentary  session  of  1864,  a  scheme  was  brought 
lorward  for  constructing  a  railway  on  this  system 
under  the  whole  len^h  of  Oxford  Street  and 
Holbom.  It  was  ridiciued  as  an  absurdity,  and  the 
bill  was  thrown  out ;  but  the  engineer,  Mr  Kammell, 
to  shew  the  practicability  of  the  plan,  has  since  laid 
down  a  bit  of  railway  on  this  principle  in  the 
grounds  of  the  Crystal  Palace.  It  is  about  600 
vards  long.  A  brickwork  tunnel,  about  10  feet  high 
by  9  in  width,  and  capable  of  admitting  the  largest 
broad-guage  carriage,  has  been  constructed,  with  a 
single  Ene  of  rails  laid  along  the  bottom.  The  tunnel 
has  a  hinged  valve  at  each  end.  The  route  is  pur-, 
posely  laid  with  severe  curves  and  gradients,  to  test 
the  principle  more  completely.  A  small  stationary 
steam-engine  works  a  fan  or  hollow  disc  22  feet  in 
diameter,  which  is  so  arranged  as  either  to  condense 
or  to  rarefy  the  air  in  the  tunnel  according  to  the 
adjustment  of  certain  valves.  In  the  one  case,  air 
rushes  in  from  the  circumference  to  the  centre  of 
the  disc  ;  in  the  other,  it  rushes  out  from  the  centre 
to  the  circumference  :  there  being  an  open  channel 
from  the  centre  of  the  disc  to  the  tunnel.  A  long 
roomy  carriage,  like  an  omnibus,  adapted  for  30 
imssengers,  travels  to  and  fro  in  the  tunnel,  being 
blown  in  one  direction  and  sucked  in  the  other. 
Fixed  behind  the  carriage  is  a  frame- work  nearly  as 
wide  and  high  as  the  tunnel ;  and  a  fringe  of  bristles 
round  the  edge  of  this  framework  presses  like  a 
brush  against  the  interior  of  the  tunnel,  forming 
a  sort  of  air-tight  piston.  The  motion  is  steady 
and  equable ;  and  a  good  speed  is  attained  with  a 
pressure  of  only  2}  oz.  on  the  square  inch. 

PNEUMATIC  TROUGH,  is  a  piece  of  che- 
mical apparatus  originally  devised  oy  Priestley, 
and  now  in  daily  requisition  in  every  laboratory. 
By  its  means,  gases  can  be  collected  m  vessels  for 
experiments  or  examination,  and  can  be  decanted 
from  one  jar  to  another  with  as  much  ease  as  if  we 
were  dealing  with  liouids.  The  pneumatic  trough 
lonsiBts  of  a  vessel  of  water,  provided  with  a  ledge 


or  shelf  at  the  depth  of  two  or  three  inches  from 
the  top.  The  jars  in  which  the  gas  is  to  be  collected 
are  filled  with  water,  and  placed  with  their  months 
downward  upon  the  shelf,  which  is  kept  a  little 
under  water,  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  air 
into  the  jars.  When  the  edge  of  the  jar  is  brought 
over  the  extremity  of  the  tube  carrying  the  gas,  the 
bubbles  of  gas  rise  through  the  water,  collect  in  the 
upper  part  of  the  jar,  and  displace  the  liquid.  As 
soon  as  a  jar  is  filled,  it  may  be  removed  by  sliding 
under  its  open  mouth,  while  still  under  water,  a 
plate  or  tray  containing  enough  of  water  to  cover 
the  edge  of  the  jar ;  and  oxygen  and  many  other 
^^ases  may  be  thus  preserved  for  hours.  Another 
jar  full  of  water  is  substituted  for  the  removed  jar 
The  trough  is  best  constructed  of  japanned  copper, 
and  may  oe  made  of  any  size  corresponding  to  tnat 
of  the  iars;  and  in  the  shelf  a  groove  should  be 
made  about  half  an  inch  in  width,  and  the  same  in 
depth,  to  admit  the  extremity  of  the  gas-delivering 
tube  beneath  the  jar. 

PNEUMATICS  (Gr.  pneuma,  spirit  or  breath, 
air)  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  mechanical 
properties  of  aeriform  fluids,  such  as  their  weight, 
pressure,  elasticity,  motion,  &c.  The  great  repre- 
sentative of  the  aeriform  fluids  is  the  atmosphere. 
The  atmosphere  is  very  frequently  called  *  air,*  to 
distinguish  it  from  the  others,  which  are  known 
as  'gases.*  The  fact  of  air  having  weight,  and 
generally  exercising  pressure  and  resistance,  was 
unsuspected  by  most  of  the  ancients,  though  they 
were  aware  of  the  latter  property  in  i)articular  cases, 
from  seeing  and  feeling  the  effects  of  the  wind ;  but 
the  idea  that  air  in  a  state  of  rest  exerts  pressure 
en  a  body  immersed  in  it,  never  seems  to  have 
occurred  to  them.  Aristotle,  however,  asserted 
that  air  had  weight,  and  so  did  several  subsequent 
philosophers ;  but  the  truth  of  this  opinion  was  not 
established  till  the  time  of  Torricelli  (q.  v.),  who 
not  only  shewed  that  it  had  weight  and  exerted 
pressure,  but  also  found  the  amount  of  this  weight 
or  pressure.  See  Atmosphere.  Pascal  (q.  v.)  com- 
pleted the  investigation,  and  invented  the  Barometer 
(q.  v.).  The  experiments  of  these  philosophers 
proved  that  what  is  called  'suction'  is  nothing 
more  than  an  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  air  on 
one  side  of  a  body,  unbalanced  by  an  equal  pressure 
of  air  on  the  ox)posite  side  of  it.  To  this  pro- 
perty of  air  we  owe  the  working  of  the  various 
kinds  of  Pumps  (q.  v.),  the  Barometer  (q.  v.), 
the  siphon,  cupping-glass,  &c  But  the  great 
distinguishing  feature  of  aeriform  bodies  is  the 
repulsive  force  which  their  molecules  exercise  over 
each  other,  and  the  consequent  expansion  of  these 
bodies  when  pressure  is  removed,  or  compression 
when  pressure  is  increased.  The  investigation 
of  the  expansibility  and  compressibility  of  air 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  the  Air-pump  (q.  v.), 
an  invention  of  Guericke  (q.  v.),  and  soon  resulted 
in  the  discovery  of  a  law  oy  Boyle  (about  1650), 
and  Mariotte  (1670),  called  MarioUe's  Law  (q.  v.), 
which  affirms,  that  *  at  a  given  temperature  the 
volume  of  a  gas  is  inversely  as  the  pressure.' 
See  Gase&  The  second  great  law  of  tension  and 
pressure  is  that  of  Dalton  and  Gay-Lussac  (1801), 
which  states,  that  'when  the  tension  remains 
the  same,  the  density  of  a  gas  varies  inversely  as 
the  temperature '—that  is  to  say,  when  the  tempe- 
rature is  increased  by  equal  increments,  the  bulk  is 
increased  by  equal  increments.  The  motion  of  gases 
is  subject  to  the  same  laws  with  that  of  liquids,  the 
laws  which  regulate  the  motion  of  liq^uids  depending 
for  their  efficacy  not  on  the  liquidity,  but  on  the 
fluidity  (see  Fluid)  of  these  bodies.  The  flow  oi 
gases  in  tubes  seems  to  be  retarded  by  friction 

against  the  sides,  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  water 

616 


PNEUMOGASTRIC  NERVE-PNiEUMONIA. 


is,  and  the  diminished  efflux  at  an  orifice  shews 
that  the  vma  eontrcuUa  exists  for  gases  as  well  as 
for  liquids.  Abundance  of  examfues  and  further 
ex''lanations  of  the  properties  of  air  will  be  found 
under  such  heads  as  Atmosphkrb,  Balloon,  Baro- 

lUTEB,  DlVINO-BBLLy  MaGDEBUBO  HsMIBPHSRBS,  &C. 

PNEUMOGA'STRIO  NERVE,  or  Par  Vagum, 
derives  the  first  of  its  names  from  its  snpplsring 
the  lungs  and  stomach  with  nervous  filaments, 
and  the  second  from  the  wandering  course  which  it 
pursues.  It  emerges  from  the  medulla  oblongata  by 
eight  or  ten  filaments,  which  unite  and  form  a  flat 
cord,  that  escapes  from  the  cavity  of  the  cranium 
(in  association  with  the  glossophanrngeal  and  spinal 
accessory  nerve)  by  the  juffuiar  £)ramen.  In  this 
foramen,  it  forms  a  well-marked  ganglionic  swelling, 
while  anotiier  is  observed  immecuately  after  its  exit 
from  the  skulL  The  nerve  runs  straight  down  the 
neck  between  and  in  the  same  sheath  as  the  internal 
jugular  vein  and  the  carotid  artery.  Below  the 
root  of  the  neck,  its  course  is  different  on  the  two 
sides ;  the  right  nerve  running  along  the  back  of  the 
cesophagus,  is  distributed  to  tne  posterior  surface  of 
the  stomach,  and  finally  merges  into  the  solar 
plexus ;  while  the  left  nerve  runs  alon^  the  front  of 
tlie  oesophagus  to  the  stomach,  sending  branches 
diiefly  over  its  anterior  surface. 

From  anatomical  considerations,  based  on  the 
distribution  of  this  nerve,  and  from  the  results 
oi  experiments  on  animals,  it  may  be  concluded 
lifaat  this  is  a  mixed  nerve,  containing  filaments 
'iM>th  of  sensation  and  motion.  The  pulmonary 
'Sitinchcs  exercise  a  most  important  influence  upon 
the  respiratory  acts,  for  when  the  pneumogastiics 
(in  both  sides  have  been  divided  above  the  giving  off 
i»f  the  pulmonary  branches,  the  most  severe  dyspnoea 
comes  on,  the  number  of  respirations  is^  much 
diminished,  and  the  animal  breathes  as  if  it  were 
asthmatic;  after  a  short  time,  the  lungs  become 
congested  and  dropsical,  and  the  bronchial  tubes 
fiU^  with  a  froUiy  serous  fluid;  and  if  the  cut  ends 
of  the  nerves  are  kept  apart,  the  animal  never 
survives  above  three  days.  The  gastric  branches 
influence  the  movements  of  the  stomach,  while  their 
destruction  does  not  materially  affect  the  secretion 
of  the  gastric  juice  or  the  process  of  chvlification. 
Loss  of  voice  and  difficulty  of  breathing  have  been 
frequently  traced  to  the  pressure  of  an  aneurism  or 
other  tumour  on  the  recurrent  or  inferior  laryngeal 
Hooping-cou^rh  is  ascribed  by  many  high  authorities 
to  an  affection  of  the  pneumogastrio  nerve ;  and 
the  violent  spasmodic  cou^h  which  accompanies 
enlarged  bronchial  glands,  is  probably  due  to  the 
irritation  of  its  pulmonary  branches.  The  sympathy 
which  exists  between  the  digestive  and  the  respira- 
tory and  circulating  organs,  is  explained  by  the 
anatomical  relations  of  this  nerve.  For  example, 
both  asthma  and  palpitation  of  the  heart  are  orten 
to  be  traced  to  some  deranged  state  of  digestion. 
Vomiting  may  be  excited  by  irritation  of  the 
central  or  the  distal  extremities  of  the  nerve.  In 
disease  of  the  brain,  the  vomiting,  which  is  often 
an  early  symptom,  is  caused  by  irritation  of  the 
central  extremity;  and  in  sea-sickness,  it  is  that 
extremity  also  which  is  irritated  by  the  disturbed 
state  of  the  circulation  in  the  cranium ;  while  by 
introducing  emetic  substances  into  the  stomach, 
the  vomiting  is  produced  by  the  irritation  of  the 
peripheral  (or  distal)  filaments. 

PNEUMO'NIA,  or  Inflammation  of  the  Sub- 
stance of  the  Lungs,  is  a  disease  which  is  divided 
by  pathologists  into  three  distinct  stages,  corres- 
ponding to  different  degrees  or  periods  of  inflamma- 
tory action.  The  first  stage  is  that  of  engorgement, 
in  which  the  lung  or  a  portion  of  it  is  gorged 
U6 


with  blood,  is  of  a  darker  coLoor  extemsllj,  and 
crepitates  (or  crackles)  less  under  preaBore  tbi 
healthy  lung  does;   the  air  that  ought  to  udifc 
in  the  pulmonary  ceUs  being  in  a  great  memm 
replacea  by  fluid.    On  cutting  the  en^rged  porkioD, 
the  section  is  seen  to  be  reader  than  nstunl,  ud 
to  yield  a  great  quantity  of  reddish  and  frothy 
serum.    The  most  engorged  portions  will  ^eraUy 
float  in  water,  although   they  are   heavier  than 
healthy  lung«    If  the  inflammation  continaes,  new 
characters  appear.     The  affected  portion  of  the 
lung  ceases  to  crepitate  under  pressure,  and  nnb 
when  placed  in  water,  in  consequence  of  its  now 
containing  no  air.     The  spongy  character  of  the 
lung  is  cone.    It  is  now  solid,  and  the  cut  nriace 
so  dosefy  resembles  that  of  liver,  that  the  term 
hepoHaatumy  first  suggested  by  Laennec,  is  eeDe^ 
ally  applied  to  this  stage.    On  examining  wiw  the 
microscope  a  torn  fragment  of  the  henatised  Inn^ 
it  will  be  seen  to  be  composed  of  small  red  ersna* 
lations   pressing    upon    one    another,    whi(£  are 
doubtless  the  air-cells  clogged  up,  thickened,  and 
made  red  by  the  inflammation.    In  the  third  and 
most  advanced  stage,  the  pulmonary  tissue  remains^ 
as  in  the  last  sta^e,  dense,  solid,  and  impenrioos  to 
air;  but  its  section,  in  place  of  being  red,  is  now 
of  a  reddish-yellow,  or  straw,  or  dnib,  or  stone 
colour,  or  is  of  a  grayish  tint ;  and  the  little  granu* 
lations  which  were  red  in  the  second  stage,  are  now 
whitish  or  gray,  trom.  the  presence  of  pus  or  matter, 
which  permeates  through  the  pulmonary  tiasne, 
rendering  it  very  soft  and  friable.     To  this  sta^ 
which  is  in  realitv  one  of   diffused  ntppKratm, 
Laennec   applied  tne  terms  gray  hepatiaatioiL,  or 
purulent  inJUtrathn,     Besides  revealing  to  ua  the 
above  information  regarding  the  changes  which  the 
pulmonary  textures  undergo  in  the  ^ree  stages  d 
this    disease,    morbid   anatomy   teaches   us  that 
inflammation  does  not  attack  all  parts  of  the  long 
on  both  sides  indiscriminatelv.    It  is  much  more 
common  on  the  right  side  of  the  body  than  the 
left.    Of  210  cases  collected  by  Andral,  121  irere 
on  the  right  lung  alone,  and  68  on  the  1^  sida 
adone ;  wmle  in  25  it  was  double  (i  e.,  occuned  in 
both  lungs),  and  in  six  the  seat  was  uncertain;  so 
that  pneumonia  is  more  than  twice  as  commoa  oo 
the  n^ht  side  as  on  the  left,  and  only  occurs  on 
both  sides  together  as  often  as  once  in  eight  timea 
According    to    Grisolle,    however,    whose    Tnati 
Pratique  de  la  Pneumonie  is  the  standard  work  on 
this  disease,  the  relative  frequency  with  which  the 
right  lung  is  affected  is  rather  less  than  two  to  one 
(11  :  6).  Moreover,  pneumonia  is  oonsiderahly  man 
common  in  the  lower  than  in  the  upper  lobes  of 
the  limg — a  point  of  great  importance  m  diagnosia 
Of  88  cases  observed  by  Andral,  the  inflammatioa 
was  found  to  affect  the  lower  lobe  47  times;  the 
upper  lobe,  30;   and  the  whole  lung  at  onoe,  11. 
Inflammation  of  tiie  bronchial  tubes  so  constantly 
accompanies  inflammation  of  the  tissues  of  the  lung, 
that    although    bronchitis    often    exists   without 
pneumonia,  pneumonia  never  occurs  without  bron- 
chitis.   Moreover,  a  certain  amount  of  pleurisy  or 
inflammation  of  the  investing  membrane,  accom- 
panies pneumonia  in  a  very  large  majority  of  casea 

The  alterations  which  take  ^ace  in  the  tissae  of 
the  lung  give  rise  to  important  modiiicatioiis  of  the 
ordinarv  sounds  yielded  oy  auscultation  and  petcua* 
sion;  the  discrimination  of  which,  however,  oelong 
to  the  physician. 

The  following  are  the  general  symptoms,  as  dis- 
tinguished from  the  physical  signs,  of  pneumonia 
The  disease  generally  commences  with  inflamma- 
tory fever ;  and  pain  in  the  side,  due  to  plenriay  in 
most  cases,  soon  supervenes.  The  breathing  ii 
always  more  or  less  affected,  especially  i^hen  tin 


PO-POACHING. 


apper  lobe  is  inflamed.     According  to  Professor 
Gairdner,  the  dyspncea  of  pure  pneumonia  is  a  mere 
aecelercUioti  of  the  respiration,  without  an^  of  the 
heaving  or  straininff  respiration  observed  m  bron- 
chitis, or  in  cases  where  the  two  diseases  are  com- 
bined.   Delirium  is  a  very  frequent,  and  always  a 
dangerous  symptom,  indicating  that  the  due  arteri- 
alisation  of  the  blood  is  much  interfered  with,  and 
that  the  impure  circulatinff  fluid  is  affecting  the 
brain.    The  cough  is  usually  dry  at  first,  but  in  a 
few  hours  it  is  accompanied  by  the  expectoration 
of  eputa  of  so  characteristic  a  nature  as  to  afford 
almost  certain   evidence  of   the  presence  of  the 
disease.    On  the  second  or  third  day,  the  expector- 
ation, which  previously  consisted  merely  of  a  little 
bronchial  mucus,  consists  of  transparent  and  tawny, 
or  rust-coloured  sputa,  which  unite  in  the  vessel  con- 
taining them  into  one  gelatinous  mass.    The  colour 
is  owing  to  the  complete  blending  of  the  blood  and 
mucus,  and  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  the 
former,  the  sputa  is  more  or  less  deeply  tinsed.    So 
long  as  the  expectorated  matter  flows  readSv  along 
the  side  of  the  vessel  when  it  is  tilted,  there  is 
reason  to   believe,  unless   physical   signs  tell  us 
otherwise,  that  the  inflammation   is  still  in  the 
first   stage ;    but   when  the  sputa   are   so  viscid 
that    the    Vessel    may  be  inverted   and  strongly 
shaken   without   their   being   detached,   there    is 
reason  to  fear  that  the  pneumonia  has  reached 
the    second    stage.      If    improvement    now   com- 
mences, the  sputa  become  less  tenacious,  less  rust- 
ooloiired,  ana  gradually  like  the  expectoration  of 
common  catarrh.    But  if  the  disease  advances,  the 
rust-coloured  sputa,  although  in  less  quantity,  may 
go  on  to  the  end ;  or  there  may  be  no  expectoration, 
either  on  account  of  its  own  tenacity,  or  of  the 
patient's  want  of  power  to  eject  it,  in  which  case 
the  air-passages  get  gradually  filled,  and  death  from 
suffocation  occurs ;  or  there  may  be  the  expecto- 
ration of  a  fluid  of  the  consistence  of  gum- water,  and 
of  a  brownish-red  colour  (resembling  prune-juice), 
which,  according  to  Andral,  affords  strong  evidence 
that  the  disease  is  in  its  third  stage;   or,  lastly, 
pure  pus  may  be  excreted  during  the  third  stage. 

In  its  first  and  second  stages,  this  disease  is  toler- 
ably amenable  to  treatment.  Whether,  when  the 
lang  has  reached  the  third  stage,  it  is  still  suscep- 
tible of  repair,  we  cannot  tell,  because  we  have  no 
certain  sign  of  the  commencement  or  establishment 
of  this  third  stage  during  life,  although  we  may 
gaess  that  it  is  established,  if  the  face  lias  become 
very  pale  and  corpse-like ;  if  there  is  the  prune- 

i'oice  or  purulent  expectoration ;  and  if  the  disease 
las  lasted  for  a  sufficient  time  to  have  advanced 
BO  far,  although  it  would  be  very  difficult  to  state, 
with  any  approach  to  accuracy,  what  the  necessary 
time  i&  Ihe  average  duration  of  pneumonia  may 
be  placed  at  ten  days  or  a  fortnight. 

Of  the  causes  of  this  disease,  very  little  need 
be  said.  Sometimes  no  cause  can  be  traced.  Verv 
often  it  is  the  consequence  of  exposure  to  cold, 
especially  when  the  body  was  previously  heated 
by  exercise ;  but  why  such  exposure  should  in  one 
jierson  cause  pneumonia,  in  a  second,  pleurisy,  in 
m  third,  pericarditis,  and  in  a  fourth,  peritonitis, 
we  cannot  teU. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  treatment 
■to  be  adopted,  provided  the  patient  was  previously 
strong  and  healthy.  In  the  first  stage,  free  vene- 
section, tartarised  antimony  (one-thira  of  a  ffndn 
"to  half  a  wine-glassful  of  water  every  hour,  ana  the 
<ioee  to  be  increased  to  a  grain  or  more  hourly,  if 
inhere  is  no  purging  or  vomiting,  which  may  often 
l>e  preventea  by  the  addition  of  a  few  drops  of 
lauoanum  to  each  dose),  and  antiphlogistic  regimen, 
^neraily  are  of  service^    Under  this  system  there 


are  often  signs  of  improrement  in  five  or  six  hoorii 
although  sometimes  there  is  no  change  for  the 
better  till  twenty-four  hours  or  more  have  elapsed. 
When  the  disease  has  reached  the  second  stage,  in 
preference  to  continuing  the  antimony,  we  should 
as  speedily  as  possible  get  the  system  gently  imder 
the  influence  of  mercury,  in  the  mode  recommended 
in  the  articles  Pericabditis  and  PEKiTONina  It 
there  is  great  depression  of  the  vital  x)owers,  as  indi- 
cated by  a  feeble  and  irregular  pulse,  and  the  other 
ordinary  signs  of  sinking,  it  will  be  requisite  to 
administer  stimulants,  such  as  wine  and  carbonate 
of  ammonia,  and  to  feed  the  patient  on  beef-tea. 

There  are  few  diseases  in  which  it  is  of  greater 
importance  to  watch  the  patient  durine  convales- 
cence than  in  pneumonia.  The  convtJescenoe  ii 
often  rather  apparent  than  real,  and  as  Dr  Watson 
truly  observes :  *  A  patient  can  never  be  pronounced 
perfectly  secure  so  long  as  any  trace  of  crepitation 
remains  in  the  affected  lung,  and  this  may  often 
continue  long;  nay,  it  not  unfrequently  ceases 
only  on  the  supervention  of  another  more  surely 
fatal  though  less  rapid  disorder — ^viz.,  tubercular 
consumption.' 

PO  (anc.  Eridanus  and  Padus),  the  largest  river 
of  Italy,  rises  in  two  springs  on  the  north  and  south 
sides  of  Monte  Vise,  one  of  the  Cottian  Alj^s,  close 
to  the  French  frontier,  and  in  lat.  about  44"*  40'  N. 
It  flows  eastward  for  upwards  of  20  miles,  when, 
arriving  before  Saluzzo,  it  emerges  from  its  rocky 
defiles,  and  enters  upon  the  plain.  From  Saluzzo^ 
it  flows  nOrth-north-east  past  Turin ;  and  arriving 
at  the  town  of  Ghivasso,  it  changes  its  course 
toward  the  east,  in  which  direction  it  flows  to  its 
embouchure  in  tiie  Adriatic.  Upwards  of  50  miles 
above  its  mouth,  it  begins  to  form  its  delta,  the 
principal  branches  being  the  Po  delta  Maestro^  on 
the  north,  and  the  Po  di  Piimaro,  on  the  south. 
The  unhealthy  marsh  of  the  Valli  de  Comnccfiio 
extends  immediately  north  of  the  Primaro  branch. 
The  Po  receives  from  the  left,  the  Dora  Kipaira, 
Dora  Baltea,  Sesia,  Ticino,  Adda,  Offlio,  and  Miucio ; 
from  the  right,  the  Tanaro,  Bormioa,  Trebba,  Taro, 
Parma,  Enza,  Secchia,  and  Panaro.  At  Turin,  the 
Po  is  about  700  feet  broad;  at  Pavia,  1000  feet ;  at 
Cremona,  1000  feet ;  and  below  Polesella,  after 
throwing  off  the  Po  di  Primaro  branch  to  the  south, 
its  breadth  is  about  800  feet.  It  has  an  entire 
length  of  450  miles,  is  navigable  for  small  barges 
60  miles  from  its  source,  and  drains  an  area  of 
nearly  40,000  square  miles. 

POA.    See  Meadow  Grass. 

POACHING,  though  not  strictly  a  legal  term, 
has  so  long  been  appropriated  in  popular  parlance 
to  describe  a  well-known  legal  offence,  that  it  is 
now  usually  adopted  in  legal  works.  It  means  the 
unlawfully  trespassing  on  another's  lands  for  the 
purpose  of  catcning  or  pursuing  game;  and  it  is 
likewise  extended  to  the  cognate  offence  of  unlaw- 
fully catching  or  pursuing  fish  in  another's  waters. 

I,  A*  to  jwuhing  game, — The  general  law  as  to 
who  is  entitled  to  game,  and  in  what  circumstances, 
is  stated  under  the  head  Gams.  As  a  general  rule, 
whoever  is  the  proprietor  of  land,  is  the  only  i)erson 
exclusively  entitled  to  catch  and  kill  the  gome; 
and  where  the  land  is  let  to  a  tenant,  then,  in 
England  and  Ireland,  if  nothing  is  said  or  ae;reed 
on  the  subject,  it  is  the  tenant,  and  not  the  lancUord, 
who  is  entitled  exclusively  to  the  game.  In  Scot- 
land, the  rule  is  the  reverse,  for  the  landlord,  and 
not  the  tenant,  is  there  entitled  to  the  game ;  but 
generally  there  is  an  express  stipulation  in  leases- 
providing  for  this  somewhat  important  right ;  an^ 
of  course  the  parties  may  agree  to  anything  they 
like  on  that  head.    Whoever,  therefore^  is  entitled 

617 


POACHING. 


to  the  exclttsive  privilege  of  killing  the  game,  can 
alone  give  permission  to  a  stranger  to  go  and  kill 
game  there  ;  and  if  this  permiaaion  is  not  obtained, 
such  stranger,  whether  qualified  or  not — Le.^  whether 
he  pays  the  government  tax  or  not — ^is  a  poacher,  if  he 
go  an  1  kill  the  game.  In  England,  there  is  a  Day- 
poaching  Act  and  a  Night-poaching  Act,  imposing 
penalties  on  poachers.  By  the  Day-poaching  Act 
(1  and  2  Wilt  IV.  c  32,  s.  30),  whoever  unlawfully 
goes  u|x>n  lands  not  his  own  to  pursue  or  kill  not 
only  Game  (q.  v.),  but  also  rabbits,  woodcocks,  snipes, 

? nails,  and  landrails,  is  liable  to  a  penalty  of  £2. 
t  has  been  held  that  this  offence  is  committed 
whenever  a  stranger  has  de  faelo  gone  upon  the 
lands  to  shoot  without  having  previously  expressly 
obtained  the  permission  of  the  party  entitled  to  the 
game,  even  though  he  may  have  had  good  reason  to 
believe  that  such  permission,  if  asked,  would  have 
been  granted  as  a  matter  of  course,  and  though, 
after  nearing  of  the  trespass,  the  owner  qmte 
approved  and  ratified  it.  Moreover,  any  person 
whatever,  whether  interested  in  the  lands  or  not, 
may  institute  the  proceedings  for  the  punishment 
of  the  poacher ;  and  the  informer  is  entitled  to  half 
the  peniJty,  the  other  half  ^ing  to  the  poor  of  the 
parish.  When  a  poacher  is  found  trespassing  on 
Iftnds  in  search  of  game,  the  person  entitled  to  the 
game  there,  or  the  tenant,  or  a  gamekeeper,  or 
servant  of  either,  may  demand  the  poacher's  name 
and  place  of  abode,  and  if  it  is  refiued,  may  arrest 
snch  poacher,  and  take  him  before  a  justice  of  the 
peace ;  but  the  poacher  must  be  taken  within  twelve 
hours  before  the  justice,  otherwise  he  is  entitled  to 
go  at  large.  It  is  only  the  persons  named  (and  not 
any  one  of  the  public,  or  even  a  constable)  who 
can  arrest  the  poacher,  and  it  can  only  be  done  when 
he  is  caught  in  the  act  on  the  very  lands ;  for  if  the 
poacher  clear  the  fence,  and  go  on  to  other  lands, 
he  cannot  then  be  arrested  at  uL  If  game  is  found 
on  the  poachers  at  the  time  they  are  caught,  and  it 
appear  to  have  been  newly  caught,  the  party  who 
is  entitled  to  arrest  him  is  entitled  to  seize  the 
game  also.  If  the  poacher  when  convicted  do  not 
pay  the  penalty  within  the  time  tixed  by  the 
justices,  he  may  be  committed  to  the  house  of 
correction  for  a  period  not  exceeding  two  calendar 
months.  The  party  may  appeal  against  his  con- 
viction to  the  Court  of  Quiurter  Sessions;  but  he 
must  either  remain  in  custody  in  the  interval,  or 
give  security  for  the  costs*  The  offence  of  poaching 
IS  punished  more  severely  when  &ye  or  more  go  out 
together,  shewing  thereby  an  attempt  to  intimidate 

gamekeepers  and  others,  and  in  such  case,  each  is 
able  to  a  penalty  of  £5.  Moreover,  if  any  of  these 
five  or  more  persons,  acting  in  concert,  be  armed  with 
a  gun,  and  use  violence,  each  is  liable  to  an  additional 

g*nalty  of  £5.  As  to  the  Night-poaching  Act  (9 
eo.  I V .  c.  69),  it  is  provided,  that  any  person  by 
night— i.  e.,  between  the  first  hour  after  sunset  and 
the  first  hour  before  sunrise — ^unlawfully  trespassing 
in  search  of  game,  shall  for  a  first  offence  be  com- 
mitted by  the  justices  to  the  house  of  correction  for 
three  months,  or  in  some  cases  for  six  months ;  for  a 
second  offence,  shall  be  committed  for  six  months, 
or  in  some  cases  for  twelve  months ;  and  for  a  third 
offence,  shall  be  guilty  of  a  misdemeanour,  and  be 
imprisoned  for  two  years.  In  case  such  night- 
poachers  are  found  on  the  lands  and  in  the  act,  the 
owner  or  occupier  of  the  land  or  his  servants  may 
ftrrest  the  poachers,  and  take  them  before  justices. 
If  the  night-poacher,  when  arrested,  use  firearms, 
sticks,  or  offensive  weapons,  he  shall  be  guilty  of  a 
misdemeanour,  and  be  punishable  by  two  years' 
imprisonment  in  addition.  In  case  of  three  or  more 
night-poachers  being  armed  with  guns,  bludgeons, 

or  other  offensive  weapons*  each  is  guilty  of   a 
•18 


misdemeanour,  and  is  liable  to  imprisonment  for 
three  years.    Poachers  have  no  richt  to  kill  game 
on  the  highway  any  more  than  in  fiSds  or  endoBon^ 
for  the  owners  of  the  adjoining  land  are  entitied  to 
the  game  on  the  highway.    Under  the  former  Ut, 
it  was,  as  already  mentioned,  incompetent  for  any 
person  except  the  owner  or  occupier  of  the  lands  to 
apprehend  the  poacher,  and  even  this  could  only  be 
done  when  the  poacher  was  caught  in  the  act  on 
the  lands  themselves ;  and  hence,  even  constables 
had  no  power  to  seijse  the  poacher,  thoueh  seen  to 
be  coming  from  such  lands.     But  by  uie  recent 
Poaching  Prevention  Act  (25  and  26  Vict  c.  114), 
which  applies  to  the  United  Kingdom,  if  a  constable 
now  meet  a  suspected  poacher  on  tiie  highway, 
whom  he  has  reason  to  suspect  of  coming  from  land 
where  he  has  been  poaching,  snch  constable  may  stop 
and  search  the  jioacher ;  and  if  game,  or  implements 
for  taking  game,  are  found  on  nim,  may  seize  and 
detain  them,  and  summon  him  before  the  jnstioea 
When  before  the  justices,  if  it  be  proved  by  droun- 
stantial  evidence  or  otherwise  that  such  game  was 
procured  by  poaching,  or  that  the  implements  were 
used,  the  poacher  may  be  fined  in  a  penalty  of  £5, 
besides  forfeiture  of  the  game,  and  guns,  nets,  and 
other  implements  which  he  may  have  so  used.    The 
person  convicted  may  appeal,  if   he   chooses,  to 
the  next  Quarter  Sessions,  or,  in  certain  cases,  to 
the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench.     With  r^^ard  to  tbe 
poacher's  property  in  the  game  he  kills,  it  is  only 
in  those  cases  where  he  is   caught  in   the  act, 
and  on  the  spot,  that  the   same   can  be  taken 
from  him;  and  this,  for  obvious  reasons,  seldom 
happens.      In   all    other   cases,  the    general  role 
applies,  that  whoever  first  catches  (whether  legally 
or  illegally)  a  wild  animal,  is  entitled  to  the  property 
in  it;   and  as  game  is  in  the  category  of  wild 
animals,  the  poacher,  though,  it  may  be,  committing 
several  offences  in  catching  the  game,  is  yet  gene^ 
ally  entitled  to  keep  it  against  all  comers.    Hie 
law  of  Scotland  does  not  materially  differ  from 
that  of  England  as  to  poachers;  and  the  Night- 
poaching  Act  applies  to  it  equally  as  to  England. 
The  Scotch  Day  Trespass  Act  (2  and  3  Will  IV. 
c.  68)  closely  asprees  with  the  English  act     Bat 
it  is  singular,  that,  in  the  case  of  night-poachers, 
the  game  cannot  be  taken  from  the  poacher,  even 
when  caught  in  the  act  and  on  the  lands ;  thongh 
it  can  be  so  in  England. — PcUeraon's  Game-imnof 
the  United  Kingdom,  pi  172.      The  act  conferring 
power  on  constables  to  stop  and  search  poachers  on 
the  highway,  also  extends  to  Scotland.    In  England, 
the  poaching  of  hares  or  rabbits  by  night  in  pre- 
serves is  a  misdemeanour;  whereas  it  is  only  an 
offence   punishable    summarily  in    Scotland.     In 
Ireland,  the  law  as  to  poaching  is  not  identical 
with  the    law  of    Enjo^land,  there    being  distinct 
statutes ;  but  substantially  the  law  is  the  same.^ 
Pateraon^s    Oame-laws,    132.       The    law    of    the 
United  Kingdom  has  often  been  described  as  too 
severe  against  poachers,  inasmuch  as  most  of  the 
penalties   are    cumulative,  and  the    justices  who 
administer  the  laws  are  generally  game-preservers, 
and  so  inclined  to  convict  on  the  smallest  scintilla 
of  evidence.   But»  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  answered, 
that  poaching  is  in  reality  only  stealing  under  a 
milder  name,  and  that  the  classes  who  poach  are 
divided  by  a  thin  partition  from  thieves,  game  bein^ 
in  every  point  of  view,  as  much  the  fruit  of  the  sod 
as  apples  or  turnips^,  and  the  transition  f  rr#-n  habitual 
poaching  to    stealing  being    not    only    easy,  bat 
mevitalua — See  Paieraon*s  Game-lawa, 

2.  Poaching  fish  is  the  unlawfully  entering  on 
another's  fishery  in  order  to  catch  fish,  jlie  Uv  ol 
fisheries  is  not  uniform  in  the  United  Kingdom.  In 
England,  the  g^eral  rule  is,  that  any  one  nf  *Jt» 


POACHING. 


pablk  may  fish  frealy  in  the  sea  and  in  all  nariffable 
riven ;  and  where  he  can  fiah,  he  can  catch  sumon 
as  well  as  every  other  kind  of  fish.    Bnt  there  is  an 
exception  to  this  generalitv,  which  consists  in  this, 
that  as  the  crown  could  before  Magna  Oharta  (which 
took  away  such  right)  legally  grant  a  several  or 
exclusive  tishery  in  the  sea  or  a  navigable  river  to 
an  individual,  and  as  this  was,  in  point  of  fact, 
often  granted,  it  follows  that  it  is  not  uncommon  to 
find,  even  at  the  present  day,  an  individual,  gener- 
ally the  lord  of  an  adjacent  manor,  still  claiming 
a  several  fishery  in  these  places.    If  he  can  prove 
that  he  has  exercised  this  exclusive  right  as  far 
back  as  one  or  two  centuries,  it  will  be  inferred 
that  his  right  dates  from  before  Ma^a  Charta,  and 
therefore  will  be  legal.    When  such  is  the  case,  the 
public  have  no  right  to  fish  even  in  a  navigable 
river  or  the  sea  at  the  specified  places,  the  sole 
fishery  being  vested  in  this  individual  owner.     In 
streams  not  navigable,  the  rule  is,  that  each  riparian 
owner— i.  e.,  the  owner  of  the  lands  on  the  bank  of 
the  stream — has  a  right  to  a  several  or  exclusive 
fishery  up  to  the  middle  line  of  the  stream.    If  he 
is  owner  on  both  sides  of  the  stream,  then  he  has 
the  exclusive  fishery  in  the  whole  of  the  stream,  so 
far  as  his  lands  extend.    As  to  ponds,  whoever  is 
owner  of  the  soil,  is  the  owner  of  a  several  fishery 
there,  unless  he  has  let  it  to  another.     As  to  lakes, 
it  is  not  clearly  ascertained  how  the  fishery  is  to 
be    divided  between   the    owners    of   the    lands 
abutting  thereon  ;,but  much  will  depend  on  the  title 
to  the  lands  and  the  subsequent  user.    As  a  general 
rale,  there  is  no  such  thing  as  a  right  in  the  public 
to  fish  anywhere  except  in  a  navigable  river  or  the 
sea.  and  that  in  subject  to.  the  exception  of  an 
individual  claiming   a    several   fishery,   as  before 
mentioned.    It  is  often  8npi)osed  that,  at  all  events, 
if  a  highway  adjoins  a  private  stream,  any  one  may 
fish  in  the  stream  or  angle  there ;  but  this  is  a 
delusion.    Nobody  is  entitled  to  use  a  highway  for 
the  collateral  purpose  of  either  fishing  or  poaching, 
the  use  of  the  highway,  so  far  as  the  public  are  con- 
oemed,  being  confined  to  the  purposes  of  travelling 
or  transport.    The  general  rule  as  to  aU  several 
L  e.,  exclusive,  fisheries  is,  that  whoever  goes  and 
poaches  the  fish  commits  an  offence,  for  which  he 
may  be  summoned  before  justices,  and  fined  £5, 
over  and  above  the  value  of  the  fish  taken ;  and  if 
the  fishery  where  he  poaches  is  adjoining  the  dwell- 
ing-house of  the  owner  of  the  fishery,  it  is  a  stUl 
higher  offence,  for  it  is  then  an  indictable  misde- 
meanour.   It  is  immaterial  what  kind  of   fish  is 
caaght  by  poachers,  whether  salmon  or  trout,  or 
minnows;  and  it  is  immaterial  how  the  fish  are 
caught.    But  a  milder  punishment  is  awarded  to 
the  poaching  angler,  for  even  though  he  poach  in  a 
fishery  adjoining  the  owner's  dwelling-nouse,   he 
incurs  only  a  penalty  of  £5 ;  and  where  the  fishery 
does  not  adjoin  a  dwelling-house,  he  incurs  a  penalty 
of  only  £2.    Whenever  a  fish-poacher  is  caught  in 
the  act  of  poaching,  he  may  be  at  once  apprehended, 
not  only  by  the  owner  of  the  fishery,  but  by  any- 
body ;  but  this  can  only  be  done  while  he  is  on  the 
spot  or  near  it,  for  if  he  escape  to  the  highway  or 
to  other  lands  before  being  arrested,  he  cannot  then 
he  apprehended,  but  can  only  be  summoned  before 
iostices  in  the  usual  way.    In  this  respect,  a  privi- 
lege is  given  to  anglers,  for  in  no  case  can  these  be 
Arrested,  if  angling  during  the  daytime ;  they  can 
«>nly  be  summon^  for  the  offence.    The  poacher, 
-vvhen  arrested,  must  be  taken  within  a  reasonable 
•ftime  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  charged  with 
-^e  offence.    Though  anybody  may  arrest  the  fish- 
•vjoacher,  still  it  does  not  follow  that  the  fish  poached 
be  taken  from  the  poacher;  on  the  contrary, 
nile  is  the  same  as  with  reference  to  game,  that 


whoever  first  catches  the  fish,  whether  lesally  or 
illegally,  is  entitled  to  keep  it;  and  though  game 
can  on  certain  occasions  be  taken  from  the  poacher, 
this  is  by  reason  of  an  express  provision  in  the 
Grame  Act ;  but  there  is  no  ■imilar  provision  as  to 
poached  fish,  so  that  the  poacher,  whatever  other 
punishment  he  may  incur,  does  not  lose  bis  fish. 
With  regard,  however,  to  the  poaching  implements, 
such  as  nets,  it  is  provided  by  an  express  section  of 
the  Larceny  Act  (2^  and  25  Vict.  c.  96,  s.  2o),  that 
the  owner  of  the  fishery  or  land  where  the  poacher 
is  caught,  or  his  servant,  may  demand,  and  if 
refused,  may  seize  the  net,  rod,  line,  hook,  or  other 
implement  used  for  taking  the  fish,  but  no  other 
person  can  seize  these,  fi  may  also  be  observed 
that  the  English  Salmon  Fishery  Act  (24  and  25 
Vict,  c  109),  though  singling  out  salmon  from  all 
other  fish  for  peculiar  protection,  does  not  deal 
specially  with  poachers.  Its  chief  object  is  to 
restrain  the  ftwners  of  sahnon-fisheries  themselves 
from  fishing  at  certain  times  and  by  certain  means, 
for  which  puTx>ose,  a  close  season  is  declared,  during 
which  no  person,  whether  otherwise  entitled  or  not, 
can  legally  catch  saUnon.  Of  course,  poachers  are 
prohibited  from  catching  salmon  at  the  times  and 
by  the  means  forbidden  to  the  owner,  and  in  this 
sense  come  within  the  Salmon  Act.  Thus,  all  per- 
sons are  prohibited  from  poisoning  salmon -rivers, 
from  fishing  salmon  with  lights,  spears,  gaffs,  stroke- 
halls,  or  snatches ;  from  using  fish-roe  as  a  bait ;  from 
selling  or  buying  salmon  roe;  from  using  nets  havine 
meshes  larger  than  two  inches;  from  using  fixed 
engines,  dams  and  weirs,  destroying  young  of 
salmon,  &&,  &c. 

The  law  of  Scotland,  as  to  poachers  of  fish,  differs 
considerably  from  that  of  JBngland.  In  Scotland, 
the  fundamental  rule  is,  that  salmon  stands  on  a 
different  footing  from  all  other  fish,  and  primA  facie 
belong  to  the  crown ;  so  that  no  person  m  Scotland 
is  entitled  to  fish  salmon  (except  oy  angling)  unless 
he  can  produce  a  ^ant  or  charter  from  the  crown, 
conferring  upon  him  such  right.  But,  in  point  of 
fact,  neany  all  the  great  landed  proprietors  are  in 
possession  of  such  ri^ts  as  pertinent  to  their  lands. 
And  the  theory  of  the  crown's  original  right  to  the 
salmon  applies  not  merely  to  rivers,  but  to  the  sea- 
coasts  all  round  Scotland.  Hence  the  public  have 
no  right  to  fish  with  nets  even  in  the  sea,  except  by 
leave  of  the  crown,  or  of  the  grantee  of  the  crown, 
at  the  spot  in  question.  Where  a  salmon-river 
belongs  to  several  proprietors,  the  rule  is,  that  none 
can  fish  by  using  fixed  engines ;  but  the  only  legal 
mode  is  the  mode  of  fishing  by  net  and  coble  (or 
boat).  As  regards  poachers  of  salmon,  the  law  is 
contained  in  the  act  7  and  8  Vict.  c.  95.  Bv  that 
law,  whoever  poaches  salmon  in  a  river,  lake,  or 
within  a  mile  of  the  sea-shore,  incurs  a  penalty  of 
£5,  besides  forfeiting  the  boat,  net,  or  other  engine 
used  to  catch  the  fi^  Though  the  law  is  as  above 
stated  with  respect  to  fishing  salmon  with  nets,  yet 
no  grant  from  the  crown  is  required  to  enable  a 
riparian  owner  to  angle  for  salmon.  Hence  the 
right  of  angling  for  salmon  passes  as  a  pertinent  of 
the  property  in  the  banks,  and  each  owner  is 
entitled  to  angle  up  to  the  middle  of  the  stream. 
Anglers  who  are  not  riparian  owners,  and  who  have 
no  permission  from  such,  are  therefore  all  poadiers, 
and  incur  a  penalty.  The  Scotch  Salmon  Fishery 
Act  of  25  ana  26  Vict.  o.  97  contains  prohibitions, 
like  the  English  act,  against  owners  of  fisheries  and 
others  fishing  salmon  by  fixed  endues  during  close- 
time,  &C.  As  regards  other  tish  than  salmon, 
the  general  rule  is,  that  the  riparian  owner  is 
entitled  to  catdi  all  the  fish  he  can,  provided  he  do 
not  interfere  with  the  superior  right  of  some  crown 
grantee  of  the  sidmon-fiahery.  A  person  who  poaches 


POAK-POCHARD. 


trout  OT  other  fmh-water  fish  with  a  net,  or  by 
double-TTrfl  fishing,  or  crou-liDe  Gihing,  or  set 
line*,  Ac,  incun  &  peoftlty  of  iiS,  beaidu  forfeiture 
of  the  ^ih  caught.  And  h«  may  be  urertcd  if  he 
il  net-tishiug,  but  not  if  he  it  fiebing  in  sDotbsr 
way.  Moreover,  a  mere  aDgler  of  trout,  though  a 
poacher,  cannot  be  airelted,  nor  yet  puninlied  by 
any  penalty ;  though  he  ii  liable  to  an  action  at 
law,  which,  howeviFr,  ia  virtually  no  remedy  at  oU. 
So,  in  the  cue  of  all  poacher*  of  trout  (except 
■Ogling  poachers,  who  can  neither  be  arrested,  nor 
yet  have  their  Gsh  or  fUhing-rod  taken  from  them 
by  force),  the  owner  of  the  fishery,  or  any  person 
antborised  by  him,  may  seize  the  nets,  birata,  and 
fishing  implements,  if  the  poochen  are  found  on  the 
spot  Though  angling  for  trout  is  thus  privileged 
in  Scotland  above  what  it  is  in  England  in  this 
respect,  tbat  the  poaching  angler  cannot  be  arrested 
e*  fined  by  justices  of  the  peace,  bnt  is  only  liable 
to  an  action,  yet  the  poaching  angler  of  salmon  may 
be  fined.  The  public  have  no  ri^t  to  angle  from  a 
highwuy  adjiiininga  stream.  Where  a  stream  runs 
through  a  farm,  the  farmer  has  a  right  to  ancle  for 
trout,  unless  the  lease  expreaely  forbid  it ;  but  he 
cannot  lish  for  salmon  with  a  net,  or  even  by  angling, 
tor  it  intrferea  with  the  crown  grantee,  tf  there  ia 
one.  It  h.ia  alio  been  held  that  he  cannot  fish  for 
trout  with  a  net,  but  tbia  decision  is  supposed  to  be 
unsound,  and  would  probably  be  reveracd,  if  the 
poiut  were  raised.  There  is  a  si>ecial  talmon  statute 
for  the  river  Tweed,  and  far  the  Solway  and  the 
Scotch  rivers  running  into  these,  and  for  some  other 
riven ;  but  theae  statutes  do  not  substantially 
differ  from  the  general  law. 

In  Ireland,  the  bw  of  poachers  of  Gsh  is  the  same 
as  in  England  in  all  the  main  points,  for  the  same 
statute  ap]>lies.  There  are  also  various  special  acts 
affecting  the  salnion  and  Bea-fisheries  of  Ireland, 
which  vary  from  the  law  of  England ;  but  as  they 
do  not  |>eculiarly  affect  the  law  of  poaching,  it  is 
UOaL-cesaary  to  specify  them.  See  the  whole  subject 
explained  la  Pateison's  B'ishery  Laai  i^Uie  United 

POAK.  Under  this  name,  the  scrapings  of  the 
Sesh-side  of  ekins  in  feUmongera'  and  tannera'  yards, 
together  with  the  other  i°"i'"^l  refute,  are  sold  to 
the  manure- dealers. 

POCAHONTAS,  daughter  of  Powhatan,  on 
Indian  chief  of  Virginia,  was  bom  about  1595. 
When  she  was  12  years  ol<l.  Captain  John  Smith,  the 
ablest  leader  of  the  colony  of  JameBtOwn,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Powhatan,  and  was  about  to  be  killed. 
P.  rushed  between  the  victim  and  the  nplifted  arm 
of  the  executioner,  and  beeought  her  father  to  spore 
bis  life.  The  savage  chieftain  relented  ;  and  Smith 
waa  conducted  in  safety  to  Jamestown,  where  the 
young  chieltainesa  with  her  wild  train  often  visited 
him.  In  1609,  she  gave  him  timely  notice  of  a  plot 
to  destroy  him,  and  took  refuge  from  her  father's 
anger  with  another  chief.  Captiiu  Smith  having 
returne<l  to  Ei'-^land,  she  was  taken  by  Capttun 
Alkali,  by  bribery,  held  as  a  hostage,  and  married  to 
John  HoUe  in  1613,  and  baptised  by  the  name  of 
Bebecca.  This  alliance  with  a  powerful  chief 
secured  a  long  peace  to  the  colany.  In  1616,  she 
was  brought  Ui  England  by  her  husband,  where  she 
was  ret-'L'ived  with  great  favour,  and  presented  at 
court  Here  a1si>  she  saw  Captain  Smith,  and  at  the 
first  interview  hid  ber  face  two  or  three  hours.  She 
had  been  told  that  he  was  dead.  From  this  blow, 
'she  a]i)iears  never  to  have  recovered.  She  died  at 
Oravesend,  1617,  when  about  to  embark  for  her 
native  country,  after  giving  birth  to  a  son,  from 
whom  are  descended  tbe  Kondolphs  and  other  dis- 
tinguished families  of  Viiguuik 


PCCHARD  {FvliifUla),  •  genns  of  dnckl,  of  tfag 
oceanic  section  (see  lIucK),  having  the  bill  u  Irmg, 
or  nearly  as  long  as  the  head,  brc:^  and  verj  flit,  s 
little  dilated  towards  the  tip,  the  lamellc  of  Uu 
upper  mandible  not  projecting  beyond  the  mum, 
the  wings  and  tail  abort,  the  tail  rounded.  Tba 
windpipe  of  the  male,  in  all  the  pochards,  tmiutt* 
in  a  labyrinth  composed  partly  of  bone  ami  putlj 
of  membrane.  There  are  numerous  spedes,  sciiiiKif 
them  natives  of  the  arctic  regions ;  tome  fiiaiid,it 
least  in  winter,  on  the  coasts  of  most  parts  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America  ;  and  some  in  tbe  sonthoi 
hemisphere. — The  Commom  P.  [/".—or  JVjriJio— 
/arina),  also  known  m  the  Dun  Bird,  and  h  tiw 


Pochard  (Fvliffaia  ftratl^. 

Red-headed  Poler  and  Rrd-ej/ed  Polxr,  is  a  freqnoit 
winter  visitant  of  Britain.  It  breeds  in  very  nortbem 
re^ons ;  and  is  abundant  in  all  of  them,  bat  is 
winter  migrates  southwards,  in  America  as  fu  u 
Carolina  and  Louisiana,  whilst  in  Asia  it  hss  ben 
found  even  in  Bengal.  It  is  smaller  than  the  mit- 
lard,  but  rather  larger  than  the  wigeon.  The  held 
and  neck  are  bright  chestnut,  the  eyes  t«d,  chln^ 
ters  which  at  once  distingui^  it  from  every  otlxf 
British  duck.  It  is  highly  esteemed  for  the  tabfe. 
Great  nmnbers  are  sold  every  winter  in  the  Londto 
market — Several  other  species  are  reckoned  smoig 
British  birds.— The  Tottkd  Ddck  {F.  oittaia)  a  s 
freqaent  winter  visitant  of  the  bays,  estuaries,  ud 
lakes  of  Britain.  It  is  a  plump  and  short  birdi 
black,  with  a  white  bar  on  the  wing ;  the  brcait, 
belly,  and  sides  white.  The  occipitu  feathen  w« 
elongated.— The  Cakvah-back  Dcck  (f.  t'l^ 
tttria)  of  North  America  ia  k  apeoiea  of  podnri. 


Oanna-Baok  Dock  {FaMffitla  votiaMri^ 

It  is  very  like  the  Common  P.,  but  ia  mndi  lir^ 
and  has  the  bill  higher  at  the  base,  and  ICM  diMcd 
towards  the  tipL  The  upper  porta  are  also  whita. 
The  Canvas-back  Duck  breeds  in  the  northern  mrtt 
of  America,  and  nti^ates  southward  in  tlncii  ■> 
autumn.    In  winter,  it  Abound*  particiilaily  on  tts 


POCO- PODIUM. 


Chesapeake  and  its  tribataries,  and  is  also  common 
southward  to  New  Orleans,  often  collecting  in  verj^ 
large  flocks,  particularly  towards  evening.  It  is 
very  shy,  but  vast  numbers  are  killed,  it  being 
in  very  high  esteem  for  the  excellence  of  ite 
flesh. 

PO'CO  (ItaL),  a  little,  a  term  mnchnsed  in  Music, 
as  poeo  animcUOt  rather  animated ;  poco  farter 
abbreviated  »/,  rather  loud ;  poco  a  poco,  signifies 
by  de^es,  little  by  little  ;  poco  a  poco  crescendo, 
becoming  loud  by  degrees ;  poco  a  poco  raUentando^ 
becoming  slower  by  &grees. 

POD.    See  LsauMB. 

PO'DAGRA.    See  Gottt. 

PODA'RGUS,  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  family 
Caprimulgida,  nearly  allied  to  the  true  €U)at-suckers 
(q.  v.),  but  having  no  connecting  membrane  at  the 
base  of  the  toes,  and  the  middle  toe  not  pectinated. 
Some  interesting  species  are  natives  of  Australia, 
strictly  nocturnal  in  their  habits,  and  remarkable 
for  the  difficulty  with  which  they  are  roused  from 
their  sleep  by  day.  P.  kumercUis  may  be  pushed  off 
a  branch,  and  seems  scarcely  to  waken  so  as  to  save 
itself  from  falling  to  the  ground;  and  if  two  are 
sitting  together,  as  is  usually  the  case,  one  may  be 
shot  without  its  mate  being  much  disturbed.  But 
bv  night  this  bird  is  all  activity. — Another  species, 
Jr.  Cuvieri,  disturbs  the  night  by  a  hoarse  cry, 
resembling  the  syllables  More  Pork,  by  which  name 
it  is  therefore  known  in  New  South  Wales. 

PODE'STA  (Lat  potestas,  power),  an  Italian 
municipAl  magistrate.  The  name  was  first  applied 
to  foreign  magistrates  with  supreme  authority, 
whom  the  Emperor  Frederick  JBarbarossa  placed 
over  the  Italian  towns  on  subjugating  them.  In 
the  13th  and  14th  centuries,  an  officer  bearing  the 
same  designation  appears,  at  first  occasionally,  like 
the  Roman  dictator,  afterwards  in  most  Italian 
cities  as  a  permanent  magistrate,  appointed  either 
by  the  oonstitaent  parliament,  or  oy  the  Great 
Ciouncil ;  he  superseded  all  the  ordinary  magistrates, 
the  military  officers,  and  occasionally  the  judges. 
The  cause  of  appointing  such  an  officer  was  the 
jealousy  that  subsisted  between  the  richer  citizens 
and  the  nobles ;  the  podesti  was  a  stranger,  gener- 
ally belonging  to  the  nobility^  and  prohibited,  during 
his  term  of  office,  from  forming  any  intimale  con- 
nections in  the  city  which  he  governed.  His  chief 
duty  was  the  execution  of  summary  justice  on  the 
lawless  barons;  and  in  the  great  Ix>mbard  towns, 
he  generally  obtained  a  pre<U)minance  for  the  citi- 
zens. Occasionally,  however,  the  podesti  became 
too  strong  for  both  parties,  securing  his  re-election 
during  a  succession  of  years,  ana  becoming  the 
despotic  ruler  of  the  city. 

Podestd  is  the  name  now  given  in  many  Italian 
iowns  to  an  inferior  municip^  judge. 

PODGORITZA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in 
Albania,  35  miles  north  of  Scntan,  close  to  the 
frontier  of  Montenegro.  It  is  fortified,  and  contains 
a  population  of  6(M)0,  almost  all  of  whom  are 
Mcmammedans. 

PODICEPa    See  Grebe. 

PODIEBRAD  AND  KUNSTAT,  Georos 
BoczKO  OF,  son  of  Herant  of  Kunstatand  Podiebrad, 
a  powerful  and  influential  Bohemian  noble,  of  the 
fiussite  party,  was  bom  in  1420.  While  still  a 
yoti%h,  he  threw  himself,  with  all  the  ardour  and 
reaolute  force  of  his  nature,  into  the  Hussite 
struggles.  Like  the  rest  of  his  family,  however,  he 
sulhered  to  the  moderate  par^  of  the  Hussites  au> 
juag  the  ffovemment  of  King  Sigismund ;  but  when, 
the  <&atii  of  that  monarch,  the  Catholic  barons 


(1438)  earned  the  election  of  Albiecht  V.  of 
Austria  (II.  of  Germany),  P.  allied  himsdf  with  the 
Utraquist  Orders  in  Tabor,  and  offered  the  sove- 
reignty of  Bohemia  to  Gasimir,  king  of  Poland. 
Albrecht  immediately  declared  war  against  him,  and 
invested  Tabor,  but  was  forced  by  f .  to  raise  the 
si^e,  and  retire  to  Prague.  From  this  time,  P.'s 
influence  was  firmly  established  among  tiie  Utra- 
quists;  after  lipa,  he  was  the  first  man  of  the 
partjT.  When  Albrecht  died  in  1439,  Lipa  was 
appointed  regent  during  the  minority  of  the  new 
kinff  Ladislas ;  but  five  years  later,  Lipa  himself 
diec^  and  P.  obtained  the  government  of  the  coun* 
try.  He,  however,  was  not  satisfied.  His  ambition 
was  to  acquire  the  royal  dignity.  In  1449,  he 
one  nijght  seized  the  capital,  drove  away  all  the 
Catholic  barons,  and  even  imprisoned  his  colleague 
in  the  regency,  Meinhardt  von  Neuhaus.  This  out- 
rage led  to  a  year  or  so's  fighting — the  final  result 
of  which  was  that  P.  was  acknowledged  governor 
or  regent  by  the  whole  of  Bohemia.  On  the  death 
of  liMislas  in  1457,  P.  managed  to  get  himself 
chosen  his  successor,  and  was  crowned  7th  May  1458. 
From  this  period  he  began  to  display  the  full  power 
and  strength  of  his  administrative  genius.  He 
reorganised  the  forms  of  education  and  religion,  and 
strove  to  bring  about  a  peaceful  settlement  of  the 
religions  dissensions  that  had  desolated  the  land. 
He  even  went  the  len^|th  of  respectfully  soliciting 
the  papal  co-operation  m  his  humane  endeavours ; 
but  nis  Holiness  would  have  no  dealings  with  this 
Samaritan  ruler,  and  in  December  1463  publicly  pro- 
claimed him  a  heretic  All  the  neighbouring  princes 
sent  letters  to  Rome,  exhorting  or  imploring  the 
pope  to  moderation ;  but  the  only  answer  which  Pius 
IL  ^ve  them  was  placing  P.  under  the  ban  of  the 
Vatican.  Shortly  after,  Kudolf,  the  papal  legate, 
excited  the  Catholics  of  Bohemia  to  insurrection. 
P.  tried  every  means  of  oonciUation,  but  in  vain. 
In  September  1466,  a  German  OathoHc  army  burst 
into  Biohemia,  but  this  host  of  pseudo-crusaders  was 
annihilated  at  Riesenberg.  Once  more  Pius  excom- 
municated P. ;  and  in  addition,  he  induced  Mathias , 
(q[.  V.)  of  Hungary  to  invade  Moravia.  The  Bohemian 
kmg  appeal^  to  a  universal  coimcil,  but  he  also 
prepared  to  meet  force  with  force.  Summoning 
iMuJc  from  abroad  the  banished  Taborite  warriors, 
he  crushed  the  insurrection,  and  compelled  his 
enemies  to  grant  him  an  advantageous  armistice. 
In  1467,  his  son  Victorin,  on  the  renewal  of  hostili- 
ties, invaded  and  devastated  Austria,  while  the 
Hunsaiians  who  had  invaded  Bohemia  were  sur- 
round^ at  Vilemov,  and  forced  to  cease  from  hosti- 
lities. In  spite  of  the  magnanimit;^'  shewn  by  P.  on 
this  occasion,  Mathias  acted  falsely  towards  him. 
and  in  the  following  year  had  himself  crowned 
king  of  Bohemia  and  Markgraf  of  Moravia.  P. 
instantly  summoned  the  Bohemian  diet,  and  pro- 
posed to  the  assembled  orders  that  they  should  take 
the  king  of  Poland  as  his  successor,  while  his  own 
sons  should  merely  retain  the  family  possessions. 
By  this  means,  he  obtained  tiie  Poles  for  allies ;  the 
Emperor  fViedrich  also  declared  in  his  favour,  while 
his  Catholic  subjects  were  reconciled  to  him,  so  that 
the  Hungarians  found  it  advisable  to  conclude  a 
peace,  r.  died  22d  March  1471.  His  sons,  Victorin 
and  Henry  of  Miiinsterberg,  fell  back  into  the  ranks 
of  the  Bohemian  aristocracy;  but  in  the  stormy 
days  that  followed,  they  rendered  good  service  to 
their  native  land. 

PODIUM,  a  pedestal  continued  honsontally,  so 
as  to  form  a  low  wall  on  which  columns  may  be  set. 
like  the  pedestal,  it  has  a  lease,  die,  and  corona,  all 
oontinued.  When  the  podium  breaks  forward  so  as 
to  form  a  pedestal  for  a  column,  it  is  called  the 
Stylobate. 


PODOCAEPna-POE, 


rODOCA'RPVS,  A  genns  of  trees  of  the  natural 
order  Canifera,  gaborder  Taxineir,  the  order  Tom- 
tfit  of  tome  botanists.  The  lesvea,  like  those  of 
tlie  allied  Qingko  tree,  have  a  remarkable  rei 


it  ii  derived)  been  introduced  into  tha  new  Eritafc 
Phannacoproifl,  in  conuoqiience  of  the  eoEetal  Iitohi 
which  it  biu  experieni^  during  the  lul  tlma 
"  fonr  yean  frtna  the  medical  profeisoD  in  tliii 


the  Indian  Archipelago.  Some  of  them  ore  valnable 
timber  tree&  P.  eapretana  ia  one  of  the  beat 
timber  treei  of  Java.  It  is  found  also  throughout 
the  neighboarine  islanita  aad  the  South  Sea  lalanda. 
It  ia  a  beantitul  tree,  60  to  80  feet  high,  with 
ApreadiagpeDdtilonabraiichea;  the  wood  ia  yellowish, 
and  takes  a  very  fine  polish.  P.  totarra,  the 
ToTARBA  or  ToTABRA  PiNE,  is  the  moBt  valuable 
timber  tree  of  New  Zealand.  It  ^ws  in  the 
anuthem  porta  of  New  Zealand,  and  ita  trunk  has 
been  known  to  attam  a  diameter  of  fnlly  12  feet.  Its 
wood  is  equal  to  the  best  Baltic  [riue  in  durability 
•cd  for  ship-building.  The  wood  of  P.  elaCnt,  the 
Gaoali  of  the  Fijians,  ia  peculiarly  elastic 

PODO'LIA,  or  KAMINETZ,  a  government  of 
West  or  '  White '  Russia,  north  of  Boasarabia, 
and  bordering  on  tbe  Austrian  frontier.  Area, 
10,170  sq.  m.  ;  popid;Ltiou,  1,743,466.  The  aurface 
is  a  table-land,  strewn  with  liill«,  and  contiiining 
moDy  beautiful  dietricta.  Nearly  thrce-fonrtha  ol 
P.  is  either  arable  or  availalile  for  pasturage. 
Great  quantities  of  com  and  fruits,  especiaJiy 
melons,  are  producod,  and  the  fine  climate  is  also 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  the  vine  and  mulberiy. 
Hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco  are  cultivated  with  buc- 
ce^  and  the  rearing  of  beca  is  an  important  branuh 
of  industry.  So  rich  and  strong  is  the  grass  ia  the 
pastures  or  prairies,  that  the  cattle,  of  which  there 
ue  inuuense  herds,  can  hide  tbemaelves  from  view 
in  it.  The  population  is  comjioscd  of  various  races, 
who  live  toEether  unmixed.  The  Russnioks  (until 
lately  'bondi^^rs'  or  'serfs')  form  the  majority, 
and  are  over  a  million  in  number;  next  come  the 
Cossacka ;  and  then  the  Jews,  who  sje  almoet  all 
tradera  and  townspeople.  The  oristociacy  are 
Poles ;  but  the  officials  and  soldiery,  Ruasiaiu.  The 
government  is  divided  into  twelve  diatricta. 

PODOPUTHAXMA  (Gr.  atalk-eyed),  a  name 
often  applied  to  a  section  or  sub-class  of  Cniataceans, 
part  of  the  ifafacastraca  of  Cnvier,  including  the 
orders  Daapoda  (CnJ»,  Lobst«i«,  &c)  and  Stoma- 
poda  (Shrimps,   Ac).    A  distinguishlDg  character. 


copious  bi 


IS  diachargea.     As  ita  activiW  seemi 


from  which  they  derive  their  name,  is  their  stalked 


from  the  root  of  Podoph^lum  peUatvm,  or  JUag-appU, 
»  plant  common  throughout  the  United  States. 
This  resin,  which  occurs  as  a  pale  greenish  amor- 
fl  tie  root  from  which 


phoua  powder,  has  (as  well  k 


a  small  do«e  of  half  a  grain,  which  may  & 
bined  with  eitract  of  henbane,  with  the  view  o( 
preventing  its  Eripiae,  It  i*  likely  to  prove  ona  ol 
the  most  valuable  additions  to  onr  pharmacopceia. 

FODOPHY'LLUM,  a  genua  of  plaots  vuiODdr 
ranked  by  botanists  in  the  natural  order  ii'sanii- 
ciilatfo.  or  made  the  type  of  a  small  distinct  order, 
PodophylleiB  or  PodophtjUarxa,  differing  from  Rasvu- 
adaaas  chjeSy  in  having  a  solitary  caipeL  lbs 
genus  F.  haa  3  se'pals,  fi  to  9  petals,  1!  to  IS 
stamens,  a  broad  round  stigma,  seated  almost  on 
the  top  of  the  germen,  and  a  many-seeded  herrf. 
P.  patatnm  is  a  perennial  plant,  with  a  solits^ 
white  flower  in  the  axil  of  the  two  leaves ;  In 
fruit  oval,  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  smooth,  TeUoviih, 
succulent,  having  a  mawkish  sweet  and  subacid 
taste.  It  ia  common  in  North  America,  giowmg  in 
moist  woods  and  on  the  shady  banks  of  stresmi, 
and  is  known  as  May-applb,  because  it  Hosen 
and  ripens  ita  fruit  very  early  in  snmmer,  ulso  ii 
JIog-a}mU  and  Wild  Lemon,  The  fruit  may  ba 
eaten,  but  is  not  agreeable.  All  the  other  pun 
are  actively  cathartic     See  PoDOFHTlUN. 

PODU'RA,  a  genus  of  smaQ  winglets  inseds  of 
the  order  TKyianovra  (q.v.),  having  a  linear  m 
cylindrical  body,  a  dis- 
tinctly articulated  thorax,  , 
rather  long  aateonn,  and  > 
a  long  abdomen,  termin- 
ating in  B  toil,  whioh 
divides  at  its  extremity 
into  two  branches,  lliey 
bend  tha  tail  beneath  the 
abdomen,  and  by  suddeoiy 
extending  it,  make  prodigiona  leaps.  Hence  fltor 
popular  Eume,  Spbiso-taii.  The  apeclea  of  tiiii 
and  allied  genera  are  numerous,  and  some  iia 
fonnd  on  plants,  some  nnder  stonea  and  in  olber 
damp  places,  tome  on  the  anrfaoe  of  stMinsst 
vaten.  Their  bodies  are  covered  wi^  snln, 
whioh  are  extremely  interesting  objects,  and  ho 
among  the  favoorite  test-objects  for  the  powers  of 
microscopes. 

POB,  Eiwar  Allait,  perhaps  the  finest  sod 
most  original  poetical  genma  as  yet  prodncfil  hy 
America,  was  bom  at  Baltimore  in  January  1811. 
Though  he  came  of  a  good  family,  his  father  aid 
mother  held  no  higher  social  position  than  thit  of 
atrolline  players.  They  died  while  he  was  vit  a 
mere  child;  and  be  was  adopted  by  a  Mr  Jobn 
AilaD,  a  rich  merchant,  who  had  no  children  of 
his  own.  In  1816  tha  little  Edgar  came  to  t^glind 
with  Mr  and  Mrs  Allan,  and  was  sent  to  a  school  at 
Stoke  Newington.  In  1S22  he  returned  to  Am«rir3, 
and  attended  an  academy  at  Richmond  in  Virginia, 
whence  he  was  in  due  time  transferred  to  th«  uni- 
versity of  Charlottesville.  His  talent  was  from 
the  first  ctmspicaoua,  but  unhappily  be  develeiicd 
along  with  it,  and  continued  through  life  to  exhibit 
a  desiierate  profligacy  in  oU  kinds,  almost  without 
a  parallel  in  the  deaoents  and  degradations  of 
genius.  Exiielled  from  the  imiTersity  on  account  of 
this,  he  returned  to  Mr  Allan,  with  whom  he  pre- 
sently quarrelled,  on  the  ground  tA  that  gentleman's 
natural  reluctance  to  become  responsible  for  Yal 
debts.  Quitting  the  house  of  hia  benefacter.  ba 
started  for  Greece,  in  foolish  parody  of  Byron,  t* 


Podora  vilksa, 


POE-rOERIO. 


take  part  in  the  war  of  independence  against  the 
Turks.     Greece  he  did  not  reach  ;  but  we  find  him 
nnacconntably  turning  up  in  St  Petersburg,  drunk 
and  disorderly  as  usu^  and  becoming  the  toiant  of 
a  poUce-celL     The  minister  of  the  United  States 
interested  himself  to  procure  his  release,  and  sent 
him  back  to  America.     By  the  good  Mr  Allan  the 
returning    prodigal  was  welcomed ;    and    on    his 
expressing  a  wish  to  follow  the  profession  of  arms, 
an  appointment  as  cadet  was  procured  for  him  in 
the  Military  Academy  at  West  Point    Almost  as  a 
matter  of  course,  he  was  'cashiered'  within  the 
year ;  and  once  more  he  had  recourse  to  Mr  Allan, 
who  once  more  received  him  kindly.    Presently, 
however,  the  patience  even  of  this  excellent  and 
much-enduring  man  was  exhausted.     He  had  then 
married   a    second  wife,   and   this  lady  an    ugly 
rumour  exists  that  Poe  attempted  to  seduce.    One 
would  not  willingly  believe  this  unless  on  most 
sufficient  evidence;  but   it  is    certain  Mr  Allan 
now  ejected  him  from  his  premises,  and  would  never 
again  hold  communication  with  hiuL    Cast  upon 
his  own  resources,  he  now  enlisted  as  a  private 
soldier,  but  some  injudicious  friends,  recognising 
him  in  this  position,  busied  themselves  to  procure 
his  discharge.     Some  little  time  before  this,  Poe 
had  published  a  small  volume  of  poetry  [Al  Aaraajf, 
Tamerlane^and  Minor  Poenu,  Baltimore,  1829]  and  its 
success  had  been  sufficient  to  encourage  him  in  the 
attempt  to  live  by  his  pen.    Further  to  hearten  him- 
self in  the  business,  he  married  a  cousin  of  his  own, 
Virginia  Clemm,  a  beautiful  and  saintly  creature,  who 
in  no  very  long  time  died,  heart-broken,  it  is  but 
too  likely,  by  the  erratic  ways  of  her  husband,  who 
wrote  a  most  musical  lament  for  her,  sold  it,  and 
drank  the  proceeds.     Onward,  from  the  date  of  his 
marriage,  the  life  of  Poe  was  that  of  the  professed 
literary  man,  and  may  be  chronicled  in  a  single 
sentence.     His  brilliant  and  known  ability  readily 
procured  him  employment ;  and  his  frantic  habits 
of  dissipation,  with  the  regularity  of  a  natural  law, 
insured  his  early  and  ignominious  dismissaL     He 
wrote  in  his  drunken,  desultory  wav,  poems,  tales, 
criticism,  &c.     In  1848  he  delivered  in  New  York 
a  series  of  lectures  on  '  the  Universe/  and  published 
them  in  the  form  of  a  volume  entitled  Eureka,  a 
Prose  Poem,     The  work  is  of  a  speculative  cast,  and 
is  considered  by  competent  readers  of  it  to  display 
some  distracted  ability  in  that  kind,  and  to  leave  its 
subject, '  the  universe,*  pretty  much  as  Poe  found 
it.     A  feeble   attempt   at   teetotalism,  which   he 
shortly  afterwards  made,  was  indirectly  the  cause 
of  his  death.     He  ioined  a  temperance  society,  and 
was  for  some  months  actually  sober ;  but  chancing 
to    pass  through   Baltimore,  he  was  waylaid  by 
some    ancient    'cronies,'    and    on    the    momins 
of  Sunday,  7th  October  1849,  he  was  found  dead 
drunk  in  the   gutter,  and  carried  to  a  hospital, 
^vbere  the  same  evening  he  died,  at  the  early  ii^e  of 

3a 

Scarce  any  such  dark  and  disastrous  career  as 
that  of  Poe  has  a  place  in  all  the  sad  records  of 
geniua  From  the  sms  and  aberrations  of  a  creature 
BO  obviously  abnormal,  we  need  not  seek  to  *  point 
a  moraL'  Only,  in  charity,  one  may  hope  that  the 
depravitv,  though  terrible,  mieht  not  be  so  utter  as 
it  seemed.  There  was  about  him  a  strange  fascina- 
tion ;  his  friends  loved  him — those  best  who  best 
knew  him,  and  knew  him  in  his  wretchedest 
aberrations.  By  his  wife  and  her  mother  he  was 
r^arded  through  all  with  an  obstinacy  of  tender 
afiection,  not  for  an  instant  to  be  shaken. 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  his  morals,  of  his 
genius  there  will  be  little  question*  Slight  in  sub- 
stance as  for  the  most  part  it  is,  small  in  i^uantity, 
and  in  range  limited,  there  is  that  in  his  poetzy 


which  ranks  it  above  everything  of  this  kind  which 
his  country  has  hitherto  produced.  Save  for  some 
traces  of  imitation  in  its  earlier  specimens,  his 
verse  is  eminently  a  peculiar  and  individual  pro- 
duct. In  keen,  clear,  lyrical  quality  the  music  of  Poe 
at  his  best  is  scarcely  surpassed  by  that  of  any 
I  other  poet.  Not  less  remarkable  in  their  way  are 
the  collection  of  short  tales,  of  which  he  has  hdt 
two  volumes.  Many  of  these  are  wildly  and  weirdly 
impressive,  though  too  frequently  indulging  by 
morbid  preference  in  ghastly  and  painful  effects. 
Over  very  much  that  Poe  has  written,  alike  in  prose 
and  in  verse,  there  broods  a  shadow  of  misery  and 
hopeless  portentous  gloom,  sadly  significant  m  its 
relation  to  the  dismal  tragedy  of  his  lif  & 

POERIO,  Carlo,  a  noble  Italian  patriot,  was 
bom  on  the  10th  of  December  1803.  His  father, 
Giuseppe  P.,  Baron  Belcastro,  was  also  highly 
distinguished  for  his  love  of  liberty  and  for  his 
sufferings  in  her  cause.  Bom  at  Belcastro,  in 
Calabria,  in  1775,  he  took  part  in  the  NeapoHtan 
revolution  of  1799,  and  suffered  imprisonment  on 
its  suppression,  but  was  released  in  1802.  He 
also  took  part  in  the  revolution  of  1820,  for  which 
Ferdinand  handed  him  over  to  the  Anstrians, 
who  assigned  him  as  a  place  of  abode,  first  Gr&tz, 
in  Styria,  and  afterwards  Florence.  Chi  the  recall 
of  the  exiles  by  Ferdinand,  in  1833,  P.  returned  to 
Naples,  where  he  spent  the  rest  of  his  life,  and  died 
15tn  August  1843.  He  left  two  sons,  the  elder, 
Alessandro  [bom  in  1802,  celebrated  as  a  poet  and 
patriot,  and  died  (of  amputation  of  a  lixnb)  after 
the  battle  of  Mestre,  27th  October  1848],  and  Carlo, 
the  subject  of  our  notice.  Carlo  was  educated  with 
great  care  under  the  parental  roof,  and  trained  even 
mm.  infancy,  by  the  example  of  his  father  and 
brother,  to  place  the  love  ot  his  country  above 
every  other  affection.  In  1828  he  joined  the 
liberals  of  Naples,  and  took  part  in  the  conspiracy 
of  Avellino,  for  which  he  was  imprisoned  untd 
March  1838.  He  was  concerned  in  the  attempt 
made  in  1847  to  extort  liberty,  but  was  discovered, 
and  after  the  movement  at  Aeffgio  was  sent  back 
to  prison  with  D'Ayala,  Bozzdli,  De  Augustinis, 
Assanti,  and  others.  The  revolution  in  SicUy, 
which  broke  out  at  Palermo  on  the  12th  January 
1848,  set  him  at  liberty,  and  he  immediately  gave 
himself  to  the  ox^ganisation  of  the  famous  demcn- 
stration  of  the  27th  January  1848,  which  was 
destined  to  produce  the  constitution  of  the  lOtii 
February.  Carlo  was  successively  nominated 
Director  of  Police,  and  Minister  of  Pubhc  Instrao- 
tion;  but  he  soon  resided,  and  also  refused  the 
rank  of  Privy  Councillor,  offered  to  him  by 
Ferdinand.  He  was  appointed  deputy  to  the  par* 
liament. 

On  the  18th  July  1849,  an  unknown  hand  left  in 
P.'s  house  a  note  to  the  following  effect :  '  Flee 
without  a  moment's  delay.  You  are  betrayed.  Your 
correspondence  with  the  Marquis  Dragonetti  is  in 
the  hands  of  the  government.'  As  there  had  been 
no  such  correspondence,  and  as  it  was  P.'s  wish 
to  maintain  the  combat  to  the  last  on  the  ground  of 
legality,  he  did  not  flea  On  the  following  day  he 
was  arrested,  and  his  house  was  ransacked.  Six 
days  after,  a  letter  of  Dragonetti's  was  given  him  to 
read,  in  which  he  spoke  of  an  invasion  by  Gari- 
baldi, instigated  by  Mazzini  and  Palmerston.  The 
letter  was  a  forgery  of  the  police  !  P.  compared  it 
with  other  autnentio  letters  of  Dragonetti,  and 
proved  it  to  have  been  forged.  As  the  government 
could  not  bring  him  to  triu.  on  that  pretext,  it  had 
recourse  to  a  spy,  Jervolino,  who  accused  P.  of 
being  at  the  heaa  of  a  sect — which  never  existed — 
called  the  Italian  Unit^,  which  aimed  at  proclaiming 
a  republic,  and  murdering  the  king  and  the  ministers* 


POET-LAUREATE-  POGGENDORP. 


P.  demanded  to  be  confronted  with  Jervolino,  but 
this  was  refused.  When  this  accusation  also  fell  to 
the  ground,  Peccheueda^  who  was  at  the  head  of  the 
police,  tried  to  induce  the  others  who  were  indicted 
for  political  reasons  to  denounce  P.  as  a  revolu- 
tionist, promising  them  liberty  as  the  reward. 
His  design  partly  succeeded.  He  extorted  from 
Borneo  the  printer,  and  from  Margherita  some  false 
accusations,  which  the  fear  of  death  caused  those 
unfortimate  persons  to  make.  But  thev  were  of 
no  avail,  and  recourse  was  again  had  to  the  accusa- 
tion made  against  P.  by  Jervolino;  and  although 
P.  brought  forward  many  clear  proofs  that  the 
informer  was  paid  by  the  police  to  do  him  harm, 
the  court  paid  no  attention  to  that,  nor  to  any 
other  of  his  objections,  and  concluded  by  inflicting 
on  him  the  penalty  of  passing  24  years  in  irons,  and 
of  a  heavy  nne. 

Thus  Carlo  P.,  a  minister,  and  a  member  of  par- 
liament, a  man  of  rare  genius  and  of  exemplary 
life,  was  cast  into  the  hulks  at  Nisida,  dressed  as 
a  felon,  and  dragging  15  pounds  of  diains;  and 
thence,  through  ti^e  suspicions  of  the  government, 
who  dreaded  his  escape,  he  was  conveyed  from 
hulks  to  hulks,  from  Nisida  to  Procida,  from  Ischia 
to  Montefusco,  and  finally  to  Montesarchio. 
Assassins  and  thieves  were  given  him  as  com- 
panions in  order  to  humble  him,  as  if  the  virtue  of 
the  truly  great  man  could  be  sullied  by  the  pre- 
sence of  miscreants  and  cut-throats.  He  indig- 
nantly spumed  the  proposal  to  petition  for  his 
liberty. 

The  protests  of  the  English  and  IVench  diploma- 
tists against  the  iniquitous  state  trials,  which  had 
been  instituted  in  Naples  with  the  sole  object  of 
condemning  persons  obnoxious  to  the  king;  the 
letters  of  Mr  Gladstone;  the  constant  dread  of  a 
popular  risinff  on  behalf  of  the  condemned  political 
offenders,  ana  especially  of  P.,  disturbed  the  mind 
of  Ferdinand  XL  to  such  a  degree  that  he  sought 
some  means  of  ridding  himself  of  the  prisoners  of 
Montesarchia  Having  failed  in  every  attempt  to 
force  them  to  ask  pardon,  he  resolved  to  send  them 
to  America.  On  the  19th  January  1859,  P.  and 
66  other  prisoners,  among  whom  were  Settembrini, 
Spaventa,  Pica,  the  Duke  of  Castromediano,  Braico, 
Schiavoni,  Argentino,  Pace,  Damis  (all  of  whom 
are  now  members  of  the  Italian  parliament),  were 
conveved  to  Pozzuoli,  and  put  on  board  of  the 
BtroTnbcliy  which  immediately  set  sail  for  New  York. 
When  they  reached  Cadiz,  P.  and  his  companions 
were  put  on  board  an  American  vessel,  the  captain 
of  which,  however,  was  induced  to  land  them  at 
Cork,  whence  they  returned,  by  London,  to  Turin. 
In  the  following  year  P.  was  elected  deputy 
by  two  colleges  m  Tuscany,  and  took  his  seat  in 
parliament. 

When  Garibaldi  (q.  v.)  had  driven  out  the  Bourbon 
dynasty,  P.  returned  to  Naples.  He  declined  the 
ministerial  office  offered  to  him  by  Cavour,  and  also 
the  governorship  of  the  southern  provinces  proposed 
to  him  by  Costantino  Nigra,  but  accepted  the  office 
of  privy  councillor.  The  privy  council  elected 
him  its  vice-president ;  then,  being  re-elected 
deputy,  he  was  proclaimed  vice-president  of  the 
parliament. 

POET-LAITREATE     See  Laubbatb, 

PO'ETRY  (from  the  Greek  poieo,  to  make,  or 
to  create),  according  to  the  mere  etymology  of 
the  word,  signifies  a  creation  or  production  oi  any 
kind;  but  its  classical  equivalent^  poiSsiSf  was 
applied  by  the  Greeks  almost  exclusively  to  desig- 
nate the  artistic  productions  of  the  imagination, 
expressed  in  language.  Poetry  is  thus  not  neces- 
•arily  associated — as  many  people  seem  to  think 


— with  verse  or  rhyme.    It  may  find  expressun 
in  prose,  and  in  point  of  fact  bias  often  aone  so, 
botn  in  ancient  and  modern  times.     The  Book 
of  Ruth,  for  example,  is  decidedlv  poetical  in  sub- 
stance, yet  in  form  it  is  strictly  proaaia     The 
same  may  be   said  in   a   still  more   renuikable 
degree  of  the   Book  of  Job  and   the  Prophetical 
Writings,  as  they  appear  in  our  English  veruon. 
Jeremy  Taylor,  Hooker,  Rousseau,  Burke,  Carlyle, 
Ruskin,  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  and  other  modem 
prose  writers,  are  often  as  richly  or  profoundly 
imaginative  as  poets  by  profession ;  but  althoagh 
the  essence  of  poetry  lies  rather  in  the  nature  and 
adornment  of  the  thoughts  expressed  than  in  the 
form  of  the  composition,  yet  in  general  it  has  sab- 
jected  itself  to  certain  rules  of  metre  or  measore, 
and  often  also  to  rules  of  rhyme.    The  reason  of 
this  practice  lies  in* the  fact  that  the  music  m 
produced  by  the  mere  words  is  found  to  heighten 
the  emotions  which  their  meaning  is  calculated  to 
produce,  and  thus  furthers  the  end  that  the  poet 
has  in  view.    It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  the 
term  poetry  has  become  idmost  sjmonymons  'with 
metrical  composition.    Poetical  compositions  are  of 
several  kinds  or  classes,  to  which  particular  tenns 
are  applicable ;  the  principal  are  the  Epic  (q.  v.), 
the  Lyric  (q.  v.),  and  the  Drama   (q.  v.).    To  the 
first  of  these  belongs  the  Ballad   (q.  v.);  to  the 
second  belong  the  Song  (q.  ▼.)  in  all  its  varieties 
serious  and  comic,  the  Hymn  (q.^-.).  Ode  (q.  v.), 
Anthem   (q.  v.).  Elegy  (4*  ▼•)>  Sonncrt  (q.  v.),  Ac; 
the  third  embraces  Trh^Ay  and  Comedy.    Besidei 
these  three  principal  kinds,  others  of  less  conse- 
quence may  be  mentioned,  snch  as  Didactic  Poetry 
(q.  v.).  Satirical   Poetry  (see   Satire),  in  'which, 
however,  imaginative  and  ideal  elements  in  gene- 
ral  mingle  so  sparingly  that  the    stricter  land 
of  critics  exclude  them  from  the  circle  of  poeby 
altogether.      The  Germans  have  produced  seven! 
treatises  on  the  history  of  poetry,  snch  as  Boeen- 
kranz^s  Handbuch  einer  aUgemeinem  OeseJiidUe  der 
Poeaie  (3  vols.  Halle,   1832),  and   Zimmermann's 
Geschichte  der  Poeeie  aOer  V&Uter  (Stuttg.  1847). 

POGGE  {Aapidophorus  Europoeus),  a  fish  of  the 
family  Sderogejudce,  or  Mailed  Cheeta,  and  neariy 
allied  to  the  Bullhead  (q.  v.),  but  haTins  the  body 
cuirassed  with  large  bony  scales  &t>m  the  head  to 
the  tail  fin,  so  that  it  is  in  form  nearly  a  pyramid 
with  ei^ht  faces.  The  head  is  thicker  tnan  the 
body,  with  points  and  depressions,  the  snout  fur- 
nished with  short  recurved  spines.  Tlie  P.  is  also 
known  on  the  coasts  of  England  as  the  Armed  Bull- 
head; and  on  the  coasts  (S  Scotland  by  the  names 
Lyrie,  Pluck,  and  Noble,  It  is  pretty  common  on 
the  British  coasts.  It  is  seldom  more  than  six 
inches  long.  Notwithstanding  its  uncouth  af^ear* 
ance,  its  flesh  is  good. 

POGGENDORF,  JoHAinr-CHRisnAK,  a  Germaa 
physicist,  was  bom  at  Hamburg,  29th  December, 
1796.  He  studied  pharmacy,  chemistry,  and 
physics ;  and  since  1834  has  been  professor  of  tiis 
last-mentioned  science  at  Berlin.  In  1838  he 
became  a  member  of  tLa  Academy  of  Science.  His 
chief  discoveries  have  been  in  connection  witii 
electricity  and  salvanism,  and  theee  are  reckoned 
of  great  value;  he  has  also  invented  a  multiplyiiif 
galvanometer  for  measuring  the  calorific  action  ct 
currents.  Since  1824  he  has  edited  the  Awialm 
der  Phyaick  und  Chimie,  contributing  to  this  coUeo- 
tion  many  important  memoirs.  He  was  one  of  the 
triad  (Liebig  and  Wohler  being  the  other  two)  wbo 
prepared  the  Dicthnnaire  de  Chimie  (Brunswicc. 
1837—^1851).  The  two  works  publiBhed  by  himeeH 
are  the  Ltnien  zu  einer  Chickichie  der  ezaetoi 
Wi89en9ch£^ften    (Berlin,   1853),  and   ^•oyrop&Moft- 


POQONIAS-POINTEE. 


UaerBTudtet   WOrteHnieh  tar  QaehidiU  der  matte» 
WiHtn«ha_ftfn  (Berlin,  18S6),  the  latter  not  being 
yet  completed. 
POGO'NIAB,  >  geniu  of  kontbopteroiu  fiilieB,  of 

the  funily  Sdofiula,  baving  tiro  dnrsiU  tin«,  one  of 
them  deeply  nntchcd,  and  muiyaiiAll  barUiti  under 


the  mouth.     The  fishe*  of  this  g 
the  couta  of  warm  o 


e  fou 


ukable 


for  the  Boaodi  which  they  emit,  which 
naemble  tboae  of  s  dnun,  tuid  have  obtained  for 
them  the  name  of  DsuMriBB.  It  is  not  koawii  how 
tfaeK  sounda  are  prodnoed ;  but  aailon  in  vewela 
anchored  near  the  ahorc,  where  apeciea  of  thia  genua 
•bound,  are  ofC«n  prevented  from  aleeping,  until 
they  have  become  habituated  to  them.  Some  of  the 
ipeciet  attain  a  larae  size,  one  handred  pounda  or 
more,  and  are  eiceUent  for  the  table. 

POINDING  (aame  root  as  Eqj;.  pountf),  in  the 
law  of  Scotland,   menns  the  leizing  and  Belling  of 


debt.     It  ja  eithnr  real  or  pervonal.     Real  poinding 

is  the  nttaching  of  goods  or  movables  oa  the  land 

over  which  some  real  or  heritable  security  eiisto. 

It  is  one  mode  in  which  heritable  security  is  made 

effectuaL      Thus,  the  superior  of  lands  can  poind 

the  eroiind  to  obtain  payment  of  bU  feu  duties ;  and 

the  holder  of  a  heritable  Ixrad  ram  do  the  same  in 

order  to  recover  bis  debt.      Personal  poinding  is 

the  mode  in  which  a  decree  of  the  court  is  mnde 

eCr«ctual   by  the  meesengcr  or  bailiff  seizing  the 

movablea  o!  the  debtor.     They  ate  then  apjiraised 

or  valued,  and  the  meBsenger  reports  his  execution 

to  the  sheriff,  or  other  Judge  ordinary,  who  grants 

warrant   to  sell  the   goods   by  public  ronp^  after 

advertisements.    The  net  amount  of  the  sale  is  paid 

over  to   the  creditor,  or  if  no  purchaper  bid   tor 

them,  they  are  delivered  to  tbc  creditor  at  the 

appraised  value.     There  is  also  another  kind   of 

poinding,  called  a  poinding  of  stray  eattte,  which 

takes   {dace   whenever   the    cattle  of    a   stranger 

trespsBS   on  lands,  in  which   case  the  owner   or 

occupier  o^  the  lands  can  seize  them  brrvi  rnnnu, 

and  beep  tbem  as  a  secnrtty  until  the  damage  done 

by  the  cnttle  is  paid  to  the  owner  of  the  land     By 

an  old   Scotch  statute,  the  owner  of  the  uattle  la 

bnund  to  pay,  besides  the  damage,  half  a  merk  for 

each   faoiul  of  cattle,  and  for  the  damage,  penalty. 

aod  exj>eiiae  of  keeping  tbe  cattle,  the  owner  of  the 

land   can   detain  the  cattle  nntil  payment.     The 

poinder  must,  however,  take  care  to  keep  the  cattle 

in  a  projier  place,  and  feed  them.     In  Lntland,  the 

word  poinding  is  not  nscd,  the  correaponding  term 

being  Distraining  or  Distress  (q.  v.). 

POINT,  in  Heraldry,  a  triangular  fi(jure  issning 

from  Uke  dexter  and  sinister  base 

-_T    of  tbe   shield.      It  is   common   in 

-    French  and  German  heraldry,  and 

occurs   in   the  shield   of   Hanover, 

■which   was   a   part    of   the   royal 

of    Great  Britain   from    the 

accession  of  George  I.  till  that  of 

our  present   sovereigiL      A  shield 

Faint.  charaed  with  a  point  is  in  heraldic 

drawing  hardly  distinguishable  from 

Due  parted  per  cheveroo. 

POINT-BLANK.     See  Gpnuebt.     The  point- 
bUnk   rau(^  of  a  cannon  varies  Erom  200  to  300 

POINT  BE  GALLE,  a  fortified  town  and  sea- 
port on  tb«  south-west  extremity  of  the  island  of 
Ceylon,  stniida  on  a  low  rocky  promontory  of  the 
•ame  name,  in  lat.  6'  1'  N.,  long.  80°  12-  E.  The 
harbour,  formed  by  a  small  bay,  the  entrance  to 
wkicfa  ■•  >boQt  a  mile  in  width,  is  good,  although 
353 


there  are  namerooa  rocks,  and  a  pilot  is  required 
to  conduct  vessels  to  the  anchorage.    Among  the 

Srindpal  edifices,  are  the  fort — a  mile  in  circum- 
<renca — the  old  Dutch  church,  a  Roman  Catboliii 
chapel,  an  excellent  Orphan  Asylum,  baimcki,  and 
light-house,  103  feet  above  sea-Icvel.  This  town 
bat  become  important  within  recent  years,  and 
specially  since  the  organiaatioa  of  the  Peninsular 
and  Oneutal  Steam -navigation  Company.  Vessels 
plying  between  Suez  and  Bombay  and  Calcutta, 
Australia,  China,  Penang,  and  Singa|>ore,  call  here 
to  coal  and  to  tranship  passengers.  In  1860,  713 
vessels,  of  362,1S4  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port. 
Gold  and  silver  ornaments,  workboiea.  Ac.,  ai« 
made  with  sreat  taste  and  nicety  by  tbe  nativa 
workmen,   ^p.  100,000. 

POINTED  ABCHITBCTURE.  See  Gothic 
Arcbiteciurk 

POINTER,  a  kind  of  dog  nearly  alljol  ta  the 
true  Hounds  (q.  v.),  but  not  recknneil  one  i,{  ^hcm. 
It  is  remarkable  for  it4  habit  of  povtttng  at  ,;a^'ne  ; 
its  whole  body,  and  particularly  its  beail,  inrlic''tin|i 
the  position  of  the  game  to  the  sportsman ;  and  a 
well-trained  F.  will  remain  long  immovable  in  the 
attitude  of  painting,  not  going  forward  to  disturb 
the  game  wnich  its  exquisite  power  of  scent  haa 
enabled  it  to  discover.  It  is  recorded  of  two 
pointers  timt  tiiey  stood  an  hour  and  a  quarter 


A  Pointer  standing  at  Game. 

without  moving,  whilst  Hr  Gilpin  painted  them  in 
the  act.  The  P.,  when  he  scents  game,  stops  so 
suddenly  and  completely,  that  even  the  fore-foot, 
already  lifted,  remains  snapended  in  the  air.  With- 
out the  P.,  tile  sjiortsman  would  have  comparatively 
tittle  success  in  the  pursuit  of  grouse  ;  but  the  dog 
performs  for  him  the  laborious  task  of  '  beating '  the 
wide  moors.  Well-trained  pointers  will  scarcely 
point  at  anything  except  'game;'  but  inferior  dogs 
often  point  at  almost  any  Evina  creature  tbo  odour 
of  which  affects  their  nostrila.  The  habit  of  pointing 
once  acquired,  appears  to  become  hereditary,  so  that 
very  young  pointers  often  exhibit  it  in  great  perfec- 
tion. It  has  been  explained,  with  the  croiiching  of 
the  Setter,  as  '  the  natural  start  of  siiriirise  or  inte- 
rest which  all  dogs  give  when  coming  suddenly  upon 
the  scent  or  sight  of  their  natural  prey ;  moditied 
by  cultivation,  and  by  transmission  through  many 


Quadruptd*. 

Tbe  breed  of  pointers  now  moat  cominoD  lOi 
Britain  i«  believed  to  he  crossed  with  the  foxhonnd,. 
to  which  there  is  considerable  reeenblance  in  colonr* 
a«  well  a*  in  form.    Tbe  figura  is  Tery  muscular,  the 


POINTS  OP  THE  ESCUTCHEON— POISONING. 


Points  of  the 
Escutcheon. 


hair  short,  the  ears  i)eiidulon8,  the  upper  lipe 
moderately  large,  the  tail  pointed  and  destitute  of 
brush.  DoCT  of  this  breed  are  very  actire,  and 
capable  of  long-sustained  exertion.  The  original 
breed,  the  Spanish  P.,  probably  brought  to  Spain 
from  the  Eaist,  is  of  more  bulky  form,  less  active 
habit,  and  less  capability  of  continued  exertion. 
The  P.  is  veiy  forward  and  familiar  in  its  manners, 
but  is  both  affectionate  and  intellip:ent,  although  it 
has  a  re]>utation  of  inferiority  in  these  respecSi  to 
many  other  kinds  of  dogs. 

POINTS  OP  THE    ESCUTCHEON,  in 

Heraldry.     In  order  to  facilitate  the  description  of 

a  coat-of-arma,  it  is  the  practice  to  suppose  the 

shield  to  be  divided  mto  nine 
points,  which  are  known  by  the 
following  names :  A,  the  dexter 
chief  pomt ;  B,  the  middle  chief ; 
C,  the  sinister  cliief ;  D,  the 
collar  or  honour  point;  E,  the 
fess  point;  F,  the  nombriJ,  or 
navel  point ;  G,  the  dexter  base 
point ;  H,  the  middle  base  point ; 
and  I,  the  sinister  base  point 
The  dexter  and  sinister  sides  of 
the  shield  are  so  called,  not  in 
relation    to    the    eye     of    the 

spectator,  but  from  the  right  and  left  sides  of  the 

supposed  bearer  of  the  shiokL 

POISON  UDER,  POISON  IVY,  POISON 
OAKS,     POISON    SUMACH,    and     POISON 

VINR    See  ScnfACK. 

POISONING,  Skcrvt,  a  mode  of  taking  away 
life  by  [X)i.sons  so  slow  in  their  oi)eration  that  the 
gradual  sinking  of  the  victims  under  their  influence 
closely  resembled  the  effects  of  disease  or  the  ordin- 
ary decay  of  nature.  It  has  been  practised  in  all 
ages,  and  several  undoubted  and  numerous  supposed 
instances  of  it  are  mentioned  by  Greek  and  Koman 
writers.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  17th  c.  that 
this  atrocious  practice  became  of  frequent  occur- 
rence ;  but  from  this  time  it  rapidly  increased, 
spread  over  Western  Europe  like  an  epidemic,  and 
became  gradually  a  regular  branch  of  education 
among  those  who  professed  a  knowledge  of  chemis- 
try, magic,  or  astrology.  These  persons  regarded 
the  knowledge  of  the  mode  of  preparing  secret 
poisons  as  of  the  highest  im[)ortance,  and  many 
of  them  realised  large  sums  bv  the  sale  of  their 
preparations,  and  occasionally  of  the  secret  of  their 
composition.  It  was  in  Italy  and  France  that  this 
art  was  chiefly  practised  and  brought  to  the  highest 
perfection ;  but  it  seems  also  to  nave  prevailed  in 
England  to  a  considerable  extent,  for  we  tind  that, 
in  the  21st  year  of  Henry  VIIL's  reign,  an  act  was 
passed  declaring  the  employment  of  secret  poisons 
to  be  hi^h  treason,  and  sentencing  those  who  were 
found  guilty  of  it  to  be  boiled  to  death.  The  only 
undoubted  instance  of  this  crime  which  appears 
prominently  in  English  history  is  the  murder  of 
Sir  Thomas  Overbury  (q.  v.)  by  Viscount  Kochester 
(the  favourite  minion  of  James  VI.)  and  his  wife, 
the  divorced  Countess  of  Essex ;  though  many 
suppose,  and  with  some  show  of  probabuity,  that 
James  VI.  himself  was  a  victim  to  similar  nefarious 

Practices  on  the  part  of  Villiers,  Duke  of  Bucking- 
am  ;  and  undoubtedly  such  was  the  po^)idar 
impression  at  the  time,  for  Dr  Lamb,  a  conjuror 
and  quack,  who  was  believed  to  have  furnished 
Buckingham  with  the  poisons,  was  seized  by  the 
anffry  populace  in  Wood  Street,  Cheapside,  London, 
ana  beaten  and  stoned  to  death.  But  it  was  in 
Italy  where  this  mode  of  poisoning  was  most  pre- 
valent. There,  judging  from  the  writings  of  various 
authors,  it  seems  to  have  been  looked  upon  as  a  not 

636 


unjustifiable  proceeding  to  get  rid  of  a  rivsl  or 
enem^  by  poison ;  and  from  the  time  of  the  Lombard 
invasion  down  to  the  I7th  c.,  Italian  history  teems 
with  instances  which  sufficiently  shew  that  poisoD 
was  both  the  favourite  weapon  of  the  opiiressor, 
and  the  protection  or  revenue  of  the  oppressed.  The 
Borgias  are  generally  singled  out  and  held  up  to  the 
horror  and  detestation  of  mankind ;  but  as  fsr  as 
their  poisonings  are  concerned,  they  merely  em- 
ployed this  method  of  destroying  their  adversaries  a 
litue  more  frequently  than  their  neighbours.    To 
shew    the    popular    feeling   on   this    subject,  w« 
may  instance  the  case  mentioned  in  the  memoirs 
of  Henry  II.«  fifth  Duke  of   Guise,   of  a  soldier 
who  was  requested  to  rid  the  duke  of  Gennsro 
Annese,  one  of  his  opponents  in  Naples.    Jsns- 
ginathn  was  the  mode    proposed  to  the  soldier, 
but  he  shrank  with  horror  from  the  sni^gestion, 
stating  at  the  same  time  that  he  was  quite  willing 
to  poison  Annese.     It  was  shortly  after  the  date 
of  this  story  (1648)  that  secret  poisoning  became 
so  frequent;  and  the  Catholic  clergy,  despite  the 
rules  of  the  confessional,  felt  themselves    boond 
to  acquaint  Pope  Alexander  VIL  with  the  extent 
of  the  practice.    On  investigation,  it  was  found  that 
young  widows  were   extraordinarily  abundant  ia 
Home,    and  that  most  of  the  unhappy  marriages 
were  speedily  dissolved  by  the  sickness  and  death 
of  the    husband ;    and  farther  inquiries    resulted 
in    the    discovery  of    a  secret    society  of    vooag 
matrons,  which  met  at  the  house  of  an  old  ha^ 
by  name  Hieronyma  Spara,  a  reputed  witch    and 
fortune-teller,    who   supplied  those   of   them  who 
wished  to  resent  the  infidelities  of  their  husbands, 
with   a  slow  poison,  clear,  tasteless,  and  limjiid, 
and  of  strength  sufficient  to  destroy  life  in  the 
course    of   a   day,    week,    month,    or    number  of 
months,  as    the    purchaser  preferred.    The    ladies 
of  Rome  had  been  Ions  acqiuunted  with  the  *  woo- 
derfid  elixir'  compounded  by  La  Spara ;  but  they 
kept  the  secret  so  well,  and  made  such  effectual  use 
of  their  knowledge,  that  it  was  only  after  several 
years,  during  which  a  large  number  of  unsuspected 
victims  had  perished,   and  even  then  through  a 
cunning  artifice  of  the  police,  that  the  whole  pit>- 
ceedings   were  brought   to  light     La    Spara  and 
thirteen  of  her  com2)anion8  were  hangeciC  a  Iaii^ 
number  of  the  culprits  were  whipped  half-naked 
through  the  streets  of   Home,  and  some  of    the 
highest  rank  suffered  fines  and  banishment.    About 
half  a  century  afterwards,  the  discovery  was  made 
of  a  similar  organisation  at  Naples,  headed  by  an 
old  woman  of  threescore  and  ten,  named  Toffiuiia 
who  manufactured  a  poison  similar  to  that  of  La 
Spara,  and  sold  it  extensively  in  Naples  under  the 
name  of  acqueUa,  and  even  sent  it  to  all  parts  of 
Ital^  under  the  name  of  'Manna  of  St  Nicola  of 
Ban,'  giving  it  the  same  name  as  the  renowned 
miraculous  oil  of  St  Nicola,  to  elude  discovery.    This 
poison,  now  best  known  as  the  '  Acqua  Tofana '  or 
*■  Acqua  di  Perugia,'  is  said  by  Hahnemann  to  have 
been  compound^  of  arsenical  neutral  salts ;  whSe 
Garelli  states  that  it  was  crystallised  arsenic  dis- 
solved in  a  large  quantity  of  water ;  but  both  agree 
that  it  produced  its  effect  almost  imperceptibly,  by 
gradually  weakening  the  appetite  and  respiratoir 
organs.    After  having  directly  or  indirectly  caus^ 
the  death  of  more  than  600  persons,  Toffania  was  at 
length  seized,  tried,  and  strangled  in  1719.     Froa 
this  time  the  mania  for  secret  poisoning  gradoaDy 
died  away  in  Italy. 

About  the  middle  of  the  17th  &,  this  honriUe 
practice  seems  to  have  first  become  prevalent  'm 
France,  and  under  similar  cironmstances,  the  agesli 
being  married  women,  and  their  husbands  ths 
victims ;  and  as  in  Italy,  the  extent  to  irhiet  the 


POISONING— POISONS. 


practice  was  carried  was  first  made  known  by  the 
clergy.    The  government,  acting  on  the  information 
thus  obtained,  seized  and  imprisoned  in  the  Bastille 
two  Italians  named  Exili   and  Glaser,  who  were 
Bospected  of  having  been  the  manufacturers  and 
vendors  of  the  poisons.    Glaser  died  in  prison  ;  but 
Exili,  becoming  acquainted  with  another  prisoner 
named  St  Croiz,  conmiunicated  to  him  his  secret, 
which  the  latter  made  considerable  use  of  after  his 
release,  compounding  in  particular  the  poison  known 
as  *  succession  powder,'  which  subsequently  became 
so  celebrated.    It  was  the  same  St  Croix  who  played 
such  a  prominent  part  in  the  tragical  history  of  the 
Marquise   de   Brinvilliers    (q.  v.).     Penautier,  the 
treasurer  of  the  province  of    Lan^edoc,  and  the 
Cardinal  de  Bonzy,  were  both  pupils  of  St  Croix, 
and  managed,  the  one  to  pave  the  way  for  his  own 
advancement,  and  the  other  to  rid  himself  of  his 
numerous  creditors,  by  the  administration  of  poison ; 
but  the  great  influence  of  these  men,  and  the  want  of 
direct  evidence,  barred  all  proceedings  against  them. 
Secret  poisoning  now  became  fashionable  ;  the  pas- 
sions of  jealousy,  revenue,  avarice,  and  even  i)etty 
spite,  were  aH  satisfied  m  the  same  way,  and  as  a 
necessary  consequence,  other  offences  decreased  in 
pro}jortion.     The  prisons  teemed  with  suspected 
cnminala,  and  the  *Ohambre  Ardente*  was  insti- 
tuted   for  the    special    purpose    of    trying    these 
offenders.    In  Paris,  this  trade  was  chiefly  in  the 
hands  of  two  women  named  Lavoisin  and  Laviffo- 
reux,  who  combined  with  the  ostensible  occupation 
of  midwife  that  of  fortune-teller,  and  foretold  to 
wives  the  decease  of  their  husbands,  to  needy  heirs 
that  of  their  rich  relatives,  taking  care  at  the  same 
time  to  be  instrumental  in  fulflllmg  their  own  pre- 
dictions.   Their  houses  were  frequented  by  numbers 
of  all  classes,  both  from  Paris  and  the  provinces, 
among  whom  were  the  celebrated  Marshal  ae  Luxem- 
bourg (q,  v.),  the  Duchess  de  Bouillon,  and  the  Coun- 
tess de  Soissons ;  the  two  former  of  these,  however, 
went  merely  from  curiosity.     Lavoiain  and  her  con- 
federate were  at  last  discovered,  tried,  condemned, 
and  bnmed  lUive  in  the  Place  de  Gr^ve,  22d  February 
1680 ;  and  from  90  to  50  of  their  accomplices  were 
hanged  in  various  cities  of  France.     So  common 
had  this  atrocious  practice  been,  that  Madame  de 
S^vign^  in  one  of  her  letters,  expresses  a  fear  lest 
the    terms    *  Frenchman  *  and   *  poisoner '    should 
become  synonymous.    For  two  years  after  the  exe- 
cution   of  the  two  Parisian  poisoners,  the  crime 
continued  to  be  largely  committed,  being  fostered 
by  the  impunity  with  which  offenders  of  high  rank 
were  allowed  to  escape ;  and  it  was  not  till  more 
than   100  persons  had  died  at  the  stake  or  on  the 
gallows,  that  the  government  succeeded  in  suppress- 
ing  it.      The  mania  for  secret  poisoning  has  not 
since   been   revived   to  the  same   extent^  though 
isolated  instances  of  its  practice  have  occasionaUy 
been   discovered,  particularly  in  England,  where, 
within  the  last  30  years  (1864)  extraordinary  dis- 
olosnrep  have  at  different  times  been  made  of  the 
prevalence  of  this  frightful  crime  among  the  labour- 
ing  classes  in  several  of  the  rural  districts.    For 
further  information  consult  Beckmanu's  HUtory  of 
Inventions^  the  historians  of  the  period  of  James  L's 
reign,    the  French  Causes  Celebres,  and  Mackay's 
Popuiar  jDdtisions. 

POISONS.  A  poison  is  commonly  defined  to 
be  a  substance  which,  when  administered  in  small 
qnantitv,  is  capable  of  acting  deleteriously  on  the 
body  ;  out  this  definition  is  obviously  too  restricted, 
for  it  'would  exclude  numerous  substances  which 
are  oniy  ^isonous  when  administered  in  large 
doses,  as  rutre,  and  the  salts  of  lead,  antimony,  &c. 
A  peTfiK>ik  may  be  as  effectually  poisoned  by  an  ounce 
%f  nitre  as  by  Give  grains  of  arsenic,  and  hence  the 


quantity  reouired  to  kill  must  not  enter  into  the 
!  definition.    I)r  Taylor  suggests  the  following  as  the 
most  comprehensive  definition  that  can  be  given : 
'  A  poison  is  a  substance  which,  when  taken  inter- 
nally, is  capable  of  destroying  life  without  acting 
medicinally  on  the  system ; '  but  this  definition  is 
I  not  perfect,  for  it  does  not  include  poisons  that  act 
I  by  aosorption  when  applied  to  a  thin  and  delicate 
membrane,  as  glanders,  syphilitic  poison,  &c.,  or 
,  those  which  must  be  introduced  directly  into  the 
circulation  by  a  puncture  or  abraded  surface,  as 
the  poison  of  insects,  scorpions,  and  serpents,  the 
,  wourali  poison,  and  that  ot  animals  suffering  from 
[  hydrophobia.    Omitting,  for  the  present,  the  con- 
'  sideration  of  the  cases  not  included  in  Dr  Taylor's 

S reposed  definition,  we  may  consider  poisons  as 
,  ivisible  into  three  classes,  according  to  uieir  mode 
of  action  on  the  system — ^viz..  Irritants,  Narcotics, 
and  Nareotico- Irritants. 

The  Irritants^  when  taken  in  ordinary  doses, 
speedily  occasion  intense  vomiting  and  purging, 
and  severe  abdominal  pain.  They  act  chiefly  on 
the  stomach  and  intestines,  which  they  irritate, 
inflame,  and  frequently  corrode,  and  may  thus 
occasion  ulceration,  perforation,  or  gangrene. 
Amongst  those  which  possess  corrosive  properties, 
are  the  strong  mineral  acids,  caustic  alkalies,  cor- 
rosive sublimate,  &c. ;  whilst  among  the  pure 
irritants  which  exert  no  destructive  chemical  action 
on  the  tissues  with  which  they  come  in  contact, 
may  be  mentioned  arsenic,  cantharides,  carbonate 
of  lead,  &c  The  Narcotics  act  specially  on  the 
brain  and  spinal  cord.  Amongst  tneir  most  com- 
mon symptoms  are  ^ddiness,  headache,  obscurity 
of  sight  or  double  vision,  stupor,  loss  of  power  of 
the  voluntary  muscles,  convulsions,  and,  finally, 
complete  coma.  Moreover,  many  of  the  narcotic 
poisons  present  special  symptoms,  in  some  cases 
strongly  resembling  pure  special  diseases.  Thus 
there  is  an  almost  exact  similarity  in  the  symptoms 
of  poisoninff  by  opium  and  of  apoplexy,  whilst 
prussic  acid  and  some  other  poisons  give  rise  to 
symptoms  closely  resembling  those  of  epilepev. 
These  poisons  have  no  acrid,  burning  taste,  nor  do 
they  usually  give  rise  to  vomiting  or  diarrhoea,  and, 
excepting  a  slight  fulness  of  the  cerebral  vessels, 
they  leave  no  well-marked  post-mortem  api>earance. 
They  are  few  in  number,  and  none  of  them  belong 
to  the  mineral  kingdouL  The  Nareotico- Irritants 
!  have,  as  their  name  implies,  a  mixed  action.  '  At 
'  variable  periods,*  says  Dr  Taylor,  *  after  they  have 
I  been  swallowed,  they  give  rise  to  vomiting  and 
:  purging,  like  irritants,  and  sooner  or  later  produce 
I  stupor,  coma,  paralysis,  and  convulsions,  owing  to 
I  their  effect  on  the  brain  and  spinal  marrow.  They 
possess  the  property,  like  irritants,  of  irritating 
and  inflaming  the  alimentary  canaL  As  familiar 
examples,  we  may  point  to  nux  vomica,  monks- 
hood,  and  poisonous  mushrooms The  fact 

of  the  symptoms  occurring  after  a  meal  at  which 
some  suspicious  vegetables  may  have  been  eaten, 
coupled  with  the  nature  of  the  symptoms  them- 
selves, will  commonly  indicate  the  class  to  which 
the  poison  belongs.  Some  narcotico-irritants  have 
a  hot,  acrid  taste,  such  as  the  aconite  or  monks- 
hood ;  others  an  intensely  bitter  taste,  as  nux 
vomica  and  its  alkaloid  strychnia.' 

For  a  notice  of  the  most  important  rules  te  be 
observed  by  the  physician  in  all  cases  of  suspected 
poisoning,  Doth  with  respect  to  the  symptoms  and 
to  the  inspection  of  the  body,  we  must  refer  to  any 
of  the  standard  works  on  poisoning,  or  on  medical 
jurisprudence. 

Under  the  head  of  Irritant  Poisons  may  be 
included,  (1.)  Minerid  Acids,  as  sulphuric,  nitric, 
and  hydrochloric  acids;  vegetable  acids,  and  other 


POISONS. 


tftltP,  w  oxalic  acid,  binoxaUte  of  potash,  and 
tartaric  acid  (in  doses  of  half  an  ounce  or  more) ; 
the  alkalies,  as  pearl-aah  (carbonate  of  potash), 
soap  lees  (carbonate  of  soda),  ammonia  and  its 
sesqnicarbonate ;  and  metallic  compounds,  as 
white  arsenic  (arsenious  acid),  yellow  arsenic  (orpi- 
ment),  corrosive  sublimate,  bicyanide  of  mercory, 
peruitrate  and  other  salts  of  this  metal,  acetate  of 
lead  (sugar  of  lead)  in  doses  of  an  onnce  and 
upwards,  carbonate  of  lead  (white  lead),  sulphate  of 
copfter  (blue  vitriol),  suliacetate  of  copper  (ver- 
disris),  arsenite  of  copper  (commonly  known  as 
Sdw£le's  green  or  emerald  green,  and  much  employed 
under  the  name  of  extract  of  spinach  for  colouring 
confectionary),  tartarised  antimony,  chloride  of 
antimony  (butter  of  antimony),  chloride  of  zinc  (Sir 
W.  Bumett*s  Fluid),  nitrate  of  silver  (lunar  caustic), 
milnhate  of  iron  (copperas  or  green  vitriol),  and 
bichromate  of  potash.  (2.)  Ve^table  Substances, 
viz.,  colocynth  and  gamboge  in  lai^  doses,  savin, 
oroton  oil,  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  common 
elder  {Sandnicus  nigra),  Ac. ;  and  (3.)  Animal  Sub- 
stances, such  as  cantharides,  to  which  mnst  be  added 
the  occasional  cases  in  which  sausages,  and  certain 
fish  and  molluscs,  usually  quite  innocuous,  act  as 
irritant  poisons. 

The  jSanxttic  Poisons  include  opium,  hydrocyanic 
(or  prussic)  acid,  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  cyanide  of 
potassium,  henbane,  especially  the  seeds,  camphor, 
alcohol,  ether,  and  chloroform ;  while  Narcotieo- 
Irritant  Poisons  are  mix  vomica,  meadow  saffron 
{Colchicum),  white  hellebore,  foxglove,  common 
hemlock,  water  hemlock  {Cicuta  tnrosa),  hemlock 
water-dropwort  {(Enanthe  eroeata),  fool's  parsley, 
thorn-apple,  monkshood  or  wolfs  bane,  deadly 
nightshade,  tobacco,  Indian  tobacco  {Lobelia  iftflata), 
the  bark  and  seeds  of  the  common  laburnum, 
the  berries  and  leaves  of  the  yew-tree,  and  certain 
kinds  of  mushrooms. 

The  cases  in  which  there  are  antidotes  q[iialified 
to  neutralise  chemically  the  action  of  the  poison  are 
few  in  number.  For  the  mineral  acids  we  must 
prescribe  chalk  or  magnesia  in  water,  with  the  view 
of  neutralising  them,  after  which  milk  should  be 
given  freely.  The  alixUies  and  their  carbonates  must 
be  neutrahsed  by  vinegar  and  water,  or  lemon-iuice 
mixed  with  water,  after  which  milk  should  be 
given.  For  oocalic  acid  the  antidote  is  chalk  or 
magnesia  in  water,  by  which  an  insoluble  oxalate  of 
lime  or  magnesia  is  formed.  For  arsenic,  the 
hydrated  peroxide  of  iron  has  been  regarded  as  an 
antidote,  out  its  efficacy  is  doubtful.  Vomiting 
should  be  excited  by  the  administration  of  a  scruple 
of  sulphate  of  zinc  in  warm  water,  and  after  the 
stomach  has  been  well  cleared  out,  demulcent  fluids, 
such  as  flour  and  water  or  milk  should  be  given. 
Corrosive  sublimate  combines  with  albumen  (white 
of  egg),  and  forms  an  insoluble  inert  mass ;  nitrate  of 
tUver  is  neutralised  by  chloride  of  sodium  (common 
salt)  dissolved  in  water ;  tartarised  antimony  is  to  a 
great  degree  rendered  inert  by  the  administratioQ 
of  decoction  of  bark  or  gall-nuts;  and  ojcetate  of 
lead  is  rendered  inert  bjr  the  administration  of 
sulphate  of  magnesia,  which  converts  it  into  an 
insoluble  sulphate  of  lead.  In  all  cases  of  sus- 
pected poisoning,  in  which  the  nature  of  the  poison 
IS  not  known,  the  safest  course  is  at  once  to  produce 
vomiting  by  sulphate  of  zinc,  or  in  its  absence  by  a 
dessert-spoonful  of  flour  of  mustard  suspended  in 
tepid  water,  and  to  continue  the  vomiting  till  all 
the  contents  of  the  stomach  are  discharged,  after 
which  milk  should  be  given  freely. 

Most  of  the  known  gases^-except  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  and  oxygen — have  a  poisonous  action 
when  i^ided  into  the  lungs ;  but  in  these  cases 
death,  if  it  ensues,  is  popiuarly  said  to  ,be  due  to 

638 


suffbeatum,  although  strictly 
dies  from  the  effect  of  carbonic  add,  or  solphnretted 
hydrogen,  or  of  any  other  noxions  gaa,  is  in  radity 
just  as  much  |x>isoned  as  if  he  hM  taken  oxa^ 
acid  or  arsemo.      Carbonic  add  (q.  ▼.),  ahhoogh 
seldom  employed  aa  an  instrument  of  murder,  is  a 
frequent  cause  of  accidental  death,  and  in  France 
is   a   common  means   of  self-destmction.     It  is 
established    by   numerous    experiments   that   air 
containing  more  than  onc'tenth  of  its  volnme  «f 
carbonic  acid,  will,  if  inhaled,  destroy  life  in  man 
and  the  hieher  animals.    In  its  pure  state  it  cannot 
be  inhalecC  because  its  contact  with  tiie  larynx 
causes  spasmodic  contraction  of  the  glottis;   not 
when  diluted  with  two  or  more  volumes  of  air,  it 
can  be  breathed,  and  produces  symptoms  of  vertigo 
and  sonmolency;  and  so  great  a  loss  of  muscaiar 
power,  that  the  individual,  if  in  an  erect  or  sitting 
position,  falls  as  if  struck  to  the  ground.     The 
respiration,  which  at  first  is  difficult  and  stertoroos, 
becomes  suspended.     The  action  of  the  heart  is  at 
first  violent,  but  soon  ceases,  sensibility  ia  lost,  and 
the  person  now  falls  into  a  comatose  or  death-like 
state.    Those  who  have  been  resuscitated  nsual^f 
feel  pain  in  the  head  and  general  soreness  cf  the 
body  for  some  days,  and  in  a  few  severe  case^ 
paralysis  of  the  muscles  of  the  fuce  has  remained. 
As  a  winter  seldom  passes  without  several  deaths 
being  recorded  from  coal  or  charcoal  bein^   em- 
ployed as  fuel  in  ill- ventilated  rooms  (often  withosfc 
any  kind  of  chimn^),  it  is  expedient  tiiat  every 
one  should  know  what  is  to  hie  done  in  such  an 
emergencv.    The  patient  most,  of  oomrse,  be  st  once 
removed  from  the  poisonous  atmosphere,  after  irliich 
artificial  respiration  shoidd  be  had  recourse  to.    If 
the  skin  is  warm,  cold  water  may  be  poured  on 
the  head  and  spine ;  while  if  the  surface  be  ecdd,  a 
warm  bath  should  be  employed.    When  respiration 
iM  re-established,  venesection  will  often  reheve  the 
congestion  of  the  vessels  of  the  brain.  The  inhalatkm 
of  oxygen  gas  is  said  to  have  been  of  service  in  tiiese 
cases.    Carbonic  oxide,  which  exists  lamly  in  eoal 
gas,  is  at  least  as  active  a  poison  as  caroonic  add, 
and  is  doubtless  the  principal  canse  of  the  effects 
produced  by  the  inhalation  of  diluted  gas.     Both 
carbonic  acid  and  carbonic  oxide  act  as  powerful 
narcotic  poisonsL       8ulpliureUed  hydrogen^   which 
occurs  abundantly  in  foul  drains,  sewers,  ces8-poids« 
&c.,  is  a  gaseous  poison  whose  effects  are    often 
noticed.    Nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  ssEialleBt 
proportion  of  this  ^  required  to  destroy  hiimaa 
life ;  but  air  containing  only  one  dght-hnndredth 
of   its  volume  of   this   gas  will  destroy  a   dog; 
and  when  the  gas  exists  in  the  proportion  of  one 
two-hundred-and-fiftieth,  it  will  kill  a  horseu      Dr 
Taylor  states  that  the  men  who  were  engaged  in 
the  construction  of  the  Thames  Tunnel  soffered 
severely  from  the  presence  of  i^uM  ns,  whiefa  wm 
probably  derived  from  the  action  <3  the  water  on 
the  iron  pjrrites  in  the  clay,  and  which  issued  in 
sudden  bursts  from  the  wtuls.     By  respiring  this 
atmosphere,  the  strongest  and  most  robosfe  mf^fi 
were  m  the  course  of  a  few  montiis  lednoed  to  an 
extreme  state  of  exhaustion,  and  several  died.     The 
symptoms  with  which  they  were  first  affected  woe 
giddiness,    sickness,  and   general  debQitv;    tliey^ 
became  emaciated,  and  fell  into  a  skate  of  low  fever 
accompanied  by  delirium.    In  this  ease  the  dilntioB 
was  extreme ;  when  the  gaa  is  breathed  in  n  more 
concentrated  form,  the  person  speedily  fsUs,  af^mi^ 
ently  lifeless.      It  appears  to  act  as  a  naiootac 
poison  when  Oonoentrated ;   but  like  n  aarootiofr- 
irritant  when  much  diluted  with  air. 

The  action  of  the  vapour  of  hffdranipkate  ^f 
ammoma^  which  is  also  commonly  present  in  oesa- 
poolsy  &e.,  is  piobahly  moch  tiie  same  m  thai  ti 


POISONS— PorricRS. 


■olpharetted  hydrogen.  The  experimenta  ol  Dr '  for  not  lets  than  three  years.  Moreorer,  whoever 
Herbert  Barker  ahew,  however,  that  theee  matters  attempts  to  administer  poison,  or  other  destructive 
do  not  produce  simUar  symptoms  on  dogs  {On  thing,  to  any  person  with  intent  to  commit  murder. 
Malaria  and  Miaamata^  p.  212).  I  is  guilty  of  felony,  and  is  punishable  in  the  same 

Many  of  the  gases,  which  are  only  found  as  pro- ,  way.  These  offences  are  committed  whether  the 
dncts  of  the  laboratory,  are  in  the  highest  decree  poison  administered,  or  attomnted  to  be  adminis- 
poisonous,  as  arseniurotted  hvdro^:en,  cacodyl,  oc. ;  tered,  does  injury  or  not ;  and  it  is  a  sufficient  com- 
out  as  few  persons  run  the  risL  of  inspiring  tiiem,  it  mitting  of  the  offence  if  tiie  poison  is  put  in  such  a 
is  unnecessary  to  enter  into  any  details  regarding  place  that  a  party  was  likely,  and  was  intended  to 
thenL  I  take  it.    Moreover,  even  though  murder  was  not 

We  now  turn  to  the  consideration  of  the  poisons  intended,  but  merely  an  intent  to  endanger  life  or 
not  included  in  the  definition,  which,  for  want  of  a  inflict  grievous  booily  harm,  still  the  offence  is 
better,  we  have  adopted.  The  poisons  that  may  affect  felony,  and  is  punishable  by  penal  servitude  varying 
the  body  by  direct  introduction  into  the  circiUa- ,  from  three  to  ten  years.  There  is  also  a  similai 
tion,  through  a  pimcture  or  abrasion,  may  be  derived  punishment  for  the  attempt  to  administer  any  stupe- 
from  the  mineral,  the  vegetable,  or  the  animal  king-  >  lying  drug.  Not  only  is  it  a  crime  to  administer, 
dom ;  but,  with  a  few  exceptions  (as,  for  example,  or  attemi)t  to  administer  poison  to  human  beings, 
Wourali  Poison,  q.  v.),  the  i^oisons  derived  from  the  but  if  cattle  are  maliciously  killed  by  poison,  ine 
mineral  and  vegetable  kingdoms  would  act  as  effi-  offence  is  felony,  punishable  by  penal  servitude  of 
cientlv  if  introduced  into  the  stomach  as  if  injected  from  three  to  fourteen  years.  So  to  kill  by  poison 
into  the  circidating  blood  ;  while  the  animal  ]>oi8ons  '  any  dog,  bird,  beast,  or  other  animal,  ordmanly 
act  only  by  direct  introduction  into  the  blood,  and  kept  in  a  state  of  confinement,  is  an  offence  pun- 
are  inert  when  introduced  into  the  stomach.  Poi- '  ishable  by  justices  of  the  peace  with  imprisonment 
aoned  wounds  derived  from  the  dissection  of  recently  for  six  months,  or  a  fine  oi£20  over  and  above  the 
dead  bodies,  commonly  known  as  disneding  looundSy  injury  done.  If  any  person  lay  poison  on  lands  to 
are  occasionally  attended  witli  most  alarming  symp-  kill  game,  he  incurs  a  penalty  of  £10.  And  though 
toma,  and  often  terminate  fatally.  In  the  case  of  tenants  of  farms,  when  entitled  to  kill  the  game  on 
Dr  Pett,  quoted  by  Travers  in  lus  work  On  Coruti'  j  the  estate,  may  kill  hares  without  having  taken  out 
tutional  Irritation,  the  svmutoms  on  the  third  day  any  game  certificate,  yet  they  are  prohibited  from 
were  'a  haj^gaid  and  depressed  couutenance;  killing  such  hares  by  poison.  Moreover,  by  a 
violent  shivermgs,  followed  by  some  degree  of  heat ;  recent  act,  26  and  27  Vic.  c.  1X3,  extending  to 
extreme  alteration  in  appearance;  countenance  suf-  the  United  Kingdom,  whoever  sells,  or  offers  to  sell 
fused  with  redness ;  the  eyes  hollow  and  ferrety ;  poisoned  grain,  seed,  or  meal,  incurs  a  penalty  of  £10. 
some  difficulty  of  breathing,  which  was  sudden,  Whoever  sows,  lays,  or  puts  on  ground  such  poisoned 
irregular,  and  amounting  almost  to  sighing ;  exces-  grain  incurs  a  like  penalty.  The  use  of  poisoned 
Bive  torpor,  and  the  whole  aspect  resembling  one  Seeh  is  also  prohibited.  But  the  sale  or  use  of 
vho  had  taken  an  overdose  of  opium:  on  the  any  solution,  infusion,  material,  or  ingredient  for 
following  day  there  was  extreme  exhaustion  and  dressing,  protecting,  or  preparing  any  grain  or  seed 
feebleness,  and  death  ensued  on  the  fifth  day.'  The  for  agricultural  use  only,  if  xusSd  bona  Jide,  is  not 
symi^toms  produced  by  the   bites   and  stings  of   interfered  with. 

insects,  arachnidans,  and  serpents,  and  the  treat-  i  POITIERS,  earlier  Poietiers,  a  corruption  of 
ment  that  should  be  adopted,  are  described  in  the  the  Latin  Pictavium,  so-called  by  the  Gallic  tribe, 
article  Venkmous  Ahimaus,  Bitbs  and  Stings  of.  the  PictavU  who  inhabited  the  (fistrict  in  Caesar's 
The  ]K)isoued  wounds  derived  from  diseased  animals  time,  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  France ;  it  is 
are  sufficiently  discussed  in  the  articles  Glandsbs  the  capital  of  the  department  of  Vienne,  and  for- 
and  Hydrophobia.  |  merly  of  the  province  of  Poitou.    It  occupies  the 

In  point  of  Law,  the  use  of  poison  to  kill  or  summit  and  slopes  of  a  little  eminence,  round  the 
injure  a  human  being  or  certain  animals,  renders  the  base  of  which  flow  the  Clain  and  the  Boivre,  is 
poisoner  amenable  to  the  criminal  courts.  With  I  encircled  by  walls  and  towers,  and  has  a  very 
regard  to  the  sale  of  poisons,  the  legislature  found  it  |  dull  appearance.  Pop.  25,696.  It  is  connected 
necessary  to  put  some  restrictions  on  one  description  by  railway  with  Tours,  from  which  it  is  63 
— viz.,  arsenic— in  order  to  prevent  persons  obtain- 1  xniles  distant,  and  Bordeaux.  Before  the  revolution. 


ing  it  with  facility,  and  in  such  a  manner  as  to  avoid 
detection.      The   14    and   15  Vic   o.   13,  requires 
every  person  who  sells  arsenic  to  enter  in  his  books 
the  date  and  quantity  and  purpose  of  its  use,  all 
-which  particulars  may  be  inquired  into  before  the 
sale.     It  is  not  to  be  sold  to  one  who  is  unknown  to 
the  vendor  unless  in  presence  of  a  witness  who  is 
Jbdowo,  and  whose  place  of  abode  is  recorded  in  the 
l>ook.     The  arsenic  must  also  be  mixed  with  soot 
or  indigo,  in  the  proportion  of  half  an  ounce  of  soot 
or  indigo  to  a  pound  of  arsenic.    Those  who  offend 
A^aiDst  the  act  incur  a  penalty  of  £20 ;  but  in  ordi- 
nary prescriptions  arsenic  may  be  used  in  the  ordi- 
nary way  by  duly  qualified  medical  practiiioners. 
7here  is  no  restriction  on  the  sale  of  other  poisons 
^lian  arsenic.     The  offences  committed  by  those 
'^Birho  administer  poisons  to  mankind  aie  as  follow  : 
'W'hoever  causes  death  by  poison  commits  murder, 
for  the  means  are  immaterial  if   the  death  was 
o^4ued    by  such  means  with  a  felonious  intent. 
Where  death  is  not  caused,  nevertheless  whoever 
^idnniAisters  poison,  or  causes  it  to  be  administered  to 
^•gmy  person,  with  intent  to  oommit  murder  is  ^^ty 
mi  itionjt  and  is  liable  to  penal  servitude  for  life,  or 


P.  had  an  immense  number  of  churches,  chapels, 
monasteries,  and  nunneries;  even  yet  these  are 
Bufficientiy  numerous.  The  principal  are  the  church 
of  8t  Jean  (now  converted  into  a  Mttsie),  one  of 
the  oldest  Christian  monuments  in  France ;  and 
the  cathedral  of  St  Pierre,  one  of  the  finest  iu 
France,  belonging  (in  part)  to  the  12th  c.,  and  in 
which,  or  in  the  older  edifice  that  occupied  its  site, 
23  councils  were  held — the  first  in  the  4th,  and  tho 
last  in  the  15th  century.  It  also  contains  tlie  ashest 
of  Richard  Coeur-de-Lion.  Its  university,  founded 
by  Charles  VIL  in  1431,*was  also  abolished  after^ 
1789,  but  its  place  has  been  supplied  by  a  univer- 
sity-academy with  two  faculties.  P.  possesses, 
besides,  a  very  celebrated  lyceum,  and  a  variety  of 
other  educational  institutions,  a  public  library  of 
25,000  vols,  and  MSS.,  a  museum,  and  several 
learned  societies,  of  which  the  most  distin^ished 
is  that  for  the  cultivation  of  the  antiqmties  of 
Western  France.  In  and  around  P.  are  numerous 
Celtic  and  Boman  remains.  In  the  vicinity,  Alario 
IL,  the  Visigoth,  was  defeated  and  sUin  by  Clovis 
in  507.  Somewhere  between  P.  and  Tours  a 
great    battie    took    place    in    732;   between   the 


POITOU— POLAND. 


Franks  nnder  Charles  Martel  (<^  ▼.)  and  the  Moors 
under  Abd-ur  lUUim&n.  The  Moors  were  routed 
with  euoimous  vlaughter — 375,000  of  them  (accord- 
ing to  one  old  exaggerating  chronicler)  being  left 
dead  on  the  field;  later  still  (in  1356),  at  Man- 
pertais-le-Beauvois,  about  6  miles  north  of  P., 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  with  some  12,000  or 
14,000  Englishmen  and  Gascons,  beat  60,000  of 
the  trooi>s  of  King  Jean  of  France,  and  took  the 
monarch  himself  and  one  of  his  sons  prisoners. 

POITOU,  a  former  province  of  Western  France, 
is  now  mainly  compnsed  in  the  departments  of 
Deux  Sfevres,  Vendue,  and  Vienne.  It  was  divided 
into  Upper  and  Lower  P.,  and  had  for  its  capital 
Poitiers  (q.  v.).  P.  first  became  a  possession  of  the 
English  crown  when  Eleanor,  Countess  of  P.  and 
Duchess  of  Aquitaine,  after  her  divorce  from  Louis 
VII.  of  France  in  September  1151,  married,  on 
Whitsimday  following,  Henry  of  Anjou,  after- 
wards Henry  L  of  England.  Philippe-Auguste 
reconquered  the  province  in  1204,  ana  in  1295  it 
was  formally  ceded  to  France.  By  the  peace  of 
Bretigny,  in  1360,  it  again  reverted  to  England, 
but  was  soon  after  retaken  by  Charles  V.,  who  gave 
it  to  his  brother,  the  Duke  of  Berri.  It  was 
subsequently  incorporated  with  the  French  crown. 

POITRINAL,  or  PECTORAL,  in  ancient 
armour,  was  the  horse's  breastplate,  formed  of 
metal  plates  riveted  together  as  a  covering  for  the 
breast  and  shoulders. 

PO'LA,  the  most  important  naval  station  of 
Austria,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  havens  in 
Europe,  belongs  to  the  Markgrafate  of  Istria. 
The  town  occupies  an  eminence  overlooking  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  75  miles  by  sea  south  of  Trieste. 
The  bay  is  thoroughly  sheltered,  and  is  spacious 
enough  to  accommodate  the  largest  fleet  The 
town  is  surrounded  by  bastioned  walls,  is  pro- 
tected by  numerous  batteries,  and  is  overlooked 
by  the  citadel  by  which  it  and  the  bay  are  com- 
manded.   Pop.  2500. 

P.,  a  very  ancient  town,  is  said  to  have  been 
fouuJcd  by  the  Colcliians,  who  were  sent  in  pursuit 
of  Jason.  It  was  destroyed  by  Jidius  Caesar,  but 
rebuilt  by  Augustus  at  the  request  of  his  daughter 
Julia,  on  which  account  it  was  named  Pietas  JuUa, 
In  ancient  times  it  had  30,000  inhabitants,  and  was 
a  station  of  the  Koman  fleet.  It  contains  numerous 
and  interesting  Roman  remains,  among  which  are  a 
Iteautiful  and  well-preserved  amphitheatre,  436  feet 
long,  and  346  broao.  A  temple  and  several  ancient 
^tes  are  also  extant.  See  Allason's  AtUiquUi&t  of 
Pola  (Lond.  1819). 

POLA'CCA,  or  POLONAI SE,  a  PoUsh  national 
dance  of  slow  movement  in  J  time.  It  always  begins 
and  terminates  with  a  full  bar,  and  a  peculiar  effect 
is  produced  by  the  position  of  its  cadence,  the 
dominant  seventh  in  the  second  crotchet  of  the 
bar   preceding  the  triad   on  the  third  crotchet  : 


The       characteristic 


features  of  the  polacca  are  sometimes  adopted  in 
a  Rondo,  or  other  lively  and  brilliant  composition, 
which  is  then  said  to  be  written  AUa  PoIclcccu 

POLACCA,  or  POLACRE,  a  species  of  vessel  in 
use  in  the  Mediterranean,  with  three  masts  and  a 
jib-boom ;  the  fore  and  main-masts  being  of  one 
piece  ('  pole-masts '),  and  the  mizen-mast  with  a  top 
and  top-mast.  They  generallv  carry  square  sails, 
though  a  few  are  rigged  with  a  peculiar  form  of 


sail  to  which  the  term  poiacre  is  also  applied.  The 
fore  and  main-masts  baye,  of  course,  neither  topi, 
caps,  nor  cross-trees. 

PO'LAKD,  called  by  the  natives  Poltla  (a 
plain),  a  former  kingdom  of  Europe— renowned,  in 
medieval  history,  as  the  sole  champion  of  Christen- 
dom against  the  Turks ;  and  more  recently,  and  at 
present,  an  object  of  general  and  profound  sympathy 
throughout  Western  Eiurope,  from  its  unprece- 
dented misfortunes — was,  immediately  previous  to 
its  dismemberment,  boimded  on  the  N.  by  the 
Baltic  Sea  from  Danzig  to  Riga,  and  by  the  Russian 
provinces  of  Riga  and  Pskov ;  on  the  E.  by  the 
Russian  provinces  of  Smolensk,  Tchemigov,  Poltava, 
and  Kherson ;  on  the  S.  by  Bessarabia,  Moldayia,  and 
the  .Carpathian  Mountains ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
Prussian  provinces  of  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and 
Pomerania.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south 
was  713  English  miles  ;  and  from  east  to  west,  69S 
miles,  embracing  an  area  of  about  282,000  English 
square  miles ;  an  area  which,  in  1859,  had  a  popula- 
tion of  24,000,000.  This  extensive  tract  forms  part 
of  the  great  central  Euro})ean  plain,  and  is  crossed 
by  only  one  range  of  hills,  which  springs  from  the 
north  side  of  the  Carpathians,  and  runs  north-east 
through  the  country,  forming  the  water-shed  between 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  nvers.  The  soil  is  mostly 
a  light  fertile  loam,  well  adapted  for  the  cereal 
crops,  though  here  and  there  occur  eztensiye  barren 
tracts  of  sand,  heath,  and  swamp,  especially  in  the 
eastern  districts.  Much  of  the  fertile  land  is 
permanent  pasture,  which  is  of  the  richest  quality ; 
and  much  is  occupied  with  extensive  forests  of 
pine,  birch,  oak,  &c  Rye,  wheat,  barley,  and  other 
cereals,  hemp,  wood  and  its  products,  honey  and 
wax,  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  inexliaustible  mines 
of  salt,  and  a  little  silver,  iron,  copper,  and  lead, 
constitute  the  chief  natural  riches  of  the  country ; 
and  for  tiie  export  of  the  surplusage  of  these  products, 
the  Vistula,  Dnieper,  Duna,  and  their  tributaries 
afford  extraordinary  facilities. 

The  kingdom  of  P.,  during  the  period  of  its 
greatest  extent,  after  ihe  accession  of  the  grand- 
duchy  of  Lithuania  in  the  beginning  of  the  15th 
c.,  was  subdivided  for  pur|x)ses  of  government  into 
about  40  palatinates  or  voivodies,  which  were 
mostly  governed  by  hereditary  chiefs.  The  people 
were  divided  into  two  great  classes — ^nobles  and 
serfs.  The  noble  class,  which  was  the  governing 
and  privileged  class,  included  the  higher  nobles,  the 
inferior  nobles  (a  numerous  class,  corresponding  to 
the  knights,  gentry,  &a,  of  other  countries),  and  the 
clei^,  and  numbered  in  all  more  than  200,000 ;  the 
serfs  were  the  merehants,  tradesmen,  and  agricul- 
turists, and  were  attached,  not,  as  in  other  countries, 
to  masters,  but  to  the  soiL  The  serfs  were  thus 
much  le:r>  liable  to  ill-usage,  and  retained  more  of 
human  energ7  and  dignity  than  the  generality  of 
slaves.  The  nobles  were  the  proprietors  of  the  soil, 
and  appropriated  the  larger  iK>rtion  of  its  products^ 
the  serfs  m  many  cases  receiving  only  as  much  as 
was  necessary  for  the  support  of  themselves  and 
their  families.  The  nobles  we^  chivalrous,  high- 
spirited,  hospitable,  and  patriotic;  the  serfs,  mo 
had  also  a  stake,  though  a  small  one,  in  the  inde- 
pendence of  the  country,  were  patriotic  and  good- 
natured,  but  sluggiidi.  The  present  population  of 
the  provinces  included  in  the  P.  of  former  days, 
consists  of  Poles,  Lithuanians,  Qermans,  Jews, 
Russians,  Roumanians,  gipsies,  &a  The  Poles,  who 
number  15,600,000,  form  the  bulk  of  the  populatioa; 
the  Lithuaniaus,  2,100,000  in  number,  inhabit  the 
north-east  of  the  country ;  the  Germans,  of  whom 
there  are  2,000,000,  live  mostly  in  towns  and  in 
villages  apart  by  themselves,  and  bear  the  usual 
chuaoter  for  economy,  indostiy,  and  that  excessive 


POLAND. 


loye  and  admiration  for  the  'Fatherland/  which 
glided  their  politics  during  the  last  days  of  Polish 
independence;  the  Jews  are  very  numerous,  being 
reckoned  at  2,200,000,  but  here  they  are  poorer 
and  less  enterprising  than  in  other  countries;  the 
remainder  is  composed  of  Russians  (who  are  few  in 
nimiber,  excepting  in  some  of  the  eastern  districts), 
Russian  soldiery,  Roumana,  gipsies,  Magyars,  &c. 
Of  Roman  Catholics,  there  are  about  9,400,000; 
Greeks,  United  and  Non-united,  7,900,000 ;  Protes- 
ants  (mostly  Lutherans  and  German),  2,360,000; 
the  rest  are  Jews,  Armenians,  Moslems,  &c. 

History. — The  Poles  are  a  branch  of  the  Slavic 
(q.  V.)  family.  The  name  appears  tirst  in  history 
as  the  designation  of  a  tribe,  the  Polani,  who  dwelt 
between  the  Oder  and  Vistula,  surrounded  by  the 
kindred  tribes  of  the  Masovii,  Kujavii,  Chrobates, 
Silesians,  Obotrites,  and  others.  In  course  of 
time,  the  Polani  acquired  an  ascendency  over  the 
other  tribes,  most  of  whom  became  amalgamated 
with  the  ruling  race,  whose  name  thus  became  the 
general  designation.  Polish  historians  profess  to 
go  as  far  back  as  the  4th  c. ;  but  the  lists  of  rulers 
which  they  give  are  probably  those  of  separate 
tribes,  and  not  of  the  combined  race  now  known 
as  Poles.  At  any  rate,  the  history  of  P.,  previous 
to  the  middle  of  the  9th  c,  is  so  largely  adid- 
terated  with  fables,  as  to  be  little  trustworthy. 
Ziemovicz,  said  to  be  the  second  monarch  of  the 
Piast  dynasty,  is  considered  to  be  the  first  ruler 
whose  history  is  to  any  extent  to  be  relied  upon ; 
and  it  was  not  till  a  century  after,  when  his  de- 
scendant, Micialas  I.  (962 — 992),  occupied  the  throne, 
and  became  a  convert  to  Christianity,  that  P.  took 
rank  as  one  of  the  political  powers  of  £uroj)e. 
Micislas  (as  was  the  general  custom  among  the 
Polish  rulers)  divided  his  dominions  among  his 
sons;  but  one  of  them,  Boleslas  L  (992 — 1025), 
snmamed  'the  Great,'  soon  re-united  the  separate 

S^rtions,  and  extended  his  kingdom  beyond  the 
der,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Dniester,  and 
sustained  a  successfid  war  with  the  Emperor  Henry 
n.  of  Germany,  conmiering  Cracovia,  Moravia, 
Lasatia,  and  Misnia.  He  also  took  part  in  the  dis- 
sensions among  the  petty  Russian  princes.  Under 
him,  P.  began  to  assume  unity  and  consistency ; 
commerce,  the  impartial  administration  of  justice, 
and  Christianity,  were  encouraged  and  promoted; 
and  about  the  same  time,  the  distinction  between 
the  nobles  or  warrior  class  (those  who  were  able  to 
equip  a  horse)  and  the  agriculturists  was  distinctly 
drawn.  Boleslas  was  recognised  as  *  king '  by  the 
German  emperors.  After  a  period  of  anarchy,  he 
was  succeeded  by  his  son,  Casimir  (1040—1058), 
whose  reign,  and  that  of  his  warlike  son,  Boleslas 
IL  (1058—1081),  though  brilliant,  were  of  little  real 
proHt  to  the  country.  The  latter  monarch  having 
with  his  own  hands  murdered  the  Bishop  of  Cracow 
(1079),  P.  was  laid  under  the  papal  interdict,  and 
the  people  absolved  from  their  allegiance ;  Boleslas 
accordingly  fled  to  Hungary,  but  being,  by  order  of 
the  pope,  refused  shelter,  he  is  said  to  have  com- 
mitted suicide  (1081).  Bolealas  IIL  (1102—1139),  an 
energetic  monarch,  annexed  Pomerania,  defeated 
the  pagan  Prussians,  and  defended  Silesia  as^ainst 
the  German  emperors.  A  division  of  the  kingdom 
among  his  sons  was  productive  of  much  internal 
dissension,  under  cover  of  which,  Silesia  was  severed 
from  P.,  though  still  nominally  subject  to  it  Ul- 
timately, Casimir  IL  (1177 — 1194)  re-united  the 
severed  portions,  with  the  exception  of  Silesia,  and 
established  on  a  firm  footing  the  constitution  of  the 
country.  A  senate  was  formed  from  the  bishops, 
palatines,  and  castellans,  and  the  rights  of  tne 
clergy  and  of  the  peasantry  were  accurately  defined. 
His  death  was  the  signal  for  a  contest  among  the 


various  claimants  for  the  throne,  which  was  8])eedily 
followed,  as  usual,  by  a  division  of  the  country,  and 
during  this  disturbance  Pomerania  emancipated 
itself  from  Polish  rule.  About  the  same  time,  tne 
Teutonic  Kni^rhts  were  summoned  by  the  Duke  of 
Masovia  to  aid  him  against  the  pagan  Prussians : 
but  they  soon  became  as  formidable  enemies  to  P. 
as  the  Prussians,  and  conquered  great  part  of  Pod- 
lachia  and  Lithuania.  The  Mongok  swe^it  over  the 
country  in  1241,  reducing  it  to  the  verge  of  ruin, 
and  defeating  the  Poles  in  a  great  battle  near  Wahl- 
statt  From  this  time,  P.  began  to  decline  ;  various 
districte  were  ceded  to  the  markgrafs  of  Branden* 
burg,  while  many  districts  began  to  be  colonised  by 
Germans.  Numbers  of  Jews,  persecuted  in  Western 
Europe  about  this  time,  took  refuge  in  Poland 
Wladislas  (1305-1333),  sumamed  Lohietek  (the 
Short),  again  restored  unity  to  the  country,  judicial 
abuses  and  all  illegally  acquired  privileges  were 
abolished,  and  the  tirst  diet  (1331)  assembled  for 
legislative  purposes.  In  conjunction  with  Gedymin, 
Grand  Buke  of  Lithuania,  a  vigorous  war  was 
carried  on  against  the  Teutonic  Knights,  on  return- 
ing from  which  the  aged  monarch  (he  was  now  70 
vears  old)  experienced  a  triumphant  reception  from 
his  subjects,  who  hailed  him  as  the  *  father  of  his 
country.'  His  son,  Casimir  III.  the  Great  (1333 
— 1370),  greatly  increased  the  power  and  prosperity 
of  P.  by  cultivating  with  zeal  the  arts  of  ^ace, 
amending  the  laws,  and  consolidating  his  territories 
by  profitable  exchanges  with  the  neighbouring 
powers.  In  the  latter  part  of  his  rei^n,  he  was 
compelled  to  defend  sundry  new  acquisitions  against 
the  Tartars,  Lithuanians,  and  Walachians,  which  he 
did  successfully.  With  Casimir,  the  Piast  dynasty 
became  extinct,  after  a  sway  of  510  years,  accord- 
ing to  the  old  Polish  chroniclers.  His  nephew,  Lewis 
the  Great,  king  of  Hungary,  succeeded  him,  by  the 
will  of  the  deceased  monarch  and  the  election  of 
the  diet;  but  during  his  reign,  P.  was  treated  merely 
as  an  appanage  of  Hungary.  On  his  death  without 
male  heirs,  the  crown  fell  to  Jagello  (Wladislas 
IV.),  Grand  Duke  of  Lithuania,  the  son-in-law  of 
Lewis,  who  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Jagdhns 
{q.  V.)  (1.3S6— 1572),  and  for  the  first  time  united 
Lithuania  and  P.,  thus  doublin^^  the  extent,  though 
not  the  population  of  the  kingdom.  However,  his 
successor,  Wladislas  V.,  was  acluiowledged  only  in  P. 
proper,  the  Lithuanians  preferring  the  rule  of  the 
younger  son,  Casimir.  Wladislas  was  also  chosen  king 
of  Hungary,  and  fell  at  the  battle  of  Varna  (q.  v.), 
being  succeeded  in  P.  by  Casimir  IV.  (1444 — 1492), 
who  acain  united  it  to  Lithuania.  Casimir  recovered 
West  Prussia  from  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  com- 
pelled them  to  do  homage  for  East  Prussia,  reward- 
ing the  inferior  nobles,  or  warrior  class,  with  more 
extensive  privileges,  putting  them  on  an  equality  of 
rank  with  the  great  chiefs  of  the  realm,  and  at  the 
same  time  necessarily  oppressing  the  peasantry. 
Manufactures  and  commerce  revived  to  a  wonderful 
extent  during  his  reign  in  the  western  provinces. 
The  brief  reigns  of  his  three  sons  were  marked  only 
bv  the  increased  power  of  the  two  houses  of  the 
diet,  which  had  by  this  time  absorbed  all  but  the 
symbols  of  supreme  authority,  and  had  converted 
P.  from  a  monarchy  to  an  oligarchy  (the  kin^  possess- 
ing little  power  beyond  what  his  personal  influence 
gave  him).  Sigismund  I.  (1506—1518)  surnamed  the 
Great,  the  fourth  son  of  Casimir,  raised  the  country 
to  the  utmost  piteh  of  prosperity.  Generous  and 
enlightened,  he  was  beloved  by  the  masses,  whom 
he  endeavoured  to  benefit  physically  and  mentally, 
while  his  fimmess  and  justice  commanded  the  respect 
of  the  turbulent  nobles.  He  wisely  kept  aloof  from 
the  religious  quarrels  which  distracted  Western 
Europe,  oy  allowing  his  subjects  perfect  freedom  of 


POLAND. 


choice  in  matters  of  reliffion ;  he  was,  however, 
forced  into  a  war  with  Kossia,  in  which  he  lost 
Smolensk;  but  he  was  partly  comriensated  by 
obtaining  lordship  over  Moldavia*  His  son,  Sigis- 
faund  IL,  Augustus,  was  a  successor  worthy  of  him. 
During  his  reign  many  abuses  were  rectified,  and 
.Vhe  extraordinary  privileges  of  the  higher  nobles 
▼ere  curtailed  or  abolished ;  lithuanta  was  finally 
Dined  indissolubly  to  P.,  and  from  this  time  there 
<vas  to  be  but  one  diet  for  the  united  realm ;  each 
retained,  however,  its  own  army,  titles,  treasury, 
and  laws.  Lithuania  was  at  the  same  time  reduced 
by  the  annexation  of  Podlachia,  Volhynia,  and  the 
Xfkraine,  to  Poland.  Livonia  was  conquered  from 
the  Knights  Sword-bearers  (a  community  similar  to, 
though  much  less  distinguished  than  the  Teutonic 
Knights) ;  and  the  power,  prosperity,  and  opulence 
of  the  state  seemed  to  guarantee  its  position 
as  the  most  powerful  state  in  Eastern  Europe 
for  a  long  time  to  come.  The  population-  almost 
ioubled  itself  under  the  two  Sigismunds;  but 
this  dynasty,  whose  sway  was  so  happy  for  P., 
ceased  with  them ;  and  the  warrior  class  having 
tasted  the  sweets  of  freedom,  determined  to  pre- 
serve it  by  rendering  the  monarchy  elective^  The 
election  was  made  by  the  two  chambers  of  the  diet 
— viz.,  the  senate  or  chamber  of  the  chief  nobles,  and 
the  chamber  of  nuncios,  or  representatives  of  the 
inferior  nobles.  He  who  was  chosen  king  possessed 
the  right  of  assembling  the  diet,  but  had  to  give  a  list 
of  the  subjects  to  be  discussed ;  and  the  represen- 
tatives, before  setting  out,  were  instructed  as  to  the 
side  they  were  to  support  The  diet  only  lasted  six 
weeks,  and  its  decisions  were  required  to  be  unani- 
mous; so  that  if  the  liberum  veto  (the  right  of 
forbidding  the  passing  of  any  measure)  were  freely 
exercised  even  b^  a  single  member,  all  legislation 
was  at  a  stand-still.  The  evil  effects  of  these  regu- 
lations ware  not  so  much  felt  at  first,  as  the  members 
were  characterised  by  honesty  and  zeal  for  the 
general  good ;  but  latterly,  when  venality  and  sub- 
servience to  the  neighbouring  powers  began  to  shew 
themselves,  all  the  measures  necessary  for  protecting 
P.  from  dependence  on  her  neighbours  were,  by  a 
few  corrupt  and  treacherous  representatives,  rendered 
of  no  avail.  The  first  elective  monarch  was  Henry 
of  Valois  (IIL  [q.  v.]  of  France),  who,  however,  soon 
abandoned  the  throne  for  that  of  fSrance,  and  was 
succeeded  by  JSwophen  Battory  (1675 — 1586),  voivode 
of  Transylvania,  a  man  of  energy  and  talent,  who 
carried  on  war  successfully  against  the  Russians,  who 
had  attempted  to  sieze  Livonia,  pursued  them  into 
the  very  heart  of  their  own  country,  and  compelled 
the  czar  to  sue  for  peace ;  he  also  subdued  the  semi- 
inde})endent  Cossacks  of  the  Ukraine,  and  to  some 
degree  introduced  civilisation  among  them.  His 
successor,  Sigismund  IIL  (1586 — 1632),  who  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  sons,  Wladislas  VL  (1632—1648)  and 
John  Casimir  (1648—1672),  was  of  the  Vasa  family, 
and  was  the  crown-prince  of  Sweden ;  but  his  elec- 
tion, far  from  cementing  a  bond  of  union  between  the 
two  countries,  only  embittered  former  dissensions. 
These  three  Swedieh  monarchs  were  most  unworthy 
successors  to  P.'s  ablest  king,  as  they  had  neither 
talents  for  governing,  nor  characters  and  sentiments 
congenial  to  a  warlike  nation ;  on  the  contrary,  their 
policy  was  weak,  tortuous,  and  vacillating.  Yet 
they  were  always  quarrelling  with  their  neighbours, 
declaring  war  with  Russia,  Sweden,  or  Turkey,  in 
the  most  imprudent  and  reckless  manner,  and  often 
without  valid  pretext.  But  the  Polish  armies, 
though  as  little  fostered  and  cared  for  as  the  other 
portions  of  the  nation,  were  everywhere  victorious ; 
the  Swedish  and  Muscovite  armies  were  successively 
annihilated ;  Moscow  was  taken,  and  the  Russians 
reduced  to  such  an   abject  condition,  that  they 


offered  to  make  Sigismund's  son,  Wladislas,  their 
czar.  Sweden  made  a  similar  offer  to  another  soa 
of  the  Polish  monarch;  but  the  latter^s  absurd 
behaviour  lost  for  P.  this  rich  result  of  her  aeaJk 
victories ;  and  the  foolish  policy  of  the  whole  uireo 
not  only  rendered  fruitless  all  the  lavish  expenditors 
of  Polish  blood  and  treasure,  but  lost  to  the  conntiy 
many  of  her  richest  provinces,  and  left  her  without 
a  single  ally;  while  their  religious  bigotry  com- 
menced that  reign  of  intolerance  and  mutual  perse- 
cution between  the  various  sects  which  was  the 
immediate  cause  of  P.'s  downfall.  To  shew  the 
I  power  of  the  Poles  at  this  period,  it  will  be  sufficient 
to  notice  that  Great  P.,  Little  P.  (Galicia,  Podolia, 
Ukraine,  &c.),  Livonia,  Lithuania  (including  Samo- 
gitia  and  Black  and  White  Russia,  Polesia,  and 
Tchemigov),  Pomerelia  and  Ermeland,  Coorland, 
Moldavia^  Bukovina,  Walachia,  Bessarabia,  and 
Prussia,  were  either  integral  parts  of  the  Polish 
monarchy,  or  were  subje^  to  it.  The  imprudent 
attempts  of  the  Swedi^  sovereigns  to  amend  the 
constitution  only  excited  the  suspicion  of  the 
nobles,  and  led  to  a  further  curtailment  of  royal 
authority.  During  the  reign  of  this  dynastyv 
Walachia  and  Moldavia  were  snatched  by  the 
Turks  from  under  the  Polish  protectorate ;  Livonia 
witlv.  Rijia  was  conquered  (1 605— 1621),  along  with 
part  of  Prussia  (1629),  by  Sweden ;  and  Branden- 
burg established  itself  in  complete  independence. 
The  Cossacks,  who  had  been  goaded  almost 
to  madness  by  the  most  atrocious  oppression  end 
religious  jiersecution,  rose  in  rebellion  to  a  man, 
put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Russia,  and 
ever  afterwards  proved  themselves  the  most  inve- 
terate enemies  oi  the  Poles.  In  the  reign  of  John 
Casimir,  P.  was  attacked  simultaneously  by  Rnssoa* 
Sweden,  Brandenbui^  (the  germ  of  the  present 
kingdom  of  Prussia),  the  Transylvanians,  and  the 
Cossacks  ;  the  country  was  entirely  overrun ;  War- 
saw, Wilua,  and  Lember^  taken;  and  the  kms 
compelled  to  flee  to  Silesia.  But  the  celebrated 
stair  of  Polish  generals  was  not  yet  extinct ;  Oeju^ 
nieckfs  sword  was  as  the  breath  of  the  destroying 
angel  to  P.'s  enemies ;  and  after  being  defeated  in 
detail,  they  were  i^ominiously  expelled  from  tiie 
country,  nut  in  the  subsequent  treaties,  Ducal  or 
East  Prussia  was  wholly  given  up  to  Branden- 
burg ;  almost  all  Livonia  to  Sweden ;  and  Smolensk, 
Severia  or  Tchernigov,  and  the  Ukraine  beyond  the 
Dnieper,  were  given  to  Russia.  Michael  Wisnio- 
wiecki  (1668 — 1674),  the  son  of  one  of  the  group  of 
famous  generals  above  alluded  to,  but  himself  an 
imbecile,  was  (contrary  to  his  own  wish  [for  he  wbb 
well  aware  of  his  own  deficienoes])  elected  as  their 
next  monarch ;  a  war  with  Turkey,  concluded  by  an 
ignominious  peace,  was  the  chief  event  of  his  reim 
But  the  senate  rejected  the  shameful  treaty,  ue 
Polish  army  was  again  reinforced,  the  Polish  mon- 
arch resigned  the  command  to  John  Sobieski  tiie 
Hetman  (q.  v.),  and  the  Turks  were  routed  with 
great  slaughter  at  Choezim  (1673).  After  some 
dissensions  concerning  the  election  of  a  snooesor, 
John  (q.  V.)  SobiesU  (1674—1696)  was  chosen; 
but  his  reign,  though  it  crowned  the  Poles  with 
abundance  of  the  laurel  wreaths  of  victory,  was 
productive  of  no  good  to  the  internal  administetion. 
As  Sobieski's  successor,  the  Prince  of  Conti  was 
legally  elected,  and  proclaimed  king;  bnt  Hib 
cabinet  of  Versailles  allowed  this  splendid  oppor- 
tunity of  becoming  supreme  in  Eurojte  to  escape ; 
and  Augustus  IL  of  Saxony,  a  prot4^6  of  the  Hooss 
of  Austria,  entered  P.  at  the  head  of  a  Saxon  amty, 
and  succeeded  in  obtaining  the  throne.  AuffOsto^ 
unlike  all  his  predece^rs,  never  seemed  to  identi^ 
his  interests  with  those  of  his  Polish  Rubjects;  mjeA 
though  he  gained  their  hearts  by  proraising  ti 


FOLANB. 


reconquer  for  P.  her  loti  proirinees,  yet  this  pro- 
mise was  chiefly  made  as  an  excuse  for  keeping 
his  Saxon  army  in  the  country,  in  violation  of  the 
poeto  eonverUa  (the  'Magna  Charta'  of  Poland). 
His  war  with  the  Turks  restored  to  P.  part  of 
the  Ukraine   and  the  fortress  of  Kaminiec;  but 
that  with  Charles  XII.  brought  nothing  but  mis- 
fortune.    The  war  with   Sweden  was   unpopular 
in  P. ;  in  fact,  the  Poles  of  the  eastern  provmces 
received  Charles  with  open  arms ;  but  his  attempt 
to    force    upon    them    Stanislas    Lesozynski    as 
their  king  severely  wounded  their  national  pride. 
Augustus  returned  after  the  battle  of  Poltava  (^.  v.) ; 
his  hval  retired  without  a  contest ;  a  dose  alliance 
was  formed  with  Russia,  and  the  Russian  troops 
which  had  campai^ed  in  P.  against  the  Swedes 
were,  along  with  his  Saxon  army,  retained.     The 
Poles  demanded  their  extradition,  but  in  vain;  and 
the  Russian  cabinet  interfered  (1717)  between  the 
king  and  his  subjects,  oompelling  both  parties  to 
sign  a  treaty  of  peace.     This  was  the  commence- 
ment of  P.'s  dependence  on  Russia,  and  her  conse- 
quent decline.      By  the  instigation  of  Peter  the 
Great,  the  Polish  army  was  nduced  from  80,000 
to  18,000 ;  and  the  country  was  further  weakened 
by  the  diffusion  of    effeminacy,  immorality,  and 
prodigality,  through  the  evil  example  and  influence 
of  the  courL     Religious  fanaticism  also  more  fully 
developed  its  most  odious  features  during  his  reign, 
and  the  massacre  of  the  Protestants  at  Thorn  (17^) 
and  the  legalised  exclusion  of  them  from  all  pubhc 
offices  was  the  results     The  succeeding  reign  of 
Augustus  ni.  (1733—1763)  was  of  the  same  char- 
acter; the  government  fell  more  and  more  under 
Russian  influence,  and  its  political  relations  with 
other  countries  gradually  ceased.    Towards  the  end 
of  his  reign,  the  more  enlightened  of  the  Poles,  seeins 
the  radical  defects  of  the  constitution,  the  want  of 
a  strong  central  government,  and  the  dangers  of  the 
Uherum  veto,  entered  into  a  league  to  promote  the 
establishment  of  a  well-organised  hereditary  mon- 
archy.   But  the  conservative  or  republican  party  was 
equally  strong,  and  relied  on  Russian  influence; 
and  the  conflict  between  these  parties  became  more 
embittered  from  the  fact,  that  toe  monarchists  sup- 
ported the  Jesuits  in  disqualifying  all  dissenters 
m>m  holding  public  offices,  wmle  the  republican 
party  supjported  the   dissidenta      The  dissidents 
dated  their  grievances  from  1717,  but  the  ereat 
conflict  between  them  and  their  opponents  did  not 
break  out  till  1763.      The  cabinets  of  St  Peten- 
barg  and  Berlin  now  (1764)  presented  to  the  Poles 
Stanislas  Potiiatowski  as  their  king.      This  ^ss 
insult,  intensified  by  the   incapacity  of  Stanislas 
for  such  an  office,  could  not  be  borne  in  quiet ;  the 
king  and  the  Russian  ambassador  were  compelled 
in  tne  diet  to  listen  to  the  most  spirited  protests 
against    Russian    interference ;    but   the    intense 
national    spirit  of   the  Poles  only  recoiled  upon 
themselves,  for  the  Russian  ambassador   craftily 
incited  them  to  insurrection,  and  kept  aUve  their 
mutual  dissensions.    The  monarchic  or  Czartor3r8ki 
(so  called  because  it  was  headed  by  a  Lithuanian 
prince    of  this    name)    party    had    succeeded    in 
abolishing   the    liberum  veto^  and  effecting  many 
either  improvements;  but  they  at  the  same  time 
more    severely    oppressed     the    dissidents;     and 
Kussia,    finding  tnat    the  political  policy  of  this 
party  was  speedily  releasins  P.  from  her  grasp, 
joined  the  party  of  the  dissidents  as  the  champion 
of  religious   toleration!     Her  ambassador  caused 
the    cluef   leaders   of  the  Catholic    party  to   be 
aecretly  kidnapped,  and  sent  to  Siberia,  and  com- 
rNsIleil  the  republicans  to  accept  the  protectorate  of 
Kussia.      The  *  Confederation  of    Bar*   (so  called 
from  Bar  in  Podolia)  was  now  formed  by  a  few 


Rassia,      • 
PniMia,  • 
Austria,     • 


Xnf.  tq.  MilM. 
•    42,000 


zealous  patriots,  an  anny  was  assembled,  and  war 
declared  acainst  Russia.  The  confederates  were 
supported  by  Turkey,  which  also  declared  war 
a^nst  the  czarina;  and  Russia,  alarmed  at  the 
appeamnce  of  affairs,  proposed  to  the  king  and  diet 
an  alUanoe,  which  both  firmly  refused.  Frederic 
the  Great  of  Prussia,  who  had  formerly  gained 
the  consent  of  Austria  to  a  partition  of  P.,  now,  in 
1770,  made  the  same  proposal  to  Russia,  and  in 
1772,  the  ^rst  pariUion  was  effected  ;  Stanislas  and 
his  diet  claiming  the  mediation  and  assistance  of 
the  other  powers  of  Europe  without  effect.  He  was 
forced  in  the  following  year  to  convoke  a  diet  for 
the  purpose  of  recognising  the  claims  of  the  three 
partitioning  powers  to  uie  territories  they  had 
seized,  but  few  members  appeared,  and  these  pre- 
served perfect  silenca  The  territories  seized  by 
the  three  powers  were  as  follows : 

Pop. 

1,800.000 
13.000  416,000 
27,000       2,700,000 

The  whole  oountiy  was  now  aroused  to  a  full  sense 
of  its  dancer;  and  the  diet  of  the  diminished 
kingdom  laboured  to  amend  the  constitution  and 
strengthen  the  administration  by  a  liberal  code  of 
laws  and  regulations,  which  gave  political  righto  to 
the  cities,  civil  rights  to  the  peasantry,  and  rendered 
the  kingly  authority  hereditary.  In  this  they 
were  encouraged  by  Prussia,  whose  king,  Frederio 
William,  swore  to  defend  them  against  Russia ;  but 
in  1791,  Catharine  IL,  after  great  labour,  obtained, 
by  means  of  intrigues  and  bribery,  the  services  of 
five  (out  of  200,000)  of  the  Polish  nobilitv,  who  pro- 
tested against  the  new  constitution  which  had  just 
(May  3,  1791)  been  established,  and  drew  up  a 
document  at  Targowitz  (q.  v.),  which  they  forwaraed 
to  the  Russian  court  Catharine,  thus  armed  with 
a  pretext  for  interference,  advanced  her  army,  and 
Prussia  provinj|  traitorous,  a  second  fruitless  resist- 
ance to  the  united  Prussians  and  Russians,  headed 
by  Joseph  Poniatowski  (q.  v.)  and  Kosciusko  (q.  v.), 
was  followed  by  a  second  parHlion  (1793)  between 
Russia  and  Prussia,  as  follows : 

bf.  tq.  MOm,  Pop. 

Rnsda,     •       •    96,000  3,000,000 

Prania,       .      •  32.000  1,100,000 

which  the  diet  were  forced  to  sanction  at  the  point 
of  the  bayonet.  The  Poles  now  became  desperate ; 
a  general  rising  took  place  (1794) ;  the  Prussians 
were  compelled  to  relx^eat  to  their  own  country, 
and  the  Russians  several  times  routed ;  but  then  a 
new  enemy  appeared  on  the  scena  Austria  was 
chagrined  at  naving  taken  no  part  in  the  second 
partition,  and  was  determined  not  to  be  behind- 
hand on  this  occasion ;  her  army  accordingly 
advanced,  compelling  the  Poles  to  retreat;  and  fresh 
hordes  of  Russians  arriving,  Kosciusko,  at  the  head 
of  the  last  patriot  armv,  was  defeated ;  and  the 
sack  of  Pra^  followed  by  the  capture  of  Warsaw, 
finally  annihilated  the  Polish  monarchv.  The  third 
and  last  partition  (1795)  distributed  the  remainder 
of  the  country  as  follows : 

SBf.  aq.  Mi]«ft  Fop. 

Rofl'ia,      •       .    43,000  1,200,000 

Prusois,         •        21,000  1,000,000 

Austria,    •        .    18,000  1,UOO,000 

King  Stanislas  resigned  his  crown,  and  died4)roken« 
hearted  at  St  Petersburg  in  1798.  The  subsequent 
success  of  the  French  against  the  Russians,  and  the 
tempting  promises  of  the  Emperor  Napoleou  to 
reconstitute  P.,  rallied  round  him  a  faithful  army 
of  patriots,  who  distinguished  themselves  in  the 
campaigns  of  the  French  against  Russia  and 
Austria;  but  all  that  Kapoleon  accomi)liBhed  in 
fulfilment  of  his  promise  was  the  establishment^ 

sas 


POLAND. 


by  the  treaty  of  Tilsit  (1807),  of  the  Duchy 
oj  WanaWf  chiefly  out  of  the  Pnusian  share  of 
P.,  with  a  liberal  constitutioii,  and  the  Elector  of 
Sajcony  as  its  head.  The  duchy  was  an  energetic 
little  state,  and,  under  the  guidance  of  Pnnoe 
Joseph  PoniatowaM,  wrenchra  Western  Qalicia 
from  Austria  (1809),  at  the  same  time  furnishing  a 
numerous  and  much-valued  contingent  to  the 
French  armies  ;  but  the  advance  of  the  grand  allied 
army  in  1813  put  an  end  to  its  existence.  After 
the  cessions  by  Austria  in  1809,  the  duchy  contained 
58,290  English  square  miles,  with  a  population  of 
about  4,000,000.  Danzig  was  also  declared  a 
republic,  but  returned  to  Prussia  (Februaiy  3, 1814). 


The  division  of  P.  was  re-arranged  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  in  1815,  the  originid  shures  of  Pnusia 
and  Austria  were  diminished,  and  that  part  of  the 
duchy  of  Warsaw,  which  was  not  restored  to  Pnuna 
and  Austria,  was  united  as  the  Hngdom  of  P, 
(see  next  article)  to  the  Russian  empire,  but  merely 
by  the  bond  of  a  personal  union  (the  same  monarca 
beiiut  the  sovereign  of  each),  the  two  states  being 
whoSy  independent  of  and  unconnected  with  each 
other;  and  the  other  parts  of  P.  were  completely 
incorporated  with  the  kingdoms  which  had  seized 
them.  The  partition  of  P.,  as  thus  finally  arranged, 
was  as  follows : 


Bst«fitlnBDf.t^ 
RnnU,  •  S20,600 
Pruf«U,    .      .      86,000 


Aiutria, 


35,600 


ropw  On  t«M.) 
16.000,000  i 

3,000,000 
6,0u0,000 


nrvMiit  Potideal  DMsIoMi 
ProvinoM  of  Goarland,  Witetek,  Kovno,  Vilnft,  Grodno,  Iflnnk,  Kohllev, 

Volhynis,  Kier,  PodolU ;  and  the  kingdom  of  Poland  (q.  t.). 
Posen,  mo»t  of  W.  PniwlH,  and  seTeral  distrlots  in  B.  FruMia. 
GalleU,  BukoTiaa,  Zipo,  Ao, 


whUe,  as  if  in  mockery  of  its  spirit  of  independence, 
the  town  of  Cracow,  with  a  small  surrounding 
territory,  was  declared  free  and  independent,  under 
the  guardianship  of  Austria.  The  czar  at  first 
gave  a  liberal  constitution,  including  biennial  diets, 
a  responsible  ministry,  an  independent  judiciary, 
a  separate  standing  army,  and  liberty  of  the  press  ; 
and  he  seemed  to  take  pride  in  his  title  of  king 
of  P.;  but  his  brother  Gonstantine,  having  been 
appointed  military  governor,  speedily  put  an  end 
to  the  harmony  between  the  czar  and  the  Poles, 
and  drove  the  latter  into  insurrection.  Their  dis- 
content at  first  found  vent  in  secret  societies ;  but 
on  November  30, 1830,  Gonstantine  and  his  Bussians 
were  driven  out  of  Warsaw,  and  a  general  insur- 
rection of  the  people,  headed  by  the  aristocracy, 
took  place.  Frince  Gzartorysu  was  appointed 
president  of  the  provisional  government,  and  mili- 
tary leaders,  as  Kadzivil,  Dembinski,  £em,  Ac., 
were  soon  found ;  but  a  general  want  of  energy  in 
the  administration,  dilatoriness  on  the  part  of  the 
military  leaders,  and  the  checking  of  the  spread  of 
the  insurrection  till  fruitless  negotiations  had  been 
entered  into  with  Nicholas,  were  errors  fatal  to 
the  success  of  the  Poles.  From  January  1831  till 
September  8th  of  the  same  year,  a  series  of  bloody 
conflicts  were  fought,  in  which  the  Prussians  and 
Austrians,  with  pitiable  subservience,  aided  the 
czar.  At  first,  the  Poles  were  successful ;  but  the 
taking  of  the  capital  by  Paskievitch  (q.  v.)  soon 
endea  the  war,  wnich  was  followed,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  by  imprisonment,  banishment,  confiscation, 
and  enforced  service  in  the  Rusuan  army.  From 
this  time,  the  independence  of  P.  was  suppressed, 
and  in  1832  it  was  declared  to  be  an  integral  part  of 
the  Russian  empire,  with  a  separate  administration 
headed  by  a  viceroy  of  the  czar^s  choosing;  the 
constitution  and  laws  were  abrogated;  strict 
censorship  of  the  press  and  the  Russian  spy  police- 
system  established  in  all  its  vigour ;  the  country 
was  robbed  of  its  rich  literary  collections  and 
works  of  art ;  and  the  most  severe  and  arbitrary 
measures  taken  to  Russianise  the  peop^le.  The  out- 
breaks of  1833  and  1846  were  punished  by  the 
^llowB.  Simultaneous  disturbances  (1846)  m  the 
Prussian  and  Austrian  portions  of  P.  were  sum- 
marily suppressed ;  their  leaders  in  Prussia  were 
imprisoned,  and  only  saved  from  death  by  the 
revolution  of  March  1848  at  Berlin ;  and  those  in 
Austria  were  butchered  by  the  peasantry,  who  pre- 
ferred the  Austrian  to  a  national  government.  On 
the  6th  of  November  1846  the  republic  of  Gracow 
was  incorporated  with  Austria.  After  the  acces- 
sion of  the  Czar  Alexander  II.  in  1855,  the  con- 
dition of  the  Poles  was  considerably  ameliorated; 
an  act   of   amnesty  brought   back   many  of  the 


expatriated  Poles^  mad  various  other  reforms  wers 
hoped  for,  when,  in  1861,  another  insorrectioQ 
broke  out.  Its  origin  is  curious,  and  gives  a 
thorough  insight  into  the  relations  between  the 
Poles  and  their  Russian  rulers*  A  large  multitude 
(30,(XX))  had  assembled  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
battle-field  of  Grochow  (where  two  battles  had  been 
fought  in  the  spring  of  1831),  to  pray  for  the  souls 
of  those  who  had  fallen;  they  were  engaged  in 
prayer  and  in  singing  religious  chants,  when,  tbey 
were  charged  by  the  Russian  cavalry  and  gens 
d^armes,  several  of  them  killed,  and  numenms 
arrests  made.  This  event  excited  intense  natiomd 
feeling  throughout  the  country ;  and  other  national 
demonstrations,  attended  with  similar  massacivs 
on  the  part  of  the  Russians,  produced  such  «a 
intense  dislike  to  the  latter,  that  most  of  the  Poles 
in  the  Russian  service  either  resigned  or  deserted. 
The  Russians  immediately  had  recourse  to  the  most 
severely  repressive  measures,  forbidding  aU  assem- 
blages even  in  the  churches,  punishing  those  who 
appeared  to  moiurn  the  death  of  relatives  killed  in 
the  previous  massacres,  or  who  wore  garments  ol 
certain  shapes  or  colours.  The  application  of  the 
Polish  nation  to  the  czar  (February  28)  for  tibe 
re-establishment  of  the  Polish  nationality,  was 
rejected,  but  certain  necessaiy  reforms  were  pro- 
mised. These  reforms  were  on  the  whole  very 
liberal,  and  tended  greatly  to  aUay  the  general 
excitement ;  but  the  Russian  government  was 
naturally  not  trusted  by  the  roles,  and  new 
turbances  broke  out  in  October  of  the  same 
P.  was  then  declared  to  be  in  a  state  of  siege^  and 
Greneral  Luders  appointed  military  ccMumandant 
under  the  Grand  Duke  Gonstantine,  the  nephew  of 
the  Grand  Duke  Gonstantine  above  mentioned.  The 
country  continued  in  a  state  of  commotion  without 
any  very  decided  outbreak ;  attempts  were  made  to 
assassinate  the  Grand  Duke  and  the  other  Russian 
officials ;  and  on  January  13, 1863,  Lithuania  and 
Volhynia  were  also  put  in  a  state  of  sie^  The 
Gommittee  of  the  National  Insurrection  issued  its 
first  proclamation  in  February  1863;  and  a  week 
afterwards,  Mieroslavski  raised  the  standard  of 
insurrection  in  the  north- west,  on  the  Posen  frontieac 
The  Insurrection  Gommittee  continued  to  guide  the 
revolt  by  issuing  proclamations  from  time  to  time ; 
and  many  districts  of  Augustovo,  Radom,  Lublin, 
Volhynia,  and  Lithuania,  were  speedily  in  insurrec- 
tion. It  was  a  mere  guerrilla  war,  and  no  great  or 
decisive  conflicts  took  place  ;  but  the  svmpathy  of 
Ehirope  was  largely  enlisted  on  behalf  of  the  PoJes. 
Remonstrances  £rom  Spain,  Sweden,  Austria 
France,  and  Britain  conjointiy  and  repeatedly, 
Italy,  the  Low  Gountries,  Denmark,  and  Fortugad, 
were  wholly  disregarded  by  the  czar's  minister^ 


POLAND— POLAR  EXPEDITIONS. 


and  mutual  reprisals  continued;  incendiarism  and 
murder  reigned  rampant ;  the  wealthier  Poles  were 
ruined  by  tines  and  confiscations ;  and  the  whole 
populations  of  villages  were  put  to  the  sword  by 
the  Russians;   while  murders  and  assassinations 
marked  the  reign  of  terror  of  the  National  Com- 
mittee.   At  last,  with  the  officious  assistance  of 
Prussia,  and  the  secret  sympathy  and  support  of 
Austria,  the  czar's  troops  succeeded  in  trampling 
oat  (1864)  the  last  embers  of  insurrection.    Great 
numbers  of  men,  women,  and  even  children,  con- 
cerned in,  or  supposed  to  have  favoured  the  revolt, 
were  executed ;  crowds  were  transported  to  Siberia ; 
and  these  vigorous  measures  seem  to  have  restored 
*  tranquillity,  but  it  is   tiie   tranquillity  of   the 
desert'      Contemporary  with  this  last   outbreak, 
symptoms  of  similar  disaffection  were   distinctly 
noticeable  in  Prussian  P.,  but  a  aixoha  force  of 
soldiery  in  the  border  districts,  towards  Russia, 
prevented  any  outbrei^    It  deserves  to  be  noticed, 
that  with  the  exception  of  the  single  revolt  of  1846 
(which  perished  atmost  of  itself),  no  rebellion  has 
ever  taken  place  in  the  portion  of  P.  belonging  to 
Austria. 

POLAND,  KiNGDOK  OF,  a  province  of  European 
Russia,  which  was  united  to  that  empire  in  1815 
(see  previoiis  article),  though  the  title  of  kingdom, 
and  a  peculiar  form  of  g;ovemment  distinguish  it 
from  the  other  provinces,  is  surrounded  by  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  Western  Russia  or  Russian  Poland,  and 
contains  48,863  English  square  mUes,  with  a  popula- 
tion (1859)  of  4,764,446,  of  whom  3,657,140  are  Roman 
Catholics,  599,876  are  Jews,  278,896  are  Protestants 
(Lutherans  and  Reformed),  and  220,823  are  Greek 
Church  (mostly  united).  The  surface  of  the  country 
is  in  general  very  level,  with  now  and  then  a  hill,  or 
rather  undulation,  which  relieves  the  uniformity  of 
the  scene.  In  Radom,  however,  there  is  a  range  of 
hills,  some  peaks  of  which  attain  a  height  of  2000 
feet  above  sea-leveL  The  chief  river  of  P.  is  the 
Vistula,  which  enters  the  country  by  its  southern 
boundary,  and  flows  first  north  and  then  north- 
west, making  its  exit  near  Thorn  ;  two  of  its  tribu- 
taries, the  Wie2)rz  and  the  Pilica,  belong  wholly,  and 
a  third,  the  Ba>?,  partially  to  Poland.  The  Warta^ 
one  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Oder,  drains  the  west, 
and  the  Niemen,  the  noi-th-east  districts.  The 
Vistula  and  the  Niemen  are  wholly  navigable  in  P, ; 
and  the  Bug,  Narew,  and  Warta  are  so  for  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  their  course.  By  these  means 
of  communication,  the  exports  of  the  country  are 
collected  at  Danzig,  Stettin,  Memel,  and  Tilsit,  on  the 
Baltic,  and  the  imports  introduced  into  the  country. 
The  climate  is  severe,  the  summers  being  very  hot, 
and  the  winters  excessively  cold.  The  soil  very 
much  resembles  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  former 
kingdom  of  Poland  (see  preceding  article),  22,645 
square  miles  being  under  cultivation,  and  producing 
magnificent  crops  of  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  and 
buckwheat,  the  usual  leguminous  plants,  hemp, 
tobacco,  flax,  and  orchard-fruits ;  13,330  squai'e 
miles  are  covered  with  forests  of  pine,  birch,  oak, 
ash,  and  other  forest  trees ;  4360  square  miles  are 
laid  down  permanently  in  meadow  and  pasture 
land ;  and  8528  souare  miles  are  waste,  and  covered 
with  heath,  sano,  or  swampb  The  kinsdom  is 
divided  for  administrative  purposes  into  five  pro- 
Tinces;  viz.: 

FkoTtoevn.               Bug.  tq.  VDm.  Pop. 

AugQfttOTO,  •        •       7162  628.010 

Ploek,        .        •           6670  663,148 

Warraw,  •        •    14007  1,699,461 

Badom,     .        .           9535  932,603 

LubUn,  •       .    11,499  953,224 

ToUl,  48,863  4,764,416 

The  population  is  about  97  to  the  square  mile, 


being  more  than  three  times  as  dense  as  that  of  the 
rest  of  European  Russia.     A  large  pro]X)rtion  of  the 
country  population  employ  themselves  in  the  rearing 
and  breeding  of  horses,  cattle,  and  pigs ;  sheep  are 
not  so  common;  but  swarms  of  bees  abound,  and 
there  is  a  large  export  trade  in  honey.    The  popu- 
lation of  the  towns  is  largely  employed  in  wool* 
spinning  and  the  manufacture  of  woollen   doth, 
cotton  and  linen  spinning  and  weaving,  the  produc* 
tion  of  liqueurs,  ou,  vinegar,  glass  ana  earthenware, 
imper,  beer  and  porter,   &c.      The   most  of   the 
commerce  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews.    The  kingdom 
is  directly  governed  by  a  namiestnik  or  lieutenant 
appointed  by  the  czar,  who  is  commander-in-chief 
of  all  the  Hussian  troops  in  it.    The  lieutenant  is 
aided  by  a  secretary  of  state  (at  St  Petersburg),  an 
administrative  council,  and  a  council  of  state  (to 
which  the  ihembers  of  the  administrative  councU 
belong  ex  officio).     The   commerce   (1859)  of  the 
kingdom  with  Pnissia  and  Austria  is  as  follows : 
Imnorts,  £2,741,149;  ex]X>rts,  £2,310,661 ;  the  trade 
with  Prussia  being  nearly  four  times  as  important 
as  that  with  Austria.   The  financial  returns  for  1860 
shew  the  receipts   (including  outstanding   debts), 
£2,855,017,  and  the  expenditure,  £2,492,160.    The 
chief  towns  are  Warsaw  (the  capital),  Lodz,  Lublin, 
Plotsk,  and  Kaliscz. 

POLAR  CIRCLE,  or  ARCTIC  CIRCLE.    See 

AncTia 

POLAR  EXPEDITIONS.  Under  this  head 
are  classed  all  those  voyages  of  discovery  which 
have  been  made  towards  the  north  and  south  poles, 
and  to  the  regions  within  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
CirclesL  The  north  polar  regions  present  a  much 
greater  land-surface  than  those  round  the  south 
pole,  and  on  this  account  possess  a  higher 
temperature,  and  offer  a  more  valuable  field  for 
discovery,  for  which  reasons,  as  well  as  by  reason 
of  their  greater  proximity,  polar  expeditions  have 
been  far  more  frequently  directed  to  the  north  than 
to  the  south. 

Arctic  ExpedUions. — Polar  expeditions  were 
commenced  with  a  view  to  discover  a  shorter  route 
to  the  golden  realms  of  the  East;  but  the  first 
attempts  were  made  by  coastins  sJong  the  north 
of  Europe  and  America.  See  jS^orth-bast  and 
North-west  Passaoes.  It  was  not  till  1603 
that  the  first  arctic  exploring  expedition,  con- 
sisting of  one  vessel,  the  Godspeed,  commanded  by 
Stephen  Bennett,  started  for  a  voyage  of  northern 
discovery;  and  this,  as  well  as  the  succeeding 
expeditions  of  Bennett,  were  devoted  to  morse- 
hunting  rather  than  to  geographical  investigation. 
In  1607,  Henry  Hudson  (q.v.)  was  sent  out  bv 
the  Muscovy  Company  to  penetrate  to  the  north 
pole,  but  he  was  stoppea  about  the  north  of 
Spitzbergen  (in  lat.  81*^  30')  bv  the  ice.  The  suc- 
ceeding voyages  of  Jonas  Poole  in  1610,  1611,  and 
1612,  and  of  Baffin  in  1613,  were  not  primarily 
voyages  of  discovery,  and  they  added  nothing  to 
the  previous  knowledge  of  the  polar  regions;  but 
in  the  expedition  of  Fotherby  and  Baffin  up 
Davis'  Strait,  in  the  following  year,  the  latter 
discovered  a  northern  outlet  to  the  bay  called  by 
his  own  name,  which  was  denominated  Smith^ 
Sound.  Fotherby  was  sent  out  again  in  16 15^ 
and  attempted  to  pass  through  the  sea  which 
lies  between  Greenland  and  Spitzbergen,  but  was 
again  baffled,  and  compelled  to  return,  after  correct- 
ing some  erroneous  observations  of  Hudson.  These 
seven  expeditions  were  all  sent  out  bv  the  Muscovy 
Company ;  and  the  cargoes  of  seal-SKUis,  oil,  teeth, 
fta,  which  they  brought  back  helped  to  defray  the 
expense  of  their  outfit.  For  the  next  century  and 
a  half,  the  attempts  to  reach  the  north  pole  were 


POLAB  EXPEDrnONS. 


not  resumed;  but  the  extraordinary  zeal  m  the 
cauBe  of  naval  discovery  which  sprung  up  in  the 
beginning  of   George  IIL's  reisn,  prmiuced    tvo 
renewed  efiforts.    Tne  first  of  these  was  made  in 
the  spring  of  1773  by  an  expedition,  consisting  of 
two  veaseLs,  under  Captain  John  Phippe  (afterwards 
Lord  Mulgrave),  and  fitted  out  b^  tne  Admiralty 
purely  for  scientific  purposes.    Phipps  sailed  along 
the  shore  of  Spitzbergen  till  he  was  stopped  by  the 
ice  at  Cloven  Cliff;  he  then  coasted  bacVwards  and 
forwards  alon^  the  ice-field  for  nearly  a  month, 
tiying  the  yanous  narrow  openings,  some  of  which 
were  two  leagues  in  depth,  till  he  found  one  which 
took  him  into  open  water.     By  a  sudden  change 
in  the  climate,  he  was  frozen  in,  and  only  extri- 
cated his  ships  after  severe  labour.     The  highest 
point  to  which  he  reached  was  lal  80"  48'  N.,  less 
Dy   49    miles    than    the    most  northeriy  latitude 
attained  by  Hudson;  and  though  he  had  a  more 
than  usual  amount  of  ditiiculties  to  encounter,  yet 
his  failure,  along  with  that  of  Captain  Cook,  who 
attempted  to  reach  the  pole  by  Behring's  Strait, 
but  only  penetrated  to  lat.  70®  45'  N.,  greatly  dis- 
heartened other  explorers.    The  offer  of  £5000  by 
the  British  parliament  to  the  crew  that  should 
penetrate  to  within  1*  of  the  pole,  awaked  no  com- 
petition; but  in  1806,  Mr  Scoresby,  then  mato  of 
a  Greeidand  whaler  from  Hull^  reached  a  point 
directly  north  of  Spitzbergen,  in  lat  81*  3(f  N., 
and  therefore  only  about  510  geo^phical  miles 
from  the  pole.    In  following  expeditions,  the  same 
enteri)riaing    navigator   made    many  geographical 
explorations  of   tfan  Mayen's  land  and  the  east 
coast  of  Greenland,  largely  adding  to  our  know- 
ledge of  the  character  and  products  of  the  arctic 
regions.     The  subsequent  expeditions  of  Buchan 
and  Franklin  in   1818,  of  Clavering  in  1823,  of 
Graab  (Danish)  in  1828,  of  De  Blosseville  (French) 
in  1833,  may  be  considered  as  failures,  as  far  as 
geographical  discovery  is  concerned ;  for,  omitting 
the  French  expedition,  the  fate  of  which  is  stiU 
involved  in  mystery,  none  of  them   reached   so 
high  latitudes  as  the  preWous  English  expeditions. 
After  the  failure  of  Buchan  and  Franklin's  expe- 
dition, the  impossibility  of  ever  reaching  the  pole 
was  generally  accepted  in  this  country  as  fact; 
but  Mr  Scoresby,  in  a  Memoir  which  he  conununi- 
cated  to  the  Wemerian  Society,  endeavoured  to 
prove  that  this  supposed  impossibility  was  by  no 
means  such ;  in  fact,  that  a  journey  to  the  pole 
could  be  made  without  any  enormous  amount  either 
of  difficulty  or  danger.    The  principal  obstacle  to 
be  encountered  being  the  alternation  of  ice-fields 
and  water,  which  preyented  all  advance  either  by 
ships  or  sledges,  Mr  Scoresby  proposed  the  use  of 
a  veliicle  which  could  be  used  either  as  a  sledge  or 
boat,  and  recommended  a  team  of  docs  to  draw  it, 
they  being  lighter  (for  conveyance  by  water,  and 
for  travelling  over  thin  ice)  and  more  tractable  than 
reindeer.    After  some  time,  this  suggestion  began 
to  receive  a  considerable  share  of  attention,  and 
Captain  Parry  (celebrated  for  his  discoveries  in  the 
polar  seas  norta  of  America)  was  put  in  command 
of   an  expedition  fitted  out    in    accordance  with 
Scoresby's  plans.    He  sailed  from  England  in  the 
Ilecla,  on  March  27,  1827 ;  but  it  was  the  22d  of 
June  before  the  exploring  party  quitted  the  ship, 
which  was  left  on  the  north  shore  of  Spitzbergen, 
in  charge  of  a  small  crew,  and  betook  themselves 
to  the  boats ;  and  in  spite  of  the  advanced  season 
of  the  year,  tiiey  in  the  first  two  days  advanced  to 
Sr  13'.     Here  they  began  to  encoimter  many  diffi- 
culties; the  ice-fields  were  small,  and  near  each 
other,  necessitating  a  constant  conyersion  of  the 
veliicle  from  a  sledge  to  a  boat,  which  could  not 
be    effected  without   unloading   it,  an    operation 
636 


which  consumed  much  tima    This  hardship,  how- 
eveE,  was  endurable ;  but,  to  Parry's  intense  chagrin, 
he  discovered,  about  the  22d  of  July,  tiuit  tiia 
ioe  over  which  they  were  travelling  was  moving 
southward   «■    rapidly  as    they  were   advandns 
north,  so  that  on  the  24th,  after  having  travelled 
apparenily  22  miles  in  the  three  previous  days, 
they  found  themselves  in  the  same  latitude  as  on 
the  21st   Under  these  circumstances.  Parry  resolved 
to  return,  which  he  accordingly  did,  reaching  his 
ship  on  the  21st  of  August     The  highest  point 
reached  by  him  was  82^  40^.    This  was  the  first 
and  last  attempt  to  reach  the  pole  over  the  ice;  and 
though  it  can  in  no  way  be  considered  as  finally 
setthuff  the  que8ti<m  of  the  possibility  of  reaching 
the  pole  in  tiiis  way,  it  has  shewn  that  the  only 
way  to  success  is  that  which  was  followed  by  tha 
north-west  passage  explorers,  who  su6&sred  tiiem- 
selves  to  be  frozen  in  during  winter,  in  order  that 
they  might  have  so  much  more  time  in  the  follow- 
ing summer  for  further  advance,  and  continued  this 
system  for  two  or  three  suocessive  years.      The 
failure  of    Parry's  expedition  has  also  suggested 
further  improvements  m  the  arrangements  for  food, 
clothing,  and  transport  across  the  ice-fields,  which 
will  be    found    serviceable  in  case  of   a    second 
attempt    In  1854,  two  American  explorers  jMiased 
through  Smithes  Sound,  and  reached  Cape  Constita- 
tion  in  82*"  27'  N.  lat,  and  aaw  north  of  this  point 
a  boundless  open  polar  sea,  teeming  wi&  AnfinaJ 
life,  which  has  not  yet  been  explored. 

Antarctic  Expeditions. — The  attempts  to  penetrate 
to  the  south  pole  are  of  very  recent  date,  mainly 
because  a  knowledge  of  the  southern  polar  regions 
is  only  valuable  to  Europeans  from  a  scientific  point 
of  view.  Cook  and  Fumeaux  are  the  first  navi- 
gatots  who  are  known  to  have  crossed  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  but  the  former  penetrated  only  to  lat  71**  10^ 
S.,  and  neither  made  any  discoveries  of  importance. 
BeUinghausen,  a  Russian  navigator,  reaped  lat. 
70'  S.  in  1819,  and  two  years  after,  discovered 
Alexander's  Land  and  Peter's  Land,  then  the  most 
southerly  islands  known.  In  1823,  Captain 
Weddell  reached  lat  74''  15'  S.,  long.  34"  16'  W., 
and  saw  beyond  him  an  open  sea  to  the  sontli, 
but  made  no  important  additions  to  our  geographic 
cal  knowledge.  In  1831,  Captain  John  Biscoe 
discovered  Enderby  Land;  and  in  1839,  tiie 
sealing-schooner,  £Uza  Scott,  from  New  Zealand, 
discovered  Sabrina  Land  (q.  v.) ;  and  in  the  same 
year,  the  United  States'  expedition,  under  Captain 
Wilkes,  set  out  on  a  career  of  exploration,  which 
resulted  in  the  discovery  (January  1840)  of  what  he 
with  reason  supposed  to  be  a  continuous  coast-line, 
though  an  ice-ime  of  from  8  to  12  miles  in  widtii 
prevented  him  from  establishing  its  continuity 
beyond  dispute.  The  (supposed  continental)  eo6st 
stretohed  from  Ringold's  KnoU  on  the  e.ist,  to 
Enderby  Land  on  the  west,  and  was  distini^uished 
by  the  absence  of  currents  to  disturb  tbe  ioe- 
Imrrier,  and  by  a  much  less  precipitous  character 
than  belongs  to  islands.  In  1840,  a  French  expe- 
dition, under  D'Urville,  discovered  a  line  of  coast 
lying  directly  south  from  Victoria  (AnstraUa)  on 
the  Antarctic  Circle.  But  the  most  important 
discoveries  of  all  were  achieved  by  Captain  (after- 
wards Sir  James)  Clarke  Rose^  who  made  three 
several  voyages  in  1841 — 1843,  discovering  Victoria 
Land  (q.  v.),  and  tracing  its  coast  from  l&t  71*  to 
lat  78°  l(y  (the  highest  southern  latitude  ever 
attained).  In  Cis  third  voyage,  Rosa  jnoved  that 
the  lands  discovered  by  D'urville  were  islands  of 
inconsiderable  magnitude;  and  his  antarctic  expedi- 
tion has  besides  supplied  much  important  informa- 
tion to  the  students  of  natural  lustory,  geology,  and 
above  all  of  Magnetism  (q.  v.).    Ross  s  geografilucal 


POLARISATION  OP  LIGHT. 


diflooTeriea  hAve  tinoe  been  confirmed;  but  a  lArse 
extent  of  surface  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  stul 
remains  unexplored. 

POLARISATION  OF  LIGHT.  A  ny  of  light 
from  the  sun  or  a  lamp,  which  has  not  been  reflected 
cnr  refractcwl  in  its  course  to  the  eye,  possesses  no 
properties  by  which  one  side  of  it  can  be  distin- 
^[uiahed  from  another ;  if,  for  instance,  it  be  divided 
into  two  bv  a  colourless  doubly-refracting  crystal, 
such  as  Iceland  spar,  these  two  rays  will  be  of  appar- 
ently equal  intensity  in  whatever  position  the 
crystal  be  placed  (Refraction,  Double).  But  if 
the  ray  has  been  reflected  from  a  surface  of  ^lass  or 
water,  it  is  found  tiiat  in  general  the  intensities  of 
the  two  rays  into  which  it  is  divided  bvthe  doubly* 
refracting  crystal  are  not  only  unequal,  but  depen- 
dent upon  the  position  of  the  crystal  with  reference 
to  the  nlane  m  which  the  light  was  previously 
refractecl  or  reflected.  This  is  a  conclusive  proof 
that  the  liffht  has  undergone  some  change  by  refleo- 
tion  or  re&action,  so  that  it  is  no  longer  the  same 
all  round,  but  possesses  ndea  (in  the  language  of 
Newton),  or  (in  modem  phraseology)  is  polarML 
Perhaps  the  most  complete  illustration  of  this  very 
important  fact  is  to  be  found  by  usiuff  two  doubly- 
refracting  bodies — two  small  crystals  of  Iceland  spar, 
for  instance — and  pasting  on  a  side  of  one  of  them 
a  slip  of  paper  with  a  pin-hole  in  it.  On  looking 
through  this  crystal,  the  covered  side  being  turned 
towards  a  bright  body,  we  see  two  images  of  the 
pin-hole,  equally  bright.  Look  at  these  through 
the  second  crystal,  each  is  in  general  doubled; 
we  see  four  images  of  the  pin-hole,  but  these  are 
generally  unequcu  in  brightness ;  and  by  turning 
either  of  the  crystals  round  the  line  of  sight  as 
an  axis,  we  find  that  there  are  positions,  at  right 
angles  to  each  other,  in  which  only  two  images 
are  visible.  If  we  turn  further,  the  lost  images 
appear  faint  at  first,  and  gradually  becoming  brighter, 
while  the  others  become  fainter  in  propoition  ;  till, 
when  we  have  completed  a  quarter  of  a  revolution, 
the  new  images  alone  len^iain,  the  others  having 
disappeared.  From  this  it  follows  that  each  of  the 
rays  mto  which  a  single  beam  of  light  is  decomposed 
by  double  refraction  possesses  ndes,  or  is  polarised ; 
and  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  incapable  of  being 
again  doubly  refracted  in  certain  positions  of  the 
second  cirstaL  Bjr  taking  advantage  of  the  differ^ 
•nee  of  the  refractive  indices  (Refraction)  of  the 
two  rays  produced  by  Iceland  spar,  and  the  dose 
agreement  of  one  of  them  with  that  of  Canada 
balsam,  Nicol  constmcted  his  '  prism,'  which  is  one 
of  the  most  useful  pieces  of  polarising  apparatus.  It 
consists  of  two  pieces  of  Iceland  spar  cemented 
with  Canada  balsam,  and  allowa  only  one  of  the  two 
rays  produced  by  double  refraction  to  pass  through, 
When  we  look  at  a  flame  through  two  Nicors  prisms 
in  succession,  we  find  that  the  amount  of  light 
transmitted  depends  on  their  relative  position.  If 
they  are  nmiiarly  placed,  we  have  the  maximum 
amount — ^viz.,  half  the  incident  light ;  if  they  are 
crossed,  that  is,  if  one  be  made  to  rotate  throiu;h  a 
right  angle  from  the  position  last  mentioneo^  no 
light,  not  even  the  most  powerful  sunlight,  can  pass 
throvgh  the  transparent  combination.  There  are 
certain  doubly-refracting  bodies,  such  as  tourmaline, 
iodosulphate  of  quinine,  &c.,  which  bv  absorption 
stifle  one  of  the  two  rays  into  which  they  divide  a 
beam  of  li^ht ;  and  which  act  therefore  precisely  as 
Kicol's  pnsm  does.  But  they  have  the  ^^reat  dis- 
advantsge  of  coUnaing  the  transmitted  hght  very 
strongly ;  and  this  renders  them  unfit  for  the  study 
of  the  gorgeous  phenomena  of  colour  (perhaps  the 
grandest  displays  in  optics)  which  are  produoied  by 
polarised  light.  But  for  the  verification  of  the 
facts  to  which  we  now  proceed,  a  tourmaUne  or  a 


NiooFs  prism  will  do  equally  well,  and  will  be 
called  the  analyser.  And  first  as  to  the  reflection 
of  light,  a  cause  of  polarisation  first  detected  by 
Malus.  If  we  examine  by  the  analyser  ti^t 
reflected  from  water,  unailvered  glass,  po><hed 
or  varnished  wood,  jet,  Ac,  we  find  wat  it  is  more 
or  less  completely  polarised;  but  that  there  is  a 

rticular  angle  for  each  substance,  at  which  if  light 
reflected  (see  BBVLEonoN)  from  its  surface  it  is 
completely  polarised;  that  is,  can  be  completely 
stopped  by  the  analyser  in  certain  positions,  just  ae 
a  ray  which  has  passed  through  a  NicoPs  prism.  It 
was  discovered  bv  Brewster  uiat  this  angle,  called 
the  polarising  angle,  has  its  tangent  equal  to  the  index 
of  refraction  of  the  reflecting  body :  or,  in  another 
form,  the  reflected  light  from  a  surface  of  glass, 
water,  Ac.,  is  complete^  polarised  when  its  direction 
is  perpendicular  to  that  of  the  corresponding  refracted 
ray.  The  light  reflected  from  the  second  surface  ot 
a  glass  plate  is  also  completely  polarised  at  the 
same  angle ;  and  one  of  the  most  useful  polarisers 
which  can  be  made  is  a  pile  of  thin  glass  plates,  from 
the  surfaces  of  which  li^t  is  reflected  at  the  proper 
angle,  which  is  for  ordinary  window-glass  about  5l^ 
The  light  which  passes  tmrough  the  glass  plates  is 
parttaUy  polarised,  and  its  polarisation  is  more 
nearly  complete  the  greater  the  number  of  plates 
employed.  And  it  appears  that  these  rays  are 
polarised  in  planes  perpendicular  to  eadi  other— i.  e., 
that  the  analyser  which  extinguishes  the  reflected 
ray  has  to  be  turned  through  §0^  to  extinguish  the 
retracted  ray. 

In  order  that  we  may  arrive  at  some  ideas  as  to 
the  nature  of  polarisation,  we  must  consider  on  the 
basis  of  the  Undulatory  Theory  of  Light  (q.  v.)  how 
a  ray  of  light  can  have  sides.  If  we  take,  for  a 
comparison,  waves  of  sound,  as  we  know  that  in 
them  (Sound)  the  particles  of  air  move  back  and 
forward  in  the  line  in  which  the  sound  travels,  we 
see  that  a  beam  of  sound  cannot  possibly  have  sides, 
since  the  motions  of  the  particles  of  air  in  it  are 
precisely  the  same  from  whatever  side  we  consider 
them.  Next  take  waves  in  water,  where  we  see  the 
water  rising  and  falling  as  the  undulation  {not  the 
water)  travels  uniformly  onward  in  a  horizontal 
direction;  and  this  at  once  gives  the  required 
analogy.  So  far  as  phenomena  of  Interference 
(q.  V. ;  see  also  DiFFKAcnoN)  are  concerned,  waves, 
wnether  in  air  or  in  water,  present  them,  so  that 
they  meruly-  shew  us  that  light  depends  on  undula- 
tions, but  not  the  kind  of  undulation.  But  when, 
from  the  facts  of  polarisation,  we  find  that  a  ray  of 
light  can  have  sides,  we  see  that  the  vibrations  of 
the  luminiferous  medixmi  must  be  transverse  to  the 
direction  of  the  ray.  Common  ligUt,  then,  consists 
of  vibrations  which  take  place  indifferently  and  in 
succession  in  all  directions  transverse  to  that  of  the 
ray ;  while  light  whioh  is  completely  polarised  has 
its  vibrations  limited  to  a  particular  transverse 
direction.  A  Nicol's  prism  allows  no  light  to  pass 
through  it  except  that  which  vibrates  in  a  particular 
transverse  direction,  depending  upon  the  position  of 
the  axes  of  the  pieces  of  Iceland  spar  of  whicQi  it  is 
made.  li^ht  wtiioh  has  passed  throu^  one  Nicol't 
prism  is  silted  so  as  to  contain  none  but  such  trans* 
verse  vibrations,  and  will  of  course  pass  freely 
through  a  second  prism,  or  be  completely  or  partially 
stoppeid  by  it;  according  as  the  two  pnsms  are 
similarl5[  situated,  or  turned  so  that  the  directions 
of  the  vibrations  they  can  transmit  are  inclined  at 
right  angles,  or  at  any  other  aagla 

it  is  not  yet  settled  what  the  direction  of  these 
vibrations  is  in  any  particular  case ;  whether  they 
take  place  tn,  or  perpendicular  to,  the  plane  of 
polarisation ;  and  the  point  is  extremely  important 
m  the  theory  of  the  subject,  though  not  to  the 

or 


POLAHISATION  OP  LIGHT. 


expteoatiuQ  of  the  oT<]iD&r]>  eipeTimental  remits. 
To  eK|>Uin  tlie  iiatnre  of  this  diSicultj,  we  merely 
mention  the  Bimple  cue  of  pnlarUation  by  reflection 
At  ft  glass  pl&te.  Do  the  Tibnttions  of  the  reflected 
i»y  take  place  wr/wnrficuior  to  the  plane  of  reflec- 
tion (i.  e,,  parallel  to  the  reflecting  enrface),  or  do 
they-  take  place  in  the  plane  of  reflectioQ  T  8ome 
high  aiitharitiea  are  in  favour  of  the  latter  hypo- 
thegis,  but  the  ^neml  opinion  of  icientifie  men  at 

5 resent  unqneotionably  leana  to  the  former.  Muiy 
elicata  expetimeata  have  been  made  to  decide  the 
qnestioa,  but  their  reaulta  have  been  irreconcilable 
with  each  other.  From  the  results  which  we  have 
juM  UTived  at,  it  is  evident  that  the  oscillations,  or 
vibrations  of  the  limiiDiferom  medium,  of  which 
light  consists,  are  similar  to  those  of  the  bob  of  a 
Pendulum  (q.  v.).  the  ray  in  this  case  being  niDposed 
to  proceed  vertically  downwards.  Polajtsed  Lgbt 
coBSists  of  vibrations  snalogons  to  those  of  the  orai. 
nary  pendulum,  backward  and  forward  in  a  line. 
But  we  have  seen  that  any  motion  of  the  pendalnm 
may  be  coni;K>unded  of  two  such  roatioos  in  plane* 
perpendicular  to  each  other.  This  is  analOBons  to 
the  decomposition  of  common  light  by  a  doublv- 
refracting  crystal  into  two  rays  palarised  at  rigbt 
Angles.  But  wa  find  in  nature,  and  can  produce 
artificially,  motions  of  the  luminiferous  medium 
resembling  exactly  the  elliptic,  and  circular,  motions 
of  the  (conical)  pendulum.  They  occur  in  nature  in 
all  cases  of  redectioD  from  metollio  surfaces,  and 
also  from  the  snrfaces  of  highly  refractive  bodies, 
inch  as  diamond,  &c  The  easiest  artiflcial  method 
of  procuring  them  is  to  allow 
*L  pulnrised  light  to  pass  through 
a  thin  plate  of  a  doubty-refract- 
ing  crystal,  such  m  a  film  of 
mica.  Thus,  if  OA  be  the  direc- 
tion of  vibration  of  the  potarised 
light,  the  ray  moving  perpendi- 
f  cularly  to  the  paper,  Oo,  Ob, 
"  the  directions  (at  right  angles 
to  efwh  other)  of  vibration  of 
the  two  rays  into  which  it  is 
divided  by  the  mica,  we  have 
only  to  let  fall  from  A  perpen. 
diculars  on  Oa  and  Ob  to  deter- 
mine the  extent  of  the  resolved 
vibrationB  in  these  directions. 
How  if  the  two  rays  moved 
equally  rapidly  through  the  mica,  tbey  would 
■imply  recumbine  on  leaving  it  into  a  single  plane 
polarised  ray,  whose  vibrations  would  be  repre- 
sraited  by  OA  aa  before  But,  in  general,  one 
of  the  rays  is  retarded  more  than  the  other,  and 
the  combmation  of  two  such  oscillations  is  seen  by 
geometrical  considerations  to  give  on  ellipse  whose 
centre  is  at  0,  and  which  touches  each  side  of  the 
rectangle  of  which  An  and  A6  are  half  sides.  The 
limiting  forms  of  these  ellipses  are,  of  course,  the 
diagonals  of  the  rectangle  ;  so  that  there  are  two 
cases  for  the  lii^ht  remaining  plane  polarised  after 
passing  through  the  mica,  for  an  infinite  number  in 
which  it  will  be  elliptically  polarised.  Also  the 
difference  of  retardation  of  the  two  rays  may  be 
Boch  as  to  correspond  to  a  description  of  these 
ellipses  either  right-handedly  or  the  opposite.  In 
particular  cases  the  ellipse  niay  be  a  cirele  ;  then  it 
u  obviona  that  the  rectangle  mast  become  a  sqnare, 
that  the  directions  of  vibration  of  tiie  two  rays  in 
the  mica  must  be  equally  inclined  to  that  li  the 
original  polarised  ray,  and  that  one  ray  must  be 
retarded  an  odd  number  of  quarter  oscilUtions  mora 
than  the  other.  If  it  be  1,  6,  9,  Ac,  quarter  oscilla- 
tions, the  rotation  is  in  one  direction ;  if  3,  7, 11,  &C, 
it  is  in  the  opposite.  Circularly  polarised  light 
OMiaot  be  distu^uiehed  by  the  eye,  even  with  the 


FifrL 


help  of  a  Nicol's  prism,  from  common  light;  bittby 
the  interposition  of  a  thin  plate  of  a  donbly-Tefract- 
ins  crystal,  phenomena  are  produced  which  cmuncm 
light  cannot  give.  Before  we  le*ve  this  part  ol  the 
subject,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  cumpoiition  of 
two  equal  and  opposite  circular  vibrationa  prodoca 
a  plane  vibration,  whose  plane  depends  upon  the 
simultaneous  positions  of  the  revolving  bodies  is 
their  oirculor  orbits.  Henoa  a  plane  polarised  laj 
may  always  be  considered  as  nuide  up  of  two  cin». 
larly  polarised  ntys,  and  if  thueo  pass  through  4 
medium  which  retards  one  more  than  tJiu  other,  the 
plane  of  polarisation  of  their  resultant,  when  tlie; 
leave  the  medium,  will  in  general  not  be  the  same  *s 
that  of  the  incident  lAT.  In  other  wotda,  the  plane 
of  polarisatitm  will  nave  been  caused  to  rotata 
throDgh  a  certain  angle,  which  will  be  proportiaDal 
to  the  difference  of  retardation  of  its  circular  cem- 
ponents.  This  is  the  explanation  of  what  Biot 
called  BoUU»rji  Folaritation  in  quarts,  turpentine, 
sugar,  Ac,  and  of  the  rotation  of  Uu  plane  of  polar- 
isatioQ  discovered  by  Faraday  when  a  polarised 
ny  passes  through  a  transparent  body  nnder  the 
action  of  a  magnet. 

In  the  first  of  these  cases,  the  retardatioD  is  due 
to  molecular  heterogenei^ ;  in  the  second,  it 
depends  upon  molecnlai  motions  produced  by  the 
magnet.  The  effect  is  greater  in  each  case  ths 
more  refrangible  the  rays  ;  and  therefore,  when  the 
light  which  has  passed  through  the  medium  a 
examined  with  an  analyser,  the  successive  coloun 
of  the  spectrum  are  cut  off  each  at  a  different  angle, 
and  the  observed  tint  is  that  compounded  lA  tlusa 
which  remain.  The  Saceharimet^  (q.  v.),  lot  the 
determinatiOD  of  sagar  in  a  Uquid,  is  on  application 
of  the  first  case ;  the  second  has  not  as  yet  b«a 
applied  to  any  practical  purpose,  but  it  has  gicen 
most  valuable  infonuation  aa  t4>  the  ultimate  natim 
of  m^^netisoi. 

When  polaiised  light  iwsses  throDgh  a  slioeof 
any  uniaxal  double-refracting  crjvtal,  nearly  in  the 
direction  of  its  axis,  it  is  obvious  that  the  dlffeiencs 
of  retardation  of  the  two  rays  into  which  it  ■• 
divided  will  depend  only  upon  (1)  their  refrangitshty 
and  {2)  their  inclination  to  the  axis  of  the  cij-staL 
Hence,  if  we  suppose  the  light  to  be  homogeneoui, 
the  effects  of  interference,  and  subsequent  afqilica- 
tion  of  the  analyser,  must  be  to  produce  appearanoes 
of  bright  and  dark  spaces,  symmeffically  disposed 
ronnd  the  axis ;  that  la,  a  series  of  ctmoentrie 
circular  rings.  The  superposition  of  the  separate 
sets  of  rings,  for  each  colour  of  the  Bpectrum,  po 
duces  the  appearance  actually  observed  ;  a  aenes  ri 
coloured  rings,  like  those  known  ss  Newton's  Rinp, 
due  to  Inteilerence  (q.  v.).  Besides  theae,  bowevrr, 
there  is  a  daric  or  bright  cross,  conaiatiiig  tA  t»a 


Kg.  2.— Uniaxal  Ciystal;  Blatk  CniN. 


POLARISATION  OP  UGHT— POLARITY. 


doe  to  th«  ab«olat«  BtoppBge  I^  polaruer  or 
HuIyBer,  when  placed  la  pnaitioDS  90°  from 
■ytnmetiy,  of  kll  light  Those  vibration!  are  eie- 
cnted  in  the  principal  planea  of  the  potariMr  and 
aoalyger.  A  similar  explaastian  appliea  to  anjr 
other  cose.  The  tysteni  of  coloured  rings  thus 
produced  la  one  of  the  mogt  Bplendid  results  of 
optical  combinations  yet  produced ;  and  may  be 
seen  by  any  one  by  the  help  of  such  simple  appar- 
atos  aa  two  fragments  of  window-gloss  and  a  piece 
of  clear  ice  from  the  surface  of  a  pond.  In  undia- 
tnrbed  freezing,  the  axis  of  tho  ice  ci^stal  ia 
perpendicalor  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  and  the 
cake  of  ice  is  therefore,  as  it  were,  cat  for  our 
purpose.  If  Lght  be  reflected  at  an  angle  of  about 
04"  from  the  Sat  piece  of  glass,  pass  perpendiculariy 
through  the  ice,  and  lie 
again  reflected  (at  54°) 
from  the  second  piece 
of  glaaa,  the  phenomena 
above  described,  and 
rudely  represented  in 
the  anoeied  cuts,  wilt 
be  at  oDoe  seen,  the 
a[)pearances  varpu^ 
with  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  the  planes  in 
which  the  reflections  I 
take  place  from  the 
pieces  of  glass.  If 
these  pUnes  be  at  right 
angles  to  each  other, 
we  lutTe  the  block  cross  as  in  the  first  figure ; 
if  parallel,  the  white  cross  as  in  the  second. 

If.  instead  of  a  uninial  crystal,  a  biaxal  oryital, 
such  as  nitre  or  arragouite,  be  employed,  the  system 
of  coloured  rings  and  dark  brudies  is  more  complex ; 
symmetry  now  requiring  their  arrangement  about 
the  lico  optic  axes.  The  general  appearance  of  the 
rings  and  bnishea  depends  now,  oot  only  on  the 
relative  position  of  the  polariaer  and  analyser, 
but  also  on  the  position  of  the  crystal  (which  ia 
no  longer  symmetrical  about  an  aiis)  with  refereoce 
to  these  planes.  The  two  following  figures  illus- 
trate the  nature  of  the  change  due  to  an  alteration 
of  the  position  of  the  crvatal,  the  polariaer  and 
•nalyser  being  fixed  ia  pWes  at  right  angles  to 
each  other. 


Fig.  4.— Biaial  Crystal ;  Black  Cro«. 


By  employinfc  oircolariy  or  elliptically  polarised 
light,  these  appearances  may  be  «uU  furtber  varied, 
bat  we  cannot  aoter  into  deUill. 


Every  donbly-refractinE  body  produces  a  change 
upon  polarised  light  which  passes  through  iL 
Hence  the  application  of  the  noloriser  and  auslyser 
(uBu^ly  glass  mirrors,  or  Nicol's  prisms)  to  the 
microscope  is  often  of  very  great  use  in  detecting 
crystalline,  and  other  structural  peculiarities.  Solid 
bodies,  such  OS  glass,  which  ore  singly  refractive, 
beoome  doubly  refractive  when  strained  either  by 
external  forces  or  by  nnequal  heatine.  A  per- 
maneut  state  of  strain  is  produced  in  j^lass  when  it 
ia  cooled  (juickly.  All  these  phenomeua  are  beauti- 
fully exhibited  by  polarised  light.  Again,  the 
application  of  polarised  light  ii  eometimoa  of  great 
importance  ia  qnolitative  analysis,  where  od^  an 
exceedingly  small  quantity  of  a  subetance  is  pro- 
curable for  examination,  by  enabling  the  chemiut 
to  determine  whetiier  a  minute  cryatal  ia  doublf 
pafraotive  or  not 

A  practical  application  of  a  polarising  prism  may 
be  mentioned.  In  salmon  spearing  it  is  often 
exceedingly  difficult  to  see  the  liah  at  the  bottom  of 
the  stream,  on  account  of  the  glare  of  hght  reflected 
from  the  surface.  But  as  this  light  is  always 
partially,  sometimes  wholly  polarise^  a  mat  part 
of  it  ma^  be  arrested  by  the  analyser  held  in  a 
proper  azimuth  ;  while  the  light  escaping  from  the 
~ater  will  suffer  little  loss. 

The  light  of  the  sky.  being  mainly  reflected  light, 
IS  of  course  partially  polarised.  The  investigation 
of  this  subject  has  been  moat  ably  conducted  by 
Brewster  (7Voiw.  if.J.f.,  1862— 1863). 

FOLA'RITT.  The  north  and  south  poles  of  the 
earth's  oxis  ore  teima  familiar  to  all ;  and  so  are  the 
derived  terms  of  the  north  and  south  poles  of  a 
Magnet  (q.  v.).  A  right-handed  and  a  left-handed 
corkscrew,  or  helix,  are  also  perfectly  well  known. 
The  distinction  between  the  members  of  any  of 
these  pain  leads  us  to  the  consideration  of  polarity, 
which  it  is  difficult  to  deline  exce^it  by  iUuetra- 
tions.  In  the  cose  of  the  helix,  it  is  the  diflerence 
between  right-handed  and  left-handed ;  not  as  in 
a  magnet,  the  difference  between  the  two  ends. 
If  we  look  closely  into  the  question,  we  find  tliat 
it  is  impossible  to  define  the  term  'right-handed 
rotation  in  the  abstract  We  may  doline  it  m 
being  the  some  os  that  of  the  hands  of  a  watch,  or 
that  of  the  apparent  motion  of  the  celestial  bodie* 
•bout  us  in  Init  northern  heminohtre;  but  to  a  person 
at  the  equator,  or  to  one  who  hod  never  seen  > 
watch,  such  comparisons  would  be  without  meaning. 
In  fact,  it  is  impossible  to  give  o  definition  of  even 
such  o  simple  term  as  ripit,  down,  tatt,  Jtc,  inde- 
pendent of  reference  to  the  motion  or  position  of 
some  external  object.  But  there  is,  in  many  cases, 
an     important    scieutilio    reality    underlying,    and 

Ehaps  causing  these  difficulties.  To  a  spectator 
king  down  upon  the  north  pole  of  the  euth,  the 
axial  rotation  would  appear  to  be  left-handed,  or 
apposite  to  that  of  the  hands  of  a  watch ;  while 
at  the  south  pole  the  ap])earance  is  the  reverse.  In 
fact,  as  motion  in  a  horizontal  straight  line  appears 
to  his  from  right  to  left,  or  from  left  to  nght,  accord- 
ing to  the  Bide  on  which  the  spectator  stands ; 
BO  motion  in  a  curve  appean  to  be  ri[;ht-hauded  or 
left-handed,  according  to  the  aide  of  its  plane  from 
which  it  ia  locked  at.  And  this  is  now  known  to 
be  the  cause  of  the  diSerence  of  poles  in  a  magnet ; 
the  hypothesis  of  two  magnetic  fluids  ia  disniissed, 
and  Ampire's  explanation,  that  in  a  magnet  curreuta 
of  electricity  revolve  round  each  particle  in  planes 
perpendicnlar  to  the  direction  of  magnetisation,  at 
once  accounts  for  the  dissimilarity  of  the  poles. 
Such  a  figure  as  this  gives  a  clear  idea  of  the  subject. 
A  Uttle  electric  current,  such  as  that  in  the  flgiire, 
in  which  positive  electricity  posses  in  the  direction 
indicated  by  the  arrow-head,  acta  upon  extenud 


POLDER— POLEAXEL 


bodies  exactly  as  a  small  magnet  would  whose  axis 
is,  as  in  the  cut*  perpendicular  to  its  plane,  the 

arrow-head  representing  the  north 
pole ;  that  is,  the  pole  which  turns 
towards  the  SatUh.  Again,  an 
electric  current  passing  in  a 
straight  wire  would  at  first  sight 
appear  to  be  altogether  indepen- 
dent of  polarity ;  yet  it  is  found 
that  sucn  a  current  movinff  in 
the  straight  line  in  the  out^  in  the  direction  of  the 
arrow>head,  tends  to  make  the  fior^  pole  of  a 
msgnet  rotate  round  it  in  the  direction  indicated 
by  the  arrow-head  in  the  circle.  Again,  there 
are  certain  crystals,  which,  when  heated,  become 
electric  One  end  of  a  prism  of  tourmaline,  for 
instance,  takes  i>ositiye,  the  other  negative  elec- 
tricity. Also  certain  crystals  of  quartz  cause  a 
ra^  of  Polarised  Light,  which  passes  along  their 
axis,  to  rotate  rijB;ht-lu^ndedly;  otners  left-handedly. 
The  difference  in  these  cases  is  due  to  molecular 
arrangement,  other  effects  of  which  are  easily  seen 
in  the  tourmaline,  in  the  dissymmetry  of  the  two 
terminals  of  the  prism,  and,  in  quartz,  in  the  posi- 
tion of  certain  small  faces  of  the  crystal,  so  that  a 
preliminary  inspection  enables  us  to  predict  the 
direction  of  the  effect  to  be  obtainea  from  any 
particular  specimen.  The  term  has  various  other 
applications,  amongst  the  least  defensible  of  which 
la  that  to  light    See  PoLABis^Tioir. 

PO'LDEB,  a  word  of  frequent  occurrence  in  the 
topography  of  the  Netherlands,  is  the  name  given 
to  a  piece  of  land  below  the  level  of  the  sea  or 
nearest  river,  which,  being  originally  a  morass  or 
lake,  has  been  drained  and  brought  under  culti- 
yation.  The  usual  mode  of  procedure  is  to  form 
an  embankment  and  canal  of  sufficient  height  to 
command  a  run  towards  the  sea  or  a  river,  and  when 
carried  quite  round,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Haarlem 
Lake,  tne  canal  girdle  is  called  the  Kingvaart. 
At  one  or  more  points  along  the  embankment^ 
apparatus  for  lifting  water,  such  as  the  screw  of 
Anshimedes,  the  inclined  scoop  or  Eckliardt  wheel, 
or  pumps  of  large  diameter,  is  placed,  and  worked 
by  wind  or  steam-power.  If  the  lake  deepens 
towards  the  centre,  it  is  necessary  to  have  several 
embankments  and  canals,  the  one  within  the 
other.  These  are  formed,  at  different  levels,  as  the 
water-surface  becomes  lessened,  connection  being 
maintained  on  to  the  outer  canal,  which  secures  a 
run  for  the  water  which  is  drained  off.  In  the 
Schermermeer  polder.  North  Holland,  there  are  four 
levels  of  canats,  the  land  between  them  forming 
long  parallelograms.  The  drainage  water  of  the 
inner  space  is  ufted  into  the  first  canal ;  that,  again, 
with  the  drainage  of  the  second  section,  is  thrown 
into  the  second  canal ;  and  so  on  until  the  exterior 
one  is  reached,  and  a  fall  obtained.  The  polders 
in  the  Netherlands  are  so  numerous,  that  we  can 
only  mention  a  few  of  the  most  important.  The 
Beemster,  one  of  the  richest  distncts  of  North 
Holland,  until  1612  a  sheet  of  water,  is  crossed  at 
right  anffles  by  long  shady  avenues,  and  dotted  with 
comfortable  farmhouses  and  fruitful  orchards.  In 
1863  the  pop.  amounted  to  3589,  possessing  5885 
head  of  homed  cattle,  21,135  sheep,  oc.  The  Zype, 
the  Schermer,  and  the  Purmer  are  also  fine  polders, 
bat  the  most  recent  and  strikin?  instance  is  the 
drained  Haarlem  Lake  (q.  v.).  ^  The  50,000  acres  of 
land  thus  obtained,  supported,  in  1863,  a  population 
of  7825,  possessing  2336  horses,  7661  head  ot  homed 
cattle,  13,807  sheep,  &c 

POLE,  Cardinal  RBai3rAU>,  bom  in  Stafford- 
shire in  the  year  1500,  was  the  son  of  Sir  Richard 

Pole,  Lord  Montacute,  by  Margaret,  Countess  of 
610 


Salisbury,  daughter  of  the  Duke  of  CUrenoe,  iJie 
brother  of  Edward  IV.    His  early  education  vm 
received  from  the  Carthusians  at  Sheen,  whence, 
being  liberally  provided  for  by  the  kins  his  relative, 
he  passed  to  Magdalen  College,  Oxford,  and  havioff 
received  deacon^s  orders,  was  advanced  to  temSi 
valuable  preferments,  through  the  favour  of  the 
king,  Henry  VIIL    For  the  further  prosecation  of 
his  studies,  he  went  to  the  university  of  Paris,  and 
thence  to  Padua,  where  he  formed  the  frieiid>hip 
of  a  distinguished  group  of  scholars  and  friends,  aU 
of  whom  siibsequently  took  a  leading  part  in  piiUie 
affairs — Contareni,  Bemboj  Sadoleto,  and  othen 
In  1525,  he  returned  to  England,  where  the  highest 
ecclesiastical  dignities  awaited  his  acceptance.    Bat 
it  was  about  wis  time  that  Henry  had  resolved 
upon  the  divorce  from  his  queen  Catharine,  and 
P.  not  only  withheld  his  assistance  in  carrying  ost 
the  project,  but  provoked  the  undying  resentment 
of  tne  king  by  his  well-known  treatise,  De  UiMi 
EcdeHastiolL    His  preferments  and  pension  wei« 
withdrawn,  and  i>reparation8  were  made  for  his 
impeachment.    This,  and  probably  still  more  ex- 
treme measures,  he  evaded  by  withdrawing  from 
England.    The  king's  resentment  fell  instead  upon 
his    elder   brother,    and  upon   his    aged  mother^ 
the  Countess  of  Salisbuiy.     During  the  rest  of 
Henry's  reign,  P.  remained  in  exile.     The  pope,  for 
the  maintenance  of  whose  authority,  in  the  cann 
of  the  injured  Catharine,  P.  was   regarded  as  a 
martyr,  treated  him  with  distinguished  favour,  and 
elevated  him  to  the  cardinalate.    He  was  employed 
in  many  affairs  of  the  hi^est  importance,  bong 
sent  as  leeate,  in  1537*  to  France  and  the  liow 
Countries,  from  both  which  states  Heniy  VHL  in 
vain  demanded  his  extradition.     He  also  took  an 
active  part  in  the  discussions  on  the  Interim ;  and 
when  tne  Council  of  Trent  was  opened,  he  vas 
appointed  one  of  the  three  legate^preaidentB  who 
acted  in  the  name  of  the  pope,  Paul  UL  (q.  v.).    On 
this  pontiff's  death  in  1519,  P.  was  all  but  dected 
to  succeed.     For  some  time  after  Paul's  death,  he 
resided  chiefly  in  a  monastery  near  Verona,  in  com- 
parative retirement,  until  the  accession  o!  Maiy 
called  him  back  to  active  life,  as  the  main  instru- 
ment of  the  reconciliation  of  England  with  the 
papacy.   On  November  24, 1554^  P.  solemnly  entered 
liOndon  as  legate  and  plenipotentiary  of  the  Roman 
see,  possessing  in  an  equal  degree  the  confidence 
of  the  queen.    In  the  arauous  charge  thus  intrusted 
to  him,  he  acquitted  himself  with  much  pnidence, 
and,  consideriug  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  witii 
sin^;ular  moderation.    In  the  religions  or  politico- 
reliffious  severities  which  marked  Uie  later  histoiy 
of  Mary's  reign,  it  is  all  but  certain  that  P.  bad  no 
share.    He  was  created  Archbishop  of  Canterbuxy, 
and  Chancellor  of  the  universities  of  Oxford  si^ 
Cambridge.    On  the  difficult  and  critical  qnestioa 
of  the  disposal  of  the  church  property  confiscated 
in  the  former  reign.  P.,  who  saw  the  necessity  of 
moderation,  was  Tor  a  time  at  issue  with  the  pope; 
but  his  representations  were  successful  in  prodoong 
a  more  moderate  policy,  and  the  work  of  reunion 
appeared    to    proceed  wil^  every  prospect  of  a 
complete  permanent  issue,  when  it  was  internipted 
by  me  death  of  the  queen  in  1558.     P.  died  withio 
less  than  twenty-four  hours  afterwards.     Besides 
the  treatise  De  Unitate,  already  mentioned,  he  is 
also  the  author  of  a  book  De  ConeiUo,  and  of  other 
treatises  on  the  authority  of  the  Roman  pontiff  and 
the  Reformation  of  England,  and  of  very  many  mo^ 
important  letters,  full  of  interest  for  the  histuy 
of  the  time. 

POLEAXB,  a  weapon  oonsisting  of  an  aace-lwad 
mounted  on  a  long  pole.  There  were  many  vaiietiss 
of  this  arm,  passing  from  a  grsat  haad-axe  to  as 


POLECAT— POLE-OTAB. 


r  hklbart,  leveisl  of  the  lonnr 

^  ;tle  T«aembUnoa  to  aa  axa.     Id 

Uie  Davy,  a  polcaxe  or  boardiDg-hatchet 
U  a  hatchet  with  a  handle  aboni  lifteea 
inchea  long,  and  a  sharp  point  bending 
downwards  at  the  back  oppoaite  the 
k  blade.     It  ia  used  [or  boarding  or  reaittiug 

POLECAT,  or  FITCSET  (tfu/dfla 
piitoriiu,  or  FuloriHt  /aUidut),  a  (quadruped 
□f  the  Weaael  fainity  (MuitdiJa),  and 
commonly  referred  to  the  lama  genus 
with  the  weaael,  atoat  or  ermine,  Ac  It 
I  the  largeat  British  tpeoie*  of  tliat 
enoa,  the  lenj^h  of  the  head  and  body 
being  abotit  a  foot  and  a  half,  the  length 
of  the  tail  more  than  Kve  inches,  the  form 
•touter  than  that  ol  the  weasel  or  of  the 
ermioe.  Itt  colour  is  a  deep  blachioh 
brown ;  the  bead,  tail,  and  feet  almost 
black,  the  nnder  parts  yellnwish,  the  ear* 
edged  with  white,  and  a  whitish  apace 
round  the  mnizle.  The  hair  ia  of  two 
kinds — a  abort  woolly  fur,  which  is  pale 
yellow,  or  aomawbat  tawny;  and  long 
Foleaxe.  ahining  haira  of  a  rich  black  or  brownish- 
black  colour,  which  are  moit  numeroiii 
on  the  darkest  parta  The  nose  is  sharp,  the  ears 
short  and  round,  the  tail  pretty  equally  covered 
vrith  loDgish  hair.  Tber*  ia  a  pouch  or  follicle 
under  the  tail,  which  exndea  a  yellowiah,  creamy 
•nbatance  of  a  very  fetid  odour  ;  and  this  odour  is 
particularly  strong  when  the  animil  is  irritated  or 
alarmed.  Hence,  apparently,  its  name  /Vumarf 
(/bill   Martai),    which,    with    varioua   provincial 


Poloost  {Mutlela  putoriu*). 

iDoilificationi,  aa  Faiimart,  Tkoumart,  Ac.,  ia  pre- 
TaJent  in  most  parts  of  Britain.  The  origin  of  the 
najnea  P.  and  Fitchet  is  much  more  uncer^in. 

The  P.  was  much  more  common  in  Britain  in 
former  times  than  now,  and  is  almost  extirpated 
from  Bome  districts,  tiirough  the  cunstant  war 
'waged  against  it  by  gamekeepen  and  others, 
It  eats  everything  that  the  gamekeeper  wishes  to 
pireaerve.  It  ia  extremely  destructive  in  the 
uoultnr-yard,  the  abundance  present  tiiere  inviting 
]t  to  drink  blood  and  eat  brains,  which  seem  to  be 
ifca  Eavourite  luxnriee.  The  rabbit  ia  followed  by  the 
P.  into  its  burrow,  and  its  ravages  among  poultry 
aare  partly  compensated  by  its  destruction  of  rats. — 
'Tlie  taming  of  the  P.  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
«,t^tempted.  The  smell  prevents  it— The  skin  is 
imported  from  the  north  of  Europe  under  the  name  of 
Jf'itth,  and  is  used  as  a  hind  of  fur,  similar  but  inferior 
Xio  that  of  the  Marten  (q.  v.).   It  is  imported  ' 


which  grow  thmogh  tiie  lighter-ooloored  fur  of  tbt 


kind  of  ferret  la  commonly  regarded  i 
between  the  P.  and  the  f^ret,  and  is  sometimes 
called  the  PoUeat-frmL  The  P.  breeds  in  May  or 
Jane,  making  its  neat  in  an  old  rabbit  burrow  or 
similar  hole,  and  producing  four,  hve,  or  six  young. 
— In  North   America,  the  Skunk  (q.  v.)  ia  called 

POLEUONIA'CRiE,  ft  natural  order  of  ex<^- 
noua  plants,  allied  to  Coiiwlvulacea.  and  containing 
more  than  100  known  species,  nativea  of  temperate 
countries,  and  particularly  Bhundaat  in  the  north- 
weatern  parts  of  A  merioa.  They  are  mostly  herba- 
ceoua  plants,  with  alternate  and  often  pinnated 
leaves;  regular  hermaphroilite  flowers ;  G«left 
calyx;  6-lobed  corolla;  6  stamens,  springing  from 
the  tube  of  the  corolla  i  the  ovary  free,  surrounded 
with  a  fleshy  disc ;  the  style  surmounteil  by  a 
3-cleft  stigma ;  the  fruit  a  capsule  with  1i  cells,  and 
3  valves  ;  the  seeds  often  enveloped  in  mucus,  which 
contains  spiral  threads.  Some  of  the  species  are 
favourite  garden  flowers,  as  Poieiaonitwt  mtriilevn. 


monium  caruUma,  the  only  Britiali  species,  and 
a  rare  plant  in  Britain,  is  well  known  in  garden* 
by  the  curious  name  of  Jacob's  Ladder.  It  is  alto 
called  Qrtek  Valerian.  It  is  not  supposed  to  be 
really  the  Polemonittm  of  the  ancients,  to  which 
great  medicinal  virtues  were  ascribed  by  them.  It 
has  a  atem  from  one  to  two  feet  high,  pinnate 
leaves,  and  a  panicle  of  blue  (or  white)  tTowera. 


by  alt  classes  in  Italy.  By  the  poorer  classes,  maire 
is  universally  used.  The  material  is  mixed  with  milk 
or  water,  and  boiled  until  it  is  just  thick  enough  to 
pour  out  into  a  dish,  in  which  it  becomes  as  drm  as 
a  thick  jelly.  Cheese  is  grated  over  it,  and  other 
condiments  SI«  added  according  to  taste,  and  it  ia 
cut  ont  in  slices,  and  either  eaten  at  once,  or  some- 
timea  the  slices  are  lightly  fried  in  oil  or  butter. 
Semolina  being  much  more  expensive,  is  only  used 
by  the  wealthier  people,  and  many  ingredients  are 
added  to  suit  their  taatca. 

POLE-STAR,  or  POLARIS,  the  nearest  cod- 
apicuDus  star  to  the  north  pole  of  the  celestial 
equator.  The  star  which  at  Uia  present  time  goes 
under  the  name  of  the  '  pole-star '  is  the  star  ■  in 
the  constellation  of  Ursa  Minor.  By  examining 
att^itively  the  general  movement  of  the  star* 
throughout  a  dear  winter's  night,  we  observe  that 
they  describe  circles  which  are  largest  at  tha 
equator,  and  become  smaller  and  smaller  as  we 
approach  a  certain  point  (the  north  ])ole  of  th« 
celestial  equator),  cliHe  to  which  ia  the  star  above 
mentioned.  This '  pole-star '  ia,  however,  a  little  lew- 
than  11°  from  the  pole,  and  has  a  small  but  sensible 
iQotiOTi  round  it.  See  Pols.  Owing  to  the  motion 
of  the  pole  of  the  celestial  equator  round  that  of 
the  ecliptic  (see  Pricesbion  o»  thb  Eqitinoxes), 
this  star  wiU  in  course  of  time  (about  2100  a.  ■>.> 
approach  to  within  28'  from  the  north  pole,  and 
will  then  recede  from  it.  At  the  time  of  Hi]>[)arcbaa- 
(156  B.C),  it  was  12',  and  in  17S5,  T  2'  from  the 
north  pole,  lbs  place  can  easily  be  fouud  in  the 
heavens,  for  a  line  drswn  between  the  stars  ■  and 
j3  (called  the  two  pointers,  from  this  pecidiahty)  of.' 
the  constellation  Ursa  Major,  or  the  Great  BeaTi. 
and  produced  northwards  for  about  4^  times  its- 
own  length,  will  almost  touch  the  pole-star.  Two 
thousand  yean  ago,  the  star  iJ  of  Uraa  Major  was 
the  pvle-atar;   and  about  2300  yean  before  ths 


POLES-POLICE. 


Christian  era,  the  ttar  a  in  the  constellation  of  the 
Dragon  was  not  more  than  K^  from  the  north  pole ; 
while  12,000  years  after  the  present  time,  the  bright 
■tar  Vega  in  Lyra  will  be  within  5*  of  it. 

The  south  pole  of  the  celestial  equator  is  not 
similarly  marked  by  the  near  neighbourhood  of  a 
bright  star,  the  only  star  deserving  the  name  of  the 
south  pole-star  being  of  the  sixth  or  least  visible 
magnitud& 

POLES  (Or.  polo8,  a  turning-point),  in  Geo- 
graphy^  are  the  two  extremities  of  the  axis  round 
which  the  earth  revolves ;  they  are  therefore  situ- 
ated the  one  on  the  north,  and  the  other  on  the 
south  side  of  the  equator,  and  equidistant  from  all 
parts  of  it,  or  in  hit.  90**  N.  and  lat  00**  S.  They  are 
called  the  north  and  south  poles  of  the  earth. — In 
Astronomy^  the  poles,  which,  for  distinction's  sake, 
are  frequentlv  denominated  'celestial  poles,'  are 
those  points  m  the  heavens  to  which  tne  earth's 
axis  is  directed,  and  round  which  the  heavens  seem 
to  revolve.  The  celestial  poles  are  valuable  points 
of  reference  to  astronomers  and  geo^phers,  so  that 
the  determination  of  their  position  m  the  heavens  is 
a  matter  of  the  iitmost  importance.  Unfortunately, 
no  stars  mark  their  exact  situation  (see  Pole-star) 
— though  there  la  a  minute  telescopic  star  only  a  few 
seconds  from  the  north  pole,  which  may  be  employed 
instead  of  it  in  rough  observations — and  therefore  it 
is  necessary  to  adopt  some  means  for  discovering  its 
precise  position.  This  is  effected  in  the  following 
manner :  A  bright  star  (generally  the  pole-star)  is 
selected,  and  its  position  in  its  upper  and  its  lower 
Culminations  (q.  v.)  is  accurately  noted ;  the  point 
midway  between  these  two  positions  of  the  star  is 
the  pole  of  the  heavens.  The  observation  of  the 
star's  two  positions  must  be  corrected  for  refraction, 
and  it  is  for  this  reason  that  the  pole-star  is  selected, 
since  the  effect  of  refraction  is  much  the  same  in 
both  positions  of  the  star.  The  term  'poles'  has, 
however,  a  wider  application,  as  denoting  the 
extremities  of  a  line  passing  through  the  centre  of  a 
ereat  circle  perpendicular  to  its  plane ;  thus,  we 
have  the  poles  of  the  horizon  (viz.,  the  zenith  and 
nadir),  the  poles  of  the  ecliptic,  the  poles  of  a 
meridian  ;  and  in  the  same  sense,  the  terestrial  and 
celestial  poles  are  spoken  of  as  the  poles  of  the 
equator  and  equinoctial  respectively. — Pole,  in 
Geometry,  is  used  in  a  very  indetinite  sense ;  and  in 
Physics,  it  denotes  those  points  of  a  body  at  which 
its  attractive  or  repulsive  energy  is  concentrated. 
.  See  PoLARmr. 

POLIA'NTHBS.    See  Tuberose. 

POLI'CE  (Lat.  pclUicL,  Or.  politeia,  civil  govem- 
'ment ;  from  polis,  a  city),  are  constables  or  peace- 
officers  appointed  in  all  parts  of  town  and  country 
-for  the  purpose  of  watching  property  and  detecting 
'crime,  and  arresting  offenaers  and  maintaining 
public  order.  Though  the  word  noliceman  ia  now, 
-especially  in  towns,  a  househola  word,  the  legal 
denomination  is  that  of  constable ;  but  he  is  a  paid 
constable,  to  distinguish  him  from  unpaid  con- 
stables and  special  constables.  In  each  parish  in 
■England,  the  justices  of  the  peace  have  power 
"to  appoint  constables  to  act  gratuitously  and 
compiusorily ;  but  the  vestry  has  power  to  resolve 
'that  one  or  more  paid  constables  shall  be  appointed, 
in  which  case  the  justices  are  to  make  the  appoint- 
'ment,  and  these  paid  constables  supersede  the 
unpaid  constables.  The  salary  of  tnese  parish 
constables  is  paid  out  of  the  poor-rates  of  the 
parish  h^  the  overseers.  The  justices  also  appoint 
a  superintendent  constable  for  each  petty  ses- 
sional division,  to  settle  the  fees  and  allowances 
which  are  to  be  paid  to  the  constables  for  the 
service  of  summonses,  and   for   the   execution  of 


warrants  incidental  to  thft  office  of  justices  of  tha 
peaoe.  In  all  boroughs  in  England,  tine  CMpontion 
IS  empowered,  by  the  Municipal  Corporation  Acts, 
to  appoint  a  watch  committee,  who  appoint  a  suffi- 
cient number  of  men  to  act  as  constables  l^e 
treasurer  of  the  borouffh  pays  their  salaries,  wages, 
and  allowances,  as  w^  as  extraordinary  expenses 
incurred  bv  theuL  By  a  recent  act  apphcaUe  to 
counties,  the  justices  are  empowered  to  establish 
a  sufficient  police  force  for  each  countv,  and  a  chief 
constable  is  appointed  to  govern  the  whole 

The  duties   of   constables  or  police-officen  are 
exceedingly  multifarions,  and  they  receive  printed 
regulations  to  guide  them  in  the  proper  diadiarge  of 
such  duties.    They  have  important  duties  in  refer- 
ence to  the  apprehension  of   offenders,  and  their 
powers  are  necessarily  larger  than  those  of  private 
mdividuals.    Wherever  a  person  is  seen  in  the  set 
of  committing  a  felony,  it  is  the  duty  of  eveiy  one, 
not  merely  of  constables,  to  apprehend  him  or  her 
without  any  warrant,  for  no  warrant  is   needed. 
Persons  found  offending  in  many  miiidemeaaonrsxDsy 
also  be  apprehended  by  anybody  without  a  warrant ; 
but  in  other  cases,  a  constable  only  caa  make  an 
arrest    In  case  of  a  riot,  anybody  may  arrest  the 
rioter.     Constables  are  bound  to  arrest  hawken 
trading  without  a  licence;  and  vagrants  who  are 
offending  against  the  Vagrant  Acts,  such  as  teUing 
fortunes,  loitering  about  premises,  &c    The  powen 
of   constables    are    much   greater  than    those  of 
individuals  with  reference  to  crimes  after  they  sre 
committed.   Thus,  where  the  constable  has  not  seen 
the  offence  committed,  but  is  merely  told  of  the  tact, 
and  he  has  reason  to  believe  it,  he  is  entitled  to 
arrest  the  party  charaed  without  any  warrant ;  he 
must,  however,  in  such  cases  act  only  on  reasonable 
suspicion.      He   is  not  justified,  for  example,  in 
apprehending  a  person  as  a  receiver  of  stolen  goods 
on  the  mere  assertion  of  the  principal  felon ;  nor  is 
a  constable  justified  in  taking  a  person  into  custody 
for  a  mere  assault  without  a  warrant,  unless  be 
himself  was  present  at  the  time  the  aaaanlt  was 
committed,  or  reasonably  apprehends  a  renewal  of  ik 
If  a  constable  have  a  reasonable  suspicion  that  a 
man  has  committed  a  felony,  he  may  apprehend 
him ;  and  so  a  private  individual  may  do  ao.    The 
difference  between  the  authority  of  the  ooiigtable 
and  the  private  person  in  this  respect  is,  tihat  the 
latter  is  justified  only  in  case  it  torn  out  that  a 
f elonv  was  in  fact  committed ;  but  the  constable  may 
justify  the  arrest  and  detention  whether  a  fekoy 
was  committed  or  not.    It  is  the  duty  of  a  con- 
stable to  raise  a  hue  and  cry  in  search  of  a  fdon, 
and  all  private  individuals  are  bound  to  join  in  it, 
otherwise  they  may  be  indicted  and    fined.     An 
arrest  by  a  constable  is   usually  made  by  lajii^ 
hands  on  the  party,  and  detaining  him  ;  but  it  is 
enough  for  the  constable  to  touch  nim  and  say:  *I 
arrest  vou,  in  the  Queeu*s  name.'     If   the  party 
arrestea  be  in  a  house  in  hiding,  the  constable  may 
demand  admittance,  and  if  he  is  refused,  may  thea 
break  open  the  doors ;  this  is  so  in  all  cases  where 
the  party  has  committed  treason  or  felony,  or  hss 
dangerously  wounded  another.     In  cases  Where  the 
constable  is    not  authorised   at   common    law  or 
by  some    statute    to    arrest   a   party   without  s 
warrant,  then  he  must   produce  a  warrant  signed 
by  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  shew  it  to  the  pajtj 
if  it  is  demanded ;  and  if  tiie  constable  happens 
not  to  have  the  warrant  in  his  pocket  at  the  time, 
even  though  it  is  not  asked  for,  it  is  an  illegal  arrest 
When  a  party  is  arrested,  it  is  the  duty  of  the 
constable  to  take  him  without   any  nnreasonal^B 
delay  before  a  justice  of  the  peace,  and  meanwhile 
lodge  him   in  safe  custody.     The  party  arreted 
must  not  be  treated  with  hanbness  beyoiMi  vhift 


POLICE  -rOLIGNAC. 


18  neoeaaary  for  safe  custody,  and  therefore  it  has 
been  held  that  a  constable  has  no  right  to  handcnff 
a  person  whom  he  has  apprehended  on  suspicion 
of  felony,  unless  such  person  has  attempted  to 
escape,  or  it  be  necc^asary  to  prevent  an  escape. 
Nor  has  a  constable  in  general  a  right  to  search 
a  person  apprehended,  miless  the  latter  conduct 
himself  violently. 

The  conduct  of  constables  in  reference  to  public- 
houses  is  of  some  importance.  It  is  an  offenoe  in 
publicans  and  beer-house  keepers,  and  indeed  the 
keepers  of  all  places  of  public  resort,  to  refuse  to 
admit  the  constable  into  such  house  or  place  at 
any  time.  Thus,  in  the  case  of  these  places  being 
open  on  Sundays  at  the  times  prohibited  by 
statute,  the  constable,  if  he  suspect  that 'the  act 
is  being  violated,  may  demand  admittance,  and  thus 
satisfy  nimself  as  to  the  fact.  It  is  owing  also  to 
this  power  of  a  constable  to  enter  at  all  times,  that 
he  is  enabled  to  detect  other  offences  in  public- 
houses,  such  as  harbouring  prostitutes  and  disor- 
derly characters^  Constables,  when  suspecting  that 
a  betting-house  is  kept,  must  first  get  a  warrant 
from  a  justice  of  the  peace,  which  can  be  obtained 
without  notice  to  the  parties,  and  can  then  break 
into  the  house.  So  as  to  gaming-houses.  While 
constables  have  summary  power  of  enterinff  public- 
houses,  still  this  IB  not  to  be  abused ;  and  it  is  a 
distinct  offence  in  the  keepers  of  all  public  places 
where  wine,  spirits,  beer,  cider,  or  any  fermented 
or  distilled  liquors  are  sold  on  the  premises,  to 
knowingly  harbour,  or  entertain,  or  suffer  to 
remain  there  such  constables  during  the  time 
they  are  on  duty,  except  when  quelling  dis- 
turbances or  reetorine  order.  It  is  an  offence 
punishable  with  more  tnan  usual  severity  to  assault 
constables  when  in  the  execution  of  their  duty. 
Though  constables  are  paid  in  great  part  by  each 
county  and  borough,  and  thus  by  the  public  at 
large,  it  is  often  requisite  for  individuals  to  require 
the  services  of  extra  constables,  in  which  case  such 
individuals  must  pay  for  them  at  their  own  expense, 
as  is  usual  in  theatres  and  large  establishments.  Of 
late  years,  considerable  complaint  had  been  made  as 
to  constables  interfering  in  the  protection  of  game- 
preaerves  and  fisheries,  it  being  considered  that  the 
owners  of  those  properties  ought  to  bear  the  extra 
charge,  if  required,  of  the  coi^tables*  giving  more 
than  tile  ordinary  attention  to  poachers.  Sut  by 
the  recent  Act,  extended  powers  of  detecting 
poachers  of  game  were  given  to  constables,  who  are 
now  entitled,  whenever  the^  suspect  people  on  the 
highway  of  being  engaged  m  poaching,  to  stop  and 
search  them,  and  then  summon  the  poachers,  if 
necessary,  before  justices.    See  Poaching. 

In  1862  (the  latest  published  returns),  the  total 
police  and  constabulary  in  England  and  Wales 
amounted  to  22,161  men,  of  whom  177  were 
detectives.  These  are  subdivided  into  constables  of 
boroughs,  6286 ;  county  constables,  7969 ;  metro- 
politan police,  6566 ;  dockyard  police,  712 ;  city  of 
London  police,  628.  The  proportion  to  the  popula- 
tion is  about  1  to  905 ;  in  counties,  the  proportion  is 
1  to  1489 ;  m  the  metropolis,  1  to  472.  In  1862, 
the  total  police  expenses  amounted  to  £1,596,993. 
£ach  man  costs  on  an  average  £53,  and  his  clothing 
and  accoutrements  £5  more.  The  following  are  the 
round  numbers  relating  to  the  cost  of  each  division 
of  police:  The  borough  police  cost  £400,000;  the 
county  police,  £610,977;  the  metropolitan  police, 
je4d9,590 ;  the  dockyard  p)lice,  £45,325 ;  the  city  of 
London  poUce,  £50,296.  Of  these,  the  public  revenue 
nays  nothing  towards  the  citv  of  London  police; 
it  pays  all  the  cost  of  the  dockyard  police ;  it  pays 
nearly  one-fifth  of  the  other  branches  of  the  pohce. 

In  Ireland,  the   first  r^ular  police  force  was 


established  in  1814^  which  was  improved  in  1836  and 
1839.  Originally,  the  expense  wa«  defrayed  partly 
out  of  the  Consolidated  Fund;  but  in  184o,  the 
whole  expense  was  borne  by  the  Consolidated  Fund, 
with  trifling  exceptions.  In  1862,  the  total  cost  of 
the  constabulary  amounted  to  £765,428,  but  this 
included  the  expenses  of  72  stipendiary  magistrates, 
whose  salaries  vafy  from  £300  to  £500:  the  only 
part  of  the  total  cost  borne  by  the  counties,  cities, 
and  towns  of  Ireland  was  £15,697,  being  about  one- 
fiftieth.  The  number  of  constables  was  12,332. 
The  above  number  does  not  include  the  Dublin 
metropohtan  police,  of  which  the  number  of  men  is 
1081,  the  cost  £87,000,  and  of  which  £50,000  is  paid 
by  a  parliamentary  grant. 

In  Scotland,  the  {>olice  force  for  the  counties 
amounted  during  the  same  time  to  909,  and  in  the 
burghs  to  1648 ;  total,  2557. 

POLICE,  Mtlttary,  has  two  significations^lst, 
the  organised  body  employed  witnin  an  army  to 
preserve  civil  order,  as  distinct  from  military  dis- 
cipline ;  and  2d,  a  civil  police  with  a  military  organi- 
sation. The  police  of  an  army  commonly  consists  of 
steady  intelligent  soldiers,  who  act  under  the  orders 
of  the  provost-marshal,  and  arrest  all  persons  out  of 
bounds,  civilians  not  authorised  to  pass  the  lines, 
disorderly  soldiers,  &c. ;  they  also  attend  to  sanitary 
arrangements.  As  in  all  military  matters,  the 
police  of  an  army  possess  summary  powers,  and  a 
sentence  of  the  provost-marshal  is  carried  out 
immediately  after  it  is  pronounced. 

Of  civil  police  with  military  organisation  may  be 
instanced,  as  specimens,  the  Gendarmerie  (q.  v.)  of 
France,  the  Sbirri  of  Italy,  and,  in  an  eminent  degree, 
the  Irish  constabulary. 

PO'LICY  (a  corruption  of  the  Lat.  polyptycha, 
[analogous  to  diptycha^  i  e.,  two-fold,  or  a  pair  of 
tablets]  applied  in  the  middle  ages  to  memoranda 
or  registers  written  on  a  set  of  several  tablets),  as  a 
Legal  term,  denotes  the  contract  of  insurance  (ItaL 
polhza  (JCaasecurazione).  The  usual  contracts  are  for 
the  insurance  of  life,  or  rather  against  the  risk  of 
death,  against  fire,  against  loss  of  a  ship ;  but  the 
same  name  is  ^ven  to  a  similar  instrument  adapted 
to  meet  any  other  risk.    See  Insubancb. 

POLI6NAC,  an  ancient  French  family,  which 
takes  its  name  from  a  castle  said  to  have  been 
built  in  the  5th  c.,  on  a  rock  of  the  Cevennes,  near 
Puy-en-Velay,  in  the  department  of  Haute- Loire, 
on  the  site  of  a  Homan  temple  dedicated  to  Apollo, 
whence — according  to  certain  rather  credulous  gene- 
alogists— the  castle  was  originally  called  ApoUi- 
aniquey  of  which  Polignac  is  affirmed  to  be  only 
a  later  corruption.  The  first  of  the  Polignacs  who 
acquired  celebrity  was  Melchior  db  P.,  younger 
son  of  Akmand,  16th  Marquis  de  P.,  and  bom  at 
Puy-en-Velay,  Uth  October  1661.  Destined  by  his 
parents  for  an  ecclesiastical  career,  he  received  an 
excellent  education  at  Paris  in  the  collets  of 
Clermont  and  Harcourt  In  the  negotiations  of 
Cardinal  de  Bouillon  iftith  Pope  Alexander  VIII.  at 
Rome  in  1689,  the  ^oung,  but  astute  and  insinu- 
ating abb6  took  a  principal  part.  In  1695,  he  was 
sent  to  Poland  as  Frencn  ambassador,  when  John 
Sobieski  was  dying ;  and  diplomatised  and  intrigued 
so  cunningly  in  favour  of  Prince  de  Conti,  that  the 
latter  was  actually  elected  his  successor.  Events, 
however,  frustrated  tiiis  policy,  and  both  Conti  and 
P.  had  to  leave  Poland  rather  precipitately,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  latter  lost  the  royal  favour. 
He  now  retired  to  his  abbey  at  Bonport,  where  he 
spent  the  next  four  years,  partlv  occupied  in  the 
composition  of  a  Latin  poem  entitled  Anii-Lucretrus^ 
which  was  intended  as  a  refutation  of  the  scepticism 

of  Bayle.    It  appears  to  be  a  very  respectable  and 

6^3 


POLIGNAC-POLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATUREL 


even  able  p^rfomiaace.  In  1702 — after  a  stroke 
of  his  usual  neat  flattery — he  was  recalled  to 
Versailles,  and  rose  higher  into  favour  than  ever. 
Named  Auditeur  de  Mote  in  1706,  he  was  sent  to 
Rome,  where  he  devoted  himself  to  the  study  of 
canon  and  civil  law,  was  associated  in  the  negotia- 
tions of  Cardinal  de  la  Tr6mouille,  and  honoured 
with  the  friendship  of  Pope  Clei^ent  XL  Li  1712, 
he  was  appointed  French  plenipotentiary  at  the 
Congress  of  Utrecht ;  and  after  hu  return,  obtained 
the  abbeys  of  Corbie  and  Anchin.  When  Louis 
XIY.  died,  P.  was  at  the  top  of  his  reputation  and 
influence.  During  the  regency  of  the  Duke  of 
Orleans,  he  took  part  in  the  conspiracy  of  Cella- 
mare,  and  was  banished  to  his  abbey  of  Anchin. 
In  1720,  he  was  sent  to  Rome,  charged  with  the 
conduct  of  French  affairs,  and  remained  here  for 
about  ten  years,  and  signalised  his  mission  by 
healing  the  quarrel  that  was  dividing  the  Gallican 
Church  on  the  subject  of  the  famous  bull  UnigenU,un. 
In  1726,  he  was  raised,  in  his  absence,  to  the  arch- 
bishopric of  Auch ;  and  on  his  return  to  France, 
spent  the  remainder  of  his  days  in  Uterary  repose, 
and  in  the  high  esteem  of  courtiers,  scholars,  and 
the  like.  He  died  3d  April  1742.  P.  succeeded 
Bossuet  at  the  Academic  Frangaise  in  1704,  and 
became  an  honorary  member  of  the  Acadimie  des 
Sciences  (1715)  and  of  the  Acadimie  des  Belles-lettres 
(1717).  See  C.  Faucher's  liiatoire  du  Cardiiud  de 
Polignac  (2  vols.,  Paris,  1772),  St  Simon's  Memoires, 
and  D'Argenson's  Memoires. 

The  other  members  of  the  Polignac  family  who 
have  an  historical  name  at  all  are  more  notorious 
than  noteworthy.  In  the  reign  of  Louis  XVL, 
Toulndb-Martinb,  Gabriellb  de  Polastbon, 
DucHESSB  DE  P.  (bom  1749;  died  at  Vienna,  9th 
December  1793),  and  her  husband,  Jules,  Due  de 
P.  (died  at  St  Petersburg,  lS17)i  were  among  the 
worst,  but  unhappily  most  favoured  advisers  of 
Marie  Antoinette.  They  obtained  vast  sums  of  the 
public  money  from  their  royal  master  and  mistress, 
and  were  largely,  if  not  mainly  responsible  for  the 
frightful  pecuniary  extravagance  of  the  court.  The 
discovery  of  the  famous  Lwre  Rouge  occasioned  the 

exulting  cry  of  Mirabeau :  MiUe  Ecus  d  la  FamiUe 

d'Assas  pour  avoir  sauvS  VJEt^it;  un  Million  d  la 
FamiUe  Polignac  pour  V avoir  perdu  !  The  Polignacs 
— knowiuff  the  deep  hatred  felt  towards  them  by 
the  French  people — were  the  first  of  the  ftoUesse 
to  emigrate  (16th  Julv  17^9).  From  the  Empress 
Catharine  of  Rnssia|,  the  duke  received  an  estate  in 
the  Ukraine,  and  did  not  return  to  France  at  the 
Restoration.  He  left  three  sons  and  a  daughter,  of 
whom  only  one  has  become  historical — Augcste 
Jules  Armand  Marie,  Prince  de  P.  (born  at 
Versailles,  14th  May  1780).  On  the  Restoration, 
he  returned  to  France ;  became  intimate  with  the 
Comte  d'Artois,  afterwards  (Carles  X. ;  shewed  an 
ardent  attachment  to  the  Church  of  Rome — or  at 
least  to  its  ^licy— and,  in  consequence,  received 
from  His  Hohness,  in  1820,  the  title  of  Prince ;  was 
appointed  ambassador  at  the  English  court  in  1823 ; 
and  Anally,  in  1829,  became  nead  of  the  last 
Bourbon  ministry,  in  which  capacitv  he  promul- 
gated the  fatal  ordonnances  that  called  France  to 
arms,  and  drove  Charles  X.  from  the  thron&  He 
then  attempted  to  flee  from  the  country,  but  was 
captured  at  Granville  on  the  15th  of  August ;  was 
tried,  and  condemned  to  imprisonment  for  Ufe  in 
the  castle  of  Ham,  but  was  set  at  liberty  by  the 
amnesty  of  29th  November  1836.  He  took  up  his 
residence  in  England,  but  died  at  Paris,  2d  March 
1847. 

POLISH  LANGUAGE  Ain>  LITERATURE. 

The  Poliish  language  is  one  of  the  most  widely- 


Spread  branches  of  the  Slavic,  forrains  (aeoordiog 
to    Dobrowsky),    along  with    the    B<£emian,  the 
western  branch.     It  surpasses  almost  all  the  other 
Slavonic  tongues  in  euphony  and  flexibility,  sad  is 
scarcely  excelled   by    anv  language   in   point  o{ 
brevity.     It  does  not  make  use  oi  the  article,  but 
has  a  most  elaborate  declensional  system,  oompris- 
ing    seven  cases.      The  conjugation    of  the  veih 
is  equally  elaborate,  and  enables  a  Pole  to  express 
transitions  and  delicate  niceties  in  the  conditions  of 
time  and  gender  qoite  unknown  to  the  French,  or 
German,  or  English  verb.    The  Polish  vocabitiaiy 
is  also  uncommonly  rich.     The  number  of  haish 
consonants  in  the  language,  it  must  be  admitted,  is 
large,  and  this  fact  is  a  marked  distinction  betweea 
it  and  its  eastern  sister,  the  Russian,  but  in  pronim- 
ciation,  these  are  so  much  softened  that  its  euphony 
is  preserved.    It  alone  of  all  the  Slavic  dialectic 
with   exception    of   the    old    Slavic  Church  lan- 
guage, has   nasal   sounds  f,  like  the  French  on; 
and  p,  like  the  French  in.     The  letter  I  has  also 
a   peculiarly   broad    snarling   sound.      After  the 
introduction  of  Christianity,  Latin,  the  language  oC 
the  church,  exercised  a  powerful  influenoe  on  its 
structure  and  devdopment,  and  subsequent  to  the 
14th  a,  it  adopted  into  its  vocabulary  immenHa 
German  words.    In  the  16th  c.,  Polish,  as  a  written 
lan^age,  rapidly  attained  so  high  a  decree  of  per* 
feotion  that  it  supplanted  even  Latin  itself,  until 
then  the  language  oi  the  state  and  ol  the  learaedL 
"nie  best  Polish  gramman  are  those  of  MrongoTiu 
(3d  ed.,  Danz.  1837),  Bandtke  (Breslau,  1824),  sad 
Muczkowski  (Crac  1845) ;  the  most  compirehaisve 
dictionary  is  that  of  linde,  after  which  rank  thoss 
of  fiandtke  (2  vols.,  Breslau,   1806),  Mrongoviiis 
(Konigsb.  1835)  and  Trojanski  (4  vola,  Poeen,  1835 
—1846). 

The  history  of  Polish  Uterature  is  divisible  into 
five  clearly  marked  periods.  Thb  Jirsi  extends  from 
a  date  antecedent  to  the  introduction  of  Christianity 
down  to  the  close  of  the  15th  century.  Of  pre- 
Christian  Polish  literature,  nothing  has  aorviTed 
but  some  popidar  songs  and  proverbs.  Among 
the  very  oldest  literary  monuments  is  a  hymn  to 
the  Virgin  Mary,  ascribed  to  St  Adalbert  The 
introduction  of  Christianity  paved  the  way  for  a 
Latin  literature  more  or  less  ecclesiastioo-liiatoricsL 
Casimir  IIL  (q.  v.),  sumamed  the  Great,  did  mors 
than  any  other  early  Polish  monarch  for  the 
encouragement  of  literature,  and,  amoiDg  other 
things,  founded  the  nniversi^  of  Cracow,  which, 
from  tiie  beginning  of  the  15th  c;,  long  continued 
to  be  the  centre  of  intellectual  life  and  cnltore 
in  Poland.  To  the  15th  c.  bdong  Jmn.  Dln^oss 
(Lat.  Longinus)^  author  of  a  most  interesting 
and  valuable  Historia  PoUmicB^  in  13  books,  and 
otherwise  worthy  of  remembrance  as  an  able 
diplomatist  and  philanthropist;  also  Jan  Ii»ki, 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen  (b.  1457,  d.  1531),  whose  col- 
lection of  the  oldest  Polish  laws,  Contsnciie  /ndj^ 
Poionias  Begni  PriviUgium,  is  of  gr^at  hisUxical 
importance.  In  1490,  the  first  printmg-press  in 
Poland  was  established  at  Cracow. 

The  second  period  of  Polish  literature  embraoai 
the  16th  and  first  quarter  of  the  17ih  c,  and  is 
marked  by  the  use  of  the  Polish  as  a  written  lan- 
guage. The  reigns  of  Sigismund  L  and  Sigismnnd 
IL  Augustus,  are  regarded  as  the  golden  era  of 
Polish  literature,  properly  so  called.  The  series  el 
poets  begins  with  Nikol  Rej  (b.  1515,  d.  1568), 
commonly  called  the  Father  qf  Poiish  PoOry,  a 
native  of  Zoravno,  in  '  Little  Russia,'  and  edneated 
at  Lembera  and  Cracow.  He  spent  his  life  at  ths 
court  of  the  Sigismunda  His  prineipsl  worki^ 
Wizarunek  Zpu^  GziovridM  Poeuhoe^  (Crsa 
1560)  and  ApophthegmfUa  (Craa  156%  ars  full  «< 


POLISH  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE- POLISHING  OF  METALS. 


aharp  wit  and  strong  satire,  and  though  the  laognage 
is  ronffh  and  unpolished,  it  is  genuinely  poetic^. 
After  Rej,  Uie  brothers  Jan  and  Piotr  Kochanowski 
hold  the  highest  rank.  Szymonowicz  or  Simonides 
(d.  1629)  acquired  by  his  Latin  odes  the  name  of  the 
*  Latin  Pindar;*  and  his  Sielanki  ('Idylls,'  new  ed. 
Leipi  1837))  modelled  on  those  of  Theocritus,  exhibit 
a  charming  simplicity  of  style.  Still  more  original, 
if  scarcely  so  graceful,  are  the  Sielanki  (new  ed., 
Leip.  1836)  of  his  friend  Zimorowicz  (d.  1629). 
Sebastian  Klonowicz,  called  AeemvLS  (d.  1608),  is 
celebrated  as  a  satirist  and  descriptive  poet  The 
Reformation,  which  rapidly  made  way  m  Poland, 
being  tacitly  approved  of  by  the  rulers  and  magnates, 
gave  a  poweriul  stimidus  to  the  intellectual  and 
spiritual  activity  of  the  nation — ^visible  in  transla* 
tions  of  the  Bible,  hjrmn -books,  and  an  important 
pulpit  or  sermon  literature.  Among  the  historians 
of  this  period,  the  most  celebrated  are  the  brothers 
BieUki ;  Lukas  G6mioki  (d.  1591),  author  of  a  his- 
tory of  the  Polish  crown  {Dzieje  to  Ko)vme  Po/skiej, 
Crac.  1637,  Wars.  1804);  Strzikowski  (d.  1582), 
whose  Chronicle  of  Lithuania  (Koni^b.  1582)  is  an 
admirable  work  ;  and  Paprocki  (d.  1614). 

The  tfiird  period  of  Polish  literature,  extending 
from  1620  to  1750,  is  coincident  with  the  rule  of 
the  Jesuits,  who  first  obtained  a  footing  in  Poland 
about  1566,  through  the  influence  of  Cardinal  Hosius, 
soon  possessed  themselves  of  the  schools,  and,  on 
the  whole,  seriously  checked  the  literary  and  .reli- 
gious  growth  of  the  nation.  The  most  conspicuous 
poet  of  this  retrogressive  period  is  the  Jesuit 
iCazimierz  Sarbievslu  (1595 — 1640),  who  wrote  only 
in  Latin ;  others  more  or  less  noteworthy  are 
Kochowslu  (died  about  1700) ;  Tvardovski  (d.  about 
1660)  ;  Opalinski  (d.  1655) ;  Chros'ciuski,  the 
translator  of  Lucan ;  Morsztyn,  the  translator  of 
Comeille;  and  Elz'sbieta  Druz'bdcka  (d.  176(»). 
Among  the  historians  of  this  period,  it  may  suffice 
to  mention  Starovolski  (d.  1656),  author  of  Potonia, 
sive  Status  BAfjni  Pohnlce.  Descriptio  (Wolfenbuttel, 
1656),  and  other  works;  Kojalowicz,  a  Jesuit  (d. 
1677),  and  Kaspar  Kiesiecki,  a  Jesuit  (d.  1745), 
whose  Kawna  PoUka  (4  vols.,  Lemb.  1728-1743)  is 
the  most  im^jortant  work  on  Polish  heraldry. 

The  fourth  period,  commencing  with  the  middle 
of  the  18th  c,  and  extending  into  the  first  quarter 
of  the  19th,  owes  its  characteristics  partly  to  the 
influence  of  the  French  Uterature  of  Louis  XIV.'s 
time ;  partly  also  to  the  liberal  patronage  of  litera- 
ture and  science  b^  King  Stanislas  Augustus,  the 
princes  Ozartoryiski,  Jabionovski,  and  other  mag- 
nates, and  the  educational  reforms  of  Stanislas 
Konarski  (b.  1700,  d.  1773).  The  good  work  begun 
by  Konarski  was  carried  on  by  Koi)czyn'8ki  (1735 
— 1817),  who  was  the  first  to  thoroughly  establish 
on  a  scientific  basis  the  grammar  of  the  Polish 
language  in  his  Orammatyka  Norodova ;  by  Pira- 
mowicz  (d.  1801) ;  by  Bohomolec,  the  Jesuit,  who 
translated  a  multitude  of  stage-pieces  from  the 
French ;  but  above  all,  by  Adam  Stanislas  Nams- 
zewicz,  the  accomplished  translator  of  Tacitus ;  and 
Ignacy  Kiasicki  (1735-1801),  called  the  'Polish 
\  oltaire,'  the  centre  of  the  whole  Polish  literature 
of  his  age,  whose  satires  and  fables  are  reckoned 
the  tirBt  in  his  native  language.  As  poets  of  this 
Renaissance  period,  occur  the  names  of  Trembecki ; 
Oajetan  Wegierski,  Godebski,  and  Wezik.  The 
most  noted  dramatist  is  Boguslavski  (d.  1829),  who 
wrote  about  80  plays — ^the  majority  of  which,  under 
the  title  of  Dzika  Dramalzeznt,  were  published  at 
Warsaw  (9  tqIs.,  1820). 

The  political  storms  that  swept  over  Europe  at 
the  close  of  the  18th  uid  the  first  years  of  the  19th 
C  did  not  quite  destroy  -tide  new  literary  life  that 
had  burst  into  blossom  under  Stanialas  AuguBtus. 


In  1801,  the  historian  Tadeusz  Gzacki,  Franciszck 
Dmochowaki,  and  Bishop  Jan  Albertrandy  founded 
at  Warsaw  the  *  Society  of  the  Friends  of  Know- 
ledge,' which,  especially  under  the  auspices  of  the 
state-councillor  Staszyc,  bore  good  fruit  till  it  was 
dissolved  in  1832,  when  its  library  of  50,000  vols, 
was  carried  off  to  St  Petersburg.  At  the  same  time, 
Jozef  Maximilian  Ossolinski,  Hugo  Kolontaj,  and 
Stanislas  Potocki,  by  word  and  writing  exercised 
a  mighty  influence  on  the  renovation  of  we  national 
spirit  The  transition  to  this  nettxst  or  Jijih  |)eriod 
was  made  by  Karpinski  (1745 — 1825),  whose  Songs 
and  Idylls  (4  vols.,  Warsaw,  1804 ;  new  ed.,  Leip. 
1836)  live  on  the  lips  of  the  Polish  people ;  by 
Chancellor  Voronicz  (1757 — 1829),  a  richly  ima^n« 
ative  poet,  and  a  great  orator;  by  Niemcewicz 
(1757 — 1841),  a  statesman,  soldier,  and  author  of 
celebrity  in  his  own  land ;  and  by  fhe  poet  Kasi- 
mierz  Brodzinski  (1791—1835).  At  Wilna,  which, 
after  1815,  became  the  centre  of  Polish  literaij 
activity,  and  a  rallying-point  for  all  the  enthusiastic 
spirits  of  the  land,  several  young  men  united,  with 
Adam  Mickiewicz  (b.  1798)  at  tiieir  head,  in  a 
crusade  against  the  still  dominant  French  style  of 
literature.  We  can  only  name  some  of  his  numerous 
and  brilliant  associates,  as  Malczevski  (1792—1826), 
whose  best  production  is  his  epic-lyric  narrative  of 
Ukraine  life,  entitled  Marja;  Goszczynski  (b.  1806; 
Poems,  3d  ed.,  Breslau,  1852) ;  Bohosm  Zaleski  (K 
1802;  Pofzye,  Pos.  1841,  and  later);  Tomasz  Padura 
{Pienia,  Lemb.  1842) ;  Odyniec  {Poezye,  Pos.  1833); 
Korsak  {Poezi/e,  Pos.  1833);  Chodzko  [Poezye, 
Petersb.  1829)  ;  Groza  [Poezye,  Wihia,  1836)  ; 
Lucyan  Siemienski  (b.  18()9),  an  excellent  novelist 
and  tran^tor ;  Bielovski  (b.  1806),  a  l^c  poet  and 
translator;  Gorecki,  renowned  for  his  pungently 
sarcastic  fables  {Bajki  i  Poezje  nave,  i^peared  i^ 
Paris  in  1833);  Garczynski  {Poezue,  Pans,  183.3); 
and  Slowacki,  the  most  fertile  of  all  the  recent 
Polish  poetSk  Most  of  these  writeis  are  either 
*  banished  men,'  or  men  who  are,  or,  while  living, 
were,  forced  to  expatriate  themselves.  They  belong 
to  the  '  Polish  Emigration,'  whose  head-quarters  is 
Paris.  The  most  many-sided  and  proliflc  of  all  the 
modem  Polish  novelists,  is  Jozef  Ignacy  Kraszevaki 
(b.  1812),  who  lives  in  Volhyuia.  The  new  national 
tendency  of  Polish  literature,  which  naturally  tirst 
shewed  itself  in  poetry,  soon  became  visible  in  other 
departments  also.  Thus,  Joachim  Lelewel  (b.  1786) 
has  risen  to  the  first  rank  as  a  writer  of  Polish 
history,  and  a  study  of  his  works  is  absolutely 
indispensable  to  a  knowledge  of  that  subject ;  next 
to  him  (and  later)  in  the  same  department  stand 
Bandtke,  Maciejovski,  Count  liaczynski,  and  Count 
Plater.  Narbutt  of  Wilna  wrote  a  very  solid  and 
comprehensive  work  on  Lithuanian  History  (Wilna, 
1837  et  «eq.),  and  Lukaszewicz  of  Posen  has  fur- 
nished numerous  important  contributions  to  the 
history  of  the  Beformation  in  Poland.  A  multitude 
of  works  more  or  less  weighty  have  been  devoted 
to  a  record  of  the  revolution  of  1830,  chiefly,  of 
course,  by  Polish  emigrants.  In  philosoi^hy,  theo- 
logy,  and  physical  sciences,  Poland  has  nothing  of 
consequence  to  shew. — The  principal  works  on 
Poli^  literature  are  those  of  Muczkovski,  Bent- 
kovski,  Ossolinski,  Chodynicki,  and  particularly  the 
comprehensive  Historya  Literatury  Polaki^  (Cra& 
184(>,  et  9eq.)  of  Visznievski. 

PO'LISHING  MATERIALS.  See  Diamomd- 
osiNDiNG,  Emsky,  PASTES,  and  Putty  Powder. 

POLISHING  OF  METALS.  This  is  effected 
by  first  removing  an^  tarnish  or  oxidation  by  means 
of  some  material  which  will  chemically  act  upon  it ; 
for  this  purpose,  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  oxalic,  and 
acetic  acids  are  used  to  different  metala,  and  in 

646 


POLISHING  OF  STONE -POLITICAL  OFFENCES. 


varioiu  states  of  dilation.  Usimlly,  it  is  necessary 
to  remove  the  add  with  clean  water,  and  dry 
rapidly,  to  prevent  re-oxidation ;  and  then  either 
£nction  with  various  polishing  materials,  or  rubbing 
with  a  smooth  hard  surface  or  burnisher,  brings  out 
the  lustre  of  the  metaL 

POLISHINQ  OF  8TONR    See  Stonb. 

POLISHING  SLATE,  a  mineral  composed 
chiefly  of  silica,  with  a  little  alumina,  lime,  oxide  of 
iron,  and  water ;  white,  yellowish- white,  or  yellow ; 
of  a  slaty  texture,  opaque,  very  brittle,  and  of 
specific  gravity  not  much  more  than  half  that  of 
water;  so  that  it  swims  in  water  till  its  pores 
become  tilled  with  the  liquid.  It  is  found  in 
Bohemia,  Saxony,  and  Auvergne,  and  has  been 
supposed  to  be  a  volcanic  product,  but  it  consists  of 
sihcious  remains  of  Diatomacece,  It  is  used  for 
polishing  glass,  marble,  and  metals. 

POLI'TICAL  ECONOMY.  The  word  economy 
is  derived  from  the  Greek  for  house-law  or  house- 
regulation.  It  refers  to  the  material  portion  of 
domestic  regulation,  and  does  not,  for  instance, 
embrace  the  observance  of  religion  or  the  communi- 
cation of  instruction.  The  most  important  part  of 
it  is  the  adjustment  of  the  exi)enditure  of  the 
household  to  the  income  at  their  command.  Hence 
the  word  economy  is  sometimes  applied,  both  in  a 
public  and  a  private  sense,  to  the  saving  of  money. 
The  term  '  Political'  came  to  be  used  along  with  it 
as  a  convenient  method  of  expressing  the  appli- 
cation to  a  state  of  a  sound  system  of  management 
in  relation  to  its  affairs.  In  later  times,  however, 
the  word,  as  applied  to  a  community,  came  to  be 
something  totally  different  from  its  application  to  a 
househol£  It  was  thought  that  one  could  regulate 
a  people  just  as  a  house  is  regulated,  by  adjusting 
the  spending  and  the  getting  of  the  national  wealth. 
Hence  arose  several  doctrines  now  discarded— such, 
for  instance,  as  *  the  balance  of  trade,'  which  taught 
that  the  trade  with  any  nation  is  only  profitable  when 
you  sell  more  to  that  nation  than  you  buy  from  it ; 
the  sy^t'^m  of  bounties  upon  special  trades,  as  being 
more  prolitable  to  others ;  and  lastly,  the  system  <» 
protection  to  native  industry— the  last  relic  of  what 
may  be  called  the  positive  school  of  economists. 
Political  economy  now  means,  not  the  art  of  regu- 
lating communities  in  this  respect,  but  the  science 
of  those  laws  which  Providence  has  established  for 
their  regulation.  Hence  the  analogy  with  domestic 
economy  ceases.  Domestic  economy  is  the  iK>sitive 
regulation  of  a  household — not  the  leaving  of  it  to 
follow  its  own  dictates  ;  and,  indeed,  that  there  is  a 
disposition,  more  or  less  in  the  head  of  every  house, 
to  limit  its  expenditure  to  its  income,  is  one  of  the 
phenomena  by  which  things  right  themselves,  as  it 
were,  and  make  up  those  laws  of  nature  which 
constitute  political  economy.  A  man  knows  that 
if  he  buys  too  much,  he  will  become  bankrupt ;  but 
we  do  not  now  order  the  wholesale  merchant  not  to 
buy  too  much  from  this  or  that  country,  so  as  to 
place  the  balance  of  trade  against  us — we  know 
that  this  naturally  rights  itself,  because  we  must 
expect  our  own  produce  to  pay  for  what  we  bring 
in.  Even  if  we  should  have  to  pay  for  it  in  gold, 
that  is  a  commodity  produced  by  our  peopleu  The 
income  and  expenditure  of  the  government,  as  apart 
from  that  of  the  people  of  the  community,  are  of 
course  under  regulation  like  those  of  a  household ; 
but  these  form  a  separate  field  of  o))eration,  called 
Finance  (q.v.).  There  are  a  few  people  who  still 
hold  that  there  is  no  natural  system  sufficient  in 
itself  to  regulate  the  material  affairs  of  mankind, 
and  that  these  should  be  committed  to  the  hands  of 
special  managers.  Finding  the  approved  doctrines 
of  political  economy  going  further  and  further  from 


their  direction,  such  persons,  tliough  few  in  number, 
have  been  very  absolute  in  their  views,  and  zealou 
in  pushing  them.  One  class  of  these  are  ciUed 
Socialists ;  and  another,  who  go  further  lengthi,  in 
called  CommunistSL  It  has  not  been  considered 
necessary  here  to  go  beyond  the  mere  description  or 
definition  of  the  nature  of  pohtical  economy,  Wcuue 
the  various  parts  of  which  it  consists  are  given  etch 
under  its  own  head,  as  Boui^iT,  Capital,  Colost, 
Communism,  Competition,  Corn  Laws^  Demand 
AND  Supply,  Exchanos,  Free  Trade,  Laboub, 
Monopoly,  Navigation  Laws,  Rent,  Valve,  &c. 

POLITICAL  OFFENCES,  crimes  considered 
injurious  to  the  safety  of  the  state,  or  soch  crimei 
as  involve  a  violation  of  the  allegiance  due  by  s 
subject  te  the  supreme  authority  of  the  state. 

By  the  Roman  law,  in  the  early  times  of  the 
republic,  every  act  injurious  to  the  state  wu  com- 
prehended under  the  name  perduellio,  and  visited 
with  death.  That  term  included  conspiracy  sgainit 
the  government,  aiming  at  kingly  power,  aiding  tlie 
enemies  of  Rome,  and  losing  an  army.  The  «onl 
perduellio  afterwards  fell  into  gradual  disiue,  ud 
the  chief  state  offences  were  known  by  the  tena 
majeMas  or  crimen  1<fs<b  majettaUs^  somewhat  skis 
to  the  treason  of  modem  times.  In  the  republican 
period,  the  crimes  to  which  the  epithet  Icua  majet' 
tas  was  most  frequently  applied,  were  the  beteysl 
or  surrender  of  an  army  to  the  enemy,  the  exate* 
ment  of  sedition,  and  such  a  course  of  administoti'ia 
as  impaired  the  dignity  of  the  state.  In  imperial 
times,  acte  and  words  disrespectful  to  the  reigning 
emperor  were  included,  and  an  indignity  to  his  statue 
was  visited  nearly  as  severely  as  an  offence  a^ost 
his  person.  Lffsa  majestas  was  generally  pumahed 
with  death,  confiscation,  and  infamy.  The  crinuoal 
might  even  be  tried  after  his  death,  to  the  effect  of 
confiscating  his  property,  and  rendering  his  menuiTy 
infamous— a  practice  which  has  been  Rsorted  to 
both  in  France  and  Scotland  as  late  as  the  beginmng 
of  the  16th  century.  ' 

In  modem  times,  the  acts  brought  under  the 
category  of  political  offences  have  varied  much  at 
different  penods  and  in  different  countries.  They 
have  in  general  been  more  leniently  dealt  vith 
under  constitutional  than  under  despotic  goven* 
ments.  It  is,  however,  a  principle  which  haa  been 
generally  recognised  by  the  most  constitutional  of 
governments,  that  when  the  legislature  thinks  itadf 
endangered  by  a  secret  conspiracy  a^nst  the  states 
or  an  understanding  with  the  enemies  of  the  oobd* 
try,  it  permits  the  executive,  for  a  limited  time,  to 
arrest  suspected  citizens,  without  the  formalitsea 
which  are  required  in  ordinary  circumstances. 

In  England,  a  large  number  of  the  graver  poH* 
tical  crimes  are  included  under  the  denomination  d 
Treason,  and  the  treason  law  has  sometimes  bea 
stretehed  so  as  to  include  offences  which,  by  a  lair 
construction,  could  hardly  come  within  it,  such  as 
the  use  of  violence  to  reform  religion  or  the  lawa^ 
or  to  remove  the  ooundllors  of  the  sovereign.  Eves 
riotous  assemblies  with  the  object  of  destroying  all 
proi)erty  of  a  particular  class  have  been  hdd  tressoo. 
Politicid  offences  also  indnde  a  number  of  crimo 
against  government  falling  short  of  treason,  asd 
passing  under  the  name  of  Sedition,  which,  though 
they  have  for  their  ultimate  object  tiie  violatics 
of  the  publio  peace,  do  not  aim  at  direct  and  <»cb 
violence  against  the  laws  or  Hie  sovereigD,  Mt 
rather  the  dissemination  of  a  turbulent  spoit 
tending  to  produce  such  violence^  The  British 
government  does  not  permit  the  politieal  offendos 
of  other  countries  to  be  included  in  extraditiossl 
treaties ;  and  in  modem  times,  generally  speskia^ 
extradition  does  not  apply  to  political  offendert; 
contrary  to  the  doctrine  Jiud  down  by  Grotiua   Is 


POLITICS— POLKA. 


■ome  oountries,  conspiracy  agftinst  the  soTereign  of 
any  country  in  league  with  the  state  is  a  special 
offence ;  in  Great  Britain,  however,  this  seems  not 
to  be  the  case.  A  bill  introduced  in  1858  to  make  it 
felony  to  conspire  to  commit  a  murder  without 
as  well  as  within  her  Majesty's  dominions,  was 
rejected  by  the  House  of  Commons  on  the  second 
riding,  m>m  the  idea  that  it  was  dictated  by 
fVance. 

PO'LITICS  (Gr.  piUis,  city  or  state),  that  branch 
of  ethics  which  has  for  its  subject  the  proper  mode 
of  governing  a  state,  so  as  to  secure  its  prosperity, 
peace,  and  safety,  and  to  attain,  as  perfectly  as 
possible,  the  ends  of  civil  society.  Among  the 
subjects  which  political  science  embraces  are  the 
principles  on  which  government  is  founded,  the 
nands  in  which  the  supreme  power  may  be  most 
advantageously  placed,  the  duties  and  obligation  of 
the  governing  and  governed  portions  of  society,  the 
development  and  increase  oi  the  resoiurces  of  the 
state,  the  protection  of  the  rights  and  liberties  of 
the  citizens,  the  preservation  of  their  morals,  and 
the  defence  of  the  independence  of  the  state  against 
foreign  control  or  conquest.  While  the  philosophy 
of  governing  constitutes  the  science  of  politics,  the 
art  of  politics  consists  in  the  application  of  that 
science  to  the  individual  circumstances  of  particular 
states.  The  ancient  Greek  writers  treated  politics 
with  reference  to  an  ideal  perfect  state,  which 
each  propounded  according  to  his  own  speculative 
views,  pointing  out  the  variation  of  every  existing 
government  from  his  standard.  The  politics  of  a 
country,  in  common  parlance,  implies  the  course  of 
its  government,  more  especially  in  its  relations  with 
foreign  powers. 

POLIZIANO,  Anoelo,  whose  name  is  perhaps 
better  known  under  the  Latin  form  of  PoLrriANUS, 
was  the  son  of  a  doctor  of  civil  law,  and  was  bom 
at  Montepulciano  in  Tuscany,  14th  July  1454.    The 
family  name  was  Ambroginis,  but  P.  took  his  from 
hifl  native  town — in  Latin,  Mons  PoUlianus.     He 
studied  Latin  at  Florence  under  Cristoforo  Landia, 
Greek  under  Andronicus  of  Thessalonica,  the  Pla- 
tonic philosophy  under  Marsilio  Ficino,  and   the 
Aristotelian  under  Argyropulos.    He  also  devoted 
acme  attention  to  Hebrew.    P.'s  talent  for  poetry 
was  early  developed.    When  scarcely  fifteen  years 
of  age,  he  took  the  Florentines  wiui  surprise  by 
the  publication  of  his  famous  Stanze  (a  poem  of  1400 
lines)  in  honour  of  Giulio  de  Medici,  who  had  car- 
ried off  the  palm  at  a  tournament.     Lorenzo  de 
M^ici  took  notice  of  the  brilliant  lad,  and  at  once 
placed  him  in  a  condition  to  continue  his  studies 
without  any  pecuniary  harassments,  by  appointing 
him  tntor  to  ms  two  sons,  and  subsequently  gave 
him  a  residence  in  his  charming  villa  near  Fiesole, 
'where  P.,  who  was  i^assionately  fond  of  country 
Hfe,  resumed  his  studies  with  fresh  ardour.     In 
14M,  he  accompanied  the  Florentine  ambassadors 
to  Rome,  and  was  received  in  a  flattering  manner 
hy  the  l>ope,  at  whose  request  he  translated  (into 
Ijatin)  the  Greek  historian  Herodianus,  for  which 
he   received  200  golden  crowns.     He  also  made 
liStin    versions   of  the   Enchiridion  of   Epictetus, 
the    Charmides  of  Plato,  and  other  works,  with 
such   elegance,  that  JSrasmns    pronounced  him  a 
master  in  translation.    After  having  filled  for  some 
years  a  chair  of  Latin  literature,  he  commenced  the 
teaching  of  Greek.    His  popularity  as  a  professor 
'Was  greatb    Pupils  came  to  study  under  him  from 
all  the  great  cities  of  Italy,  and  even  from  distant 
narts   of  Europe ;   the  principal   were  Francesco 
Pacci,  Fortiguerra,  Maffei  de  Volaterra,  P.  Crinitus, 
Ottillaame  Grocyn,  Thomas  Linacre,  and  Michael 
AjDgela     His  oopiea  of  Ovid,  Statins,  Pliny  the 


Younger,  Quintilian,  &&,  and  other  authors,  are 
still  preserved  in  the  different  libraries  of  Italy, 
and  are  covered  with  marginal  notes.  His  coi)y 
of  the  famous  Digest  of  Roman  law,  with  an  ela- 
borate philological  and  grammatical  commentary, 
is  still  preserved  in  the  Laurentian  Library  at 
Florence^  In  1489  appeared  his  MisceUanea,  a 
collection  of  critical  and  other  obsei'vations  on  the 
ancient  authors.  Towards  the  close  of  his  life,  he 
entered  into  orders,  and  was  made  canon  of  the 
cathedral  of  Florence.  He  died  24th  September 
1494.  Among  the  brilliant  scholars  of  the  classical 
Renaissance,  P.  occupies  a  foremost  place  in  virtue  of 
his  vigour  and  originality.  His  intellect  was  indeed 
penetrated  by  an  admiration  of  the  chaste  and  noble 
literature  of  antiquity ;  but  there  T^as  nothing 
servile  in  his  imitations;  he  reproduced  without 
difficulty — ^because  he  was  himself  a  kindred  genius 
— the  strength  of  Tacitus,  the  elegance  of  Livy, 
and  the  conciseness  of  Sallust;  his  Latin  poems, 
especially  his  elegies,  displajr  the  beauty  and  ardour 
of  nis  imagination.  Among  his  vernacular  pieces  may 
be  mentioned  his  Canti  Camascialeacki  (Carnival 
or  Merry  Ballads),  remarkable  for  their  felicity  of 
style,  sweetness  of  pathos,  and  abundance  of  ima- 
gery.  Another  proof  of  his  varied  poetical  power 
was  his  OrfeOj  one  of  the  earliest  dramatic  compo- 
sitions produced  in  Italy.  The  editions  of  P.'s 
separate  writings  have  been  numberless.  See 
Seraszi's  Vita  di  A,  PoUtiano ;  N.  A.  Bonafous 
De  A.  PolUiani  Vita  H  Operibus  (Paris,  1845), 
Tiraboschi's  Staria  delta  LitteraL  Italiana;  Gres- 
well  s  Memoirs  of  PoUtiano,  and  Roscoe's  Lives  o/ 
Lorenzo  de  Medici  and  of  Leo  X, 

POLK,  James  Knox,  eleventh  President  of  the 
U.S.  of  America,  was  bom  in  Mecklenburg  County, 
North  Carolina,  November  2,  179a  His  ancestors, 
who  bore  the  name  of  Pollock,  emigrated  from  the 
north  of  Ireland  early  in  the  18th  century.  Though 
his  fatiier  was  a  farmer  in  moderate  circumstances, 
he  was  educated  in  the  university  of  North  Caro- 
lina, and  studied  law  with  Felix  Grundy  of  Ten- 
nessee, an  eminent  lawyer  and  statesman.  Admitted 
to  the  bar  in  1820,  he  was  threevears  after  elected 
a  member  of  the  legislature  of  Tennessee,  and  soon 
after,  to  the  Federal  Congress,  by  the  Democratic 
party.  In  1836,  he  was  chosen  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Representatives,  a  position  he  tilled  during 
five  sessions  with  firmness  and  ability.  After  serving 
fourteen  years  in  Congress,  he  was,  in  1839,  elected 
governor  of  Tennessee;  and  in  1844  unexpectedly 
nominated,  as  a  compromise  candidate,  for  the 
presidency,  against  Henry  Clay,  and  elected.  During 
nis  term,  tlie  Oregon  boundiuy  was  settled  by  a 
compromise  offerea  by  England,  though  the  party 
cry  which  helped  to  elect  nim  was  a  claim  for  the 
entire  territoiy  to  54**  40'  N.  lat  The  annexation 
of  Texas  caused,  in  1846,  a  war  with  Mexico : 
50,000  volunteers,  added  to  the  small  regular  force, 
sufficed  to  take  the  capital  (September  14,- 1847),  and 
enabled  the  government  to  dictate  terms  of  peace, 
by  which  it  acquired  Califomia  and  New  Mlexicow 
Having  pledged  nimself  to  a  single  term  of  office,  Mr 
P.  refused  a  renomination,  and  retired  to  his  home  in 
Nashville,  Tennessee,  where  he  died  three  months 
afterwards,  June  15,  1849.  Mr  P.  was  a  man  of 
respectable  abilities,  and  of  a  solid,  firm,  honest, 
and  religious  character.  He  was  devoted  to  the 
principles  of  the  Democratic  party  of  Jefferson  and 
Jackson — state  rights,  a  revenue  tariff,  independent 
treasury,  and  strict  construction  of  the  constitution. 

PO'LKA,  a  species  of  dance,  of  Polish  or  Hun- 

garian  oricin,  the  music  to  which  is  in^  f  time,  and 
as  the  rn^hmical  peculiarity  of  being  accented 
on   tiie  thurd   quaver   of  the  measure.     It  was 

047 


POLLACK-POLUa 


the  Eu'l  of  Desmond,  depulj.  It  onlsined  'that 
it  ahall  be  Uwtul  to  all  uuuuier  of  men  that  God 
»ny  theeves  robbing  by  d»y  or  night,  or  going  or 
coming  to  mb  or  steal,  or  %a<f  persons  going  or 
comiD^.  having  no  faithful  msn  of  good  nsme  and 
fune  in  their  compiuiy  in  English  apporell,  that 
it  shall  he  lawFiill  to  take  and  kill  those,  and  to  out 
off  their  heads,  without  any  impescbment  of  onr 
sovenii^  lord  the  king.  And  of  any  head  so  cat 
off  in  the  county  of  Meath,  that  the  cutter  and  his 
Ayders  there  to  him  cause  the  aaad  head  so  cut  off 
to  be  brouglst  to  the  portreffe  to  put  it  npoa  a  stake 
or  apear,  upon  the  Caatle  of  Trim,  and  that  the  laed 
portreSe  Bball  testify  the  brioRing  of  the  same  to 
Uim.  And  that  it  shall  be  Uirtul  for  the  saed 
bringer  of  the  aaed  head  to  distrain  and  levy  by  his 
hand  (aa  his  reward)  of  every  man  having  one 
ploughland  in  the  barony,  two  pence  i  and  of  every 
man  having  half  a  plonghland,  one  penny;  and  of 
every  man  having  an  house  and  goods,  value  forty 
■hillings,  one  penny ;  and  of  every  cottier  having 
one  bouse  and  smoak,  one  half- penny.'  Moch 
slaughter  is  said  to  have  been  committed  under  this 
remarkable  act. 

POLL-TAX.    See  Capitatioit. 

POXLACK  (Mtrtangat  poUactmu),  a  fiah  of  the 
family  Gadiiia,  of  the  same  jfeniiB  with  the  Whiting 
and  Cual-liah.     It  is  commoa  on  the  coasts  of  aU 

tarts  of  Britain ;  and  in  Scotland  and  some  parta  of 
relaud,  it  is  called  Lytbe.  It  is  a  very  playful  fish, 
often  gamboling  on  tiie  surface  of  the  water.  It 
attains  about  the  came  nze  as  the  coal-lish.  It  has 
three  donU  fins;  the  body  i«  of  a  longiah  shape; 
the  lower  jaw  is  much  longer  than  the  upper ;  the 
tail  is  slightly  forked.  The  fleah  is  reckoned  supe- 
rior to  that  of  the  coal-fish.  Young  pollacks  are 
■ometimes  au!d  aa  whitings,  to  which,  nowever,  thay 
are  not  nearly  equaL  No  lish  more  readily  riaes  to 
tiie  artificial  fly,  and  in  this  way  great  nlunbers  Br« 
caught  on  the  British  coasts.  Toe  fly  is  merely  a 
bit  of  white  feather  tied  to  a  common  bait-hook. 
Worsted  ia  sometimes  used  instead  of  the  feather  ; 
and  flies  of  different  oolonrg  are  aomotimes  used 
together,  with  great  soctsss.  No  reel  is  emplosred, 
Bi^  any  stick  is  good  enough  for  a  rod;  a  few  yards 
of  string  make  a  sufficient  Bne. 

PO'LLAN  [Gorrgonia  Poltan;  see  CoREOOHOs), 
a  fresh-water  fish  of  the  family  Stdmonida,  a  native 
of  lakes  in  Ireland.  It  ia  particiUarly  abundant  in 
Lough  Ncagh,  where  it  ia  often  seen  in  large  ahoals, 
which  issue  from  the  deep  waters,  and  haunt  the 
shore  from  spring  to  autumn,  when  great  nombera 
are  taken  by  nets,  and  sold  in  the  neigbbouring 
country.  The  P.  is  from  10  to  12  inches  in  length ; 
it  resembles  the  Qwyniad,  but  has  not  the  snout 
produced  like  that  flui;  aad  there  are  differences  in 
the  size  and  position  of  the  Has.  It  is  very  like 
Corf^intstikiig,  a  species  found  in  the  most  northern 
parts  of  Norway.  The  spawn  of  the  P.  is  deposited 
in  November  and  December  on  the  rocky  or  stony 
parta  of  the  bottom  of  the  lake  which  it  inhabits. 
It  ia  a  weU-flavoured  fish.  The  cry  of  'Fresh 
Pollaa'  is  even  more  common  in  Belfast  during 
summer  than  that  of  '  Fresh  Herring.' 

PO'LLAEDING  (to  poH,  to  cut  off,  or  shave  the 
head)  is  the  cutting  off  o£  the  whole  crown  of  a 
tree,  leaving  it  to  send  out  new  branches  from  the 
top  of  the  stem.  Traea  thus  treated  are  called 
poUarda.  The  new  branches  are  never  equal  in 
magnitude  to  the  original  branches  of  the  tree, 
altDongh  often  more  nomovui^  and  when  poUan^g 


ling  at  the  top  of  the  stem,  from  which  man^  in 
brancbea  sprmg.  Pollards  are  not  beautifBl ;  bat 
pollarding  is  practised  with  advantage  ia  diitnda 
where  fuel  ia  scarce,  the  branchea  bemg  cut  off  ii 
order  to  b«  used  for  buA,  aod  the  operabon  reijcited 


Pollard  Oak. 

every  third  or  fourth  year.  It  is  much  more  p» 
vatent  in  many  puts  of  Europe  than  in  any  pirt  of 
Britain,  and  in  Britain  is  almost  confined  to  thna 
districts  of  England  which  are  furthest  from  tai. 
Willows,  Foplan,  Alders,  Elms.  Oaks,  and  Iim<* 
are  the  trees  most  Frequently  pollarded,  and  in  soma 
parta  of  Europe  the  White  Mulberry.  The  trw*  of 
moat  rapid  growth  are  preferred  where  fuel  ia  tin 
object ;  and  willows,  poplara,  and  alders  are  planted 
along  water-coorscB,  and  in  rows  in  moist  meadow) 
and  bo;;s.  Oaks  are  sometimes  pollarded  chiefly  U» 
the  sake  of  the  bark  of  their  branches,  and  tht 
whole  treatment  veiy  much  reeemblee  that  of 
copse-wood.  In  some  parts  of  Germany,  landacqies 
may  be  seen  of  open  country  with  many  scattettd 
oak  and  elm  pollards,  presentiug  a  very  pecnhar 
appearance. 

PCLLEN.    See  Stamen  and  FBCtrnDmos. 

POLLE'NZA,  a  well-built  town  in  the  northern 
port  of  the  island  of  Majorca,  about  2  miles  vest 
of  the  Bay  of  Pollenza,  and  23  north- west  of  Palmi. 
It  has  a  Jesuita'  college  and  some  manufactures  of 
black  woollen  cloth.     Fop.  about  650a 

PO'LLIO,  C-  Asi.vnTH,  a  politician,  aoldicr,  luA 
author  (^  oonsiderable  merit,  aod  atill  more  cob- 
aiderable  reputation,  was  bom  in  Borne  76  B.  C  bnt 
belonged  to  a  family  of  Uarmciniau  descent.  Bii 
fint  ambition  waa  to  be  an  orator,  and  in  hii  joatli 
ho  seised  every  opportumty  of^hearing  soch  mea 
aa  Hortensius  and  Cicero.  When. civil  war  broke 
out  between  Ciesar  and  Fompey,>F.  sided  with  lb* 
former,  waa  present  at  the  crossing  of  the  Knbiccn, 
and  accompanied  the  great  senersl  in  his  i^ad 
triumphal  march  throu^  Itafy.  He  joined  Cesar 
in  hia  expedition  to  Oreeoe  against  Fompey,  and 
took  part  m  the  decisive  battle  of  PbarwUa,  48  B.  d 
At  the  time  of  Cesar's  assassinatiOD  |15th  Marcb, 
44  B.C.),  P.  was  governor  of  Hispania  Ulterior 
(Further  Spain),  and  carrying  on  the  war  againrt 
Seitus  Pompey.     In  the  snbaeqneiit  strng^o^  ht 


POLLNITZ-POLO. 


lided  with  the  trimnyirate  (Antony,  Lepidns, 
and  Octavian)  against  the  oligarchic  senate ;  and 
on  the  triumph  of  the  former,  was  appointed 
administrator  of  Transpadane  Gaul,  in  whicn  capa- 
city he  saved  the  property  of  the  poet  Virgil  at 
Mantua  from  conhscation.  After  Antony  and 
Octavian  had  quarrelled,  it  was  P.  who  effected 
their  temporary  reconciliation  at  Brundnsium,  40 
B.  a  ;  next  year  he  conducted  a  successful  campai^ 
against  the  Parthini,  a  people  of  Illyria,  and  m 
consequence,  obtained  a  triumph.  After  this  event, 
however,  he  withdrew  altogether  from  political 
life.  He  lived  18  years  after  the  Emperor 
Augustus,  dying  at  his  Tuscnlan  villa,  4  A.  D.,  in 
the  80th  year  of  his  age.  Besides  having  a  reputa- 
tion for  oratory,  P.  was  celebrated  as  a  historian, 
poet,  and  critic;  and  there  seems  little  reason  to 
doubt  that  he  was  an  author  the  loss  of  whose 
writings  is  to  be  regretted.  His  literary  and  poli- 
tical  criticism  of  his  contemporaries,  in  particular, 
appears  to  have  been  valuable.  He  also  claims 
remembrance  as  a  distinguished  patron  of  men  of 
letters,  such  as  Catullus,  Horace,  Virgil,  and  as  the 
founder  of  the  first  public  library  at  IU>me. 

POLLNITZ,  Karl  Ludwio  yon,  noted  as  a 
writer  of   memoirs   of    his   time,  was  born   near 
Cologne    in    1692.      He    was   equally  remarkable 
for  his  talents  and  want  of  principle ;  and  while 
hiB  father's   position  as  minister  of  state  to  the 
Elector  of  Brandenburg  gave  him  access  to  court- 
circles,  his  extravagance  and  eccentricity,  coupled 
with  his  vagabond  habits,  often  reduced  him  to  the 
greatest  poverty.     But  after  wandering  all  over 
Europe,  taking  service  in  the  church  in  Austria,  and 
in  the  army  in  Spain,  he    finally  attracted   the 
favourable    notice  of    Frederick    the    Great,   who 
appointed  him  his  reader,  and  made  him  director 
of  the  theatre  at  Berlin.  Aifter  having  twice  changed 
from  Catholicism  to  Calvinism,  he  proclaimed  him- 
self a  membei-  of  the  church  of  Rome  shortly  before 
his   death,  which  occurred   in   1775.     Among  the 
numerous  memoirs,  either  written  by  or  ascribed  to 
him,  the  following  were  the  most  popular  in  their 
day,    and  the  most  applauded  for  toe  powers  of 
observation  and  the  wit  which  they  exhibit :  LeUres 
et  Mim.^  et  la  Relation  de  ses  premiers  Voyages  (Amst. 
1735) ;    J^tat  abrigS  de  Saxe    sous   Auguste   III. 
(Frankf.    1734);    HuL    secrete     de    la,    Duchesse 
(fffanovre,    Spouse    de    George    /.    (Lond.    1732). 
After  his  death,  Brunn  brought  out  P.'s  MSmoires 
pour  sertnr  d  V  Histoire  des  qtuxtre  dernier s  Souverains 
de  la  Maison  de  Brandenbourg  (2  tomes,  BerL  1792). 

POL.LOCKSHAWU  a  municipal  borough  in  the 
county  of  Renfrew,  Scotland,  is  situated  on  the 
banks  of  the  White  Cart,  about  24  miles  south-west 
of  Glasgow.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  estate 
of  Nether- Pollock,  on  which  the  town  standsi  and 
from  the  Scotch  word  *shaw,'  which  means  a 
'grove'  or  'plantation.'  P.  ia  entirely  a  manufac- 
turing town ;  cotton- spinning,  calico-printing,  silk- 
weavmg,  bleaching,  and  fancy  dyeing,  are,  or  until 
recently,  were  extensively  carried  on.    Pop.  7648. 

POLiLiOK,  Robert,  a  Scottish  poet,  was  bom  in 
1799  at  Muirho^ise,  in  the  parish  of  Eaglesham,  in 
the  county  of  Rethrew.  After  receiving  the  ordinary 
course  o^  instruction  in  country  school,  he  was  sent 
to  the  university  of  Glasgow,  and  on  the  comple- 
tion of  his  curriculum  in  arts,  he  entered  the 
Divinity  Hall  of  the  Secession  Church,  where  be 
studied  five  years.  In  1827,  he  was  licensed  to 
preach.  B^  this  time  he  had  written  the  Course  of 
Time^  and  its  composition,  together  with  the  ardour 
with  which  he  pursued  his  studies,  brought  on 
consamption.  The  poem  was  published  by  Mr 
Blackwood  in  the  same  year  in  which  the  author 


received  licence.  It  was  highly  praised,  but  th« 
voice  of  praise  fell  on  a  dying  ear.  In  his  critical 
state,  his  medical  attendants  recommended  residence 
for  a  time  in  Italy,  and  in  compliance  with  their 
advice,  he  set  out,  accopipanied  by  his  sister.  On 
his  arrival  in  London,  his  symptoms  became  sud- 
denly worse,  and  unable  to  prosecute  his  journey, 
he  went  to  reside  at  Shirley  Common,  near  South- 
ampton, where  he  died  on  the  17th  September  1827. 
He  was  interred  in  the  churchyard  at  Millbrook, 
and  over  his  grave  an  obelisk  has  been  erected. 

The  Course  of  Time  has  run  through  more  than 
twenty  editions,  and  is  extremely  popular  in  Scotland. 
It  is  a  work  of  genius,  but  curiously  unequal  in 
merit.  It  contains  eloquent  and  spirited  passages, 
but  considerable  portions  of  it  read'  like  a  dull 
sermon  turned  into  blank  verse.  The  writer  drew 
his  inspiration  from  nature,  from  Milton,  and  the 
Shorter  Catechism — from  the  last,  perhaps,  most 
of  alL  His  Memoir,  written  by  a  brother,  was 
published  in  184a  P.  also  wrote  Tales  of  the 
CovejuifiterSt  which  were  published  anonymously. 

POLO,  Marco,  the  celebrated  traveller,  was 
bom  of  a  noble  family  of  Dalmatian  origin,  at 
Venice,  about  1250.  BUs  father,  Nicolo  Polo,  and 
his  uncle,  Matteo  Polo,  both  eminent  merchants, 
had,  previous  to  his  birth,  set  out  on  a  mercantile 
expedition,  visiting  Constantinople,  Soldaya  or 
Sondach  (on  the  Euxine),  and  Bnlgar  (on  the  Volga), 
the  capital  of  Bark&i,  the  Khan  of  Keptchak. 
Thence  they  travelled  round  the  north  side  of  the 
Caspian  Sea  to  Bokhara,  where  they  remained 
three  years,  studying  the  Mongol  language  and 
trading;  but  in  1261,  some  ambassadors  from  the 
Perso-Mogul  khan  to  Kiiblai  (q.  v.),  the  Grand 
Khan  of  the  Mongols,  happening  to  pass  through 
Bokhara,  the  brothers  Polo  resolved  to  accompany 
them  to  Kemenfu,  the  summer  residence  of  the 
Khagan.  They  were  well  received  by  Kiiblai,  who 
was  very  inquisitive  concerning  the  peoples  and 
mode  of  government  in  Europe,  and  commissioned 
them  to  act  as  his  envoys  to  the  ])0])e,  bearing  a 
written  request  for  100  Euroiieans,  well  learned  in 
the  sciences  and  'arts,  to  act  as  instructors  to  the 
Mongols.  They  reached  Venice  in  1269 ;  but 
finding  it  impossible  to  discharge  the  mission  with 
which  they  had  been  intrusted,  they  set  out  on 
their  return  in  1271,  taking  with  them  youne  Marco, 
and  arrived  again  at  the  court  of  Kiiblai  Khun  in 
1275.  Their  second  reception  was  still  more  honour- 
able than  the  first,  and  the  Khagan  took  special 
notice  of  Marco,  from  the  rapidity  with  which  he 
learned  the  customs  and  language  of  the  Mongols. 
His  wisdom  and  the  nobility  of  his  demeanour  also 
recommended  hiifi  as  a  fit  envoy  to  the  various 
neighbouring  rulers ;  and  during  his  residence  at 
their  several  courts,  P.  was  in  the  habit  of  closely 
observing  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  countiy, 
and  delivering  on  his  return  a  detailed  report  to 
the  Khagan.  These  reports  were  the  groundwork  of 
the  book  which  informs  us  regarding  the  state  of 
Central  and  Eastern  Asia  in  zne  end  of  the  13th 
century.  P.'s  first  mission  was  to  the  court  of 
Annam  or  Tonquin  (1277),  and  during  his  residence 
there,  he  acquired  much  information,  l^oth  from  his 
own  observation  and  from  report,  concerning  Tibet, 
Yunnan,  Bengal,  Mien  (or  Pegu),  and  the  south  of 
China ;  he  was  next  employed  to  aid  in  making  an 
inventory  of  the  archives  belonging  to  the  court 
of  the  Song  dynasty ;  and  soon  afterwards  was 
appointed  governor  of  the  town  of  Yang-tchow,  in 
the  province  of  Kiang-si,  in  Eastern  China,  a  post 
he  held  for  three  years.  He  also  accompanied  a 
Mongol  army  to  the  attack  of  the  kingdom  of  Peffu ; 
and  closed  the  list  of  services  rendered  to  Kiiblai 
by  accepting  the  embassy  to  Tsiampa,  the  south 

649 


POLOTSK-POLYANDRY. 


part  of  Cochin-China.  Having  thus  passed  17  years 
in  the  service  of  the  Mongol  khan,  and  visited  the 
chief  countries  and  cities  oi  Eastern  Asia,  travelling 
through  kingdoms  (as  China)  which  no  European 
had  ever  seen  before,  and  acquiring  much  know- 
ledge of  other  kingdoms  (as  Japan,  called  by  P. 
Zipangu),  the  existence  of  which  was  not  even 
suspected,  be  succeeded  in  obtaining  permission  to 
join  the  escort  of  a  Mongol  princess,  who  was 
travelling  to  the  court  of  Persia.  The  three  Polos 
accordinglv  set  out  in  1291,  travelling  through 
China,  and  thence,  by  sailing  through  t^e  Chinese 
Sea  and  Indian  Ocean,  iinalTy  arrived  at  Teheran, 
where  they  stayed  for  some  time ;  but  learning  that 
Kdblai  Khan  was  now  dead,  they  continued  their 
journey,  and  arrived  at  Venice  m  1295,  bringing 
with  them  much  wealth  and  many  precious  objects, 
the  fruits  of  their  trading.  Marco,  m  the  following 
year,  foujjrht  his  own  galley  in  the  great  battle  on 
Ourzola,  m  which  the  Venetians,  under  Dandolo, 
were  defeated  by  the  Genoese  under  Doria,  and  was 
taken  prisoner  and  immured  in  a  dungeon  at  Genoa. 
Here  he  dictated,  with  the  aid  of  the  memoranda  he 
had  made  during  his  travels,  an  account  of  his 
journev  through  the  East,  which  was  subsequently 
reviBed  with  care.  After  his  liberation  he  returned 
to  Venice,  where  he  was  appointed  member  of  the 
Grand  Council,  and  died  in  1323,  eleven  years  after 
his  father.  His  work  is  variously  entitled,  but  the 
best  edition  is  11  Milione  d%  Messer  Marco  Folo 
Veneziano,  edited  by  Count  Baldelli  (Florence, 
4  vols.  4to,  1827),  and  accomjianied  with  a  map, 
notes,  and  illustrations.  P.*s  narrative  created  an 
immense  sensation  among  the  learned  public,  and 
many  did  not  hesitate  to  affirm  that  it  was  a 
pure  fiction ;  but  the  Catholic  missionaries  and 
subsequent  Venetian  travellers  into  these  remote 
regions,  verified  many  of  P.*s  statements,  and  then 
came  a  reaction  of  public  opinion ;  P/s  wonderful 
minuteness,  extensive  research,  and  accuracy,  being 
the  theme  of  universal  admiration.  His  work  was 
of  inestimable  value  as  a  stimulant  and  guide  in 
geographical  research ;  it  encouraged  the  Portuguese 
to  find  the  way  to  Hindustan  round  the  CApe  of 
Good  Hope ;  and  it  roused  the  passion  for  discovery 
in  the  breast  of  Columbus,  thus  leading  to  the  two 
greatest  of  modern  geographical  discoveries.  The 
first  edition  of  P.*s  *  Voya^*  was  published  by 
Ramusio  in  his  JfaccoUa  dt  Navigazioni  e  Viaggi 
(Venice,  3  vols.  fol.  1550—1559) ;  and  two  English 
translations  have  been  lately  published,  the  one  in 
Edinburgh  (1844),  and  the  other  in  London  (1854). 
There  is  also  a  German  one  by  Burck,  with  notei 
by  Neumann  (Leips.  1846). 

POLO'TSK,  a  town  of  West  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Witebsk,  and  60  miles  west-north- 
weet  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the  banks  of  the 
Duna,  where  that  river  is  joined  by  tiie  Polota.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  ancient  towns  m  Russia,  having 
been  founded  in  the  9th  century.  It  is  the  seat  m 
an  archbishop  of  the  Greek  United  Church,  has  a 
Kremlin,  a  district-school  for  the  sons  of  nobles, 
several  Greek  and  Roman  Catholic  churches.  The 
town  possesses  a  harbour,  and  has  15,028  inhabit- 
ants. Tanning  is  the  only  branch  of  trade  carried 
on  to  any  great  extent.  Under  its  walla,  in  the 
campaign  of  1812,  the  Russian  general,  Wittgenstein, 
defeatea  the  French  under  Oudinot  and  Sire. 

POLTA'VA,  chief  town  of  the  ^vemment  of  the 
same  name,  is  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Worskla,  a  tributary  of  the  Dnieper,  in  lat,  49'  35' 
K.,  and  lone.  34"*  34'  R,  about  934  miles  south- 
south-east  of  St  Petersburg.  Pop.  20,20a  P.  has 
few  manufactures,  and  its  trade  displays  activity 

only  during  the  annual  fairs,  of  which  there  are 
6M 


four.  The  most  important  is  called  the  XUinsky, 
which  lasts  from  the  \i  of  July  to  the  ^  of 
August.  At  these  fairs,  merchandise  is  exposed  for 
sale  worth  £4,000,000.  The  principal  articles  ol 
traffic  are  cloths,  woollen  tissues,  colonial  produc- 
tions, fur,  wool,  horses,  and  agricultural  produce 
and  implements.  P.  was  founded  in  1608^  and  is 
historically  famous  as  the  scene  of  Charles  XIL's 
defeat  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1709.  A  monument 
in  the  town  square  commemorates  the  victory  of 
the  czar ;  and  at  the  distance  of  three  milea  fnmi 
the  town  is  the  tomb  of  the  fallen  warriors,  over 
which  Peter  erected  a  wooden  cross,  and  which  is 
still  known  as  the  '  Swedish  Tomb.' 

POLTAVA,  a  government  of  Little  Russia, 
between  the  governments  of  Kiev  on  the  west,  and 
Kharkov  on  the  east  Area,  19,071  square  miles; 
pop.  1,879,912.  The  surface  is  flat,  with  a  gradual 
slope  south-west  to  the  banks  of  the  Dniei>er,  which 
forms  the  southern  boundary,  and  into  which  the 
chief  rivers— the  Sula,  Psiol,  and  Worskla — flow. 
The  government  does  not  abound  in  wood,  but 
possesses  rich  and  extensive  pastures.  The  soil  is 
for  the  most  part  clay  and  fertile  v^etable  mould, 
and  the  climate  is  healthy.  Agriculture  and  cattle- 
breeding  are  the  staple  occupations.^  Oxen  are  made 
use  of  in  all  field  operations.  The  various  mano- 
factories,  chiefly  brandy-distUleries,  tan-yanls,  and 
su^  and  cloth  manufactories  were  (in  1859)  only 
575  in  number,  and  gave  employment  to  no  more 
than  15,782  hands.  Numbers  of  the  inhabitsnts 
leave  this  for  other  governments,  especially  those 
of  New  Russia,  in  search  of  emnlo^ent ;  and  many 
of  the  peasantry  are  employed  with  their  oxen  in 
bringing  salt  from  the  lakes  of  the  Crimea,  and  fish 
from  the  Don.  Commerce,  which  is  not  carried  oa 
on  a  great  scale,  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Jews. 
The  fairs,  of  which  408  take  place  during  the  year, 
are  the  seasons  of  the  ^atest  commercial  activity. 
The  most  important  fairs  are  those  of  Poltava  and 
Romny, 

POLYA'NDRY,  or  POLYANDRIA,  that  fbnn 
of  polygamy  which  permits  a  woman  to  have 
several  husbands.  See  Makriaoie.  The  hot-bed  of 
polyandry  is  Tibet.  There  a  wife  commonly  ia  the 
wife  of  a  whole  family  of  brothers — the  elder 
brother  being  chief  husband.  In  the  Himalayan 
and  sub-Himalayan  re^ons  adjoining  and  under 
the  influence  of  Tibet,  it  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  same  form,  as  in  the  valley  of  Kashmir, 
in  Ladak,  among  the  Koech,  among  the  Telinges& 
Further  south  in  India,  we  find  polyandry  among 
the  Tudas  of  the  Nilgherry  Hills,  the  Congs  <n 
Mysore,  and  the  Nayars  of  Malabar.  We  find  it 
again  off  the  Indian  coast  in  Ceylon ;  and  goiqg 
eastward,  strike  on  it  as  an  ancient  though  now 
almost  superseded  custom  in  New  Zealand,  and  in 
one  or  two  of  the  Pacific  islands.  Goins  north- 
ward, we  meet  it  again  in  the  Aleutian  lalands ; 
and  taking  the  continent  to  the  west  and  north 
of  the  Aleutians,  it  is  found  among  the  Koryaks, 
to  the  nort^  of  the  Okhotsk  Sea.  Crossing  the 
Russian  empire  to  the  west  side,  we  meet  it  amonjo; 
the  Saporogian  Cossacks ;  and  thus  have  traced  it 
at  points  half  round  the  globe.  This  is  not  all, 
however.  It  is  found  in  several  parts  of  Africa; 
and  it  occurs  again  in  many  parts  of  America 
among  the  red  men.  We  have  the  authority  ol 
Humboldt  for  its  prevalence  among  the  tnbes 
on  the  Orinoco,.and  m  the  same  form  as  in  Tibet. 
'  Among  the  Avaroes  and  the  Maypures,'  he  says, 
'brothers  have  often  but  one  wife.'  Humboldt 
also  vouches  for  its  former  prevalence  in  Lan- 
cerota,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands.  Thus  V^J' 
andiy  is  a  phenomenon  of  human  life  ridepenflant 


POLYANTHUS-POLYATOMIC  ALCOHOLa 


tit  TBM  and  conntiy. — Sea  Latham's  Dacripli 
MOmology  (1859),  voL  L  pp.  24,  28  ;  voL  ii.  pp. 
198,  406,  and  462;  Humboldt's  Perianal  JUar- 
ratiM,  William's  tranglatioD,  1819,  vol  v.  part  2,  p. 
(49;  and  chap.  L  voL  i  p.  S4;  Hamiltnn'g  Neui 
AecotaU  of  the  Eatl  IndUt  (Edin.  1727),  vol.  i 
pp.  274  and  308 ;  Beade'a  Savage  Africa,  p.  43 ; 
Erman'a  Travtlt  in  Siberia,  voL  ii  p.  031 ;  Mar- 
riage Ceremonies,  by  Seignior  G»ya  (tranBlation), 
2d  edition  (Lond  16981  pp,  70  and  06 ;  Emeraon 
Tenneat'l  Oeyioa,  3d  edition  (1859),  vol  il  p.  429  ; 
Xi^eod  of  Rupe,  Grey's  Polyaaian  Mythology,  1 855, 
^%\;  A  Summer  SambU  in  the  Himalayaa  (1360), 
p.  202  j  Vigne's  Kashmir,  voL  i.  p.  37  ;  Journal 
An.  Soc  BeagcU,  vol.  ix.  p.  S34;  aod  Attai.  Seteh. 
ToL  V.  p.  13. 

From  ancient  history  WB  leam  that  the  area  over 
which  polyandry  at  one  time  e<isted  was  even  more 
extended ;  while  in  certain  cantons  of  Media,  accord- 
ing to  Strabo  (lib.  iL  p.  79S,  and  see  Goeuet,  voL  ilL 
book  vi.  c.  i.)  iwlyaynia  was  auUioriaed  by  express 
law,  which  oTdaiaed  every  inhabitant  to  maintain 
at  least  seven  wives ;  in  othar  cantons,  precisely 
the  opposite  nde  prevailed ;  a  woman  was  allowed 
to  have  many  hnabanda,  and  they  lookttd  with  con- 
tempt on  those  who  had  less  than  live.  Ctesar 
infonns   ub   that   in  his   time    polyandry  of    the 


a  the 


of  it  remaining  m  the  PIctish  laws  of 
Indeed,  to  pass  over  communities  in  which  some- 
thing like  promiscuity  of  intercourse  between  the 
sexes  is  said  to  have  prevailed- such  as  the 
MaB9aget«,  Agathyrsi,  and  the  ancient  Spartans 
— WB  find  several  among  which  polyandry,  or  a 
modified  promiscuity,  must  have  been  the  role. 
Assuming,  that  the  legal  obligation  laid  on  younger 
brothera  m  their  turn  to  many  the  wives  of  their 
deceased  elder  brother,  is  a  relic  of  polyandry 
of  the  Tibetan  type,  then  wo  must  hold  that 
polyandry  prevailed  at  one  time  thron>rhout  India 
{/nalitutea  ^  Menu,  chap,  iii,  a  173.  and  chap.  ii.  as. 
67,  68),  among  the  ancient  Hebrews  (Dcut  xiv. 
versee  5 — U);  in  Siam,Burmah,  in  Syria  among  the 
Ostiaka,  the  But  (Bada),tbe  Kasia,  and  the  Puharies 
of  OurhwaL  Traces  of  it  indeed  remained  in  the 
time  of  Tacitus  among  the  Germans  (Tac.,  Oerm., 
n.,  Latham's  edition,  p  67  and  seq.).  In  short, 
polyandry  may  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  transi- 
tional forms  in  the  advance  from  a  state  of  promis- 
cuity, on  the  assumption  that  pure  promiscuity 
ever  existed.  Of  the  origin  of  this  [leciUiar  institu- 
tion, our  space  forbids  ns  to  write;  but  we  believe 
it  to  be  connected  with  the  waut  of  balance  between 
the  nnmbers  of  the  sexee,  due  to  the  practice  of 
female  infanticide,  which  is  its  almost  invari- 
able accompaniment.  Tribes  of  warriors,  wholly 
devoted  to  a  military  life,  find  women  an  incumbrance 
lather  than  a  solace ;  anit  from  this  causa,  and  prob- 
ably from  the  difticultiee  of  subsistence,  formed 
the  practice  of  killing  their  female  children,  sparing 
them  only  when  they  were  the  first-born.  The  dis- 
parity of  the  sexes  would  lead  to  jMlyandry,  and 
once  instituted,  the  custom  would  in  many  cases 
continue  to  exist  after  the  habits  and  necessities 
which  produced  it  disappeared.  In  several  places. 
•■  in  Ladak,  where  polyandry  prevails,  the  sexes 
we  now  either  equally  lanced,  or  the  female  sex 
predominates.  In  these  cases,  polygynia  and 
polyandry  arQ  commonly  found  existing  side  by 
side.  The  subject  is  one  which  demands,  and  as 
yet  has  not  received  full  iuvesligation. 
_^  POLT  A'NTHUa  (Or.  many-flowered),  a  kind  of 
"  '  v.),  much  priied   and  cultivated  by 


florists.  It  is  generally  believed  to  be  a  variety  of 
the  Common  Primrose  (Pn'muln  vulgaria),  prodacod 
by  cidtivation,  in  which  an  umbel  of  uuneroQS 
flowers  is  supported  on  a  common  tcajte  (leafleu 
flower-stem),  instead  of  each  flower  rising  on  ila 
own  stalk  from  the  crown  of  the  root ;  a  modification 
to  which  a  tendency  often  appears  in  the  wild  plant 
itselL  Thus,  in  its  habit  it  somevhat  resembles  the 
cowabp  and  oxlip,  whilst  in  the  size  of  its  flowers 
it  is  more  like  the  common  primrose ;  but  instead 
of  the  pale  uniformity  of  the  wild  plant,  it  exhibits 


Folyanthus. 

variety  of  delicate  and  beautiful  colours,  nis 
irieties  are  innumerable,  new  ones  being  OOD- 
t  in  nally  produced  from  seed,  and  of  short  duration. 
The  seed  is  sown  about  miilsummer,  and  flowers  may 
be  expocted  in  abundance  next  year,  if  the  young; 
plants  are  properly  planted  out.  A  rich  free  eoil  is 
most  8nitM>le.  'The  P.  loves  shade  and  moisture 
more  then  its  congener,  the  auricnla.  It  is  very 
hardy,  and  seldom  suffers  from  the  most  severe  win- 
Fine  kinds  are  preserved  for  a  time  by  dividing 
oot.  The  cultivation  of  the  P.  is  prosecuted 
with  particular  assiduity  and  aucceas  in  England. 
POLYA'NTHCS    HAKOI'SSUS.     See  Naa- 

POLTATO-MIO     ALOOHOLa      Ths     term 

Alcohol,  originally  limited  to  one  substance — viz., 
spirit  of  wme,  or  hydrated  oxide  of  ethyl,  has 
Mgun  to  be  applied  U>  a  considerable  number  of 
organic  compounds,  many  of  which,  in  their  exter- 
nal choracten,  bear  little  resemblance  to  common 
alcohoL  Moet  of  them  are  fluid  and  volatile,  some 
of  them  are  combustible,  and  all  of  them  are 
iposed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  uid  oiygeu,  behave 
a  precisely  similar  manner  towards  the  same 
decomposing  agents,  and  are  perfectly  neutral  to 
test-  [laper. 

Every  alcohol,  when  acted  on  by  oxidising  agents, 
loses  two  equivi^ents  of  hydrogen,  and  is  converted 
into  an  Aldehyde;  and  by  the  prolonged  action  of 
the  oxidising  agent,  the  aldehyde  takes  up  two 
iquivatenta  M  oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  a  special 
icid.  Moreover,  all  alcohols,  by  the  abstraction 
)f  the  elements  of  water,  yield  ethera.  Hence, 
every  alcohol  has  its  own  ether,  aldehyde,  and 
special  acid ;  the  aldehydes  of  the  alcohols  termed 
pulyatomio  have,  however,  not  been  formed. 

According  to  the  theory  of  organic  radicals,  ths 
alcohols  are  hydrated  oxides  of  an  alcohol  radicftL 
Thus,  common  alcohol,  or  S[«rit  of  wine,  is  tha 
hydrated  oxide  of  the  radical  ethyl  (C,H^,  and  is 
represented  by  the  formula  C,HgO,HO;  similarly, 


POLYBASIC  ACIDS-POLYBIU& 


'Wfod-spirit  IB  the  h^drated  oxide  of  the  radical 
methyl  (O^Hs),  and  u  represented  by  the  formnla 
C^H,0,HO.  According  to  the  theory  of  chemical 
tvpes  (see  Ttpes,  1%eort  of  Chemical),  the 
lucohola  are  divided  into  monatomie  and  potyeUomic. 
A  molecule  of  water  consists  of  two  atoms  of  that 
substance,  and  is  therefore  represented  by  the 
formula  H«0^  which  may  be  arranged  in  the  form 

„  I  0,.   If  half  the  hydrogen  in  this  tjrpical  formula 

be  replaced  by  an  organic  radical,  such,  for  example, 
«  CjH^i,  Cjtln^i,  C,H,u.8,  C,H».7,  or  C,H^  (n  beina 
even  in  all  these  casea),  we  obtain  what  is  termed 
a  monatomie  alcohol,  one  equivalent  of  hydrogen 
being  here  replaced.  Besides  the  primary  water- 
type  represented  by  one  molecule  of  water,  there 
ore  derived  or  secondary  and  tertiary  types,  repre- 
sented by  two  and  by  three  molecules  of  water,  and 

expressed  in  the  forms  ^(04  and  ^  (  ^r     ^ 

half  the  hydrogen  in  ^  5  O4  be   replaced  by  an 

organic  radical,  we  obtain  an  alcohol  said  to  be 
diatomic,  in  consequence  of  its  being  formed  by  the 
replacement  of  two  equivalents  of  hydrogen.    Simi- 

Lirly,  if  half  the  hydrogen  in  xr'  £  ^«  ^  replaced 

XI3  > 

by  an  organic  radical,  we  obtain  a  triatomic  alcohoL 

The  term  polyalomie  ia  applied  to  all  alcohols  which 

are  not  monatomie. 

POLYBA'SIO  ACIDS.  Most  of  the  inorganic 
acids  combine  with  bases  in  such  a  manner  that  one 
atom  of  the  acid  is  united  with  one  atom  of  a 
metallic  oxide  to  form  a  neutral  sail  Nitric  acid 
may  be  taken  as  an  illustration  of  the  acids  pos- 
sessing this  property,  and  which  may  therefore  be 
called  monofuim.  la  other  cases,  as,  for  example, 
that  of  pyrophoephoric  acid  (see  Phosphorus),  one 
atom  of  acid  possesses  the  property  of  combininff 
with  two  atoms  of  base;  such  acids  are  termed 
hihasie  or  dibasie.  There  are  strong  grounds  for 
believing  that  sulphnrio  acid  is  bibasic,  in  which 
case  its  formula  would  require  to  be  doubled,  and  to 
be  written  2HO,SsOe.  Common  phosphoric  and 
arsenic  acids  are  examples  of  a  thinl  class  of  adds 
in  which  one  atom  combines  with  three  atoms  of 
base,  and  which  are  therefore  termed  tribasic. 
Whether  any  pol^basic  aci'ls  beyond  tribasic  acids 
exist,  is  uncertam,  but  it  is  probable  that  silicic 
*    acid  is  a  tetrahasic  acid. 

Amongst  the  organic  acids,  a  similar  relation 
takes  place,  acetic,  succinic,  and  citric  acids  afford- 
ing examples  of  the  monobasic,  dibasic,  and  tribaaio 
dasa 

The  following  are  the  most  important  general 
differences  shewn  by  acids  of  different  degrees  of 
basicity. 

1.  Each  monobasic  acid  can  form  but  one  ether, 
which  is  neutral  2.  A  Monobasic  acid  cannot  form 
a  stable,  well-defined  acid  salt,  or  a  salt  with  two 
or  more  metallic  bases. 

1.  Each  dibcutic  acid  can  form  two  ethers,  one 
neutral,  and  the  other  acid.  2.  Dibasic  acids  can 
form  with  each  metallic  base  a  neutral  salt  and  an 
acid  salt.  They  can  also  form  double  salts  contain- 
ing two  metallic  bases. 

1.  Each  tribasic  acid  can  form  tliree  ethers,  one 
neutral,  and  two  acid.  2.  Tribasic  acids  can  form 
three  salts  with  the  same  metallic  base,  two  of  them 
acid,  and  one  ueutraL 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  account  for 
the  polybasic  or  monobasic  character  of  an  acid, 
from  its  composition.  According  to  Kekul6 
(Lehrbucfi  der  organiach.  ChemiCt  vol  1,  p.  210—219), 
the  basicity  depends  not,  as  was  formerly  supposed, 

6d2 


on  the  molecular  constitution  of  the  acid,  hot  opon 
the  amount  of  oxygen  contained  in  its  radiciL 
For  further  details  on  this  subject,  tiie  reader  ii 
-referred  to  the  article  A01D6  in  Watt*B  DitiUmua^if 
Chemistry,  toL  1,  186a 

POLY'BinS,  the  Greek  historian,  was  bora  about 
204  B.  a  in  Megalopolis,  a  town  of  Arcadia.    Frm, 
Lycortas,  his  father,  who  was  amon^^  the  leading 
men  of  the  Achsean  League,  he  received  valuable 
instruction  in  the  science  of  politics  and  in  the  art 
of  war.    In  181,  he  would  have  visited  Egypt  in  the 
capacity  of  ambassador,  but  the  project  of  sending 
an  embassy  to  that  country  was  given  up    His 
encasing  in  public  affairs  probably  dates  from  this 
pencd  ;  and  ne  rapidly  gamed  the  confidence  of  his 
countrymen*    He  was  one  of  the  1000  noble  and 
influential   Achsexms,  who,  after  the  conqaeat  of 
Macedonia  in  168,  were  sent  to  Rome  on  uie  som- 
mons  of  the  conmiissioners  from  that  dty  to  answer 
the  chai^  of  having  failed  to  assist  the  Romans 
against  King  Perseus.     On  their  arrival  in  Italy  in 
167,  they  were  not  put  upon  their  trial,  but  weze 
distributed  arnon^  the  towns  of  Etruria.     Owin^ 
perhaps,  to  his    navins  formed  the  friendship  of 
^Emilius  Paulus,  or  of  nis  sons  Fabius  and  Scipio, 
he  was  more  fortunately  allocated  than  others  d 
his  countrymen.    His  residence  was  fixed  at  Borne 
and  in  the  house  of  Paulus.    Scipio,  then  about  18 
years   of  age,  became    strongly    attached    to  P^ 
made  him  his  companion  in  aO  his  military  expedi* 
tions,  and  profited  greatly  by  his  knowledge  and 
experience.     P.  in  hu  turn  derived  much  advanta^ 
from  the  protection  and  friendship  of  Scipio,  who 
^ave  him  access  to  public  documents,  and  aided  bim 
m  the  collection  of  materials  for  his  great  hi8t<»n' 
cal  work.      In  151,  the  surviving   Achasan  exiles 
were  permitted  by  the  Roman  senate  to  return  to 
Greece,  and  among  them  was  P.,  who  arrived  m 
Peloponnesus  after  a  residence  of  17  years  in  Ita^^. 
He  soon,  however,  rejoined  Scipio,  followed  him  m 
his    African  campaign,  and  was   present  at  the 
destruction  of  Carthage  in  146.     But  the  outbreak 
of  war  between  the  Ach^ans  and  Romans  som* 
moned  him  again  to  Greece,  where  he  arrived  sooa 
after  the  taking  of  Corinth.    All  his  influence  was 
now  exerted  to  procure  from  the  conquerors  favour- 
able terms  for  the  vanquished ;  and  so  grateful  were 
his  countrymen  for  his  services  in  their  behalf,  that 
they  erected  statues  in  his  honour  at  Megalopolis 
(his  native  town),  Mantinea,  Pallantium,  Te|;ca,  and 
other  places.    It  must  have  been  about  this  time 
that  r.  undertook  the  writins;  of  his  great  histoncal 
work,  the  materials  of  which  he  had  so  long  been 
collecting.    We  cannot  now  fix  with  accuracy  at 
what  period  of  his  life  he  visited  in  foreign  countries 
the  places  which  he  had  to  describe  in  nis  history. 
We  know  from  himself  that  at  one  time,  probably 
while  accompanying  Scipio,  he  undertook  long  and 
laborious   journeys  into  Africa,  Spain,  Gaul,  and 
even  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  in  order  to 
add  to  the  scanty  knowledge  previously  existing 
with  regard  to  these  regiona     In  the  latter  period 
of  his  life,  he  travelled  in  Egypt ;  and  about  twelre 
years  before  his  death,  he   probably  accomivinied 
Scipio  to  Spain,  where  he  witnessed  the  tall  of 
Numantia.    He  died  about  122  b.  a,  in  his  83d  year, 
in  conseqiience  of  a  fall  from  his  horse. 

As  a  nistorian,  P.  occupies  a  high  rank.  Ws 
work,  which  began  where  that  of  Aratus  broke  0^ 
includes  the  period  between  220  and  146  B.a,  the 
year  when  Corinth  fell,  and,  with  it,  the  independence 
of  Greece.  Of  the  two  parts  into  which  it  was  divided, 
the  first  embraced  a  period  of  53  years,  commencing 
with  the  Second  Punic  War  and  the  Social  War  in 
Greece,  and  concluding  with  the  subju^tion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Macedonia  in  168.     This,  the  chief 


POLYCARP— POLYCHROME  PRINTINO. 


poiti(m   of    his    hiBtory*  was    designed    to  shew 
Qow,  in  the  short  space  of  53  years,  the  greater 
part   of   the  world  had  been   conquered    oy  the 
bomans ;  and  in  order  that  his  countrymen  might 
have  a  better  knowledge  than  they  possessed  of  the 
rise  of  that  people,  he  gives  a  sketch  of  the  histozy 
of  Rome  from  its  capture  by  the  Gauls  to  the  out- 
break of  the  Second  Punic  War.    This  occupies  the 
tirst  two  books,  and  may  be  regarded  as  an  intro- 
duction to  the  work.    The  second  part  embraces 
the  period  from  the  fall  of  the  Macedonian  king- 
dom, in  168,  to  the  taking  of  Corinth  in  146.    This 
part  is  to  be  viewed  as  supplementary  to  the  first, 
and  seems  to  have  brought  down  the  histoiy  of  the 
conquest  of  Greece  to  its  completion  in  the  39th 
book,  while  the  40th  and  last  probably  contained 
a  chronological  summary  of  the  entire  work.    The 
style  of  P.  is  not  his  most  striking  feature,  and  he 
incurred  the  censure  of  later  Gredk  critics  for  his 
negligence  in  the  choice  of  words  and  in  the  struc- 
ture of  his  sentences.    His  ^[reat  merits  are  the  care 
with  which  he  collected  his  materials,  his  strong 
love  of  truth,  and  his  sound  judgment,  whidi  was 
materially  assisted  by  his  fanuliarity  with  political 
and  military  life.     His  tone   is   too   didactic  in 
fleneral,  and  although   his   readers  are  prepared 
tor  this  by  his  callinff  his  work  not  a  Biatoria,  but 
a  PrttgnuUeia^  still  the  continuity  of  the  narrative 
is  too  often  interrupted  by  digressions,  sometimes 
interesting  and  valuable  in  themselves,  but  fatal  to 
artistic  effect.    Much  the  greater  part  of  his  work 
has  perished.    Of  the  40  b<K»ks,  we  possess  only  Br^ 
entire ;  and  of  the  rest,  merely  fragments  or  extracts. 
Some  of  these  latter,  however — such  as  the  account 
of  the  Roman  aimy — are  of  considerable  length  and 
value,  and  four  separate  collections  of  them  have 
been  added  from  time  to  time  to  the  remains  of  the 
work.    The  first  of  these,  discovered  soon  after  the 
revival  of  learning,  in  a  MS.  of  Corfu,  gives  us 
the  greater  part  of  the  6th  book,  and  portions  of 
the  remaining  11.     The  second  consists  of  extracts 
made  in  the  lOth  c,  entitled  Excerpta  de  Lepationi- 
ims^  and  published  at  Antweip  by  Ursinus  in  1582. 
The  third,  entitled  Excerpta  de  ViHuUbug  ei  Viiiia, 
was  publiiBhed  in  1634  by  VaJesius.    The  fourth, 
entitled  Excerpta  de  Sentenlm^  was  discovered  by 
Cardinal  Mai  in  the  Vatican,  and  published  by  him 
at  Rome  in  1827.   The  history  of  P.  was  very  closely 
followed  by  livy  after  the  period  of  the  Second 
Punic  War,  and  by  Cicero  in  his  account  of  the 
Roman  constitution  in  his  treatise  De  RepMicA, — 
The  best  annotated  edition  of  P.  is  Schwei^hiiuser's 
(Leip.  1789).  The  best  edition  of  the  text,  including 
that  of  the  Vatican  fragments,  is  that  of  Bekker 
(Ber.  1844). 

PO'LTCARP,  Bishop  of  Smyrna,  and  one  of  the 
most  illustrious  of  the  early  Christian  martvrs, 
was  bom  in  the  latter  part  of  the  1st  c  A.  n.,  but 
neither  the  date  nor  the  place  of  his  birth  is  known. 
Qb  was.  however  (aooordme  to  a  legendary  fragment 
ascribed  to  an  unknown  Pionius),  brought  up  at 
Smyrna,  where  his  pupil,  IreuBBus,  states  that  P. 
was  taught  the  doctrmes  of  Christianity  by  the 
apostles,  particularly  by  John,  with  whom  he  had 
*  familiar  mteroourse.*  The  testimony  of  Irenieus  on 
this  point  is  of  immense  value,  as  it  furnishes  the 
chief  historical  link  uniting  the  apostolic  age—that 
ase  which  is  reflected  in  the  later  parts  of  the 
hew  Testament — ^with  the  rising  c^uich  of  the  2d 
century.  The  passaffe  occurs  in  an  expostulatory 
epfstle  to  a  Roman  neretic,  Florinus,  and  is  pre- 
strred  by  Eusebius  (HitL  EccL  chap.  xx.).  *  I  can 
tell  also  the  very  place  v/hen  the  blessed  Polycarp 
was  accustomed  to  sit  and  discourse ;  and  also  his 
entrances,  his  walks,  the  complexion  of  his  life,  and 
the  f  onn  of  his  body,  and  his  conversations  with  the 


people,  and  his  familiar  intercourse  with  John,  as 
ne  was  accustomed  to  tell,  as  also  his  familiarity 
with  those  that  had  seen  the  Lord.    Also  concerning 
his  miracles,  his  doctrine,  iJl  these  were  told  by 
Polvcarp,  in  consistency  with  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
as  he  had  received  them  from  the  eye-witnesses 
of  the  doctrine  of  salvation.'      The  fragment  of 
Pionius  (to  which  reference  has  alreadv  been  made) 
informs  us  that  P.,  when  only  a  little  child,  was 
adopted  by  a  rich  Christian  lady  named  Callisto, 
who  left  him  heir  to  all  her  wealth ;  in  consequence 
of  which   he  was  enabled  to  gratify  his    love  of 
works  of  beneficence  and  chanty.     We  are,  how- 
ever, utterly  without  the  means  of  determining  what 
truth  (if  any)  there  is  in  the  narrative  of  Pionius, 
and  can  only  feel  certain  that  in  some  way  or  otiier 
he  had  distinguished  himself  at  a  comparatively  early 
period,  for  before  the  death  of  the  Apostle  John 
(L  e.,  1^  the  latest,  before  104  A.  B.),  he  was  ordained 
Bishop  of  Smyrna  (according    to  Tertullian  and 
Jerome)  by  Jonn  himself;   according  to  Ireneus, 
by  *  the  aposties ; '  and  according  to  Pionius,  by  *  the 
bishops  of  the  neighbouring  churdies ' — statemente 
which  are  quite  reconcilable  with  each  otiier.    P. 
was  in  the  exercise  of  his  episcopal  functions  when 
Ignatius  of  Antioch  passed  through  Smyrna  on  his 
road  to  Rome  (107—116  a.i>.);  and  we  are  told 
that  the  two  pupils  of  St  John,  who  had  probably 
known  one  another  in  earlier  years,  had  much 
delightful  Christian  converse.    Almost  hidf  a  cen- 
tury afterwards,  P.  himself  visited   Rome,  when 
Amcetus  was  bishop  there  (157 — 168  A.D.),  and 
had  a  friendly  conference  with  his  brother  on  the 
subiect  of  the  proper  time  to  hold  Easter.    They 
could  not  agree — but  they  agreed  to  differ.    His 
martyrdom,  which  is  related  at  great  leng^tii  and 
in  a  touching  manner  by  Eusebius  {HUL  EaA,  chap, 
xiv.),  took  place  probably  in  166  A.  B.,  during  the  per* 
secution  under  the  emperors  BCarcus  Aurelins  and 
Lucius  Verus.    When  asked,  or  rather  entreated 
'to    revile    Christ'    by    the    proconsul    Statius 
Quadratus,  who,  being  deeply  impressed  with  the 
venerable  appearance  of  the  aged  bishop,  wished  if 
possible  to  save  his  life,  P.  replied :  *  £ighty-and- 
six  years  have  I  served  him,  and  He  never  did  me 
wrong;  and  how  can  I  now  blaspheme  my  King 
that  has  saved  me.*    P.  was  burned  alive.    In  such 
profound   reverence  was  he  held  by  his  fellow* 
Christians,  for  his  almost  perfect  graces  of  charac- 
ter, that  the  Jews  (who  had  been  conspicuously 
zealous  in  collecting  *wood  and  straw  from  tLie 
shops  and  baths'   to  bum    him)    instigated   the 
proconsul  not  to  ^ve  up  the  corpse  of  the  martyr 
to  his  co-religionistB,  *lest,  abandoning  him  that 
was  crucified,  they  should  b^gin  to  worship  this  one.' 
More  convincing  evidence  of  a  sainUy  character 
has  never  been  widuced. 

P.  wrote  several  EpUtotcB,  of  which  only  one  has 
been  preserved,  the  Epistola  <td  Philippensea,  valu- 
able for  its  numerous  quotetions  from  the  New 
Testament — especially  from  the  writings  of  Paul  and 
Peter.  It  has  been  f requentiy  printeid,  the  latest 
editions  being  those  of  Jacobson  {PcUrum  ApostoU- 
coram  quce  superfuntt  voL  ii.,  Oxford,  1838)  and 
Hafele,  Fatrum  Apottolicorum  Opera  (Tubingen* 
1839).  There  are  English  versions  by  Cave, 
Clementson,  and  Wak& 

POXYOHROME  PRINTING,  the  art  of  print- 
ing in  one  or  more  odours  at  the  same  time. 
AKhoag^  several  attempts  had  been  previously 
made  to  cany  out  this  process,  Congreve,  in  1820^ 
was  the  first  to  do  it  successfully  wi&  metal  plates. 
Sir  William  Congreve  had  seen  Applegath's  poly* 
chromatic  block -printing  press,  by  wnich  veiy  rude 
coloui^  pictures  were  produced,  and  he  conceived 
the  idea  of  improving  upon  it^  and  doing  it  with 


POLYCOTYLEDONOUS  PLANTS-POLYDIPSIiL 


metal.  His  plan  is  extremely  simple,  though 
requiring  great  nicety  in  carrying  it  out.  First,  the 
picture  is  outlined  upon  a  metal- plate ;  and  supposing 
it  intended  to  have  two  colours,  then  the  details  ol 
only  the  chief  colour  are  completed  upon  it,  and  all 
the  parts  for  the  other  colour  are  cut  out;  and  into 
those  parts  other  plates  are  titted,  like  the  portions 
of  a  cnild's  puzzle-map,  but  'with  very  great  exact- 
ness ;  and  upon  these  the  engraving  for  the  parts  of 
the  second  colour  are  completed.  When  these  are 
done,  a  thickness  of  type-metal  is  attached  to  the 
back  of  these  interior  pieces,  so  that  they  can  be 
held  separately,  and  pushed  forwards  or  drawn 
backwards  at  pleasure.  Then  they  are  so  adjusted 
to  the  machinery  of  the  press,  that  they  are  with- 
drawn when  the  first  colour-roller  passes  over  the 
surface  of  the  main  plate,  and  are  pushed  forward 
beyond  the  face  of  the  main  plate,  so  as  to  receive  the 
colour  of  the  second  roller,  which  then  passes  over 
them  without  touching  the  first  or  main  plate. 
Having  received  their  coloured  ink,  the  secondary- 
plates  are  again  moved  back  to  a  perfect  level  with 
ti^e  other,  so  as  to  form  an  entire  plate,  carrying 
two  colours,  which  are  thus,  in  the  ordinary  way, 
imprinted  on  the  paper.  Since  Sir  William 
Ck>ngreve's  patent,  very  many  improvements  have 
been  made,  the  principle,  however,  remaining  the 
same,  and  it  has  now  a  very  wide  application. 

POLYCOTYLB'DONOUS  PLANTS*  those 
plants  of  which  the  embryo  has  more  than  two  seed- 
lob^  or  cotyledons.  See  Cotyledon  and  Diooty- 
LBDONOUS  Plants.  In  some  of  the  Conifenx  in  par- 
ticular, there  are  numerous  cotyledons;  the  genus 
Pinus  has  from  three  to  twelve.  These  cotyledons 
are  placed  in  a  whorl,  and  have  the  gemmule  of  the 
embryo  in  the  midst  of  them.  Polycotyledonous 
plants  do  not  form  a  separate  division  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  but  are  ranked  with  dicotyledonous 
plants ;  for  plants  with  two,  and  plants  with  more 
cotyledons,  are  found  not  only  in  the  same  natural 
order,  but  in  the  same  genus. 

POLY'CRATES,  'tyrant'  of  Samos,  is  a  weH- 
known  name  in  ancient  Greek  history.  He  was 
bom  in  the  first  part  of  the  6th  c.  B.  c,  but  nothing 
is  known  of  him  until  the  time  when,  with  the 
assistance  of  his  brothers  Panta^dtus  and  Sylosdn, 
he  obtained  possession  of  the  island.  The  three 
brothers  at  first  ruled  conjointly,  but  after  a  short 
time,  P.  put  Pantagndtus  to  death,  banished 
Sylosdn,  and  made  himself  sole  despot  His  ener- 
getic, unscrupulous,  and  ambitious  character  now 
uiewed  itself  more  conspicuously  than  ever.  He 
conquered  several  islandB  of  the  Archipelago,  and 
even  some  towns  on  the  Asiatic  mainland,  waged 
war  successfully  against  the  inhabitants  of  Mil6tus, 
and  defeated  their  allies,  the  Lesbians,  in  a  great 
sea-fight.  His  fleet  amounted  to  100  ships,  and 
was  probably  at  that  time  the  most  powerful  in  all 
Greece.  P.  seems  to  have  aspired  to  the  sovereignty 
of  the  ^gean,  if  not  also  of  the  cities  of  Ionia. 
His  intimate  slliance  with  Amasis,  king  of  Egypt, 
proves  the  importance  in  which  this  daring  island- 
prince  was  held  even  bjr  great  monarchs.  Accord- 
ing to  Herodotus,  Amasis  drew  off*  from  his  alliance 
through  alarm  at  the  uninterrupted  good  fortune  of 
Polycrat^s.  He  dreaded,  we  are  told,  the  misfor- 
tunes that  the  envious  gods  must  be  pfeparing  for 
80  lucky  a  mortal,  and  to  which  his  friends  would 
also  be  exposed.  The  particular  incident  that  is 
said  to  have  finalljr  ruptured  the  alliance  is  doubt- 
less mythical,  but  is  so  well  known  that  we  cannot 
afford  to  overlook  it.  Amasis  is  reported  to  have 
written  a  letter  to  P.,  earnestly  advising  him  to 
throw  away  the  possession  that  he  deemed  most 
valuable,  and  thereby  avert  the  itroke  of  the 
6M 


spleenful  gods.    P.,  in  compliance  with  this  friendly 
advice,  cast  a  signet-ring  of  marveUously  beantim 
workmanship  into  the  sea,  but  next  day  a  fishe^ 
man  presented  the  *  tyrant'  with  an  unusually  big 
fish  that  he  had  caught,  and  in  its  belly  was  foand 
the  identical  ring.    It  was  quite  dear  to  Amans 
now  that  P.  was  a  doomed  man,  and  he  imme- 
diately   broke    off    the    alliance.      So,    at  least, 
Herodotus    tells    the    story,    but  Grote    [Historjf 
of  Ortece,  voL    iv.  page  323)  suggests — and  the 
suggestion   is  far  more  probable — that  P^  with 
characteristic    perfidy,    abandoned    the    Egyptian 
for  a  Persian  alliance,  when  he  found  the  latter 
likely  to  be  of  more  value  to  him  in  his  ambi- 
tious designs.      When    Carobyses   invaded  I^ypt 
(525    B.  c.)i  P-   sent  him    a  contingent    of  forty 
ships,  in  which   he  placed  all  the  Samians  dis- 
affected   towards    his    *  tyranny,'    and  told  the 
Persian  king  privately  not  to  let  them  come  back ! 
However,  they  escaped  in  some  way  or  other  the 
fate  which  P.  had  designed  for  them,  returned  to 
Samos,  and   made  war  against  the  'tyrant,'  but 
without  success.    Hereupon,  they  went  to  Sparta, 
and  succeeded  in  enlisting  the  sympathies,  or,  at 
any  rate,  in  securing  the  help  of  both  the  Spaitam 
and    Corinthians.      A    triple   force    of    Samians, 
Spartans,  and  Corinthians  embarked  for  Samos,  and 
attacked  the  city.     After  vainly  besi^ng  it  for 
forty  days,  they  sailed  away,  and  P.  now  became 
more  powerful  than  ever;  but  Nemesis  had  her 
victim  after  alL     A  certain  Oroetes,  the  Persias 
satrap  of  Sardis,  had,  for  unknown  reasons,  con- 
ceived a  deadly  hatred   against    P.,   and  hairii^ 
enticed  the  latter  to  visit  him,  by  appealing  to  his 
cupidity,    he    seized    and   crucified    him.      Thus 
perished  ignominiously,  in  the  midst  of  his  power 
and  splendour,  one  of  the  most  famous  that<u9i>- 
kratSf  or  sea-kings,  of  Greek  antiquity.     He  was  a 
patron  of  literature  and  the  fine  arts,  and  bad  many 
poets  and  artists  about  his  court.     His  intimacy 
with  Anacreon,  in  particular,  is  quite  a  celebrated 
thing,  and  in  his  praise  that  joyous  bard  wrote 
many  songs.    To  P.  also,  in  all  urobability,  belongs 
the  construction,  or  at  least  tne  enlargement,  of 
those  great   buildings  which   Herodotus   saw  at 
Samos. 

POLYDIPSIA  (Gr.  great  OurO^  is  the  term 
now  commonly  applied  to  the  disease  formeriy 
known  as  Diabetes  insipidus.  It  is  characterised, 
as  its  name  implies,  by  extreme  thirst,  and  by 
an  enormous  discharge  of  |>ale  watery  urine. 
The  affection  is  one  of  rare  occurrence,  and  the 

Eersons  most  liable  to  it  are  dyspeptics  who 
ave  passed  the  period  of  middle  life,  and  whose 
bodily  powers  are  failing,  although  (as  the  case  we 
shall  immediately  notice,  and  one  recorded  by  Dr 
Watson,  shew)  it  may  begin  in  childhood.  The 
two  prominent  features  of  this  disease  usually  lead 
to  the  suspicion  that  true  diabetes  is  present ;  but 
the  low  specific  ^^ravity  of  the  urine,  and  ihB  absence 
of  sugar  in  it  m  polydipsia,  and  the  reverse  con- 
dition  in  diabetes,  seem  to  make  the  distinctioo 
easy.  Dr  Willis,  in  his  work  On  Urinary  Diseasa^ 
records  the  case  of  a  man,  aged  forty -five,  who  was 
admitted  for  an  accident  into  tke  H6tel-Diea 
at  Paris,  and  who  passed,  daily,  on  an  average, 
thirty-four  pounds  of  urine,  and  drank  thirty* 
three  pounds  of  water,  the  normal  daily  excretion 
of  urine  being  a  little  less  than  two  pounds^  This 
person  reported  that  he  had  been  affected  in  a 
similar  manner  ever  since  his  fifth  year,  and  tiiat» 
from  the  age  of  sixteen  upwards,  he  had  daily  con- 
sumed not  less  than  two  bucketfuls  of  water, 
and  discharged  a  commensurate  quantity  of  mvot. 
Little  good  can  be  effected  by  treatment,  further 
than  stimulating  the  action  of  the  skin  by  tibe  use 


POLTGALEai-POLTOLOT. 


of  DoTer'a  poTder,  Turkilh  batlia,  ka.,  and  by 
indnciiiK  the  patient  to  take  M  little  drink  as  may 
be  at  all  coDiuteot  with  his  comfort. 

POLYGA'LEJ:,  or  POLYQALA'CE^  a  natoral 
order  of  exiffeoauB  plaatH.  herhacMAs  or  ihrubby. 
sometimes  twiniog;  thele&ves  withu  jt  stipule  and 
generally  simple  ;  the  flowera  reseniljUiig  pftpilionft- 
oeous  flowers,  but  the  odd  petal  iaferior,  and  the  odd 
■epal  auparior ;  the  flower-Btalks  with  three  biwrta  ; 
the  calyi  of  five  very  irregular  Beiials  ;  of  which  the 
two  interior  ar«  osually  petal-like ;  the  corolla  of 
three,  or  sometimes  five  petala,  the  anterior  petal  the 
largest,  and  often  crested  ;  atangent  eight,  monadel- 
phouB  or  diaJelphoua,  or  fonr  and  distinct ;  the 
ovary  superior,  generally  2'CeIled,  one  ovule  in  each 
cell ;  style  and  stigma  simple ;  fruit  generally  a 
capsule  opening  by  valves,  sometimes  a  drupe. 
There  are  about  SOO  species,  dilTuseil  throughout  all 
parts  of  the  world.— The  genua  Polygaia  hi^  a  per- 
siatent  calyx,  eight  stamena,  the  lateral  sepala  targe 
&nd  petal-like,  and  hairy  or  wrinkled  seeds.  The 
Bpeciea  are  very  numerous,  annual  and  perennial 
herbaceous  plants,  and  Smalt  skmlis,  natives  chiefly 
of  warm  and  temperate  climates.  One  is  found 
plentifully  in  Britain ;  the  CouMON  Milkwort  {P. 
vu^rii),  a  small  perennial  plant,  growing  in  dry 


Common  Hilkwort  {PoljKiaia  vutgarU). 


e  leaves,  and  a  terminal  raceme  of  small  but 
very  beaatiful  tlowen,  liaving  a  finely  crested  keel 
It  varies  considembl]'  in  size,  in  the  size  and  even 
ahape  of  the  leaves,  and  in  the  size  and  colour  of 
the  Qowera,  which  are  sometimes  of  a  most  brilliant 
blue^  sometimes  purple,  pJok,  or  white. — Several 
■peciea  are  natives  of  the  south  of  £uroi)e. — North 
America  produces  a  greater  number.  The  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  and  other  subtropical  countries  produce 
many  beautiful  species,  some  of  which  liave  become 
common  omaments  of  greenhouses.— P.  Sentga  is  a 
liorth  American  species,  with  erect  simple  tufted 
•terns,  atraut  one  foot  buili,  aod  terminal  racemes  of 
small  white  tloweit.  The  root,  which  is  woody, 
branched,  contorted,  and  about  half  an  inch  in 
diameter,  is  the  SBinaa  Root,  Sknkea  Root,  or 
flirucB  Root  oI  the  United  Statea,  famous  as  an 
'  IT  cnake-bitea,  bat  leally  pniiiii  ssiim 


important  medicinal  virtues — stimulating,  diuretio, 
diaphoretic,  emmenagogue.  and  in  hage  doses  emetio 
and  purgative — employed  io  catarrhs,  pulmonary 
affections,  rheumatisms,  tow  fevers,  tie.  Its  chief 
active  principle  is  Polygalic  Aei'l,  C„H„Ou.  The 
root  of  P,  Senega  tiaa  l>een  employeil  as  a  cure  tor 
snake-bites  by  the  American  ludiana  from  tima 
immemorial,  and  it  is  a  curious  fact,  that  P.  crofo- 
Umoidtt  is  employed  in  the  same  way  in  the  Him- 
alaya. P.  valjant  is  tonic,  stimiilic^  aud  diapho- 
t«tio;  and  P.  amara,  a  very  similar  European 
spedes,  possesses  the  same  properties  in  a  highet 
degree,  as  does  P.  rubfUa,  a  small  North  American 
species.  The  root  of  P.  poaya,  a  Brazilian  species, 
with  leatheiT  leaves,  is  an  active  emutic,  and  iu  a 
freab  state,  is  employed  in  bilious  fevers.  Similar 
propertiesseem  topervadethe  whole  genus.  Anotlier 
medicinal  plant  of  the  order  is  Rnllany  (q.  v.)  rooL 
Species  of  several  genera  are  used  as  tonics.  The 
bark  of  the  roots  of  JHonaina  poiytlaehia  and  X. 
tatici/olia  is  used  in  Peru  as  a  substitute  for  soap. 
llundia  ipiiioM,  a  Sonth  African  shruVs  prodncet 
an  eatable  fniit. 

POLY'OAMOUS  (Or.  polffi,  many,  garni.  maT< 
riage),  in  Botany,  a  tenn  employed  to  designate  those 
plants  which  produce  both  unisexual  and  herma- 
phrodite flowers  either  on  the  same  or  diflerent 
plants.  Id  the  Linoffian  sexual  system,  these  pkuta 
formed  a  class,  Poltoamia,  the  genen    '     ' 


POLYGAItfY.    See  MABRIA.OX. 

f  OLYGA'STRICA.    See  Imfcsoru. 

FO'LYOLOT  (Gr.  pofyti  many;  and  gl«ta, 
tongue)  means,  in  general,  an  assemblage  of  version* 
in  diHereot  langnagee  of  the  same  work,  but  is 
almost  exclusively  applied  to  manifold  versioiis  of 
the  Bible.  The  Heiapla  (q.  v.)  of  Origen  contained, 
besides  the  Hebrew  text,  several  other  versions 
Alt  tiiese.  however,  were  in  the  Greek  language; 
and  the  Hexapla  is  not  commonly  reckoned  among 
the  polyglots.  They  are  divided  into  two  classes, 
the  greater  and  the  leaser  polyglots.  To  the  former 
belone  four  works,  known  as  the  Complutensian 
Polyglot  i  the  Antwerp  or  king  of  Spain's  Polyglot; 
the  Parisian  Polyglot;  and  the  London  or  Walton's 
Polyglot. — The  Complutensian  Polyglot  derives  its 
title  irom  Complutum,  the  Latin  name  of  Alcala  de 


the  direction  of  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Ximenes, 
who  spared  no  expense,  whether  in  collecting  the 
moot  ancient  and  authentic  MSS.,  or  in  bringing 
together  the  most  distinguished  scholars  of  aU 
ooimtries  for  the  carrying  out  of  his  design.  The 
Complutensian  Polyglot  contains,  ticaides  the 
Hebrew  text,  the  Septua^t  Greek  and  the  Chaldee 
(each  with  a  literal  Latin  version),  and  the  Latin 
Vulgate.— The  Antwerp  Polyglot,  so  called  from  its 
being  there  printed  (1569—1572),  at  the  celebrated 
press  of  Plontin.  was  published  at  the  cost  of  Pliilip 
II.  of  Spain,  under  the  direction  of  the  distinguiahed 
scholar,  Benedict  Arias  Montanus.  It  is  m  eight 
vols,  ffdio,  and  contains,  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
Hebrew,  the  Greek,  the  Targum  of  Ookelos,  aod 
the  other  Chaldee  paraphrases,  and  the  lAtin 
Vulgate.  In  tie  New  Testament,  tgesidea  the  Greek 
and  Latin,  it  oontains  a  Syriao  version,  printed 
l>oth  in  Syriao  and  in  Hebrew  characters.  Ariaa 
Montanus  was  assisted  by  many  scholars  of 
eminence,  chiefly  of  Spoio  and  the  Low  Countrica.— 
The  Parisian  Polyglot  was  printed  at  Paris  in  16U. 
at  the  cost  and  Dider  the  eiiitonhip  of  Guy  Michel 


P0LYGN0TU8— POLYGONEA 


le  Jay.  It  is  in  ten  splendid  yolomes,  and  contains, 
in  addition  to  the  contents  of  the  Antwerp  Poly- 
glot, another  Syriac  version,  and  an  Arabic  version, 
together  with  the  Samaritan  version  and  the  Samari- 
tan text  of  the  Pentateuch,  each  of  these  being 
accompanied  by  a  literal  Latin  translation.— The 
London  Polyglot  was  edited  by  Brian  Walton,  after- 
wards Bishop  of  Chester,  and  it  engaged  for  many 
years  a  number  of  the  most  eminent  linguists  of 
the  period.  The  number  of  its  languages  is  not  the 
same  in  all  parts  of  the  Bible ;  but  it  may  be  said 
to  contain  the  Bible,  or  portions  of  it,  in  nine 
languages — Hebrew,  Samaritan,  Chaldee,  Syriac, 
Arabic,  Ethiopic,  Persic,  Greek  (eaclv  of  these 
accompanied  by  a  literal  Latin  version),  and  Latin. 
It  is  in  six  vols,  folio,  and  was  published  in  1654 — 
1657;  and  was  followed,  in  1669,  by  the  Lexicon 
HeptagloUon  of  Edmund  Castell,  two  vols,  folio, 
containing  dictionaries  of  all  the  languages  of  the 
polyglot,  except  the  Greek  and  Latin.  Of  the 
minor  polyglots,  the  chief  are  (1)  the  Heidelbei^ 
Polyglot  (1586),  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  Latin;  (2) 
Wolder's  Polyglot  (Hamburg,  1596),  Hebrew,  Greel^ 
Latin,  and  German ;  (3)  Mutter^s  Polyglot  (NUm- 
berg,  1599),  Hebrew,  Chaldee,  Greek,  Latin, 
German,  and  French ;  (4)  Reineocius's  Polyglot,  in 
Syriac,  Greek,  Latin,  and  German  (Leipzig,  New 
Testament,  1712 ;  Old  Testament,  1750,  1751) ;  (5) 
Bagster's  Polyglot,  a  very  valuable  collection  of 
modern  versions,  folio  (London,  1831).  It  contains 
eight  versions  in  the  Old  Testament,  viz.,  Hebrew, 
Greek,  English,  Latin,  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
German ;  and  nine  in  the  New,  Syriac  being  added 
to  those  already  named  (6)  A  useful  *  Hand  Poly- 
|dot,'  containing  in  the  Old  Testament,  Hebrew, 
Greek,  Latin,  Vulgate,  and  Luther's  German 
version;  and  in  the  New,  Greek,  Latin,  Luther*s 
G^erman,  and  in  the  fourth  column,  in  which  are 
presented  the  chief  dififerences  between  this  and 
other  German  versions. 

Besides  the  Bible,  manv  other  works,  or  small 
pieces,  have  been  published  in  polyglot.  Of  smaller 
pieces,  the  Lord's  Prayer  has  been  the  favourite,  of 
which  many  collections,  containing  a  greater  or  less 
number  of  languages,  have  been  published  from  the 
16th  c  downwards.  Of  these,  the  most  compre- 
hensive, and,  for  philological  purposes,  by  far  the 
most  valuable,  is  the  well-known  MUhridates  of 
Adelung,  which  contains  the  Lord's  Prayer  in 
upwards  of  400  languages,  with  vocabularies  and 
grammatical  explanations  of  most  of  the  specimens. 

POLYGNOTUS,  a  distinguished  Greek  painter 
of  antiqfttity,  was  bom  towaitu  the  beginning  of  the 
Gth  c.  B.  G.  He  was  a  native  of  the  isle  of  Thasos, 
and  belonged  to  a  family  of  painters,  who  came  to 
Athens  to  practise  their  profession  probably  after 
the  subjugation  of  Thasos  by  Cimon.  P.  and  his 
brother,  Aristophon,  were  instructed  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  art  by  their  father,  Aglaophon.  We  know 
almost  nothing  of  their  lives,  except  that  P.  was  a 
friend  of  the  Athenian  general  above  mentioned, 
and  is  said  to  have  been  attached  to  his  sister, 
Elpinice.  He  died  about  426  B.  O.  P.  was  a  con- 
temporary of  the  great  sculptor,  Pheidias  (q.  v.), 
and  flounshed  during  the  supremacy  both  of  Cimon 
and  Pericles  ;  but  we  hear  uttle  or  nothing  of  him 
under  the  latter  ruler;  and  although  the  first 
painter  of  his  day,  it  does  not  appear  that  he  was 
engaged  in  the  decoration  of  any  of  those  splendid 
buildings  with  which  that  statesman  adorned 
Athens.  It  is  not  at  all  unlikebr  that  Pericles  was 
averse  to  patronising  a  friend  of  Cimon,  and,  at  all 
events,  P.  was  absent  from  Athens  for  14  years 
(449 — 435  B.  c.)  of  Perides's  rule,  painting  at  Delphi 
and  elsewhere.  His  principal  works  (foUowmg 
ft  chronological  atrangement  as  far  as  it  can  bi 


ascertained)  were:  1.  Paintinss  in  the  Temple 
of  Theseus  at  Athens.  2.  In  the  Stoa  Poecile  (or 
Painted  Portico)  at  Athens,  representing  the  Greek 
princes  after  the  taking  of  Troy,  assembled  to  jud^ 
of  the  violation  of  Cassandra  by  Ajax.  3.  In  the 
Anakeion,  or  Temple  of  the  Dioscuri,  a  painting 
of  the  marriage  of  the  daughters  of  Leukippos.  i 
In  the  Temple  of  Athena  Areia  at  Plataea,  a  picture 
of  Ulysses  uter  having  slain  the  suitors  of  Penelope 
&  In  the  Leschd  (or  'Conversazione  Saloon'),  a 
famous  quadrangular  court,  or  peristyle,  surnnuded 
by  colonnades,  Duilt  at  Delpni  by  the  Cnidiana. 
The  walls  of  this  edifice  were  covered  by  P.  wi&  & 
series  of  paintings  representing  the  wars  of  Troy, 
and  the  return  of  the  Greek  chiefs,  and  considered 
P.'s  masterpiece.  6.  In  the  chamber  adjoining  the 
Propylsea  of  the  Acropolis.  From  the  critieisia 
of  the  ancients,  it  seems  <j[uite  dear  that  P.  was  a 
great  advance  on  any  of  his  predecessors.  He  was 
the  first  who  gave  life,  cluuracter,  expression  to 
painting.  According  to  Pliny,  he  opened  the  mouth 
and  shewed  the  teeth  of  his  figures ;  he  was  the 
first  to  paint  women  with  transparent  draiieiy,  and 
with  rich  head-dresses.  Lufiian  also  speaks  of  his 
exquisite  skill  in  paintiuff  eyebrows  and  the  blush  on 
the  cheek ;  while  AristoUe  extols  the  ethical  or  ideal 
beauty  of  his  conceptions,  saying  that  P.  ^rej^e- 
sented  men  as  better  than  they  were,'  and  finding 
a  parallel  for  his  style  in  the  epic  poetry  of  Homec 

PO'LTGON  (Gr.  ftclvB^  many ;  gdnia^  a  corner), 
a  plane  figure,  bounded  by  a  number  of  straight 
lines ;  the  name  is  conventionally  limited  to  those 
plane  figures  whose  bounding  straight  lines  are 
more  than  four  in  number,  rolygons  of  5^  6,  7, 
8>  &c  sides  are  denominated  pentagons,  hexagons, 
heptagons,  octagons,  ftc. ;  and  when  the  num  wr  of 
sides  exceeds  twelve,  the  fiznre  is  merely  inenti<med 
as  a  polygon  of  so  many  sides.  The  quindeca^m,  or 
figure  of  15  sides,  is  the  only  common  exception  to 
tms  rule.  Polygons  have  many  general  properties ; 
such  as,  that  the  sum  of  the  angles  of  a  polyg(», 
when  increased  by  four  right  angles,  or  360*,  is 
equal  to  twice  as  many  richt  angles  as  there 
are  sides  in  the  polygon,  and  that  (supposing  the 
number  of  sides  of  the  polygon  to  be  expressed 

by  n)  the  number  of  its  diagonals  is  ;  abo 

if  a  polygon  of  an  even  number  of  sides  be  circum- 
scribed abou1(  a  cirele,  the  sums  of  its  even  and  odd 
sides  are  e<^ual ;  and  if  a  polygon  of  an  even  number 
of  sides  be  mscribed  in  a  cirele,  the  sums  of  its  even 
and  odd  angles  are  equal  A  polygon  which  has 
all  its  sides  and  angles  equal  is  culed  a  regular 
polygon.  All  polygons  of  this  class  are  capable  of 
being  inscribed  in,  or  dreumscribed  about,  a  drde ; 
but  though  the  problem  is  merely  to  divide  the 
cireumference  of  a  cirde  into  a  number  of  equal 
parts  corresponding  to  the  number  of  sides  in  the 
polygon,  geometry  was  till  lately  only  able  to 
peiiorm  it  in  those  cases  where  the  number  of 
sides  of  the  polygon  belongs  to  one  or  other  of  the 
series  2,  4, 8, 16,  £c ;  3,6, 12, 24,  &c. ;  or  5, 10,20,40, 
ftc.  Gauss  (q.  v.),  however,  in  the  be^nning  of  the 
present  century,  shewed  how  it  could  be  done  in 
the  case  of  all  x^olygons  the  number  of  whose  sides 
was  of  the  form  2*  -f  1  (]>rovided  it  be  a  prime 
number),  or  a  multiple  of  this  prime  number  by  any 
power  of  2.  This  discovery  supplies  iis  with  innu- 
merable series  representative  of  the  nnmbera  of  the 
sides  of  polygons  which  can  be  described  around 
or  inscribed  m  a  cirde,  such  as  17,  34^  68^  ftc; 
257,  514,  1028,  &c 

POL  YGCKNB-ffl,  or  POLYGON  A'CEiE,  a  natmd 
order  of  exogenous  plants,  mostly  herbaceous  plants^ 
but  indudi^  a  few  shrubs,  and  even  treeii    Hit 


POLYHYMNIA-POLYNESIA. 


leaves  are  alternate,  sometimes  without  stipfules,  but 
more  generally  with  stipules  cohering  around  the 
stem.  The  flowers  are  not  unfrequently  unisexual 
They  have  an  inferior,  often  coloured  perianth, 
generally  in  four,  five,  or  six  segments;  three  to 
nine  stamens  inserted  into  the  bottom  of  the 
perianth;  a  one-celled  ovary,  usually  formed  of 
three  carpels,  but  containing  only  one  ovule ;  styles 
and  stigmas  as  many  as  the  carpels  of  the  ovary ; 
the  fruit  generally  a  nut,  often  laiangular,  the  seed 
with  farinaceous  albumen,  which  has  an  economic 
importance  in  buckwheat.  A  few  species  produce  a 
succulent  edible  fruit.  The  order  contains  nearly 
500  known  species,  natives  of  almost  all  parts  of 
the  world,  but  particularly  abundant  in  the  tem- 
perate regions  of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Many 
of  the  species  are  common  weeds  m  Britain,  as 
different  species  of  Dock  (q.  v.)  and  Polygonum, 
Bistort  (q.  v.).  Buckwheat  (q.  v.),  and  Sorrel 
(q.  v.),  belong  to  this  order. — The  genus  Polygonum 
has  a  coloured  perianth  of  five  se^ents,  stamens 
in  two  rows,  styles  more  or  less  united  at  the  base, 
and  two  or  more  in  number;  the  fniit  invested 
by  the  persistent  perianth.  The  s})ecies  are  very 
numerous.  A  number  are  natives  of  Britain. — 
Knot-grass  (P.  amcuUire),  a  very  common  British 
weed,  is  one  of  the  plants  remarkable  for  most 
extensive  distribution  over  the  world.  It  is  an 
annual  of  very  humble  crowth,  but  very  vari- 
able, with  much  branched  trailing  stems,  small 
lanceolate  leaves,  and  very  small  tiowers,  two  or 
three  together,  in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  Thunberg 
says  that  in  Japan  a  blue  dye  is  prepared  from  this 
plants  P.  amphibitim^  one  of  the  species  often 
called  Perskaria^  is  abundant  about  margins  of 
ponds  and  ditches  in  Britain  and  throughout  Europe, 
and  is  remarkable  for  the  difference  between  the 
leaves  which  float  on  the  water,  as  is  often  the  case, 
and  those  on  stems  orowing  erect,  those  of  the 
former  being  broad  and  smooth,  those  of  the  latter 
narrow  and  rough ;  the  spikes  of  flowers  being  also 
of  somewhat  different  form,  and  the  stamens  in  the 
flowers  of  the  floating  stems  shorter  than  the 
perianth,  in  the  upright  stems  about  as  long  as  the 
perianth ;  differences  which  might  be  held  to  indi- 
cate different  species,  yet  both  may  be  found  grow- 
ing from  one  root  The  stems  have  been  used  on 
the  continent  of  £urope  as  a  sabstitute  for  sarsapa- 
rilla.  Some  other  species  are  occasionally  used  for 
medicinal  purposes.  P.  hydropiper^  often  called 
Water  Pepper,  a  plant  conunon  by  sides  of  lakes 
and  ditches  in  Britain,  is  acrid  enough  to  be  used 
as  a  vesicant.  Several  species  are  occasionally  used 
for  dyeing,  as  the  Spotted  Persigaria  (P.  per' 
tiearla),  a  very  common  weed  on  dunghills  and  in 
waste  places  in  Britain ;  but  the  only  species  really 
important  on  this  account  is  that  called  Dyers' 
Buckwheat  (P.  ftneton'um),  a  native  of  China, 
biennial,  with  ovate  leaves  and  slender  spikes  of 
reddish  flciwcis,  the  caltivation  of  which  has  been 
successfully  introduced  in  France  and  Flanders. 
It  yields  a  blue  dye  scarcely  inferior  to  indmo. 
— P.  orientate  has  long  been  occasionally  culti- 
vated in  flower-gardens  in  Britain,  and  is  ^quite 
hardy,  although  a  native  of  the  West  Indies. — 
Fagopiirum  qpnomm,  a  species  of  buckwheat 
abundant  on  the  mountains  of  the  north  of 
India,  affords  an  excellent  substitute  for  spinach. — 
Muhlenbeckla  adprtssa  is  the  Macqiuurie  Harbour 
Vine  of  Van  Diemen's  land,  an  evergreen  climbing 
or  trailing  shrub  of  most  rapid  growth,  sometimes 
60  feet  in  length.  It  produces  racemes  of  fruit 
somewhat  resembling  grapes  or  currants,  the  nut 
beinff  invested  with  the  large  and  fleshy  segments 
Ckf  tEe  calyx.  The  fruit  is  sweetish  and  subacid, 
fuid  is  used  for  tarti.     OocooMm  wri^era  is  the 


Seabibb  Grape  (q.  v.)  of  the  West  Indies.     See 
also  Caixioonctm. 

POLYHY'MNI A,  or  POLYMNIA  (*  the  Many, 
hymned  One'),  one  of  the  nine  Muses  (q.  v.).  She 
was  reputed  by  the  ancients  to  be  the  inventress  of 
the  lyre,  and  to  preside  over  lyric  poetry  and 
eloquence.  In  works  of  art»  she  is  usually  repre- 
sented in  a  pensive  attitude,  with  the  forednger  of 
the  right  hand  upon  the  mouth. 

POLY'MERISM,  a  form  of  Isomerism  (q.  v.). 

POLTNB'MUS  and  POLYNEMID^  See 
Mango  Fish. 

POLYNE'SIA,  or  the  region  of  many  islands 
{One,  polys,  much  or  many,  and  neso«,  an  island), 
is  the  name  usually  given,  with  more  or  less  of 
limitation,  to  the  numerous  groups  of  islands, 
and  some  few  single  islands,  scattered  through- 
out the  great  Pacific  Ocean,  between  the  eastern 
shores  of  Asia  and  the  west^  shores  of  America. 
In  its  widest  signification,  the  term  P.  might  be 
understood  as  embracing,  besides  the  grouiis  here- 
after to  be  mentioned,  the  various  islands,  large 
and  small,  of  the  Indian  Archii)elago,  in  one 
direction  ;  and  tiie  vast  island  of  JNew  Holland 
or  Australia,  with  its  dependency  of  Van  Die- 
men's  Land,  in  another.  Includins  these,  the 
whole  region  has  sometimes  been  C£uled  Oceania, 
and  sometimes  Australasia — generally,  however,  in 
modern  times,  to  the  exclusion  of  the  islands  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  to  which  certain  writers  have 
given  the  name  of  Malaysia.  In  proportion,  also, 
as  the  area  of  maritime  discovery  has  become 
enlarged,  it  has  been  thought  convenient  by  some 
geographers  to  narrow  still  further  the  limits  of  P., 
to  the  exclusion  of  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's 
Land ;  while  others,  again,  exclude  Papua  or  New 
Guinea,  New  Ireland,  Solomon's  Isles,  the  Louisiade 
group,  the  New  Hebrides,  New  Caledonia,  and 
certain  other  groups  and  single  islands,  together 
with  New  Zealand,  from  the  area  of  P.,  and  give 
to  these,  in  union  with  Australia,  the  collective 
designation  of  AustriUasia.  To  all  these,  with  the 
exception  of  New  Zealand,  French  writers  have 
given  the  name  of  Melcmena  or  the  Blcu:k  Islands  ; 
while  a  similar  name,  Kelasnonesia,  has  been  given  to* 
them  by  Prichard  and  Latham — purely,  however,  on 
ethnological  grounds,  as  we  shall  presently  notice. 

Thus,  we  have  the  three  geographical  (^visions  of 
Malaysia,  Australasia,  and  P.,  the  last  mentioned  of 
which  embraces  all  the  groups  and  single  islands 
not  included  under  the  other  two.  Accepting  this  . 
arrangement^  still  tiie  limits  between  Australasia, 
and  P.  have  not  been  very  accurately  defined; 
indeed,  scarcely  any  two  geographers  appear  to  be 
quite  agreed  upon  the  subject;  neither  shall  we 
pretend  to  decide  in  the  matter.  The  following 
hst,  however,  comprises  all  the  principal  groups 
and  sinele  islands  not  previously  named  as  cominc 
under  the  division  of  Australasia  :  viz.,  1.  North  of 
the  equator — The  I^rone  or  Marian  Islands,  the 
Pelew  Tfllandi,  the  Caroline  Islands,  the  Radack 
and  Ralick  chains,  the  Sandwich  Islands,  Gilbert's 
or  Kingsmill's  Archipdago,  and  the  Galapagos 
2.  Sou£  of  the  equator— The  Ellice  ^roup,  tha 
Phoenix  and  Union  groups,  the  Fiii  Islands, 
the  Friendly  Islands,  the  Naviji^tors  Islands, 
Cook's  or  Harvey  Islands,  the  Society  Islands,  the 
Dangerous  Archipelago,  the  Marquesas  Islands, 
Pitcairn  Island,  and  Easter  Island. 

These  islands,  which    extend  from   about   20* 

north  of  the  equator  to  about  30**  south  of  it,  are 

some  of  them  vodcanio  in  their  origin,  and  some: 

of  them  coralline.     The  volcanic  islands  cenerally^ 

rise  to  a  considerable  height  above  the  level  of 

the    ocean,    and    are   th^elore   called  the   high 

667 


POLYNESIA. 


ifllands,  in  oontradisfciiiction  to  the  coralline  or 
low  islands.  They  consist  of  basalt  and  other 
igneous  formations.  Of  these,  the  princi{>al  are  the 
Friendly  Islands,  one  of  which,  Otaheite  or  Tahiti, 
has  a  mountain  risius  to  the  height  of  10,00()  feet ; 
the  Marquesas  Islands,  also  very  high ;  the  Samoan 
or  Navigator's  Islands  ;  and  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
of  which  Owyhee  or  SEawaii  possesses  several  both 
active  and  extinct  craters,  13,000,  14,000,  and  even 
16,000  feet  high.  The  Galapagos  group,  nearest  of 
all  to  South  America,  are  likewise  of  igneous  origin, 
and  have  several  still  active  craters.  The  remaining 
islands  are  for  the  most  part  of  coralline  formation. 
The  coral  islands  (q.  v.)  may  be  distinguished  into 
three  classes— namely, atolls  or  lagoon  islands,  barrier 
reefs,  and  fringing  reefs.  The  atolls  are  rings  of 
coral  reefs,  surrounding  a  basin  of  sea-water  of  con- 
siderable depth,  which  is  enclosed  within  this  area. 
Examples  of  these  are  found  in  the  Caroline  Islands, 
t'le  Dangerous  Archipelago,  and  several  other  js^ups. 
Barrier  reefs  differ  from  the  atolls  chiefly  in  tne 
fact  of  their  containing  an  island  in  their  centre, 
the  island  being  separated  from  the  reef  by  a  body 
of  dee[)  water ;  while  the  reef  is  in  some  instances 
entirely  converted  into  land,  and  in  others  the  sea 
washes  over  it,  except  in  certain  portions,  which 
project  above  the  level  of  the  ocean.  Barrier  reefs 
occur  among  the  Society  Islands,  the  Gambicr 
Islands,  and  many  other  groups.  Fringing  reefs  are 
collections  of  coralline  formation,  which  are  found 
skirtini:^  the  coasts  of  an  island  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  barrier  reefs,  but  without  any  interior  deep 
water  channel  They  are  found  in  almost  all  the 
groups.  From  the  fact  of  some  of  these  islands 
being  undoubtedly  volcanic,  it  has  been  ai^ed  that 
all  were  originally  of  the  same  character;  those 
of  coralline  mrmation  being  based  upon  the  crests 
of  submarine  volcanoes,  over  which  the  coral 
insects  have  for  an  indefinite  series  of  years  been 
engaged  in  rearing  their  limestone  structures. 
In  o]>po8ition  to  the  volcanic  theory,  Dr  Darwin 
has  propounded  one  of  his  own — namely,  the 
theory  of  suhskienee,  which,  after  mature  oonsidera* 
tion,  he  believes  to  be  the  only  one  capable  of 
explaining  the  various  phenomena  observable  in 
the  coral  atolls,  barrier  reefs,  and  fringing  reefs  of 
the  Pacific  All  these  he  considers  as  being  the 
production  of  saxigenous  insects,  working  upwards 
from  the  foundations  of  what  were  originally  so 
many  islands,  erect  above  the  surface  of  tiie  ocean, 
but  which  during  long  ages  have  been  in  a  state  of 
gradual  subsidence.  With  respect  to  the  atolls,  he 
states  it  as  his  belief,  that  the  lac^oon  is  precisely  in 
the  place  which  the  top  of  a  shoal,  and,  in  other 
■  cases,  the  highest  part  of  an  island,  once  occupied. 
So  soon  as  these  have  sunk  to  a  depth  of  from  120 
to  180  feet  below  the  surface,  the  coral  insects 
(which  it  is  agreed  are  never  found  at  a  lower 
depth)  commence  their  operations,  and  these  work- 
ing on  in  countless  myriads,  the  sunken  island,  or  a 
portion  of  it,  is  in  process  of  time  again  reared  to 
the  level  of  the  surrounding  sea.  It  would  take  too 
long  to  si)ccify  all  the  phenomena  upon  which  Dr 
Darwin  has  based  this  ingenious  theory,  especially 
those  connected  with  what  are  called  the  fringing 
reefs.  It  must  be  mentioned,  however,  that  para- 
doxical as  such  a  theory  may  seem,  it  has  received 
the  hearty  support  of  no  less  distinguished  a  geolo- 
gist than  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  who,  in  the  early 
editions  of  his  Principles  of  Geology^  having  held  to 
the  volcanic  theory,  has  since  abandoned  it  for  that 
propounded  by  Dr  Darwin.  Nor  is  this  all ;  for,  in 
the  last  edition  of  Sir  C.  Lyell's  work,  we  find  him 
mentioning  with  approval  Dr  Darwin's  '  important 
generalisation  that  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Seas, 
and  some  of  the  lands  which  border  them,  might 


be  divided  into  areas  of  elevation  and  areas  of 
subsidence,  which  occur  altomately.* 

Of  the  islands  generally,  we  need  only  fuiter 
observe  that,  although  situated  within  the  tropics, 
the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  is  delightfully  tempered 
by  a  succession  of  land  and  sea  breezes.  The  aoQ  ia 
exceedingly  fertile,  and  besides  the  vegetable  prodoe* 
tions  found  growing  when  the  islands  were  firrt 
discovered  by  Europeans,  it  has  given  a  welcoms 
home  to  the  orange,  lemon,  sugar-cane,  goavi, 
cotton,  potato,  melon,  and  other  fruits  and  plants 
introduced  by  foreign  visitants.  The  only  native 
quadrupeds  on  any  of  the  islands  when  first  visited 
were  pigs,  dogs,  and  rats ;  but  the  ox,  the  sheep, 
the  goat^  and  even  the  horse,  have  since  been  snc- 
oesstully  introduced  into  many  of  the  groups.  The 
feathered  tribes  are  numerous,  likewise  the  insects, 
and  the  coasts  everywhere  abound  with  a  vast 
variety  of  fish  and  Crustacea,  highly  imimrtant  as  a 
matter  of  food  to  the  inhabitants  of  those  islands  in 
which  quadrupeds,  whether  native  or  introduced, 
are  found  in  only  a  snuill  number. 

For  a  more  particular  description  of  tlie  several 
groups,  we  refer  to  the  distinct  articles  of  FiiBt 
Friendly  Islands,  Sandwich  Islands,  &c.  ;  and 
shall  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  inhabitants 
generally  under  the  head 

Polynesians. — This  race  of  people,  supposed  at 
one  time  by  certain  writers  to  be  of  American 
origin,  is  now  almost  universally  admitted  to  have  a 
close  affinity  with  the  Malays  of  the  peninsab  and 
Indian  Archipelago,  and  hence  is  classified  ^j 
them  bv  Dr  Latham  under  his  subdivision  of  Oceame 
Mongoiidoe,  In  physical  stmctnre  and  appearance, 
the  Polynesians  in  general  more  nearly  resonble 
the  Malays  than  they  do  any  other  race,  althooi^fa 
differing  from  them  in  some  respects,  as,  indeed,  ue 
natives  of  several  of  the  groups  also  do  from  each 
other.  In  stature,  they  are  generally  taUer  than  the 
Malays,  and  have  a  greater  tendency  to  corpulence. 
In  colour,  also,  they  more  nearly  approach  that  of 
the  Europeans.  The  hair  is  often  waved  or  cnriing, 
instead  of  long  and  straight,  and  the  nose  is  fre> 
quentlv  aquiline.  These  differences,  however,  which 
may  all  have  been  produced  by  lapse  of  time  and 
different  conditions  of  existence  offer  no  barrier 
to  the  strong  presumption,  that  at  some  long  ante- 
cedent period  these  islands  were  colonised  by  Malay 
adventurers.  The  Malays  are  known  at  the  present 
time  to  be  expert  and  daiing  sailors,  and  in  the  IGth 
c.  were  so  powerful  at  sea,  that  they  had  frequ^it 
naval  combats  with  European  fleets  in  the  Indian 
Archipelaga    In  1573,  the  king  of  Acheen,  with  a 

?}werful  armament,  attacked  and  destroyed  three 
ortuguese  frigates ;  and  in  1582,  the  same  king 
attacked  Malacca  with  a  fleet  of  150  saiL  At  a 
later  period — namely,  in  1615,  one  of  his  sucoesson 
attacked  the  same  settlement  with  a  fleet  of  500 
vessels  of  various  sizes  and  60,000  men.  If  this  was 
their  strength  and  enterprise  at  a  comparatively 
modem  period,  may  they  not  have  been  as  enters 
prising,  if  not  quite  so  powerful,  in  far  more  remote 
times?  The  diistance  between  the  more  western 
groups  of  P.  and  the  eastern  islands  of  the  Indian 
Arclupelago  is  not  so  great  but  that  it  could  have 
been  easily  overcome  oy  a  hardy  race  of  sailors, 
even  although  their  vessels  may  have  not  been  sj 
well  constructed  as  in  modem  tunes  ;  and  the  same 
reasoning  holds  good  with  respect  to  the  other 
groups  extending  still  further  east,  or  still  more  to 
the  north  or  soutiL  Each  island  or  group,  as  it  was 
attained,  would  only  form  a  convenient  point  of 
departure  in  process  of  time  for  some  other  island  cr 
group  more  remotely  situated.  It  is  true  that  tha 
affinities  of  language  are  not  great  between  tba 
Malays  and  the  Polynesians;   stiU,  some  aSnisf 


POLYPHEMUS-  POLYPHONIC. 


has  been  recognised  by  philologers ;  while  in  their 
manners  and  customs   a  strong  resemblance  has 
been  shewn  to  exist,  as  in  the  institution  of  caste, 
the  practice  of  circumcision,  the  chewing  of  the  betel- 
nut,  and  other  things.    Many  other  facts  might  be 
mentioned  in   favour  of  the    theory  of  a  Malay 
settlement,  not  only  of  P.,  but  of  the  islands  called 
Melanesia  or  Kelsenonesia  as  well;  the  last  men- 
tioned being  inhabited  by  a  race  almost  identical 
with  the  Negritos  or  Pelagian  Negroes  of  the  Eastern 
Archipelago.     Dr  Latham,  in  treating  of  the  Poly- 
nesians, divides  them  into  two  branches — viz.,  1. 
The  Micronesian  branch,  and  2.  The  Proper  Poly- 
nesian branch.     His  theory  as  to  the  probable  line 
of  migration  is  as  follows  :  *  The  reason  for  taking 
the  Micronesian  branch  before  the  Proper  Poly- 
nesian, involves  the  following  question  :  What  was 
the  line  of  population  by  which  the  innumerable 
islands  of  the  racitic,  from  the  Pelews  to  Easter 
Island,  and  from  the  Sandwich   Islands  to  New 
Zealand,  became  inhabited  by  tribes  different  from, 
but  still  allied  to,  the  Protonesian  Malays  ?      That 
line,  whichever  it  be,  where  the  continuity  of  suc- 
cessive islands  is  the  greatest,  and  whereon  the 
fewest  considerable  interspaces  of  ocean  are  to  be 
found.     This  is  the  general  answer  d  priori,  subject 
to  modifications  from  the  counterbalancing  pheno- 
mena of  winds  or   currents  unfavourable  to  the 
supposed  migration.  Now,  this  answer,  when  applied 
to  the  fi^ognvphical  details   regarding  the  distri- 
bution (3  land  and  sea  in  the  great  oceanic  area, 
indicates  the  following  line :    New  Guinea,  New 
Ireland,  the  New  Hebrides,  the  Fijis,  and  the  Tonsa 
^^up,  kc   From  hence,  the  Navigator*s  Islands,  the 
isles  of  the  Dangerous  Archipelago,  the  Kingsmill 
and  other  groups,   carry  the  frequently  diverging 
streams  of  population  over  the  Caroline  Islands, 
the  Ladrones,  the  Pelews,  Easter  Island,  kc    This 
view,  however,  so  natural  an  inference  from  a  mere 
land  and  sea  survey,  is  complicated  by  the  ethno- 
logical position  of  the  New  Guinea,  New  Ireland, 
and  New  Hebrides  population.    These  are  not  Pro- 
tonesian,  and   thoy  are  not  Polynesian.     Lastly, 
they  are  not  intermediate  to  the  two.    They  breaky 
rather  than  propagate  the  continuity  of  the  human 
stream — ^a  continuity  which  exists  geographically, 
but  fails  ethnographically.     The  reco^ition  of  this 
conflict  between  the  two  probabilities  has  deter- 
mined me  to  consider  the  Micronesian  Archipelago 
as    that   part  of  Polynesia  which   is  most  likely 
to  have  been  first  peopled,  and  hence  a  reason  for 
taking  it  first  in  order.'    The  islands  comprised  in 
the  Micronesian  branch  are  the  Pelew  Islands,  the 
Caroline    Islands,  the    Marian    Islands,  and   the 
Tarawan  or  Kingsmill  group.    In  physical  appear- 
ance,  the  inhabitants  of  these  groups  more  nearly 
resemble  the  Malays  than  is  the  case  with  the 
Polynesians  Proper.     In  person,  they  are  not  so 
tall  as  the  latter.      Their  language  has  numerous 
dialects,  most  of  which  would  perhaps  be  unintel- 
li^ble  to  the  groups  further  south  and  east.     In 
region,  they  are    pagans ;    but  their  mythology 
and    traditions   differ  from  those  of  the  Polyne- 
sians Proper.    Neither  is  the  custom  of  the  taboo 
and    the  use  of  kawa  so  prevalent  as  they  are 
found  to  be  among  the  latter.    The  Proper  Poly- 
nesians, so  called,  are  found  in  the  Fiji  Islands, 
but    not  to  the  same  extent  as  in  the  following 

. ^viz.,    the   Navigator's    or  Samoan    Islands,    the 

Society  Islands,  and  Friendly  Islands ;  also  in  the 


Sandwich  Islands,  the  Marquesas,  the  Dangerous 
Archipelago,  ko.    In  physicu  appearance,  they  are 
the  handsomest  and  tallest  of  all  the  natives  of  the 
Pacific  Islands,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the 
New  Zealanders  or  Maoris.    The  aquiline  nose  is 
commonly  seen  among  them,  and  there  are  many 
varieties  both  of  hair  and  complexion.    Their  face 
is   generally   oval,  with    largish    ears    and   wide 
nostrils.    In  the  islands  nearest  to  the  equator,  the 
skin  is  said  to  be  the  fairest,  and  it  is  darker  in  the 
cond  islands  than  in  the  volcanic    Their  language 
is  said  to  bear  some  affinity  to  the  Tagala,  and  is 
split  up  into  numerous  dialects,  all,  however,  to  a 
great  extent  mutually  intelligible  amons  the  several 
groups.      Paganism,    originally    prevuent    among 
all  the  grou})s,  is   becoming  gradually  extirpated 
through  the  efTorta  of  the  missionaries,  principally 
English  and   American,  as  in  the  Samoan,  Sand- 
wicn,  and  Society  groups,  where  but  few  absolute 
pagans  now  remain.     The  superetition  of  the  taboo, 
the  use  of  kawa  as  an  intoxicating  drink,  cannibal- 
ism, infanticide,  tattooing,  and  circumcision,  which 
were  also  formerly  previQent  in  all  tiie  groups,  are 
now  fast  disappearing,  under  the  influence  of  Chris- 
tianity.     Unfortunately,  however,  the  contact  of 
these  islanders  with  civilisation  has  not  been  always 
productive    of    unmixed    good;   the    introduction 
among  them  of  the  use  of  ardent  spirits,  and  of  the 
vices  and  diseases  of  Europeans,  havingthinned  the 
population  to  a  lamentable  extent.     JPurther  par- 
ticulars with  respect  to  the  natives  of  P.  will  be 
found  in  some  of  our  articles  on  the  groups  regarded 
as  being  the  most  important. 

POLYPHE'MUS,  m  the  Homeric  mythology, 
the  son  of  Poseiddn  and  the  nymph  Thoosa,  the 
most  celebrated  of  the  fabulous  Cyclops  (q.  v.), 
who  inhabited  the  island  of  Sicily.  He  was  of  im- 
mense size,  and  had  only  one  eye.  When  Ulysses 
landed  on  that  island,  he  entered  the  cave  of  P. 
with  twelve  companions,  of  which  number  this 
tremendous  cannibal  ate  six.  The  others  stood 
esroecting  the  same  fate,  but  their  cunning  leader 
filled  P.  drunk,  then  burned  out  his  single  eye  with 
a  blazing  torch,  and  so  escaped,  leaving  the  blinded 
monster  to  grope  about  in  the  darkness. 

POLYPHEMUS,  a  genus  of  Brancfiiopoda  (q.  v.), 
of  the  order  Cladoc^ra,  remarkable  for  the  extra- 
ordinary size  of  the  solitary  eye,  which  occupies 
almost  the  whole  head.  One  species,  P,  atagnorum, 
is  common  in  stagnant  pools  and  ditches  in  some 
parts  of  Britain  and  of  the  continent  of  Europe.  It 
IS  about  the  size  of  a  flea,  and  moves  rapidly  in  the 
water,  executing  all  kincls  of  evolutions,  employing 
both  its  legs  and  anteonsB  as  organs  of  swimming. 
The  shell,  consisting  of  two  pieces,  is  so  transparent 
that  all  the  viscera  may  be  seen  throngh  it.  The 
abdomen  is  terminated  by  a  long  tau  suddenly 
folded  back. 

POLYPHO'NIO  (Qr.  polya,  many,  and  pitonf, 
voice).  When  a  musical  composition  consists  of 
two  or  more  parts,  each  of  which  has  an  independ- 
ent melody  of  its  own,  it  is  said  to  be  polyphonic, 
in  opposition  to  a  homophonic  composition,  consist- 
ing of  a  principal  part  with  a  leading  idea,  and 
accessory  parts  employed  to  strengthen  it  Each 
{>art  of  a  polyphonic  composition  aims  at  melodio 
perfection,  and  whUe  supporting  the  other,  has  an 
equal  ahare  in  the  entire  effect,  as  in  the  foUowing 
example: 


POLYPL 


A  Fugae  (q.  y.)  is  die  most  perfeofc  example  of  poly- 
phoDJc  compositioii.  The  dmerenoe  between  homo- 
phonic  and  polyphonic  compositionB  ie  not  iJways 
■o  marked  as  to  leave  it  me  of  doubt  whether  a 
part  is  subordinate  or  independent;  and  many 
oomiK^itions  consist  of  an  alternation  of  homo- 
phonic  and  polyphonic  passages.  The  constmotion 
of  polyphonic  phrases  is  called  Connterpoint. 

POXYPI,  or  POLYPES,  a  cUus  of  animals 
which  were,  till  the  last  few  yean,  included  in 
the  Badiata  of  Cuvier,  but  which,  since  the 
Radiata  have  ceased  to  be  regarded  as  a  sub- 
kingdom,  have  found  a  place  in  the  sub-kingdom 

C<ELENT£KATA.      See  SUB-KINaDOtfS,  ANIMAL.      Hie 

name  Polypi^  or  Polypes,  was  given  by  Reaumur 
about  the   middle  of   the   last  century  to   these 
animals,  on  account  of  their  external  resemblance 
to  the  many-armed  cuttle-fishes,  which  were  so 
denominated  by  Aristotle;  and  our  knowledge  of 
these  organisms,  as  members 'of  the  animal  kin^om, 
hanily  dates  back  much  more  than  a  century.    All 
polypes  are  aquatic  in  their  mode  of  life,  and  almost 
all  of  them  are  inhabitants  of  the  sea,  two  genera 
only  ( Hydra  and  Cordyhphora)  of  fresh- water  polypes 
being  as  yet  known.    Most  of  them  live  in  societies 
of  considerable  extent,  supported  on    a   common 
stock,  to  which  the  term  pohjpidom  (polyp-home)  is 
usually  given,  and  which  is  sometimes  homy,  and 
sometimes    calcareous.      The    polypes    are    either 
embedded  in  cavities  in  the  substance  of  the  cal- 
careous polypidom,  or  enclosed  in  minute  cupe  or 
tubes,  from  which  the  body  can  be  protruded,  and 
into  which  it  can  be  retracted  at  pleasure,  in  the 
homy  polypidoms.    The  solitary  species  often  attain 
a  considerable  size  (as,  for  instance,  many  of  the 
Actinias) ;  but  the  sociaJ  polypes  are  always  minute, 
although  the  combined  power  of  some  of  we  species 
in  modif^ng  the  earth's  crust  is  neither  dight  nor 
limited  m  extent.    *  They  have  built  up  a  oarrier 
reef  along  the  shores  of  >iew  Caledonia  for  a  length 
of  400  miles;  and  another,  which  runs  along  the 
north-east  coast  of  Australia,  1000  miles  in  extent. 
To  take  a  small  example :  a  single  atoll  (or  eoral 
island)  may  be  50  miles  in  length  oy  20  in  breadth ; 
so  that  if  the  ledge  of  coral  rock  forming  the  ring 
were  extended  in  one  line,  it  would  be  1^  miles  in 
length.    Assuming  it  to  be  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in 
breadth,  and  150  feet  deep,  here  is  a  mound,  com- 
pared with  which  the  walls  of  Babylon,  the  great 
wall  of  China,  and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt  are  but 
children's  toys;  and  built,  too,  amidst  the  waves 
of  the  ocean,  and  in  defiance  of  the   storms.' — 
Owen,  Lectures  on  tlie  Invertebrate  Animals,  2d  edit., 
p.  143. 

The  bodies  of  these  animals  are  generally  soft, 
and  cylindrical  or  oval  in  shape ;  and  the  mouth, 
which  is  the  only  aperture  of  the  digestive  canal, 
and  is  quite  destitute  of  any  masticating  apparatus, 
lies  in  the  centre  of  the  anterior  or  free  extremity 
of  the  body,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  fringe  or  circle 
of  tentacles  or  arms.  The  skin  in  the  social  polypes 
is  exceedingly  soft  and  delicate ;  but  in  the  solitary 

Secies,  it  IS  often  of  a  leathery  consistence,  ift 
most  always  contains  peculiar  urticating  organs, 
or  thread-like  cells,  which  may  be  regard^  as  one 
of  the  distinctive  characters  of  the  Ccelenterata. 
Various  arrangements  of  the  polypes  have  been 
proposed,  but  it  is  sufficient  for  all  practical  purposes 
if  we  admit  two  orders—namely,  tne  Hydrozoa  and 
tiie  Anthozoa  (or  Ac(inozoa),  which  differ  essentiallv 
in  the  following  points :  in  the  Hydrozoa,  the  wall 
of  the  digestive  sac  is  not  separated  from  that  of 
the  somatic  (or  bodily)  cavity,  and  the  reproductive 
organs  are  external ;  while  in  the  AntnozoOf  the 
w&  of  the  digestive  sao  is  separated  from  that 
of  the  somatic  cavity  by  an   mtervening   space, 


sabdiyided  into  chambers  by  a  wries  of  Tsriicil 
partitions,  on  the  faces  <^  which  the  rcprodnetive 
organs  are  developed.  The  Htdra  (q.  ▼.),  or  Fmh- 
water  Polype,  is  ike  type  of  the  Hydrmoa,  A  fev 
of  these  polypes  are  simple  animals,  as,  for  exain^ 
HydrOf  Oorymorpha,  Vortklava,  and  Mynotkda; 
but  the  greater  number  are  compound  or  composite, 
exhibiting  a  numerous  colony,  connected  with  one 
another  by  a  common  trunk  or  eoenosarc  (from  the 
Gr.  koinos,  common,  and  sarx,  flesh),  which  usually 
presents  an  erect  tree-like  foraiL  A  sufficient  ides 
of  the  form  and  stracture  of  the  simple  p<%pe8  of 
the  class  will  be  obtained  by  a  referenos  to  ibe 
article  Hydra,  and  by  a  glance  at  the  aooompsayiof 
figure  of  Oorymorpha  ntUans,  which  attains  a  leogn 


Hg.  1. — Coiymoxpha  nutans. 

of  between  four  and  five  inches,  and  was  disoovered 
bv  Forbes  and  Goodsir  when  dredging  in  the  noith 
of  Scotland.  They  observe,  that  when  it  was  placed 
in  a  vessel  of  sea-water,  it  presented  the  appear- 
ance of  a  beautiful  pink  fiower,  its  head  grac^ttUj 
nodding  (whence  the  specific  name  given  to  it  by 
Sars,  who  had  previously  discovered  it  on  the 
Norwegian  coast),  and  bendinir  the  upper  part  of 
the  stem ;  it  waved  its  long  white  tentacles  to  and 
fro  at  pleasure,  but  seemed  to  have  no  power  d 
contracting  thenL  The  compound  HydrwDOSk  ioduda, 
inter  o/to,  the  orders  Serhdarides  (emlxacing  the 
various  species  of  Sertularia^  Campanularia,  Liio- 
medea,  fto.)  and  TubiUaridm  (embracing  the  Tarioos 
species  of  Tubularia,  Budendrium,  Bkmeria,  &c.).  A 
good  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  compound  Hydrozos 
may  be  formed  from  the  consideration  of  the  Cam- 
panvlaria  dichotoma,  a  common  orauoMm  on  osr 
shores.  The  compound  polype-animaX  or  assodatioc 
of  polypes,  resemoles  a  miniature  tree.  It  consists 
essentially  of  a  ramified  tube  of  irritable  matter,/, 
defended  by  an  external  flexible,  and  frequeot^ 
jointed  homy  skeleton,  a ;  and  is  fed  by  the  activity 
of  the  tentaoula,  <i,  and  by  the  digestive  poweis  i 


tha  klimeatuy  uo  {g)  a 

commoD  prodaca  of  whio 

tubular  cavitiaa  for  the  beuelit  of  the  whole 

miuiity.       The    toft    inteKumeut    of    the    nutrient 

polypes  id,  t,  g)  conCuD*  the  thmd-celli,  to  vhich 


tig,  3, — CunpanuUiu  dichotouu,  nugnifled. 

allusion  haa  previously  been  mada.  These  are 
protruded  when  the  alcin  ii  irritated,  and  give  the 
tentaoles  the  appearance  of  being  beset  by  minute 
bristloa.  The  digestive  sac  of  each  jiolype  is  lined 
by  a  ciliated  epithelium  ;  but  there  is  a  perforation 
at  the  base  commuDicatinz  with  the  central  tube,/ 
This  outlet  atlmiU  only  of  the  passage  of  the  fluid 
contonts  uf  the  atomoch,  undigested  matters  being 
ejected  by  the  mouth.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  sea-water  enters  the  branches  of  the  tube  f, 
and  circulates,  hy  means  of  the  ciliated  epithelium, 
tbroueh  the  com{>ouDd  organism  ;  and  by  Uiis  means 
cootributes  to  the  respiratory  process.  '  At  certain 
points  of  these  ramilied  polypes,'  says  Professor 
Owen, '  which  points  are  constant  in  and  character- 
ialic  of  each  species,  there  are  developed  little 
eleuant  vaae-shaped  or  pod'shaped  sacs,  which  are 
callstt  the  ovigerous  vesicles,  or  opioapntla.  These 
are  sometimes  appended  to  the  branches,  sometimes 
to  the  axilha,  as  at  A,  i,  £  (in  %  2).  Tbey  are  at 
first  soft,  and  have  a  still  softer  lining  membrane, 
which  is  thicker  and  more  coadenaeil  at  the 
bottom  of  the  vesicle.  It  is  at  this  part  that  the 
ovm  or  germs  are  developed,  aud  for  some  time 
tb<!Be  are  kept  in  connection  with  the  vital  tissue 
of  the  polype  by  a  kind  of  umbilical  cord.  Id 
all  the  compound  Hydrozoa,  the  ovicapsules  are 
deciduous ;  and  having  performed  theic  functions 
iu  relation  to  the  development  of  the  new 
profreny,  drop  off  like  the  seed-capsules  of 
I'laats.  On  other  individuals  of  the  same  species, 
a  perm-capsules  are  developed,  which,  in  form, 
resemble  the  ovicajiauli'a,  but  iu  pi 
t  of  fei 
H  by  diffusion  of  the  apermatoioa 
in  the  suiroundin^  water.  There  is  much  that  still 
requires  elucidation  iu  reference  to  the  various 
mmles  of  reproduction  of  this  clan.  Many  of  the 
Hydroma  have  been  shewn  to  be  merely  larval 
forms   of  HedusEB.     See  Ge<<eb&tions    Altkkna- 

llie  leading  anatomical  diatinction  between  the 
^nl/uixoa,  or  Actim/zoa,  and  the  ffydroioa  has  been 
aJreadv  uoticcd.  The  common  Aclinia  (g.  v.]  mav 
be  reffsrded  a*  tha  type  of  this  doss,  all  of  which 


of  this  class  combine  with  a  structure  similar  b 
that  of  the  Actinia  an  internal  calcareous  axis  oi 
skeleton,  which,  penetrating  into  the  interior  of  the 
organism,  presents  the  lamellated  and  radiated 
structure  recognisable  in  the  Fungia,  and  in  thf 
skeiebons  of  Uarj/ophnUie,  i£adrepora,  Ac.  Such 
Anthozoa  an  tennod  ooralli^enous  ;  and  every  hard 
structure  depoaited  iu  or  by  the  tissues  of  this 
class,  and  forming  a  uniform  framework,  is  recog. 
niaed  by  zoologists  as  a  coral  Like  the  members  of 
the  preeeding  class,  many  of  tha  Anthozoa  multiply 
freely  by  gemmation,  oomplei  or  compound  animals 
or  colonies  of  animals  being  formed,  in  which 
individual  polypes  are  united  by  a  coenosarc  or 
polypidom.  ror  a  description  of  the  mode  in  which 
communication  takes  place  between  the  common 
body  or  mass  and  the  individual  polypes,  we  must 
refer  to  the  article  Aloyonicm.  Various  arrange- 
ments of  this  class  have  been  proposed  by  zoologists. 
tf  we  exclude  the  consideration  of  fossil  genera, 
we  may  divide  the  Anthozoa  into  two  orders — the 
Atryonaria  snd  the  ZoantAaria, 

The  Akt/onaria  may  be  characterised  as  Antho- 
zoa in  which  each  polype  is  furnished  with  eight 
tentacles,  not  simple,  as  in  Actinia,  but  famisned 
with  pinnate  margins,  with  eight  somatic  chambers, 
and  eight  mesenteries.  With  the  eiception  of  one 
genus,  they  are  all  oomposito  in  stmcture ;  their 
polypes  being  connected  with  one  another  by  a 
ciEnosarc,  which  is  traversed  by  prolongations  of 
the  somatic  cavity  of  each  polype,  a  system  of 
canals  being  thus  formed  whose  parts  freely  com- 
municate and  are  readily  distensible.  Cams,  in  the 
Handbuek  der  ZoologU,  1S63,  vol  2  (of  which  he  is 
joint  author  with  Peters  and  Qentiecker),  mainly 
adopting  Milne-Edwards' s  arraogemant,  divides  the 
Alcyouaria  into  the  three  following  families ;  1. 
Alcyoaida;  2.  Oorgoindat;  3.  Pennatuiida.    In  tha 


Fig.  3. — Diagram  iUustrating  the  Moiphology  of 

I,  pain"  •>!  JIoypn'H'n  .'  t,  Idnl  inlion  ot  the  HmE  ;  1.  I 


AleyonidiB,  ha  includes  the  beautiful  organ-pipe 
corals,  of  which  Green  and  others  make  a  separate 
family.  The  polypidom  constructed  by  Twipora 
masica  consists  of  successive  stages  of  cyLndrical 
tubes  of  a  rich  crimsoo  colour,  united  st  various 
heights  by  means  of  horizontal  connecting  plates. 
The  tubes  placed  upon  the  upper  stage  are  aloDo 


POLYPI— POLYPODnJM. 


above  them.  At  on  ex&mple  af  tlie  Oorgimxdtr,  we 
Buy  take  /«u  hipparit,  in  nhicb  the  akeletoii  is 
motle  up  of  alternate  joiots  of  calcareoul  and  homy 


Fig.  S. — Ini  hippnTU. 

niikHcr,  irith  the  view  of  gi\'ing  the  neceaaaiy 
flexibility.  In  the  I'mnatidiilt,  the  jiolypidom  is 
free,  and  no  polvi^B  are  attached  to  ita  bBHal  portion. 
The  Sea-pau  {Prinalvla)  of  oar  own  coaet  afford  a 

8a-iA  example  of  this  family.  See  FekkatuiuI  for 
eecription  and  tigure. 
The  Zianlharia  may  be  characterised  M  AnthiV 
toa  in  which  the  tentacle*  are  either  nmple  dt 
branched,  in  general  numerous,  and  together  with 
the  meseDteriea,  diepoeed  in  multiples  ol  Sve  or  bii. 
They  may  be  arranKed  in  the  three  following  sub- 
orders— 1.  Z.  ifa!aoo<lfi-mala ;  2.  Z.  Sder^iaiica 
or  Aalipailiaria  (Milne-Edwnrda) ;  and  3.  Z.  Sclfro- 
dermala  or  Madrtporrt.  The  first  suborder  has 
been  variouily  aubdivided  into  familiet  and   sub- 


and  animaU  allied  to 
genera  Actinia,  AnOua,  Coryn- 


familiea,  which  it 
tains  all  the   i 

them,  includiDR  ... 

aettt,  Capofa,  Adaimia,  IlyaiUhut,  Sagartia,  Buiutdn, 
EdaardKO,  PeacUo,  Ac  :  and  the  Zoanlhida,  vhicb 
are  aggre^ted  polypes  arising  from  a  common 
creeping  root-like  Qescy  band,  and  of  which  at  Ion 
one  apecies,  ZoaiUJim  Coudui,  a  an  inhabitant  ol 
the  British  seas.  All  the  memben  of  the  actqud 
■ub-order  are  composite  stnicturea.  Aniipaiiifi, 
the  type  of  the  group,  prtaents  a  stem-like^  simple. 
or  branching  oienoaarc,  which  in  one  ipeciei  tapoi 
to  a  length  of  more  than  nine  feet,  with  a  diaaielci, 
at  the  base,  not  exceeding  three-tenths  of  an  inch 
The  third  sub-order  (the  Madreporet)  it  a  raj 
extenaive  one.  It  is  divided  into  the  Madrryim 
aponta  and  M.  perforata,  according  as  the  coni 
exhibits  a  aoUd  or  a  porous  structnre.  ii.  aponm 
may  be  arranged  in  the  following  famihes—l. 
Turbinolida  (including  the  sub-families  Caryopk^ 
Una  and  TurbiaoliTUr) ;  2.  OeulinidiK;  3.  AilnaCr: 
4.  Echinoporina ;  5.  Meniiinacta;  6-  Fvngida:  whik 
the  it,  perforata  are  divided  into  (1)  Madrrponda 
and  (2)  Poritida.  A  few  of  the  commoner  formi 
of  Madrepora  are  delineated  in  the  articles  Coau 
aod  Madrkfobe.  Amongst  the  most  importint 
works  on  this  department  of  zoology  msj  Ic 
mentioned  Dana's  Structure  and  Cloftijicatioii  » 
Zoophytei  (Philadelphia,  1646),  and  bis  Rrpori  (i> 
Zoophytea,  and  AOai  of  Zoophyta  (U-S-  Eipluruif 
El|)e<lition|,  1649  ;  Johnston's  BriliA  Zonphyla.  10 
2  vols.,  to  which  we  ore  indebted  for  many  of  mu 
illustrations  \  Mil  ne-E.1  wards  and  Hoime.  HiMiin 
NatuT^Ut  deg  Coratiiaires  au  Poiypet  propmnent 
dilt  (3  vols.,  1657—1860);  and  Lacaie- Duthien, 
Hiitoirc  Naturrlir  du  CoraU,  OrganUatioii,  Htpn- 
dudion,  *c.  (1864). 

POLYPODITJM,  a  eenns  of  Ferns,  with  spore- 
cases  uD  the  back  of  the  Irond,  distinct,  ring-sluptd. 
in  roundish  tori,  destitute  of  induiium.  Seienl 
species,  differing  very  considerably  in  appe3jaDi.-e. 
are  natives  of  Britain,  where  no  fern  is  m«T 
common  than  P.  vulgart.  It  grows  on  rocks,  bwa, 
dry  baoks,  ftc.,  and  has  fronib  2—18  inches  long, 
deeply  pinnatifid,  with  large  sorL— i".  I}TyoptaT4, 


with  delicate  ternate   bipiuuttv  (rooda, 
ornament  of  many  dry  stony  pi  We    ' 
P.  Oalaguala,  a  native  4    Pent   it 


POLYPORUS-POLYTECHNIQUB. 


important    medidnal    properties  —  solvent,    deob- 
struent,  sudorific,  &c. 

POLYPO'RUS.    See  Amadou  and  Dby  Rot. 

POLY'PTERUS,  a  genus  of  fishes,  ranked  by 
Cuvier  among  malacopterous  fishes  and  in  the 
family  ClupeulcR^  notwithstanding  very  important 
differences  of  structure ;  but  now  constituted  by 
MUller  and  others  into  a  family,  PohjpteridcR,  of  the 
order  of  Ganoid  Fishes.  The  shape  is  round  and 
elongated ;  the  head  defended  by  large  bony  plates, 
the  Dody  covered  with  large  and  strong  ganoid 
scales,  which  are  very  closely  affixed  to  the  skin. 
These  curious  fishes,  existing  remains  of  a  type 
which  was  prevalent  in  former  geologic  periods, 
inhabit  the  rivers  of  Africa,  and  lodge  in  the  soft 
mud.  Their  fiosh  is  very  pleasant.  The  P.  of  the 
Nile,  called  Biddr  by  the  Egyptians,  is  said  to  be 
one  of  the  finest  fishes  of  that  river.  It  is  about  18 
inches  long. 

PO'LYPUS,  in  Surgery,  is  an  antiquated  term 
employed  to  signify  any  sort  of  pedunculated 
tumour  attached  to  a  surface  to  wnich  it  w^as 
supposed  to  adhere  like  a  many-footed  animal,  as 
its  name  indicates.  The  most  common  seat  of 
polypus  is  the  mucous  membrane,  especially  that  of 
the  nostrils  and  uterus  ;  but  these  tumours  are  also 
found  in  the  rectum,  the  larynx,  and  the  external 
auditory  passage  of  the  ear.  The  only  satisfactory 
mode  of  treatment  consists  in  their  removal,  which 
must  be  effected  in  various  ways,  according  to 
their  position,  as  by  the  forceps,  the  ecraseur  the 
ligature,  &c. 

PO'LYSTYLE,  •  term  applied  to  •  building 
with  a  number  of  columns,  but  not  the  strict 
number  of  any  of  the  classic  arrangements* 

POLYTE'CHNIQUE  (fecoLB  Polytechnique), 
or  POLYTECHNIC  SCHOOL  (Gr.  polys,  many; 
technSj  art),  was  first  established  in  Paris  (1794)  by 
the  National  Convention,  under  the  name  of  L'cole 
dea  Travaux  publics  (School  of  Public  Works).  No 
students  were  admitted  but  those  who  intended  to 
enter  the  public  service;  and  though  the  general 
object  of  the  institution  was  the  supplymg  of 
w^-educated  youths  to  all  branches,  it  was  more 
particularly  devoted  to  the  thorough  instruction  of 
recruits  for  the  corps  of  civil  and  military  engineers. 
The  institution  received  the  name  of  *  Ecole  Poly- 
technique' in  1795.  The  pupils  were  at  first  349  in 
number,  and  each  received,  during  his  stay  of  two 
years  in  the  institution,  an  annual  stipend  of  1200 
francs  (£48  nearly) ;  the  teachers  were  in  most 
cases  the  most  eminent  savans  of  France — Lagrange, 
Prony,  Monge,  Hachette,  Say,  Vauquelin,  Berthol- 
let,  relletier,  &c.,  being  among  the  number  of  the 
professors  at  the  commencement.  There  was  also 
in  connection  with  the  school  a  periodical  called 
the  Journal  Polytechnique^  valuable  for  its  excellent 
memoirs  of  the  professors  and  the  more  eminent 
pupils.  In  1799,  some  modifications  were  intro- 
duced into  the  working  of  the  school ;  the  number 
of  pupils  was  at  the  same  time  limited  to  200,  and 
they  were  put  into  uniform.  The  advantages  of  an 
institution  of  this  sort,  when  ably  conducted,  soon 
made  themselves  evident,  and  the  P.,  in  consequence, 
rose  into  high  estimation,  not  only  in  France,  but 
throughout  Europe,  so  much  so,  that  it  became  com- 
mon ^r  foreign  nations,  when  entering  into  a  treaty 
with  France,  to  stipulate  for  the  admission  of  a 
certain  number  of  their  subjects  into  the  institution, 
after  passing  the  prescribed  entrance  examination. 
In  1804,  the  Emperor  Napoleon  introduced  various 
modifications  into  its  working,  and  gave  it  a  mili- 
tary organisation ;  it  was  also  removed  from  the 
Palais-Bourbon  (where  it  had  existed  from  its  first 
establishment)  to  the  old  college  of  Navarre.    One 


of  the  new  relations  was  the  obligation  imposed 
upon  each  pupd  of  paying  a  sum  of  ^0  francs  [£3r2) 
to  the  institution,  and  also  providing  himself,  at  his 
own  expense,  with  all  the  necessary  books  and 
instruments;  but,  at  the  same  time,  great  liberality 
was  shewn  to  deserving  applicants  who  could  not 
conform  to  this  regulation ;  and  some  yeai-s  later,  an 
annual  grant  of  30,000  francs  was  made  by  govern* 
ment  for  their  benefit,  and  for  pensions  to  old 
pupils.  The  number  of  teachers  was  also  increased, 
and  all  the  pupils  were  regularly  drilled,  especially 
in  the  use  of  fire-arms  and  the  working  of  heavy 
ordnance.  The  institution  became  more  and  more, 
as  the  end  of  the  Napoleonic  empire  drew  near,  a 
training-school  for  young  artillerists  and  engineers ; 
and  such  was  the  enthusiasm  of  the  pupils  in  the 
Emperor^s  cause,  that,  after  the  disasters  of  1814, 
they  demanded  to  be  enrolled  en  masse  in  the  ranks 
of  the  French  army.  However,  Napoleon  was  (to 
use  his  own  words)  not  inclined  *  to  kill  the  hen  for 
the  golden  eggs ; '  but  he  allowed  them  to  form  three 
Out  of  the  twelve  companies  of  which  the  artillery 
corps  of  the  national  guard  was  com])08ed.  These 
three  companies  reuaered  important  service  in 
manning  the  walls  of  Paris,  and  behaved  heroically 
in  the  battle  of  March  30, 1814  After  the  first  Eestor- 
ation,  the  P.  being  considered  to  be  evil-disposed  to 
the  government,  suffered  considerable  reductions ;  but 
was  restored  to  its  former  importance  for  the  brief 
period  of  the  *  Hundred  Days.'  After  the  second 
Ilestoration  (July  1815),  the  staff  of  professors  was 
remodelled;  Lacroix  and  some  others  were  dis- 
missed, and  replaced  by  Poisson,  Arago,  Cauchy, 
&c  Notwithstanding  these  changes,  the  govern- 
ment still  had  its  doubts  as  to  the  loyalty  of  the 
establishment,  and  took  advantage  of  an  outbreak, 
April  3,  1816,  to  break  it  up.  It  was  reconsti- 
tuted in  September  of  the  same  year,  under  a  revised 
code  of  regulations,  and  in  18*22,  the  old  severity 
of  military  discipline  was  restored.  Since  this  time, 
it  has  preserved  its  loyalty  to  the  government,  and 
the  pupils  have  taken  an  active  part  in  the  various 
revolutions  in  Paris.  Its  constitution,  which  has 
so  frequently  suffered  change,  was  finally  amended, 
November  1, 1852.  The  rules  now  are — 1.  No  pupil 
can  be  admitted  unless  he  has  been  successful  in 
the  public  competitive  examination  which  ia  held 
each  year,  the  subjects  and  date  of  the  examina- 
tion being  previously  published  by  a  decree  of  the 
Minister  of  War.  2.  The  conditions  of  admission 
to  the  competitive  examination  are,  that  the  candi- 
date shall  be  a  Frenchman ;  that  he  shall  be  more 
than  16,  and  less  than  20  years  of  age,  on  the  1st 
of  January  of  that  year.  3.  Eegular  soldiers  are 
admitted  up  to  the  age  of  ^5  years,  provided  they 
have  been  on  real  and  effective  service  for  two  years. 
4.  The  entrance-charge  is  1000  francs  (£40)  per 
annum,  and  the  cost  of  outfit  (to  be  also  paid  by 
the  pupil)  is  determined  each  year  by  the  Minister 
of  War.  5.  The  duration  of  the  course  of  instruc- 
tion is  two  years :  the  pupils,  after  finishing  their 
course,  must  pass  a  final  examination ;  the  success- 
ful candidates,  if  found  to  be  physically  qualified, 
are  arranged  in  order  of  merit,  and  choose  in  order 
what  branch  of  the  public  service  they  wish  to  enter. 
6.  The  branches  of  the  public  service  which  are 
recruited  from  the  P.  are,  the  corps  of  land  and  naval 
artillery,  military  and  naval  en^neers,  the  imperial 
marine,  the  corps  of  hydrographic  engineers,  that  of 
engineers  of  roads,  bridges,  and  mines,  the  corps  of 
staff-officers,  the  superinteoidence  of  telegraphs  and 
tobacco  manufactories. 

The  branches  at  present  taught  are,  analysis 
(mathematical),  mechanics  and  machines,  fortifica- 
tion and  the  military  art,  descriptive  geometry, 
geodesy,  physics,   chemistry,  architecture,  French 


POLTTHEISM-POLTZOA. 


Though  ita  main  object  u  the  recruiting  of  the 
public  eervicBi  yet  from  the  P.  hnve  proceeded 
alnoat  all  the  celebrated  French  ~"" ""' — 


Mid  pbiloHipher*  of  the  Utt  half -century, 

POXTTHEI5U.    SeeQon 

FOLYZO'A,  known  aln  ■■  Bhtoeoa  ^m  the 
Greek  bryort,  mow,  And  toon,  an  animal ;  becauie 
many  of  tbeu  or«uu>n»  iacraat  other  animal*  or 
bodies  like  mcai),  and  CluoBRAcnlATA  (from 
the  circuDiBtance  that  their  tentacles  are  ciliated), 
an  ao  called  from  many  individuali  being  united 
into  a  oolony  or  polysoory.  Although  Dr  Gnuit,  in 
bia  Obttrvationa  <m  (Ae  Slrufture  and  Nature  of 
Fhutra,  in  1827,  and  Milne- Ed waida  and  Andonin. 
in  their  Rfiumt  da  RedtxrcKa  lur  U»  Ammaiix 
tans  Verala-a/aile*  aux  Uet  Chauttey,  in  1828,  indu- 
bitably shewed  that  these  animus  more  closely 
reeembled,  in  the  details  of  their  organisation,  the 
moUuscouB  than  the  radiate  sub-kin^m,  with 
which  they  were  formerly  confoonded,  some  of  our 
moat  esteemed  English  writers  (including  Fro- 
feeaor  Owen)  peniat  in  retaining  them  among  the 
Polypes,  instead  of  placing  them  in  their  tale 
position  amon^  the  moUvimid  aaimala. 

Most  of  the  F.  are  niicroscopic,  but  >a  thej"  occur 
in  oolonies,  they  often  collectively  form  sufficiently 
conspicuous  maosea,  and  although  thei«  is  little 
diversity  in  the  form  or  structure  of  the  ■nimals 
themselves,  there  is  much  difference  in  the  form, 
arrangement,  and  composition  of  the  cells  or  cham- 
ber* in  whli^  the  individual  animals  reside.  '  In 
genelnl,'  says  Mr  Gosee,  'the  form  of  the  cell  is 
ovate  or  oblong ;  but  the  general  shape  is  variouslr 
modified,  being  tubular,  club-shaped,  horn-shaped, 
cnuile- shaped,  so  uare,  Ac,'  The  arrangement  is  often 
shrub-hke,  or  the  cell*  may  be  arranged  in  close 
series,  either  adhering  in  iiregular  mtches,  aa  the 
Xepiu/ks,  or  tising  into  broad,  flexible  leaves,  aa  the 


cell,  with  wbo«e  walla  it  isoomMctedonljIiyiMMi 
of  muscular  bands  and  threads  at  certain  pnA, 
and  by  the  covering  of  tiie  mouth  of  the  ceU.  Ttu 
animal  may  either  expand  itaelf  to  »  considenUe 
extent  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  cell,  or  it  may  be 
altogether  rettricted  within  the  Utter ;  their  mon- 
ments  being  due  partly  to  pressure  upon  tiie  lotet 
walls,  and  partly  to  the  muscular  bands,  which  set 
chiefly  as  retractors.  On  >i» mining  one  of  tbi«g 
organismi  in  the  expanded  state,  the  mouth  li  seen 
to  be  surrounded  by  a  crown  of  tcntaclei.  vtikll 
are  most  commonly  ten  or  twelve  in  number,  isd 
are  clothed  with  vibratile  cilia,  which  bih  Uh 
water  towards  the  mouth,  and  thus  create  DumW 
less  little  whirlpools,  by  which  nutritious  wMa  is 
conducted  into  the  oral  aperture  of  the  polyua 
These  -iTi«t"*  tentacles,  which  are  seen  in  C,  a,  in 
the  figure,  constitute  one  of  the  essential  points  it 
difference  between  these  animals  and  the  hydralonii 
polypes,  with  which  they  were  formerly  asaociitad. 
The  mouth  leads  to  a  funnel-shaped  cavity  or 
pharynx  b,  which  is  succeeded  by  an  ixsopha^  c, 
and  a,  true  digestive  stomach  d  (between  which  a 
muscular  gizzard  intervenes  in  certain  genera),  after 
which  the  intestine,  t,  turns  back  upon  itself,  ud 
terminates  in  au  anus,  /,  near  the  mouth.  In  th> 
separate  intestine  and  ana]  orifice,  we  have  aontlur 
characteristic  distinguishina  these  animals  fram  tbe 
polypes.  At  the  bue  of  the  tentacular  circle,  jmt 
above  the  anal  orifice,  is  a  nervous  ganglion,  nhich 
in  all  tiie  F-  ties  on  the  re-entcrine  angle,  betwcei 
the  two  extremities  of  the  intestinal  canal  Ko 
heart  has  as  yet  been  discovered,  tbe  matters,  whidi 
result  from  digestion,  percolating  thronrfi  the 
intestinal  walls,  and  becoming  mixed  with  Me  fluid 
in  which  the  viscera  floats.  According  to  Pnftw* 
Atlman,  three  distinct  modes  of  raproduction  occn 
in  the  P.,  vi^,  by  buds  or  gemmte,  by  true  ova,  sod 
by  free  locomotive  embryoea.  This  subject,  tioT- 
ever,  requires  further  investigaldoii. 

Minute  appendages,  of  a  very  remarkable  chs^ 
BCter,  an  fixed  to  the  cells  of  many  of  the  raoen. 
Asiadaria,  or  *  Birds'-head  Pin- 


They  are  t 


Esdhsra  Cervioomll: 


A,  portion  or  lu  mnlline  hbrle,  i^t 
, 1,  -_||  dlgtil J  miwnUlcd ;  a. 


nouth;  t,  pbirjngHl  «t 
1  nuiml  i  f,  tlis  SDU ;  g,  n 


dlgHUn 

Fbutra,  or  commrm  sea-mats,  or  in  solid  * 
walla,  or  coral-like  massea,  aa  the  Bacliant,  ol 
careoiis  aea-mata.    £ach  Miiinal  lives  freely  ii 


inch.  Mlantcd, 
)  tnbn ;  d,  the 


whip-Lke  spines.  IW 
Avieulaiia  were  dracribsl 
by  EUis,  who  fint  noticfll 
'tiiem  (in  his  £*My  loitarit 
a  Nalurai  //iXory  o/  tU 
ConMina,  1758),  as  rescn- 
Uing  *a  bird's  bead  with 

I  a  crooked  beak,  opesiii 
very   wide;*    they  consirt 

:  of  a  fixed  and  a  niDnUa 
nipper,  like  a  ciab's  da*, 
the  latter  being  worked  bf 
apecial  muscles.  That 
moving  beaka  have  beta 
often  observed  to  Kos 
tninutfl    animals;   bat  si 

'  these  organs  have  no  power 
of  passing  their  [ovy  to 
the  mouth,  the  P.  cannot 
nceive  nourishment  from 
this  source.  Mr  G«w 
■DgemoDsly  snegests  that 
'tae  seizure  ol  a  psMini 
Miimal,  and  the  bolding  A 
it  in  the  tenodooa  graip 
until  it  dies,  may  M  • 
means  of  attracting  tin 
proper  prey  to  the  vici- 
nity of  the  mootJL'  Tbe 
slender  movaUe  lAi  a 


I  sibracida  consist  of  a  k 
accordii^ 
intruding  vagrants,  and  to  eirs— 


POMACEiK-POMBAL. 


away  accidental  defilement,  by  sweepinff  across  the 
orifice  of  the  celL*  Both  these  kinds  of  organs  are 
of  service  in  determining  genenk  Excellent  magni- 
fied representations  of  the  Avieularia  and  VUfr(Kula 
may  be  seen  on  referring  to  figs.  13  and  11,  in  Mr 
Bnsk^s  excellent  article,  Polyzoa,  in  The  Bngtish 
Cyclopcedia,  to  which,  as  also  to  that  gentleman*s 
CeUatogne  of  Marine  Polyzoa  in  the  BrOSh  Mueeum, 
and  to  Professor  Allman*s  *  Report  on  the  Fresh- 
water Polyzoa,*  published  in  the  Reports  of  the 
BriUeh  Association  for  1850,  the  reader  is  referred 
for  farther  information  regarding  this  remarkable 
class  of  animals. 

POMA'CEiE,  or  POME^  according  to  some 
botanists,  a  natural  order  of  plants,  but  more  eener- 
ally  regarded  as  a  suborder  of  Kosacejb  (q.  v.). 
The  plants  of  this  order  are  all  trees  or  shrubs, 
abunoant  in  Europe,  and  chiefly  belone  to  the 
temperate  and  colder  regions  of  the  JNorthem 
Hemisphere ;  they  are  rare  in  very  warm  climates, 
and  are  not  found  at  all  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 
They  have  the  botanical  characters  described  m  the 
article  Kosackje  (q.  v.),  and  in  addition  are  distin- 
gaished  by  having  the  tube  of  the  calyx  more  or 
less  globose,  the  ovary  fleshy  and  juicy,  fined  with  a 
thin  disc,  its  carpels  adhering  more  or  less  to  the 
sides  of  the  calyx  and  to  each  other;  the  fruit  a  Pome 
(q.  v.),  1 — 5-celled,  in  a  few  instances  spuriously 
10-ceIled ;  the  ovules  in  pairs,  collateral  Many  of 
the  species  are  prized  for  the  beauty  and  fragrance 
of  their  flowers,  some  produce  valuable  timber ;  but 
the  order  is  chiefly  remarkable  as  producing  a 
number  of  the  very  finest  fruits  of  temperate 
climates.  See  Apple,  Pear,  Qcincb,  Medlab, 
LoQUAT,  Hawthorn,  CRATiEGus,  Auelakchier, 
Rowan,  Service,  Pyracantha.— There  are  about 
200  known  species. 

POMA'DE,  or  POMATOM,  is  a  preparation  to 
be  used  instead  of  liquid  oil  for  the  hair.  It  consists 
of  a  fine  inodorous  fat,  such  as  lard  or  suet ;  but 
neither  of  these  are  quite  free  from  smell,  and  the 
most  careful  perfumers  render  them  so  by  a  peculiar 
process.  They  melt  them  in  a  steam-bath,  and  to 
every  i  of  cwt  add  1  os.  of  alum  and  2  ozs.  of  salt, 
continuing  the  action  of  the  heat  till  any  scum 
ceases  to  rise ;  the  scum  is  carefully  removed,  and 
the  fat  allowed  to  cool,  after  which  it  is  levigated 
with  cold  water  with  great  care  and  patience  until 
every  particle  has  been  acted  upon,  and  the  salt, 
Alum,  and  albuminous  matters  are  perfectly  washed 
out,  after  which  it  is  remelted  in  the  steam-bath, 
and  any  remaining  water  falls  to  the  bottom  :  when 
cold,  it  is  fit  for  use.  The  perfumer  then  takes 
portions  of  this  prepared  fat,  and  remelting  each 
separately,  adds  a  little  wax  or  spermaceti  to  give 
it  coDsistency,  and  perfumes  it  with  some  essence. 
The  varieties  of  pomades  are  as  numerous  as  the 
perfumed  essences.  Anciently,  they  were  made 
oy  boiling  over-ripe  apples  in  fat,  by  which  the 
peculiar  smell  of  the  fruit  was  communicated,  and 
this  originated  the  name^  which  is  derived  from 
pomum,  an  apple. 

POMBAL,  DoM  Sebastiao  Jose  db  Garvalho^ 
>Iarqui3  of,  the  greatest  of  all  Portuguese  states- 
men, and  one  of  the  ablest  men  of  his  time,  was  bom 
13th  May  1699,  at  the  castle  of  Soursi  near  Coim- 
bra^  His  father,  Manuel  de  Carvalho,  was  a  captain 
of  cavalry,  and  belonged  to  the  second  mae  of 
nobility.  After  studying  law  at  Coimbra,  and  serving 
A  short  time  in  the  army,  P.  was  banished  from 
lisbon  on  account  of  his  youthful  turbulence  of 
disposition,  and  retired  to  his  birthplace,  where 
he  devoted  himself  for  a  while  to  study.    Subse- 

Snently,  he  married  a  rich  widow,  Donna  Teresa  da 
_  foronha  Almada,  and  repaired  to  court    In  1739, 


he  was  appointed  envojr-extraordiBaiy  to  the  comi 
of  London  through  the  influence  of  his  uncle,  Paolo 
Carvalho,  a  iKNsition  which  he  held  for  six  years, 
after  which  ne  was  sent  to  Vienna  in  a  similar 
capacity.  Here  P.  (whose  first  wife  was  now  dead) 
espoused,  in  1749,  Leonora  Emestina,  Countess 
Daun,  niece  of  the  fiamous  Austrian  marshal  of  that 
name.  This  maniage  had  a  most  felicitous  influence 
on  his  future  career.  When  P.  returned  to  Por- 
tugal, the  Portuguese  queen,  who  was  an  Austrian 
pnncess,  conceived  a  great  attachment  to  his  wife ; 
and  when  her  son,  Joseph  L,  ascended  the  throne 
in  1750,  she  induced  him  to  appoint  P.  state  secre- 
tary for  foreign  affairs.  Lnmediately,  lus  splendid 
administrative  genius  burst  forth  like  a  sudden 
blaze  of  sunshine.  He  found  his  country  almost 
without  an  army,  without  a  fleet,  without  com- 
merce or  agriculture,  and  all  power  in  the  hands 
of  unscrupulous  Jesuits  and  grasping  nobles.  Among 
his  first  acts  was  to  re-attiM^  to  we  crown  a  ffreat 
number  of  donudns  that  had  been  unjustly  ^ien- 
ated.  Then  followed  the  re-organisation  of  the 
army,  the  introduction  of  fresh  colonists  into  the 
Portugiiese  settlements,  the  establishment  of  an 
East  Indian  Company,  and  another  for  Brasdl, 
where  he  introduced  the  cultivation  of  coffee, 
sugar,  cotton,  rice,  indigo,  and  cocoa.  In  virtue  of  a 
treaty  with  Spain,  signed  in  1753,  Paraguay  became 
an  appanage  of  the  rortuguese  crown,  and  it  was 
in  this  remote  region  that  F.  first  came  into  collision 
with  the  Jesuit^the  founders  of  the  Paraguay 
missions.  He  got  his  brother,  Francisco-Xavier  de 
Mendon^a,  appointed  captain-general  of  Paraguay, 
and  is  said  to  have  given  him  secret  instructions 
to  ruin  the  Jesuits  in  his  reports  to  the  kin^ 
When  the  great  earthquake  happened  at  Lisbon  m 
1755,  P.  displayed  an  almost  su|>erhuman  courage 
and  enei^,  m  consequence  of  which  the  king  raised 
him  to  the  rank  of  Count  of  CEyras,  and  in  the 
following  year  appointed  him  prime  minister.  He 
crushed  a  revolt  mstigated  by  the  great  nobles  and 
the  Jesuits,  the  latter  of  whom  he  now  removed 
from  the  person  of  the  sovereign,  deprived  of  the 
'power  of  the  confessional,  and  in  1757  confined  to 
their  colleges.  A  conspiracy  against  the  life  of  the 
king,  which  broke  out  did  September  1758,  but  failed, 
placed  his  enemies  completoly  in  his  power.  The 
leaders  were  punished  .with  appalling  severity. 
The  Duke  of  Aveiro  and  the  Marquis  of  Tavora 
were  broken  alive  on  the  wheel,  the  sons  and  the 
son-in-law  of  the  former  were  strangled,  and  the 
wife  of  the  marquis  was  beheaded.  The  Jesuits 
were  suspected  of  complicity  in  the  plot,  and  P. 
accused  them  to  the  pope;  and  when  the  latter 
would  not  allow  the  minister  to  proceed  against 
them  in  the  civil  courts,  he  daringly  caused  some 
to  be  executed  in  prison.  Father  Malagrida,  who 
had  prophesied  the  aeath  of  the  king,  was  delivered 
over  to  the  Inquisition  as  a  heretic,  and  condemned 
to  be  burned  alive ;  and  this  auto  da  ft  actually 
took  place  in  1761 1  But  P.  was  not  satistied.  He 
had  made  up  his  mind  that  the  very  presence  of 
the  Jesuits  in  Portogal  was  incom{)atibIe  with  the 
security  of  the  government  and  the  welfare  of  the 
nation,  and  by  a  royal  decree  of  3d  September  1759, 
they  were  banished  from  the  kingdom  as  rebels  and 
enemies  to  the  king.  When  they  refused  to  leave, 
P.  had  them  vioUmuy  removed  by  soldiers,  carried 
on  board  ships,  and  transported  to  the  States  of  the 
Church.  The  pope,  Clement  XIIL,  vehemently  pro- 
tested, whereupon  P.  caused  the  papal  nuncio  to  be 
shewn  across  the  frontier.  Shortly  after,  Clement 
XIIL  died,  and  was  succeeded  in  the  papal  see  by 
Clement  XIV. — no  friend  of  the  Jesuits,  in  conse- 
quence of  which  the  differences  between  Portugal 

and  the  Vatican  were  soon  made  up.     All  this 

669 


FOME-POMEBANIA. 


tune  P.  was  labouring  energetically  to  improve  the 

cultivation  of  the  land  and  the  gyrtem  of  education. 
In  1770,  he  wai  created  Marquia  of  P.,  and  from  tbia 
jwriod  to  the  death  of  the  king  in  1777,  be  waa  at 
the  very  heiD;ht  of  hia  greataeta.  The  aoceuion 
td  Joseph's  dauglit«r,  IlIaTia  L — an  enemy  of  the 
minister— woa  immediately  marked  by  hii  downfall. 
He  waa  deprived  of  hie  office*;  the  conapiratora 
whom  be  kept  in  prison  were  released ;  many  of 
his  institutions  were  abolished  i  and  he  himself 
was  only  saved  from  the  scaffold  because  he  held 
in  hia  possession  documentatj  proofs  of  the  former 
treason  of  his  now  triumphal  enemies.  Maria 
ordered  him  to  retire  to  hia  castle  of  Pombsl,  where 
he  died,  8th  May  1782.  The  peasantry  always 
spoke  of  him  as  'The  Great  Marquis,'  and  hiatory 
has  ataai|>ed  the  rustic  verdict  with  its  approvaL 
When  be  waa  tomoi  oat  of  Dffi<^  he  left  the  queen 
ft  pubbc  purse  containing  7S,OU0,0(Xf  orozados,  and  a 
well-ordered  and  flourishing  state. 

POME  (Lat.  pomum,  an  apple),  a  form  of  fruit  of 
which  examples  are  found  m  the  apple,  pear,  and 
other  fruits  of  the  Pomacfie;  and  in  which  the 
epicarp  and  laetocarp  (see  Fbcit)  form  a  thick  fleshy 
mass  ;  whilat  the  fndocnrp  is  scaly,  homy,  or  stony, 
and  divided  intu  aeparate  cells,  in  which  the  seeds 
are  enclosed.  The  fruit  is  crowned  with  remains  of 
the  calycine  sccmenta.  Pomes  have  1 — 6  cells,  or 
spuriously  10  cells. 

POMEGHA'NATB  {Pvniea  granatiim),  a  fruit 
much  cultivated  in  warm  countries,  and  apparently 
»  native  of  the  warmer  tenmerate  parts  of  Asia, 
perhaps  also  of  the  north  of^  Africa.  It  has  been 
cultivated  in  Asia  from  the  most  ancient  times,  and 
it  frequently  mentioned  io  the  Old  Testament.  It 
has  long  been  naturalised  in  the  south  of  Europe, 
In  a  wild  state,  the  plant  is  a  thorny  bush,  in 
cultivation  it  is  a  low  tree,  with  twiggy  branches, 
flowers  at  the  extremities  of  the  branches,  th'e  cnlyx 
red,  the  petals  scarlet.  It  is  generally  referred  to 
the  natural  order  MyrltKCie.  The  calyx  ia  leathery, 
tubular,  5— 7-cleft ;  there  are  6—7  crumpled  petals ; 


Section  of  a  Pom^ranate. 


I  large  orange,  with  a 


the  cells  tilled  with  namerona  aeeds,  each  of  which 
is  BUTTOnaded  with  putp,  and  separately  enclosed  in 
a  thin  membrane,  so  that  the  P.  appears  to  be 
formed  of  a  great  number  of  reddiah  berries  packed 
together  and  compressed  into  irregular  angular 
forma.  The  pulp  is  sweet,  sometimes  subacid,  and 
of  a  plea-sant  delicate  flavour,  very  oooling,  and 
particularly  grateful  in  warm  climates.  It  is  often 
used  for  the  preparation  of  coaling  drinks.  A  kind 
of  P.  wiljiout  seeds  is  cultivated  and  much  prized 
in  India  and  Persi.v  Pomegranates  have  long  been 
imported    in  small  quantities   into   Britain   from 


Portugal  and  the  north  of  Africa;  but  have  wnr 
Income  an  article  of  general  demand  and  cnmniendat 
importance  like  oranges.  There  ia  an  omamenUl 
variety  of  the  P.  with  double  flowers.  The  rind  at 
the  fruit  is  very  astringent,  and  a  decoction  is  DMd 
as  a  garde  in  relaxed  sore  throat,  and  aa  a  medicine 
in  diarrhoia,  dysentery,  &a.  Deriving  its  sstrii- 
gency  from  tannin,  it  is  naed  to  tan  leather.  The 
tinest  Morocco  leather  is  said  to  be  tanned  with  it, 
and  small  quantities  are  imported  into  Britain  from 
the  north  of  Africa  for  the  preparation  of  the  fluat 
kinds  of  leather,  under  the  name  of  Pomer/raiuU 
BurL—The  bark  of  the  roots  ia  used  as  an  anthd- 
mintic,  and  is  often  ancceasfuliy  admioistared  ia 
cosea  of  tape-worm.  Its  value  waa  knovm  to  tlw 
ancients,  and  it  baa  long  been  in  use  in  India,— 
The  P.  tree  is  occasionally  cultivated  in  hothouMs 
or  greenhouses  in  Britain.  It  bears  the  winters  of 
the  south  of  England  in  the  open  air,  and  is  vaj 
ornamental,  but  the  fruit  is  worthJesa.  In  some 
parte  of  the  south  of  Europe  it  is  used  as  a  hedje- 

POMEL,  a  boss  or  ball  used  aa 
the  lop  of  pointed  roof,  turret,  &c 

POMERA'NIA  (Oer.  Pommeni),  a  province  d( 
Frusua,  bounded  N.  by  the  Baltic,  E.  by  Wot 
Prussia,  S.  by  Brandenburg,  and  W.  by  the  Meck- 
lenbuT^  duchies.  Area,  12,111  square  miles.  Poiil 
(at  the  close  of  1861)  1,389,739-  P.  U  divided  into 
the  three  governmental  diatricta  of  Stettin,  Sttalsun^ 
and  Ciislio. 

This  province,  which  ia  one  of  the  lowest  anl 
flattest  in  Oermany,  and  has  few  hills  of  even 
moderate  height,  ia  intersected  by  the  Oder  (q.  v.), 
which  forma  numeroua  lakes  and  ponds,  the  largest 
of  which  ia  the  Dammer  Lake.  The  waters  of  this 
lake  and  of  the  Oder  are  then  carried  into  (he 
Stettiner  Haff,  from  which  three  outlets — those  tl 
the  Peene,  Swine,  and  Dievenow— lead  into  th« 
Baltic  Between  these  three  outlets  are  the  two 
islands  of  Usedom  and  WoUin.  After  the  Oder, 
the  chief  rivers  of  P.  are  the  Ihna,  l^ga,  Fersante, 
Wipper,  and  Stolpe.  The  shores  in  some  parts 
are  protected  by  dikes  and  sand-banks.  The  soil 
is  generally  sandy,  and  in  many  districts  even 
atony,  although  near  Fyritx  and  Stargard,  on  the 
Floen  and  Maduc  Lakes,  and  at  some  jioints  of  tb* 
aea-coast,  it  presents  a  tolerably  fruitful  cbaracCo', 
yielding  good  crops  of  wheat,  and  aflording  rich 
pasture.  About  half  of  the  whole  area  is  cultivated ; 
about  a  sixth  ia  uncultivated,  or  under  water ;  and 
the  remainder  is  in  pastures,  heath,  and  wood. 
The  chief  vegetable  products,  most  of  whidi 
are  grown  in  sufficient  quantitirs  to  be  larifely 
exported,  are— rye,  wheat  and  other  groin,  flax, 
hemp,  tobacco,  and  timber.  Among  the  other 
elports  of  P.  are  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  swine,  geese 
of  superior  quality,  feathers,  butter,  wool,  hans, 
sausages,  smoked  poultry,  &c.  The  atur^Kon  and 
salmon  fisheries  are  very  productive,  and  P.  is 
noted  for  its  admirable  fampreya,  eels,  and  cray- 
fish, which  are  largely  exported  in  a  pickled  itatk 
The  mineral  products,  which  are  inconaidecable, 
include  bog-iron,  lime,  marl,  alum,  salt,  ambs 
foimd  on  the  coaat  near  Stolpe,  and  peat— which 
latter  substance  is  obtained  in  enormous  quantities, 
and  eitenaively  naed  for  fuel,  notwithstanding  the 
abundant  supply  of  wood  yielded  by  the  extenairs 
and  productive  foreata. 

Linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  and  leather,  rank 
among  the  best  of  the  industrial  products  ;  bat 
the  manufactures  of  P,  are  not  of  much  importance. 
The  principal  bianchea  of  industry  are  agricullurs 
and  the  rearing  of  horses  and  cattle,  while  the 
actire  transport-trade  between   the    nuighbouhug 


POMMETTfiE^POMPADOUR. 


Pnusoan  states  and  the  Baltic  ports  constituteB  a 
yery  important  source  of  wealth  to  the  province. 
The  main  seat  of  Pomeranian  trade  is  at  Stettin 
(q.  v.),  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  important 
commercial  cities  of  Prussia. 

P.,  like  every  other  part  of  the  Prussian  dominions, 
is  well  provided  with  educational  institutions,  and, 
besides  the  university  at  Greifswald,  it  has  eight 
gymnasia,  several  normal  and  training  schools,  and 
nameroQs  classical  and  other  schools. 

P.  formed,  in  the  earliest  periods  of  its  history, 
a  part  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  Wends  or 
Vandals.  From  tiie  year  1062  it  had  its  own  ducal 
rolers,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  12th  c.  it  adopted 
Christianity  in  consequence  of  the  preaching  of 
Bishop  Otto  of  Bamberg.  Bogislaus  XIV.,  who 
died  m  1637,  was  the  last  male  representative  of 
the  Wendish  ducal  line ;  and,  on  his  death,  the 
House  of  Brandenburg  laid  chum  to  the  whole  of 
the  Pomeranian  territories,  in  conformity  with  a 
compact  w^hich  the  latter  family  asserted  to  have 
been  made  between  them  and  the  Wendish  dukes ; 
but  the  country  having  been  occrioied  by  the 
Swedes  during  the  Thuty  Years*  War,  Prussia 
was  obliged  to  content  itseH  with  the  possession 
of  Further  P.,  or  Hinterpommern^  which  was 
assigned  to  it  at  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  while 
Sweden  retained  the  remainder  of  F.,  with  the 
island  of  Kugen  (q.  v.).  After  the  death  of  Charles 
XIL,  and  the  subsequent  decline  of  the  Swedish 
power,  Prussia  was  able  to  make  good  her  asserted 
claims  6n  the  territory  of  P.  at  the  Peace  of  Stock- 
holm ;  and  in  1720  Sweden  was  compelled  to  cede 
Southern  P.  and  the  island  of  Rugen,  retaining 
only  a  narrow  strip  of  land  between  Mecklenburg 
and  the  Baltic,  which  was  also  incorporated  with 
Prussia  in  1815,  after  having  been  first  transferred 
by  Sweden  to  Denmark  as  part  indemnification 
for  the  separation  from  the  latter  kingdom  of 
Norway,  and  subsequently  ceded  to  Prussia  by 
the  Danes  in  exchange  for  the  duchy  of  Lauenburg, 
and  on  the  payment  of  24  million  thalers  to  the 
latter,  and  oi  3^  million  thalers  to  the  Swedish 
government. 

POMMETTEE,  or  POMEL   CROSS  in   Her- 

aldry,  a  cross  whose  extremities 
terminate  in  single  knobs  or 
pomels,  like  the  Bourdon  or 
pilgrim's  staff. 


POMO'LOGY  (Lat.  pomum,  a 
fruit  of  any  kind,  an  apple),  a 
term  much  employed  in  France 
and  Grermany,  and  to  a  smaller 
Pommett6e  Cross,    extent   in   Britain,  to  designate 

the  study  of  fruits  and  of  their 
cultivation,  particularly  those  of  the  natural  order 
Pomaeeoe  (q.  v.).   See  Fruit,  FRurr-GARDEN,  Apple, 

P£A.R,  &C. 

POMO'NA  (whose  name  is  obviously  connected 
with  pomum,  *  a  frtut ')  was,  among  the  Latins,  the 
patron  divinity  of  garden-produce.  The  poets,  not, 
perha^is,  without  some  allegorical  design,  represent 
several  of  the  rural  gods  as  her  lovers — Silvanus, 
Picus,  Vertumnus,  &c  Of  Vertumnus,  in  par- 
ticular, it  is  related  that  after  he  had  vainly  tried 
to  a])proach  her  under  a  thousand  different  forms, 
he  at  last  succeeded  by  assuming  the  figure  of  an 
old  woman.  In  this  guise,  he  recounted  to  her  the 
lamentable  histories  of  women  who  had  despised 
^ove,  and  having  touched  her  heart,  suddenly  trans- 
led  himself  mto  a  blooming  youth  and  married 
.   But  Vertumnus  (connected  with  verto^  *to  turn,' 

.-  *to  transform')  is  probably  nothing  more  than 
a  personification  of  those  changes  by  which  plants 
advance  from  blossom  to  fruit    The  worship  of  P., 


as  was  natural  among  a  hom^  race  of  farmers 
and  shepherds  like  the  ancient  Latins,  was  of  con- 
siderable importance.  Varro  tells  us  that  at  Rome 
her  services  were  under  the  care  of  a  special  priest^ 
the  flamen  PomoncUia.  In  works  of  art  she  wua 
generally  represented  with  fruits  in  her  lap,  or  in  a 
basket,  with  a  garland  of  fruits  in  her  hair,  and  a 
pruning-kmfe  in  her  right  hand. 

POMONA,  or  MAINLAND,  much  the  largest 
and  most  populous  of  the  Orkney  Islands  (q.  v.),  in 
which  group  it  occupies  a  central  position.  It  is 
open  to  the  Atlantic  on  the  west,  and  to  the  Grerman 
Ocean  on  the  east,  while  on  the  north  En  hallow  and 
Shapinsha  Sounds  separate  it  from  the  islands  of 
Ronsay  and  Shapinsha,  and  on  the  south,  Scapa  Flow 
separates  it  from  Hoy  and  South  Bonaldsha.  Area» 
150  square  miles  ;  population,  17,193.  It  is  25  miles 
in  length,  and  15  miles  in  extreme  breadth,  but  is 
very  irregalar  in  shape.  At  the  town  of  Kirkwall, 
the  breadth  of  the  island  is  only  about  two  miles. 
In  the  west,  the  shores  are  bold  and  elevated,  but 
there  is  a  ^neral  slope  towards  the  east.  The 
surface  is  diversified  with  hill  and  lake,  and  con- 
sists in  great  part  of  moor  and  heath.  Good  pas- 
tures are  founa,  however,  and  in  the  vallevs  there 
is  a  fertile,  loamy  soiL  Oats,  beans,  and  bere  are 
produced,  and  sheep  and  swine  are  extensively 
reared.  The  chief  towns  are  Kirkwall  (q.  v.)  and 
Stromness  (q.  v.). 

POMPADOUR  (Jeakkb  Antoinettb  Poiawn)^ 
Marquise  db,  a  notabld  mistress  of  Louis  XV.,  was 
born  in  Paris  in  1720  or  1722.  Her  reputed  father 
was  a  certain  Fran9ois  Poisson,  who  held  a  humble 
office  in  the  army-comndssariat ;  but  M.  le  Normand 
de  Tournheim,  a  rich  /ermier-g6niral,  claimed  for 
himsdf  the  honours  of  a  dubious  paternity,  and 
brought  up  the  little  Jeanne  as  his  daughter.  She 
turned  out  a  wonderfully  clever  child,  and  M  le 
Normand  spared  no  pains  to  give  her  the  best,  or, 
at  least,  the  most  stylish  education  possible.  She 
excelled  in  such  accomplishments  as  music,  elocution, 
and  drawing ;  but  what  charmed  the  brilliant  society 
that  frequented  the  salons  of  the  rich  financier,  was 
the  perfect  grace  and  beauty  of  her  figure,  and  the 
exquisite  art  with  which  she  dressed.  A  crowd  of 
suitors  constantly  besieged  her,  but  the  one  who 
obtained  her  hand  was  her  cousin,  Le  Normay 
rEtioles.  They  were  married  in  1741.  But 
Madame  PEtioles,  who  was  constantly  told  by 
her  infamous  mother  that  she  was  a  *  morsel  for  a 
king,*  was  careless  of  her  hus1>and^s  honour  and 
peace.  Thouj^h  he  loved  her  to  distraction  —and  he 
was  a  man  with  whose  love  any  woman  might  have 
been  content — she,  cold,  heartless,  and  ambitious, 
was  scheming  day  and  night  to  attract  the  notice 
of  the  monarch.  Her  efforts  were  after  a  time 
crowned  with  success,  and  Madame  d'Etioles  was 
installed  in  the  palace  of  Versailles ;  she  was  soon 
afterwards  ennobled  by  the  title  of  Marquise  de 
P.,  and  long  ruled  the  king,  first  as  mistress,  and 
afterwards  as  arnie  nicessaire.  One  reads  with  some 
astonishment  of  the  incessant  artifices  she  had 
recourse  to  in  order  to  preserve  her  influence — the 
everlasting  huntings,  concerts,  private  theatricals, 
little  suppers,  and  what  not — anything  to  distract 
the  royal  mind  (surely  sufficiently  distracted  already 
by  nature),  and  to  make  it  think  only  of  the  clever 
purveyor  of  gaieties!  The  private  theatricals,  in 
particular,  were  a  great  success,  and  were  '  got  up ' 
every  winter  from  1747  to  1753— the  marquise  her- 
self proving  a  charming  actress.  The  king  thought 
the  marquise  extremely  clever,  and,  when  he  ceased  to 
*  love  *  her,  was  j?lad  to  avail  himself  of  her  service* 
as  his  political  adviser.  In  fact,  she  became  premier 
of   France;   the  council   of   ministers   assembled 


FOMPEII->POMPEY  THB  OREiLX. 


in  her  boudoir,  where  the  moet  important  affairs 
of  state  were  settled.  The  choice  ot  ministers,  of 
ambassadors,  of  generals,  depended  on  the  caprice 
or  a  female ;  the  Abb6  de  Bemis,  the  favourite  of  a 
favourite,  entered  the  council.  Foreim  diplomacy 
turned  the  circumstance  to  account  The  Austrian 
prime-minister  induced  Maria  Theresa  to  sacrifice 
her  pride  to  the  exigencies  of  her  position,  and  the 
empress-queen  wrote  the  courtesan  a  letter  in  which 
she  addressed  her  as  ma  eoitsine.  That  word  turned 
the  head  of  the  marquise,  and  changed  for  a  time 
the  foreign  policy  of  France.  She  died  (15th  April 
1764)  with  the  reins  of  government  in  her  hands. 
During  her  life-time,  immense  sums  from  the 
national  treasury  were  paid  away  to  the  man^uise, 
and  to  her  brother,  created  Marquis  de  Mansny. 
In  the  years  1762 — 1763  alone,  they  amounted  to 
3,456,000  livres.  She  had  numerous  houses  and 
lands  also  given  her.  In  1853,  M.  le  Roi,  keeper 
of  the  town-library  of  Versailles,  published  in  the 
Jourfial  de  r Instruction  Publiqut,  a  list  of  the 
expenses  of  the  Marquise  de  P.  during  the  years  in 
which  she  had  enjoyed  the  royal  favour,  which  he 
had  found  in  MS.  in  the  archives  of  the  department 
of  Seine-et-Oise.  The^  amounted  to  36,000,000 
livres.  She  was  imperious  and  vindictive  beyond 
measure,  and  with  relentless  cruelty  doomed  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  in  the  dungeons  of  the 
Bastile  and  elsewhere,  multitudes  wholiad  dared  to 
■peak  about  her  ill*gotten  gains  and  power.  After 
facts  like  these,  it  is  but  a  poor  apolosy  for  the 
marquise  to  say  that  she  encouraged  savans, 
poets,  and  philosophers,  patronised  and  protected 
the  Enryclop6die^  and  aided  in  the  ezimlsion  of  the 
Jesuits.  The  Memoires  and  LeUres  published  under 
her  name  are  spurious. 

POMPE'II,  a  city  of  Campania,  was  built  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Sarnus  [6arno),  looking  out  on 
the  Bay  of  Naples.  It  stood  at  the  base  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  between  Herculaneum  and  StabisB.  Of 
its  eariy  history  little  is  known  (legend  ascribed 
its  foundation  to  Hercules) ;  but  in  more  recent 
times  it  became  a  favourite  resort  for  wealthy 
Romans,  many  of  whom,  including  Cicero,  had 
villas  in  the  suburbs.  It  must  have  been  at  one 
time  a  place  of  considerable  trade,  since  it  was  the 
port-town  of  Nola  and  other  inland  cities  which 
studded  the  fertile  vallev  of  the  Sarnus.  The  citv 
was  much  damaged  by  an  earthquake  which 
happened  on  the  5th  February  63  A.D.,  and  not 
many  years  had  revolved  when  the  great  and  final 
calamity  overtook  ^it.  In  79  A.D.  occurred  that 
terrific  eruption  of  Vesuvius  which,  in  one  day, 
overwhelmed  in  irremediable  ruin  the  towns  of 
P.,  Hercuhinenm,  and  Stabiao.  In  course  of  time 
a  small  village  rose  at  or  near  the  spot ;  but 
by  and  by  the  memory  of  P.  was  forgotten,  and 
for  centuries  its  very  site  was  unknown.  The 
difficulty  of  discovering  its  true  position  was 
increased  in  consequence  of  the  changes  produced 
by  this  fearful  convulsion,  which  had  hurled  back 
tne  Sarnus  from  his  ancient  course,  and  raised  the 
sea-beach  to  a  considerable  height,  so  that  the  re- 
discovered city,  to  which  mercl^ntmen  resorted  of 
old,  is  now  a  mile  from  the  coast,  and  a  consider- 
able  distance  from  the  stream  that  in  ancient 
times  was  wont  to  skirt  its  walls.  For  more  than 
sixteen  hundred  years,  P.  lay  undisturbed  beneath 
heaps  of  ashes  and  cinders.  At  lenn;th,  in  1689,  some 
ruins  were  noticed,  but  it  was  not  till  1755  that  any 
excavations  were  made.  These  operations,  begun  by 
the  Neapolitan  government,  have  been  continued  till 
the  present  time  (and  recently  with  increased  energy), 
and  have  been  exceedingly  productive  of  objects 
which  interest  the  antiquarian  and  the  classical 
sci>blar.  The  remains  found  are  in  a  remarkably 
668 


good  state  of  pissoivatiop,  owing  to  the  faot  thsi 
the  city  was  destroyed  not  by  lava,  bat  by  dboweit 
of  sand,  ashes,  and  cinders  {lapUli),  forming  a  li^ 
covering,  whioh  found  its  way  into  every  nook,  and, 
as  it  were,  hermetically  sealed  np  the  town,  it 
would  appear  that  in  some  parts  at  least  the  matter 
was  deposited  in  a  liquid  state,  and  so  flowed  into 
the  remotest  cellars  of  the  doomed  habitationa  The 
immense  volumes  of  water  which  poured  down, 
mixed  with  the  ashes  that  had  already  fallen  and 
with  those  that  were  still  suspended  in  the  air,  sad 
formed  a  kind  of  liouid  mno.  This  is  proved  by 
the  discovery  of  the  skeleton  of  a  woman  in  a  cdlar, 
'enclosed  in  a  mould  of  .volcanic  paste,  which 
received  and  has  retained  a  perfect  uipreasion  of 
her  form.'  The  depth  of  the  superincumbent 
rubbish  is  in  most  places  about  15  teet,  but  this 
mass  has  not  been  heaped  up  at  one  eruption.  Hiat 
it  is  the  work  of  many  eruptions  is  proved  by  the 
facts :  (1)  That  as  many  as  eight  or  nine  difierent 
layers  have  been  distinctly  counted ;  and  (2)  llist^ 
while  the  upper  layers  are  undisturbed,  the  lower 
one  has  evidently  been  moved.  Comparatively  few 
skeletons  have  been  found,  and  almost  no  objects  of 
great  intrinsic  value,  such  as  gold  and  silver  plate, 
which  seems  to  shew  that  the  great  body  of  the 
population  had  found  time  to  escape,  and  had 
returned  to  seek  and  to  bury  their  lost  ^ends,  and 
to  recover  whatever  treasures  could  be  found.  In 
the  autumn  of  1864^  in  excavating  a  temple  of 
Juno,  upwards  of  two  hundred  skeletons  were 
found  lying  on  the  floor,  the  victims  having  evidently 
gone  thither  to  seek  the  protection  of  the  godden. 
The  plan  of  P.  seems  to  have  been  r^nlar, 
the  streets  (the  broadest  of  which  yet  diaoovered 
is  only  30  feet)  crossing  one  another  at  riffht 
angles.  The  houses  were  plain  and  low,  bemg 
seldom  more  than  two  stories  high,  and  had  afi 
their  good  apartments  on  the  ground-floor.  The 
city  was  about  two  miles  in  dicumf  erenoe,  and  wss 
suiTounded  by  a  walL  It  would  be  impoesible  in 
our  brief  space  to  attempt  even  an  enumeration  of 
the  objects  discovered  in  this  now  famous  city,  or 
to  detail  the  valuable  results  which  haye  flowed 
from  the  work  of  excavation.  Suffice  it  to  say  that 
in  all  the  departments  of  social  life— in  the  affiurs  of 
domestic  and  of  public  life,  of  the  worship  of  tiie 
gods,  and  the  shows  of  the  arena — in  architecture, 
painting,  and  sculpture— in  line,  in  all  the  apph- 
ances  <3  comfort  and  of  luxury  in  a  wealthy  com* 
munity,  we  have,  as  it  were,  a  living  picture  of  a 
city  1800  years  ago.  The  reader  who  wishes  fuller 
information  should  consult  Mazois'  work,  Z^es  Raines 
de  Pompeii  (Paris,  1812—1838)  ;  Breton's  Pompaa 
(Paris,  1855);  Overbeek's  work  (Leipzig  1856); 
Sir  W,  Cell's  well-known  Pompeiana  (4  vols.  1S24-- 
1830) ;  and  Pomneii  (2  vols.  1831)  in  the  series  of 
the  Society  for  tne  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge. 
For  a  popular  account  of  the  present  state  of 
P.,  we  may  refer  to  Something  of  Italff^  by  W. 
Chambers,  186SL 

POMPELMOO'SE,  or  POMELO  {Citnu  pom- 
pdmoos)t  a  fruit  nearly  resembling  the  Shaddock 
(q.  v.),  of  which,  perhaps,  it  ought  to  be  esteemed  a 
varidiy,  although  it  is  now  distinguished  by  some 
botanists  as  a  separate  species.  It  is  large  and  pale 
yellow.  It  has  long  been  cultivated  in  the  East 
Indies,  and  has  recently  been  introduced  into  many 
warm  countries.  It  has  become  an  article  of  impor- 
tation into  Britain,  and  is  frequently  to  be  seen  in 
fruit-shops.  In  pleasantness  of  taste,  it  res^nblet 
the  best  oranges.  It  is  often  preserved  with  wine 
and  sugar,  when  it  is  very  agreeable  and  refreahing 
in  a  hot  climate.    The  rind  is  often  candied. 

PO'MPET  THE  GREAT.     Gneina  Pompem 


POMPEY  THE  OREAT-^POBffPEY'S  PILLAR. 


Magnus,  son  of  On.  Pompeius  Strabo,  was  bom  in 
106  B.a  At  the  early  age  of  17  be  began  to  learn 
the  military  art  under  his  fiather  by  service  in  the 
field  against  the  Italians  in  the  Sociid  War.  Though 
80  young,  he  gave  proof  of  extraordinary  valour, 
and  of  remarkable  energy  of  character.  On  the 
death  of  his  father  in  87  B.C.,  when  he  was  only  19 
years  of  age,  he  was  left  without  a  protector,  and 
during  the  temporary  triumph  of  the  Marian  party, 
he  was  for  some  time  in  considerable  danger.  When 
Bulla,  to  whose  side  he  was  attached,  returned  from 
Greece  to  Italy  to  oppose  Marios,  P.  hastened  into 
Picenum,  where  he  bad  considerable  estates  and 
influence,  and  there  raised  an  army  of  three  l^ons, 
with  which  he  successfully  opposed  the  forces  of  the 
Marian  party,  compelling  them  to  quit  the  district, 
and  effecting  a  junction  with  Sulla.  During  the 
rest  of  the  war  he  behaved  with  ereat  prudence  and 
valour,  and  with  such  remarkable  success,  that»  on 
the  restoration  of  peace  in  Italy,  the  conduct  of  the 
war  against  the  remains  of  the  Marian  faction  in 
Africa  and  Sicily  was  intrusted  to  him.    He  speedily 

S^rformed  his  commission,  and  on  his  return  to 
ome  was  honoured  with  the  name  of  Maonub  (ie., 
*  The  Great '),  and  with  a  triumph,  which,  for  one  who 
liad  not  yet  held  any  public  office,  and  was  merelj 
an  equfs,  was  an  unprecedented  distinction.  His 
next  exploits  were  the  reduction  of  the  followers 
of  Lepidus,  whom  he  drove  out  of  Italy,  and  tiie 
extinction  of  the  Marian  party  in  Spain,  led  on  by 
the  brave  Sertorius.  This  latter  work  was  one  of 
no  small  difficulty.  P.  suffered  some  severe  defeats 
at  the  hands  of  Sertorius,  and  it  was  only  after 
Sertorius  had  been  assassinated  that  he  was  abto  to 
put  an  end  to  the  war.  In  returning  to  Italy  after 
an  absence  of  five  or  six  years  in  Spain,  he  feU  in 
with  and  defeated  the  remnants  of  the  army  of 
Spartacus,  and  thus  claimed  the  credit  of  concluding 
the  Servile  War.  He  was  now  the  idol  of  the 
people,  and  though  legally  ineligible  to  the  consul- 
ship, was  elected  to  tliat  important  office  for  ^e 
year  70,  the  senate  relieving  him  of  his  disabilities 
rather  than  provoke  him  to  extremities.  Hitherto 
P.  had  belonged  to  the  aristocratic  party,  but  as  he 
had  of  late  years  been  looked  upon  wiw  suspicion 
by  some  of  the  leading  men,  he  publicly  espoused 
the  people's  cause.  He  carried  a  law  restoring  the 
tribunician  power  to  the  people ;  and  aided  largely 
in  introducing  the  bill  oi  Aurelius  Ootta  (Lex 
Aurelia),  that  the  Judicea  should  for  the  future  be 
taken  &t>m  the  aenate,  the  equitesj  and  the  tribuni 
aerarHy  instead  of  from  the  senate  alone.  In  67 — 66 
B.a,  P.  performed  a  noble  service  to  the  republic 
in  clenrmg  the  Mediterranean  of  the  pirates  who 
infested  it  in  immense  numbers;  and  during  the 
next  four  years,  65 — 62,  he  conquered  Mithridates, 
kin^  of  Pontus,  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia,  and 
Antiochua,  kins  of  Syria.  At  the  same  time  he 
•abdued  the  Jewish  nation,  and  captured  Jeru- 
salem. On  his  return  to  Italy  he  disbanded 
bis  army,  and  entered  Rome  in  triumph  for  ^he 
third  time  in  61  B.c.  And  now  his  star  beffan  to 
dim.  Henceforward  we  find  him  distrusted  by  the 
aristocracy,  and  second  to  Cesar  in  popular  favour. 
After  his  return,  he  was  anxious  tnat  his  acts  in 
Asia  should  be  ratified  by  the  senate,  and  certain 
lands  apportioned  among  his  veteran  soldiers.  But 
the  senate  declined  to  accede  to  his  wish,  and  he 
therefore  formed  a  close  intimacy  with  Csesar,  who 
promised  to  secure  for  him  the  accomplishment  of 
nis  objects,  if  he  in  turn  would  assist  Caesar  in  the 
attainment  of  hia  aims.  Orassus,  who  possessed 
enormous  wealth,  and  who  in  consequence  exercised 
a  wide  influence  at  Rome,  was  induced  to  forego 
his  grudge  to  P.,  and  thus  these  three  men  formeid 
among  themtelves  that  coalition  which  is  oommonly 


called  'the  First  Triumvirate,'  and  which  for  a 
time  frustrated  all  the  efforts  of  the  aristocratic 
party.  This  small  oligaichy  earned  all  before  them ; 
I^.'s  acts  in  Asia  were  ratified ;  Ccesar^s  designs  were 
all  gained;  his  agrarian  law,  distributing  land  in 
Campania  among  the  poorer  citizens  was  passed, 
and  thus^  too,  P.'s  promises  to  his  troops  were 
fulfilled.  Caesar^s  daughter,  Julia,  was  given  in 
marriage  to  P.,  and  private  relationship  was  thus 
made  to  bind  tighter  the  tie  of  political  interest 
And  now,  for  some  years  following,  Csesar  was 
reaping  laurels  in  Gaul,  and  rising  higher  in  popular 
esteem  as  a  warrior  and  statesman,  while  P.  was 
idly  wasting  his  time  and  his  energies  at  Rome. 
But  P.  could  not  bear  a  rival  Jealousies  sprang 
up;  Julia  died  in  54  B.a,  and  thus  father-in-law 
and  son-in-law  were  sundered  by  a  yet  wider  ffulf, 
which  no  bridge  could  span.  P.  now  returned  to 
his  fonner  friends,  the  aristocracy,  whose  great 
desire  was  to  check  Oiesai^s  views,  and  strip  bun  oi 
his  command.  CsBsar  was  ordered  to  lay  down  his 
office  and  retnm  to  Rome,  which  he  consented  to  do, 

Srovided  P.,  who  had  an  army  near  Rome,  would 
o  the  same.  The  senate  insisted  on  an  uncon- 
ditional resignation,  and  ordered  him  to  disband 
his  army  by  a  certain  day,  otherwise  he  would  be 
declarea  a  public  enemy.  To  this  resolution  two 
of  the  tribunes  in  vain  objected ;  tiiey  therefore  left 
the  city  and  cast  themselves  on  Casar  for  protection. 
It  was  on  this  memorable  occasion  that  he  crossed 
the  Rubicon,  and  thus  defied  the  senate  and  its 
armies,  which  were  under  P.'s  command.  The 
events  of  the  civil  war  which  followed  have  been 
recorded  in  the  life  of  Cnsar  (q.  v.).  It  remains 
only  to  mention,  that  after  being  finally  defeated  at 
Pharsalia  in  48  B.a,  P.  escapea  to  £gypt»  where^ 
according  to  the  order  of  the  kind's  ministers,  he 
was  treiM)herously  murdered  by  a  rormer  centurion 
of  his  own,  as  he  was  landing  from  the  boat.  His 
head  was  cut  off,  and  afterwards  presented  to  Ctssar 
on  his  arrival  in  Egvpt.  But  Csssar  was  too 
magnanimous  to  del^t  in  such  a  sight  The 
murderer  of  P.  was,  by  his  orders,  put  to  death. 
The  body  lay  on  the  beach  for  some  time,  but  was 
at  lengui  buried  by  a  freedman,  Philippus,  who 
had  accompanied  his  master  to  the  shore. 

POMPET*S  PILLAR.  The  name  of  a  oele- 
brated  column  standing  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
Alexandria.  It  stands  upon  an  eminence  about 
1800  feet  south  of  the  waUs.  It  is  a  monolith  of 
red  granite,  and  of  the  Corinthian  order,  and  stands 
upon  a  pedestal.  Its  total  height  is  98  feet  9  inches ; 
shafts  73  feet ;  29  feet  8  inches  in  circumference. 
The  shaft  is  well  executed.  On  the  summit  is  a 
circular  depression  for  the  base  of  a  statue,  which 
in  some  ola  drawmgs  is  represented  standing  on 
it  The  name  popumrly  applied  to  it  of  Pompey's 
pillar  is  an  erroneous  appellation  given  by  ancient 
travellers,  who  confess  tbe^  do  not  know  whence  it 
was  derived,  and  still  retamed.  The  inscription  on 
the  base,  however,  shews  that  it  was  erected  by 
Publius,  prefect  of  Egypt,  in  honour  of  the  Emperor 
Diocletian,  who  is  styled  upon  it  'the  invincible;' 
and  it  is  supposed  to  record  the  conquest  of 
Alexandria  bv  Diocletian,  296  A.D.,  and  the  suppres* 
sion  of  the  rebellion  of  the  pretender  Acbilleus.  It 
appears  to  have  been  in  the  vicinity  of  a  circus,  forum, 
or  gymnasium.  The  obelisk  stood  upon  some  fiag- 
ments  of  Egyptian  monuments  of  remote  antiquily, 
consisting  (3  a  piece  with  the  name  of  a  monarch  of 
the  Idth  E^^ptian  dynasty,  and  another  with  that 
of  PsammitichUB  L,  the  former  of  which  is  now  in 
the  British  Museum.->Wilkinson's  Modem  JSgjmtf 
L  pi  149  and  foil ;  White,  jEguptiaca,  p.  1,  and  foU.; 
ChampoUion-Figeao,  L*JSgiaie,  p.  472;  Norden»  L 
P.22L 


/ 


PONCE  DB  LEON— PONDICHERRY. 


PONCE  DE  LEON,  Fray  Luis,  a  celebrated 
Spanifih  {)oet,  was  born  in  1527,  probably  at 
Granada.  In  1544  he  entered  the  order  of  St 
Augustine  at  Salamanca,  where  he  studied,  took 
his  degree  in  theolo^  in  1560,  and  was  appointed 
professor  of  the  same  in  1561.  The  reputation  that 
tie  acquired  as  a  learned  commentator  on  the  Bible 
induced  some  persons,  who  were  envious  of  his 
success,  to  accuse  him  of  having  disregarded  the 
prohibition  of  the  church,  inasmuch  as,  at  the 
request  of  a  friend,  he  made  a  new  translation  of 
the  Song  of  Solomon,  and  brought  out  prominently, 
in  bis  arrangement  of  the  verses,  the  true  character 
of  the  original— viz.,  that  of  a  pastoral  eclogua 
This  interpretation  was  not  that  adopted  by  the 
Catholic  Church,  and  P.  was  summoned,  in  1572, 
before  the  formidable  tribunal  of  the  Inquisition  at 
Valladolid  to  answer  the  charges  of  Lntheranism, 
and  of  translating  the  sacred  writings  contrary  to 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent.  The  first  accu- 
sation he  (quickly  disposed  of — for  he  had  in  reality 
no  inclination  to  a  foreign  Protestantism ;  but  the 
second  was  undoubtedly  true,  and  P.  was  imprisoned. 
After  five  years  he  was  released  through  the  inter- 
vention of  powerful  friends,  and  was  even  rein- 
stated  in  his  chair  at  the  university  with  the 
greatest  marks  of  respect.  The  numerous  auditory 
that  assembled  to  witness  the  resumption  of  his 
lectures,  were  electrified  when  P.  began  with  these 
simple  words:  *As  we  observed  in  our  last  dis- 
course * — thus  sublimely  ignoring  the  cause  and  the 
duration  of  his  long  absence  from  his  lecture-room. 
In  1580,  P.  published  a  Latin  commentary  on  the 
Song  of  Solomon,  in  which  he  explained  the  noem 
directly,  symbolically,  and  mystically;  and,  there- 
fore, as  obscurely,  says  Mr  Ticknor,  *  as  the  most 
orthodox  could  wish.'  P.  lived  14  years  after  his 
restoration  to  liberty,  but  his  terror  of  the  Inquisi- 
tion never  quite  left  him,  and  he  was  very  cautious 
in  regard  to  what  he  gave  to  the  world  during  his 
lifetime.  He  died  in  1591.  P.*s  poetical  reputation 
was  wholly  posthumous,  for  though  his  De  loa 
Nomhros  de  Christo  (on  the  Names  of  Christ),  (Sala- 
manca, 1583—1585),  and  La  Perfecta  Casada  (The 
Perfect  Wife),  (Salamanca,  1583),  are  full  of  imageiy, 
eloquence,  and  enthusiasm,  yet  they  are  in  prose. 
His  poetical  remains  were  first  published  by  Quevedo 
at  Madrid  in  1631,  under  the  title,  Obrcu  Proprias^ 
y  Traduciones  Latinos,  Ortegas  y  Italianas :  con  la 
Paraphrasi  de  Algunos  Salmos  y  CapUtUos  de  Job, 
and  have  since  been  often  reprinted.  These  consist 
of  translations  from  VirgiVs  Eclogues  and  the 
Oeorgics;  from  the  Odes  of  Horace,  and  other 
classical  authors,  and  from  the  Psalms.  His  original 
poems  are  few,  but  they  are  considered  among  the 
most  precious  in  the  author's  language,  and  nave 
given  P.  a  foremost  place  among  the  Spanish  lyrists. 
According  to  Ticknor :  *  Luis  de  lAon  had  the  soul 
of  a  Hebrew,  and  his  enthusiasm  was  almost  always 
kindled  by  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament. 
Nevertheless,  he  preserved  unaltered  the  national 
character.  His  best  compositions  are  odes  composed 
in  the  old  Castilian  versification,  with  a  classic 
purity  and  a  vigorous  finish  that  Spanish  poetrv 
nad  never  till  then  known,  and  to  which  it  has  with 
difiiculty  attained  since.'  See  Nicolas  Antonio, 
Bibliotheca  Hispana  Nova;  Ticknor,  History  of 
Spanish  Literature;  and  ViUemain,  Essais  sur  la 
PoSsie  Lyrique, 

PONCHO,  an  important  article  of  male  attire  in 
Chili.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  5 — 7 
feet  long,  3—4  feet  broad,  having  in  the  middle  a 
slit  through  which  the  wearer  passes  his  head,  so 
that  the  poncho  rests  upon  the  shoulders  and  hangs 
down  before  and  behind.  In  the  fashions  of  recent 
times,  the  poncho  has  been  introduced  in  Europe. 

671 


PONBICHE'RRT,  the  chief  of  the  French  settle- 
ments in  India,  situated  in  the  district  of  South 
Arcot,  in  the  Madras  Presidency.  The  other  French 
establishments  are  Midi6  in  Malabar,  Karikal  (q.  ▼.) 
in  Tanjore,  Yanum  in  Godavori,  and  Chandemagore 
(q.  V.)  in  Bengal  The  extent  of  the  anited  terri- 
tories is  given  by  M.  Block  at  188  square  miles. 
P.  is  situated  on  the  Coromandd  Coast  in  11**  56'  d 
N.  lat.,  and  79"  52'  of  £.  long.,  and  is  98  miles  from 
Madras.  The  territory  of  JP.  is  divided  into  thiee 
districts— Pondicherry,  Vellenore,  and  Bahour— has 
an  area  of  107  square  miles,  and  comprises  92 
villages.  The  total  population  of  the  French 
establishments  in  India  m  1840  was  reckoned  at 
171,217;  in  1863,  it  amounted  to  221,507.  The 
population  of  the  town  of  P.  in  1854,  was  96,716, 
or  1641  Europeans  and  95,075  natives.  The 
governor  of  P.  is  the  ^vemor-general  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India ;  his  income  is  40,000 
francs  a  year.  The  salaries  of  the  ehrfs  du  servient 
of  the  other  establishments  are  as  follows :  Chan- 
demagore,  16,000  francs;  Karikal,  10,000  francs; 
Yanum,  8000  francs ;  Mah§,  8000  francs  per  annum. 
The  governor  of  P.  has  a  council  consisting  of  iha 
ordonncUeur,  the  proviseur-gSniral,  and  uie  con- 
trdlsur  colonial.  The  French  army  in  India  oonasti 
of  two  companies  attached  to  the  1st  marine 
regiment  of  infantry,  consisting  of  276  men,  com- 
manded by  six  European  officers.  The  spinning  of 
cotton  and  the  fabrication  of  cotton-thread  are  the 
chief  manufactures  in  the  French  establishments. 

History, — ^The  first  settlement  of  the  French  in 
India  was  at  Surat,  in  1668.  The  chief  of  the 
French  East  India  Company  at  that  time  was  Caroa 
Subsequently,  he  took  Trincomalee  from  the  Dutch; 
but  they  were  not  long  in  repossessing  themselves 
of  it.  Uarou  then  turned  to  tne  Coromandel  coast 
In  1672^  he  took  from  the  Dutch  St  Thom6,  a 
Portuguese  town  (now  a  suburb  of  Madras) ;  but 
two  years  later,  the  Dutch  retook  this  place  abo. 
It  was  then  that  Francois  Martin  collected  about 
60  Frenchmen  and  settled  them  in  P.,  which,  in 
1674,  he  had  purchased,  with  the  surrounding 
territory,  from  Giugee,  who  had  the  supervision  of 
all  Sivaje's  conquests  in  the  country.  The  Dutch 
took  the  town  in  1693 ;  but  by  the  treaty  of 
Ryswick  it  was  restored  to  the  French  in  1697. 
Chandemagore  was  ceded  to  the  French  in  1688  by 
Aunmgzebe.  In  1727,  they  obtained  the  cession 
of  Mah^ ;  in  1739,  they  purchased  Karikal  from  the 
king  of  Tanjore ;  and  in  1752,  Yanum  was  ceded  to 
them.  Dupleix  was  governor  of  P.  when  war  broke 
out  between  France  and  England;  and  in  1746 
La  Bourdonnais  took  Madras.  In  1748,  Admiral 
Boscawen  besieged  P.,  but  two  months  later,  was 
compelled  to  raise  the  si^e.  In  the  same  year 
occurred  the  peace  of  Aix  Uk  Chapelle ;  but  it  did 
not  put  an  end  to  hostilities  in  India  till  some  time 
later.  .  In  1757,  war  recommenced.  In  1758i,  Count 
de  Lally  became  governor-general,  and  attacked 
th^  English  settlement  of  Fort  St  David,  which 
surrendered,  and  was  totally  destroyed.  In  1761, 
Eyre  Coote  took  Pondicherry.  By  the  peace  of 
Paris,  P.  was  restored  to  the  French  in  1763  with 
reduc^  territory,  and  also  Mah6,  Karikal,  and 
Chandemagore.  P.  was  a^ain  taken  bv  the  EInelish 
under  Sir  Hector  Monro  m  1778,  and  restorra.  in 
1783.  In  1793,  the  English  again  repossessed  them- 
selves of  it,  but  the  treaty  of  Amiens  in  1802  again 
restored  it,  but  only  till  the  f ollowins  year.  From 
this  time  it  was  held  by  the  EngliSi  tiU,  by  the 
treaties  of  1814  and  1815,  it  was  for  the  last  time 
restored  to  France,  reduced  to  the  narrow  limits 
assigned  by  the  treaty  of  1783. 

Annexed  is  a  statement  exhibiting  some*  pu^ 
ticulars  relative  to  suoh  of  the  present  Fnjidi 


PONDWEED-PONIATOWSKL 


poaannoiu  in  India  inbordinate  to  P.  m  are  not 
coticed  aepamtely  in  this  work. 

Yandh,  in  the  Godavari  Dietrict,  in  16°  43"  N. 
Ub,  uid  83°  ir  16"  Vi  long.,  about  24  miiea  eouth 
of  RajahmuDdiy.      The  are*  ia  about  13  aqnare 

MahL  in  the  Mnlabar  District,  in  10*  42*  N.  lat. 
and  75°  38'  16"  £.  long.  The  area  ia  only  about  2^ 
iquare  miles. 

PONDWEED  {PoUtmoglUM),  a  genus  of  plants 
of  the  natural  order  Naiaaa,  having  hermaphrodite 
tlower«,  sessile  upon  a  apika  or  ipacui,  vhicb  issues 
from  a  sheathing  bract  or  spathe,  a  perianth  of 
four  scales,  four  seseile  anthers  opposite  to  the 
(caleB  of  the  perianth,  four  pistils,  which  become 
ffur  small  nute,  and  a  curved  embryo.  The  species 
sl>»iind  chiefly  in  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  ditches  of 
Britain  and  continental  Europe,  but  they  are  found 


a,  cipudrd  flower  (magnllW). 

also  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  tome  of  them 
in  New  Holland.  They  often  present  a  beautiful 
appearance  in  clear  streams  and  ponds,  where  they 
protect  the  spawn  of  iish  and  harbour  aquatic 
loaects,  their  seeds  also  affording  food  to  aquatic 
birds.  The  roots  are  a  favourite  food  of  swans. 
Some  of  the  species  have  the  leaves  all  submersed. 


PONGO  (Simio  or  FiUieeut  iFonabU),  an  ape  of 
the  same  genus  with  the  Orang  (q.  T.),  but  of  much 
larger  size,  six  feet  or  more  from  the  heel  to  the 
crown  of  the  head,  and  covered  with  black  hair, 
with  which  dark  red  hair  is  mingled.  It  is  a  native 
of  Borneo,  Sumatra,  and  probably  of  other  neigh- 
bouring islands,  inhabiting  the  deepest  recesses  of 
the  forests,  and  much  more  rarely  seen  by  man 
than  its  congener  the  orang,  which  was  at  one  time 
supposed  by  the  moat  eminent  naturalists  to  be  the 
same  auecies  in  a  younger  state.  It  is  sometimes 
called  the  Black  Oraus.  It  hot  a  very  prominent 
muzzle,  »  large  mouth,  the  face  nearly  naked, 
except  the  lower  part,  which  has  a  beard.  Little  ia 
yet  knowa  of  the  habits  of  the  poogo.  It  is  believed 
to  fe«d  chiefly  on  fruita.  It  poasesaea  neat  strength, 
and  like  the  oiang,  ia  mndently  adapted  by  its 


conformation  for  moving  chiefly  among  the  MuglM 

PONIAT0W8KI,  a  celebrated  princely  family 
of  Poland,  is  of  Italian  origin,  being  directly 
descended  from  the  family  of  the  Torelli,  whoaa 
anceatoia  were  Counts  of  Quast,-Llla.  One  of  the 
Torelli  family  having  settled  in  Poland,  assumed 
the  name  o£  P.  from  his  wife's  estate  of  Poniatow 
iu  that  country.  Those  of  the  F.  fnniily,  who  mako 
a  figure  in  history  are  PitlNca  Stanislas  P_ 
who,  in  the  war  of  succession  to  the  kinj^dom  of 
Poland,  joined  Charles  XIL  of  Sweden  in  sapporting 
Stanislas  Leaczynski ;  his  sons,  STANiSLAS-AuousTua, 
the  last  king  of  Poland  (^.  v,),  and  Andrew,  who 
rose  to  great  distinction  in  the  Austrian  service  ; 
and  Andrew's  son,  Joseph -A  ntonv,  Prince  P.,  tho 
celebrated  Polish  chief  in  the  army  of  N;ipoIeon. 
Joseph-Antony  was  bom  at  Warsaw,  7th  May  17S2, 
and  at  the  age  of  16  entered  the  Austrian  army, 
with  which  he  made  the  Turkish  campai;,'n  of  1787, 
and  rose  to  the  rank  of  colond  of  dre^ioons.  In 
1780,  he  returned  to  Poland,  and  was  named  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  army  of  the  south,  having 
under  him  Kosciusko.  \\  ielhorski,  Lulmmirakt, 
and  other  celebrated  Icadera.  Hia  army,  though 
much  inferior  in  numbers  to  that  of  Russia,  which, 
in  1792.  invaded  the  country,  gained  the  brilliant 
victories  of  Poloonfi  and  ZieleucS  ;  but  P.'s  uncle, 
Eing  Stanislas,  by  agreeing  to  the  convention  of 
Targowitz  (q.  v.),  put  an  end  to  tli*  contest  in  1793. 
The  priuce  then  resigned  his  comman{l,  and  went 
into  voluntas  exile,  but  returned  in  the  following 

C  to  aid  Kosciusko,  now  dictator,  in  his  fruit- 
oppoaition  to  the  third  partition  of  Poland. 
On  the  proposal  of  Hopoleon  to  rcconititute  the 
kingdom  of  Poland,  P.  joined  tho  French  (1800)  at 
the  head  of  a  Polish  army,  and  did  good  servioe 
t^inat  the  Rnssians  at  the  battles  of  Golymin, 
Danzig,  and  Priedland ;  but  the  French  emperor,  by 
the  treaty  of  Tilsit,  handed  over  Poland  to  ita 
enemies,  and  only  the  duchy  of  Warsaw  (nomin- 
ally subject  to  the  king  of  Saxony)  was  left  intact. 
P.  was  appointed  generalissimo  and  commander-in- 
chief  for  the  duchy  ;  and  so  zealonily  did  he  labour 
for  the  development  of  its  mihtary  resources,  that, 
in  18U9,  when  the  war  between  France  and  Austria 
was  resumed,  he  was  able  to  drive  the  Austrian! 
out  of  the  Polish  territ^y,  and  overrun  a  consider- 
able part  of  Galicia.    He  contjnued  to  administer 


with  a  Polish  army  of  100,000  men.  But 
intense  disgust,  the  greater  part  of  bis  army  was 
broken  up  into  detachments,  which  were  iucorpor- 
ated  with  the  various  French  legions,  and  P.  was 
left  with  not  more  than  30.000  men  under  his  direct 
command.  At  the  head  of  this  division,  which 
always  composed  the  extreme  right  of  the  French 
army,  P.  gathered  innumerable  laurels  on  the  battle- 
field, and  at  the  storming  of  the  Kussian  fortresses  ; 
but  he  was  so  severely  injured  at  Smolensko  during 
the  retreat,  that  he  was  obliged  to  rctiu-n  to  Warsaw 
(December  IS12).  In  the  following  autumn,  he 
resumed  his  old  place  in  the  French  army,  and  on 
October  16,  received  from  the  emperor  the  dignity 
of  Marshal  of  France,  an  honour,  in  his  own  eittima- 
tion,  much  inferior  to  that  of  'generalissimo  of  the 
Poles,'  which  he  already  possessed.  After  the 
defeat  at  Leipzig  (^.v.),  P.  was  left  with  the  remnant 
of  his  Puhsh  division  to  protect  the  French  retreat, 
which  he  accomplished  by  keeping  the  Prussians  in 
check  for  several  hours  ;  at  last,  when  hia  force  was 
reduced  to  300  men  with  30  hoiges,  and  himself 
severely  wounded,  he  retreated  over  the  PleisM, 
swimming  his  hoise  through  the  river;  but  in 
attempting  aimilarly  to  cross  the  Elater,  exhaosted 


PONTA-MOUBSON^PONTIANAK. 


natore  oonid  no  longer  bear  njs  «id  he  seak  to  rise 
no  more,  October  19»  1813.  His  body  was  recovered 
•ix  days  after,  and  was  embalmed  and  carried  to 
Warsaw,  whence  it  was  afterwards  removed  to 
Craoow,  and  placed  beside  the  ashes  of  Sobieski 
and  Kosciusko. 

PONT-A-MOTJSSOK,  a  town  of  France,  depart- 
ment of  Mearthe,  on  the  railway  from  Nancy  to 
Metz,  20  miles  north-north-west  of  the  former  of 
these  towns.  The  Moselle  flows  through  the  town, 
which  is  situated  in  a  fruitful  valley.  There  is  a 
fine  GU>thic  church  dedicated  to  St  Martin.  P. 
has  some  manufactures  of  pottery.  Pop.  6437.  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Maranal  Duroc^  the  favourite 
and  friend  of  Napoleon. 

PONTGHARTRAI'N,  Lar,  in  LonisiaBa,  U.S. 
America,  about  5  miles  north  of  New  Orleans,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  a  canal,  is  40  miles  long, 
and  24  miles  in  extreme  width.  It  is  navigated  by 
small  steamers,  and  communicates  on  the  east  with 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  on  the  south  with  the 
MississippL  Its  greatest  depth  is  from  16  to  20 
feet 

PONTECOltVO,  a  city  of  southern  Italy  in  the 
province  of  Caserta,  situated  on  the  river  Garigliano, 
37  miles  north-west  of  Capua,  with  9314  inhabitants, 
almost  all  engaged  in  agriculture.  It  has  an  <dd 
castle,  many  churches,  and  is  a  bishopria  It 
formerly  belongM  to  the  pope ;  but  now,  since 
1860,  it  forms  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  and 
is  a  sub-prefecture.  Napoleon  L  gave  the  title 
of  Prince  of  Ponteoorvo  to  Marshal  Bemadotte, 
afterwards  king  of  Sweden. 

PONTE  DELGA'DA,  a  town  on  the  south  coast 
of  the  island  of  St  Michael,  one  of  the  Asores  (q.  ▼.), 
in  lat  37*  4(K  N.,  and  long.  25''  36'  W.  It  is 
defended  by  the  Castle  of  St  f raz,  which  can  mount 
90  pieces  of  cannon,  and  bv  the  forts  of  Sio 
Pedro  and  Bosto  de  Ciia  The  anchorage  in  the 
roadstead  ia  bad  and  the  harbour  is  shulow,  but 
still  the  trade  (which  is  largely  in  the  hands  of 
English  merchants)  is  the  most  considerable  of 
all  the  towns  in  the  Azores.  The  chief  exports 
are  wheat,  maize,  and  oranges.  Pop.  estimated 
differently  from  16,000  to  22,000 

PONTEFBACT  (commonly  pronounced  Po^in- 
flret),  a  market-town  and  municipal  and  parliamen- 
tary borough,  in  the  county  of  York,  and  24  miles 
south-south-west  of  the  city  of  that  name,  on  the 
Lancashire  and  Yorkshire  Itailway.  There  are  two 
churches,  viz.,  St  Giles  and  All-Saints,  the  latter  is 
in  the  Early  English  style,  and  has  a  handsome 
tower.  There  are  a  grammar,  as  well  as  national 
and  other  schools,  several  almshouses,  a  large  work- 
house built  in  1864,  a  splendid  market  haU  opened 
by  Lord  Palmerston  in  1860,  &a  In  the  vicinity 
are  extensive  gardens  and  nurseries.  Eicht  fairs  for 
the  sale  of  cattle  take  place  annually.  The  trade  is 
chiefly  in  com,  liquorice,  and  malt.  Two  members 
are  returned  to  the  House  of  Commons  for  the 
borouch.  Pop.  (1861)  of  municipal  borough,  5346; 
of  parUamentary  borough,  11,736. 

The  castle  of  P.,  built  shortly  after  the  Conquest, 
was  a  lar^e  and  strong  edifice,  and  stood  on  a  com- 
manding height.  It  was  the  scene  of  the  imprison- 
ment  and  oeath  of  Richaj*d  II.,  and  here  also 
Rivers,  Grey,  and  Vaughan  were  put  to  death,  at 
the  instigation  of  Richanl  IIL  The  remains  (d  the 
castle  to  be  seen  at  the  present  day  are  very 
meagre. 

PONTEFBACT  CAKES  are  small  lozenges  of 
refined  liquorice,  which  have  for  centuries  been 
made  at  Pontefract,  and  are  mnoh  eateemed.    They 

m 


an  impressed  with  a  nide  fignre  of  a  castii^  ia- 
tended  to  represent  Pontefract  CasUe. 

PONTEVE'DBA,  a  town  of  Spain,  pnmnce  of 
Galicia,  is  situated  on  a  peninsular  slope  near  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Lerez,  35  miles  south  of  Santiago. 
P.  is  a  dean  and  pretty  place,  wi^  high  old  w^ 
granite-built  houses,  broad  streets,  and  pleasant 
arcades.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  bridge  [Poaa 
Vetu8)  that  spans  the  river.  The  Ponteved^ans  are 
engaged  chiefly  in  agriculture,  though  sea-fishing  is 
ahw  carried  on,  and  there  are  some  manufacturei 
Pop.  6623.  The  neighbourhood,  of  which  channiss 
views  are  obtained  from  parts  of  the  town,  is  covered 
with  villas,  farms,  and  woodlands. 

PONTIAN A'K,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of  ^ 
same  name  on  the  west  coast  of  Borneo,  ia  situated 
near  the  junction  of  the  Landak  and  Kapuas.  It  is 
built  on  both  banks  of  the  river,  which  is  900  feet 
broad,  and  thence  to  the  sea  is  called  the  PontianaL 
The  city  derives  its  importance  from  being  the  seat 
of  the  Netherlands^  Resident,  who  rules  directly 
and  indirectly  over  the  whole  west  coast,  from  2* 
66'  S.— 2-  WN.  Ut,  and  lOS**  45'— 112^  SCK  E.  lone. ; 
territories  rich  in  vegetable  and  mineral  wealth.  The 
Residency  is  near  I^rt  Du  Bus,  in  0"*  2^  X.  lat.,  and 
109"  1'  30^  K  long. ;  other  principal  buildinn  being 
the  sultan*s  palace,  the  mosque,  and  hospital  Pcpi 
7000,  but  rapidly  increasing.  Trade  is  the  oniy 
pursuit  in  the  town;  and  the  rich  alluvial  lands 
are  partly  cultivated  with  rice,  sngar-caneSy  cotton, 
indigo,  coffee,  provisions,  and  fruits. 

Besides  a  number  of  small  dependencies,  the 
Netherlands*  Resident  at  P.  governs  the  inq>oitBnt 
kingdoms  of  Landak,  Mampawa,  and  Sambaa,  with 
the  mining  district  of  Montrado,  in  the  north; 
Ta3rang,  Simpang,  and  Matan  or  Succadana,  to  the 
south ;  and  Simgouw,  Sekadouw,  and  Sintang,  in 
the  interior.  '&»  produce  oonedsts  of  diamonds, 
gold,  coal,  tin,  iron,  wax,  edible  nests,  ^pper,  gutta- 
percha, &0.  There  are  many  ^Id  mines  in  Mon- 
trado and  other  districts;  rich  iron  ores  in  Matan; 
^Id,  platina,  copper,  ftc.,  in  Sambas ;  and  in  former 
times,  Landak  was  rich  in  diamonds,  bat  the  pro- 
duce is  now  trifling.  In  this  district  was  found  tbe 
famed  diamond  of  the  Sultan  of  ^<^*:»",  which 
weighed  367  carats.  The  annual  produce  of  the 
mines  in  the  Residency  of  P.  is  estimated  at  not  less 
than  425,000  ounces  of^ld.  In  1860,  pop.  319,962, 
of  whom  104  were  Earopeans,  24,080  Chinese, 
294,123  natives,  &c. 

In  1856,  the  Dutch  imports  and  ezporto 
were :  P. — ^imports,  £73,330  ;  exports,  £77,297. 
Sambas— imports,  £18,312;  exports,  £25,267.  In- 
bound ships  at  P.  had  a  burden  of  4083  tons; 
at  Sambas,  20124  ^^^  *  ^^  outward-bound  neu)y 
the  same.  The  other  Netiierhmda*  possessions  in 
Borneo  are  called  the  Residency  of  tne  South-east 
Division,  including  the  lands  from  Matan,  in  the 
south-west,  along  tne  south  and  east  coasts  to  C  5(r 
N.  lat.  Th»  Resident's  house  is  at  Banjermassin, 
in  the  island  of  Tataa,  15  miles  iiom.  the  mouth  of 
the  Banjer,  in  3**  34'  40"  a  lat,  and  114"  30"  £.  loa^. 
Pop.  30,000.  The  exports  are— pepper,  diamonds, 
gold-dust,  coal,  benzoin,  wax,  ratans,  aragonVfalood, 
camphor,  edible  nests,  iron,  fire-arma»  &a  Imports — 
piece-goods,  powder,  knives,  opium,  rice,  salt,  sogar, 
Chinese  porcelain,  silk-stufih,  Gorals»  pearis,  kc 
The  coal-mines  of  Orsnge-Nassan  proidaoed  15,979 
tons  in  1855w  In  1861,  on  account  d  war  between 
the  natives  and  Netherlandeis,  it  bad  fallen  to 
1839  tons.  In  1856,  the  imports  at  BanjennassiB 
amounted  to  £89,566,  and  the  exports  to  £61,80SL 
The  inbound  ships  had  a  burden  of  12368A  tau, 
and  out-bound  nearly  the  same.  _At  Nagai«) 
a  town  of  10^000  inhabitant^  ia 


PONTIFEX—FONTDnC  BfABSHES. 


are  importftnt  fMstories  of  fire-anns  and   other 
weapons. 

There  has  been  constant  war,  on  the  south-east 
coasts  sinoe  1859.  In  1860,  the  direct  govern- 
ment of  Banjermassin  was  aasiuned  by  the  Resident, 
but  (1864)  the  interior  of  the  kingdom  is  still  dis- 
turbed.    In  1860,  population  of  South-east  coast 


Ohnroh  of  Rome,  in  which  are  contained  the  several 
services,  whether  in  the  administration  of  sacraments^ 
or  the  performance  of  public  worship,  in  which  the 
bishop  exdnsively,  or  at  least  a  priest  delegated 
by  the  bishop,  officiates.  There  were  many  such 
collections  for  the  various  naticmal  churches;  but 
that  which  is  now  in  universal  use  throughout  the 


Residency,  553,343,  of  whom  197  were  Europeans,  i  Western  Church  is  the  ParUifieale  Bomanum,  or 
1510   Chmese,  551,353  natives,  fto.     Government '  Roman   Pontifical,  as  published  by  authority  of 


Clement  VIII.  in  1596,  and  repeatedly  republished 
since  that  tima  The  P.  contains  the  services  for 
ordinations,  for  religions  professions  and  receptions 
of  monks  and  nuns,  consecrations,  benedictions,  &c., 
as  well  as   of   the    solemn  administration    by   a 

•b/^'uffmrvn^  /  £  J     uxt  i  J    •    x:     \        av   j--xi      bishop  of  thoss  sscFaments  which   are  ordinarily 
PO  NTIFBX  (of  doubtful  derivation)  was  the  title    admmistered  by  priests.    Besides  the  prayers  to  )k 
borne  by  the  members^  of  one  of  the  two  ereat    j^^ed.  the  P.  uh^  lays  down  the  ceremonial  to  be 


receipts  in  1857  »  £70,260 ;  expenditure  =  £80,500. 
— See  Borneo's  Wetterqfdeding^  Oeograpkuch,  StatiS' 
tiach,  HiMoriach  (P.  J.  Veth,  Amsterdam);  the 
latest  Colonial  Reports  (1860)  published  by  the 
Netherlands*  government,  &c. 


recited,  the  P.  also  lays 

observed.  The  rules  of  this  ceremonial  are  of  two 
kinds— i^recep^zw,  the  literal  observance  of  which 
is  obligatory ;  and  direcdoe,  which  admit  of  a  certain 


colleges  amons  the  ancient  Romans,  institutea  for 
the  purpose  of  preserving  and  cultivating  religious 
knowleage ;  the  other  was  the  college  of  Augurs. 

See  ArGUBiKS  and  AuSMCM.  It  is  customary  to  '  iite^^tiwn.-A^oth^f'' thT  8ervTc^*bJ>Jk8""of 
speak  of  the  college  of  pontiflb  as  a  priesthood ;  I  bishops  is  caUed  the  •  Ceremoniale ; '  but  it  is  chiefly 
It  was  not,  however,  stnctly  speaking,  8uch--that  is  confii^  to  a  description  of  the  peculiar  ceremonii 
to  say,  the  membera  were  not  charged  with  the  .  ^^^  ^^ich  bishops  are  required  to  celebrate 
worship  of  any  parti^  dmnity,  nor  did  they  solemnly  those  offices,  as  of  t?e  mass,  vespers,  the 
conduct  sacnfic^  Their  duties  embraced  the  f^^^^^  ^f^^  ^^^  ^^^^^y  are  common  to  them  with 
regulation  of  all  the  rehgious  ntes  and  oeremomes  priegts.  The  most  prized  editions  of  both  these 
(both  public  and  private)  of  a  state-e.  g.,  how  the  service-books  are  those  published  by  authority  of 
gods  should  be  worshiped,  how  bunaU  should  be  ^he  learned  pope,  Benedict  XIV. 
conducted,  how  the  souls  of  the  dead  (manes)  should  wn'WTfvw  i^AnawQ  rr-f  j>^^^r^^ 
be  api>eased.  To  them  was  intrusted  the  care  of  ^^^  ?^P?.  ^^iJ^J^x®^  .*Hu  ^^'^f*'^ 
the  calendar,  the  proclamation  of  festival  days,  Ac.  '  ^l«^?lv*  l?^-l3^"«  ^uitnct,  forming  the  southern 
They  al80  Uw  tW  every  religious  and  every  P»^,  «'  ^^  Campa^a  di  Romi^  and  extendmg  m  a 
judicial  act  took  olace  on  the  right  day.    •  As  they    wuth-easterly  directi^from  (hstornaj^  the  sea  at 

Lad  thus,'  aays  l5r  Mommsen,  'an  especial  supe/-    ^T^   J!l  ^*^  l^""^^  '^i  '^""A  ^  °^!5 
vision  of  all  religious  observant,  it  wi  to  theiHn  '  »ndite  breadth  from  4  to  IIjJiIm..  It  does  not 

case  of  need  (as  on  occasion  of  mkrriage,  testament,  '  f«^.J^«  '^'^  "^  ^J^  ^°^  5^^/"*!?* 

or  a/v(X7««io)  that  the    preliminary  question  wai  ^^n  it  by  a  broad  sandy  teact  covered  with  for^ 

addressed,  whether  the  matter  profJos^d  did  not,  in  ^^*^^  tins  bamer  nartiUres  to  some  extent  of  the 

any  respect,  offend  against  divine  lU/    In  matters  etf^^ter  of  the  nu«Qi€^^ 

oiU,fn,  they  were^e  supreme  authorities ;  from  ^^  "^ML'^^Z^''^:^ 

their  decisions  there   was   no   appeal,  and   they  .        L        .  li.  «""»""•«"'{  rr  .     vr^    /  ^^ 

themselves  were  responsible  neithei  to  the  senate  !^*''».  "^  ^„  •*'*!?\*4t  *^*  *•>«>'""  >» 

nor  the  people;  fur&er,  they  had  power  to  inflict  *'^j^?'*~?k^  and  by  tte  accamolation  of 

punishment  on  such  priests  as  dared  to  disobey  '•^  •'""S  *^  .»!'»"  ^"^  ^?*»~  *»  *»>«  Cu««S» 

their   injunctions,  an<f  deviate    into   schismatici  FO"""**"'/.  «>»*   f^   fonnatim   as  undoubtedly 

connMo.    The  worfs  of  Festua  are :  rerum  qua,  ad    ~^?°f  *°.n'^    ^.^  ^     ^*"  "  °°  "*"*" 
mem  et  reUgionet  pertinent,  jtoicbs  et  vindicbs.    *"  '^^^  j^  J  *  jfL,     J'. 
Their  president  was  termed  pon<(r<x  wmmt<&  |  ^'^^'^7  ^'^''\^  ^^ 

The  pontifis,  aoooniing  to  Roman  tradition,  I  S"*?'  '*  "  *??■  °?u*^*  t"*"  vj  .v  v  , 
were  instituted  by  Numa-a  mythical  person,  t<^  |  J*?■^""^  »*»*"  ^*.?*  <""?  ?*"^  *^7  ^  '^. 
whom  the  origin  k  nearly  all  the  religioSs  institu-  *^^  °f  T°  S  ?^? '  „^°*  "^  -  «'°''™»*"'«t  "^ 
tions  of  Rome  is  ascribei  But  as  t&y  appear  in  '  ^  "totenen*  «  *»  »>• /»«"»  "».««y  f'''^'"**' 
«ii  4.1.^   T*4.;«  «»».«...;4^*^  *u««  — «  •JLoiXwi   K«    and  not  a  smcle  name  of  these  cities  has  been  pre- 

M„.S^J^«\°X™^Hv  ™L!S  3«^r  i  •e^«»-  The'fint  attempt  to  dnun  the  P.  M!  in 
JJ?^'^^H  „^K.H  W^i^^Kn^f^LiS^;  •  «n<rfe"t  «»>"  was  made  In  IW  a  a  by  the  consul, 
tution,  and  probably  found  a  place  m  the  earhest ,  (j„„gji  Cethegus:  bnt  his  efforta  were  only 
relisioas  organisation  of  the   Latin  race.     Their ,      V:„     _~^Ti    *      *  ___j-  iv.      i  «  Sl' 

noiSUr  w^Toriginally  four,  or,  including  the  pontt-  "^^7  ZTt^ti  hS  W^J^h^«  «v^ 
A^  »...^-«>w.  «.rl  »n^4  »k/«»«\>r<k*A  4-airoTi  <»r.m  fKo  xvepuDuc,  tho  regiou  nad  become  as  marshy  as  ever, 
/fe  iiwwtmiis,  five,  aU  of  whom  were  taken  from  the  ,  j^^^     g^^    »  ^  schemes    for   the- 

srrOer's^'Sfn'^.^^f^^rw's:  'tn^ifpr^zL*"  '^i  r.'"^^;^*^''^?^  rt 

pUb^  Thefir.tplebeia„..how,ver,who.ttained|f-  murdTp^v^t^te'^Se "^^t^I 
the  dienity  of  vonttfex  maxunu*  was  Tibu  Corun-  i  ^      "*"»«''*    i'*^  «5m«w   *w    wau|ncw    <^m»»mvu. 

^  'Vl^^KL  »  «      S;,iir  ;«Qi  iT^    rL;«  ,t,«^«rZi  '  Augustus  also  apiiears  to  have  done  somethmg ;  but. 
^nius,  2o4  B.a     SuUa.  m  81  B.  a,  again  increased    ^^^     ^    of  Juvenal,  it  was  a  mere  ha^t  of 

th!  ^:i^^rl^^«^L*^^^^^^  Theodoric^e  Ck>th!  likewise  tried  to- 

the  empir^  the  funrtions  of  pontt/ex  maximus  were        j^^  .      ^     the  desoUtionsof  succeeding  reigns. 

genei^lly  dMchaj^^  ^  <^      ^^^        condition,  *and™. 

and  the  name  survived  even  the  establishment  of    ^^^^^  ^^  uninhabitablVre^on  unta  the  close 

of  the  middle  ages.  The  first  m  modem  times  to* 
resume  the  labours  of  the  ancients  was  Pope  Bonifaoc 


Christianity,  occuzring  in  inscriptions  of  Valentinlan, 
Valens,  and  Gratianos ;  but  at  length  the  emperors 
dropped,  it,  when  it  was  picked  up  by  the  Christian 
bishops  of  Rome  ;  and  now  this  title,  borrowed  from 
a  pa^n  cult,  forms  one  of  the  sacred  designations  of 
His  Holiness  the  Pope. 

PONTITICAL  (Lat  pantyieale,  belonging  to  a 


VIIL,  who  drained  the  district  about  Sezzo  and^ 
Sermonetta  by  means  of  a  large  canaL  In  141 7r 
Martin  V.  made  another  caiuJ,  called  the  Bio- 
Martino,  which  was  dug  to  within  a  mile  of  the 

.       ^  ^    ^  sea;  but  after  his  death,  the  project  was  ffiven  upw 

pontifir  OT  bishop),  one  of  the  service-books  of  the  I  iJeveral  additional  effioits  were  subseauent^  made; 
356  6W 


PONTOON— PONY. 


but  nothing  was  really  accompliahed  till  the  time 
of  Pope  Pius  VL,  who,  in  1778,  commenced  to  drmin 
the  marshes,  and  completed  the  drainage  in  ten 
years.  The  reclamation  of  the  land,  however,  has 
been  found  possible  only  in  part  Though  much  is 
under  cultivation  and  in  pasturage,  a  great  portion 
is  hopelessly  sterile;  and  the  whole  region  is  so 
unhealthy,  that,  in  the  summer  months,  we  inhabi- 
tants are  oblieed  to  remove  to  the  neighbouring 
mountains. — ^The  famous  Appian  Way  (q.  v.)  went 
through  the  P.  M. ;  and  after  being  unused  for 
centuries,  was  re-opened  by  Pius  VL 

PONTOO'N  (through  the  French  ponton,  from 
the  Latin  pons,  a  bridge),  the  name  given  to  buoyant 
vessels  used  in  military  operations  for  supporting  a 
temporary  bridge.  Pontoon  bridges  have  been  con- 
structed, with  greater  or  less  skilJ^  from  the  earliest 
times.  Darius  passed  the  Hellespont  and  Danube  by 
pontoon  bridges,  and  the  former  was  traversed  by 
Aerxes'  immense  army  on  similar  temporary  bridges, 
very  admirably  formed.  A  pontoon  train  is  a 
necessity  for  every  army  manoeuvring  in  a  country 
where  there  are  rivers,  and  many  campaigns  have 
proved  failures  from  the  want  of  this  cumbrous  but 
udispensable  apparatus.  In  most  armies,  the 
pontoons  are  under  the  charge  of  the  engineers; 
uut  in  the  Austrian  army  there  is  a  distinct  and 
highly-trained  corps,  called  Pontonieren,  Marl- 
borough used  chunsy  wooden  pontoons.  Napoleon 
and  Wellington  had  them  lighter  of  tin  and  copper. 
They  were  fiat-bottomed,  rectangular  boats,  open 
at  the  top.  Anchored  at  stem  and  stem,  beams 
were  laid  over  from  one  to  another,  and  transoms 
with  planks  crossing  these  beams  completed  the 
roadway  of  the  bridge.  These  open  pontoons  were 
exposed  to  the  disadvantage  that  they  were  very 
liaole  to  be  filled  with  water,  and  thus  ceased  to 
support  the  brid^.  They  were,  moreover,  very  heavy, 
one  pontoon,  with  appurtenances,  constituting  a 
wagon-load.  As  36  were  deemed  necessary  for 
the  train,  a  pontoon  equipment  was  a  serious  item 
in  the  impedimenta  of  an  army.  The  open  pontoons 
are  now,  however,  obsolete,  modem  science  having 
substituted  closed  cylindrical  vessels  of  copper  (or 
occasionally  of  India-rubber),  which  are  far  lighter, 
can  in  an  emergency  be  rolled  along,  and  can  only 
be  submerged  if  perforated.  A^nst  the  last  con- 
tingency, they  are  divided  withm  into  water-tight 
compartments,  so  that  one  perforation  may  not 
seriously  detract  from  the  total  buoyancy  of  a 
pontoon.  In  the  British  service  two  pontoons  are 
used:  the  larger,  with  hemispherical  ends,  being 
22  feet  3  inches  in  length,  and  2  feet  8  inches  in 
diameter;  the  smaller,  cigar-shaped,  with  conical 
ends,  15  feet  in  length,  and  1  foot  8  inches  in 
diameter.  Two  of  the  largest  used  to  form  a  raft 
weigh  8  cwt.  7  lbs. ;  the  superstructure,  184  ^^^ 
At  24  feet  apart  from  centre  to  centre,  thu  raft, 
will  carry  infantry  four  deep,  marching  at  ease ; 
cavalry,  two  deep,  and  light  held-guns ;  at  16  feet 
interval,  heavy  guns.  A  raft  of  three  pontoons,  at 
dose  distances,  will  support  siege-ordnance.  The 
pontoons  can  be  used  in  very  wide  rivers  as  rafts, 
in  their  proper  sense,  or  they  can  be  connected, 
when  the  width  permits,  to  form  a  bridge.  In  the 
latter  case,  each  is  towed  into  line,  anchored  above 
as  it  drops  to  its  place,  and  a  second  time  when  its 
exact  spot  is  reached.  It  is  computed  that  each 
pontoon  requires  1^  minutes  to  take  its  position, 
and  that  when  the  pontoons  are  placed,  tne  road- 
way can  be  laid,  if  proi)erl^  arranged  previously, 
in  l\  minutes  for  each  interval  between  two 
pontoons.  A  river  of  600  feet  may  thus  be  bridged 
m  less  than  1|  hours.  The  process  of  throwing  a 
bridge  over  in  face  of  an  enemy,  is  fraught  with 

the  utmost  danger   to   the   engineen   employed. 
•74 


Pontoon  bridges  have  to  be  passed  witii  great  care, 
and  every  measure  should  be  adopted,  as  breaking 
step,  ftc,  which  can  reduce  the  peculiarly  dangerous 
vibration. 

PO'NTTJS,  the  name  given  by  the  ancient 
Qreeks  to  a  country  in  tne  north-east  of  Asia 
Minor,  bordering  on  the  Pontus  Euxinus  (whenes 
its  name),  and  extending  from  the  river  Haljrs  in 
the  west  to  the  frontiera  of  Colchis  and  Armenia 
in  the  east  Its  southern  Umits  were  the  ranges  of 
Anti-Taurus  and  Paryadres,  so  that  it  corresponded 
pretty  nearly  to  the  modem  pashaliks  of  Trebizond 
and  Siwas.  On  the  east  and  south,  P.  is  moun- 
tainous, but  along  the  coast  there  are  large  and 
fertile  plains,  which  in  ancient  times  prodncMl,  and 
indeed  still  produce  abundance  of  gram,  fruits,  and 
timber.  Game,  according  to  Strabo,  was  also  plen- 
tifuL  The  rearing  of  bees  was  carefully  attended  to^ 
and  honey  and  wax  were  among  the  chief  artidei 
of  commerce.    Iron  was  the  principal  mineraL 

Regarding  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  P.,  nothing 
is  known  ethnologically.  Greek  colonies,  indeed 
flourished  on  the  coast  from  the  7th  c  b.  a,  and 
doubtless  spread  some  knowledge  of  civilisation 
among  the  inland  barbarians;  but  how  far  the 
latter  were  influenced  thereby,  we  cannot  telL  They 
first  appear  as  divided  into  numerous  tribes,  virtu- 
ally independent,  but  owning  a  nominal  allegiance 
to  the  rersian  kin^,  whose  authority  was  repie- 
sented  b^  a  hereditary  satrap  belonging  to  the 
royal  family  of  Persia.  It  was  one  of  these  satrana, 
Anobarzanes,  who,  by  subjugating  some  of  &» 
Pontian  tribes,  in  the  year  363  B.G.,  during  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  II.,  laid  the  foundations  of  aa 
independent  sovereignly.  Ariobarzanes  was  suc- 
ceeded in  337  B.  c  oy  Mithridates  II.,  who  took 
advantage  of  the  civil  confusions  that  followed  the 
death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  to  enlarge  his 
dominions;  but  the  greatest  of  these  Pontine 
sultans,  and  one  of  the  most  formidable  enemies 
that  Rome  ever  encountered  in  the  east,  was 
Mithridates  VI.  (q.  v.).  On  the  overthrow  of  ths 
potentate  by  Pomp^  (65  r  a),  the  western  part  of 
R  was  annexed  to  Bithynia,  and  the  rest  parodied 
out  among  the  neighbouring  princes.  Subsequentiiy, 
a  grandson  of  Miuiridates,  rolemon,  was  installed 
monarch  of  the  central  part  of  P. ;  but  in  the  reiga 
of  Nero,  it  was  voluntarily  ceded  to  the  Roman 
emperor,  became  a  Roman  province,  and  was  called 
Pontus  Polemoniacus,  In  the  reign  of  Gonstantme, 
it  underwent  a  new  division.  The  principal  towns 
of  ancient  P.  were  Amisus,  Polemonium,  I^amadai 
Cerasus,  Trapezus,  Apsarus,  Cabira,  and  Neocssaz^a 

PONTYPOOL,  a  small  market-town  of  Mon- 
mouthshire, 20  miles  west-south-west  of  Monmouth, 
and  10  miles  north  of  Newport,  with  both  of  whidh 
it  is  connected  by  railway.  Japan  wares  were 
long  made  here,  but  this  branch  of  manufactun 
has  declined.  Articles  in  polished  iron  are  made, 
and  the  iron  forges  and  ooal  and  iron  mines  which 
surround  the  town  employ  many  of  the  inhabitanta 
Pop.  (1851)  3708 ;  (1861)  466L 

PONT,  the  common  name  of  many  small  active 
breeds  of  Horse  (q.  v.),  belonging  to  difiTerent  coun- 
tries, from  India  and  Africa  to  Iceland ;  but  in  ihd 
warmer  parts  of  the  world,  chiefly  found  in  moun- 
tainous or  sterile  regions.  They  are  in  general  the 
property  of  man,  and  not  truly  wild,  although,  i& 
very  many  cases,  they  live  almost  in  a  wild  state, 
and  receive  no  care  or  attention  except  when  th^ 
are  wanted  for  use.  They  are  in  genial  vefy 
hardy,  and  their  strength  is  gpneat  in  proportion  to 
their  size.  They  are  onen  vicious,  or  at  l&ai  play- 
fully  tricky  to  a  much  greater  degree  tiian  is  usuj] 
with  larger  horses.    Ponies  are  vbrj  often  oovend 


POODLE-POONA. 


wiih  rough  hair,  and  have  large  shaggy  manes  and 
forelocks.  The  Shetland  P.  is  a  rery  «)od  example 
ol  these  small  races  of  horse.  The  Iceland  P.  is 
scarcely  different  from  it,  and  is  hardv  enough  to 
endure  the  winter  of  Iceland  without  shelter.  The 
GaUawayt  Wel^  Dartmoor^  Exmoor^  and  New 
Forest  breeds,  are  British  races  of  P.,  larger  than 
the  8hetland.  The  progress  of  enclosure  and  culti- 
vation in  their  native  regions  has  so  changed  the 
circumstances  in  which  they  long  subsisted,  and  in 
which,  ijerhaps,  they  originated,  that  scarcely  any 
of  them  is  now  to  be  seen  of  pure  and  unmixed  race. 
Sardinia  and  Corsica  have  small  races  of  P.,  which 
have  subsisted  unchanged  from  ancient  timea  In 
the  Morea,  there  is  a  race  of  ponies,  driven  in  herds 
to  Attica  for  sale,  exceedingly  wild  and  vicious,  but 
capable  of  being  rendered  very  serviceable.  But  it 
is  unnecessa^  to  mention  the  man^  races  both  of 
£nrope  and  Asia.  They  differ  considerably  in  size, 
some,  tike  the  Shetland  P.,  suggesting  a  comparison 
with  a  large  dog,  some  much  larger.  They  also 
differ  much  in  colour ;  a  dun  or  tan  colour,  with  a 
black  stripe  along  the  back,  is  prevalent  in  many  of 
them.  Ponies  are  seldom  employed  in  agricultural 
labours ;  but  they  are  of  inestimable  value  in  many 
wild  and  mountunous  regions,  from  their  hardiness 
and  Burefootedness ;  and  are  often  used  as  saddle- 
horses,  the  lai^est  kinds  being  even  employed  as 
horses  for  light  cavalry. 

POO'DLE  (Germ.  Pudel),  a  kind  of  dog,  origin- 
ally German,  but  extensively  diffused  throughout 
Europe  duhng  the  wars  of  the  French  Revolution, 
and  abundantly  introduced  into  Britain  by  the 
soldiers  who  served  in  Spain  and  the  Netherlands. 
It  is  vcay  closely  allied,  however,  to  the  coarser 
crisp-haired  Water-dog^  long  well  known  in  Ensland, 
and  particularly  to  water-fowl  shooters  and  the 
fishermen  of  the  north-eastern  coasts.  The  Barbel 
of  the  French  is  a  diminutive  variety,  much  in 
request  as  a  lady's  pet  The  P.  is  of  a  stout  form, 
and  has  a  short  muzzle  standing  out  abruptly  from 
the  face;  the  ears  are  of  moderate  length,  and 
pendent ;  the  tail  rather  short ;  it  is  everywhere 
covered  with  long  curled  hair,  which  in  many  of  the 
little  barbets  Imngs  to  the  very  ground.  No  kind 
of  dog  exhibits  greater  intelli^nce  or  greater  affec- 
tion ;  and  as  to  both,  many  mteresting  stories  are 
on  record. 

POOLE  (so  called  from  the  inlet  or  pod  on 
which  it  stands)  is  the  chief  seaport  of  Dorsetshire, 
and  is  situated  on  a  wide  but  shallow  inlet  in  the 
east  coast  of  the  county.  It  is  built  of  red  brick, 
is  intricate  and  conf  libed  in  plan,  but  is  pierced  by 
the  High  Street,  a  mile  in  length  Along  the  shore 
are  capacious  quays,  well  lined  with  shipping.  The 
town  18  more  noted  for  its  trade  than  for  its  archi- 
tecture. Sail-cloth  andcordace  are  manufactured, 
and,  tog[ether  with  potters*  and  pipe  clay,  provisions, 
and  articles  of  clothing,  form  the  principal  articles 
of  export  Ship,  and  especially  yacht  ouilding  is 
carried  on.  The  harbour,  into  which  fall  the  rivers 
Trent  and  Frome,  is  a  beautiful  estuary,  and  \b  a 
fine  feature  in  the  charming  scenery  of  the  vicinity. 
Its  depth  of  water  is  13  to  14  feet,  and  its  navigable 
channels,  being  unobstructed  by  rocks  or  sands,  are 
perfectly  safe  at  all  times.  Brownsea  Island,  in  the 
middle  of  the  pool,  is  6  miles  in  circumference.  On 
its  extreme  point  stands  the  castie  of  the  same 
name.  In  1863, 1315  vessels,  of  89,502  tons,  entered 
and  cleared  the  port  Pop.  (1861)  9759,  who  return 
two  members  to  parliament 

POOIiE,  Matthxw,  a  learned  English  divine  of 
the  Puritan  age,  was  bom  at  York  ai)out  the  year 
1624,  and  educated  at  Emmanuel  College,  Cam- 
bridge     Very  litUe  is  known  regarding  his  life. 


In  1662,  he  figures  as  preacher  in  the  church  of 
St  Michael  le  Queme,  in  London ;  but  was  one  of 
the  2000  ministers  whom  the  Act  of  Uniformity 
compelled  to  leave  the  Church  of  England.  Subse- 
quently, he  retired  to  Holland,  and  died  at 
Amsterdam  in  1679.  His  principal  work,  Synopeie 
CriUeorum  Biblicorum  (5  vols.  foL  1669—1676),  is 
an  attempt  to  bring  together  in  a  condensed  form 
the  opinion  of  150  oibhcid  critics  of  all  times  and 
countries  previous  to  his  own.  It  is  a  work  shewing 
great  (professional)  learning,  and  very  respectable 
talent ;  but  later  criticism  and  research  have  done 
much  to  render  it  obsolete.  Other  productions  of 
P.'s  are  Annotations  on  Scripture,  and  The  NuUity 
oftlte  Roman  Faith, 

POCNA,  or  PUNA,  the  capital  of  a  district 
of  British  India,  of  the  same  name,  in  the  presi- 
dency of  Bombay,  is  situated  on  the  small  river 
Moota,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Moola,  in  a 
treeless  plain  about  74  miles  south-east  of  Bombay. 
Its  present  population  is  estimated  at  about  100,000 ; 
but  in  its  palmy' days,  when  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  Mahratta  power,  it  contained  twice  that 
number.  A  large  proportion  of  the  population  con- 
sists of  Brahmaus.  The  city  is  divided  into  seven 
quarters,  named  after  the  davs  of  the  week,  and  the 
principal  building  is  a  palatial  structure,  formerly  the 
residence  of  the  Peishwah.  Its  climate  is  salubrious 
and  pleasant,  and  it  is  the  headquaiters  of  the 
Bombay  army.  The  cantonment  for  the  infantry 
and  horse-artillery  is  from  one  to  two  miles  west  of 
the  city.  The  cantonment  for  the  cavalry  is  at  the 
village  of  Kirkee,  about  two  miles  to  the  north-east 
of  the  city.  In  1821,  soon  after  P.  came  into  the 
possession  of  the  British,  a  college  was  established 
tor  tiie  study  of  Sanscrit  literature,  in  the  hope  that 
the  disaffected  Brahmans  (who  had  been  all-power- 
ful imder  the  Peishwah)  might  be  thus  conciliated. 
As  the  modes  of  instruction  originally  adopted  were 
entirely  native,  and  far  from  efficient,  the  college 
has  gradually  been  transformed.  At  present,  it 
possesses  a  staff  of  European  professors  with  native 
assistants,  and  is  a  highly  respectable  seminary  for 
the  study  of  English,  Marathi,  and  Sanscrit  Only 
Brahmaus  were  admissible  into  the  college  as  first 
establi^ed ;  now  it  is  open  to  the  public  generally. 
P.  is  very  much  resorted  to,  particularly  in  the 
rainy  season  (from  June  till  October)  on  account  of 
its  pleasant  and  salubrious  climate.  The  fall  of  rain 
averages  from  22  to  25  inches  annually  ;  whereas  at 
Bombay  it  is  about  four  times  as  great  The  range 
of  the  Ghauts  (properly  called  the  Sahyadree  range) 
which  rises  up  as  a  precipitous  barrier  2000  feet 
hish,  with  peaks  consideraoly  higher,  receives  the 
fuU  burst  of  the  monsoon ;  so  that  Khandalla  on 
the  top  of  the  Ghauts  is  drenched  with  almost  per- 
petuid  rain  for  four  months.  Then  the  clouds  pass 
on,  relieved  of  their  watery  burden,  and  the  rainfall 
eastwsurd  of  the  Ghauts  is  much  less.  From  the 
Ghauts,  the  whole  countiy  gradually  slopes  towards 
the  Bay  of  Bengal  P.  is  about  1800  feet  above  the 
sea-leveL  One  of  the  most  interesting  objects  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  P.  is  a  large  bund,  or  embank- 
ment, solidly  built  of  hewn  stone  over  the  Moota- 
moola  river  for  the  purpose  of  providing  a  supply  of 
water  for  the  cantonment,  and  especially  the  bazaar 
or  native  town  connected  with  it  It  was  built  by 
the  late  Sir  Jamsetiee  Jeejeebhoy,  whose  charities 
were  very  great  Two  forts  celebrated  in  Maratha 
history  are  close  to  Poona-Singhur,  about  12 
miles  to  the  south-east,  and  Poorundur,  about 
18  miles  to  the  south.  These  are  favourite 
sanataria  during  the  hot  season  (from  the  end  of 
February  to  June).  At  Poorundur  there  is  a  sana- 
tarium  of  considerable  size  for  sick  soldiers.  P.  was 
formerly  a  great  mart  for  jewellery  and  precious 

075 


POONA-WOOD-POOR  AND  POOR-LAWa 


ttones,  but  the  trade  in  these  things  hss  anite 
ceased.  The  native  manofactures  have  also  oeen 
supplanted  by  tLe  introduction  of  European  piece- 
goods,  and  tiie  only  business  that  prospers  is  that 
of  dealers  in  grain  and  other  agricultural  produce. 
The  railway  has  rendered  P.  umost  a  suburb  of 
Bombay.  The  works  by  which  the  railway  climbs 
up  the  great  mountain-barrier  of  the  Ghauts  from 
the  low  lands  of  the  Konkan  to  the  high  table>land 
of  the  Deccan  are  among  the  boldest  that  have  as 
yet  been  undertaken.  The  line  up  the  Ghauts  was 
opened  in  April  1863. 

At  present,  great  alterations  are  taking  place 
around  Foona.  The  native  city  has  not  of  late 
vears  greatly  altered,  except  that  the  streets  have 
been  widened  and  cleaned  ;  but  the  cantonment  is 
changing  rapidly.  The  number  of  new  buildings 
reared  within  the  last  three  or  four  years  is  very 
great  Among  the  most  striking  of  these  will  be, 
when  it  is  huished,  the  Government  Collie — a 
Gothic  building,  erected  mainly  at  the  expense  of 
Sir  Jamsetjee  Jeejeebhoy.  While  speaking  of  educa- 
tion in  Poona,  it  is  but  fair  to  the  Scottish  mission 
to  say  that  it  commenced  Endish  education  in  P. 
soon  after  the  mission  was  established  (in  1831),  and 
has  all  along  carried  it  on.  The  schools  of  the 
mission,  both  male  and  female,  both  for  English  and 
the  vernacular  (Marathi),  are  largely  attended,  even 
by  the  highest  castes.  The  female  pupils  are 
upwards  of  300  in  number;  and  one  school  con- 
sists of  Musulman  girls.  The  Musulmans  in  India 
generally  are  far  behind  both  Hindoos  and  Parsees 
m  their  desire  to  educate  the  females ;  in  fact,  a 
Musulman  female  school  is  as  yet  exceedingly  rare. 

POONA- WOOD  is  the  timber  of  the  Poon  trees 
of  India  {Calophyllum  inophyUum  and  (7.  augtuti- 
/olium).  It  is  ver^  commonly  used  in  the  East 
Indies,  particularly  in  sbip-building,  for  planks  and 
spars;  these  latter  are  usually  called  Poon,  and 
are  in  general  use  for  masts  in  that  country.  The 
trees  are  natives  of  Penang,  and  of  the  countries 
eastward  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal 

POOP,  in  large  vessels,  is  a  sort  of  supplemental 
deck  raised  over  the  after-part  of  the  upper  deck. 
The  best  cabins  are  situated  beneath  it  In  old 
ships,  a  second  and  even  a  third  poop  were  raised 
above  the  hinder  part  of  the  poop  proper,  giving 
the  vessels  that  immense  hei^t  at  the  stem  which 
is  shewn  in  old  drawing&  The  poop  is  graduaJily 
disappearing  from  ships  built  either  for  speed  or 
war,  as  offering  undue  resistance  to  the  wind  in 
one  case,  and  an  imdesirable  mark  to  an  enemy  in 
the  other. 

POOR  AND  POOR-LAWS.  Charity,  like 
Christianity,  had  its  origin,  or  earliest  development, 
in  the  East.  Among  the  primitive  nations  of  the 
world,  almsgiving  was  inculcated  as  a  religious 
observance,  and  is  prescribed  as  such  in  their  sacred 
records.  Among  the  European  nations  of  antiquity, 
we  find  a  provision  for  the  poor  adopted  as  a  matter 
of  state  policy.  In  early  times,  Athens  could  boast 
of  having  no  citizen  in  want;  'nor  did  any 
disgrace  the  nation  by  begging.'  But  war,  at 
length,  brought  poverty  in  its  train,  and  the 
Athenian  people  decreed  the  maintenance  of  those 
who  were  mutilated  in  battle ;  and,  at  a  later  period, 
of  the  children  of  those  who  feU.  Plutarch  mentions 
Peisistratos  as  the  originator  of  the  first  decree, 
though  others  derive  it  from  Solon.  By  the  latter 
decree,  the  state  provided  for  the  orphans  of  its 
soldiers  up  to  their  eighteenth  year,  and  then  sent 
them  into  the  world  with  a  new  suit  of  armour. 
The  bounj^  given  to  the  disabled  is  mentioned  by 
Lysias,  Harpocratian,  Aristotle,  Isocrates,  and 
others;  and  is  variously  stated  at  one,  two,  and 


three  oboli  a  day,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  increiied 
with  the  increased  cost  of  subaiskence.  Then  wen 
also  sodeties  for  the  refief  of  distress  amoog  ^ 
democratic  states  of  Greece,  called  £kanos— &  Bort 
of  friendly  society,  in  which  the  members  relieved 
were  expected  to  pay  back  the  money  advaoeed  to 
them,  when  they  had  raised  themselves  to  betia 
ciroumstanoes.  But  it  most  be  remembered  that 
these  so-csUed  democratic  states  were  in  reality 
slave-holding  aristocracies. 

Am<mg  the  Romans,  the  Agrarian  and  licimia 
laws  (years  of  Rome  268  and  338)  were  fruned  is 
order  to  prevent  the  extremes  of  riches  and  poTsrty 
in  the  state.  Thev  limited  the  extent  of  jMODerty 
in  public  land  to  oe  held  bv  each  citizen,  ana  the 
latter  directed  that  all  such  land,  above  the  allotted 
portion,  should  be  taken  away  from  the  hdderi,  and 
given  to  those  who  had  none.  The  distribation  d 
grain  at  reduced  prices,  which  at  length  becasis 

Satuitous,  was  in^oduced  by  Cains  Giaodms,  lod 
ited  till  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire.  Asgiiatas 
in  vain  tried  to  suppress  it.  In  his  time,  ^000 
citizens  were  thus  fed.  Cicero  makes  meotion  d 
this  provision  as  in  great  favour  with  the  Room 
people,  because  it  furnished  them  with  an  abuidint 
subsistence  without  labour ;  other  Roman  wiiten 
describe  its  results  as  disastrous  both  to  sgncoItarB 
and  manners,  creating  a  nation  of  mendicanta,  and 
causing  the  land  to  fall  out  of  cultivatioD. 

In  the  middle  s^es,  the  great  bodv  of  tiie  labGa^ 
ing  classes  were  in  a  state  of  bonda^  and  loobed 
to  their  feudal  lords  for  m&intenance.  The  obliga- 
tion to  provide  for  their  slaves,  or  Ber&,  seeois  to 
have  been  fully  recognised,  so  that  many  enoous* 


tering,  in  a  state 


recognise 
of  n-eedi 


om,  tiie  miseries  of  vaoti 


went  back  to  bondage  as  a  refuge  from  destatotioD. 
The  villeins  in  Saxon  Elngland  were  attached  to 
the  soU,  and  received  from  their  lord  a  portiua  d 
land  for  the  support  of  themselves  and  their  familiei 
But  the  church  of  Rome  constituted  heradf  the 
great  receiver  and  dispenser  of  alms.  Tbs  lidi 
monasteries  and  abbeys  distributed  ddles  to  the 
poor.  Fuller,  in  his  Church  HUtary,  says  that 
these  alms  *  made  and  maintained  the  poor,'  so  that 
beggary  became  a  trade  to  which  an  apprenticeship 
was  served ;  and  Mr  Hallam,  in  his  VonttUu&mol 
ffisUxry,  says  the  blind  eleemosynary  spirit  of  the 
church  *  was  the  cause,  not  the  cure  of  oegguj  lod 
wretchedness.' 

In  the  Catholic  states  of  Europe  at  the  piwnfc 
day,  the  church  still  remains,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
public  almoner.  In  Rc»me,  a  Commission  of  Aids 
has  the  general  direction  and  administration  of  the 
principu  public  charitieei  It  is  composed  of  a 
cardinal>president  and  15  members,  among  whom 
is  the  pope's  chaplain*  The  city  is  divioed  into 
twedve  districts,  over  each  of  which  a  member  of 
the  central  council  presides.  Each  parish  is  repie- 
sented  by  its  cur6  and  two  deputies — a  layman  and 
a  dame  de  chariU,  named  for  three  yean  and  hasa 
secretary  and  a  steward  or  treasurer,  who  an 
paid.  The  alms  are  given  in  money,  tools,  and 
clothes.  Requests  for  assistance  are  addressed  to 
the  parochial  body,  from  which  they  are  sent  to  tbs 
distnct,  and  thence  to  the  central  oounoL  TIm 
more  urgent  cases  are  referred  to  the  caidinal-pn* 
sident,  or  the  cur6  of  the  parish.  Three  brothfr 
hoods  search  out  cases  of  hidden  poverty ;  and  set 
only  do  all  the  religious  associations,  convents,  aad 
monasteries  distribute  relief,  but  there  is  hardly  • 
noble  or  wealthy  house  which  does  not  take  a 
reffular  part  in  the  assistance  of  the  pooi^ 

In  Spain,  the  state  supports  sev^al  asjioms  f? 
lunatics,  the  blind,  and  deaf  and  dumb.  It  al« 
distributes  a  large  sum  annually  among  theprorincs 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor —each  province  bsQg  boiad 


POOR  AND  POOB-LAWSL 


to  raise  doable  the  amonnt  received  from  the 
etate.  The  state  also  steps  in  for  the  relief  of  great 
calamities,  and  devotes  a  certain  som  annoallv 
for  the  anistance  of  unfortunate  Spaniards  abroad. 
A  general  directory  of  the  charitable  and  sanitary 
services  superintends  the  parochial  bodies  chaiged 
with  the  distribution  of  assistance  to  the  poor. 

In  Austria,  each  commune  is  charged  with  the 
relief  of  its  noor.  All  who  have  legal  domicile, 
or  being  unable  to  prove  their  domicile,  are  resident 
in  the  commune,  are  entitled  to  relief  ont  of  the 
general  assessmentb  There  is  no  special  rate,  and 
the  administration  is  strictly  municipal.  In  many 
provinces,  private  charity  is  associated  with  public 
assistance,  administered  by  the  cur6,  a  few  cnosen 
inhabitants,  who  are  caU^  *  Fathers  of  the  Poor,' 
and  an  officer  accountable  to  the  coomiune.  This 
system  is  called  the  'Poor's  Institutes;*  and  their 
funds  are  principally  derived  from  private  sources ; 
but  they  receive  a  third  part  of  the  property  of 
ecclesiastics  who  die  intestate,  and  certain  nnes,  &c. 
Applicants  are  subjected  to  minute  inquiry  as  to 
the  cause  of  poverty,  and  a  weekly  allowance  is 
made  on  a  scale  according  to  age  and  necessity.  The 
infirm  poor,  who  have  no  relatives  to  reside  with, 
are  taken  into  hospitals  established  in  almost  every 
commune,  where  they  receive,  besides  lodging,  fire 
and  light,  clothing,  medical  care,  and  a  sm^  allow- 
ance in  monev  to  provide  for  their  food  and  other 
wants.  Children  are  either  provided  for  in  the 
homes  of  their  parents,  put  into  asylums,  or  boarded 
with  people  of  probity,  who  receive  a  monthl^r  pay- 
ment, as  in  Scotland.  The  welfare  of  these  children 
is  superintended  by  the  cur6s,  the  maires,  and  the 
sanitary  officers  of  the  commune.  Foundling,  luna- 
tics, the  blind,  deaf,  and  dumb,  are  provided  for  by 
the  state.  Vagrancy  is  punished,  and  parents  per- 
mitting children  under  fourteen  to  beg  are  liable  to 
three  months*  imprisonment  Able-bodied  vagrants 
are  sent  to  houses  of  correction,  and  kept  to  work. 
Pawnbroking  is  a  charitable  institution  m  Austria, 
under  government  control ;  and  many  pawnbroking 
establishments  rest  on  endowments,  and  lend 
without  interest  The  trade  is  forbidden  to  private 
persons. 

In  France,  the  relief  of  the  poor  is  not  com- 
pnlsory,  in  as  far  as  its  distributors  may,  after 
making  inquiry,  refuse  relief,  except  in  the  case  of 
foundlmgs  and  lunatics.  The  Minister  of  the 
Interior  has  a  ceneral  superintendence  of  the 
machinery  of  renef,  as  well  as  the  immediate 
admtnistnttion  of  many  larse  hospitals  and  refuges. 
He  also  assists  a  great  number  of  private  charities. 
The  other  ministers  of  state  give  assistance  on  the 
occurrence  of  sreat  calamities.  The  departmental 
funds  are  called  upon  for  the  compulsory  relief,  but 
the  commune  is  the  main  source  of  public  assistance. 
Its  duty  is  to  see  that  no  real  suffering  remains  unre- 
lieved, and  that  the  nature  of  the  relief  is  such  as 
can  most  easily  be  discontinued  when  the  necessity 
ceases.  The  commune  encourages  and  stimulates 
voluntary  charities,  and  receives  gifts  for  the  benefit 
of  the  poor's  funds.  Except  in  Paris,  the  administra- 
tion of  the  hospitals,  and  of  the  relief  given  at  the 
Iiomes  of  the  poor,  are  under  different  management, 
the  communes  only  interfering  to  supplement  the 
funds  of  the  hospitals,  when  these  are  insufficient 
The  niaire  is  president  both  of  the  administration 
of  the  hospitau  and  of  the  body  for  giving  out-door 
relief  (the  bureau  de  bien/aiMnee),  Dunng  indus- 
trial calamities,  the  poor  are  sometimes  employed  in 
jvorkshops  simport^  by  the  public,  and  m  public 
works.  In  Paris,  since  1849,  there  has  been  a 
responsible  director  set  over  all  the  charities  of  the 
city.  He  manages  the  out-door  reUef  through  the 
m^inM  ol  the  Committees  of  Assistance^  f oimerly 


called  hureauxde  bien/aiaaneefin  each  anxmdissement 
He  is  under  the  inspection  of  a  council,  composed 
as  follows  :  The  Prefect  of  the  Seine  (president),  the 
Prefect  of  Police,  two  members  of  the  Municipal 
Council,  two  maires  or  deputy-maires,  two  memben 
of  the  Committees  of  Assistance,  one  councillor  of 
state  or  a  Master  of  Requests,  one  physician  and 
one  sui^^n  practising  at  tnehospital},  one  professor 
of  medicine,  one  member  of  the  Chamber  of  Com- 
merce, one  member  of  the  Council  of  Prud'hommes, 
and  ^ve  members  taken  from  other  classes  than 
those  above  mentioned.  Begging  is  forbidden,  and 
punished^  wherever  there  are  establishments  for  the 
relief  of  the  poor. 

In  the  Hanse  Towns,  there  was  introduced,  in 
1788,  a  system  of  voluntary  contributions  aided 
by  fixed  subsidies  from  the  government  This  at 
length  resulted  in  government  supplying  all  defi- 
ciencies, which  in  the  last  few  years  have  been  80 
S\T  cent  of  the  cost  of  the  general  poor  lelief.  In 
olland,  pauper  colonies  have  been  supported  by 
government  for  the  last  forty  years.  Vagrants,  after 
a  short  imprisonment,  are  sent  to  one  of  these,  under 
a  system  of  discipline  quite  as  rigorous  as  an  Iriidi 
intermediate  prison.  Paupers  of  good  character  are 
sent  to  maintain  themselves  and  their  families,  by 
agricultural  labour,  in  free  colonies.  The  working 
of  the  system  is  pronounced  costly  and  unsatis&c- 
torv. 

.  In  America,  the  system  is  very  similar  to  our  own. 
Every  man  is  entitled  bv  law  to  relief  from  the 
town  of  his  settlement^  the  rate  being  assessed  on 
whole  towns,  and  not  on  parishes.  The  States  have 
their  own  poor-laws,  but  paupers  are  removable 
from  one  state  to  another.  Any  American  becoming 
a  pauper  loses  his  state  rights.  The  acts  concerning 
Workhouses  and  Paupers  in  the  Revised  Code  of 
Massachusetts  may  be  taken  to  represent  generally 
the  state  of  the  law  throughout  the  Union.  The 
former  provides  '  that  any  town  may  erect  or  provide 
a  workhouse  for  the  employment  and  support  of  all 
poor  and  indigent  persons  that  are  maintained  by, 
or  receive  alms  from  the  town;  all  persons  who 
being  able  to  work,  and  not  having  means  to  main- 
tain themselves,  refuse  or  neglect  to  work ;  all 
persons  who  live  a  dissolute  vagrant  life,  and  exercise 
no  ordinary  calling  or  lawful  business ;  and  all  such 
persons  as  spend  their  time  and  property  in  public- 
houses,  to  the  neglect  of  their  proper  business,  or 
by  otherwise  mis-spending  what  they  earn,  to  the 
impoverishment  of  themselves  and  their  families, 
are  likely  to  become  chargeable  to  the  town  or  the 
oommonweaUh.^  The  idle  and  the  vagrant  may  be 
committed  to  the  workhouse,  and  kept  to  labour,  as 
in  a  house  of  correction.  There  are  provisions  for 
enforcing  the  claims  of  kindred,  and  for  the  imme- 
diate reuef  of  strangers.  The  administration  is  in  ^ 
the  hands  of  overseers,  who  have  discretion  as  to 
the  mode  of  relief.  * 

The  annals  of  the  poor  in  England  are  neither 
short  nor  simple.  Severe  enactments  for  the  repres- 
sion of  vagabondage  and  mendicity  date  from  a 
very  early  period.  In  ancient  Saxon  times,  the 
householder  was  bound  to  provide  for  the  labourer, 
and  men  who  had  no  master  were,  by  the  Folkmote, 
assigned  to  some  householder;  but  when  freedom 
began  to  prevail,  this  state  of  things  naturally  came 
to  an  end.  No  master  was  bound  to  provide  for 
the  freeman,  and  when  he  failed  to  provide  for 
himself,  by  honest  labour,  he  generally  took  to 
vagrant  begging,  often  to  violence.  The  statute  of 
Wmchester  (13th  Ed.  L,  1285)  shews  the  poor  utteriy 
uncared  for,  and  the  roads  infested  W  vagrant 
robbers.  Up  to  the  reign  of  Richard  IL,  the  sole 
idea  of  Ensiiidi  rulers  was  to  treat  pauperism  as 
a  crime,  ana  repress  it  by  punishment^  and  by  the 


POOR  AND  POOR-LAWS. 


muit  UB  {oflt  «nd  absnid  reBtrictionB  on  the  freedom 
of  iftbonr.  The  23d  Ed.  IIL  forbids  civins  alma 
to  vagrants,  on  pain  of  imprisonment ;  tnen  luso  the 
laws  of  settlement  had  their  oriein  in  the  attempt 
to  chain  the  free  labourer  to  the  land.  See  S£TTLK- 
MENT.  The  12fch  Richard  IL  (1388),  c.  7,  is  the  first 
statute  that  makes  provision  for  the  impotent  poor. 
The  statutes  of  Henry  VIL  endeavour  to  carry 
out,  by  the  severest  measures,  the  system  of  repres- 
sion. The  27th  Henry  VIIL,  a  25  (1535),  intro- 
duced the  principle  of  compulsory  assistance,  though 
it  was  by  way  of  voluntary  alma  Each  parish  was 
ordered  to  receive  and  provide  for  the  impotent,  and 
set  the  able-bodied  to  work.  Alms  were  to  be 
collected  into  a  general  fund,  and  indiscriminate 
alms^ving  was  forbidden,  on  pain  of  forfeiture  of 
ten  times  the  value  given.  The  sturdy  beggar  was 
treated  without  mercy,  was  to  be  whipped  when 
first  caught,  next  to  have  his  ear  cropped,  and  for 
a  third  onenoe,  to  suffer  death,  as  a  felon  and  enemy 
to  the  commonwealth.  This  is  repealed  by  Ist  Ed. 
VI.,  c.  3  (1547),  because,  *  through  foolish  pity,  it  is 
rendered  of  non-effect.'  Not  much  milder,  to 
modem  ideas,  seem  the  substituted  penalties — ^viz., 
branding,  on  first  conviction,  with  a  V  on  the 
shoulder,  and  being  adjudged  a  slave  for  two  years, 
to  be  claimed  by  any  one,  fed  on  bread  and  water, 
and  caused  to  work  by  beating,  &c.  Running  away 
from  this  tender  treatment  was  punishable  with  S 
branded  on  the  face,  and  slavery  for  life  to  the. 
town  or  parish,  on  the  roads  of  which  the  incor- 
rigible vagrant  was  to  work  in  chains,  at  the  penalty 
of  the  town  or  parish.  Other  two  acts  of  Eldward's 
reign  return  to  earlier  and  considerably  milder 
measures  of  restraint.  A  little  urging  was  now 
found  necessary  to  obtain  funds  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  poor.  The  collectors  were  gently  to  ask 
every  man  and  woman  at  church  what  they  would 
give ;  but  if  one  could  not  be  persuaded,  the  bishop 
was  to  send  for  the  recusant,  and  use  '  charitable 
ways  and  means.'  At  length,  the  5th  Elizabeth 
c.  3  (1563),  provided  that  he  who  obstinately 
refused  to  give  should  be  handed  over  to  the  more 
persuasive  arguments  of  the  justices,  who  were 
empowered  to  tax  him  at  their  discretion,  and  send 
him  to  jail  for  default.  Ten  years  later,  the  power 
of  compulsory  assessment  is  given  to  the  justices, 
and  abiding-places  are  ordered  to  be  provided  for 
the  aged  and  infirm.  These  statutes  culminated  in 
the  43d  Elizabeth,  a  2  (1601),  which  has  formed 
the  basis  of  the  poor-law  system  of  England  np  to 
the  present  time.  It  taxed  every  inhabitant  of 
every  parish  for  the  relief  of  the  poor.  It  directed 
the  justices  in  every  county  to  appoint  three  or  four 
substantial  householders  in  each  parish  to  be  over- 
seers of  the  poor,  along  with  the  churchwardens. 
It  ordered  the  relief  of  the  impotent,  and  the 
apprenticing  of  children,  and  the  providing  of  work 
for  the  able,  by  means  of  '  a  convenient  stock  of  flax, 
hemp,  wool,  thread,  iron,  and  other  necessary  ware 
and  stuff'  The  great  act  of  Elizabeth  came  but 
slowly  into  ox)eration.  Up  to  the  reign  of  (Varies 
L,  there  were  many  parishes  in  which  no  rate  was 
assessed,  and  which  turned  away  their  poor;  but 
the  great  evils  had  been  remedied,  and  there  is 
little  legislation  on  the  subject  for  the  next  hundred 
years.  Th&  3d  William  and  Mary,  o.  2  (1691), 
an  act  relating  chiefly  to  settlement,  provides  that 
the  persons  to  be  relieved  be  registered  and 
examined  by  the  vestry,  because  evils  had  arisen 
but  of  the  unlimited  power  of  the  churchwardens 
and  overseers  giving  relief  'for  their  own  private 
ends,'  by  which  the  diarge  on  the  parish  was  greatly 
increased,  contrary  to  the  true  intent  of  the  statute 
of  Elizabeth.     This  act  also  gave  power  to  the 

justices  to  order  relief  in  cases  of  emergency,  a 
67» 


provision  which  alterwaids  became  a  froitfol  imute 
of  difficulty.     The  evils  henceforth  complained  d 
were,  that  many  had  thrown  themselves  on  theifkes 
who  oueht  to  have  been   supporting  themaeiTtt 
independently  of  such   aid;    tnat  pauper  labour 
was  loond  interfering  with  and  displacing  iLdostiiil 
labour ;  that  the  overseers  were  acting  with  on- 
checked  dishonesty ;  and  justices,  with  unrertraiBed 
liberality,  ordering  the  money  of  the  induatruyu 
and  prudent  to  be  spent  upon  the  idle  and  improvi. 
dent.      Efforts  were  made  to  remedy  these  abosei 
throughout  the  reigns  of  the  first  three  Georges,  by 
making  the   justices  act  with  the  overseen,  hj 
rendering  the  overseers  accountable  to  the  paiish- 
ioners   by  means   of   returns  and   the  power  of 
inspection,  and  by  the  offer  of  the  workhouse  to  all 
applicants  for  rdief.    This  last  provision,  made  is 
the  rekn  of  George  L  (9th  Gea  JL,  a  7, 1723),  sub- 
stituted what  is  CfQled  in-door  relief,  for  the  allow- 
ance  made  to  the  poor  at  their  own  homes,  and 
introduced  the  workhouse  system.     All  wlio  retused 
to  be  lodged  in  the  house,  were  to  be  struck  off  the 
poor's-rou,  and  refused  relieL     A  great  increase  is 
the  number  of  workhouses  took  place;  gnaidiasi 
were  appointed  to  guard  the  pauper  chikhen  from 
ne^ect  and  improper  conduct,  and  other  attempti 
to  improve  their  administration  made;  Work-hou$e 
Unions  were  also  introduced  by  an  act  called  Gil- 
bert's Act  (1782),  and  a  succession  of  acts  passed 
for  the  protection  of  parish  apprentices.    Towards 
the  close  of  the  18th  a  a  great  mazation  took  place 
in  the  treatment  of  the  poor.    The  36th  Qeo.  IIL,  c 
10  and  23  (1796),  increased  the  amount,  and  extended 
the  apphcation  of  reliet     It  repesded  the  act  fo^ 
bidding  relief  to  those  who  refused  the  workhouse, 
and  allowed  relief  to  be  given  in  aid  of  waga. 
Henceforth,  out-door  relief  became  the  rule  under  a 
variety  of  systems,  of  which  the  complaiDt  wis 
justly  made,  that  they  turned  the  poor-taws  into  a 
mode  of  i>aying  wsges.    In  1801,  the  amount  of  tha 
rates  was  reckoned  at  £4,000,00a    In  1830,  it  had 
risen  to  £7,330,254.    In  1817,  a  commission  of  ths 
House  of  Commons  stated  their  opinion,  that,  ankn 
checked,  the  assessment   would   swallow  up  tha 
profits  of  the  land.    Though  the  two  Vestry  Acta, 
which  resulted  from  the  commission  appointed  in 
1817t  seem  to  have  done  something  to  remedy  the 
evils  complained  of,  a  new  commission  to  inqoirB 
into   the   operation  of   the  poor-laws  was  found 
necessary,  and  appointed  in  Tebruary  1832.   The 
evidence  brought  before  this  oommission  reveskd 
a  disastrous  state  of  thiuKS.     The  independence, 
integrity,  industry,   and   domestic  virtue  of  ths 
lower  classes  were  in  some  places  nesily  extinct 
The  great  source  of  the  evil  was  shewn  to  be  the 
relief  afforded   to    the  able-bodied  on  their  ovn 
account,  and  that  of  their  families,  in  aid  of  wagea 
This  aid  at  first  reduced  the  expenditure  in  wages, 
and  found  favour  with  fnurmers  and  msgistratea, 
who  framed  scales  of  relief  in  accordance  with  the 
wants  of  the  people,  so  that  they  b^an  to  be  psid 
for  their  necessities,  and  not  for  their  industry,  and 
fell  into  the  temptation  of  increasing  the  former,  and 
neglecting  the  latter.    Five  modes  of  out-door  relief 
were  found  in  operation :  1.  Relief  without  labour; 
2.  Allowance  given,  in  aid  of  wases,  aooordingto 
the  number   dE   the   labourei's   ninily;    3b  The 
Roundsmen  system,  the  labourers  beug  let  cnt, 
by  the  parish,  among  the  emnloyers  round ;  4  Parish 
work,  generally  on  the  roa^ ;  fi.  The  laboor-istei 
the  ratepayers  preferring    to   divide  among  them 
the  pauper  labour,  and  to  pay  for  it,  however  value* 
less,  instead  of  raising  a  rate.    Diminished  industry 
ate  away  the  very  root  of  capital.    Farmeis  tazn^ 
off  their  men,  or  refused  to  employ  them  at  tair 
wages,  thereby  causing  a  aurplaa  of  naeaiployed 


POOE  AND  POOB-LAWa 


labour  frandnlently ;  they  then  took  them  back 
from  the  parish  at  reduced  wa^ee,  paid  out  of  the 
ratea     Under  the  syatem  of  aUowance,  there  were 
parishes  in  which  every  labourer  was  a  pauper,  paid 
more  for  idleness  than  he  conld  get  for  labour,  paid 
more  if  he  took  a  pauper  wife,  and  still  more  for 
every  pauper  child.    Paupers  married  at  17  and  18 
years  of  age,  and  daimed  the  allowance  the  dav 
after  their  marriage ;  and  from  parish  after  parish 
came  the  reply  to  the  queries  of  the  commissioners : 
'All  our  able-bodied  labourers  receive  allowance.' 
Ko  poor  man  in  such  parishes  could  save ;  if  indus- 
trious and  thrifty,  ana  it  was  known  that  he  had  a 
fund  of  savings,  *  he  would  be  refused  work  till  the 
savings  were  gone,'  and  he  had  come  down  to  the 
pauper  leveL    This  had  gone  on,  till  in  many  places 
pauperism    swallowed    up    three -fourths    of    the 
rent.     Nor  was    the   mal-administration  confined 
to  the  rural  districts ;  the  evidence  shewed  that 
it  extended  all  over  the  country,  and    into  the 
manufacturing  towns,  where   the   out-door    relief 
was  a  source  of  constant  imposture.    The  adminisr 
tration  of  in-door  relief  was  also  full  of  abuses, 
from  want  of  classification,  discipline,  and  employ- 
menti    Better  food  and  lodging  was  provided  for 
idle  paupers  than  working-people  could  procure — 
better,  even,  than  conld  be  afforded  by  many  of 
the  ratepayers.     In    1834,  the   commissioners  re- 
IK>rted  that  they  found  the  administration  *  opposed 
to  the  letter  and  spirit  of  the  law,  and  destructive 
of  the  welfare  of  the  community.*     The  commis- 
sioners strongly  laid  down  the  principle,  that  the 
condition  of  the  pauper  ought  to  be  below  the  lowest 
condition  of  the  mdependent  labourer,  because  every 
penny  bestowed  in  rendering  the  condition  of  the 
former  more  eligible  than  that  of  the  latter,  is  a 
bounty  on  indolence  and  vice,  and  recommended : 
1.  The  cessation  of  out-door  relief;   2.  A  central 
authoritv  to  control  the  administration ;  3.  Unions 
for  the  better  management  of  workhouses,  and  the 
classification  of  their  inmates ;  and  4.  A  complete 
and  clear  system  of  accounts.    The  bill  embodying 
these  recommendations  was  brought  in,  March  17, 
1834,  passed  its  second  reading  m  the  House  of 
Commons  with  only  twenty  dissenting  votes,  and 
became  law  on  the  14th  August  as  the  4th  and  5th 
WilL  IV.  c  76.    This  act  was  not  a  change  of  law, 
but  of  administration.    The  orders  of  the  new  board 
restricted  overseers,  on  the  formation  of  a  union, 
to  the  collection  of  rates ;  appointed  paid  relieving- 
officers  to  dispense  relief  under  the  directions  of  the 
unpaid  Boards  of  Guardians ;  required  the  gradual 
-witbdrawid  of  out-door  relief ;  and  enforced  classi- 
fication and  discipline  in  the  workhouses.    A  rapid 
formation  of  unions  took  place  under  the  new  boaurd. 
In  ^e  first  eight  months,  112  were  formed  out  of 
20^  parishes.    The  pauperised  districts  experienced 
a  great  and  immediate  relief,  numbers  of  paupers 
going  off  when  they  found  that  relief  involved  ade- 
quate work,  or  the  strictly-disciplined  workhouse ; 
wages  rose,  and  the  expenditure  was  reduced,  on  an 
aTerage,  20  per  cent.    At  the  accession  of  George  I. 
in  1714,  the  poor-rates  amounted,  as  nearly  as  can 
be   estimated,  to  £950,000,  equal  to  3s.  3id.  per 
head   on    the    population   of    5,750,000.      At  the 
accession  of  George  IIL  in  1760,  the  population  had 
increased  to  7,000,000,  the  poor-rates  to  £1,250,000 
— an    average    of   Sf.    6}d.  ;    while   in    18id4,  the 
population,  estimated  from  the  last   census,  was 
14,372,000,    and    the   money    expended    in    relief, 
^£6,317,255— equal  to  8s.  9icL  per  head.    In  three 
years,  the  operation  of  the  Amendment  Act  had 
reduced  the  expenditure  one-third,  viz.,  to  £4,044,741. 
In  1848,  the  commissioners  were  exchanged  for  a 
pdblic   board,  which  is  Que    of   the   government 
departments,  with  a  president,  in  whom  has  been 


vested  the  power  of  the  commissioners,  and  whc 
holds  office  as  one  of  the  ministers  ot  the  crown 
There  are  631  uniona  In  1860—1861,  the  num* 
ber  of  poor  receiving  relief  in  England  was  about 
850,000,  about  4^  per  cent,  on  the  population :  of 
these,  about  140,000  were  relieved  in  workhouses. 
The  commissioners  were  unable  to  withdraw  out- 
door relief,  which  continues  to  be  in  England  the 
most  important  item.  With  the  aged,  the  sick,  and 
orphans,  the  guardians  deal  at  their  discretion: 
but  stringent  rules  for  the  relief  of  the  able-bodied 
aro  in  operation  under  the  board,  whose  orders  have 
the  force  of  laws.  In  the  rural  districts,  guardians 
are  prohibited  from  giving  relief  to  the  able-bodied 
out  of  the  house,  unless  under  a  supplemental  order, 
in  emergency.  For  other  places,  the  general  rule 
forbids  relief  to  be  given  in  aid  of  wages,  and 
requires  work  to  be  supplied.  Exceptions  are 
made  by  the  board  on  the  application  of  the  unions 
when  necessity  arises,  as  m  the  recent  case  of 
the  cotton  districts.  The  expenditure  is  strictly 
guarded  and  examined  by  public  auditors,  of 
whom  there  are  fifty-fotlr  for  England.  A  district 
medical  officer,  of  whom  one  or  more  are  appointed 
for  each  union,  attends  to  all  cases  of  sickness 
among  the  poor. 

Scotland  and  Ireland  have  been  legislated  for 
separately.  Their  poor-laws  are  simuar  to  the 
English  in  principle  and  practice ;  both  are  admin- 
istered by  a  Central  Board,  which  supervises  the 
local  bodies  charsed  with  relief,  and  in  both 
the  rate  is  levied  on  the  annual  value  of  real 
property.  The  present  system  in  Scotland  was 
instituted  by  the  8th  and  9th  Vict  c.  83  (1845). 
Scotland  is  divided  into  883  parishes,  some  of  them 
combined  for  workhouse  accommodation.  The 
relief  is  administered  by  a  parochial  board,  appointed 
by  the  ratepayers,  the  burgh  magistrates,  and  the 
kirk-session.  They  am)oint  inspectors  of  the  poor, 
who  act  as  relieving-omcers.  The  Scotch  law  differs 
from  the  English  and  Irish  in  allowing  no  relief  to 
able-bodied  aidults.  Claimants  must  be  aged,  infirm, 
or  disabled.  Out-door  relief  is  the  rule.  Since  the 
introduction  of  the  poor-law  system  into  Scotland, 
the  extreme  misery  which  formerly  prevailed  has 
been  greatly  modified,  though  with  some  sacrifice  of 
that  independence  of  feeling  for  which  the  humbler 
orders  of  Scotch  were  at  one  time  celebrated.  As 
regards  the  working  of  the  Scottish  poor-law,  its 
great  and  acknowledged  defect  is  the  constant 
and  costly  contest  respecting  settlements,  or  right 
to  fix  claims  on  particular  parishes ;  and  so  grevious 
has  this  become  that  some  remedy  would  need 
to  be  applied.  In  1862,  Scotland  had  bnly  39 
workhouses,  in  connection  with  188  parishes. — 
Ireland  had  no  poor-laws  until  the  year  1838, 
when  they  were  introduced  by  the  1st  and  2d 
Vict  c.  56.  For  the  purpose  of  relief,  Ireland  is 
divided  into  163  unions  of  townlands  or  parishes. 
Each  union  has  a  workhouse  managed  by  a  Board 
of  Guardians,  elected  by  the  ratepayers.  Every 
destitute  person  has  an  absolute  right  to  relief, 
which  is  administered  almost  entirely  in  the  work- 
house. The  average  yearly  population  of  the  United 
Kingdom  during  the  ten  years  ending  1860,  was 
28,104,000;  average  paupers  in  each  year,  1,109,275, 
or  3^  per  cent    They  were  apportioned  as  follow : 


England,      • 
Scotland,  • 
Ireland,       • 


18,901.000 
3,009,000 
6,193,000 


Paapcn. 


899.671 

130,624 

96,880 


4*7 
4» 

1*6 


The  total  expenditurs  in  the  United  Kingdom  during 
the  ten  years  was  £67,341,921,  or  an  annual  charge 

679 


Fooa 


of  4&  91<i  per  head  on  the  avenge  popuktioii  of 
the  period,  apportioned  as  under : 


England  and  Walei^ 
beotland,     .       • 
Irrland,  .       •       • 


M,767,flS 
6.917,634 
6,666,7i5 


The  rate,  which  in  the  year  ending  25th  March 
1861,  was  59.  9c2.  per  head  on  the  population, 
amounted  to  £5J78,943,  rose  in  1862  to  6«.  per 
head,  amountinff  to  £6,077,927,  and  in  1863,  to 
6«.  4i(L,  amounting  to  £6,527,036.  The  reports  for 
these  years  shew  that  this  increase  is  entirely  due 
to  the  distress  in  the  cotton  mannf  aoturing  districts. 
There  is  no  poor-law  in  our  Australian  colonies, 
but  benevolent  asylums  for  the  infirm  and  destitute 
have  become  general,  and  hospitals  are  numerous  in 
all  the  rising  towns  in  the  cold-fields. — Compare 
Bockh*8  Public  JScommy  of  Athens,  translated  b^ 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis ;  M.  Dureau  de  la  Mall*s  Econamte 
Politique  des  Bomaina  ;  Beport  of  the  International 
Statistical  Congress  (1862) ;  Dictionnaire  de  V Admi- 
nistration Franfaise  (Paris,  V.  Berger-Levzault 
et  FUs) ;  Sir  Oeoise  Nichd's  History  of  the  Poor- 
laws;  Report  (ff  the  Poor-law  Commissioners 
(1835) ;  Reports  of  the  Poor-law  Commission  and 
Poor-law  Board  from  1835  to  1862. 

POOR,  General  Laws  as  to.  The  fundamental' 
rule  as  to  the  relief  of  the  poor  is,  that  each  parish 
in  Eiigland  and  Wales  is  bound  to  maintain  its  own 
poor.  For  the  purpose  of  providing  the  requisite 
madiinery,  overseen  are  required  to  be  appointed 
in  each  parish  every  year  on  the  25th  March,  or 
within  a  fortnight  following ;  and  these,  along  with 
the  churchwardens,  who  are  ex  officio^  overseers, 
have  the  duty  of  providing  the  requisite  funds. 
8ee  OvBitissERS.  This  is  done  by  means  of  a  poor- 
rate,  which  the  churchwardens  and  overseers  may 
levy  on  all  the  occupiers  of  land  in  the  parish,  after 
such  rate  has  been  confirmed  by  the  justices.  The 
nte  specifies  a  certain  sum  in  the  pound  which 
is  to  be  levied,  and  l^e  annual  value  of  the  various 
lands  is  then  specified,  and  the  amount  is  thus 
easily  computed.  The  nte  is  thus  a  local  tax  on 
the  occupier  of  the  land,  and  not  on  the  owner, 
unless  he  himself  is  also  occupier.  In  all  cases,  the 
duty  of  raising  the  funds  attaches  to  the  overseers ; 
but  the  actual  distribution  and  application  of  ^  them 
are  not  always  in  their  immediate  controL  Owing  to 
the  mischiefs  arising  from  the  officials  of  each  pariah 
distributing  the  funda  at  their  discretion,  without 
nniformity  of  plan,  a  central  controlling  power  was 
created  in  1834,  in  the  shape  of  the  Poor-law  Board ; 
and  authority  was  given  to  combine  various  parishes 
into  one  poor-law  union,  for  the  purpose  of  greater 
uniformity  as  well  as  economy.  When  a  union  is 
formed,  the  control  of  the  expenditure  is  chiefly 
vested  in  the  guardians  of  this  union,  who  aro 
elected  by  each  parish,  and  who  supervise  the  man- 
agement of  the  union  workhouse.  They  order  the 
overseers  of  each  parish  to  raise  their  due  propor- 
tion of  funds,  by  a  contribution  order  issued  to  such 
overseers,  who  are  thereon  bound  to  levy  the 
amount  by  including  it  in  the  next  poor-rate.  The 
guardians  are  bound  to  contract  for  the  provisions, 
clothing,  fuel,  &c,  supplied  to  the  workhouse,  by 
means  of  sealed  tenders,  unless  the  quantity  is  less 
than  a  stated  amount  They  pay  all  the  expenses 
of  prosecutions  for  disobeying  tiie  orders  of  the 
Poor-law  Board  and  kindred  onences.  The  principle 
on  which  relief  is  administered  to  the  poor  is,  that 
the  condition  of  the  pauper  should  not  be  so  com- 
fortable as  that  of  the  lowest  independent  labourer; 


otherwiae^  idleneia  and  impoatore  would  be  en- 
oonraged  to  an  indefinite  extents  The  goardiani 
profess  only  to  relieve  destitntion  already  exitdpg, 
and  not  to  enable  persona  to  keep  off  impending 
destitntion.  Hence  they  only  supply  ^e  bare 
necessaries  of  lifeu  They  cannot,  for  examplf, 
advance  or  lend  moncry  to  set  op  a  poor  person  ia 
ttad&  Minute  regulations  are  contained  in  the  con- 
solidated orders  of  the  Poor-law  Board  as  to  the 
classification  of  paters  in  the  workhouae,  mode  of 
admission,  diet,  discipline,  and  out-door  reliel  With 
regard  to  out-door  relief  and  able-bodied  paapera,  it 
is  provided,  that  every  able-bodied  person  reqniriog 
rehef  from  any  parish,  shall  be  reheved  wholly  in 
the  workhouse,  together  with  his  wife  and  family, 
if  any;  and  if  not  otherwise  eniployed.  But  tos 
relief  may  be  given  out  of  doors  in  cases  of  auddoi 
and  urgent  necessity,  of  sickness,  accident,  and  a 
few  other  cases.  In  general,  relief  ia  confined  to 
persons  actually  residing  in  some  place  within  tiie 
union,  except  in  case  of  casnaf  destitntion,  or 
sickness  ana  accidentb  Whenever  out-door  relief 
is  given  to  an  able-bodied  person,  half  of  it  is  to  be 
in  the  foim  of  articles  of  food  or  fuel  Relief  is  givea 
only  weekly,  where  the  nauper  is  not  ret^iured  to  be 
received  into  the  worknous&  No  rehef  ia  to  be 
given  to  able-bodied  persons  while  they  are  emploved 
for  wages  or  hire  by  any  person ;  and  every  able- 
bodied  male  person,  if  relieved  out  of  the  work- 
house, shall  be  set  to  work  by  the  guardians,  and 
kept  so  employed  while  he  continues  to  receive  sodi 
leliel  The  law  with  regard  to  the  relief  of  the 
poor  is  so  far  qualified,  that  wherever  a  person 
applies  for  parochial  relief,  if  he  or  she  haa  a  father 
or  grandfauier,  mother  or  grandmother,  or  child, 
who  is  able  to  maintain  such  pauper,  then  the 
parish  officers  can  obtain  an  order  from  jnstioes 
to  compel  such  relative  to  contribute  a  sum  towards 
such  maintenance.  So  husbands  or  fathers  of 
paupers  are  bound  to  contribute  to  such  xnaintenanee. 
in  aU  cases,  the  pauper  is  relieved  either  in  the 
workhouse  or  out  of  the  workhouse,  according  to 
the  regulations  of  the  poor-law  orders  In  eome 
cases,  the  guardians  or  overseers  may  employ  the 
poor  in  public  works ;  but  this  is  seldom  done,  ex- 
cept on  occasions  like  the  Lancashire  distresa  The 
law  as  to  the  settlement  of  the  poor  is  aomewhat 
intricate,  and  gives  rise  to  much  litigation.  There 
are  various  grounds  on  which  this  settlement  is 
acquir^  Thus,  every  person  has,  primd  faot^ 
a  settlement  in  the  parish  where  he  was  bom,  until 
some  other  is  proved ;  and  there  are  so  many  other 
qualifications,  that  it  is  seldom  a  birth- settiement 
is  resorted  ta  By  marriage,  a  woman  immediately 
acquires  the  settlement  of  her  husband,  if  he  has 
one,  whether  the  husband  be  an  Englishman  or 
a  f oreiffner.  If  the  husband  has  no  settlement,  then 
the  wife  is  thrown  back  on  her  maiden  settlement. 
Formerly,  a  person  acquired  a  settlement  in  a  pariah 
by  hiring  and  service,  and  by  residence  for  forty 
days  under  such  hiring;  but  since  1834^  no  sncn 
settlement  can  be  acquired.  If  any  person  shall  be 
bound  an  apprentice  oy  indenture,  and  reside  forty 
days  under  such  apprenticeship,  he  or  she  aoquires 
a  settlement  thereby.  So  whoever  shall  rent  a 
tenement  in  a  parish,  and  actually  occupy  the  same, 
and  be  rated  to  the  poor  for  one  whole  year,  the 
rent  being  not  less  than  £10,  and  paid  by  the  petscoi 
so  actually  occupying  the  tenement,  shidl  acquire  a 
settlement.  So  a  person  acquires  a  settlement  by 
aoQuiring  an  estate  m  land,  however  small  in  vafaie^ 
and  resicUng  forty  days  in  the  parish.  So,  if  a  per* 
son  buy  an  estate,  and  the  consideration  amount  to 
£30  at  least,  heshidl  thereby  acquire  a  settlanent 
Formerly,  a  settlement  was  acquired  by  serriag 
a  public  annual  office^  such  as  that  «f  oomrtahli^ 


POOR-RATB-POPIL 


oreneer,  &c. ;  but  no  Bettienient  is  now  acquired  <m 
that  ground.  Unless  a  pauper  has  acquired  a 
settlement  on  one  or  other  of  the  groundiB  before 
mentioned  in  the  parish  or  union  where  he  receives 
relief,  he  is  liable  to  be  removed  compulsorily  to 
the  parish  where  he  last  acquired  a  settlement 
Certain  persons,  however,  cannot  be  removed^  and 
these  are  called  irremovable  paupers.  Such  are 
those  paupers  who  have  resided  for  three  or  more 
years  m  tne  parish  or  union  in  which  they  became 
destitute.  The  mode  of  computing  these  three 
years  is,  however,  somewhat  difficult  in  certain 
caaea  While  a  pauper  is  irremovable,  the  expense 
of  his  relief  is  charged,  not  to  the  parish,  but  to  the 
union  fund.  ^  When  a  pauper  is  soueht  to  be 
removed,  it  is  necessary  to  take  him  oefors  two 
justices  of  the  peace  for  examination;  and  on 
proper  evidence  of  lus  settlement,  the  justices 
will  make  the  order  of  removal,  which  is  an 
authority  to  the  overseers  to  take  or '  send   the 

Smper  to  the  overseers  of  the  parish  of  settiement 
,  nowever,  the  paupjer  is  too  ill  at  the  time  to 
admit  of  removal  without  danger,  the  justices 
may  suspend  the  order  of  removal  tiU  he  is 
recovered  Whenever  a  pauper  is  to  be  removed, 
the  removing  parish  is  bound  to  give  notice  to  the 
parish  of  settlement;  and  it  is  on  these  occasions 
that  so  many  obstinate  and  costly  litigations 
take  place  as  to  which  is  the  parish  of  settle- 
ment»  for  after  a  removal  order,  uie  costs  of  relief 
must  be  borne  in  future  by  the  settlement  parish. 
The  latter  parish  may  appeal  to  the  Court  of 
Quarter-sessions  against  the  removal  order;  and 
the  Quarter-sessions  may  state  a  case  for  the 
opinion  of  the  Court  of  Queen's  Bench,  if  any  nice 
point  of  law  should  arise,  as  frequently  happens. 

In  Scotland,  there  was  no  systematic  provision 
for  the  relief  of  the  poor  until  1845,  when  the 
statute  of  8th  and  9th  Vict  o.  83  waspassed.  By  tins 
statute,  a  central  board  (called  the  Board  of  Super- 
vision) was  established,  which  controls  the  paro^iial 
board  of  each  parish  or  union  of  parishes  in  a 
manner  similar  to  the  Poor-law  Boara  in  England. 
A  settlement  can  be  acxiuired  in  Scotland  by  resi- 
dence of  five  years.  Children  follow  the  settlement 
of  their  parents,  and  wives  that  of  their  husbands ; 
and  if  no  other  settlement  be  proved,  then  the  settle- 
ment of  birth  is  liable.  In  Scotland,  the  mode  of 
assessment  differs  from  that  in  England,  where  only 
the  annual  value  of  lands  and  tenements  can  be 
rated  in  the  hands  of  the  occupier.  The  parochial 
board  had  the  option  of  three  modes  of  assessment : 
1.  One  half  to  be  paid  by  owners,  and  one  half  by  the 
occupiers ;  2.  One  half  to  be  paid  by  owners  of  lands, 
and  the  other  half  to  be  paid  by  au  the  inhabitants, 
accoiduig  to  means  and  substance  other  than  lands ; 
3.  Assessing  owners  of  lands  and  other  inhabitants 
rateably  according  to  their  means  and  substance. 
But  by  a  later  act  of  24th  and  25th  Vict  c.  37,  the 
mode  of  assessing  means  and  substance  is  abolished. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  in  Scotland  the  poor-rate 
can  never  be  imposed  wholly  on  the  occupier  as  it 
always  is  in  England. 

In  Ireland,  a  Poor-law  Act  was  also  recently 
passed,  and  numerous  amending  statutes  have 
followed,  the  code  of  laws  bemg  substantially 
founded  on  the  English  acta 

There  are  special  acts  of  parliament  regulating 
the  conditions  on  which  paupers  are  removable 
between  England,  Scotland,  md  Ireland  respec- 
tively. 

POOR-RATS.    SeePooB;  Ovxbseeb& 

POOR'S-ROLIi,  in  the  practice  of  the  law  of 
Scotland,  means  the  list  of  poor  persons  who  are 
Itigants,  but  unable  to  pay  the  fees  of  courts  and 


therefore  are  allowed  to  sue  in  formd  pauperia.  As 
this  is  considered  a  privilege,  and  enables  the  person 
to  secure  the  services  of  counsel  and  agents  gratui* 
tously,  it  is  onl^  granted  on  production  of  a  certifi- 
cate by  the  minister  of  the  parish  and  two  elden^ 
setting  forth  his  circumstances  to  their  own  know* 
ledge  and  his  general  povertv.  Notice  is  given  of 
this  to  the  adverse  party,  wno  is  allowed  time  to 
inquire  and  oppose  the  application.  When  the  court 
is  satisfied  of  the  poverty,  the  next  thing  is  for  the 
court  to  remit  the  matter  to  the  counsel  for  the 
poor,  of  whom  there  are  always  two  annually  ap- 
pointed by  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  general^ 
young  counsel,  for  the  purpose :  one  of  these  counsd 
reports  whether  there  is  a  probctbUk  causa,  L  e.,  a 
good  cause  ol  action.  If  this  report  is  nuule,  it  is 
considered  conclusive,  and  the  part^  is  put  on  the 
poor's-rolL  This  warrant  remains  m  force  for  two 
vears,  and  during  that  time,  the  pauper  is  exempt 
irom  all  fees  of  court,  and  has  the  ^tuitous  services 
of  counsel  and  agents.  This  provision  for  enabling 
paupers  to  carry  on  litigation,  which  is  so  complete 
m  Scotland,  is  unknown  in  England  or  Ireland; 
for  though  a  party  may  also  be  allowed  there  to 
sue  in  formd  pauperis,  no  provision  is  made  by  the 
court  for  giving  him  the  gratuitous  services  of  counsel 
and  attorney ;  neverthdess,  these  sometimes  volun« 
teer  to  act  gratuitously.    See  In  Fobma  Pauferi& 

POPATAN,  a  dty  of  the  United  States  of 
Colombia  (New  Granada),  South  America,  stands 
in  a  fertile  plain,  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the 
Cauca,  in  lat  T  27'  N.  It  contains  a  cathedral  and 
a  number  of  conventual  edifices.  It  was  founded 
in  1537,  and  was  the  first  city  built  by  Euroiieans 
in  this  region.  Under  the  Spaniards,  it  rose  to 
oonsiderabie  importance ;  but  an  earthquake  in  1834^ 
and  the  continued  unsettled  state  of  the  country, 
have  done  much  to  reduce  it  It  is  still  of  some 
consequence  as  a  mart  for  agricultural  produce.  A 
great  commercial  road,  about  1000  miles  in  length, 
kads  from  P.  to  Tnudllo,  in  Peru.    Pop.  20,000. 

POPE  (Or.  papas  ;  Lat  papa,  father),  the  title  of 
the  Bishop  of  Rome,  and  Supreme  Pontiff  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church ;  applied  also  to  all  priests 
of  the  Greek  and  Russo-GreeK  ChiunclL  Under  very 
many  heads,  occasions  have  arisen  requiring  refer- 
ence more  or  less  detailed  to  the  authority  and  the 
privileges  ascribed  to  the  Bishop  of  Rome  by  the 
church  oi  which  he  is  the  head.  We  propose  in 
the  present  article  to  explain  briefly  the  titles  of  the 
pope,  the  manner  of  his  election,  the  nature  and 
functions  of  his  office,  and  the  authority  ascribed  to 
him  by  the  different  schools  of  Catholics ;  and 
finally  the  chronolo^cal  succession  of  the  bishops  of 
Rome  from  the  earhest  sges  to  our  own  day. 

1.  The  name  '  Papa '  (q.  v.) — ^the  Latin  equivalent 
of  pope — ^was  oriffinally  used  of  all  bishops.  The  first 
known  writer  who  applies  it  to  the  Roman  bishop 
as  his  specific  title,  is  £hinodius  of  Pavia,  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  5th  o.,  who  thus  addresses  Pope 
Symmaohua  It  is  used  also  by  Cassiodoms ;  and 
thenceforward  (gradually  came  to  be  reserved  to  this 
application,  but  it  did  not  lose  entirdy  its  old  and 
general  use  for  many  centuries  later,  ui  the  modem 
ecclesiastical  vocabulary,  the  pope  is  called  the 
*  Sovereign  Pontiff'  the  '  Vicar  of  Christ,'  the  '  Head 
of  the  Churoh,'  the  *  Holy  Father,'  Axs.  He  sub- 
scribes himself,  since  St  Gregory  the  Great,  Servus 
Servorum  Dei  (Servant  of  the  Servants  of  God) ;  and 
he  is  addressed  as  Your  Holiness,  Your  Beatitude, 
Ac. 

2.  The  office  of  pope  is  elective.  The  electoral 
body,  accordinsto  the  present  usage,  is  the  College 
of  Cardinala  Primitively,  the  pope,  ss  the  other 
bishops,  was  elected    by  the   clergy  and  peopls^ 


POPK 


althoogh  the  rights  of  both  were  not  the  tame.  In 
more  than  one  inntanoe,  theie  elections  were 
attended  with  violence,  and  eren  with  blood,  and 
ti^  electoral  body  was  by  degrees  limited  At 
lenffilL,  by  a  decree  of  Pope  l^iduilas  IL  in  10S9,  the 
right  of  election  was  vested  in  the  oardinals.  By 
the  constitution  of  the  College  of  Cardinals,  provi- 
sion was  made  for  a  representation  of  all  the 
ancient  electoral  bodies;  the  cardinal  bishops 
representing  tiie  bishops  of  the  Boman  synod,  the 
cardinal  priests  representing  the  parish  clergy,  and 
the  cardinal  deacons  representinff  the  heads  of  the 
popular  electoral  districts  {regumeB)  of  the  city. 
Tms  constitution  is  the  basis  of  the  present  electoral 
law.  Flreparatorjr  to  an  election,  tne  cardinals  are 
shut  np  in  what  is  called  '  the  conclave,*  all  com- 
munication with  the  onter  world  being  interrupted 
until  ihe  election  shall  have  been  made.  A  simple 
majority  of  voices  does  not  suffice — two-thirds 
of  the  cardinals  must  vote  for  the  same  candidate. 
H&ere  are  four  modes  of  election — *  scrutiny,'  '  ao- 
oess,' '  compromise,'  and  '  inspiration.'  Twice  each 
day  durinff  the  conclave,  the  cardinals  assemble, 
and  each  deposits,  in  a  chalice  placed  on  the  altar, 
the  name  of  his  candidate.  If  the  requisite 
number  of  votes  are  not  found  for  any  one,  the 
papers  are  at  once  burned;  and  the  smoke  of 
the  burning  votes,  which  escapes  through  a  small 
flue,  is  a  signal  to  the  expectant  crowd  outside  that 
no  election  has  taken  place.  This  is  called  the 
*  scrutiny.'  If  votes  be  added  to  those  already  given 
for  one  candidate  so  as  to  make  the  rejquired  two- 
thirds,  it  is  called  *  access.*  If  the  cardinals  of  two 
parties,  finding  that  neither  can  hope  to  sticceed, 
unite,  it  is  called  'compromise.'  If  by  a  public 
movement,  whether  sudden  or  preconcerted,  a  par- 
ticular candidate  named  be  brought  forward  and 
carried  as  if  by  acclamation,  the  election  is  said  to 
be  l3y '  inspiration.'  The  present  pope,  Pius  IX.,  was 
elected  in  this  way.  The  great^  Catholic  powers 
— France,  Austria,  and  Spain — were  formerly 
understood  to  have  the  privilege,  through  one  of 
their  cardinals,  of  placing  a  veto  upon  the  election 
of  one  candidate;  but  wis  right  was  of  a  very 
vague  and  undefined  nature,  and  had  no  formal 
foundation  in  law.  It  is  required  by  long  usage,  as 
a  condition  of  election,  that  the  candidate  be  an 
Italian,  and  that  he  be  of  mature  aga  Other  con- 
siderations are  also  entertained.  After  election,  the 
pope  is  enthroned,  enters  upon  possession  of  his 
see,  and  finally,  is  solemnly  crowned  The  cere- 
monial of  consecration  is  very  splendid  and  deeply 
impressive.  One  of  the  ceremonies — ^that  of  bnm- 
i^  a  bunch  of  flax  before  him,  with  the  words : 
'  Holy  Father,  thus  passeth  away  the  glory  of  the 
world  I  '—has  often  been  cited  for  its  highl^r  symbo- 
lical character,  as  well  as  for  its  dramaac  effect 
Cardinals,  in  order  to  vote,  must  be  present  at  the 
conclave — no  voting  by  proxy  is  permitted 

3.  The  general  nature  of  the  office  of  the  pope 
in  tile  Roman  Catholic  system,  and  of  the  functions 
which  it  involves,  may  be  inferred  from  the  char- 
actor  which  he  is  believed  to  hold  in  the  church,  as 
successor  of  St  Peter,  and  vicegerent  of  Christ  on 
earth.  He  is  therefore  believed  to  be  invested  with 
all  the  powers  necessary  for  the  practical  government 
of  tiie  church.  Hence  he  is  held  (1)  to  possess  over 
the  entire  church,  and  each  of  its  parts,  a  supreme 
authori^not  indeed  arbitrary,  but  regulated  by  the 
law  of  God  and  by  the  canons.  He  has  power  (2) 
to  examine  and  decide  authoritatively  all  contro- 
versies ;  (3)  to  convoke  councils ;  (4)  to  revise  and 
confirm  their  decrees ;  (5)  to  issue  general  decrees, 
whether  upon  discipline  and  morals,  or  upon 
doctrine;  (6)  he  is  the  centre  of  commumon, 
separation  from  which  involves  the  forfeiture  of 


the  communion  of  the  whole  church;  (7)  he  haa 
ultimate  authority  to  i^point  bishops  in  all  parts 
of  the  church,  and  however  this  right  may  be 
exercised  in  the  first  instance,  as  by  the  sovereign, 
by  the  clergy,  or  by  a  synod  of  bishops,  it  rests 
with  the  pope  to  confirm  the  election,  no  matter 
how  it  may  nave  been  made,  and  to  grant  '  canoa- 
ical  institution;'  (8)  he  can  also  deprive  bishops, 
and  set  others  in  their  place;  and  can  even,  in 
cases  of  great  emergency,  suppress  bishoprics, 
and  change  their  ecclesiiistical  limits  aooordiog 
to  his  judgment  of  the  existing  requirements 
of  the  church;  (0)  he  has  authority  to  jud^ 
of  the  doctrines  taught  in  particular  books,  or  bj 
particular  individuals^  and  to  pronounce  infallibly  as 
to  its  conformity  with  the  Catholic  faith,  or  the 
contrary.  This  privilege  formed  the  subject  of  the 
great  controversy  with  the  Jansenists  as  to  what  are 
called  *  Dogmatic  Facts.' 

4.  All  (^tholics  are  a^preed  that  the  pope,  as 
primate,  possesses,  by  divine  law  aod  in  virtue  of 
his  office,  full  governing  authority  over  the  entire 
church.  Of  the  exercise  of  such  power,  t^ey  find 
traces  in  history  from  the  eariiest  timea  Roman 
Cathoho  lustorians  trace  the  history  of  the  pope's 
primacy  in  St  Clement's  Letters  to  the  Chun^  o£ 
Corinth,  in  the  action  taken  by  Victor  in  tbe 
Paschal  controversy,  and  by  Stepnen  and  ComeUns 
in  the  controversy  on  re-baptising  heretics ;  in  the 
deposition  of  Marcian,  Bishop  of  Aries,  at  the  instance 
of  Cyprian,  by  Pope  Stephen  ;  in  the  leading  part 
taken  by  the  popes  in  the  condemnatioQ  ci 
Donatus  and  of  tne  Pelagian  heresy ;  and  perhaps 
more  than  all,  in  the  appeals  made  from  vaiioos 
parts  of  the  church  by  persons  excommuoicated  bj 
their  own  bishops,  and  the  rehearing  at  Rome  of 
such  causes,  and  the  confirmation  or  reversal  of  tiie 
sentence  according  to  the  result  of  the  triaL  llieee 
several  facts,  however,  although  to  Catholics  tfaey 
appear  evidences  of  the  papal  supremacy,  axe 
explained  by  Protestant  wnters  in  a  sense  which. 
does  not  suppose  any  permanent  supremacy  on  the 
part  of  the  Koman  See,  and  which  they  hold  to  he 
reconcilable  with  the  full  independence  of  ^^t^AnsI 
churches;  and  it  is  admitted  by  Catholics  them- 
selves, while  they  contend  tiiat  the  instances  to 
which  they  appeal  imply  a  real  exercise  of  primaiqr 
from  the  beginning,  that  the  details  of  that  primacy 
have  undergone  a  gradual  and  extensive  devefopntent 
in  the  process  ofthe  church.  Great  diflferenoe  ol 
opinion  exists  between  the  Gallican  and  the  Ultn^ 
montane  schools  as  to  the  extent  and  nature  o€  the 
papal  authority,  whether  in  decrees  of  doctrine  or  in 
the  ffovemment  of  the  church.  As  regards  doe- 
triniu  decrees,  all  are  a^;reed  that  the  jud^ent  o€ 
the  pope,  in  concert  with  the  body  of  bishops,  is 
infallible ;  but  they  differ  as  to  papal  decrees  on 
doctrine  issued  by  the  pope  alone,  ex  eaihedMt  nod 
addressed  to  the  whole  church.  See  Galucaiiisil 
On  certain  points,  however,  both  sdiools  agree ;  both 
are  agreed,  for  instance,  as  to  the  duty  of  respectful 
obedience  on  the  part  of  all,  until  the  geneFaTseass 
of  the  church  shall  have  been  ascertained;  and 
should  no  reclamation  on  the  part  of  ihe  church  take 
place,  the  decree  of  the  pope  is,  in  the  opinion  of 
both  schools,  to  be  received  as  infallible,  and  the 
doctrine  propounded  therein  is  to  be  held  as  of 
faith.  But  the  Ultramontanes  go  beyond  the 
Gallicans  in  holdingthis  from  the  very  moment  of  the 
decree's  being  iuued  ex  eathedrd,  ana  independsntiy 
of  any  reference  to  the  church  dispersed.  As  to  tiis 
government  of  the  church,  the  Ultramontanes  hold 
the  pope  to  be  supreme,  and  thus  to  be  superior 
to  general  councils,  and  independent  of  thdr  deeiees. 
The  Gallicans,  on  the  contrary,  hold  that  a  gaieral 
council  is  superior  to  tiie  pope^  and  has  power  tt 


POPR 


Und  him  bv  its  deareeai  Farther,  the  Ultramon- 
tanes  hold  tnat  the  pope  ia  the  source  of  all  jurisdio- 
tion  in  the  church,  and  that  the  bishops  derive 
their  powers  through  him  from  Christ.  The  Oalli- 
cans  reeaid  the  ejpiscopal  power  as  received  directly 
from  Christ  by  vxrtue  of  the  episcopal  office.  This 
difference  of  opinion  leads  to  many  controversies 
of  detail  as  to  the  respective  rights  and  powers  of 
the  pope  and  the  lashop  in  the  several  dioceses, 
regardmg  which  it  ia  only  necessary  to  indicate  the 
general  ground  of  difference  of  opimon. 

6.  The  chronology  of  the  papacy  in  the  Ist  c.  is 
very  obscure.  The  enumerations  in  the  ancient 
writers  are  imperfect,  and  they  differ  as  to  the  exact 
order  of  succession.  The  two  most  ancient  cata- 
logues, those  of  IreuAus  and  Augustine,  differ  in 
more  than  one  particular.  The  chief  difficulty 
regards  Linus  and  Cletus.  The  former  is  believed 
to  have  been  the  vicegerent  of  Peter  during  the 
interval  between  his  first  coming  to  Rome  ax^  his 
final  residence  there.  HJe  womd  therefore  have 
heen  at  once  the  contemporary  of  Peter  and  his 
successor  (though  but  for  a  very  brief  period).  The 
difficulty  as  to  Cletus  arises  from  the  doubt  whether 
he  be  the  same  person  with  Anacletus.  We  subjoin 
a  catalogue  drawn  up  after  the  most  careful  mooem 
authorities,  and  arranged  according  to  centuries : 


8t  Peter,  • 
Idnwi,  .  ^ 

Cleios,  or  Anacletus, 
Clement  I.,     .  • 


fiuT  cnrruvr. 


•         •  • 

*  • 

SICOND  CBTrcaT 


EviTistaa,  •  •  •  • 

Alexander  I.,  •  •  • 

Sixtos  L,  Booitn,  •  •  • 

Teleephuros,  Greek,  •  •  • 

H/ginuB,  Athenien,         •  •  • 

Mas  I.,  native  of  Aqaileia,  •  • 

Anicetaa,  Syrian,  •  •  •  • 

8oter,  Greek, .  •  •  • 

BleutheruB,  Greek,         •  •  • 

Victor  I.,  African,     •  •  • 

Zepbyrlnos,        ••  •  •  • 

TBIBD  CSMTUaT. 

Ckllixtns  I.,  Boman,  •  • 

Urban  I.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

Pontianas,  R'>man,   •  •  • 

Antheraa,  Greek, .  .  •  • 

F^blanus,  probably  Boman,  • 

Oomelina,  Roman,  •  .  « 

(NoTatianns,  first  antipope.) 
Lndus  I.,  Koman,     •  •  • 

Scephen  L,  Roman,         •  •  • 

Sixtos  n.,  Roman,    •  •  • 

Dionysias,  Greek,  •  •  • 

Felix  1.,  Roman,        •  •  • 

EatychianoB,  uncertain,  •  •  • 

Cains,  Roman,  .  • 

MaroeUinua,  Soman,      •  •  • 

rOUBTB  OKITUBT. 

MaTcellus  I.,  Roman, 

(Marcellinus  having  ^ed  in  304  or  806.) 
Ensebins,  Greek,  •  •  .  • 

Uelehiade»,  African,  •  • 

Srlresier  I.,  Roman,       •  •  • 

Mareufl,  Roman,        •  •  • 

Jalias  L,  Roman,  •  •  • 

LiberluB,  Roman,      •  •  • 

(Felix  II.,  antipope.) 
Bamasna  I.,  Spaniard,     •  #  • 

(Uriicinna,  antipope.) 
Slhcias  Soman,       •  •  • 

Anastaaius  I.,  Roman,    •  •  « 


Imoeent  I.,  natlTe  of  Albano, 
aSoBmaa,  Greek,    .  •  • 

Bonifai'e  I.,  Roman,  .  • 

CelestinoB  I.,  Roman,     •  • 

Sixtus  III.,  Boman,  .  . 

Leo  1.,  Boman,  call  d  *the  Great,* 
Hliariua,  naUve  uf  Sardinia, 
bimplidoa,  nadTe  of  Tibur,       • 


A.D. 

•     il-67 

68 

oncertain  date 

uncertain  date 


•boot  100 
Aboat  109 
119 


127 
138 
143 
151 
161 
170 
185 
197 


M7 
S» 
230 
236 
286 
262 

253 
258 
257 
269 
270 
275 
283 
296 


808 

810 
810 
814 
836 
337 
362 

866 

384 
898 


401 
417 
418 
423 
432 
440 
461 
467 


Felix  III.,  Roman,    •  •  • 

Gelasius  I.,  Roman,         •  ,  • 

Anaataeins  II.,  Roman,        •  • 

Symmaebus,  native  of  Sardinia,  • 

nXTB  OUTUKTa 

Hormlsdas,  native  of  Fnuino,        • 
Jobn  I.,  Tuocan,  •  .  •  • 

Felix  I  v.,  native  of  Beneventnm,    • 
Bonifkce  II.,  Roman,       •  .  • 

John  II.,  Boman,     •  • 

Agupetna  I.,  Boman,       •  •  • 

Sylveriua,  native  of  Campania,        • 
Viirtliaa,  Roman,  •  •  •  • 

Pelagioa  L,  Boman,  •  •  « 

Jobn  III.,  Bnman,  •  •  • 

Benedict  I.,  Boman,  •  • 

Pelagioa  II.,  Roman,      •  .  • 

Gregory  I.,  Roman,  atyled '  the  Great,' 

SB-VSMTH  CUTUBT* 

Sablnipnna.  native  of  Toacany,  •  • 

Boniface  III.,  Boman,         .  • 

Boniface  IV.,  native  of  Abrnzzi,  * 

DeuadeUlt  or  Drodatna  I.,  Boman, 
Boniface  Y.,  Neapuliuin,  •  • 

Honoriua  I.,  native  uf  Capna,  • 

Sever Imia,  Boman,  •  •  • 

John  IV.,  native  of  Dalmatia,         • 
Tbeodoraa  I.,  Greek,       .  •  • 

Martin  L,  native  of  Tndertnm,       . 
Eagenins  I.,  Roman,  •  • 

Vitalianua,  native  of  SignU,  • 

Beuadedit  IL,  Boman,    •  •  • 

Domnna  L,  Roman,  •  •  • 

Agathon,  Sicilian,  •  •  • 

Lei  II.,  Sicilian,       •  •  • 

Benedict  II.,  Boman,       .  •  • 

John  v.,  native  of  Syria,      •  • 

Conon,  native  of  Thrace,  •  • 

Sergina  L,  natire  of  Palermo^        • 

nOHTB  OSMTUKT^ 

John  VI.,  native  of  Greece,        •  • 

John  VII.,  natiye  of  Greec^  • 

Siainlua,  native  of  Syria,  •  • 

Conatantine,  Syrian,  •  • 

Gregory  II*,  Boman,       •  •  • 

Qregorv  HI.,  Syrian,  «  • 

Zacharlaa,  Greek,  •  •  • 

Stephen  II..    .  •  •  • 

Stephen  III.,  Boman,     •  •  • 

Paul  L,  Boman,        •  •  • 

Stephen  IV.,  Sicilian,      •  •  • 

Adrian  1.,  Roman,    •  •  • 

Leo  111.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

mxm  OIllTDBT* 

Stephen  V„  Roman,  •  •  • 

Paschal  I.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

Bugenina  II.,  Roman,         •  • 

Valentinna,  Roman,        •  •  • 

Gregory  I  v.,  Roman,  •  • 

Sergina  II.,  Roman,         •  .  • 

Leo  IV..  Roman,        •  .  .  • 

In  thU  interval  ia  placed  the  Cabnlotu  pope 
Benedict  III.,  Roman,  .  . 

Nicholas  I.,  Koman,       •  .  • 

Adrian  II.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

John  VIll.,  Boman,       •  •  • 

31artin  II.  (called  also  Marinna  I.), 
Adrian  111.,  Boman,       •  •  • 

Stephen  VL.  Roman,  •  • 

Forrooaos,  Biabop  of  Portc^        •  • 

(Serglua  and  Boniface  VL,  antlpopee*) 
Stephen  VXI.,  Roman,  •  . 

Komanus,  Tuacan,  .  •  . 

Tbeodorna  IL,  Roman,        •  • 

John  UL,  native  of  Tlbor,         •  • 

nuns  OBMTUET* 

Benediet  IV.,  Boman,  •  • 

Leo  v..  native  of  Ardea,  .  #  • 

(Christopher,  antipope.) 
Sergiua  111.,  .  •  •  • 

Anaataains  uL,  Roman,  •  •  • 

Lando.  native  of  Sabina,      •  • 

John  Jl.,  Roman,  •  •  •  • 

Leo  VI.,  Boman,       •  •  • 

Staphen  Vlll.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

John  XI.,       •  •  •  • 

Leo  VII.,  Roman,  •  •  • 

Stephen  IX.,  Koman,  .  • 

Martin  III.  (called  by  somA  HaHnos  XL), 
Agapetoall.,  •  • 


JOMk 


(q.  v.). 


488 
492 

496 
49^ 


914 
628 

626 
6M 
632 
636 

536 
640 
656 

560 
674 
678 
590 


604 

607 
608 
616 
619 
686 
638 
'640 
641 
649 
6H 
657 
672 
676 
67t) 
682 
684 
685 
686 
687 


701 
706 
708 
708 
716 
781 
741 
753 
753 
757 
763 
772 
796 


816 
817 
894 
827 
827 
843 
847 

856 

8.i8 
867 
872 
882 
884 
885 
891 

896 
837 
897 
897 


900 
908 

904 
911 

913 
914 


929 

931 


8a 

841 


POPR 


John  Xn.,  Ottarlano  Oontl, 
He  wM  the  first  who  changed  his  nAms  on 
(Lso  YIII.,  antlpope,)      •  •  • 

Benodict  T.,  Roman,       •  •  • 

John  Xm.,  RoBitn,  •  .  •  • 

BenedlotVI.,        •  •  •  • 

Domnos  II.,  Soman,  •  •         • 

Benedict  YIL  (Gontl),  Boman,  .  • 

John  XIV.,     •  •  .  •  • 

{fionifaos  vn.,  Fkaaoo^  antipopa.) 
Jonn  XV.,  Bomsn,         •  •  • 

John  XVI.,  Roman,  .  •  •  • 

Orsgory  V.,  German,      • 
Sjlvester  IL,  Gerhaiti  natlTa  of  AnTargne, 

■LlfBMXK  OimftT* 


hk  alevatioii. 


Ml 

965 
97S 
979 

974 


986 
996 


John  XVn.  (Maj^Octobar),  •  •  • 

John  XVIIL,  Roman,     •  •  •  • 

SerfrioB  IV..  Roman,  •  •  •  • 

Benedict  VIII.,  native  of  Toseulam,     •  • 

John  XIX.,  Riiman  (in  some  oataloinieo  reekonad 

the  diversity  arising  from  a  disputed  election),  •  • 

Benedict  IX.,       .••••• 

(Sylvester,  antipopa.) 
Oregory  VI.,  Roman,  •  •  •  •  • 

Clement  It.,  native  of  Saxony,  •  •  • 

Damasns  II.  (Puppo),  .  •  •  •  • 

Leo  IX.,  Bishop  of  Toul,  •  •  •  • 

Victor  II.,  Bii^hop  of  Bichstadt,       •  .  •  • 

Stephen  X ,  Frederick,  Abbot  of  Monte  Casino^  • 

Benedict  X.,  by  noma  Ktrlcd  antipopa,  abdicated, 
Klchula«  IK,  native  of  Burgundy,         .  •  • 

Alexnnder  it.,  native  of  Milan,       .  .  •  • 

Gregory  VlL,  Hildebrand,  native  of  Tuscany, 

(Guibert,  antipope.  assumed  the  name  of  uenaiit  IIL) 
^ctor  III.,  native  of  Baneventam,  •  •  • 

Urban  II..  native  of  Prance,      •  •  •  • 

Paschal  II.,  native  of  Tuscany,       -  •  •  • 

(Albert  and  Theodorio,  antlpopes.) 


TWSLRH  ournjEi^ 

Gelasins  II.,  native  of  Caieta,     .  •  • 

Callixtos  II ,  nHtive  of  Dnrgundy,  .  •  • 

Honorlns  II.,  Cardinal  Lamberto^  Bishop  of  Oetla^ 
Innocent  IL,  Ruman,  •  •  •  • 

(Anadetu*,  antipope.) 
Cele«tinus  II.,  Tuscan,    .  #  •  • 

Lucius  II ,  native  of  Bologna,         •  •  • 

Xogeniua  III.,  native  of  Pisa,     •  •  • 

Anaatasiua  IV.,  Roman,       .... 

Adrian  IV.,  Nicholas  Breahspeare,  Englishman, 
Alexander  IIL,  Cardinal  Orhindo  Bandlnelli,  native  of 
Siena,  •••••• 

(Victor,  Paschal,  and  Callixtos,  antipopes.) 
Lucius  III.,  Cardinal  Ubaldo  of  Looca,  • 

Urban  IIL.  Uberto  Crivelli,  Archbishop  of  Milan, 
Grci^ory  VIIL,  native  of  Beneventnm, 
Clement  III.,  Paul,  Bishop  of  Prasneste,    .  « 

Celesdnns  III.,  Cardinal  Hyacinthus,  Roman, 
Innocent  HL,  Cardinal  Lotharios,  native  of  Signia, 


1903 
lOOS 
1009 

loia 

1094 
1033 

1044 
1047 
1048 
1049 
1056 
1057 
1058 
1059 
1061 
1073 

1066' 

1088 

1099 


Urban  VL.  BarMomao  Prtenano,  Neapolitan, 
( Vron  1378  to  1410  oeenrs  the  great  Western  S<dilrai,  dar- 
ing which,  in  conflict  with  the  Una  of  popes  inserted  Is 
the  eatalogna,  is  found  a  rival  line  rending  at  Avlnoa 
—Oament  VII.  1378-1394;  BanedietXIIL,  1394-1410. 
The  OoanoU  of  Pisa,  1410,  deposed  both  rival  popes; 
bat  Benadlot  Xm.  ramainad  In  aohifln  till  his  death 
in  14940 
BonillwaIX.,FM8rTMnaeaUiorKaplei^  •         • 


un 


14M 

14N 
1409 

1410 
141T 
14S1 

i44r 

145B 
14K 

1444 
1471 
14» 

un 


1118 
1119 
1194 
1130 

1143 
1144 
1145 
1153 
1164 

Ud9 

1181 
1185 
1187 
1188 
1191 
U98 


tftnTKBHTH  CTCMTUMg 

Honorlns  III.,  Cardinal  Savelli,  native  of  Rome^        • 
Gregory  IX.,  Cardinal  Hago,  naUva  of  Anagni,   •  • 

CelesUnus  IV.,  native  of  Milan, .... 
Innocent  IV.,  Cardinal  Sinibaldo  Fieschi,  native  of  Genoa, 
Alexander  IV.,  Cardinal  Rinaldo  Contl,  native  of  Anaqui, 
Urban  IV.,  James,  Patrihrch  of  Jerusalem,  Frenchman, 
ClemenC  IV.,  Gny,  native  of  St  Gilles,  in  Languedoo^      • 
Gregory  X.,  Tebaldo  Visaonti,  native  of  Piaoenxa,      • 
Innocent  V.,  Cardinal  Peter,  naUve  of  Tarenuise^  • 

Adrian  V.,  Ottobono  Fieschi,  native  of  Qoioa,  « 

John  XXL,  nstive  of  Llsboa, 


1916 

12S7 
1241 
1249 
1254 
1261 
1265 
1272 
1276 
1276 
1276 
Bicholss  IIL,  Cardinal  Orsini,  native  of  Romoi  •  1277 
Martin  IV.,  Cardinal  Simon  de  Brie,  Fren  hman,  •  1381 
Honorivs  IV.,  Currlinal  James  Savelli,  native  of  Bona,  1286 
Kleholas  IV.,  Cai  ui.ial  Jerome,  native  of  Ascoli,  .  .  1288 
Celeatinus  V.,  Pietro  da  Morrone  of  Abruxzi,  .  •  1294 
Boniface  VIIL,  Cdrdinal  Benedetto  Oactani,  natlTe  of 
Anagni 1295 

floonTxBMTH  cjnmniT. 

Benedict  XL,  Cardinal  Nicholas,  native  of  Trev|aO|    •  1303 
Clement  V.,  Bertrand  of  Bordeaux,  removed  the  pipil 

see  to  Avignon,     •...••  1805 

John  XXIL,  James,  native  of  Chhors,  in  Franoa^       •  1316 

(Ni^hola^  antipope.) 

Benedict  XIL,  James  Foumier,  Frenchman,       •           •  1334 

Clement  VL,  Peter  Roger,  native  of  Limogea,  in  Vraaea,  1342 

Innocent  VL,  Stephen  Anbert,  native  of  Limogas,           •  1352 

Urban  V.,  William  Grimoard,  Frenchman,      .          .  1363 
Gregory  XL,  Peter  Roger,  Frenohman,  rastorad  tha  papal 

to  Rome,          ••.«••  1370 
684 


Innocent  VII.,  Cosmo  MiglioratI,  native  of  Salmons, 
Gregory  XIL,  Angalo  Corrari,  native  of  Venice,  . 
Alexander  V.,  Peter  Phllarglua,  native  of  Candla, 
John  XXIIL,  Cardinal  Coses,  depoeed  by  the  Conndl 

Constance,  .•.••• 
Martin  V.,  Otho  Oolonna,  Roman,        •  •         • 

Buirenius  IV.,  Gabriel  Oondulmero,  Venetian,     • 

(Felix,  antioope.) 
Nleholss  v..  Cardinal  Thoouw,  native  of  Sanans,     • 
CalUxtas  IIL,  Alfonso  Borgis,  Spaniard,   . 
Pins  II.,  MatM  Sylvias  Pieeolomlnl,  natiia  of  Slens, 
Paul  II.,  Peter  Bsrbo,  native  of  Venioe,    •  • 

Sixtus  IV.,  Francis  della  Kovere,  Oenoeee,    •  • 

Innocent  VIIL,  GUn  Batdeta  Cibo,  Genoese, 
Alexander  VL,  Bodrigo  Lensoll  Borgia,  Bpaninid,     • 

nxmjrrn  oirmsr. 

Pius  IIL,  Francis  Todesehioi  Pleoolomini,  .         • 

Julius  IL,  Jalisn  della  Rovere,  Genoese,         • 

Im>  X.,  Giovanni  de'  Medid,  eon  of  Lorenso  the  Ksgni- 

ficent,  ....... 

Adrian  VL.  native  of  Utreoht,  .  •  •  • 

Clement  VlL,  Ginlio  de'  Medid,  nephew  of  Loreaao^ 
Paul  IIL,  Alessandro  Fameee,  native  of  Roma,         • 
Julius  IIL.  Giovan  Maria  Gloeel,  native  of  Roma, 
Marcelltts  IL,  Cardinal  Cervlnl  nstive  of  Montepnldano, 
Paul  IV.,  Gianpietro  Caraflh,  Neapolitan, 
Pius  IV.,  Giovanni  Angelo  Medichinl,  naiivn  of  Milsa, 
Plus  v.,  Michele  Ghlslierl,  native  of  Alessandria, 
Gregory  X IIL,  Hugo  Buoncompagni,  native  of  Bologns, 
Sixtus  v.,  Felice  Peretti  of  Montalto,  native  of  the  Msrcfa 

of  Aneona,  .  .        '^.  .         .   ISH 

Urban  VIL.  GIsn  Battista  Osstagna,  Genocae,  •       15N 

Gregory  XIV.,  Nicola  SfrondaU,  native  of  Milan,  .   UM 

Innocent  IX.,  Glan  Antonio  Faochinetti,  native  of  Bologns,  1591 
Clement  VIIL,  Ippolito  Aldobrandlni,  natlra  of  Fano,    .  Utt 


UflS 
1501 

1SU 
U» 
Utt 
15H 
U» 
1555 
1551 
un 
1541 
1571 


IW 

\ta 

ICB 
IM4 
U5I 
INT 

1679 
147S 
109 
1481 


umuni. 

Leo  XI.,  Alessandro  de*  Medid,  native  of  Floraneeb 
Paul  v.,  Ciimillo  Borghese,  native  of  Rome^    • 
Gregory  XV.,  Alessandro  Ludovici,  native  of  Bologaa, 
Urbsn  VIIL,  Maffeo  Barberinl,  Florentine,     . 
Innocent  X.,  Gian  Battista  Pamflli,  native  of  Bonier 
Alexander  VIL,  Fabio  Chigi.  native  of  Siena, . 
Clement  IX.,  Giulio  Rospigliosl,  native  of  PIstoU, 
Clement  X.,  Bmillo  Altlerl,  native  of  Rome,    . 
Innocent  XL,  Benedetto  OdesealchI,  native  of  Como^ 
Alexander  VIIL,  Pietro  Ottoboni,  native  of  Venice, 
Innocent  XIL,  Antonio  Pignatelli,  nativa  of  Naples, 

iiOHTanTH  cxxTuar. 

Clement  XL,  Gian  Franeeaoo  Albanl,  native  of  Urfaino,  •  17M 

bmooent  XIII.,  Michael  Angelo  Conti.  native  of  Rome,  ITll 

Benedict  XIIL,  Vinoenso  Maria  Orslnl,  native  of  Home^  K24 

Clement  XIL,  Lorenso  Corsinl,  native  of  Fioreneei       •  1*30 

Benedict  XIV.,  Prospero  Lambertini,  native  of  Bologna,  1740 

Clement  XIIL,  Carlo  Rexsonloo,  native  of  Venice,         .  1758 
Clement  XIV.,  Gian  Vinoenxo  OanganeUI,  bom  near  Bimtari,  1749 

Pins  VL,  Angelo  Brasehi,  native  of  CMena,          •         .  17' 5 

nramnrn  onrmaT* 
Pius  vn.,  Gregorlo  Barnaba  Chlarsmonti,  naUve  of  Oasni,  IM9 
Leo  XIL,  Annibale  della  Gengs,  native  of  Romagaa,  .  13SI 
Plus  VUL,  Cardinal  Castigltoni,  native  of  ClngoU.  .  IS» 
Gregory  XVL,  Mauro  Cappellarl,  native  of  Belluno,  .  1831 
Pius  IX.,  Giovanni  Maria  Mastal-Peretti,  naUva  of  Sbii- 
gagUs,        •••••..   1911 

Protestftnts  generally  object  to  the  list  of  popei 
given  by  Roman  Gathoucs,  tkat  there  u  no 
abflolirtelj  eondiuiye  evidence  of  the  apoetle  Petei^i 
ever  having  been  at  Rome ;  although  most  of  them 
admit  the  probabiKfey  that  he  was  there,  and 
suffered  martyrdom  there.  Bat  they  deny  thrt 
there  is  any  evidence  whatever  of  his  having  exer- 
cised the  office  of  bishop  either  there  or  anyvhen 
else.  They  call  in  question  many  other  of  the 
names  and  dates  in  the  earlier  pait  of  the  list,  not 
so  much  disputing  the  ezistenoe  of  the  pem^u 
named,  as  their  ezerciae  of  the  office  of  btihnf  id 


POPE-POPLfIL 


Boiiie,  and  still  mote  ih«ir  right  to  be  considered 
bishops  €/  Roma  According  to  Protestants  in 
general,  uie  papacy  grew  by  a  ^pnMloal  assump- 
tion of  power  out  of  an  ordiniary  bishopric,  through 
the  advantage  of  metropolitan  position  and  influence, 
and  was  afterwards  supported  by  the  £able — as 
they  deem  it — of  the  see  of  St  Peter. 

POPE.    See  'RuvwE, 

POPE,  Alkxaitdbb,  an  eminent  E^lish  poet, 
was  bom  in  London,  May  21,  168&  1&  parents 
were  Roman  Catholics,  and  to  this  faith  the  poet 
also  nominally  adhered,  thus  debarring  himself  from 
public  office  and  employment.  His  uther,  a  linen- 
merchant,  say ed  a  moderate  competency,  and  received 
some  accession  of  fortune  by  his  marriage  with 
Editii  Turner,  his  second  wife,  and  the  poet's 
mother,  a  lady  of  a  eood  Yorkshire  family.  He 
then  withdrew  from  l>usine6S,  and  settled  on  a 
small  estate  he  had  purchased  at  Binfield  in  Windsor 
Forest  He  died  at  Gluswick,  in  1717.  His  son 
shortly  afterwards  took  a  long  lease  of  a  house  and 
five  acres  of  land  at  Twickenham,  on  the  banks  of 
tiie  Thames,  whithar  he  retired  with  his  widowed 
mother,  to  whom  he  was  tenderly  attached,  and 
where  he  resided  till  his  death,  cultivating  his 
little  domain  with  exquisite  taste  and  skill,  and 
embeUishing  it  with  a  fp>tto,  temple,  wilderness, 
and  other  adjuncts  poetical  and  picturesque.  In 
this  famous  villa,  P.  was  visited  by  Frederick, 
Prince  of  Wales,  and  by  the  most  celebrated  wits, 
statesmen,  and  beauties  of  the  day,  himself  being 
the  most  popular  and  successful  poet  of  his  ace. 
P.'s  early  years  were  spent  at  Binfield,  within  uie 
range  of  the  Royal  Forest  He  received  some 
education  at  little  Catholic  schools,  but  was  his  own 
instructor  after  his  twelfth  year.  He  never  was  a 
profound  or  accurate  scholar,  but  he  read  the  Latin 
poets  with  ease  and  delight,  and  acquired  some 
Greek,  French,  and  Italian.  He  was  a  poet  almost 
from  infancy ;  he  *  lisped  in  numbers,*  and  when  a 
mere  youtli,  surpassed  all  his  contemporaries  in 
metrical  harmony  and  correctness.  His  pastorals 
and  some  translations  appeared  in  Tonson's 
Miacellanyt  in  1709;  but  were  written  three  or  four 
years  earUer.  These  were  followed  by  the  Essay  on 
Criticismy  1711 ;  Bape  of  the  Lock  (when  completed, 
the  most  graceful,  airy,  and  imaginative  of  his 
works),  1712—1714;  Windwr  Forest,  1713;  Temple 
qf  Fame^  1715.  In  a  collection  of  his  works 
printed  in  1717*  he  included  the  EpisQe  of  Eloisa^ 
and  Elefjy  on  an  Unfortunate  Lady,  two  poems 
inimitable  for  pathetic  beauty  and  finished  melo- 
dious versification.  From  1715  till  1726,  P.  was 
chiefly  engaged  on  his  translations  of  the  Iliad  and 
Odyssey,  which,  though  wanting  in  true  Homeric 
simplicity,  naturalness,  and  grandeur,  are  splendid 
poems.  They  realised  to  the  fortunate  and  fashion- 
able translator  a  sum  of  about  £8000.  He  next 
c^dited  an  edition  of  Shakspeare,  which  proved 
nnworthy  of  his  reputation.  In  1728 — 1729,  he 
published  his  greatest  satire — the  Dunciad,  an 
attack  on  all  xK)eta8ter8  and  pretended  wits,  and  on 
an  other  persons  against  whom  the  sensitive  poet 
had  conceived  any  enmity.  In  1737»  he  gave  to  the 
'world  a  volume  of  his  Literary  Correspondence,  con- 
taining some  pleasant  gossip  and  observations,  witii 
choice  passages  of  description ;  but  it  appears  that 
the  correspondence  was  manufactured  for  publica- 
tion, not  composed  of  actual  letters  addrrased  to 
the  parties  whose  names  are  given,  and  the  coUeo- 
tion  was  introduced  to  the  public  by  means  of  an 
^aborate  stratagem  on  the  part  of  the  scheming 
pcelb  Between  the  years  1731  and  1739,  he  issued 
a  series  of  poetical  essays,  moral  and  philosophical, 
with  satires  and  imitations  of  Horace,  all  admirable 


for  sense,  wit»  spirit,  and  brilliano&  Of  these 
delightful  productions,  the  most  celebrated  is  the 
Beeay  on  Moh^  to  which  Bolingbroke  is  believed  to 
have  contributed  the  spurious  philosophy  and  false- 
sentiment;  but  its  merit  consists  in  detached 
passages,  descriptions,  and  pictures.  A  fourth  book 
to  the  Dundad,  containing  many  beautiful  and 
striking  lines,  and  a  general  revision  of  his  woriu, 
closed  the  poet's  literary  cares  and  toils :  he  died  on 
the  30th  of  May  1744,  and  was  buried  in  the  church 
at  Twickenham.  P.  was  oi  very  diminutive  stature, 
and  defonned  from  his  birth.  His  physical  infir- 
mity, susceptible  temperament,  and  incessant  study, 
rendered  his  life  *  one  long  disease.'  He  was,  as  his 
friend.  Lord  Chesterfield,  said,  *  the  most  irritable  of 
all  the  genue  irritabUe  txUum,  offended  with  trifles, 
and  never  forgetting  or  forgiving  them.'  His 
htersxy  stratagems,  disguises,  assertions,  denials, 
and  (we  must  add)  misrepresentations,  would  fill 
volumes.  Yet  P.,  when  no  disturbing  jealousy, 
vanity,  or  rivalry  intervened,  was  generous  and 
affectionate^  and  he  had  a  manly,  independent 
spirit  As  a  poet,  he  was  deficient  in  originality 
and  creative  power,  and  thus  was  inferior  to  hm 
prototype,  Biyden;  but  as  a  literary  artist,  and 
brilliant  dedaimer,  satirist,  and  moraliser  in  versa, 
he  is  stiU  unrivalled.  He  is  the  English  Horace, 
and  will  as  surely  descend  with  honours  to  ths 
latest  posterity. 

PO'PEBY  hterally  means  attachment  to  the 
religion  or  to  the  psity  of  the  pope;  and  in  this 
sense  tiie  word  is  synonymous  with  the  profession 
of  the  Roman  CathoUo  relimon.  In  its  use,  how- 
ever, it  has  come  to  involve  uie  idea  of  contempt  or 
dLspan^g^ement.  It  may  therefore  be  said,  that  the 
word  is  either  intended  to  designate  what  are 
regarded  by  Protestants  as  the  most  eiraggerated 
and  superstitious  among  the  doctrines  and  practices 
which  they  ascribe  to  Catholics,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  belief  of  the  more  moderate  members  of  that 
church,  or  is  designedly  employed  as  an  expression 
of  contempt  and  depredation. 

POPISH  PLOT,  the  name  given  to  an  imaginary 

Slot,  on  the  part  of  the  Roman  Catholics  in  England 
uring  the  reign  of  Charles  IL,  the  object  of  which 
was  believed  to  be  a  general  massacre  of  the  Pro* 
testants.    See  Oatb,  Trrua. 

PO'PLAB  {Populus),  a  genus  of  trees,  forming^ 
along  with  willows,  the  whole  of  the  natural  ovder 
Salicacece  or  BaJktnea  (by  some  regarded  as  a  sub- 
order of  AmentaeexB),  and  having  dioecious  fiowers 
arranged  in  catkins,  both  male  and  female  flowers 
with  an  oblique  cup-shaped  peri.iiith.  The  seeds 
have  silky  hairs,  as  in  willows,  and  are  readily 
wafted  about  by  tho  wind.  The  species  are  numer- 
ous, chiefly  natives  of  the  temperate  and  cold 
regions  of  the  northern  hemisnhere.  They  are 
lai^  trees  of  rapid  growth,  witn  soft  wood ;  and 
brmul,  heart-shaped,  ovate,  triangular,  or  lozenge- 
shaped,  deciduous  leaves,  on  rather  long  stidks. 
Many  of  them  are  very  beautiful  trees.  The  catkins 
appear  long  before  we  leaves,  and  proceed  from 
distinct  lateral  buds.  Few  of  the  poplars  are  of 
much  value  for  their  timber,  which  is  generally 
white,  soft,  and  light ;  but  &om  their  rapid  growth, 
they  are  useful  as  yielding  firewood,  where  tiie 
scarcity  of  other  fuel  renders  it  necessary  to  plant 
trees  for  this  purpose,  and  they  are  often  planted  am 
ornamental  tnes,  producing  an  immediate  effect  of 
embellishment  in  a  bare  sit^tion  more  readily  than 
almost  any  other  kind  of  tree;  Besides  the  speciea 
known  by  the  name  Aspen  (a.  v.),  or  Tremulous 
Poi>lar,  the  foUowing  seem  tne  most  worthy  of 
notice.  The  Whttb  r,,  or  Abelb  (P.  aXba),  a  native 
of  the  southern  parts  of  Europe,  and  reckoned 


POPLAB— POPUN. 


among  Britdgh  trees,  bat  probably  not  indi^ont  io 

Britain,  is  a  tree  of  80  feet  or  upwind* ;  with  •  fine 
Bpreadini  heml ;  and  roundish,  Ileart-8ba]>ed,  lobcd, 
aud  toothed  leaves,  which  are  imooth.  BhiniDg,  and 
dark-greea  above,  downy  and  Bilrery-wbite  beneath. 
The  wood  ii  used  by  cabinet-maken,  tnmeri,  and 
toy-makere.  It  is  little  liable  to  iwell  or  thrink, 
which  adapts  it  tor  varioui  purposes.  Th«  tree 
loves  low  eituatioDB  and  clay  soils.  This  tree  baa  of 
late  years  suffered  in  Britain  from  some  nnknown 
cause,  like  the  potato,  dying  where  it  previooily 
flooriahed ;  whilst  other  poplars,  the  most  nearly 
allied,  coDtinue  to  Sourish  in  the  same  locaKtiea.- 
The  Gr4T  p.  (P.  rawacen*)  i*  very  siaiaar  to  tl 
White  P.,  but  of  more  vigorous  growth,  a  lam 
amoading  tree ;  the  leaves  similar  to  tho«e  of  the 
White  P.,  but  not  so  dark-green  above  or  ao  white 
beneath.  It  is  not  of  so  rapid  growth  as  the  White 
P. ;  aod  its  wood  is  harder  and  better,  makes  good 
flooriug,  and  is  preferable  to  pine-deal  for  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  fireplaces,  being  less  apt  to  take  fire ; 
it  is  also  used  for  coarse  doot«,  carts,  barrows,  Ac, 
and  not  being  liable  to  warp,  is  esteemed  by  wood- 
carvers.  The  tree  generally  begios  to  rot  in  the 
heart  when  forty  or  Ufty  years  old.  Like  most  of 
the  other  poplara,  it  nils  the  groitnd  around  it 
with  Backers.  L^e  the  White  P.,  it  is  a  very 
doubtful  native  of  Britain,  and  belongs  to  the 
centre  and  south  of  Europe.— The  Black  P. 
{P.  nigra],  a  native  of  most  parts  of  Europe,  and 
perhaps  of  England,  is  a  tree  of  SO— 80  fe«t  high, 
with  an  ample  spreading  head,  viscous  leafbuds,  and 
deltoid  or  uueqaatly  quadrangular,  perfectly  smooth 
leaves.    The  wood  is  used  for  the  sams  purposes  as 


Black  Poplar  (P.  tugra). 


LoMBlBliT  P.  [P.  faltigiala  or  dUatala)  is  perhaps 
a  mere  variety  of  the  Black  P.,  with  erect  instead 
of  spreading  branches.  It  appears  to  have  been 
introduced  mto  Europe  from  the  Esst  It  is  very 
oommoa  in  the  Punjab  and  in  Persia,  and  now 
also  in  Lombardy  add  other  parts  of  Italy.  It 
attains  a  height  of  100,  or  even  ISO  feet,  and  is 
remarkable  for  its  erect  form,  contracted  head,  and 
very  rapid  growth.  It  is  often  planted  as  an  oma- 
meatal  tree^  although  not  so  generally  as  in  the  end 
at  last  centnry,  when  it  was  thought  preferable  for  I 


to  vtarj  tXbme  ti«&    B  is 
I  and  squazca  cf  towns  in  lO 
parti  of  Britain ;   and  is  partiealaily  sd^ited  to 


Lombaldy  Poplar  [P.  /lUlqnala). 

situations  where  a  long  horisontal  line  of  any  kind 
fatigues  the  eye,  or  as  seen  startine  ap  from  a  msw 
oi  lower  wood  or  shrubbery,  but  has  a  besom-lilts 
appearance  when  planted  m  unsuitable  aituatiaDl. 
The  wood  is  of  almost  no  value.  It  is  genenlly 
propagated  by  layers.  ^The  species  commonly 
known  as  Black  iTiUAN  P.  (P.  monUifera  or 
adadaea),  although  it  is  really  a  native  not  of 
Italy,  but  of  North  America,  and  is  sometiina 
more  correctly  called  Cabauuh  P.,  the  female 
catkins  of  which  resemble  a  string  of  pearly  is 
frequently  planted  both  as  an  ornamental  tree 
and  for  the  sake  of  its  timber,  which  is  usefnl 
for  flooring,  Ac  The  leaves  are  deltoid.  It  is  of 
'  rapid  growth,  and  attains  a  height  of  100— 1!D 
.^The  Balsam  F,,  or  Tacahahac  {P.  baltam- 
\fera),  a  very  common  ornamental  tree  in  Britun,  is 
a  native  both  of  North  America  and  of  Siberia,  aiid 
has  whitish  ovate-oblong  leaves,  which  in  spring 
f  a  dehcate  yellow  tmt,  and  have  an  agreeable 
fragrance.  The  leaf-buds  are  viscid.  The  erecs 
bstigiate  manner  of  growth  approaches  that  of  Uw 
Lombardy  Poplar.  "Die  resinous  exudation  of  the 
buds  ( Taeamahac)  is  said  to  be  diuretic  and  anti- 
spastniodic  ;  and  an  ointment  made  from  the  buds  is 
tued  for  tumours,  wounds,  and  bums.  The  resinoo* 
exudation  of  the  buds  of  other  species,  as  the  Black 
P.,  possesses  similar  properties. — The  Cottdv-tood 
(P.  Canadauit)  of  North  America,  particulariy 
abundant  on  the  upper  parts  of  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri,  is  valued  as  a  timber  tree,  and  has  been 
pretty  extensively  planted  in  Britain ;  as  haa  also 
the  Ohtario  P.  {P.  candicani],  a  species  with  the 
same  balsamic  character  as  P,  bainmifera,  and 
chiefly  distioguished  from  it  by  its  larger  leaves. 
In  size  of  leaf,  no  other  species  equals  P.  httertt- 
phytia,  a  native  of  the  Southern  states  of  North 
America,  the  leaves  of  which  sre  often  sis  inches 
long. 
PO'PLIN  (Fr.  papeUn^.  In  the  ISth  n.  a  fabrie 
u  woven  in  Avignon  cslled  papeUne,  which  was 
mode  of  silk,  and  was  much  eateemed.  An  attempt 
litate  it  was  introduced  into  Bnglond,  and  the 
I  was  corrapted  to  popiin,  which  has  been 
adopted  abroad  aa  welt  as  at  home.  In  1775,  the 
manufacture  was  introduoed  to  Irdand  l<r  Freach 


POPOCATEPETL-POPPYHEAD. 


Proteatant  refngees,  tnd  from  that  time  to  the 
present,  Iriih  poplioa  have  been  famoua.  What  the 
exact  nature  of  the  origiiul  papellaet  was,  ia  not 
certainl J  known ;  but  the  beat  modem  poplins  con- 
mat  of  a  warp  of  ailk  and  •  neft  of  worateil,  which 
give*  aubBtaaoe,  combined  viib  great  aoftneaa  and 
elasticity,  to  the  materiaL  Cotton,  and  even  flax 
yanu  are  lubatttuted  for  silk,  wholly  or  partially,  in 
making  cheap  gooda,  but  they  are  veiy  far  inferior 
in  beauty  to  the  true  peplina. 

FOPOCATEPB^L  (Azteo,  popoea,  to  amoke, 
Mid  lepell,  a  mountain),  or  in  Spaniah,  Folean 
Oraiide  lU  Mexico,  Grand  Volcaao  of  Mexico,  a 
mountain  about  10  miles  Bouth-weat  of  the  cit^  of 
Meiii^o.  It  risea  in  the  form  of  a  cone  to  a  height 
of  17,720  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  ia  com- 
posed chiefly  of  porphyritie  obaidian.  ForeitA  girdle 
Its  lower  porta  1  but  >t  aa  elevation  of  13,000 
feet,  all  vegetatiao  ceases.  About  the  period  of  the 
Spaniah  conquest,  it  w»a  very  active,  but  no  eruption 
haa  been  recorded  aince  1S40.  It  atill  smokes, 
however.  Cortes,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  at- 
tempted to  reach  ita  summit,  but  was  unable  to  do 
BO,  on  acconnt  of  the  moaiiea  of  snow  that  covered 
it.  This  feat  waa  first  achieved  by  Francisco 
Mantino.  one  of  Cortea's  follower^  who  not  only 
naelt 


brothers  Olennie,  who  determined  ita  altitude 
metrically,  and  since  then,  this  laborious  exploit 
baa  been  leveral  times  performed. 

PO'PPINJAT,  a  name  of  the  Green  Woodpecker 
[Picui  viridu), »  bird  common  in  most  of  the  wooded 
districts  of  England  and  Scotland.      See   WooD- 

FECKKit, 

POTPY  {FapSefr),  a  genos  of  pUats  of  the 
natural  ordfr  Papaveracea,  having  a  calyx  of  two 
(or  rartly  three)  sepala,  which  very  soon  fall  off; 
B  corolla  of  four  (rarely  lix)  petals ;  numerous 
stamens  seated  on  a  receptacle ;  the  stigma  crown- 
ing the  germen,  without  a  style,  and  ta  the  form  of 
4—20  lays  ;  the  capsole  opening  by  pores  Under 
the  persistent  stigma,  imperfectly  divided  into  cells 
by  partitions  as  numerous  as  the  rays  of  the  stigtno, 
but  vhich  do  not  reach  the  centre,  the  seeds 
eitremely  numerous.  There  are  numerous  species 
of  P.,  mostly  natives  of  Europe  and  Asia,  seme  of 
them  found  even  in  very  northern  regions,  but  most 
of  them  in  the  wanner  temperate  parti.  They  are 
rather  large  herliaceona  plants,  annual  or  pereauial, 
mostly  sprinkled  with  bristly  hairs.  They  have  a 
-white  milky  juice ;  a  disagreeable  narcotic  smell, 
particularly  when  bruised ;  pinnatifid  or  bipinnati- 
fid  leaves,  more  rarely  jag^d  or  toothed  leaves ; 
and  large  shewy  flowers,  which  readily  become 
double  by  cultivation.  The  capsules  are  curioos 
from  the  manner  in  which  they  fling  out  their  seeds 
-when  the  plant  is  shaken  by  the  wind ;  each  capsule 
being  somewhat  like  a  round  or  oval  pepper-box. 
with  holes,  however,  not  in  the  top,  where  rain 
might  get  in  by  them,  but  under  the  rim.  By  for 
the  moat  important  speciea  is  that  known  as  the 
Opnm  P.  (P.  Ktmai/trum),  also  colled  the  WHrra  P., 
and  the  Oil  Pofft.  See  Opiuil  But  the  some 
species  is  important  on  account  of  the  bland  fixed 
tral  of  the  seeds,  and  ia  mach  cultivated  as  an  oil- 
pLuit  P.  oil  is  as  sweet  as  olive  oil,  and  is  used  for 
iimilar  purposes.  It  is  imported  into  Britain  in 
conaiderable  quantities  from  India.  The  P.  is  also 
extensively  cultivated  for  it  in  Fnuice,  Belginm, 
Slid  Germany.  The  use  and  manufacture  of  this 
oil  were  for  a  long  time,  during  last  century, 
strictly  prohibited  m    France,  froia   a,   mistaken 


it    must   pwtake   ot  the    narcotic 


properties  of  the  milky  JQlce  of  the  plant  Tbe 
seed,  however,  contains  no  opium  or  any  narcotio 
principle,  and  was  well  known  to  the  ancients  aa 
a  pleasant  article  ot  food,  fit  to  be  eaten  by  itself  or 
with  bread.  The  oil  expressed  from  it  is  perfectly 
wholesome,  and  is  much  nsed  tn  France  and  else- 
where M  an  article  of  food.  Fully  one-half  of  the 
oil  used  tor  cooking  and  othemise  for  alimentaiy 
puipnses  in  France,  i*  of  this  kind.  The  eeeda  yield 
about  40  per  cent  of  oil,  and  the  oil-cake  is  useful 
for  feeding  cattle.     The  oil  is  si 


P.  for  oil,  the  seed  is  often  sown  in  autumn,  where 
the  severity  of  winter-frosts  is  not  to  be  feared  ;  in 
more  northern  parts,  it  is  sown  in  spring,  and  some- 
times the  seed  ts  scattered  on  the  top  of  the  snow 
with  which  the  ground  ia  covered.  Being  very 
small,  it  needs  litUe  or  no  harrowing.  Early  sowing 
is  favourable  to  the  size  of  the  plant,  and  the 
abunilonce  of  produce.  Hoeing  and  thinning  are 
advantageous.  An  open  but  nch  sod  is  best  for 
the  P. ;  and  a  sheltered  situation  is  necessary,  as  in 
exposed  situations,  much  of  the  seed  is  scattered  by 
the  wind.  The  P.  does  not  exhaust  the  land  so 
much  as  colza,  rape,  and  some  other  oil-ptant& 
Harvesting  ought  to  begin  when  one-fourth  of  the 
capsules  of  each  plant  oie  open.  It  is  accomplished 
by  pulling  the  plants  in  such  a  mauner  as  not  to 
shake  the  seed  out  of  the  capsules,  and  tying  them 
in  sheafa,  which  are  placed  t — -'-  -  ' ■     - 


by  shaking  the  capsules  into  a  tub  or  on  a  cloth, 
great  core  being  used  (o  prevent  any  earth  from  ths 
roots  fmm  gettinsmixed  with  them.    Some  faimera 
in  Flanders  sow  P.  in  alternate  rows  with  carrots. 
Tbe  variety  of  P,  chiefly  cultivated  as  an  oil-plant 
has  flowers  of  a  dull  reddish  colour,  large  oblong 
capsules,    and    brownish    seeds ;    but   the   white- 
flowered  variety,  with  globular  capsules  and  white 
seeds,  is  also  used. — The  Orikntal  P.  {P.  orimtale), 
a  native  of  Armenia  and  the  Caucasus,  a  perennial 
S|>ecioa,  is  often  planted  in  gardens  on  account  of 
its  very  large,  fie^-retl  flowers.   Ita  unripe  ca[«ule« 
have  on  acrid,  almost  burniug  taste  ;  but  are  eaten 
by  tbe  Turks,  and  opium  is  extracted  from  them. — 
Several  apeoies  are  British,  all  of  them  locftl,  rare  in 
some  places,  and  troublesome  weeds  in  cornfields  in 
other  places  apparently  quite  sunilar  in  climate. 
Among  them  is  Uie  Coem  P.  <yr  Common  Rm  P.  {P. 
rhoeai),  with  bright  red  flowers,  and  deeply  pin- 
natifid leaves.     The  petals  are  mucilaginous   and 
aliglitly  bitter  1  they  have 
a   slight  nju^xitio  smell ; 
and    a   syrup    made    of 
them  is  sometimes  used 
as  an  anodyne  in  catarrhs 
and      children's       com- 
phiinta ;    b;it    they    ora 
more  valued  for  the  ricb 
red    colour    which   they 
yield.      A  variety   with 
doable  flowers   is    culti> 
vated  in  flower-gardens, 
under  the  name  ot  Carita- 
(ton  Poppf.     Among  the 
ancienta,     the     P.     waa 
sacred  to  Cerea. 

POPPY-HBAD,  • 
carved  ornament,  used 
as  a  finial  on  top  of 
bench-ends,  Ac    In  early  Poppy-head. 

examples,  it  is  a  simple 

fleur-de-lis,  hut  in  late  Gothic,  this  and  other  wood- 
work become  very  elaborately  carved 


FOKBEAGLE— POBIPERA. 


PO'RBBAGLB  (Lanm  Comubiea,  or  Iiuna 
Carmibiciu),  &  fiah  of  the  Shark  funily  [Smaiitta), 
not  uncommon  on  tba  Biitiih  couta.  It  bh  two 
Aortal  fin*,  the  first  about  the  middle  of  the  back, 
the  aecoDd  near  the  tail  The  tail-lin  is  Urge  and 
fnrked.  The  bead  ia  ptnnted.  The  giU-openiaa 
•le  lai^e.  The  t«eth  are  flat;  triannilar,  smouw, 
Dharp,  and  rutting.  The  F.  n  alao  called  the  Baxv- 
HARN  Shabk.  It  attaiu  a  length  of  about  aix  feet. 
Smalt  companiea  auociate  in  punnit  of  prey,  which 
cozmiala  of  liih  of  Tariou*  kinda.  No  creature  ia 
more  voracioot ;  three  large  hakea  have  been  found 
in  the  Rtomaoh  of  a  porbeagle. 

PORCELAIN.    See Potitbt  and  Forcxuin. 

PORCH,  a  building  forming  an  encloonre  or  pro- 
tectiou  for  a  doorway.  Every  one  knows  how  much 
this  beautiful  feature  ia  now  naed,  and  how  efficient 
it  is  aa  B  protectioD  from  the  wind  and  weather.  In 
'  Elizabethan  and  medieval  architecture,  the  porch 
WM  also  very  conunMi  in  domertio  architecture. 
In  churches,  it  was  almost  nniveraol  in  thit 
oouDtry.  In  France,  many  splendid  porches  or 
portals  remain  ;  they  are  amongst  the  most  beautiful 
I  of  medieval  art.     In  Eagland,  wooden 


PORCUPINE  {Hyiirix).  a  _ 
of  the  order  Sodentia,  and  family  Hattridda.    This 

family  iM  remarkably  characterised  Vy  ui  armatii 
of  spines,  which,  like  those  of  the  hetjgehoge,  are, 
to  their  structure,  merely  thick  and  strong  hain. 
The  Hyshicidie  are  plantigrade ;  the  fore-feet  have 
four  toes  aud  a  mumentwy  thnmb,  the  hind-feet 
have  five  tuea.  Their  general  aspect  is  heavy  and 
pig-like,  and  they  have  a  grunting  voice.  The 
muzzle  is  broad  and  blont ;  the  ears  short  and 
rounded  ;  the  incisors  smooth  and  large,  two  above, 
and  two  below ;  the  molars  eight  above,  and  eight 
below.  The  name  porcupine  is  derived  from  the 
French  words  pore,  a  hog,  and  eptn,  a  spine.— The 
CoHMOlt  P.  {H.  criilata]  is  a  native  of  the  south  of 
Europe,  of  many  parte  of  Asia,  and  of  most  parts  of 
AMca.  It  is  one  of  the  largest  of  rodents,  being 
from  two  to  three  feet  in  length,  besides  the  tail, 
which  is  about  six  inchea  long.  The  hinder  part  of 
the  head  and  the  neck  are  furnished  with  a  crest  of 
long  bristles,  capable  of  being  elevated  or  depressed 
*t  pleasure.  The  muzzle  and  limbs  at«  covered 
with  very  short   h^ir;   the   back  and  side*  with 


afiatt,  whiidt  an  limgMt  on  the  middle  <rf  tt*  bat^ 


Poreapine  {Sj/itritc  tritkUa). 

where  they  are  almMt  of  the  thicknesa  of  a  gooae- 

quill,  and  more  than  a  foot  long.  The  spines  sn 
supported  by  a  slender  pedicle,  and  thev  terminate 
in  a  sharp  point ;  they  are  longitudinally  striated. 


general g 


the  animaL     Their  oi 

lat,  with  the  points  directed  bockwaidi ; 

but  when  the  animal  is  excited,  they  are  erected, 
and  it  rolls  itself  up  like  the  hedgebt^  with  ipincs 
pointing   in   every  direction.     The  bil  spines  or 

auills  are  of  very  singular  structure,  being  open 
lin-sided  tubes,  about  two  inches  Ions,  sappc^cd 
npon  slender  flerible  pedicles ;  and  they  nuke  a 
sound  by  rattling  together  when  the  tail  n  -*"^*" 
.  The  F.  IS  said  to  rattle  also  the  spines  of  its  body 
when  irritated,  but  this  is  doubtful  The  Etatement 
has  been  often  mode,  that  it  throws  off  its  ^hdcb  or 
qnilla  by  a  voluntary  act,  launching  them  at  its 
advenaries  ;  bat  it  bos  no  sncb  power,  olthoogh  it 
is  posaible  that  quills  ready  to  come  off  may  be 
detached  in  moments  of  excitement,  and  fly  to  a 
small  distance  with  sufficient  foice  to  be  annc^g 
to  a  pursuer.  The  F.'s  armour,  however,  is  abii^y 
defensive,  and  it  seeks  to  turn  its  back,  and  thus 
tiie  points  of  its  spines  to  an  enemy.  It  is  i 
Bolituy  and  noctnnial  animaL  It  burrows  in  the 
ground,  and  in  winter  it  becomes  torpid.  It  feeds 
on  roots,  bark,  fruits,  and  other  vegetable  sab- 
great  depredatiaia 
'  ■■     PTarens  ' 


in  garden 


The  spines  or  quills  of  the  r 
lor  various  purposes,  and  have  a  certain  commetcisl 
v^ue.  It  IS  cVieSy  sought  on  account  of  tbent; 
although  its  flesh  is  eaten,  and  was  brought  to  the 
market  of  ancient  Rome. — A  larger  species  of  P. 
[H.  laieurui),  with  the  quills  of  the  tail  quite  white, 
is  fonnd  in  India,  and  other  speciee  inhabit  diffBcat 
parts  of  the  East  The  ATHUttrRB,  or  Tcmn- 
TAILED  p.  {A  therura  fatdailata),  a  native  of  India 
and  Malacca,  differa  from  the  true  porcapinea  in  the 
head  and  muzzle  not  being  convex,  in  having  the 
quilts  flattened  like  blades  3l  grass,  and  thoae  S  the 
tail  mtheted  into  a  tuft  at  the  end  of  it.  The 
Canada  P.,  or  Uraon  (q.  v.),  is  still  more  different 
from  the  true  porcupines;  and  the  Coendos  (5yse- 
thera)  of  the  wsrm  parta  of  America — which  ait 
covered  with  short  quills,  and,  like  the  nrsou,  live 
among  the  branches  of  trees — are  mnaikably 
distiugui^ied  by  their  long  prehensile  tail. 


the  members  of  this  close  present  w 

made  through  their  tissue.     The  term  Spoagki  a 

used  in  preference  by  many  naturalists 


POMSM—POEPHYBT. 


PO'RISM,  a  kind  of  geometrio  propontion  in 
high  favour  among  ancieut  Greek  mathematicians, 
bnt  of  which  the  notices  that  have  come  down  to 
na  are  so  few  and  meagre,  that,  till  lately,  mathe- 
matidans  were  not  agreed  about  what  a  porism 
really  was.  The  ancient  works  in  which  poriams 
are  mentioned  are  the  CoUectiones  MaUiematiae  of 
Pappns>  and  the  ComTnentarii  of  Proclus.  Br 
Bobert  Simson  (q.  v.)  was  the  first  to  restore 
the  probably  original  form  of  porisma.  As  defined 
by  Flavfair, '  a  porism  is  a  proposition  afiinning  the 
possibility  of  finding  such  conditions  as  will  render 
a  certain  problem  indeterminate,  or  capable  of  innu- 
merable solutions.'  Good  examples  of  porisms  are 
given  in  Simson' s  Opera  Reliqua;  Playf air's  '  Origin 
and  Investigation  of  Porisms'  {Tiufu.  of  Boy.  Soc 
of  Bdin.t  v^  iii) ;  Wallace's  paper,  '  Some  Geome- 
trical Porisms,  &&'  {£din»  Trans,,  vol  iii  &c.) 

PORK  (Pr.  pore,  a  hog,  from  Lat.  porens).  The 
flesh  of  swine  forms  a  very  large  portion  of  the 
animal  food  of  most  nations,  although  it  is  not  the 
most  nutritive,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  following  com- 
parison of  the  four  principal  kinda  of  flesh-food : 


▼ml, 

Hatton, 
Pork, 


Minoal 
Matter. 

Oflftllack 

FlbrliM  and 
AlbamMi. 

hm. 

4-B 
60 
35 
1-6 

7-5 
7*0 
7-0 
65 

90 
8-0 
66 
4-5 

16-6 
30-0 
400 
60-0 

62-5 
60-0 
44  0 
380 


It  has  qualities,  however,  which  especially  fit  it  for 
man's  use ;  its  fatness  makes  it  a  very  heat-^ving 
food  for  cold  and  temperate  climates ;  whilst  it  stir- 
passes  all  other  kinds  of  animal  food  in  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  preserved  by  saltine  and 
drying.  Hence  the  trade  in  pork  is  coDsidcraS^le  in 
all  countries  where  it  is  used,  but  especially  so  in 
Great  Britain  and  America,  where  vast  quantities 
are  cured  for  the  supply  of  ships  aud  the  army,  and 
for  home  use.  The  quantity  of  pork  imborted  into 
Britain  from  the  United  States  is  proaigious;  in 
1862,  of  pickled  pork  there  were  receiv^  nearly 
half  a  million  barrels,  and  in  addition,  bacon  and 
hams  of  the  value  of  j£2,477,00o.  Millions  of  hogs 
are  raised  in  the  state  of  Ohio,  and  the  curing  of 
swine's  flesh  is  the  staple  business  of  Cincinnati  and 
other  towns.  A  more  vivid  idea  of  the  extent  of  this 
vast  trade  cannot  be  given  than  a  recent  statement 
of  the  Louisville  Gazette,  that '  there  were  between 
iive  and  six  acres  of  barrelled  pork  piled  up  three 
tiers  high,  in  oi>en  lots,  and  not  less  than  six 
acres  nnpiled,  which  would  cover  eighteen  acres  if 
cloaelv  laid  in  a  single  tier  on  the  ground ;  besides 
all  which,  six  acres  of  pens  were  hlled  with  hogs 
"waiting  to  be  killed.'  America  has  long  fumish»i 
the  chief  supply  of  mess  and  common  pork  not  only 
for  the  British  army,  navy,  and  mercantile  marine, 
but  also  for  those  of  most  European  nationa 
Next  to  America^  Ireland,  and  especially  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Cork,  furnishes  the  largest  supply  of 
cured  pork ;  and  London  and  Wiltshire,  and  other 
parts  of  England,  also  furnish  vast  quantities  of 
Dacon  and  hams  for  general  consumption. 

PORO'SITT.  By  this  term  we  express  the 
experimental  fact,  that  no  kind  of  matter  completely 
mis  the  space  it  occupies ;  in  other  words,  that  all 
bodies  are  full  of  minute  cavities  or  interstices,  such 
as  are  illustrated  on  a  laree  scale  by  a  sjionge.  On 
the  atomic  theory,  it  is  obvious  that  this  must  be  the 
case  if  the  atoms  of  matter  are  spherical,  or,  indeed, 
if  they  have  any  form  save  one  or  two  special 
ones,  such  as  cubes  or  rhombic  dodecahedrons.  It 
=8  commonly  asserted  that  all  bodies  must  be  porous, 
because  they  are  compressible :  but  this  is  a  great 
356 


mistake,  sinoe  we  have  no  reason  to  believe  that 
matter  is  not  per  se  compressible,  independently  oi 
the  existence  of  interstices.  The  Florentine  Acade- 
micians, in  their  attempts  to  compress  water,  proved 
the  porosity  of  silver,  by  flattening  a  sphere  of  that 
metal,  filled  with  water,  and  soldered.  The  water 
escaped  through  the  pores  of  the  silver,  and  stood  in 
fine  drops  on  its  surface.  The  porosity  of  liquids 
is  eauly  shewn  by  mixing  alcohol  and  water.  The 
bulk  of  the  mixture  is  considerably  lees  than  the 
sum  of  the  bulks  of  the  components,  shewing  that 
these  must  in  part  have  entered  each  other's  pores. 
This  property  of  matter  is  of  great  importance  in 
natural  phenomena,  as  it  brings  the  molecular  forces 
of  capillarity  into  play :  raising  the  sap  in  veget- 
ables, allowing  rain  to  sink  into  the  groimd,  &o 

PORPHTnEtlUS,  one  of  that  series  of  ancient 
philosophers  to  whom  is  due  the  reformation  of  the 
Greek  philosophy  known  as  Neo-Platonism,  was 
probably  bom  at  Batanea  in  Syria  (the  Bashan  of 
Scripture)  in  the  year  233  A.D.  His  original  name  was 
Malchus,  the  Greek  form  of  the  Syro-Phoenician 
JHelechf  or  king.  The  name  by  whicn  he  is  known 
in  history,  Porphyrius,  *  one  clad  in  purple,'  is  but  a 
Greek  epithet  intended  as  a  sort  of  paraphrase  of 
his  name.  He  is  said  by  Socrates  tiie  historian« 
and  by  St  Augustine,  to  have  been  originally  a 
Christian ;  bnt  tnis  seems  improbable,  although  it  is 
certain  that  in  his  youth  he  was  a  hearer  of  Origen, 
or  at  least  held  some  intercourse  with  him  at 
Ccesarea  in  Palestin&  What  is  more  certain  is,  that 
he  passed  at  a  later  time  to  Athens,  where  he  studied 
rhetoric  under  Longiuus,  the  well-known  author  of 
the  treatise  On  the  Svhlime.  It  was  at  Rome,  how- 
ever, whither  he  repaired  soon  after  260,  that  he 
entered  upon  what  must  be  regarded  as,  historically 
considereo,  the  career  of  his  life.  Here  he  became 
a  schoiar  of  the  Neo-Platonist  Plotinus,  with  whom, 
as  well  as  with  another  member  of  the  same  school, 
named  Amelius,  P.  entered  into  an  animated  contro- 
versy, but  eventually  adopted  so  fully  the  opinions 
of  Plotinus,  that  he  became  himself,  if  not  the  leader 
of  the  school,  at  least  the  most  trusted  of  the 
disciples  of  its  master.  After  six  years'  residence 
in  Rome,  he  went  to  Sicily,  where,  if  St  Jerome's 
account  is  to  be  relied  on,  he  wrote  his  once  cele- 
brated treatise  in  15  books  against  the  Chris- 
tians, now  known  only  from  the  replies  which  it 
elicited,  having  been  burned  h}^  order  of  the 
Emperor  Theodosius.  From  Sicily,  he  went  to 
Carthafl«,  and  afterwards  to  Athens;  but  even- 
tually, rlotinus  having  died  soon  after  P.  left  Rome, 
he  returned  to  that  city,  where  he  continued  to- 
teach,  as  it  would  seem,  until  his  death,  which 
was  probably  about  305  or  306.  For  a  view  of 
P.'s  position  in  the  history  of  the  Neo-Platonio 
school,  see  Nbo-Platonists.  P.  was  a  very  volu- 
minous writer.  Of  his  works,  the  titles  of  more- 
than  60  are  still  preserved,  43  of  which  are  entirely 
lost  His  Ltfe  of  Pythagiyras;  his  work  On  Absti- 
nence from  Animal  Food;  his  Commentary  on- 
AristoUe*s  Categories,  with  the  Introduction;  and 
On  the  Harmonies  of  Ptolemy;  and  the  book  Ad' 
MarceWiTn,  addressed  to  his  wife,  are  preserved 
entire.  The  rest  are  known  chiefly  by  fragments,. 
nor  has  any  complete  edition  of  his  works  been 
published. 

PO'RPHYRY  (Gr.  purple),  a  term  originslly 
confined  to  an  Egyptian  rock  used  in  sculpture,  and. 
known  now  as  Rosso  antico.  It  is  composed,  accord- 
ing to  Delesse,  of  a  red  felspathic  base,  in  which  are- 
disseminated  rose-coloured  crystals  of  the  felspar- 
called  oligoclase,  with  some  plates  of  blackish  horn- 
blende, and  grains  of  oxidised  iron  ore.  The  term 
is  not  now,  however,  used  to  denote  any  particular 

680 


POBPOISE-POESENSA. 

rook,  but  it  apidied  to  My  rook  which,  like  the  1  reckoned  fit  for  the  table  of  TojMf,  periupi  puth 
RoSM  aotico,  iuia  a  homogeneoui  earthy  or  compact  beoaiue  among  Eoman  Cathohca  it  wa«  iccwuted 
base,  through  which  are  acattered  distinct  crystala  l/<i.  In  the  time  of  Qaeen  EUiabeth,  it  wa  Mill 
of  oce  or  more  minetala  of  contemporai;  origin  I  used  by  the  nobles  oF  England,  and  was  terrei  op 
with  the  hue.  Thus,  my  volcanic  trachyte  ottcn  with  bread-crumba  and  vin^ar.  It  is  now  md 
abounds  in  cryatala  ol  gWy  feUpar,  forming  a  I  only  in  very  northern  "^ona.  It  ii  a  chief  diintj 
traebytio  porphyry  ;  or  crystals  of  felsnar,  quartz,  or  ,  of  the  Greenlandera.— The  Grampna  [q.  t.]  ii  con- 
calcareous  epar,  diaaeminatad  through  a  base  of  monly  referrtd  to  thii  genus.— Another  ipean  f( 
irreenstonB,  form  a  greenstone  jwrphyry.  In  the  ,  P.  [P.  Capeiui*)  is  found  near  the  Cape  of  Good 
same  way  there  are  pitohatone  porphyry,  basaltic  !  Hope.— Thename  P.  is  from  theFreochporc-piiM«», 
porphyry,  cUyatone  porphyry,  &c  or  the  Itahan  porw-pexe  (Hog-fish),  corrrapondiDg 

PO'RPOIBE,  or  PORPESSE  (Phora^a).  a  genus  |  ^  the  French  martaim  {Sea-hog)  and  the  tkmw 
of  Cetacca,  of  the  famUy  Ddphinida,  baying  a  form   "teerscAwtw. 

similar   to   the  dolphins,  but  the    muzrle    short,       PORRI'QO.    See  Fatds  and  Rikowogk. 

S"°S;'.rrvV°.™S*inpK  »3  ^       P0RS^»Ki.^P0-R3g.A.L™„L;m 

The  Common  P.  {P.  conananit)  U  the  moat  plentiful    (La':  in  ttruscan   means     lord     or    prmceT,  m 

of  the  Cetaoea  on  the  British  coasts,  abounding   tie  e"ly  "id  ?°™rtun  hurtory  ofKonie,  sppeui 

particularly  on  the  western  coasts  of  Ireland  anS    as  a  powerful  kina  ^  ClMinm  in  Etruna.    Acwri- 

of  Scotlani     It  is  found  also  on  aU  the  coasts  of  |  "?g  t".  ^X  ^^     }°      ^      VJ"!^"'  '^ 

Europe  from  the  Mediterranean  northwards,  on  the    Tarouin  the  l>roudwa«  allied  from  Eome,  fe 

-^  I  sought  the  hem,  first  of  the  Veu  and  the  Tinjiuin 

(his  Etruscan  Kinsmen),  against  his  revolts  vt>. 

I  jecta ;  but  their  e&brta  not  prorins  ancccsaful,  ht 

tamed  to  P.,  who  willingly  etipouaed  his  cause,  ud 

!  marched  a  great  army  afii^nit  Borne.    The  Etnucu 

king  seized  the  Janicuuitn^  a  fortified  hill  o^  \tii 

I  west  side  of  the  Tiber  ;  and  would  have  fonwi  tui 

way  into  the  city  ucrosa  the  'Bridge  of  Wooiki 

'  Piles'  {Pont  SuLiidiu),  had   not  a  brave  Eomu, 

I  Horatins  Coclea,  kept  the  whole  of  P.'s  srait  it 

I  bay,  while  his  comiades  behind  bim  hewed  iin 

'  the  bridge  ;  after  which  he  {dunged  into  tbe  Tiber, 

and  aafety  swam   across  iti  waves.      P.,  vt  m 

informed,  now  laid  aicge  to  Home ;   and  ifur  i 

while,  the  inhabitants  began  to  suffer  so  sertte!? 

from  famine,  that  a  desperate  expedient  vu  bH 

Porpoise  (Phocana  onamunu).  recourse  to.     Thiee  hundred  of  the  nobleit  lionun 

youths  swora  to  peril  their  lives  in  cutting  oB  Ike 

ooasts  of  North  America,  and  in  the  arctic  regions.    £truacan  king.    The  first  on  whom  the  lot  fdl  nu 

It  is  one  of  the  smallest  of  the  Cetacea,  its  len^  j  C.  Mucius,  who  stole  into  the  camp  of  P„  bat  not 

sometimes  not  exceeding  four  feet,  althongh  indivi-  j  knowing  the  pereon  of  the  king,  killed  hit  wcreuiy 

duals  occur  of  six  or  even  eight  feet  in  length.     Xhe   instead.    He  was  instantly  seized,  and  put  to  tlit 

body  ia  siiindle^shaped ;    its  greatest  diameter  is   torture;  bat  the  unshrinlung  audacity  with  vbirb 

near  the  dorsal  fin.    The  skin  is  perfectly  smooth, '  he  thrust  his  right  hand  into  the  fire  and  lei  it  bnni, 

and  destitute  of  hair.    There  are  from  40  ta  50   moved  the  king  so  mnch,  that  he  pardoned  him; 

teeth  in  each  jaw,  not  conical,  as  in  most  of  the  ,  whereupon  Hucius  (ev^  afterwards  called  Samla, 

Cetacea,  but  compressed.    The  eye  is  rather  small,  |  '  the  Left-handed')  told  him  of  the  jeopardy  in  vtiicli 

and  the  pupil  in  the  form  of  a  V.    The  0|>emng  of .  ha  was  placed.     P.  resolved  to  make  peace  vith 

the  ear  is  very  minute,  like  a  hole  made  with  a  pin.  '  Rome  at  once,  and  his  conditiona,  which  were  jttm 

The  blow-hale  is  crescent- shaped,  with  the  boms  of   favourable,   being  accepted  by   the  soretv-pronl 

the    crescent  directed  forwards,  and   ia    situated    citizens,  he  witl^rew  his  forces.     Tbis  veraoci  li 

exactly  over  the  eyes.  |  the  story  is  wholly  discredited  by  modem  cribdio, 

The  P.  ia  greganoui,  and  large  nnmben  sie  often    and   is   believed   to   have   been   invented  by  liie 

seen  ti^ther,  sometimes  swimming  in  file,  when  '  patriotic  annalists  of  ancient  Rome  to  conceal  tk 

their  locks,  appearing  above  the   surface   of  the  '  fact  of  a  temporary  Etruscan  conquest,  u<t  tin 

water,  are  apt  to  suggest  the  idea  of  a  great  sea-  |  evideace  in  favour  of  this  view  is  overwhelniis. 

serpent ;    sometimes    gambolling,    either    in   fine  |  Tacitus  even  expressly  affirms  that  P.  conqonra 

weather,  or  when  a  storm  is  approaching,  or  even  i  the  city  ;   Dionystus  informs  v»   that  the  saulf 

in  the  midst  of  a  storm.     The  P.   feeds  on  fish, '  sent  bim  an  ivory  sceptre,  a  golden  crown,  aol  > 

which  its  teeth  are  admirably  adapted  to   catch,  |  triomphal    robe,   which  was   the    form   tlut  )oi 

and  herds  of  porpoises  pursue  the  vast  shoals  of  j  been  adopted  by  the  Etruscan  cities  themseJies  ot 

herring,  mackerel,  &c,  into  bays  and  estuaries.   The    acknowledging  the  supremacy  of  the  Koman  kia^ 

P.  sametimos  ascends  rirers,  apparently  in  pursuit    Tarquinius  Priscus ;  and  Pliny  mentions  a  drcnii' 

-of  salmon,  as  far  as  tlie  water  is  brackish,  and  is   stance  which  is  quite  conclusive  as  a  proof  of  tk 

not  unfrc<iuently  ttaelf  caught  on  such  occasions,    suhjogation   of   Rome — viz.,   that   P.   fwlude  tk 

■"■ object  of  pursuit  on  account  of  its  skin,  itr    ~-*- ' ' — '  * ^-~" — ' — 


oil,  and  ita  flesh.  The  skin  is  nearly  an  inch  thick, 
but  is  planed  down  until  it  becomes  translucent^ 
and  is  made  into  excellent  leather,  which  is  used 
for  covering  carriages  aad  for  other  purpoeea. 
little  use  ia  made  of  it  in  Britain,  but  it  is  used  in 
America.  Under  the  skin  is  a  layer  of  fat,  about 
an  inch  in  depth,  which  yields   oil  of  the  finest 

Juality.  The  flesh  is  dark-coloured  and  bloody, 
ut  was    in    former  times   highly  esteemed,  and 


in,  except  for  agricoltnial  paipooi 
Niebtlhr,  who  has  placed  this  view  beyond  all  diinti, 
notices  various  minor  incidents  which  are  perieL-tif 
unintelligible,  except  on  the  hypothesis  of  an  Etnt- 
can  conquest  The  whole  detaila  of  the  scciat 
legend,  tnerefore,  may  be  r^arded  as  fahuloiu- 
the  product  of  patriotic  onveracity— and  what  skbi 
most  reasonable  to  believe,  is,  that  a  great  naoi  J 
the  Etruscan  asainst  the  I^tin  races  took  ]in*, 
and  that  Rome,  lorming  the  Latin  fronlieT  tonM 


POBgON-PORT-AU-PRINCE. 


Etrnria,  was  exposied  to  the  first  brunt  of  the  war, 
and  auflfered  a  disastrous  defeat;  but  that  shortly 
after,  the  Etrasoans  themselves  were  decisively 
beaten,  and  forced  back  into  their  own  territories ; 
for  after  the  oon<][ue8t  of  Rome,  Aruns,  a  son  of 
P.,  proceeded  agamst  Aricia,  where  (according  to 
livy)  his  army  was  routed  under  the  walls  of  that 
city  by  the  combined  forces  of  the  Latin  cities,  with 
the  help  of  Greek  auxiliaries  from  Cumsa.  It  is 
worth  while  quoting,  as  a  proof  of  Kiebtthr^s  wonder- 
ful talent  for  felicitous  conjecture,  that  he  explains 
the  long-surviving  Roman  custom  of  beginning  an 
auction  by  offering  for  sale  the  goods  of  King  P., 
by  the  supposition,  that  in  the  veoovery  of  their 
independence,  the  Romans  probably  captured  pro* 
perfcy  belonging  to  their  late  master,  which  tney 
may  have  publicly  sold.  The  sepulchre  of  P.  at 
Clusium  is  described  by  Varro,  but  his  description 
is  not  credible.  The  ancient  legend  has  been  magni- 
iicently  rendered  in  modem  verse  by  MacauTay. 
See  the  Lays  of  Ancient  Rome 

PORSOK,  RiCHAKD,  the  greatest  Greek  scholar 
England  has  ever  produced,  was  bom  on  Christmas 
1759,  at  East  Ruston,  Norfolk,  where  his  father 
was  parish  clei^  The  curate  of  the  parish  con- 
ceiving a  liking  for  the  boy,  on  account  of  his 
omnivorous  appetite  for  books  and  his  marvellous 
memory,  took  charge  of  him,  and  had  him  educated 
along  with  his  own  sons.  P.  afterwards  found  a 
patron  in  Mr  Norris  (the  founder  of  the  Norrisian 
professorship  at  Cambridge),  who  sent  him  to  Eton 
m  1774,  where  he  remained  four  ^ears,  but  did  not 
acc^uire  any  of  the  ordinarv  distinctions,  although 
it  IS  evident  that  it  was  there  his  mind  acquired 
a  fixed  bias  towards  classical  studies.  Another 
patron.  Sir  George  Baker,  sent  him,  in  1778,  to 
Trinity  CoUese,  Cambridge,  of  which  he  was  elected 
a  scholar  in  1780.  Next  year,  he  won  the  Craven 
Scholarship,  and  subsequently,  the  first  Chancellor's 
medaL  Lu  1782,  he  was  chosen  a  Fellow  of  Trinity. 
It  was  about  this  time  that  he  began  to  give  incu- 
cations  of  his  subtle  sagacity  and  taste  in  the 
difficult  verbal  criticism  of  the  Greek  dramatists. 
For  four  years,  he  contributed  to  Maty*s  Beview — 
his  first  critique  being  on  Schulz^s  i&chylus,  and 
his  finest  on  Brunck*s  Aristophanes.  He  also  opened 
a  correspondence  with  Professor  Rnhnken.  If, 
however,  we  are  to  jud^  from  a  quatrain  written 
at  a  later  period  of  his  life,  he  did  more  than 
correspond : 

I  went  to  Straabuxg,  where  I  got  drunk 
With  that  most  learned  Professor  Brunck; 
I  went  to  Wortz,  and  got  more  drunken 
With  that  more  learned  Professor  Ruhuken. 

In  1787  appeared,  in  the  Oentleman^a  Magaainet  his 
sarcastic  letters  on  Hawkins's  Life  of  Johnson,  For 
the  same  periodical,  he  also  wrote  his  far  more' 
famous  and  trenchant  Leliera  to  Travis  on  the  Three 
Witnesses,  The  dispute  concerned  tiie  genuineness 
of  John  L  7,  8,  and  was  occasioned  by  a  blundering 
and  pretentious  defence  of  the  passage  by  Arch- 
deacon Travis,  against  the  scornful  attack  of  Gibbon. 
P.  naturally  incurred  great  odium  on  account  of 
the  side  which  he  took  in  this  controversy.  One 
old  lady  who  had  him  in  her  will  for  a  legacy  of 
i)300,  cut  it  down  to  £30,  when  she  heard  that  he 
had  written  a  book  against  Christianity.  In  1792, 
he  resigned  liis  fellowship,  as  he  found  that  he 
could  not  conscientiously  take  orders  in  the  church. 
Some  of  his  friends  now  raised  a  fund  to  preserve 
him  from  want,  and  about  £100  a  year  was  secured. 
He  was  also  appointed  to  the  Regius  professorship  of 
Greek  in  the  university  of  Cambridge— 4ui  ofiice, 
indeed,  only  worth  £40  a  year ;  yet  so  splendid  was 
hii  learning  bo  admirable  his  taiste,  so  vigorous  and 


epifframmatic  his  style  of  criticism,  that  he  might 
eattiy  have  —by  the  exercise  of  a  moderate  degree  of 
continuous  literary  labour — succeeded  in  gaining  a 
handsome  income.  But  already  Hwo  devils  had 
him  in  their  gripe* — ^procrastination  and  a  raging 
thirst  for  drink — and  they  held  him  firm  to  the  ena 
of  his  melancholy  career.  The  only  thing  he  ever 
did  in  connection  with  his  Greek  professorship  was 
to  deliver  a  prcelectio  so  excellent,  that,  it  has  been 
said,  if  he  had  passed  from  verbal  to  lesthetic 
criticism,  he  would  have  surpassed  all  his  country- 
men in  that  too.  In  1704,  he  edited  the  plays  of 
iEschylus  for  the  Foulis  press,  Glasgow;  and 
between  1797  and  ISOl,  four  of  Euripides,  the  Hecuba^ 
the  Orestes,  the  Phcenissce  and  the  Medea,  He 
also  collated  the  Harleian  MS.  of  the  Odyssey  for 
the  OrenviUe  Homer,  In  1806  he  was  appointed 
librarian  of  the  *  London  Institution '  with  a  salary 
of  £200 ;  but  was  so  grossly  negjligent  of  his  duties, 
that  the  directors  officially  notified  their  dissatis- 
faction in  these  emphatic  words :  *  We  only  know 
that  you  are  our  librarian  by  seeing  your  name 
attached  to  the  receipts  for  your  salar^.*^  He  died 
of  apoplexy,  25th  September  1808,  m  the  49th 
year  oi  his  age,  and  was  buried  with  great  pomp 
m  the  chapel  of  Trinity  College,  Cambridge.  P.^ 
rage  for  drink  was  fearful.  He  would  pour 
anything  down  his  throat  rather  than  endure  the 
*  t^rible  torture  of  thirst.'  Ink,  spirits  of  wine  for 
the  lamp,  an  embrocation,  are  amon^  the  horrible 
things  he  is  reported  to  have  swallowed  in  his 
extremity.  '  He  used  to  return  to  the  dining-room 
after  the  company^  had  left  it ;  pour  into  a  tumbler 
the  drops  remaining  in  the  wine-glasses,  and  drink 
off  the  collectanea?  In  fact,  his  thirst  was  so 
outrageous,  that  P.  cannot  be  considered  a  mere 
wilfuf  drunkard ;  one  must  believe  that  he  was 
driven  into  his  excesses  by  some  unknown  disease 
of  his  constitution.  See  Polydipsia.  P.'s  memory 
was  as  amazing  as  his  thirstL  The  anecdotes  told 
by  his  biographers  almost  surpass  belief,  yet  are 
thoroughly  authenticated.  His  critical  acumen  has 
never  been  matched  in  England.  His  tracts,  re- 
views, letters,  &&,  were  collected  and  edited,  with 
a  biographical  notice,  by  Ridd,  in  six  volumes.  See 
'Porsoniana'  in  Rogers'  TabU-TdUc,  and  the  Rev. 
J.  Selby  Watson's  Life  of  Richard  Porson,  M,A, 
(1861). 

PORT,  in  Naval  Language,  has  at  least  three 
significations  ;  first,  a  port  is  a  harbour  where  ships 
are  admitted  to  embark  or  discharge  cargoes,  or  for 
other  purposes — a  free  port  beins  oue  in  which  the 
embarkation  and  discharge  can  oe  conducted  with- 
out the  payment  of  customs  or  port  dues.— A  port 
in  a  ship's  side  is  the  aperture  for  admitting  light 
and  air,  or  for  pointing  a  gun  through.  See  Port- 
hols. — Port  is  also  l£e  omcial  name  for  the  left- 
hand  side,  when  looking  towards  the  bow  of  a  ship 
— i.  e.,  looking  forwards.  The  term  was,  a  few  years 
ago,  arbitrari^  substituted  for  Larboard  (q.  v.). 

PORT  ARMS,  in  Musketry  Drill,  is  derived 
from  fortare,  to  carry,  and  applies  to  a  motion  in 
which  the  fire-arm  is  supported  or  carried  bv  the 
left  arm  under  the  guard  of  the  piece,  the  arm  oeing 
laid  horizontally  across  the  chest. 

PORT-AU-PRINCE,  or  PORT-REPUBLICAN, 
the  capital  of  Havti  (q.  v.),  is  situated  on  the  west 
coast,  at  t^e  head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name,  and 
has  a  fine  appearance  from  the  sea,  but  the  interior 
is  filthy  in  the  extreme.  The  houses  are  ohiefiy  of 
wood,  and  dungsteads  obtmde  everywhere,  even  in 
the  ^oroughf ares.  The  most  notable  buildings  are 
the  palace  and  the  senate-house;  other  publio 
edifices  are  the  churches,  a  Ivceum,  college,  custom- 
house, mint,  and  hospitaL    P.  carries  on  a  trade  in 


PORT  D'URBAN-PORT  ROYAL-DES-CHAMPS. 


mahoffsny,  logwood,  honey,  coffee,  cocoa,  and  ngi. 
Pop.  aoout  30,000.  The  town  has  suffered  freqnenUy 
from  earthquakes. 

PORT  D'URBAN,  or  PORT  NATAI^  the  only 
seaport  of  the  colony  of  Natal  (q.  v.). 

PORT  ELI'ZABETH,  an  important  seaport  of 
South  Africa,  commercial  capital  of  the  Eastern 
Province  of  the  British  colony  of  the  Gape  of 
Good  Hope,  stands  on  the  western  shore  of  Algoa 
Bay  (q.  v.),  in  lat  ahont  34'  S.,  long.  25*  35^  K 
Many  of  the  streets  are  elegant  One  range  of 
houses,  consisting  of  four  streets,  which  will  bear 
comparison  with  the  best  streets  in  En^nd, 
forms  a  continuous  line  two  miles  in  length. 
In  the  style  of  its  buildings,  this  town  is  superior 
to  any  other  in  South  Africa.  Its  magnificent 
warehouses  are  constructed  on  a  palatial  s^e,  and 
resemble  the  finest  in  London,  and  its  pnblio 
buildings  are  all  solid  and  substantial  edifices.  The 
principal  are  the  town-house,  90  feet  square  and 
three  stories  high,  containing  the  public  library, 
the  athenseiun,  and  the  municipal  chambers;  the 
public  hospital,  furnished  with  100  beds ;  the 
Presbyterian  and  other  churches,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  catbedraL  Its  educational  institutions 
are  of  a  superior  description.  In  1864,  under  the 
auspices  of  Governor  Sir  George  Grey,  a  system 
of  schools  was  introduced  known  as  the  Grey 
Institute  Schools,  founded  on  a  magnificent  grant 
of  town-lands,  yieliUng  at  present  (1864)  a  revenue 
of  over  £1000  per  annum,  and  atfording  a  very 
excellent  education  at  a  very  moderate  charge.  The 
chi^  of  these  are  a  high-school  or  college,  and  three 
elementary  or  district  training-schools. 

The  town  was  founded  in  1820,  and  its  pop. 
(1864)  was  17,968.  Its  progress  has  been,  and 
continues  to  be  very  rapid,  and  it  is  said  to  double 
itself  in  population,  wealth,  and  extent  every  ten 
years.  6s  fixed  or  real  property,  as  assessed  in 
1863  for  municipal  purposes,  amounts  in  value  to 
£1,268,765.  It  owes  its  commercial  importance  in 
great  part  to  the  circumstance  of  its  being  the 
emporium  of  the  great  wool  trade  of  the  colony; 
and  besides  this  it  carries  on  a  rapidly-increasing 
home  and  foreign  trade.  The  value  of  its  home 
business  may  be  estimated  from  the  extensive  trans- 
actions of  its  banks,  which  are  three  in  number,  and 
whose  half-yearly  statements  for  June  1864  shewed 
assets  to  the  extent  of  over  £1,500,000.  Its  forei^ 
trade  is  with  Europe,  America,  Brazil,  Australia, 
Mauritius,  China,  and  India,  and  the  value  of  its 
exports  and  imports  amounts  to  nearly  £4,000,000. 

Tho  shore  is  open  to  the  swell  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  which  often  rolls  in  upon  the  beach  with 
such  violence  that,  until  recently,  cargoes  could  only 
be  got  to  land  b^  the  use  of  surf-boats.  Kaffirs, 
tempted  by  the  high  pay  offered,  used  to  come  from 
a  great  distance  to  do  the  difficult  and  dangerous 
work  of  unloading  the  boats  (which  they  did 
standing  breast-hign  in  the  water),  and  carrying  the 
bales  to  the  shore.  But  this  system  of  landing  is 
now  in  great  measure  done  away  with,  and  ships 
now  unload  at  jetties,  several  of  which  run  out  into 
the  bay. 

PORT-GLA'SGOW,  a  parliamentary  burgh  and 
seaport  of  the  county  of  Renfrew,  Scotland,  is 
situated  on  the  Clyde,  about  2  miles  east  of 
Greenock  and  20  miles  north-west  of  Glasgow.  It 
was  founded  in  1668  by  the  magistrates  of  Glasgow 
as  a  harbour  for  the  ships  that  belonged  to  or 
traded  with  their  city— the  Clyde  at  Glasgow 
being  then  inconveniently  shallow,  and  the  idea  of 
deepening  the  river  not  having  yet  occurred.  In 
1695,  the  town  and  a  small  adjacent  district  were 
made  into  an  independent  parish ;  in  1710,  it  was 
6M 


oonstitnted  the  princinal  custom-house  on  Hie  GUyde, 
and  for  a  while  took  toe  lead  of  Greenock ;  in  1775, 
it  was  incorporated  as  a  mnnicmslity,  ai^  by  tiw 
Reform  Bill  of  1832,  it  was  raised  to  the  Tsnk  of  i 
parliamentsry  burgh,  uniting  with  Kilmunock, 
Kutherglen,  Dumbuton,  and  Renfrew  in  dectiog 
a  memTOr  of  the  legislature.  P.-G.  is  rather  a  well- 
built  town ;  the  stireets  are  in  general  regularly  laid 
out,  crossing  each  other  at  n^ht  uigl^  and  the 
houses  tue  of  a  substantial  oraer.  Ths  principal 
bnOdings  are  the  town-house,  custom-home,  and 
churches  of  the  different  denominations.  P.-(}.  has 
extensive  manufactures  of  sail-ropes,  cluun-e^lea, 
several  sugar-refineries,  foundries,  building-yards, 
commodious  quays  and  wet-docka  The  deepening 
of  the  Clyde,  by  means  of  which  large  vesscda  can 
now  ascend  to  Glasgow,  seriously  injured  xti 
oommercial  prosperity,  out  it  is  stiU  the  principal 
port  on  the  Clyde  tor  the  importation  dt  Nortit 
American  timber.    Pop.  (1861)  7214. 

PORT  LOUIS,  the  capital  and  principal  poit  of 
the  British  colony  of  Mauritius,  is  situated  on  an 
inlet  on  the  north- west  coast  Its  streets,  thonj^ 
narrow,  are  straight^  and  are  fnmished  with  foot- 
paths, and  macadamised.  It  contains  a  number  of 
Eublic  buildings,  among  which  are  a  theatre,  libraiy, 
ospital,  and  botanic  garden.  Its  harbour  is  caps- 
cious,  but  n  quite  safe  only  during  the  fine  aeaioiL 
The  imports  and  exports  of  the  colony  sre  mainly 
transacted  at  P.  L. ;  and  their  quantity,  valoe, 
and  character  are  mentioned  under  the  artick 
Mauritius  (q.  v.).  Pop.  of  the  port  vaiioosly  giTen 
at  26,000  and  36,000. 

PORT  MAHO'N  (anc.  Portus  Maq<mi8\  Uta 
capital  of  the  island  of  Minorca  (q.  v.),  is  besutifaUy 
situated  on  a  deep  and  narrow  inlet  in  the  south- 
east of  the  island.  Its  harbour,  sufficiently  spaciom 
to  accommodate  a  lai^  fleet  of  moi-of-war,  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  is  protected 
by  three  forts.  It  has  no  architectural  features 
worthy  of  special  notice,  but  is  on  the  whole  well 
built.  The  military  governor  and  the  bish(m  of  the 
ishind  reside  here.  In  1860,  78  vessels  of  15,162 
tons  entered  and  cleared  the  port     Pop.  12,6001 

PORT  PA'TRICK,  a  bur^  of  barony  and 
fishing  village  of  Scotland,  in  the  county  of  Wi^wn, 
and  6(  miles  south-west  of  Stranraer.  It  u  sm^ 
rounded  by  hills  on  the  land  side,  and  its  harbour 
is  protected  by  two  piers,  but  remains  inoompletft 
It  is  the  nearest  point  of  Scotland  to  the  Irisli 
coast,  being  only  21(  miles  north-east  of  I>oiisgha(de& 
Pop.  (1861)  1206. 

PORT  PHI'LLIP.    See  Melbournb. 

PORT  ROYAL-DESOHAMPS.  a  convent  d 
Cistercian  nuns,  near  Versailles,  which  obtained 
much  celebrity  during  the  17th  century.  It  vas 
founded  for  nuns  by  a  member  of  the  family  of 
Montmorenci,  in  the  early  part  of  the  13th  a ;  and 
soon  after  its  establishment,  obtained  from  tibe  pope 
the  privilege  of  receiving  lay  ^noas,  who,  withoat 
taking  monastic  vows,  desired  to  live  in  leU^poos 
retirement  This  portion  ot  the  P.  R.  institote 
in  later  times  became  of  great  importance:  Tha 
discipline  of  the  convent  having  heen.  much  relaxed 
in  the  15th  and  16th  centuries,  one  of  its  wotst 
abuses — ^that  of  appointing  the  superior,  not  on 
account  of  fitness,  but  from  considerations  of  funilf 
or  other  worldly  or  political  motaves — ^becsme  in 
the  end  the  occasion  of  its  complete  nformatioa 
Angelique  Amauld,  sister  of  the  celebrated  brothen 
Araauld,  was  appointed,  when  a  mece  diild,  oosd- 
jutrix  of  the  abbess,  and  on  the  death  of  this  lady, 
although  she  was  then  only  in  her  eleventh  feai^ 
herself  succeeded  to  the  office.  As  MAre  Almiqse 
advanced  in  yean,  she  felt  moved,  lithoi^  w 


PORT  WINB-POETAELINGTON. 


yery  young,  by  a  profound  tenae  of  her  respon- 
sibilities, and  undertook  a  complete  and  ri^d  refor- 
mation of  the  community,  which  she  earned  out  in 
all  its  details — as  the  strict  observance  of  religious 
poverty,  abstinence  from  meat,  complete  seclusion^ 
and  the  ^nasi  severe  ascetic  exercises.  The  com- 
munity ^i^removed  to  Paris  in  1626,  and  in  1633 
to  a  new  convent,  which  was  thenceforward  called 
Port  Royal-de-Paris;  and  from  this  time  the  old 
establishment  of  P.  R.-des-Champs  was  exclu- 
sively devoted  to  the  use  of  a  lay  community,  in 
accordance  with  the  original  papal  privilege.  This 
oommunity  quickly  be^me  very  celebrated,  and 
soon  numbered  among  its  inmates  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  scholars  of  that  age,  Antony  Amauld, 
Le  Maistre,  Antooy  and  Louis  Isaac  le  Maistre  de 
Sacy,  Nicole,  Lancelot,  Sericourt,  and  several 
other&  Their  rule  of  life  was  most  austere,  rising 
at  3  A.M.,  devotinff  many  hoiu's  to  prayer  and 
spiritual  reading  and  instruction,  and  a  portion  of 
the  day  to  manual  labour.  One  of  their  most 
important  public  services  was  the  establishment  of 
a  school,  for  which  they  prepared  the  well-known 
educational  books  known  under  the  name  of  Port 
Itoyal,  the  Greek  and  Latin  Grammars,  Geoeral 
Grammar,  Geom<'try,  Art  of  Thinking,  &c.  This 
school  was  for  a  time  transferred  to  Paris,  a  portion 
of  the  nuns  being  sent  back  to  P.  K-des- 
Ohamps ;  but  eventually  it  was  established  at  an 
out-farm  of  the  latter  place,  called  Les  Granges. 

P.  R.,  however,  is  even  more  known  in  history 
through  its  relations  with  the  Jauseoist  controversy. 
The  nature  and  origin  of  these  relations  have  been 
explained  in  the  article  Jensen  (q.  v.).  It  only 
remains  to  relate  the  later  fortunes  of  P.  R.  and  ito 
members,  in  so  far  as  they  were  affected  by  the 
proceeding  taken  in  consec^uence  by  the  authorities, 
whether  civil  or  ecclesiasticaL  The  nuns  of  P.  R. 
haviajyr  refused  to  subscribe  the  formulary  con- 
demmng  the  Five  Propositions,  a  royal  order  was 
issued  in  1660  for  the  suppression  of  the  school, 
and  the  removal  of  the  ooardcrs  of  P.  R.-des- 
Champs;  and  at  length  the  abbess,  and  several 
other  nuns,  were  arrested,  and  confined  as  prisouers 
in  other  monasteries.  After  the  *  Peace  of  Clement 
IX.,*  the^  were  permitted  to  return ;  but  the  two 
commumties,  P.  R.-des-Champs  and  P.  R. -de-Paris, 
were  placed  under  separate  government.  This  led 
to  many  disputes,  and  to  a  j^rpetuation  in  P.  R.- 
des-Champs  of  the  Jaosenistic  spirit  and  the 
Jansenistic  opinions;  and  when  the  final  steps  for 
the  repression  of  that  party  were  taken  about  1707, 
a  formal  bull  was  issued  by  Pope  Clement  XL  for 
the  suppression  of  that  convent,  and  the  transfer 
of  its  property  to  P.  R.-de-Paris.  The  nuns,  accord- 
ingly, were  finally  dispersed  and  distributed  over 
convents  of  different  orders  throughout  France. 
The  property  of  the  convent  and  church  were 
transferred  to  the  Paris  house,  and  all  the  buildinoi 
of  P.  R-des-Champs  were  levelled  to  the  ground, 
by  order  of  the  king.  Most  of  the  eminent  names 
connected  with  P.  R.  will  be  found  treated  under 
separate  heads. 

PORT  WINE  (L  e.,  Porto  or  Oporto  Win^),  a 
species  of  red  wine,  hot  and  heady,  which  is  pro- 
duced chiefly  in  a  mountainous  district  of  Portugal, 
ealled  Cima  de  Douro,  and  exported  from  Oporto 
and  Lisbon.  The  vine  from  which  this  wine  is 
produced  is  generally  planted  on  craggy  slopes 
-with  a  southern  exposure.  The  grapes  are  gathered 
from  the  commencement  of  September  to  the 
middle  of  October.  The  cultivation  and  gathering 
of  the  grapes  for  port  wine  employ  annually 
10,000  cultivators  and  20,000  gatherers.  The 
wine,  when  pure  and  unadulterated  (which  is 
Tery  seldom  the  case),  does  not  acquire  its  full 


strength  and  flavour  till  it  has  stood  for  som# 
years,  but  care  must  likewise  betaken  that  it  is  not 
allowed  to  become  too  old.  The  colour  of  new 
port  wine  varies  from  pale  rose  to  deep  red,  and 
changes  with  age,  becoming  a  deep  tawny  brown, 
which  is  permanentL  By  far  the  greater  portion  of 
the  wine  made  is  mixed  with  ^irit  even  during  the 
time  of  fermentation,  in  order  to  give  the  new  wine 
the  ripeness  and  strength  which  exporters  require, 
and  wnich  the  wine  does  not  naturzuly  attain  till  it 
has  stood  for  some  time ;  the  proper  colour  is  also 
given  by  an  ingredient  known  ^ajeropiga,  which  is  a 
preparation  of  elder-berries,  molasses,  raisin- juice, 
and  spirit.  It  is  an  excess  of  this  jeropiga  in  the 
inferior  sorts  of  port  which  communicates  to  them 
the  medicated  odour  so  frequently  noticed.  The 
extreme  'headiness'  of  port  is  chiefly  due  to  the 
liberal  admixture  with  spirit^  and  this  is  the  case 
with  all  the  sorts  generally  exported.  From  the 
timer  when  port  came  into  demand  (about  1700, 
though  it  was  known  in  England  for  a  considerable 
time  before  this)  down  to  1826,  its  export  was  a 
moQonoly  in  the  hands  of  the  English  merchants, 
and  the  amount  of  wine  produced  increased,  with 
tolerable  steadiness,  year  after  year  till  1836,  when 
it  reached  38,459  pipes,  valued  at  £1,122,500.  The 
ultimate  effect  of  this  monopoly  was  to  increase  the 
price  of  port  wine  in  England,  and  at  the  same  time 
so  to  deteriorate  its  quality,  that  in  course  of  time  it 
became  of  less  demand,  and  was  gradually,  to  some 
extent,  supplanted  by  Southern  French  and  other 
wines.  Smce  1836  it  has  fluctuated,  being  some- 
times more  and  sometimes  less  than  this  figure ;  in 
1850  the  exportation  reached  37,487  pipes,  of  which 
25,400  were  sent  to  Great  Britain,  the  rest  to  the 
other  parts  of  the  world,  chiefly  to  Europe,  America, 
and  Brazil 

PORTADOW'N  (Ir.  Port-na-Doon,  Port  of  the 
Fort),  a  market  and  manufacturing  town  of  the 
county  of  Armagh,  Ulster,  Ireland,  on  the  Bann, 
11  miles  north-east  of  Armagh  by  railway.  It  was 
formerly  the  seat  of  the  M*Canns,  a  clan  tributary  to 
the  O'Keil,  and  formed  part  of  the  territory  *  settled ' 
by  James  L,  and  afterwards  by  Charles  I.  It  is  a 
place  of  considerable  trade  in  com,  flax,  and  other 
agricultural  produce,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive 
manufacture  of  linen  yams  and  linen.  Enjoying 
the  advantage  of  communication  by  canal  with  the 
sea  at  Newry,  and  by  railway  witn  Belfast,  it  has 
also  a  considerable  import  trade.  The  population 
in  1861  was  5524,  of  whom  2185  were  of  the 
Established  Church,  1856  Roman  Catholics,  662 
Presbyterians,  and  the  rest  Protestants  of  other 
denominations.  P.  is  also  connected  by  the  Ulster 
Railway  with  Armagh,  Dongannon,  and  the  north- 
west counties. 

PORTAL,  the  recess  of  a  large  doorway,  such  as 
the  entrance  to  a  church.    See  Pobch. 

PORTAME'NTO  (ItaL  portare,  to  carry),  a 
musical  term  used  for  the  sustaining  of  the  voice, 
and  passing  from  one  note  to  another. 

PORTA'RLINGTON,  a  market  town  and  par- 
liamentary borough,  partly  in  the  King's  (bounty, 
partly  in  the  Queen's  County,  Leinster,  Ireland, 
on  the  Barrow,  44  miles  west-south-west  from 
Dublin,  with  which  it  communicates  by  the  Great 
Southern  and  Western  Railway.  Pop^  in  1861, 
2389,  of  whom  1645  were  Roman  Catholics,  and 
698  Protestants  of  the  Established  Church.  P. 
was  ancienUy  called  (^Itetoodra;  but  being 
granted  by  Charles  IL  to  the  Earl  of  Arlington, 
was  called  by  his  name.  *  By  him  it  was  sold  to 
Sir  Patrick  Traul ;  and  on  the  attainder  of  Sir 
Patrick,  was  granted  by  William  IIL  to  Gkneral 
de  Rottvigny,  who  planted  in  it  a  colony  of  French 

0*5 


PORTCULLIS— FORTIOir. 


and  FlemiBh  Profcestauts,  many  of  whoae  descend- 
Ants  still  remain.  It  is  now  the  property  of  the 
family  of  Dawson,  created  Earls  of  Portarlington. 
It  returns  one  member  to  the  imperial  j>arliament 
The  town  is  neat  and  well  built,  and  is  provided 
with  several  schools,  two  national,  two  endowed, 
and  also  private  schools  of  considerable  reputation, 
at  one  of  which  the  late  Duke  of  Wellington  and 
his  brother  Lord  Wellesley  received  part  of  their 
education. 

PORTGTJ'LLIS  (Fr.   pcrU,  gate,  and  eotttoe, 
from  couler,  to  flow),  a  frame  of  wood  strengthened 


c' 


nnn 

nnnn 

3  C  Ci  0  C 

nnnn 


Kit.  2. 


Rg.1. 

with  iron  in  the  form  of  a  grating,  and  sliding  in 
vertical  ^;rooves  in  the  jaml^  of  the  entrance  gate 
of  a  fortified  place,  iu  order  to  defend  the  gate  in 
case  of  assault  The  vertical  bars  were  pointed 
with  iron  below,  and  struck  on  the  grouna  when 

the  grating  was  dropped,  so  as 
to  injure  whatever  it  fell  upon. 
In  Heraldry,  the  portcullis  is 
represented  with  rings  at  its 
uppermost  angles,  from  which 
chains  depend  on  either  side. 
It  was  a  badffe  of  the  Beaufort 
family,  and  borne  in  virtue  of 
their  Beaufort  descent  by  the 
Tudor  sovereigns.  Portcullis 
is  the  title  of  one  of  the 
pursuivants  belonging  to  the 
English  College  of  Arms,  whose  office  was  instituted 
by  Henry  Vll 

POKTB,  Sublime  Porte,  or  Ottoman  Porte,  the 
name  given  to  the  Turkish  government.  The  origin 
of  this  name  is  to  be  referr^  to  the  ancient  oriental 
custom  of  making  the  gates  of  cities  and  of  king's 
palaces  places  of  asseinoly  in  connection  with  the 
affairs  of  government  and  of  the  administration  of 
justice,  fa  the  Byzantine  empire  this  custom  was 
adopted,  and  the  term  was  transferred  from  the 
high  gate  of  the  imperial  palace  to  the  government 
whose  authority  was  there  exercised.  The  Turks 
found  the  term  in  common  use  among  the  Byzan- 
tines some  time  previous  to  their  establishment  at 
Constantinople,  and  adopted  it  on  the  organisation 
of  their  empira  The  use,  among  European  nations, 
of  the  French  term  Sublime  Porte  (*  Lofty  Gate ')  is 
accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  French  is  the  language 
of  European  diplomacy. 

PORTER,  a  kind  of  malt  liquor  which  came  into 
use  in  London  in  1722.  According  to  Leigh,  'the 
malt  liquors  previously  in  use  were  ale,  beer,  and 
twopenny,  and  it  was  customaiy  to  call  for  a  pint 
or  tankard  of  half-and-half — Le.,  half  of  ale  and 
half  of  beer,  half  of  ale  and  hsdf  of  twopenny,  or 
half  of  beer  and  half  of  twopenny.  In  the  course 
of  time  it  also  became  the  practice  to  ask  for  a  pint 
or  tankard  of  three-thirds  [or,  as  it  became  cor- 
rupted, three  ihTeads\,  meaning  a  third  each  of  ale, 

6M 


beer,  and  twopenny;  and  thus  the  pablicaa  was 
obliged  to  go  to  three  casks  for  a  single  pint  of 
liquor.  To  avoid  this  trouble  and  waste,  a  Drewer 
of  the  name  of  Harwood  conceived  the  idea  ol 
making  a  liquor  which  should  partake  of  tlie  united 
flavours  of  ale,  beer,  and  twopenny.  He  ^Bd  soi,  and 
succeeded,  calling  it  entire,  or  entire  bntt  beer, 
meaning  tiiat  it  was  drawn  entirely  from  one  cask 
or  butt;  and  being  a  hearty  nourishing  liqacu',  it 
was  very  suitable  fur  porters  and  other  workine 
people.  Hence  it  obtained  the  name  of  Porter,  arc 
was  first  retailed  at  the  Blue  Last,  Curtain  Road, 
Shoreditch.*  The  chief  characteristics  of  porter  are 
its  dark-brown  colour,  peculiar  bitter  flavour,  and 
agreeable  freshness  in  orinking.  Until  within  the 
iMt  ten  years  it  was  generally  brewed  with  malt 
roasted  until  slightly  brown ;  now,  however,  under 
the  improved  system  of  brewing,  uade  malt,  with  the 
addition  of  some  highly  roasted,  for  the  sake  of 
colour  only,  is  used.  Enormous  quantities  are 
brewed  by  the  London  brewers.  A  kind  much 
stronger  than  ordinary  porter  is  also  extensively 
brewed  in  London,  Dublin,  and  elsewhere,  nnd^ 
the  name  of  stout.  The  name  porter  is  now  seldom 
used  in  England,  beer  being  the  general  designation. 

PORTFIRE  is  a  sort  of  slow  match  for  fixiag 
^na.  It  consists  of  a  paper  tube  from  16  to  20 
mchea  in  length,  filled  with  a  composition  thus  pro- 
portioned— saltpetre  666  parts,  sulphur  222  parts, 
mealed  gunpowder  112  psurta.  The  oompoaition  is 
rammed  witn  force  into  the  paper  barrel,  and  th^ 
when  ignited,  it  bums  for  a  considerable  period. 
As  a  substitute,  may  be  employed  soft  brown  paper 
dipped  in  a  solution  of  two  ounces  of  nitre  to  a 
gaiion  of  water,  dried,  and  rolled  up  to  the  size  of  a 
common  portfire.  Another  portfire  conaiBtB  of  a  rod 
cut  square,  of  lime,  birch,  or  poplar,  boiled  for  six 
hours  in  a  solution  formed  by  di^lving  one  pound 
of  nitrate  of  lead  in  one  <|uart  of  water.  The  rod  is 
subsequently  boiled  in  spirits  of  tiupentin&  When 
thoroughly  dried,  one  yard  will  bum  three  hours. 

PORTHOLES  are  embrasures  or  openings  in  the 
side  of  a  ship  of  war  to  enable  the  guns  to  be  ranged 
in  battery.  The  portholes  are  ordinarily  aqoare,  ol 
size  sufficient  to  enable  the  guns  to  be  pointed  at  a 
considerable  angle.  In  stormy  weather  the  porta 
are  closed,  the  guns  bein^  run  iiL  When  the  gnns 
are  run  out,  and  no  fighting  is  anticipated,  half -ports 
are  employed  to  keep  the  water  oul  There  is  a  row 
of  ports  for  each  gun-deck,  and  by  these  rows  the 
ratmg  of  the  vessel  is  described  as  three-decker, 
two-decker,  ftc.  Within  the  port,  rings  are  fixed 
through  which  the  ropes  are  passed  for  working  the 
heavy  guns. 

PO'RTICI  (formerly  Portico),  a  town  of  Sonthen 
Italy,  is  situated  on  the  slope  of  Vesavius,  near 
Herculaneum,  4  miles  south-east  from  Naples,  with 
11,288  inhabitants.  Its  environs  are  ddightful, 
and  are  dotted  all  over  with  country  houses. 
There  is  a  royal  palace  built  by  Charles  IIL,  but  it 
is  crossed  by  the  high  road,  which  divides  it  in  two. 
Facing  the  palace  is  a  fortress  rising  out  of  the  aea, 
and  there  is  a  small  harbour  called  the  Graoatello. 

PO'RTICO,  a  covered  space  with  a  roof  supported 

by  columns.  It  is  usually  attached  to  an  important 
building,  but  sometimes  detached,  as  a  shady  v^lk. 
A  portico  is  called  tetrastyle,  hexastyle,  odostyle, 
and  decastyle,  according  as  it  has  four,  six,  eig^t^  or 
ten  columns  in  front. 

PORTION,  though  not  i  legal  term*  im  often 
used  in  the  law  of  intestacy  and  legacies,  anci  measv 
a  sum  of  money  given  to  a  child  in  discharge  of  the 
obligation  incumbent  on  a  parent;  and  Irom  the 
circumstance  of  its  bein^  often  given  on  marriage  h 
is  called  a  mariiage-portion.  By  the  law  of  E^3  ind 


fobhonebs^portland  stone 


and  Ireland,  therein  differing  from  the  law  of  Scot- 
land, a  parent  is  not  boand  at  common  law  to  give 
any  portion  to  his  children.  But  he  often  does  so 
by  will ;  and,  in  the  event  of  his  dying  intestate,  the 
law  does  so  for  him.  When  a  testator  by  will 
leaves  a  legacv  to  a  daughter,  child,  or  person, 
towards  whom  he  stands  inloco  parentis^  and  after- 
wards in  his  lifetime  gives  the  child  a  like  sam  of 
money,  or  even  a  less  sum  as  a  portion  on  marriagje, 
such  portion  is  prima  facia  presumed  to  be  in 
satisfaction,  or  an  ademption  of  the  lec^acy,  unless 
there  is  something  in  the  will  or  settlement  to  rebut 
that  presumption.  But  in  Scotland  there  is  no 
such  presumption,  unless  the  father  was  liable  by 
contract  to  give  the  portion.  Paterson's  Comp,  of 
K  and  8.  Law,  711.    See  Tocheb. 

PCyRTIONERS,  in  the  Law  of  Scotland,  mean 
two  or  more  females  who  succeed  jointly  to  heritable 
estate  in  default  of  heirs  male,  corresponding  to 
Coparceners  in  England.    See  Heirs  Portionbrs. 

PO'KTLAND,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Maine, 
U.  S.,  situated  on  an  arm  of  the  south-west  side 
of  Casco  Bay,  lat  43*  S^  N.,  long.  70"  16'  W., 
105  miles  north-east  of  Boston.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  on  a  peninsula  three  miles  Ions  by  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  broad,  with  broad  shaded  streets, 
and  handsome  public  and  private  edifices.  Among 
the  former  is  a  lire-proof  iron  and  granite*  building 
for  the  United  States'  Courts  and  Custom-house ;  a 
citv  hall,  of  olive-coloured  freestone,  150  by  232  feet; 
public  halls  and  libraries.  Charitable  Mechanics' 
Association,  Athenteum,  Society  of  Natural  History's 
Hall  and  Cabinets,  public  schools,  and  26  churches. 
There  are  11  newspapers,  3  of  which  are  daily.  The 
harbour  of  P.  is  large,  deep,  well  sheltered,  and 
seldom  frozen,  and  is  the  winter-station  of  the  Cana- 
dian steamers.  It  is  defended  by  Forts  Preble  and 
ScammelL  There  are  5  railways,  including  one  to 
Quebec  and  Montreal,  locomotive  and  marine  engine 
manufactories,  sugar  refineries,  7  banks,  and  a 
large  coasting  trade.  P.,  first  named  Falmouth,  was 
settled  by  an  English  colony  in  1632,  and  was  three 
times  burned  in  the  wars  with  the  French  and 
Indians.    Pop.  in  1860,  26,342. 

PORTLAND  BEDS,  a  division  of  the  Upper 
Oolites  (q.  v.),  occurring  between  the  Purbock  Beds 
and  the  ICimmeridge  Clay,  and  so  named  because  the 
rocks  of  the  group  form  tiie  promontory  of  the  Isle 
of  Portland.  They  consist  of  beds  of  hard  oolitic 
limestone  and  freestone,  interstratiBed  with  clays, 
and  resting  on  Usht-coloured  sands,  which  contain 
marine  fossils.  The  corals  found  in  the  sands  are 
often  converted  into  flints,  the  original  structure 
b^ng  beautifully  preserved  in  the  hard  silex.  The 
beds  may  be  traced  from  the  Isle  of  Portland, 
capping  the  oolitic  hills  as  far  as  Oxfordshire. 
The  fossils  are  chiefly  mollusca  and  fish,  with  a 
few  reptilea 

PORTLAND  CEMENT.    See  Cement. 

PORTLAND  ISLE,  a  rocky  peninsula  prmecting 
into  the  English  Channel  from  the  shore  of  Dorset- 
shire, 17  nmes  west-south-west  of  St  Alban's  Head. 
Its  appearance  suggests  the  shape  of  a  6eaik,  and  it 
is  therefore  called  also  the  Bill  of  Portland,  It  is  9 
miles  in  circumference,  is  composed  of  oolitic  lime- 
stone, and  slopes  southward,  with  an  even  surface 
from  the  height  of  490  feet  to  that  of  30  feet  above 
sea-level  Its  sides  are  extremely  ru^ed,  and  are 
-worn  into  fantastic  cayems  by  the  funous  action  of 
the  waves.  The  peninsula  is  supposed  to  have  been 
once  an  island,  but  for  ages  it  has  been  connected 
"with  the  mainland  by  CkuU  Bank,  an  extraordinary 
ridge  of  loose  shin^e,  which,  after  running  north- 
west in  a  straight  bne  close  to  the  shore  for  about 
10  miles,  joins  the  mainland  at  Abbotsbury.  South- 


west winds  prevail  on  this  part  of  the  coast,  ami 
during  their  continuance  the  long  ridee  of  Chesil 
Bank  is  lashed  by  a  frightful  sea,  and  is  the  scene 
of  frequent  shipv^recks.    A  long  narrow  inlet  of  the 
sea,  called  the  Fltet,  extends  Mtween  Chesil  Bank 
and    the   shore,  and  is    the    haunt  of   numerous 
wild-fowL      Portland  Castle,  in  the  north  of  the 
isle,   is  a  ponderous  building,   erected  by  Henry 
VII L  as  a  protection  for  this  part  of  the  coast  in 
1520.     The  peninsula  furnishes  the  famous  Port- 
land Stone  (q.  v.).     Portland  Breakwater,  built  of 
stones  obtained  on  the  island,  is  partly  descril)ed 
under  the  article  Brbakwatbs    (q.  v.).     This  grea 
national  work  is  not  yet  (January  1865)  finished ;  in 
connection  with  it  are  also  a  naval  station,  harbour 
of  refuge,  and  batteriea      Pennsylvania  Castle,  in 
a  most  romantic  district  on  the  east  coast,  was 
built  by  John  Penn,  the  grandson  of  the  founder  of 
Pennsylvania.    Rufus  Castle,  or,  as  it  is  commonly 
called.  Bow  and  Arrow  Castle,  also  on  the  east  coast, 
is  now  a  ruin,  and  is  generally   said  to  have  been 
built  by  WiUiam  Rufus.    On   Portland  Bill,  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  island,  are  two  light- 
houses, one  130,  and  the  other  197  feet  al)ove  sea- 
leveL  Between  the  southern  point  and  the  Shambles, 
three  miles  to  the  south-east,  a  dangerous  surf,  well 
known  as  the  Bace  of  Portland,  is  raised  by  the 
rushing  of  the  impetuous  tides.    The  convict  prison, 
noar  the  east  coast,  erected  in  1848,  consists  of  eight 
wings,  besides  the  hospital,  chapel,  barracks,  and 
cottages  for  the  warders.    It  accommodates  about 
1500  convicts,  besides  the  officers,  and  is  maintained 
at  an  annual  cost  of  upwards  of  £50,000,  or  at  the 
rate  of  £33  per  prisoner.    The  inhabitants  of  the 
island  long  remained  a  peculiar  people,  intermarry- 
ing, and   preserving,  generation  ^  after  generation, 
the  many  curious  customs  of  their  ancestors.    The 
island  itself  is  chiefly  remarkable  for  its  abundant 
supply  of  excellent  spring  water,  for  its  building- 
stone,  and  for  its  breed  of  sheej),  the  flesh  of  which, 
well  known  as  Portland  mutton,  is  celebrated  for 
its  flavour.    The  pop.  of  the  parish  of  P.  amounted 
in  1861  to  ^68. 

PORTLAND  SAGO.    See  Arum. 

PORTLAND  STONE.  This  celebrated  buildins 
stone,  of  which  many  of  the  principal  buildings  (3 
London,  including  St  Paul's  Cathedral,  Somerset 
House,  and  many  of  the  churches  are  constructed, 
is  the  oolitic  limestone  of  Dorsetshire,  constituting 
geolo^caJly  the  Portland  and  Purbeck  Beds.  The 
quarries  are  chiefly  located  in  the  islands  of  Port- 
land and  Purbeck,  and  in  the  Vale  of  Wardour. 
The  quantity  raised  is  very  large.  During  the 
heavier  works  at  the  Portland  Breakwater  730,000 
tons  per  annum  were  required  for  that  structure 
alone,  and  about  30,000  to  40,000  tons  are  sent 
annually  to  London  and  other  place&  There 
are  three  different  qualities  of  the  stone  in  the 
same  quarry :  the  uppermost  contains  numerous 
fossils,  and  is  of  a  coarse  grain;  it  is  therefore  used 
chiefly  for  rough  work,  such  as  foundations.  It  is 
called  Roach  by  the  ^uarr^men.  The  middle  bed 
is  much  broken,  and  is  called  the  rubble  or  rubbly 
bed,  and  is  of  little  value;  and  the  lower  one  is 
fine,  white,  and  compact,  and  is  called  the  whit, 
or  best  bed.  This  last  is  that  which  is  used  for  fine 
building  purposes.  An  analysis  of  this  stone  by 
Professor  Daniell  shews  the  following  composition : 


Silicfti  .        • 

Carbonate  of  Lime, 
Ciirbonnie  of  M)iffn«alA> 
Iron  and  Alumina, 
Water  and  loas,         • 


120 
•    95-16 

l'«0 
.      060 

IM 


Besides  which  ingredients,  there  is  often  a  trace  of 
bitumen  present. 


PORTLANB  VASE-FOBTSMOUTH. 


PORTLAND  VASE.  A  beautiful  cineituy  urn, 
(A  transparent  dark-blue  glass,  found  about  the 
middle  ot  the  16th  c.  in  a  marble  saroophagns  near 
Ilome  (see  the  article  Glass,  where  it  is  figured 
and  described).  It  was  at  first  deposited  in  the 
fiarbeiini  Palace  at  Rome  (and  hence  often  called 
the  Barberini  Vase) ;  it  then  became  (1770)  the  pro- 
perty, bv  purchase,  of  Sir  William  Hamilton  (q.  v.), 
from  whose  possession  it  passed  into  that  of 
the  Duchess  of  Portland.  In  1810  the  Duke  of 
Portland,  one  of  the  trustees  of  the  British  Museum, 
allowed  it  to  be  placed  in  that  institution,  retaining 
his  right  over  it  as  his  own  property.  In  1845  a 
miscreant  named  William  Lloyd,  apnarentl^  from 
an  insane  love  of  mischief  or  a  diseased  ambition  for 
notoriety,  dashed  this  valuable  relic  to  pieces  with  a 
stone.  Owing  to  the  defective  state  of  the  law, 
only  a  slight  punishment  could  be  inflicted;  but  an 
act  was  immediately  passed,  making  such  an  offsnoe 
punishable  with  imprisonment  for  two  years,  and 
one,  two,  or  three  public  or  private  whippings.  The 
pieces  of  the  fractured  vase  were  carefully  gathered 
np,  and  afterwards  imited  in  a  very  complete  manner; 
and  thus  repaired,  it  still  exists  in  the  Museum, 
but  is  not  shewn  to  thepublic.  A  small  number  of 
copies  of  the  Portland  vase  were  made  many  years 
ago  by  Mr  Wedgewood,  and  were  sold  at  25  gmneas 
each. 

PORTLAW',  a  small  manufacturing  town  of  tte 
county  of  Waterford,  Munster,  Ireland,  about  10 
miles  west-north-west  of  Waterford.  P.  has  risen 
within  the  last  30  years  from  a  small  village  into  a 
town  of  great  activity  and  of  extensive  manufac- 
tures, through  the  enterprise  of  a  single  family 
named  Malcomson,  by  whom  the  cotton  manufacture 
has  been  introduced  with  great  success.  The  popu- 
lation in  1861  was  3915,  of  whom  3684  were  Catho- 
lics, 149  Protestants  of  the  Established  Church,  and 
the  few  remaining,  members  of  the  Methodist 
society.  P.  is  a^oirably  provided  witii  sdiools 
and  other  institutions  for  the  social  and  moral 
improvement  of  the  population. 

PO'RTO  ALE'GRE,  a  town  of  Brazil,  capital  of 
the  province  of  SSo  Pedro  do  Bio  Grande,  stands  at 
the  north-west  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Patos,  bv 
means  of  which  it  communicates  with  the  sea.  it 
was  founded  in  1743,  is  well  built,  and  contains 
12,000  inhabitants.  It  is  provided  with  wharfs; 
and  its  trade,  though  not  altogether  inconsiderable, 
has  been  much  retarded  by  the  frequently  dis- 
turbed state  of  the  country. 

PORTOBEXLO,  a  parliamentary  borough  and 
watering-place,  occupies  a  plain  on  the  sout£  bank 
of  the  P  irth  of  Forth,  in  the  county  of  Edinburgh, 
and  three  miles  east  of  the  city  of  that  name  oy 
the  North  British  Railway.  A  commodious  new 
town-hall  was  built  here  and  opened  in  1863.  This 
town  is  a  favourite  resort  lor  sea-bathing  and 
summer  quarters  during  the  season.  Besides  the 
facilities  u>r  bathing  ofifered  by  the  fine  sands  of  the 
shore,  there  is  a  commodious  suite  of  batiis  of 
different  kinds.  A  marine  promenade,  a  mile  in 
length,  runs  along  the  shore.  P.  is  also  a  manu- 
facturing town,  and  its  manufacturing  establish- 
ments comprise  potteries,  and  earthenware,  botUe, 
brick,  and  paper  works,  &c.  Pop.  (1861)  4366;  and, 
in  summer,  oetween  7000  and  8000.  The  town 
derives  its  name  from  the  first  house  built  here 
about  the  time  of  the  seizure  of  the  town  of  Puerto 
Bello,  in  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  and  which  was 
called  Portobella 

PORTO  BELLO.    See  Puerto  Bsllo. 

PORTO  FERRA'JO.    See  Elba. 

PO'RTO  NO'VO,a  town  in  the  Madras  Presidency 

«f  India,  situated  on  the  Ooromandal  coast,  in  lat. 
•96 


ir  31'  K,  and  long.  79"  51'  R  Both  ibe  Daaei 
and  the  Dutch  had  formerly  a  factory  hen.  Hie 
place  is  celebrated  for  the  battie  fought  here  on  lit 
July  1781,  when  Sir  Eyre  Coote  defeated  Hyder 
Ali  The  British  force  consisted  of  only  7878  do, 
including  artillery ;  H^er's  army  numbered  over 
60,000.  Coote  was  retiring  before  Hyder.  After 
leaving  P.  N.,  he  had  only  advanced  s  few 
miles  alone  the  seashore,  when  he  found  his  pith 
intercepted  by  the  enemy's  batteries,  the  sea  oon. 
fining  him  on  the  ri^ht,  and  a  range  of  asod-lulls 
on  the  left  The  British  army  made  two  aasulti; 
in  one,  they  carried  the  batteries;  in  the  other, 
they  took  advantage  of  an  opening  in  the  nnd- 
hills,  which  Hyder  had  neglected  to  guard,  lad 
came  suddenly  upon  the  enem^^s  flank.  A  schoose 
of  war  meantime  standinjg  m  dose,  poored  her 
broadsides  of  small  guns  into  the  enemy.  Their 
rout  was  complete.  P.  N.  is  celebrated  for  its 
iron  foimdry,  wbich  of  late  years  has  supphed  mach 
of  the  material  for  the  Madras  railways.  The 
population  of  P.  N.  is  about  12,000. 

PO'RTO  RI'CO.    See  Pux&TO  Rico. 

PORTRER    See  Skyb. 

PO'RTREBVE  (from  port  and  reeve,  Sam 
gere/Of  a  word  of  similar  orimn  to  the  Oerma 
grqf,  siniifying  a  governor  or  chief  magistrate),  the 
prindpu  magistrate  in  a  maritime  towzL  This  was 
the  early  name  of  tiie  officer  afterwards  caOed 
mayor  in  London  and  elsewhera 

PO'RTSEA  ISLAND,  a  smaU  island  on  the 
south  coast  of  Hampshire,  has  on  its  west  side 
Portsmouth  Harbour,  on  its  south-east  side  Lang- 
ston  Harbour,  on  its  east  side  Chichester  Harbour, 
and  is  separated  from  the  mainland  on  the  north 
by  a  narrow  channel,  crossed  by  several  brid^ 
It  is  four  miles  long,  by  from  two  to  three  miles 
broad,  and  contains  the  important  towns  d 
Portsea  and  Portsmouth  (q.  v.). 

PORTSMOUTH,  the  chief  naval  anenal  of 
Great  Britain,  and  an  important  seaport,  market- 
town,  and  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  in 
the  south  of  Hampshire,  stands  on  the  south-west 
diore  of  Portsea  xialand  (q.  v.),  at  the  entrance  to 
Portsmouth  Harbour,  ana  opposite  the  town  of 
Qosport)  with  which  it  communicates  by  means  of 
a  steam-bridge.  It  is  74  miles  south-west  of 
London  by  the  London  and  South-western  Railway. 
Besides  the  parish  of  P.,  the  lindts  of  the  monicipal 
and  parliamentary  boroufih,  which  are  co-extensire, 
include  also  the  parish  and  town  of  Portsea,  and  the 
out-wards  Landport  and  Southsea.  The  popolatioa 
of  the  borough,  with  its  suburbs,  was  (1S61)  H799. 
P.  is  for  the  most  part  a  mean-looking,  dirty  town, 
though,  as  a  fortress,  it  is  oonsidered  the  mort 
perfect  in  Britain.  Formidable  battles  defend 
the  harbour;  and  bastioned  ramparts,  faced  with 
masonry,  planted  with  trees,  and  surrounded  bj 
trenches  and  outworks,  enclose  the  town.  Portsea, 
about  a  mile  to  the  north,  is  similarly  fortified,  the 
line  of  its  land-defences  being  distinct  from  that  of 
Portsmouth.  Southsea,  which  is  situated  ontside 
the  waUs  skirting  Southsea  Common,  is  npklly 
increasing  and  is  now  a  fashionable  waterinj;-plao& 
In  the  town  proper,  there  are  few  objects  of  noft& 
Pleasing  views  may  be  had  from  the  ramurts  and 
batteries,  as  the  harbour,  the  roadstead  of  ^pithead, 
and  the  Isle  of  Wight,  on  the  coast  of  which  the 
white  walls  of  the  royal  residence  of  Osborne  Hoar 
are  seen  sleaming  amons  the  trees.  Among  the  few 
notable  buildings  may  be  mentioned  the  diurchof 
St  Thomas,  the  chanoel  and  transepts  of  which 
date  from  the  r2th  c,  and  which  contains  a  ghastly 
cenotaph  in  memoiy  of  the  murdered  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (see  vyra).    In  front  of  the  Gaziisra 


PORTSMOUTH— POETUGAL. 


Chapel  is  buried  the  brave  Sir  Gharies  James 
Napier  (Q*T*)f  ^bo  died  in  this  neighbourhood  in 
1863.  The  dockyard  of  P.,  in  the  district  of 
Portsea,  is  at  present  116  acres  in  extent,  the  largest 
in  the  country.  Works  are,  however,  now  (Januaiy 
1865)  in  progress  which  will  increase  the  area  to  a 
total  of  29.S  acres.  Of  this  immense  naval  estab- 
lishment, the  most  noteworthv,  if  not  the  most 
recent,  features  are  the  mast  and  rope  houses,  hemp- 
stores,  rii^ng-stores,  sail-loft,  and  the  dry  docks, 
six  in  number,  spacious  enough  to  admit  the 
largest  vessel,  and  offering  every  facilitv  for  their 
speedy  repair.  The  docks  are  generally  22  feet 
deep,  linea  with  solid  masonry,  and  roofed  over  and 
closed  bv  lock-gates.  Of  the  various  building-slips, 
one  of  them,  roofed  and  covered  in,  is  so  large  that 
three  or  four  vessels  can  be  in  process  of  construe* 
tion  under  it  at  the  same  time.  The  Wood  Mills 
contain  a  number  of  most  ingenious  block-makina 
macliines,  the*  invention  of  Sir  Isambard  Brunei, 
in  which  rouffh  timber,  introduced  at  one  end, 
is  cut,  squarecC  drilled,  bored,  and  turned  into  the 
required  shape.  About  140,000  blocks  are  made 
here  annually,  and  the  machines  require  the  attend- 
ance of  no  more  than  four  men.  In  the  smithy, 
anchors  are  forged  by  aid  of  a  Nasmvth's  hammer. 
The  dockyuxl  also  contains  the  residences  of  the 
superintending  officers,  and  a  school  of  naval 
architecture. 

Portsmouth  Harbour,  about  420  yards  wide  at 
its  entrance,  expands  into  a  spacious  basin,  extend- 
ing inland  for  about  4  miles,  and  bavins  a  breadth 
of  3  miles  along  its  northern  shore.  Xarge  war- 
vessels  can  enter  and  lie  at  anchor  at  all  times  of 
the  tide.  The  outward  entrance  is  defended  by 
Monkton  Fort  and  Soutbsea  Castle.  The  position 
of  this  harbour  is  highly  favourable.  It  is  situated 
in  the  middle  of  the  channel,  dose  to  the  magniti- 
cent  anchorage  of  Spithead,  where  1000  ships  of 
the  line  may  ride  without  inconvenience,  and  is 
under  shelter  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  opposite 
the  French  arsenal  of  Cherbourg. 

The  local  trade  of  P.  is  supported  by  the  dock- 
yard and  the  other  public  establishments  of  the 
town.  Brewing  is  largely  carried  on  in  the  town 
and  vicinity.  Coals,  cattle,  sheep,  com,  and  pro- 
visions are  imported  from  our  own  coasts,  and 
timber  and  wine  from  abroad.  In  1863,  2495  vessels, 
of  188,216  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  port 

The  importance  of  this  port  dates  only  from  the 
reign  of  l^nry  Vm.  Its  defences  were  strengthened 
by  Elizabeth,  and  afterwards  in  a  more  thorough 
manner  by  William  IIL  Here,  in  a  house  that  still 
remains  in  the  High  Street,  and  which  was  then 
an  inn  called  the  'Spotted  Dog,*  the  Duke  of 
Buckingham  (the  'Steenie*  of  King  James)  was 
wsassinated  by  John  Felton.  On  the  29th  of 
August  1782,  when  its  commander.  Admiral 
Kempenfeldt,  was  writing  in  his  cabin,  the  Boyal 
G forge  went  down  in  the  harbour,  and  nearly  1000 
hves  were  lost. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  city  and  the  onlv  seaport  of 
New  Hampshire,  U.S.,  is  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Piscataqua  Biver,  three  miles  from  the  AtUntic, 
and  45  miles  north-north-east  of  Boston;  a  well- 
built  town,  having  10  churches,  Athenaeum,  state 
arsenal,  academy  and  public  schools,  2  market- 
houses,  almshouse,  4  banks,  manufactories  of  cotton 
and  hosiery,  2  foundries,  breweries.  There  is  a 
safe  and  deep  harbour,  a  United  States'  navy-yard, 
having  a  balance-dock,  350  feet  long,  and  two  forts, 
M'Cleary  and  Constitution.  Settld  in  1623.  Pop. 
(1860)  9335. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  citv  and  port  of  Virgmia, 
U.S.,  on  the  west  bank  of  Elizabeta  Biver,  opposite 


Norfolk,  and  8  miles  from  Hampton  Roads.  It  has 
a  court-house,  scientific  and  military  academy,  A 
newspapers,  6  churches,  tobacco-factories,  &c.,  bdK 
connections    with    the    southern    railways.      Its 

Sroximity  to  Fortress  Monroe  caused  it  to  be  held, 
nring  the  War  of  Secession,  by  tiie  Federal  forces. 
Pop.  m  1860,  9487. 

PORTSMOUTH,  a  village  of  Ohio,  U.S.,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Scioto,  the  terminus  of  the  Scioto  and  Hocking 
Valley  Railway,  and  Ohio  and,  £rie  Canal,  115  miles 
east-by-south  from  Cincinnati,  and  90  south  of 
Columbus.  It  has  14  churches,  2  iron  foundries, 
3  machine-shops,  2  distilleries,  6  banks,  and  5 
newspapers.    Pop.  in  1860,  6268. 

PO'RTUOAL,  the  most  westerly  kingdom  of 
Europe,  a  part  of  the  great  Spanish  peninsula, 
Ues  in  36"  55'-42»  8'  N.  lat,  and  O'*  15'— 9"  30'  W. 
long.  Its  greatest  length  from  north  to  south  is 
368  miles,  and  its  average  breadth  from  east  to  west 
about  100  miles.  The  kingdom  of  P.  Proper  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic  on  the  S.  and  W.,  and  by 
Spain  on  the  N.  and  El  Its  distinctive  subdivisions, 
with  their  several  areas  and  populations,  are  given 
in  the  following  table : 

CoamcBSTAL  Pobtuoal. 


rMlVIBMI. 

DtBtOMt, 

Am  In 

popLian. 
887,859 

840,186 
1,310,066 

786,866 
311.799 
157,666 

BfUBO, 

TSAB  08  MonsB, 
Boas* 

ESTBIMADVaA, 

ALUDWOk 

AlMMMfM, 

Ytons, 
Braga, 
Porto, 

Bragania, 
TUla-Beal, 

ATeiro, 

Ooimbra, 

Vineu, 

Ooarda, 

OMtello-Branoo, 

Lelria, 

Sanurani, 

Lisbon, 

Portalegre, 

Evora, 

BeJa, 

Vvn, 

3094  ft6 

398076 
6575-77 

8180*97 
9898-98 
S315*35 

Total, 

86,046*S9 

3.693,869 

The  insular  appendages  of  P.  are :  The  Azores^ 
1133*79  square  miles,  pop.  (1863)  240,548.  Madeira, 
&C.,  330*75  square  miles ;  pop.  (1863)  101,420.  The 
total  area  of  the  home  territories  of  P.  is  therefore 
37,510-83  sqiuure  miles,  and  the  population  4,035,330. 

The  colonial  possessions  of  P.  are,  in  AJrica—CtLjte 
de  Verde  Isles,  1630*02  square  miles ;  pop.  85,400. 
Senegambia,  35,437*50  square  miles;  pop.  1095. 
Islands  of  San-Thome  and  Principe,  off  Guinea, 
448*56  square  miles ;  pop.  12,250.  Angola,  Bcnguela, 
200,602*50  square  mUes ;  pop.  2,000,000.  Mozam- 
bique and  dependencies,  283,500  square  miles ;  pop. 
300,000.  In  Aiia—OoA,  Salcete,  1440*6  square 
miles;  pop.  363,788.  Damao,  Diu,  94*08  square 
miles;  pop.  44,808.  In  the  Indian  Archin^go, 
2877  square  miles;  |>op.  850,300.  In  China — 
Macao,  11*76  square  miles;  pop.  29,587.  Total  of 
colonies  526,04148  square  miles  ;  pop.  3,687,22a 

Phyneai  Aspect^  Ac — P.  must  be  regarded  as 
essentially  a  littoral  country,  forming  the  Atiantio 
or  western  part  of  tiie  S|)aniBh  peninsula,  from 
which  it  is  sepwated  by  political,  rather  than 
physical  boundaries.  Its  mountains  and  riven 
are,  with  few  exceptions,  mere  western  prolonga- 
tions of  those  of  Spain.  The  principal  mountain 
ranges  lie  about  half-way  inland,  leaving  almost 


POETUGAL. 


ibe  vliole  of  its  600  miles  of  coastline  a  flat 
sandy  tract,  with  few  rocky  headlands,  and  hence 
there  are  scarcely  any  harboura  or  places  of  safe 
anchorage,  except  at  the  embouchures  of  the 
larger  rivers.  The  highest  range  is  the  Serra  de 
Estrella,  which,  passing  from  north-north-east  to 
south-south-west,  through  Beira  and  Estremadura, 
terminates  in  the  steep  acclivities  of  Cintra  and  Cap 
la  Rocca,  near  Lisbon.  The  principal  chain,  which 
18  also  known  as  the  Serra  da  Junto,  merg^  in  a 
series  of  ridges,  which  cover  a  tract  thirty  miles  in 
lengtii,  between  the  Tagns  and  the  sea.  Another 
mountain  range,  named  the  Serra  de  CalderSo  and 
the  Serra  de  Monchique,  but  constituting  a  mere  con- 
tinuation of  the  Spanish  Sierra  Morena,  crosses  the 
southern  part  of  P.  from  east  to  west,  and  terminates 
in  its  most  southern  promontory  of  Cape  St  Vincent. 
These  ranges,  with  the  numerous  mountain-spurs 
that  intersect  the  northern  districts  in  every 
direction,  so  thoroughly  occupy  the  area  of  P.,  that 
there  are  only  two  or  three  plains  of  any  extent  in 
the  whole  country,  and  these  are  situated  to  the 
west  of  the  Guaaiana,  in  Aiemtejo,  and  in  Beira 
and  Estremadura,  near  the  Tagus  and  Vouga. 
The  valleys  are  very  numerous,  and  by  their  great 
fruitfiUness,  present  a  striking  contrast  to  the 
barren  and  rugged  mountains  by  which  they  are 
enclosed.  The  principal  rivers  enter  P.  from  Spain. 
Of  these,  the  largest  are  the  Guadiana,  which, 
leaving  Spain  near  Badajoz,  forms  in  part  the 
boundary  between  the  southern  provinces  of 
the  neighbouring  kingdom;  while  the  Minho  and 
Douro,  Bowing  west,  form  a  part  of  the  boundary 
in  the  north  and  north-east.  The  Tagus,  or  Teio, 
intersects  P.  from  its  northern  frontier  to  the 
southern  termination  of  the  Estrella  Mountains, 
where  it  enters  the  sea  a  little  below  Lisbon.  The 
Mondego,  the  largest  river  belonging  entirely  to  P., 
after  receiving  numerous  affluents  in  its  course,  falls 
into  the  sea  about  midway  between  the  Douro  and 
the  Tagus.  The  larger  rivers,  although  obstructed 
at  their  mouth  with  dangerous  bars,  afford  admir- 
able means  of  internal  navigation,  together  with  the 
numerous  lesser  streams,  and  might  through  canals 
be  connected  into  one  great  syst^  of  water-routes ; 
but  hitherto  nothing  has  been  done  to  improve 
these  g^reat  natural  advantages.  Except  a  few 
mountain  tarns,  P.  has  no  lakes.  It  has  ssJt- 
marshes  on  the  coast,  near  Setubal  in  Estremadura, 
and  Aveiro  in  Beira,  whence  lar^e  quantities  of  salt 
are  annually  obtained  by  evaporation.  Mineral  springs 
are  abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  country,  but 
hitherto  they  have  been  almost  wholly  neglected. 

The  vicinity  to  the  western  ocean  tempers  the 
dimate  of  P.,  and  exempts  it  from  the  dry  heat  by 
which  Spain  is  visited.  The  great  inequalities  of 
the  surface  produce,  however,  great  diversities  of 
climate ;  for  while  snow  falls  abundantly  on  the 
mountains  in  the  northern  provinces,  it  is  never 
seen  in  the  lowlands  of  the  southern  districts, 
where  spring  begins  with  the  new  year,  and 
harvest  is  over  by  midsummer.  Bain  falls  abund- 
antly, especially  on  the  coast,  from  October  to 
March,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  the  climate  is  healthy 
in  the  elevated  districts  even  of  the  southern  pro- 
vinces; but  malaria  and  fever  prevail  in  low  flat 
lands  and  near  the  salt  marshes.  The  mean  annual 
temperature  at  Lisbon  is  61°  Fi^. 

The  natural  products  correspond  to  the  diversity 
of  the  physical  and  climatic  conditions,  for  while 
barley,  oats,  and  wheat,  maize,  flax,  and  hemp,  are 
^rown  in  the  more  elevated  tracts,  rice  is  cultivated 
m  the  lowlands,  the  oak  thrives  in  the  northern, 
the  chestnut  in  the  central,  and  the  cork,  date, 
and  American  aloe  in  the  southern  parts,  while 
every  species  of  European,  and  various  kinds  of 


semi-tropical  friiits  and  vegetables,  are  grown  ia 
different  parts  of  the  conntry.  The  soil  is  genenllj 
rich,  but  agriculture  is  evexywhere  neglected,  and 
is  scarcely  made  subservient  to  the  wants  of  the 
population.  The  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  that 
of  the  olive  are  almost  the  sole  branches  of  industiy ; 
from  the  former  is  derived  the  rich  red  wine  fami- 
liarly known  to  us  as  Port,  from  its  being  shipped  at 
0  PortOt  *  the  port*  The  mineral  products  include 
^old,  antimony,  lead,  copper,  marble,  slate,  coal, 
iron,  and  salt,  but  of  these  the  last  is  alone  worked 
in  sufficient  quantity  for  exportation,  and  is  in 
eager  demand  for  the  British  market,  on  account  of 
its  superior  hardness,  which  adapts  it  specially  for 
the  salting  of  meat  for  ships. 

The  finest  cattle  are  reared  in  the  north,  €tte 
horses  of  Aiemtejo  and  the  sheep  of  Beira  are  nuwt 
valued.  Mules  and  asses  are  the  principal  bcasta 
of  burden.  Goats  and  pigs  are  numerous,  and  are 
raised  at  a  very  low  cost,  in  all  the  mountain 
districts.  The  rearing  of  bees  and  silk -worms  is 
being  pursued  with  somewhat  increased  energy  of 
late  years.  Pish  is  abundant  in  all  tiie  rivers  aad 
on  the  coast.  The  tunny  and  anchovy  iisheriea  of 
Algarve  are  of  considerable  importance. 

Uommerce,  <Ssc. — The  ccmimercial  industry  of  the 
country  falls  verv  far  below  its  physical  capabilitieB, 
and  Oporto  and  Lisbon  are  the  only  centres  of 
manufacture  and  trade,  the  former  of  which  baa 
important  silk  and  glove  manufactories,  and  pro- 
duces an  inconsiderable  quantity  of  linen,  cotton,  and 
wool  fabrics,  metal  and  earthenware  goods,  toboeoo, 
cigars,  leather,  &c.  In  1861—1862,  1521  large 
sea-going  and  1106  smaller  coasting  vessels  entered 
the  port  of  Lisbon;  and  1443  of  the  former,  and 
984  of  the  latter,  left  it.  In  the  same  year,  9S3 
vessels  entered,  and  974  left  the  port  of  Oporto. 
About  600  miles  of  railway  are  now  open  for 
traffic,  principally  in  the  environs  of  Lisbon,  Oporto* 
Santarem,  and  Vigo;  but  the  country  is  almost 
entirely  without  roads,  the  few  which  exist  having 
been  made  only  within  the  last  twenty  years,  befoire 
which  time  the  whole  of  the  kin^om  was  in  the 
same  impassable  condition  in  which  the  sofothem 
provinces  still  remain.  The  scarcity  and  inefll- 
ciency  of  bridges,  and  the  total  want  of  oinals, 
render  internal  traffic  almost  impracticable,  and,  as 
a  matter  of  course,  put  an  impassable  barrier  in  tbe 
way  of  the  progress  of  civilisation,  and  the  growtii 
of  material  prosperity. 

The  exports,  which  consist  almost  entirely  of 
wine,  fruits,  oil,  and  cork,  amounted  in  1856  to 
about  16,299,035,500  lels,  or  (taking  1000  reis  =  55d.) 
£3,735,196,  and  of  these,  nearly  the  half  were  taken 
by  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies.  The  imports  for 
the  same  year  were  20,451,809,800  reis,  or  aboot 
£4,686,873,  of  which  two-thirda  came  from  Great 
Britain  and  her  colonies. 

The  budget  for  1863—1864  gives  the  total  of  the 
receipts,  wnioh  are  derived  from  direct  and  indirect 
taxation  and  from  the  national  domains,  at 
15,371)266,245  reis ;  while  the  expenditure,  indnding 
home  and  foreign  debts,  the  cnaiges  of  the  state, 
public  works,  £c,  is  estimated  at  16,910,350,057 
reis ;  leaving  a  deficit  for  the  jrear  of  1,539,087,814 
reis.  The  budget  for  the  forei^  possessions  fi  P. 
gives  for  the  same  year  the  receipt  at  I,032;l  13,904 
reis;  expenditure,  1,328,801,569  reis;  deceit, 
296,687,665  reis.  The  national  debt,  in  1S62, 
induding  foreign  loans,  amounted  to  149,853,788^545 
reis. 

Army  and  Navy. — ^The  anny  in  1863  was  rated  at 
20,239  men,  besides  about  4000  men  on  the  retiied 
list,  and  1710  men  in  the  municipal  guard.  Ilie 
colonial  army  amounts  at  present  to  13,834  troor»» 
of  whom  about  one-third  are  stationed  in  ihe  loina 


FOBTUQAL. 


dependencies  of  PortugaL  The  navy  in  1863  num- 
bered 35  veaaels,  carrying  296  guna.  The  principal 
naval  d^pdts  are  at  LislK^n  and  Oporto.  F.  has  55 
fortresses,  the  greater  nnmber  of  which  are  mere 
fortified  castles.  Among  the  more  important  are 
Elvas,  S.  Julians  Oascaes,  Pininhe,  Almeida^  and 
Valengap  There  are  six  orders  of  knighthood — viz., 
the  Older  of  Christ,  founded  in  1319 ;  St  Benedict 
of  Avis ;  the  Tower  and  Sword,  founded  in  1459, 
and  re-organised  in  1808 ;  Our  Lady  of  Villa  yi908a, 
establish^  in  1819 ;  and  the  order  of  St  John  of 
Jerusalem,  which  was  separated  in  1802  from  that  of 
Malta.  Besides  these,  there  is  one  civil  service 
order,  founded  in  1288w 

Religion,  Education, — P.  belongs  almost  exclusively 
to  the  Church  of  Bome,  and  shews  little  toleration 
to  other  creeds.  At  Lisbon  and  Oporto,  Protestant 
places  of  worship  are,  however,  sanctioned  by  the 
government.  P.  is  divided  into  three  dioceses, 
which  are  presided  over  by  the  Cardinal  Patriarch 
of  Lisbon,  the  Archbishop  of  Braga,  who  is  primate 
of  the  kingdom,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Evora ;  and 
these,  with  the  fourteen  bishops,  belong  to  the 
Grandeza,  or  higher  nobility.  The  number  of  clei^ 
holding  cures  is  given  at  18,000.  The  monastenes 
have  been  dissolved  since  1834,  but  convents  for 
nuns  still  exist.  P.  stands  below  the  other  countries 
of  Europe  in  re^rd  to  education.  There  is  one 
university  at  Coimbra;  militaiy,  naval,  trade,  and 
navigation  schools,  900  elementary,  and  about  360 
classical  and  higher  schools.  There  is  an  Academy 
of  Sciences  ana  a  School  of  Arts  at  Lisbon,  the 
former  of  which  has  a  library  of  50,000  vols.  The 
other  public  libraries  are  the  Central  Library, 
with  300,000  vols. ;  various  royal  libraries/  as  that 
of  Lis1x>n,  with  86,000  badly-preserved  vols.,  and 
8000  MSa  ;  that  at  the  Kecessidades  Palace,  with 
28,000  vols. ;  and  that  at  the  Ajuda  Palace,  with 
20,000  vols. ;  and  the  University  library  at  Coimbra, 
with  45,000  vols.  The  administration  of  the  manage- 
ment  of  eeneral  education  is  conducted  by  the  Junta 
at  Coimora,  under  the  snpervisiou  of  the  ministry 
of  Justice. 

LaWf  GovernmetU,  «£& — ^The  administration  of  the 
law  is  effected  by  means  of  111  courts  of  justice,  6 
of  which  are  located  at  Lisbon,  where  also  the 
high  court  of  appeal  holds  its  sitting.  The  courts 
are  public,  and  in  some  cases  trial  b^  jury  is  adopted. 
Excepting  in  regard  to  suits  refemng  to  trade,  law 
is  still  aaministered  in  accordance  with  the  Alfou- 
sine  code  of  the  15th  c.,  and  ths  CWgo  Filippino, 
or  code  of  Philip  IV.  of  Spain. 

P.  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  crown  being 
hereditary  alike  in  the  female  and  male  lines.  The 
houses  of  representatives  are  called  CorUs,  and  con- 
sist of  the  Camaras  do9  Pares,  and  the  Camar<A  doe 
Diputadoe,  the  former  composed  of  grandees,  chosen 
for  life  by  the  sovereign,  and  the  laUer  of  114  mem- 
bers, elected  by  voters.  The  monarch  is  assisted  by 
a  cabinet  of  six  ministers  of  state,  and  a  council  com- 
p|Osed  of  members  chosen  for  life.  He  bean  the 
title  of  King  of  Portugal  and  of  Algarve  '  on  both 
sides  of  the  ocean.'  The  heir-apparent  bears  the 
title  of  Prince  of  Beira.  The  wintie^  residence  of  the 
king  and  court  is  the  Palace  dos  Necessidades  at 
Lisbon,  which  at  other  seasons  is  exchanrnd  for  the 
palaces  at  Mafra,  Queluz,  Bemfica,  and  Kamalhao. 
The  nobility  is  divided  into  TUvladoe  and  Fidalgag, 
and  these,  with  the  upper  officials,  higher  clergy, 
Ac.,  constitute  one-eighth  of  the  whole  population ; 
a  vei^  large  number  of  the  Fidal^  h&ng  im- 
poverished and  reduced  to  the  condition  of  paupers, 
subsisting  on  charity.  The  arms  of  P.  are  a  silver 
shield  bearinff  five  small  blue  shields,  set  crosswise, 
each  of  whicn  has  five  silver  coins  laid  crosswise 
apon  it  the  whole  being  encircled  by  a  red  border 


bearing  seven  golden  castles — ^tbe  arms  of  AlcarvAi 
The  supporters  are  two  dragons,  bearing  alon  the 
standards  of  P.  and  Algarve.  Hie  national  colours 
are  blue  and  white.  Lisbon  (q.  v.),  the  capital,  is  the 
centre  of  the  small  amount  of  literair,  artistic,  and 
manufacturing  activity  in  P. ;  while,  besides  Oporto 
(q.  V.)  there  is  no  city  whose  population  exceeds 
20,000,  and  very  few  which  have  more  than  10,000 
inhabitants. 

Bace. — The  Portugese  are  a  mixed  race.  la 
Algarve  and  Alemtejo,  the  Arabic  element  is  staSi 
very  perceptible,  and  the  people  of  those  provinces 
have  dark-brown  skins,  and  tall,  slim,  but  lithe 
and  active  figures;  while  the  natives  of  the  more 
northern  districts,  with  lighter  skins,  have  less 
regular  features,  small  eyes,  and  short,  thick-set 
figures.  Although  the  Portuguese  may  very 
probably  be  regarded  as  the  remains  of  the 
original  population  of  the  peninsula,  they  differ 
essentially  from  their  Spanish  brethren,  whom  they 
now  regard  with  inveterate  hatred  and  jealousy  on 
account  of  their  attempts  a  few  centuries  ago  to 
annihilate  the  independence  of  PortugaL  They 
indulge  in  interminable  verboeitv,  ceremonious 
fiattery,  and  servile  politeness,  and  they  are  inclined 
to  extoavagance  and  display.  They  are,  however, 
intensely  patriotic,  brave,  persevering,  enterprising, 
hospitable,  cheerful,  and  ready  to  oblige.  As  a 
people,  they  are  dirty  and  slovenly;  few  persoDS 
among  them  possess  any  great  degree  of  mental 
culture,  and  tne  lower  orders  are  even  unable  to 
read  or  write,  and  hence  the  grossest  superstition 
and  bigotry  prevail  in  every  ch»s  of  the  population. 

History  of  PortugaL — The  earliest  notice  which 
we  have  of  the  western  portions  of  the  ST)anish 
peninsula,  is  derived  from  tne  Komans,  who  followed 
the  Carthaginians  as  conquerors  of  the  territories  of 
the  ancient  Iberians  and  western  Celts.  Under 
Augustus,  the  peninsula  was  divided  into  three 
provinces,  governed  b^  prsdtors,  of  which  the 
western  province  of  Lusitania  comprised  the  greater 
part  of  uie  present  kingdom  of  P.,  besides  portions 
of  Leon  and  Spanish  Estremadura.  When  the 
Romans  withdrew  from  the  peninsula,  which  was 
rapidly  overrun  by  Visigoths  from  the  north,  and 
at  a  later  perioa  by  Saracens  from  the  south, 
Lusitania  was  overwhelmed  in  one  common  ruin 
wiUi  Iberia  or  ancient  Spain.  About  the  middle  of 
the  11th  c,  it  fell  under  the  sway  of  Ferdinand  L 
of  CastUe.  In  1095,  Henry  of  Burgundy,  who  had 
married  a  natural  daughter  of  Alfonso  VL,  king  of 
Castile,  the  successor  of  Ferdinand,  received  from 
that  monarch  the  government  of  Portugal  from  the 
Minho  to  the  Tagus,  as  a  dependent  fief.  It  is 
maintained,  however,  by  Portuguese  authorities, 
that  even  from  this  time  the  country  was  inde- 
peudent.  ffis  son,  Alfonso  L,  gained  signal  advan- 
tages over  the  Arabs,  and,  by  his  g^iantry  and 
prudence,  secured  the  affections  of  the  people. 
After  tiie  great  victory  which  he  gained  over  the 
Moslems,  in  the  plain  of  Ourique,  in  Alemtejo, 
in  1139,  his  soldiers  proclaimed  him  king.  Uis 
successes  on  this  occasion  inflicted  a  serious  check 
on  the  advance  of  the  Infidels,  and  in  recompense 
for  the  services  which  he  had  thus  conferred  on 
Christendom,  the  pope  confirmed  his  title,  which  had 
been  unanimously  ratified  b^  the  Cortes  of  Lamegow 
The  Burgundian  House,  which  continued  in  posses- 
sion of  Sie  throne  for  400  years,  gave  to  P.  some 
of  its  noblest  and  best  kings.  The  immediate  suc- 
cessors of  Alfonso  L  were  engaged  in  many  severe 
struggles  with  the  clergy  and  nobles,  who  were 
always  ready  to  combine  against  the  sovereign ;  but 
although  often  baffled  in  uieir  attempts  to  uphold 
the  independence  of  the  crown,  the  dignity  of  the 
kingdom  wasi  on  the  whole,  well  maintained  bv  the 


FOBTDOAL. 


vepreeentfttives  of  tluB  family,  who  are,  moreover, 
distingaished  as  the  promoten  and  upholderB  of  the 
maritime  glorv  of  Portugal  Dinis  (Dionysiua),  who 
snooeeded  Alionao  IIL  in  1279,  mnst  be  regarded  as 
the  founder  of  Portuguese  commeroe  and  mercantile 
enterprise.  This  king,  moreover,  encouraged  the 
industrial  arts,  and  protected  learning,  in  further- 
ance of  which  he  founded,  in  1284^  a  university 
at  Lisbon,  which  was  transferred,  in  1308,  to 
€k>imbnL  Dims  was  succeeded  in  1325  by  his  son, 
Alfonso,  sumamed  the  Brave,  whose  reign  was 
almost  wholly  oocumed  in  wars  with  the  Gastilians 
and  the  Moslems.  With  Alfonso's  grandson,  Ferdi- 
nand L,  the  legitimate  branch  of  the  Burvundian 
House  became  extinct  in  1383.  After  some  disturb- 
ances, his  illegitimate  brotlier,  Joam  (John),  was 
recognised  bv  ue  Cortes  as  king  in  1385.  His  reign 
was  eventful,  not  merely  on  account  of  the  intermd 
reforms  which  he  introduced  into  the  state,  and 
of  his  steady  maintenanoe  of  the  prerogatives  of 
the  crown,  but  chiefly  as  being  associated  with 
the  commencement  of  those  vast  and  important 
geographical  discoveries  and  oommercial  enterprises, 
to  which  P.  owed  the  position  she  occupied  during 
that  and  the  succeeding  age  as  the  greatest  maritime 
power  of  Europe.  To  Joam's  son,  Enrique  (Henry) 
the  Navigator,  is  due  the  merit  of  having  organised 
various  voyages  of  discovery,  and  inansurated  a 
re^Ur  system  of  colonisation,  which,  during  the 
reign  of  Joam  XL  (who  ascended  the  throne  in  1481), 
culminated  in  the  successive  acquisition  by  P.  of  the 
Azores,  Madeira,  Cape  de  Verde,  and  other  islands ; 
in  the  doubling  of  the  Cape  of  Oood  Hope  under 
Bartholomeo  Diaz ;  and,  as  the  result  of  the  latter, 
in  the  successful  achfevement  of  the  passage  by  sea 
to  India,  which  was  effected,  in  1497,  nnder  the 
oommand  of  Vasco  de  Gama,  in  the  reign  of  Joam*s 
successor,  ManoeL  The  discovery  of  Brazil,  and  the 
settlements  made  there  and  on  the  western  coast  of 
India,  increased  the  maritime  power  and  fame  of  P., 
which  were  further  extendea  under  Manoel's  son, 
Joam  III.,  who  ascended  the  throne  in  1521.  At 
this  period,  P.  ranked  as  one  of  the  most  powerful 
monarchies  in  Europe,  and  Lisbon  as  one  of  its  most 
important  commercial  cities.  Sudden  as  this  course 
of  prosperity  had  been,  its  decline  was  almost  more 
abrupt,  and  may  in  a  great  measure  be  referred  to 
the  influence  of  the  priests,  for  the  introduction  into 
P.  of  the  Inquisition  in  1536,  led  to  the  expulsion 
of  the  numerous  wealthy  and  industrious  Jews,  on 
whose  able  financial  management  the  commercial 
interests  of  the  Portuguese  were  larjgely  dependent, 
and  gave  rise  to  an  amount  of  social  tyranny  and 
oppression,  both  in  the  colonies  and  at  home,  which, 
coupled  with  a  bad  system  of  government,  depressed 
the  energy  and  crippled  the  resources  of  the  nation. 
The  influence  of  the  Jesuits  under  the  minority 
of  Joam's  grandson,  Sebastian,  and  their  evil  coun- 
sels in  urging  the  young  king  to  enter  upon  a  fatal 
expedition  to  Africa  against  the  Infidels,  led  to  still 
further  miseries.  The  defeat  of  the  Portuguese,  and 
the  capture  and  death  of  their  young  kmg  at  the 
battle  of  Alcazar  in  1578,  and  the  extinction  of  the 
old  Burgundian  line  in  1580,  after  the  brief  reign  of 
Sebastian's  uncle,  Enrique,  plunged  the  country  into 
difficulties  and  misfortunes  of  every  kind,  which 
lost  none  of  their  weight,  although  they  changed 
in  character.  After  a  struggle  for  the  throne 
between  many  eager  candidates,  none  of  whom 
found  favour  with  the  nation  at  large,  who  per- 
sisted in  cherishing  the  delusive  hope  that  Sebas- 
.tian  was  still  alive,  and  would  return  from  the 
hands  of  his  Infidd  captors,  Philip  IL  of  Spain 
succeeded  in  securing  to  himself  the  orown  of 
P.,  and  annexing  the  Portuguese  kingdom  to  the 
Spanish  monarchy.    This  event  provra  disastrous 


in  the  extreme  to  P.,  for,  besides  bringing  the 
conntiy  to  the  brink  of  ruin,  by  mal-administratiQii 
and  misappropriation  of  its  resonrces,  it  involved  it 
in  all  tne  ruinous  wars  of  Spain  in  the  Low 
Countries  and  in  Germany,  a  great  part  of  the 
expenses  of  which  it  was  made  to  bear ;  while  the 
Dutch,  in  retaliation  for  Spanish  agmasioiis  at 
home,  attacked  the  Portuguese  setuements  in 
Brazil,  and  almost  completely  deprived  them  of 
their  possessions  in  the  Indian  Aix^pelago.  The 
insolence  of  Philip  IV.'s  minister,  Olivarez,  brought 
matters  to  a  crisis ;  and  in  1640,  after  a  forced  union 
of  160  years,  P.  was  freed,  by  a  bold  and  successful 
conspiracy  of  the  nobles,  from  all  connection  with 
Spain,  and  the  Duke  de  Braganza,  a  descendant  of 
the  old  royal  family,  plaoed  on  the  throne,  under 
the  title  ot  Joam  I  v.  The  war  witii  Spain,  which 
was  the  natural  result  of  this  act,  terminated  in 
1668,  when,  by  the  treaty  of  Lisbon,  the  indepen- 
dence of  P.  was  formally  recognised  by  the  Spanxrii 
government.  For  the  next  hundred  years,  P.  vege- 
tated in  a  state  of  inglorious  apathy.  Her  ancient 
glory  had  departed  never  to  return,  the  nation  was 
steeped  in  ignorance  and  bi^tty,  and  from  having 
been  one  of  the  greatest  maritime  powers  of  £arc^»e, 
the  Portuguese  were  content  with  becoming  a 
commerdal  dependent,  rather  than  ally,  of  Great 
Britain.  Under  the  reign  of  Joseph  L,  who  died 
in  1777,  the  genius  and  resolution  of  the  minister, 
Pombal  (q.v.),  infused  temporary  vigour  into  tiie 
administration,  and  checked  for  a  time  the  down- 
ward tendency  of  the  national  credit.  Pombal's 
efforts  to  rouse  the  people  from  their  sloth,  and 
infuse  vigour  into  the  government,  were  frustrated 
by  the  accession  of  Joseph*s  daughter,  Maria, 
who,  with  her  uncle-husband,  Pedro  IIL,  allowed 
things  to  fall  back  into  their  old  channela  The 
mental  alienation  of  Maria  led,  in  1789,  to  the 
nomination  of  a  regency  under  her  eldest  son, 
Joam.  This  prince,  who  shewed  considerable 
capacity  in  early  life,  finding  that  he  oould  not 
maintain  even  a  shadow  of  independ^&oe  on 
the  outbreak  of  the  war  between  Spain  and 
France,  threw  himself  wholly  on  the  protection  of 
England  ;  and  finally,  when  he  learned  that 
Napoleon  had  determmed  on  the  destmctioQ  of 
his  dynastv,  left  P.  in  1807,  accompanied  by  all  his 
family,  and  transferred  the  seat  of  his  govemmetift 
to  Rio  Janeiro,  the  capital  of  BraziL  l&s  act  was 
immediately  followed,  on  the  part  of  the  French,  by 
the  occupation  and  annexation  of  P. — a  measare 
which  gave  rise  to  the  Peninsular  War.  Th» 
victory  of  Yimeira,  gained  by  the  oombin«i 
English  and  Portuguese  army  in  1808^  freed  the 
land  from  its  French  assailants;  and  in  1810,  on 
the  death  of  Queen  Maria,  the  regent  succeeded 
to  the  joint  crowns  of  P.  and  BraziL  The  con- 
tinued residence  of  the  new  king,  Joam  VL,  at 
Bio  Janeiro,  gave  occasion  to  abuses  and  discon- 
tent, which  resulted,  in  1820,  in  the  outbreak  ai 
a  revolution  at  Lisbon,  and  the  proclamation  ol 
a  constitutional  form  of  government  in  the  place 
of  the  pre-existing  absolutism.  After  a  period 
of  great  national  excitement  and  political  disturb- 
ance, the  differences  between  the  sovereign  and 
people  were  so  far  adjusted,  that  Joam  agreed  to 
ana  signed  the  constitution  ci  P.,  and  ratified  the 
independence  of  Brazil,  whidi  was  to  be  governed 
by  his  son,  Dom  Pedro,  while  he  himself  retained 
only  the  title  of  emperor.  On  the  death  of  Joam 
in  1826,  Pedro  IV.,  after  organising  tlie  government 
of  P.  on  the  model  of  the  French  charter,  renounced 
the  Portugese  crown  in  favour  of  his  daughter, 
Do&a  Mana  da  Gloria,  on  condition  of  her  marrisfis 
with  her  uncle,  Dom  MigueL  The  latter,  wIm^ 
during  the  lifetime  of  Joam,  had  availed  himself  vi 


PORTUGAL-PORTUGUESE  LANGUAGE  AND  LITERATURE. 


every  opportanity  to  thwart  the  more  liberal  policy 
of  his  father  and  brother,  waited  01117  for   the 
tfnbarkation  of  the  English  troops  to  break  the 
oath  which  he  had  taken  to  maintain  the  consti- 
tution,  and  gathering  round  him  all  who  were  in 
favour  of  restoring  the  old  order  of  things  in  P^ 
he  was  through  uieir  aid  declared  king  by  the 
Cortes,   which  met  in  Jone  182$.     A  period  of 
indescribable  oonfusion^  misrule,  and  anarchy  fol- 
lowed.   The  nobles,  monks,  and  rabble  ruled  the 
land;  13,000  Portognese  citisens  went  into  exiles 
while  double  that  number  of  x>ersons,  suspected  ol 
favouring  the  Constitutional  party,  were  kept  in 
confinement    At  length,  in  1832,  Oom  Pedro  was 
enabled,  chiefly  by  means  of  a  loan  from  English- 
men, to  raise  a  fleet,  and  make  a  landing  at  Oportoi 
Admiral  Napier,  in  the  meanwhile,  operated  on  the 
coast  of  Algarve  successfully  in  favour  of  the  young 
queen,  whose  cause,  by  these  victories,  and  the 
support  of  an  alliance  with  the  ^At  powers,  finally 
poved  victorious.     Dona  Mana  maae  her  entiy 
mto  Lisbon  in  1833 ;  and  in  the  following  year  Dom 
Miguel  signed  title  Convention  of  £vora»  by  which 
he  renounced  all  pretensions  to  the  throne,  and 
agreed  to  quit  PortugiU.    The  death  of  Dom  Pedro 
in  the  same  year,  after  he  had  effected  several 
important  reforms,  proved  a  heavy  misfortune  to 
P.,   which  suffered  severely  from  the  mercenary 
rule  of  those  who  occupied  ^aces  of  trust  about  the 
person  of  the  young  queen.    Her  marriage,  in  1835, 
with  Augustus,  Duke  of  Leuchtenberff,  his  death 
at    the    end  of  a  few  months,  and   ner  second 
marriage,  in  1836,  with  Prince  Ferdinand  of  Saxe- 
Coburg,  were  followed  by  ^ve  political  disturb- 
ances, which  in  course  of  time  were  as^vated  by 
the  personal  avarice  and  want  of  good  luth  of  those 
in  whom  the  young  queen  placed  her  confidence. 
A  branch  of  tne  democrats.  Known  as  the  Septem- 
brists,  from  the  month  in  which  they  made  their 
first  decisive  stand  against  the  government,  loudlv 
demanded  the  abrogation  of  the  charter  promul- 
gated by  Dom  Pedro  (and  known  as  the  Carta  de 
ley  de  1826),  and  the  restoration  of  the  constitution 
01  1820L    This  contest  of  the  charters  may  be  said 
to  have  continued  through  the  entire  reig^  of  Dona 
MariSb    The  government  was  alternately  in  the 
handfl  of  Septembrists  and  Chartists,  towards  both 
of  whom  the  queen  acted  with  a  degree  of  duplicity 
that  frustrated  every  effort  at  an  adjustment  of 
the  national  disorders.    Insurrections  and  counter- 
insurrections  were  of  frequent  occurrence,  the  troops 
were  not  to  be  depended  on  in  moments  of  emer- 
gency ;  guerrilla  bands  scoured  tiie  country  at  will, 
and  openly  defied   the   queen's   authority.     The 
Absolutists,  or  Miguelites,  took  advantage  of  the 
general  disorder  to  produce  a  reaction  in  favour  ol 
the   old  church  party.    The  financial  embarrass* 
menta  were  compficated  in  the  extreme ;  while  tiie 
obstinacy  of  tiie  nation  in  regard  to  the  maintenance 
of  the  slave-trade,  in  defiance  of  treaties  and  pledges, 
brought  them  into  temporary  collision  with  Great 
Britain,  the  only  ally  on  whom  Dona  Maria  could 
rely.     An  armed  intervention  of  the  great  powers 
in  1847  produced  a  partial  abatement  ofthe  national 
disorders;   and  matters  might  have  permanently 
improved,  had  not  the  queen's  partiality  for  her 
nnpopnlar  ministers.  Count  Thomar  and  his  brother 
Caoral,  and  her  determination  to  leave  the  admin- 
iatration  of  affairs  in  their  hands,  exasperated  the 
ffeneral  diMontent  and  distrust  of  the  courts  and 
&d  to  the  insurrection,  which,  without  bloodshed, 
Aade  the  national  idol,  the  Marquis  de  Saldanha,  de 
fado   military  dictator  of   Portugal,  and  evoked 
a  general  expression  of  the  popuW  wish  for  the 
qneen's  abdication.    Baldanhivs  ministry,  althouffh 
b^nn  nnder  good  aaspioes,  soon  mamfested  ue 


same  readiness  to  succumb  to  the  views  of  the 
court  which  had  oharacteri^  former  ministries. 
One  Cortes  was  dissolved  after  another,  and  finally, 
in  1862,  the  government  declared  itself  prepared  to 
carry  out  necessary  reforms  without  the  concurrence 
of  the  Cortes,  and  to  demand  at  a  future  period 
a  bill  of  indemnity  for  its  acts.    At  this  crisis,  the 

2neen  died  suddenly,  and  her  eldest  son  ascended 
iie  throne  in  1853»  as  Pedro  V.,  under  the  regency 
of  the  king-consort  his  father.  The  latter  us^  his 
power  discreetly;  and  by  his  judicious  management^ 
the  financial  disorders  were  partially  adjusted ;  and 
since  that  period,  P.  has  been  less  disturbed  by 
party  Motion,  the  royal  family  have  gradually 
recovered  ^pularity,  and  the  general  condition  of 
the  nation  is  more  promising.  The  premature  and 
sudden  death  of  the  youn^  king  and  his  brother 
Joam  in  1861,  heightened  these  feelings  of  loyalty; 
and  the  present  soverei^,  Louis  L,  second  son  of 
Doiia  Maria,  was  proclamied  king  in  the  midst  of 
general  feeling*  of  attachment  Us  and  sympathy 
with,  the  reigning  house; 

PORTUGUESE  LANGUAGE  Aim  LITER- 
ATURE. The  Portuguese,  like  every  other  branch 
of  the  Romance  family  of  languages,  has  ffrown  out 
of  a  local  form  of  the  Lingua  Somana  BusUca,  which 
in  course  'ot  time  had  ingrafted  upon  it  many 
elements  of  Arabic  from  the  baracen  invaders  of  the 
country,  and  numerous  verbal  and  idiomatic  charao- 
teristics  of  the  Prankish  and  Celtic  dialects,  whidi 
were  introduced  with  the  Bursondian  founders  of 
the  Portuguese  monarchy.  The  earlier  forms  of 
Portuguese  bore  close  affinity  with  the  Galician,  and 
although,  in  course  of  time,  it  presented  strong  resem- 
blanoe  to  its  sister  language,  the  Castilian,  in  as  far 
as  both  possessed  numerous  words  of  identical  origin, 
it  diffeied  so  widely  from  the  latter  in  regard  to 
grammatical  structure,  as  almost  to  merit  the 
desi^ation  of  an  original  tongue.  The  antipathy 
existing  between  the  Portuguese  and  Spaniards,  and 
the  conseouent  strenuous  efforts  of  their  best  writers 
to  keep  their  language  distinct,  and  to  resist  the 
introduction  of  further  Castilian  elements,  had  the 
effect  of  making  Portuguese  still  more  dissimilar  from 
the  sister  tongues  of  we  peninsula,  and  the  result  is 
the  production  of  a  language  differing  from  purs 
Spanish  in  having  an  excess  of  nasal  sounds,  and 
fewer  gutturals,  with  a  softening  or  lisping  of  the 
consonants,  and  a  deepening  of  the  vowels,  which 
renders  it  the  softest,  but  least  harmonious,  and 
the  feeblest  of  all  the  Romance  tongues.  The 
earliest  specimens  of  genuine  Portuguese  belong  to 
the  beginning  of  the  13th  c.,  and  consist  for  the 
most  part  of  collections,  or  books  of  songs  {Caneion' 
eiroa),  which,  both  in  regard  to  form  and  rhythm, 
resembled  the  troabadonr  or  minne  songs  of  the 
same  period.  Of  these,  the  oldest  is  the  Caneiondm 
dSl  Bei  Dam  DiniZt  or  Book  of  Sonn,  by  King  Dinis, 
who  had  long  been  regarded  by  the  rortuguese  as 
their  earliest  poet,  but  whose  i>oems  were  supposed 
to  be  lost,  till  they  were  discovered,  about  twenty 
years  since,  in  MS.  in  the  library  of  the  Vatican, 
and  published  at  Paris  and  Lisbon  in  1847.  In  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  the  court  continued  to  be 
the  centre  of  poetry  and  art,  as  it  had  been  under 
Dinis;  but  €»stUian  was  in  greater  vogue  than 
Portuguese,  which  was  despised  by  the  numerous 
royal  poets,  who  emulated  the  example  of  Diniz, 
and  composed  love-songs  and  moral  or  didactic  poem& 
Under  the  culture  of  these  noble  bards,  the  poetry 
of  Portu^  remained  weak  and  effeminate,  without 
acquiring  even  the  tenderness  and  pathos  which 
characterised  the  Spanish  romances  of  that  age. 
The  poetry  and  literature  of  Portugal  acquired  new 
vigour  with  the  growth  of  her  maritime  and  com- 
'  i^oiy,  ttkd  the  ObnciiMMiro  (Tsnrf  (lisb.  1516) 

m 


PORTULACRfi-POSEN. 


of  the  j'oct  Garcia  deResende,  which  gives  a  general 
Bumniary  and  extracts  of  all  the  Portuguese  poets 
of  the  latter  half  of  the  15th,  and  beginning  of  the 
16th  c,  affords  evidence  of  this  improvement,  which 
is  most  strongly  exemplified  in  the  sentimental 
pastorals  or  romances,  and  the  national  eclogues  of 
Bernardino  fiibeiro  and  S&  de  Miranda,  whose 
eclogues  and  prose  dramatic  imitations  of  Plautus 
and  Terence,  mark  the  transition  period  between 
the  medieval  lyrical  and  the  later  classical  style. 
These  first  attempts  at  the  drama  were  followed 
by  Antonio  Ferreira,  whose  Ines  de  Caitro  is 
the  oldest  Portuguese  tragedy.  But  the  classical 
school,  whose  chief  cultivators  were  the  courtiers 
of  Lisbon  and  the  professors  of  Coimbra^  found 
little  favour  among  the  people  at  large,  for  the 
discoveries  and  conquests  of  the  nation  in  Asia, 
Africa,  and  America^  excited  an  enthusiasm  and 
self-consciousness  in  the  people,  which  led  them 
to  crave  for  something  more  practical  and  natural 
than  the  stilted  style  of  the  classicists.  At  this 
crisis,  when  P.  was  at  the  zenith  of  her  material 
prosperity,  appeared  her  ^preatest  poet»  Gamoens, 
who,  in  his  immortal  epic,  0»  Lusiadaa,  which 
appeared  in  1572,  struck  out  a  new  path  in  the 
domain  of  epic  poetry;  while  his  numerous  sonnets, 
300  in  number,  his  Canpoes  or  songs,  his  RedondilUut 
dramas,  and  other  poetic  productions,  exhibit  a 
versatility  of  genius  and  graceful  tenderness  which 
place  him  in  the  foremost  rank  of  Enrojiean  poets. 

With  Gamoens  and  his  contemporary,  Gil  Vicente, 
the  language  and  poetry  of  P.  reached  the  culmin- 
ating point  of  their  development.  Daring  the 
dominion  of  Spain,  the  Portuguese  so  far  lost  all 
feeling  of  national  independence  and  patriotism, 
that  tney  at  length  renounced  their  native  tongue, 
and  adopted  the  language  of  their  foreign  rulers. 
With  the  restoration  of  political  independence, 
under  the  sway  of  the  Tortuguese  House  of 
Braganza,  a  reaction  took  place ;  but  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries  produced  few  Portuguese  writers  who 
attained  more  than  an  ephemeral  and  purely  local 
reputation— bombast,  or  slavish  imitation  of  Spanish 
and  Italian  writers,  being  the  predominant  charac- 
teristics of  the  Portuc;uese  school  of  light  literature. 
Some  good  historical  writers  belong,  however,  to 
this  period,  as  Jacinto  Freire  de  Andrade,  whose 
life  of  Joao  de  Gastro,  Viceroy  of  India,  still  holds 
its  place  as  the  most  perfect  monument  of  classical 
prose;  the  great  Indian  missionary,  the  Jesuit 
Father  Antonio  Vierra,  who  died  in  1699,  and  whose 
sermons  and  letters — of  which  a  collection  was 
published  at  Lisbon  in  1748,  and  at  Paris  in  1838— 
are  regarded  by  his  countrymen  as  models  of  style 
and  (uction ;  F.  X.  da  Meneses,  the  author  of 
O  Portugal  Bestaurculo  (1741),  fto.  In  the  beginning 
of  the  present  century,  Portuguese  poetry  was 
partially  redeemed  from  its  previous  low  grade  by 
two  men,  who,  although  they  professed  to  observe  a 
strictly  classical  style,  possessed  a  delicacy  of  taste, 
and  a  genial  creative  power,  which  saved  them 
from  falling  into  the  absurdities  that  had  generally 
characterised  the  school  in  Portugal  The  elder  of 
these,  F.  M.  do  Nascimento,  who  died  in  exile  at 
Paris  in  1819,  although  enpecially  noted  as  an  elegant 
lyrist,  deserves  notice  tor  his  gracefully  written 
miscellaneous  papers ;  while  Manoel  de  Bocage,  his 
less  cultivated,  rival  and  contemporary,  must 
undoubtedly  be  regarded  as  the  most  orimnal  and 
truly  national  of  the  modem  poets  of  Portugal. 
His  sonnets  rank  as  the  finest  in  the  language,  and 
these,  with  his  numerous  idylls,  epigrams,  and 
occasional  poems,  composed  in  various  styles  and 
modes  of  versification,  have  had  a  host  of  imitators, 
among  the  best  of  whom  are  the  dramatist  J.  B. 
Oomes,  J.  M.  da  Gosta  e  Silva;  the  satirist^  T.  da 
102 


Almeida;  and  the  Bnudliaa,  Antonio  Caldaa,  dis- 
tinguished for  his  sacred  epics,  and  various  imita- 
tions of  Milton  and  Kloprtock.  The  best  of  tiM 
recent  Portufuese  poets  are  M.  de  Alboquerque, 
A.  de  Gastilho,  and  A.  de  Garvalho,  and  J.  K 
d' Almeida  Garrett  The  last-named,  whose  collected 
poetic  and  prose  works  appeared  at  Lisbon  in  1S40, 
was  at  once  the  most  versatile  and  popular  writer  of 
his  time  in  Portugal  In  the  departments  of  travels, 
geography,  and  history,  P.  has  {nodnced  good 
writers  from  the  eaiiiest  periods  of  its  literary 
history;  and  in  recent  times,  the  works  of  B. 
Machado,  J.  Ferreira^  and  A.  de  Gajo,  have  well 
maintained  the  national  repotation.  —  Poitucoeae 
literature  is  also  cultivated  in  Brazil,  and,  of  lata 
years,  with  more  success  than  in  the  parent  conntry. 
The  principal  names  in  Brazilian  poetry  are,  Gkm- 
calves  Diaz,  Macedo  Abreo,  and  Ma^dhaens;  in 
history,  Vamhagen,  author  of  the  Hislcria  general 
de  Brazil  (1854),  and  P.  da  Silva,  author  of  the 
Brazilian  Plutarch;  besides  some  divines,  philo- 
sophers, and  translators  from  the  classics. 

PORTULA'OE^,  or  PORTULAGACE.B,  a 
natural  order  of  exogenous  plants,  nearly  allied  to 
CaryophyUacecBf  from  which  it  difiers  chiefly  in  the 
generally  perigynous  stamens,  the  aalyx  consisting 
of  two  sepals  which  are  united  at  the  base,  and  the 
capsule  frequently  opening  transversely.  Tlie  species 
are  not  very  numerous;  they  are  much  tfiiffii**^ 
over  the  world,  and  are  shrubby  or  herbaceoaa,  gener- 
ally succulent,  mostly  growing  in  dry  places.  The 
flowers  are  often  larce  and  beautiful,  but  ephemeraL 
The  foliage  is  bland  and  insipid.  Some  apedes  are 
used  as  salads  and  pot-herbs,  of  which  the  best 
known  is  Purslane  (a.  v.).  The  tuberous  roots  of 
Claytonia  tubero«i,  a  Siberian  plant,  are  used  for 
food,  as  are  those  of  the  Melloco  (Mdloea  tuberasa 
or  UUucus  tuberonu),  a  Peruvian  plant  sometimes 
referred  to  this  ozxler.  The  genus  Ccdaidrimia 
furnishes  some  beautiful  annuab  to  our  flower- 
borders. 

POSEI'DOK.    SeeNBPTOKE. 

PO'SEN,  a  province  of  IVussia,  bounded  N.  by 
Pomerania  and  East  Prussia,  £.  by  Poland,  S.  I7 
Silesia,  and  W.  by  Brandenburg  and  Pomerania. 
Area,  11,260  square  miles.  Pop.  at  the  dose  of 
1861,  1,485,550.  It  is  divided  into  the  two  govern- 
mental districts  of  Posen  and  Brombex^;  and  the 
principal  towns  are  Posen,  Brombeig,  Gnesen.  Lissa, 
and  Inowraclaw.  The  principal  river  is  the  Wartha, 
which  traverses  P.  from  east  to  west,  and  is  iiavi« 
^able  throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  course,  as 
18  also  the  smaller  Netze.  The  country  is  almost 
everywhere  level,  and  its  surface  extenaiv^y  covered 
with  bogs,  ponds,  and  small  lakes.  The  soil  is 
on  the  whole  fruitful,  and  the  numerous  swamps 
and  forests  which  covered  the  land  during 
its  annexation  to  Poland,  have  of  late  years  been 
converted  into  rich  meadow  and  good  siMe  land, 
where  cattle  of  superior  quality  are  raised,  and  good 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,^  oats,  and  flax  are  procured 
The  forests  are  extensive  and  productive,  and  ccm- 
tribute  largely  to  the  exports  of  the  province,  of 
which,  however,  the  most  important  articles  are 
com,  wool,  tallow,  hides,  wax,  and  honey.  With 
the  exception  of  coal,  which  is  obtained  from  beds 
near  the  town  of  Wronki,  P.  has  no  minoal  pro- 
ducts. Good  broad-doth,  linens,  and  laoe  ars 
manufactured  in  many  of  the  small  country-towna 
Since  the  annexation  of  P.  to  Prussia,  modi  has 
been  done  to  supply  the  previous  deficiency  is 
regard  to  -popular  instruction ;  and  there  are  nov 
six  g^pinasia,  several  normal  and  tnuning  sdiods, 
a  seminary  for  priests,  and  upwards  of  200u  b«ur^^her 
and   national   sohoda      Kearly  half  the   entiis 


POSEN-POSmVE  PRINTING. 


population  belong  to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
which  is  under  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the 
Archbishop  of  Gnesen  and  P.,  while  74,000  of  the 
remainder  are  Jewi.  The  inhabitants  may  still  be 
said  to  be  Poles,  more  than  800,000  persons  employ- 
ing Polish  as  their  mother-tonsne.  P.  formea  an 
inte^prad  part  of  Poland  till  177z»  wheu,  at  the  first 
partition  of  the  Polish  territory,  the  districts  north 
of  the  Netze  were  given  to  Prussia.  At  the  second 
and  third  partitions,  which  were  made  20  years 
later,  the  remainder  was  incorporated  in  the  Prussian 
kin^om  under  the  name  of  South  Prussia.  In 
1807,  P.  was  included  in  the  duchy  of  Warsaw ;  but 
by  the  act  of  tiie  Congress  of  Vienna,  it  was  Bepai- 
ated  in  1815  from  Poland,  and  re-assigned  to  Prussia 
under  the  title  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Posen.  In 
1848,  the  Poles,  who  had  never  amalgamated  with 
their  new  German  compatriots,  took  advantage  of 
the  general  political  excitement  of  that  period  to 
organisse  an  open  rebellion,  which  gave  the  Prussian 

Sovemment  considerable  trouble,  and  was  not  put 
own  till  much  blood  had  been  spilled  on  both  sides. 
On  the  cessation  of  disturbances,  the  German  citizens 
of  the  province  demanded  the  incorporation  of  P. 
with  these  Prussian  states  which  were  members  of 
the  German  Confederation,  and  the  Berlin  Chambers 

fave  their  approvij.  of  the  proposed  measure  in 
850 ;  but  on  we  subsidence  of  revolutionary  senti- 
ment in  Germany,  tiie  subject  was  dropped,  and  P. 
returned  to  its  former  condition  of  an  extra-German 
province  of  the  Prussian  monarchy. 

POSEN  (Polish  Pcznan),  the  chief  town  of  the 
province  of  Posen,  is  situat^  on  the  low  and  sandy 
banks  of  the  Wartha,  126  miles  south-east  at 
Stettin,  on  tiie  Stettin  and  Vienna  railway.  Pop. 
at  the  dose  of  1861  was  43,879,  besides  7353 
troops.  P.,  which  ranks  as  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Poland,  became  the  seat  of  a  Christian 
bishop  in  the  10th  a,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League  during  the  middle  ages,  when  it 
was  an  important  trading  mart  between  Western 
Europe  and  the  Slavonic  lands  boixlering  on  Asia. 
At  the  time  of  the  great  fire  of  1803,  when  manv 
of  the  older  parts  of  the  town  were  destroyed, 
P.  lost  the  most  striking  features  of  its  semi- 
oriental  style  of  architecture,  but  it  still  retains  a 
certain  pictivesque  character,  from  the  number  of 
its  church  towers  and  lofty  houses.  Among  its  15 
principal  churches,  the  most  noteworthy  are  the 
catheoxal,  a  recently  restored  and  elaborately  orna- 
mented building,  and  St  Stanislaus,  a  splendid 
specimen  of  Italian  architecture.  P.,  which  is 
strongly  fortified  and  enclosed  within  gates,  has 
several  pleasant  suburbs,  oonnected  with  it  by 
means  of  wooden  bridges.  It  is  the  see  of  an  arch- 
bishop, the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  and 
has  a  fine  town-hall,  two  jprmnasia,  a  public  library 
with  20,000  volumes,  trainm^-schools  for  teachers  of 
both  sexes,  a  school  for  midwives,  a  theatre,  ftc 
Recent  restorations  and  improvements  have  ren- 
dered it  one  of  tiie  pleasantest-looking  towns  in 
Prussia,  and  it  can  now  boast  of  many  fine  regularly 
built  sheets  and  squares,  in  which  are  situated  the 
winter  residences  of  many  of  the  provincial  Polish 
nobles.  A  considerable  trade  in  wood,  corn,  wool, 
broad-doth,  and  Unen,  is  carried  on  here,  princi]>ally 
by  the  Jews,  and  the  annual  fairs  hdd  m  summer 
attract  large  crowds,  including  the  nobUity  of  the 
province.  The  chief  manufactures,  which  are  exten- 
sively sold  at  these  fairs,  are  cloth,  leather,  carriages, 
copper  vats  and  other  vessels  used  in  distilling,  and 
tobacco ;  while  there  are  likewise  several  breweries, 
distilleries,  and  sugar-refineries. 

POSES  PLASTIQUES  (Fr.  'sUtaesqne  atti- 
tudes '),  equivalent  to  Tableaux  Vivanta  (q.  v.). 


POSILI'PO,  a  mountain  on  the  north-west  of 
Naples,  close  by  the  city,  remarkable  for  the  tunnel 
known  as  the  Grotta  di  Posili^x),  through  which 
the  road  from  Naples  to  Puzzuoli  (anc  Puteoli) 
passes.  The  srotto  is  in  some  places  70  feet  hi^ 
and  21  feet  wide,  and  is  2244  feet  long.  It  is  very 
ancient.  Seneca  mentions  it  as  the  Crypta  Near 
polUana,  Strabo  assigns  its  construction  to  M. 
Cocceius  Nerva,  superintendent  of  aqueducts  in  the 
time  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius.  Above  the  eastern 
archway  of  the  erotto  is  the  so-called  *Tomb  of 
VirgiL'  At  the  base  of  the  hill  of  P.  anciently 
sto(Kl  the  poet*s  villa,  in  which  be  composed  the 
Eclogues  and  Georgica,  if  not  also  the  jEneitL 
During  the  middle  ages,  the  common  people  firmly 
believed  the  grotto  to  be  the  work  of  tiie  poel^ 
whom  they  regarded  as  a  great  magician. 

PO'SITIVB  PHILO'SOPHY.    See  Comte. 

POSITIVE  PRINTING,  in  Photography.  This 
term  is  used  to  designate  that  process  by  which 
impressions  from  a  Negative  (O- v.)  are  produced 
upon  suitably  prepared  paper.  The  term,  nowever, 
does  not  belong  exclusively  to  positives  produced 
on  paper,  and  intended  to  be  viewed  by  reflected 
light,  since  transparent  positives  for  examination 
by  transmitted  hght  are  produced  on  glass.  The 
means  by  which  iSna  kind  of  positives  is  obtained 
are  so  exactly  similar  to  the  dry  negative  collodion 
process,  that  a  detailed  notice  thereof  is  hardly 
necessary  in  the  present  article,  which  will  bie 
confined  exclusively  to  the  means  of  obtaining 
positive  proofs  on  paper. 

Regarding,  then,  the  negative,  not  so  much  as 
the  picture  as  the  means  of  producing  one,  the  first 
thing  which  presents  itself  lor  notice  is  the  paper. 
This  may  be  either  German  or  French,  known  in 
the  markets  under  the  respeotive  names  of  Saxe 
and  Rive.  They  are  used  in  the  simply  saJted 
condition,  or  more  generally  in  the  salted  and 
albuminised  state,  the  purpose  of  the  albuminising 
being  to  prevent  the  chemicals  used  in  the  process 
from  sinking  into  the  paper,  whereby  the  aelicate 
details  of  the  negative  would  become  defective  on 
the  surface.  The  process  is  briefly  as  follows: 
Float  the  paper  on  the  salting  bath  from  one  to 
five  minutes;  drain  for  one  minute;  hang  up  to 
dry.  Float  the  paper  on  the  exciting  bath  from  five 
to  ten  minutes,  according  to  its  strength;  drain, 
and  hang  up  to  dry.  Exi)ose  in  a  pressure-frame 
under  a  negative.  The  necessary  depth  of  impres- 
sion, beinff  obtained  (a  point  ojAy  to  be  determined 
by  experience),  wash  the  print  in  common  water. 
Some  operators  at  this  stage  immerse  the  print  in 
a  bath  containing  one  per  cent,  of  ammonia  for  two 
or  three  minutes.  This  is  by  no  means  absolutely 
necessary;  should  it,  however,  be  done,  it  should 
be  afterwards  washed  in  water  for  five  or  ten 
minutes ;  after  which  it  is  immersed  in  the  tonins 
bath  from  one  to  ten  minutes,  or  until  the  desired 
tone  be  obtained;  it  is  then  rinsed  in  water  for 
one  minute,  preparatorjr  to  immersion  in  the  fixing 
bath.  This  last  operation  occupies  from  fifteen  to 
thhrty  minutes,  according  to  the  strength  of  the 
fixing  solution,  and  the  depth  to  which  the 
printing  has  been  carried.  The  print  is  then 
copiouuy  washed  in  many  changes  of  water,  and 
hunff  up  to  dry. 

The  hatha  referred  to  above  are  composed  as 
follow:  Saltina  Bath,  water,  1  ounce;  albumen, 
4  ounces;  good  common  salt,  48  grains.  Exciting 
Bath,  nitrate  of  silver,  240  grains ;  water,  4  ounces ; 
glacial  acetic  acid,  half  a  drauL  Toning  Bath, 
chloride  of  sold,  4  grains;  water,  24  ounces; 
carbonate  soda,  100  grains.  Fixing  Bath,  hypo* 
sulphite  of  aoda»  4  ounces ;  water,  1  pint. 


POSSfi  COMTTATUS—POSTEKN. 


The  oatlines  of  a  new  printin^-nrooeas  hare 
recently  been  given  to  the  world,  which,  for  facility 
of  manipuUtion,  bids  fair  to  sapersede  all  others. 
The  process  is  patented ;  it  consists  in  coating  good 
photographic  ^per  with  collodion,  having  salts  of 
urauium  and  silver  dissolved  therein ;  the  paper  is 
then  dried  in  the  dark,  when  it  is  ready  for  printing. 
No  over-printing  is  necessanr,  as  no  sabeequent 
reduction  takes  place  in  the  after-proceoes  of 
toning  and  fixing.  The  tonins  is  effected  by  immer- 
sion m  a  solution  of  chloride  of  gold,  paUadium, 
or  platinum ;  by  the  use  of  whuSi  salts,  and  by 
varying  the  proportion  of  uranium  in  the  collo- 
dion, iQso  by  varying  the  time  of  ezpoenre,  and 
the  density  of  the  n^^ative,  any  desired  tone  may 
be  obtained.  Absolute  permanency  is  claimed  as 
one  of  the  qualities  of  pictures  printed  by  this 
process;  this  i%  however,  a  pomt  which  time 
alone  can  detennine. 

A  process  of  printing  in  carbon,  lamp-black,  or 
other  impalpable  powder,  although  at  present  (1865) 
surrounded  by  some  manipmatory  difficulties, 
possesses  too  many  of  the  conditions  calculated  to 
msure  that  important  desideratum,  permanency,  to 
be  passed  over  without  notice.  The  principle  was 
first  indicated  by  Mungo  Ponton,  and  has  since 
been  experimented  on  bv  Portevin,  Pouncy,  Fargier, 
Gamia,  and  Salmon  and  Swan.  In  Pouncy's  pro- 
cess, which  may  be  regarded  as  a  type  of  iJl  the 
rest^  an  impal]Mible  powder  of  lamp-black  is  intim- 
atelv  mixed  with  equal  parts  by  increase  of  satur- 
ated solutions  of  gum-arabic  and  bichromate  of 
potash.  A  uniform  laver  of  this  mixture  is  spread 
Dv  means  of  a  camel  s  hair-pencil  on  paper,  and 
allowed  to  dry ;  it  is  then  exposed  under  a  native 
from  four  to  eight  minutes,  after  which  it  is  floated 
on  water,  impression  side  downwards,  for  five  or  six 
hours,  and  finally  washed  under  ^e  tap,  and  dried. 
The  gum  is  rendered  insoluble  by  tne  oxidising 
influence  of  the  bichromate,  just  in  proportion  as 
the  light  has  penetrated  the  negative,  and  in  exactly 
the  same  proportion  those  parts  protected  from  tilie 
solar  action  are  dissolved  and  washed  o£  Portevin, 
in  speaking  of  his  method,  savs  :  '  I  apply  different 
colours,  either  liquid  or  solid,  to  the  paper  fabric, 
glass,  or  other  surfaces,  by  mixing  tnese  colours 
with  the  bichromate  and  oi^ganic  matter.'  Other 
experimentera  have  substituted  bichromate  of 
ammonia  for  bichromate  of  potash,  and  gelatine 
for  gum.  The  principle  of  this  printing-process  will 
be  seen,  on  reference,  to  be  similar  to  uiat  involved 
in  Photo-galvanography.    See  Photoorapht 

POSSE  OOMITA'TUS  means  the  whole  force 
of  the  county,  consisting  of  knights  and  men  above 
the  age  of  15,  with  constables,  who  attend  the  orders 
of  the  sheriff  to  assist  in  enforcing  process  or  quell- 
ing riots.  Justices  of  the  peace  can  also^  if  appre- 
hensive of  an  oi*gaxiised  resistance,  commandT  the 
services  of  the  posse  comitatus,  and  it  is  the  sheriJOf's 
duty  to  raise  the  necessary  number  of  men.  But 
practically,  in  modem  times,  constables  and  special 
constables  are  all  the  assistance  given  or  required. 

POSSE'SSION  OP  PROPERTY,  in  point  of 
law,  is  the  most  intimate  relation  that  can  subsist 
between  the  owner  and  his  property.  Strictiy 
speaking,  the  idea  of  property  consists  merely  of  a 
certain  relation  between  a  human  being  and  a  por- 
tion of  external  nature,  whereby  he  appropriates  to 
himself  all  the  ordinary  uses  of  which  such  external 
nature  is  capable.  If  it  is  land,  he  reaps  the  fruits, 
and  excludes  all  other  persons  from  interfering  with 
his  operations ;  if  it  is  a  chattel,  he  keeps  it  under 
his  exclusive  control  Possession,  therefore,  is 
nothing  but  the  legal  result  of  the  relation  of  pro- 
perty. Possession,  though  originally  oonstitating 
704 


the  whole  substance  of  property,  has,  as  civiUntioa 
advanced,  become  a  separable  part  of  it ;  and  whils 
the  radical  right  is  now  the  ownership,  the  pones- 
sion  is  viewed  as  an  incident  of  such  ownershinL  It 
is  now  not  only  separable  but  saleable,  ana  con- 
stitutes the  foimdation  of  the  contract  between 
landlord  and  tenant^  whereby  the  owner,  by  way  of 
a  lease,  sells  for  a  limited  period  the  exclusive  us«s 
otherwise  called  the  possession.  So  long,  therefore^ 
as  an  owner  exists,  he  has,  as  a  necessary  conse- 

Suenoe,  the  right,  more  or  less  immediately  and 
irectly,  to  the  possession  of  property.  When  all 
record  of  ownership  is  lost»  then  the  law  pennito 
a  resort  to  first  prmcifdes,  and  allows  any  penon 
who  has  been  in  possession  for  a  limited  time  to 
retain  it,  and  so  ultimately  acquire  the  ownershipk 
If  the  possession  is  suddenly  or  wrongf nlly  inter- 
fered with,  the  usual  remedy,  in  EnglancU  to  recover 
possession  of  real  property,  sacii  as  land  or  houses, 
IS  an  action  of  ejectment;  if  the  proper^  is  a 
chattel,  it  is  an  action  of  trover  or  deUnue,  But  the 
possession  may  be  recovered  also  by  other  modea 
See  also  Ownxrship  and  Lost  Propebty. 

PO'SSET,  a  dietetic  preparation,  made  by  and* 
ling  milk  with  some  acidulous  liquor,  sach  as  wine^ 
ale,  or  vinegar.    White  wine  or  dieny  is  nsoally 

E referred,  but  sometimes  old  ale  is  used.  The  milk  is 
oiled ;  and  whilst  it  is  still  on  the  fire,  the  acidnlous 
matter  is  added ;  if  sherry,  about  a  wine-glassful  snd 
a  half  to  the  pint  of  new  milk  is  the  proportion; 
or  twice  the  quanti^  if  ale.  A  teaspoonlnl  cl 
vinegar  or  of  lemon-juice  is  sometimes  used  instead; 
one  or  two  tablespoonf  tils  of  treacle  are  added,  to 
sweeten.  Taken  at  bedtime,  it  is  used  for  colds  and 
coughs. 

POST-OAPTAIN,  an  obsolete  title  applied  to 
captains  in  the  royal  navy :  it  has  been  disosed  for 
many  years.    See  Captadt. 

POSTE  RESTANTB  (Fr.,  to  remain  at  flie 
post-office  till  called  for),  a  usual  mode  of  addiea»> 
mg  letters  to  persons  who  are  merely  travdUii^  in, 
or  passing  through,  a  country  in  which  they  Save 
no  fixed  residence.  English  travellers  on  the  con- 
tinent have  very  generaUy  their  letters  so  addressed 
to  some  town  throusHh  which  they  expect  to  passi 
The  posU  regtante  office  is  open  at  certain  hoois^ 
and  the  letters  are  given  out  when  called  for,  pro- 
duction of  a  card,  passport,  or  other  evidence  €l 
identity  being  sometimes  required.  Letters  un- 
claimed for  a  certain  time  are  opened,  and  either 
destroyed  or  returned  to  their  writer.  There  is  a 
pogte  restarUe  office  in  London,  under  stringent 
regulations  as  to  the  conditions  on  which  letters  are 
given  out.  If  the  applicant  for  a  letter  be  a  Britaah 
subject,  or  subject  of  a  state  not  issuing  passports, 
he  must  state  the  place  from  which  he  expects 
letters,  and  he,  or  the  messenger  who  applies  for 
him,  must  be  provided  with  some  proof  of  identity. 
If  he  be  the  subject  of  a  country  which  issnes  pass- 
ports, his  passport  must  be  produced.  In  the  pro- 
vincial post-offices  of  Great  Britain,  commercial 
travellers,  tourists,  and  persons  without  a  settled 
residence,  may  have  their  letters  addressed  ftfttSe 
reHante,  and  they  are  kept  at  the  postKfffice  till 
called  for;  but  residents  are  not  sllowed  to  have 
their  letters  so  addressed,  and  the  poet-office  autho- 
rities have  orders  to  deliver  them.  In  the  Britidi 
post-office,  letters  addressed  ooete  rmkmie  are  kept 
one  month,  and  then  returned  to  the  writer  thioogfa 
the  dead-letter  office. 

PO'STERN,  in  Fortification,  is  a  small  doonray 
communicating  usually  through  the  flank  of  a 
bastion  between  the  fort  and  tiie  ditch.  Its  object 
is  to  afford  unseen  egress  to  troops  marched  oat  to 
relieve  sentries  on  the  external  works,  to 


POSTINO— P08T-0PFICEL 


■allies,  fto.    Hie  porteni  k  often  called  the  'sally* 
port' 

POSTIKG,  the  forwarding  of  passengers  from 
place  to  place  by  means  of  relays  of  horses.  The 
application  of  the  same  words — ^post  and  postmaster 
^to  the  transmission  of  letters  and  to  the  stations 
where  poet-horses  are  kept,  is,  both  on  the  conti- 
nent of  £!urope  and  in  Britain,  a  source  of  ambiguity. 
Posting  was  long  in  Britain,  as  it  is  yet  in  most 
parts  of  the  contment,  a  government  monopoly.  A 
statute  of  Edward  VL  fixed  the  charges  ot  posting 
at  Id.  per  mile  in  1548.  The  post-office  act  of  1660 
confirmed  the  monopoly  of  mmishing  post-horses 
for  travellers  in  favour  of  the  postmaster  and  his 
deputies ;  for  a  Ions  time  jms^  however,  posting  has 
been  in  the  hands  of  private  individuals.  Post- 
chaises  were  first  used  m  France,  and  introduced 
into  England  in  the  early  part  of  last  century. 
The  payment  is  estimated  per  mile  for  each  pair  of 
horses,  without  regard  to  the  number  of  persons 
conveyed ;  and  a  second  pair  of  horses  is  charged 
at  the  same  rate  as  the  first 

Over  the  continent  generally,  posting  is  managed 
by  the  state,  which  re&ns  the  monopmy  of  supply- 
ing post-horses,  and  usually  of  forwarding  the  nuuls 
and  diligences.  The  prices  are  fixed  by  govern- 
ment, as  well  as  the  number  oF  horses  that  may  be 
employed,  which  is  regulated  by  the  weight  and 
number  of  persons  conveyed. 

POSTIQUE,  an  ornament  in  sculpture,  marble, 
&c.,  applied  or  added  after  the  work  is  otherwise 
finished. 

POST  •  KU'PTIAL  CONTBAOT  means,  in 
Scotch  law,  an  agreement^  or,  as  it  is  called  in 
England,  a  settlement^  made  between  husband  and 
wife  after  the  marriage  has  taken  place,  with  a 
view  to  affect  the  prop^ty  of  the  parties,  and  gener- 
ally to  make  provision  tor  the  wife  and  chudren. 
As  a  general  rule,  a  poet-nuptial  settlement  is  not 
so  effectual  as  an  ante-nnptial  settlement  in  securing 
the  rights  of  a  wife,  because  in  the  former  case  the 
marriage  is  considered  a  valuable  consideration  in 

K>int  of  law,  and  puts  it  on  the  footing  of  a  salei 
everthelesB,  if  the  husband  is  quite  solvent,  he 
and  his  future  creditors  will  be  bound  by  the  pro- 
viBioiiB  of  a  post-nuptial  contract    See  Hubbaih) 

AND  WiFB. 

POST-CBIT  is  a  bond  or  security  given  by  heirs 
and  others  entitled  to  reversionary  interests,  whereby, 
in  consideration  of  a  sum  of  money  presently 
advanced,  the  debtor  binds  himself  to  pay  a  much 
larger  sum  after  the  death  of  some  person,  or  of 
himself.  Whenever,  as  is  not  unusual,  the  payment 
is  uncertain,  and  depends  on  the  obUger  outliving 
somebody  else,  very  high  interest  is  required,  or 
rather  a  very  much  larger  sum  is  agreed  to  be 
repaid  than  what  is  advanced.  These  are  generally 
usurious  bargains ;  but  the  obligee  or  creditor  can 
enforce  payment  of  the  full  amount;  though,  if  there 
is  a  gross  case  of  inadequacy  in  the  proportions 
amounting  to  fraud,  a  court  of  equity  will  interfere. 

POST-OFFICE,  a  place  for  the  reception  of 
letters,  and  the  maiumnent  of  the  various  depart- 
ments connected  with  their  dispatch  and  convey- 
ance. The  name  oriffinated  in  the  ]X)sts  (from  Lot 
pantum^  placed,  fixed)  placed  at  intervals  along  the 
roads  of  the  Koman  empire,  where  couriers  were 
kept  in  readiness  to  bear  dispatches  and  intelU- 
genoe;  but  the  posts  of  ancient  times  were  never 
used  for  the  con%'eyanc6  of  private  coRespond- 
enoe.  The  first  letter-poet  seems  to  have  been 
established  in  the  Hanse  Towns  in  the  early 
nart  of  the  13th  oentaiy.  A  line  of  letter-poets 
followed,  connecting  Anetria  with  Lombaidy,  in 
S67 


the  reifin  of  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  which  are 
eaid  to  nave  been  organised  by  the  princes  of  Thum 
and  Taxis;  and  the  representatives  of  the  same 
house  established  another  line  of  posts  from  Vienna 
to  Brussels,  connectinff  the  most  distant  parts  of 
the  dominions  of  Charles  V.  This  ^unily  continue 
to  the  present  day  to  hold  certain  rights  with  regaid 
to  the  Genman  postal  svstem,  their  posts  being 
entirely  distinct  from  those  established  by  the 
crown,  and  sometimes  in  rivalry  to  them. 

In  England,  in  early  times,  both  public  and 
private  letters  wero  sent  by  messengers,  who,  in  the 
reiffn  of  Henry  IIL,  wore  the  royal  livery.  They 
had  to  provide  themselves  with  horses  until  the 
reign  of  Edward  L,  when  poets  were  established 
where  horses  were  to  be  had  for  hira  Edward  IV., 
when  engaged  in  war  with  Scotland,  had  dis[>atchee 
conveyed  to  his  camp  with  great  speed  by  means  of 
a  system  of  relays  of  horses,  which,  however,  fell 
into  disuse  on  Uhe  restoration  of  peace.  Caonden 
mentions  the  office  of  'Master  of  the  Postes'  as 
existing  in  IdSl,  but  the  duties  of  that  officer  were 
probably  oonnected  exclusively  with  the  supply  of 
post-horses.  The  posts  were  meant  for  the  con- 
veyance of  government  dispatches  alone,  and  it  was 
only  by  degrees  that  permission  was  extended  to 
private  individuals  to  make  use  of  them.  A  foreign 
post  for  the  conveyanoe  of  letters  between  London 
and  the  continent  seems  to  have  been  established 
by  foreign  merchants  in  the  15th  o. ;  and  certain 
disputes  which  arose  between  the  Flemings  and 
Italians,  regarding  the  right  of  appointing  a  post- 
master, and  were  referred  to  the  privy-counci^  led 
to  the  institution  of  a  'chief-postmaster,'  who 
should  have  chaige  both  of  the  English  and  the 
foreign  post  Thomas  Randolph  was  ti^e  first  chief- 
postmaster  of  England.  The  first  proper  postal 
communication  for  private  letters  in  England  came 
into  operation  100  years  after  the  institution  of  the 
forekn  post  The  increased  interoourse  between 
the  Kngliah  and  Scottish  capitals,  brought  about  by 
King  Jameses  accession,  led  to  a  great  improvement 
in  the  system  of  horse-posts,  but  their  services  were 
still  confined  to  the  conveyance  of  government 
dispatches.  That  king,  however,  instituted  a 
foreign  post  for  letters  going  abroad  from  England, 
and  conferred  the  office  of  postmaster  of  England 
for  foreign  parts  on  'Matnewe  de  Quester  the 
elder,  ana  Klathewe  de  Quester  the  younger.'  This 
appointment  was  considered  by  Liord  Stanhope, 
the  English  chief-postmaster,  to  interfere  with  his 
functions,  and  a  dispute  and  law-plea  between  the 
heads  of  the  two  establishments  was  settled  in  1632; 
after  Charles  L  had  become  king,  by  the  retirement, 
of  Lord  Stanhope^  and  an  assignment  of  their  office 
hy  the  De  Questers,  under  royiu  sanction,  to  William 
FriMeU  and  Thomas  Withemgs.  In  1635,  Wither- 
ings  was  authorised  to  run  a  post  night  and  day 
between  London  and  Edinburgh, '  to  go  thither  and 
back  again  in  six  days.'  Eight  main  postal  lines- 
throughout  England  were  at  the  same  time  insti- 
tuted, and  the  poet  was  allowed  to  carry  inland, 
letters.  Two  yean  later,  a  monopoly  of  letter- 
carrying  was  established,  which  has  been  preserved 
in  all  the  subsequent  regulations  of  the  post-office. 
The  rates  of  postage  were  2d  for  a  single  letter  for* 
a  distance  less  than  80  miles,  4£2.  up  to  140  miles,. 
QcL  for  any  longer  distance  in  England,  and  8cL  to* 
any  place  in  S»tland.  An  attempt^  in  1649,  by 
the  Common  Council  of  London  to  set  up  a  rival. 

S»st-office  for  inland  letters,  was  suppressed  by  the* 
ouse  of  Commons.  A  practice  of  farming  the  post- 
office  revenues,  which  began  in  1650,  continued,  as< 
regards  some  of  the  by-poets»  till  the  close  of  last 
century. 
An  important    poet-office   statute   was   P*»ed 


POST-OFFICEL 


ander  the  Protectorate  in  1066,  and  re-enacted  by 
12  Car.  IL  c  35.  It  ruled  tiiat  there  should  be  one 
general  post-office  and  one  postmaster-^neral  for 
England,  who  was  to  have  the  horsing  of  all 
through  posts  and  persons  riding  poet  A  tariff  was 
established  for  letters,  English,  Scotch,  Irish,  and 
foreign,  and  the  only  non-governmental  posts  allowed 
to  continue  were  uiose  of  the  universitiei  and  the 
Cinque  Port& 

In  1685,  a  penny-post  was  set  np  for  the  convey- 
ance of  letters  and  parcels  between  different  parts 
of  London  and  its  suburbs.  It  was  a  private  specu- 
lation, originating  with  one  Robert  Murray,  an 
upholsterer,  and  assigned  by  him  to  Mr  William 
Docwray.  When  its  success  became  apparent,  it  was 
complained  of  by  the  Duke  of  York,  on  whom  the 
post-office  revenues  had  been  settled,  as  an  encroach- 
ment on  his  rights;  a  decision  of  the  Court  of 
King's  Bench  adjudged  it  to  be  a  part  of  the  royal 
establishment^  and  it  was  thereupon 'annexed  to  the 
crown.  In  this  way  bezan  the  London  district- 
post,  which  was  improved  and  made  a  twopenny- 
post  in  1801,  and  continued  as  a  separate  establish- 
ment'from  the  general  post  down  to  1854 

The  first  le^slative  enactment  for  a  Scottish 
post-office  was  passed  in  1695,  nrior  to  which  time, 
the  posts  out  of  Edinbui^h  had  been  very  few  and 
irrejD;ular.  About  1700,  the  posts  between  the 
capitals  were  so  frequently  robbed  near  the  borders, 
that  acts  were  passed  both  by  the  parliament  of 
England  and  that  of  Scotland,  making  robbery  of 
the  poet  punishable  with  death  and  confiscation. 
The  post-office  of  Ireland  is  of  later  date  than  that 
of  Scotland.  In  the  time  of  Charles  I.,  packets 
between  Dublin  and  Chester,  and  between  Milford- 
Haven  and  Waterford,  conveyed  government  dis- 
patches; and  after  the  Eestoration,  the  rate  of 
letter-postage  between  London  and  Dublin  was 
fixed  at  6cL 

Act  3  Anne,  a  10,  repealed  the  former  poet-office 
statutes,  and  put  the  establishment  on  a  fresh  basis. 
A  general  port-office  was  instituted  in  London  for 
the  whole  British  dominions,  with  chief  offices  in 
Edinburgh,  Dublin,  New  York,  and  other  places  in 
the  American  colonies,  and  one  in  the  iicewaid 
Islands.  The  whole  was  placed  under  the  control 
of  an  officer  appointed  uncter  the  Great  Seal,  called 
the  Postmaster-genersl,  who  was  empowered  to 
appoint  deputies  for  the  chief  offices.  Kates  higher 
than  those  formerly  charged  were  settled  for  puces 
in  the  British  dominions,  and  also  for  letters  to 
foreign  parts.  A  survey  of  jioet-roads  was  ordered, 
for  the  ascertainment  of  distances.  Letters  brought 
from  abroad  by  private  ships  were  ordered  to  be 
handed  over  to  the  deputy-postmasters  of  the  ports, 
who  were  to  pay  the  master  a  penny  for  each  letter. 
A  coinplete  reconstruction  of  the  cross-post  system 
was  effected  in  1720,  by  Ralph  Alien,  postmaster  of 
Bath,  to  whom  the  Lords  of  the  Treasury  granted 
a  lease  of  the  cross-posts  for  life :  at  his  deatn,  thev 
•  dame  under  the  control  of  the  postmaster-generaL 
The  rates  of  postage  were  further  raised  by  act  1 
Geo.  IlL  c  25,  which  also  gives  permission  for  the 
establishment  of  penny  posts  in  other  towns,  as  in 
London.  The  Edmburgn  penny-post  was  instituted 
in  1766,  by  one  Peter  Williamson,  a  native  of 
Aberdeen,  whom  the  authorities  induced  to  take 
a  pension  for  the  good-wiU  of  the  concern,  and 
mei^ed  it  in  the  genersl  establishments 

Mail-coadies  owe  their  origin  to  Mr  John  Palmer, 
manager  of  the  Bath  and  Bristol  theatres,  who,  in 
1783,  submitted  to  Mr  Pitt  a  scheme  for  the  substi- 
tution of  coaches,  protected  bv  armed  guards,  for 
the  boys  on  horseback,  who  till  then  conveyed  the 
maU.  After  much  opposition  from  the  post-office 
authorities,  his  plan  was  adopted,  and  Mr  Palmer, 

706 


installed  at  the  post-office  as  oontroller-^eiiend, 
succeeded  in  perfecting  his  system,  g[reatly  mcress* 
ing  the  punctuality,  speed,  and  security  of  the  pos^ 
and  adding  lai^y  to  the  post-office  revenue. 

In  1837t  A  plan  of  post-office  reform  was  sag- 
gested  bv  Mr  (now  Sir)  Aowland  Hill,  the  adoptim 
of  which  has  not  only  immensely  increased  the 
utility  of  the  post-office,  but  chuiged  its  whole 
administration.  Its  principal  featnrea  were  the 
adoption  of  a  uniform  and  low  rate  of  postage,  a 
charge  by  weight,  and  prepayment.  The  doings 
met  with  much  opposition  from  the  post-offios 
authorities,  but  was  eventually  carried  by  a  majo- 
rity of  100  in  the  House  of  Commons,  becoming  law 
by  3  and  4  Vict.  &  06.  The  new  aystem  came  into 
full  operation  on  January  10, 1840.  Previonaly  to 
the  change,  members  of  parliament  had  the  ri^t 
of  sending  their  letters  nee,  but  thia  privilege  of 
frankinff  was  entirely  abolished.  A  penny  was 
adoptea  as  the  uniform  rate  for  every  inland  letter 
not  above  half  an  ounce.  Facilities  for  prepayment 
were  afforded  by  the  introduction  of  poetage-stamp^ 
and  double  postage  was  levied  on  letters  not  pie- 
paid.  Arrangements  were  made  for  the  r^isteatioa 
of  letters ;  and  the  monev-order  office,  by  a  reduc- 
tion of  the  commission  cnaiged  for  ordera,  becams 
available  to  an  extent  which  it  had  never  been 
before.  As  far  back  as  1792,  a  money-order  offios 
had  been  established  as  a  medium  for  aailors  aad 
soldiers  to  transmit  their  savings,  and  its  benefit 
had  afterwards  been  extended  to  the  general  nublic; 
but  the  commission  chai^ged  had  been  so  bi^  that 
it  was  only  employed  to  a  very  Umited  extent.  Tbe 
immediate  result  of  the  changes  introduced  in  1840 
was  an  enormous  increase  in  the  amount  of  cones- 
pondenoe,  arising  in  part  from  the  ceeaation  of  the 
illicit  traffic  in  letters,  which  had  so  lai^gely  pre- 
vailed before ;  but  for  someyean  there  waa  a  delidt 
in  the  poet-offioe  revenuei  tiie  reduction  of  postage- 
rates  was,  however,  a  reduction  of  taxation,  aod^  if 
the  Exchequer  lost  revenue  fmn  one  sooroei  it 
gained  it  in  other  ways. 

Since  the  adoption  of  Sir  Rowland  Hill'a  syttess, 
the  most  important  changes  in  the  poet-office  srs 
those  which  nave  arisen  from  the  absorptioa  of  the 
whole  tnffic  of  the  country  by  railways,  and  their 
substitution  for  mail-coaches  m  the  oosveyaaee  oi 
letters.  This  has  greatly  increased  the  expesss 
of  the  post-office  establishment;  DotwithstaadiBg 
which,  the  former  gross  revenue  of  l^e  post-offioe 
was  exceeded  in  1851,  and  the  net  revenue  in  1863. 

According  to  tbe  latest  returns,  there  are  1MI6 
post-offices  m  the  United  Kingdom,  of  which  808 
are  head-offices,  and  10,508  suo-offices.  To  thess 
must  be  added  a  large  number  of  road  letter-boxes, 
making  in  all  14,776  public  receptadea  for  ktten— 
at  least  10,000  more  than  existed  under  the  fonner 
system.  The  total  number  of  letters  which  paasei 
through  the  post-office  in  1863  was  642,000,000,  sa 
eiffht-f  old  increase  from  the  last  year  of  dear  postaga 
The  gross  revenue  of  the  post-office  in  1863  was 
£3,800,000,  to  which  should  be  added  £130,000  fcr 
the  impressed  stamp  on  newspapers  sent  tfam^ 
the  post ;  the  expenditure  £3,000,000,  and  the  dor 
revenue  £900,000.  The  amount  of  money  tnu- 
mitted  by  post-office  orders  in  1839  was  £313^0(10; 
in  1863,  £16,404,00a 

The  postal  service  of  the  three  kingdoms  is  mom 
under  the  immediate  control  of  the  po8to)iaitff> 
general,  assisted  by  the  general  secretary  i^  tiie  pot* 
office  in  London.  There  are  also  chief  officen  is 
Edinburgh  and  Dublin,  with  secretarial  aad  otber 
departmental  staffs.  The  po8tma8ter-gei>jfal  is  a 
peer,  a  member  of  the  privy-council,  and  genenBr 
a  cabinet  minister.  He  has  a  salary  of  £2500.  aaa 
is  the  only  officer  connected  with  the  dqAitnesI 


POST-OFPICB. 


who  leayeB  office  on  a  chaiige  of  government.  The 
secretaTj  is  his  responsible  adviser,  and  has  a  salary 
of  £2000.  The  General  Fost-offioe  in  London  is 
divided  into  seven  principal  departments,  each 
nnder  the  charge  of  a  chief  officer ;  a  similar  arrange- 
ment, on  a  sm^er  scale,  being  adopted  in  the  chief 
offices  of  Edinbuifrh  and  Dublin.  These  depart- 
ments are :  1.  The  Secretary's  Office,  which  exercises 
a  surveillance  over  the  rest.  2.  The  Solicitor's  Office, 
which  has  to  do  with  the  legal  business  of  the  post- 
office.  3.  The  Mail  Office,  which  deals  with  all 
matters  relating  to  the  transmission  of  the  mails. 
Attached  to,  and  under  the  management  of  this 
office,  are  the  travelling  railwaj^  poet-offices,  which 
accompany  the  mail-trains,  and  m  which  the  letters 
are  received  and  arranged  during  transit.  At 
many  stations,  the  letter-bags  are  received  and 
dropped  by  means  of  machine^,  while  the  train 
is  going  at  full  speed.  4  The  Receiver  and 
Accountent-general's  Office,  which  keeps  account  of 
the  money  received  by  each  department,  receiving 
remittances  from  branch  and  provincial  offices,  ana 
taking  charge  of  the  payment  of  all  salaries,  pen- 
siona,  and  items  of  current  expenditure.  6.  The 
Money-order  Office,  which  conducts  the  whole 
money-order  business  of  the  country,  receiving  dally 
aocounte  from  each  provincial  postmaster,  o.  The 
Circulation  Office,  which  takes  charge  of  the  ordinary 
poet-office  work  of  London — sorting,  despatching, 
and  delivering  all  the  letters,  newspapers,  and  book- 
packets  arrivmg  in  London,  sorting  and  despatohing 
the  greater  part  of  the  foreign  maus,  and  arranging 
and  forwarding  a  l^rge  proportion  of  the  Bntish 
letters  in  transitu,  7.  xhe  Post-office  Savings-bank 
department,  established  in  1861  by  act  &  Vict, 
c.  14  This  department  keeps  a  separate  accoimt 
for  every  depositor,  acknowledges  the  receipt  of 
every  deposit,  and  on  the  requisite  notice  oeing 
furnished,  sends  out  warranto  authorising  post- 
masters to  pay  withdrawals.  The  deposite  are 
handed  over  to  the  Gommisioners  for  the  lleduction 
of  the  National  Debt,  and  repaid  to  the  depositors 
through  the  poet-office.  The  rato  of  interest  payable 
to  depositors  is  2}  per  cent.  Each  depoMsitor  has 
his  savings-bank  dock,  which  is  sent  to  nim  yearly 
for  exammation,  and  the  accruing  interest  is  cal- 
culated and  allowed.  The  surveyors*  department 
is  the  connecting  link  between  the  metropolitan  and 
the  provincial  offices,  each  provincial  postmaster 
beiDg  under  the  ingmediate  supervision  of  the  sur- 
veyor of  his  district.  The  number  of  officers 
employed  in  the  British  post-office,  at  the  end  of 
1862,  amounted  to  25,380,  of  whom  between  3000 
and  4000  were  atteched  to  the  general  post-office  in 
London. 

One  important  and  expensive  part  of  the  post- 
office  estebUshment  is  the  home  and  foreign  mail- 
packet  service.  This  department  was,  in  the  17th 
and  18th  centuries,  in  the  hands  of  the  post-office 
autiiorities,  but  was  removed  to  the  JBoard  of 
Admiralty,  under  whose  control  it  remained  till 
1860,  when  it  was  again  restored  to  the  post-office. 
Steam-vessels  were  first  used  for  conveying  the 
mail  in  1821,  and  in  1833,  mail-contracts  were  mtro- 
dneed,  the  first  being  with  the  Mona  Steam  Company 
to  run  steamers  from  Liverpool  to  Douglas  in  the 
isle  of  Man.  In  1839,  a  contract  was  entered  into 
with  Mr  Samuel  Cunard  of  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  for 
a  fortnightlv  mail  across  the  Atlantio  for  £60,000  a 
}rear.  Of  the  home  mail-packet  contracts,  the  most 
important  are  those  with  the  City  of  Dublin  Steam- 
packet  Company  for  conveying  the  Irish  mails 
between  Holyhead  and  Kingstown.  Hie  principal 
foreign  contracts  are  for  the  Indian  and  Chinese 
mails,  entered  into  by  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Steam-navigation  Company,  lor  which  £253,000  is 


paid  annually.  The  foreign  mail-packets  travel  nr 
less  than  3,000,000  miles  every  year,  the  average 
cost  per  mile  being  6$.  4(L 

The  post-office  statute  of  Queen  Anne  contains  a 
prohibition,  repeated  in  sub«equent  acts,  for  any 
person  employed  in  the  post-office  to  open  or  detain 
a  letter,  except  nnder  a  warrant  £rom  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  stete.  During  last  cen- 
tury, such  warranto  were  often  granted  on  very 
trivial  pretences.  In  1723,  at  BiS^op  Atterbury^i 
trial,  copies  of  his  letters,  intercepted  at  the  poet- 
office,  were  produced  in  evidence  against  him ;  and 
in  1735,  it  appeared  that  an  oiganisation  existed,  at 
an  immense  expense,  for  the  examination  of  home 
and  foreign  correspondence.  In  1782,  tiie  corres- 
pondence of  Lord  Temple,  when  Lord-lieutenant  of 
Ireland,  was  subjected  to  a  system  of  post-office 
espionage.  In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century, 
an  improvement  took  place  m  this  matter,  and  Lord 
Spencer  introduced  the  custom,  in  1806,  of  recording 
the  dates  of  all  warrants  granted  for  the  opening  (3 
letters,  and  the  grounds  on  which  they  were  issued. 
Since  1822,  the  whole  warranto  have  been  preserved 
at  the  Home  Office ;  and  a  House  of  Commons*  retom 
in  1853  shews  tiiat,  in  the  preceding  ten  years,  only 
six  letters  were  detained  and  opened — ^four  in  oases 
of  felony,  and  two  that  they  mig^t  be  properly 
returned  to  those  who  claimed  them.  One  of  these 
cases  of  intorference  with  the  privacy  of  corres- 
pondence occurred  in  1844,  when  Sir  James  Graham, 
as  Home  Secretor^r*  issued  a  warrant  for  opening 
the  letters  of  Mazzini,  and  caused  certain  informa- 
tion contained  in  them  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
Austrian  Minister,  an  act  which  involved  the 
ministry  of  the  day  in  considerable  popular 
obloquy,  and  produced  a  wide-spread,  though  very 
groundless,  distrust  of  the  security  of  the  ordinary 
correspondence  of  the  country.  See  Gbaham,  Sib 
Jauss. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  most  important 
regulations  of  uke  British  post-office,  reference  being 
made  for  the  minute  detoils  to  the  Briiieh  PostaL 
Guide.  ' 

Inland  Letters, — The  rates  of  postage  are  Id  for 
a  letter  weighing  not  more  Uian  half  an  ounce;  2d, 
where  the  weight  is  between  half  an  ounce  and  an 
ounce ;  from  one  onnoe  to  two  ounce^  4d, ;  and  so 
on — 2d,  being  charged  for  every  additional  ounce. 
Letters  weighing  less  than  four  ounces  may  be  sent 
unpaid,  but  wul  be  charged  double  postage  on 
delivery.  Letters  insufficiently  stomped  are  charged 
double  the  deficiency  on  delivery.  Redirected 
letters  are  charged  additional  postoge  at  the  pre- 
paid rata  Letters  for  officers,  soldiers,  and  seamen 
are,  however,  redirected  without  charge. 

No  letter  can  be  conveyed  by  post  which  is  more 
than  two  feet  in  length,  breadth,  or  depth ;  nor  any 
unpaid  letter  or  packet  weighing  more  than  four 
ounces,  unless  -fths  of  the  postage  have  been  paid. 
There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule  in  the  .case  of 
packeto  sent  to  or  received  from  places  abroad, 
packeto  sent  to  or  from  any  government  depart- 
ment, petitions  to  the  Queen  or  either  House  of 
Parliament,  and  printed  parliamentary  proceedinga 
Sharp  instrumento,  glass,  &c.,  are  not  allowed  to  be 
sent  in  letters. 

Registration, — The  registration  fee  of  4d,  prepaid 
in  stamps,  secures  careful  treatment  to  any  lettor, 
newspaper,  or  book-packet,  and  renders  its  trans- 
mission more  secure,  by  enabling  it  to  be  traced 
from  ito  receipt  to  ito  delivery.  Letters  may  be 
registered  for  a  f ee  of  6cE.  to  most  British  colonies, 
and  for  various  rates  of  charge  to  different  foreign 
countries.  Letters  containing  coin,  if  not  registered, 
are  treated  as  if  they  were,  and  charged  on  delivery 

with  a  double  registration  fee,  in  addition  to  the 

70X 


POST-OFFICE, 


postage.  The  post-offioe  is  not  responsible  for  the 
absolute  security  of  registered  letters. 

Foreign  and  Coloniat  Letters, — For  the  rates  pav- 
able,  reference  is  nuule  to  the  'British  Postal  Quiae, 
Prepayment  most  be  either  wholly  in  stamps  or 
wholly  in  money.  In  some  cases,  prepajrment  is 
optional ;  in  others,  compulsory.  When  optional,  an 
outward  letter,  posted  with  an  insufficient  number 
of  stamps,  is  charged  the  deficient  postase  in 
addition,  except  wli^  it  has  to  go  to  Holland, 
the  United  States,  or  to  any  country  throufi;h 
France,  in  which  case  it  is  treated  as  wholly  unpaid. 
Where  prepayment  is  conmulsory,  an  insufficiently 
prepaid  letter  goes  to  the  Return^  letter-office,  to 
be  returned  to  the  sender.  Insufficiently  paid 
letters  for  Russia  and  Poland  are  treated  as  wholly 
unpaid.  Letters  to  and  from  Ceylon,  Australia, 
New  Zealand,  the  British  West  Indies,  Honduras, 
and  St  Helena,  posted  wholly  unpaid,  or  paid  less 
than  one  rate,  are  returned.  If  paid  one  rate,  where 
chargeable  with  more,  they  are  forwarded,  charged 
with  the  deficient  postage  and  M.  of  fina  Letters 
for  New  Zealand  must  be  fully  prepaid.  Letters 
for  the  remaining  British  colonies,  wholly  or  partially 
unpaid,  are  charged  6(L  in  addition  to  the  ordinary 
postage. 

Letters  to  be  sent  by  private  ship  must  be  so 
marked ;  their  postiM^  is  6a.  for  half  an  ounce,  and 
(except  to  the  North  American  and  African 
colonies)  they  must  be  prepaid. 

Letters  to  passengers  on  board  the  Cunaid  or 
Mediterranean  packets  must  be  redstered,  and 
should  be  addressed  to  the  care  of  we  officer  in 
charge  of  the  maUa 

The  post-office  monopoly  is  applicable  to  letters 
o^ly ;  and  it  does  not  include  letters  sent  specially 
by  priyate  messeneer. 

Jyewspapers. — ^Newspapers  stamped  with  the  un- 
pressed  stamp  are  charged  one  penny  for  two  sheets, 
three-halfpence  for  three  sheets,  and  twopence  for 
four  sheets  of  printed  matter.  The  title  and  date 
must  be  printed  at  the  top  of  each  page.  The  stamp 
must  be  visible  outside,  otherwise  a  fine  of  one 
penny  is  exacted  in  addition  to  the  postage.  The 
newspaper  is  required  to  be  not  above  15  days  old. 
The  cover,  if  there  is  one,  must  be  open  at  both 
ends,  and  there  must  be  no  writing  outside  or 
inside,  except  the  address  of  the  person  to  whom 
the  newspaper  is  sent. 

A  newspaper  to  be  sent  abroad  must  be  first 
registered  at  the  G^eral  Post-offica  Newspapers 
intended  for  transmission  to  the  colonies  or  foreign 
countries,  must  be  prepaid  with  postage-stamps, 
although  tbey  are  otherwise  liable  to  the  same 
regulations  as  English  newspapers  bearing  impressed 
stamps. 

Parliamentary  proceedings, — The  printed  x»roceed- 
ings  of  parliament,  with  tiie  words  '  Parliamentary 
Proceedings '  written  or  printed  on  the  cover,  may 
circulate  throughout  the  United  Kingdom  at  the 
following  rates,  of  which  prepayment  is  optional 
— ^viz.,  when  weighing  not  more  than  4  o&,  \d.\ 
between  4  and  8  oz.,  ^ ;  and  so  on — a  penny  being 
chari^ed  for  every  additional  quarter  of  a  pound  or 
fraction  of  a  qusurter  of  a  pound. 

Book-post— Hi^  brancn  of  the  post-office  was 
flrst  established  in  1848,  and  furwer  improved 
by  regulations  issued  in  1855  and  1857.  Books 
and  printed  or  written  matter  of  any  kind,  except 
letters,  prints,  maps,  photographs,  and  all  matter 
which  may  be  sent  by  the  newspaper-post^  or 
as  parliamentary  proceedings,  may  now  be  sent 
through  the  book-post  at  the  following  rates: 
below  4  oz.,  \d,\  between  4  o%.  and  8  oz.,  2ti.; 
between  8  oz.  and  1  lb.,  4(f. ;  and  so  on— 2(2.  being 
oharsed  for  every  additional  half-pound  or  fraction  ra 


a  half-pound.  A  book-packet  must  be  prepaid,  and 
with  postage-stamps;  if  insufficiently  paid,  it  is 
charged  an  additional  rate  over  and  above  tiie 
deficiency ;  and  if  altogether  unpaid,  it  is  charged  as 
an  unpaid  letter.  If  there  is  a  cover,  it  must  be  open 
at  the  ends.  No  book-packet  must  exceed  two  met 
in  length,  width,  or  depth,  nor  must  it  contain  any- 
thing sealed  against  inspection.  An  entry  on  the 
first  page  of  the  book  stating  who  sends  it  is 
allowed,  and  even  recommended.  No  writiz^  in 
the  way  of  a  letter  or  communication  is  allowed ;  if 
any  such  communication  be  found  within  a  packed 
and  forming  a  component  part  of  it,  the  whole  vUl 
be  charged  the  unpaid  letter  rate,  and  forwarded. 
I^  however,  the  communication  can  be  separated 
from  the  packet^  it  will  be  taken  out,  and  forwaided 
alone,  and  the  remainder  of  the  packet  delivend 
free.  The  book-post  has  been  extended  to  all  the 
colonies. 

PtUtem-post — ^Parcels  containing  patterns  of  mer^ 
chandise  may  be  forwarded  at  the  following  fixed 
rates,  prepaid  with  stamps :  if  under  4  oz.  weig^ 
3cf. ;  between  4  oz.  and  8  oz.,  6d. ;  betweoi  8  osl  sod 
1  lb.,  la ;  and  so  on — fkL  being  charged  for  every 
additional  half-pound  or  fraction  of  naif  a  pound 
The  pattern  must  not  be  of  intrinsic  value,  nor  most 
it  contain  writing  inside,  except  the  addrpss  or  trade- 
mark of  the  manufacturer,  and  the  numbers  or  price 
of  the  articles  sent.  The  patterns  are  to  be  s^  is 
covers  open  at  the  ends  or  sides ;  but  samples  of 
articles  which  cannot  be  placed  in  open  covers,  m^ 
be  enclosed  in  bags,  so  tied  that  they  can  be  opened 
at  the  post-offioe.  Articles  by  which  the  contents  oC 
a  letter-bag  might  be  damaged,  are  prc^bited  to  be 
sent  in  this  way. 

Moneu  Orders, — Inland  money  orders  may  be 
obtained  at  any  of  the  post-offices  of  the  United 
Kingdom,  on  payment  of  the  fdlowins  commis- 
sion :  for  a  sum  not  exceeding  £2 — Sci. ;  nom  £2  to 
£5—6(2.;  from  £6  to  £7— dd. ;  from  £7  to  £10— la 
The  commission  on  orders  payable  at  Gibraltar  and 
Malta  is  three  times,  and  on  orders  payable  in  the 
other  colonies,  four  times  the  above  rate.  In  applying 
for  a  money  order,  the  surname  and  initial,  at  least, 
of  one  Chnstian  name  of  the  sender,  and  the  name 
of  the  person  to  whom  payable,  must  be  civen;  bat 
the  designation  of  a  firm  will  suffice,  and  the  name 
of  the  person  to  whom  the  order  is  payable  may  be 
withheld,  if  it  is  to  be  paid  throng  a  bank.  A 
money  order  in  the  United  J&ingdom  becomes 
lapsed,  if  not  presented  for  payment  before  the 
end  of  the  second  calendar  month  after  that  in 
which  it  was  issued.  A  second  commission  for 
a  new  order  will,  after  that  time,  be  necessary. 
In  the  colonies,  six  months  are  allowed.  If  aa 
order  is  not  paid  before  the  end  of  the  twdfth 
calendar  month  after  that  in  whidi  it  was  issued, 
all  claim  to  the  money  is  lost.  Sums  accminf  to 
the  revenue  from  lapsed  orders,  ap  into  a  fund  for 
assisting  officers  of  the  post-office  to  pay  thor 
premiums  on  life-assurance  policies. 

Petitions  to  Her  Majesty  or  either  Honae  of 
Parliament  (if  open  at  the  ends),  and  letters  on  the 
business  of  the  post-offioe  to  the  head-office  or  the 
district-surveyors,  may  be  sent  free. 

Ajiy  person  with  a  fixed  residence  may  have  a 
private  box  at  the  post-office  on  paying  an  appointed 
fee ;  but  in  no  other  case  can  a  resideat  nave  his 
letters  addressed  to  the  post-officeu     See  Posii 

RB8TA19T& 

The  postal  system  of  France  dates  from  the 
time  of  Louis  JCL;  but  the  poets  were  at  &st 
exclusively  for  the  royal  service,  and  only  gradual^r 
became  available  for  private  correspondenoa  u 
was  not  till  1672  that  any  settled  reveniis  accraed 


POST-OFFICE— POSTULATB. 


to  goverament  from  th«  poslroffice.  The  law  of 
France  veate  in  the  post-office  the  ezdasive  right 
of  carrying  letters,  newspapers,  periodicals,  packets, 
and  papers  of  all  kinds  not  exc^dinff  a  kilogramme 
(2  Iba.)  in  weight,  subject  to  the  f<^owing  excep- 
tions: 1,  Letters  or  packets  sent  by  one  private 
person  to  another  in  charge  of  a  servant  or  mes- 
senger ;  2,  registers,  maps,  and  plans ;  3,  proceedings 
in  we  courts  of  law ;  4,  printed  books  not  periooi- 
cal ;  5,  newspapers  in  coUective  packets  exceeding 
one  kilogramme  in  weight ;  6,  letters  accompanying 
and  relatinff  to  merchandise  ;  7.  papers  relating  to 
the  persomu  business  of  a  carrier.  The  last  two 
must  be  open  at  the  sides  or  ends.  Besides 
the  service,  of  which  it  has  a  legal  monopoly,  the 
French  poet-office  undertakes,  at  special  rates,  to 
convey — 1,  valuable  articles  of  small  dimensions ;  2, 
books,  prints,  and  autographs ;  3,  prices-current  and 
circulars ;  4,  visiting-cards ;  5,  money  subscriptions 
to  certain  legal  periodicals  ;  6,  money  by  orders  at 
a  commission  of  2  per  cent  In  184S,  a  uniform 
rate  was  established  for  inland  letters — 20  centimes 
{2d.)  for  letters  not  exceeding  a  quarter  of  an  ounce 
in  weight,  unpaid  letters  being  charged  a  rate  and  a 
hall  There  are  lower  rates  (10  centimes  and  15 
centimes)  for  local  letters.  Since  1856,  there  have 
been  ^ye  distinct  tariffs  for  postal  matter  not  of  the 
nature  of  ordinary  corre8pondenc&  Postage-stamps 
were  introduced  m  1848. 

The  principal  features  of  the  post-office  system 
introduced  into  Great  Britain  in  1840,  have  since 
been  adopted,  in  a  more  or  less  modified  form,  over 
the  greater  part  of  the  world.  The  half-ounce  scale 
is  in  use  in  nearly  the  whole  of  Germany,  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  in  Holland,  Denmark, 
Spain,  Peru,  and  Brazil ;  while  France,  Switzerland, 
and  Italy  have  adopted  the  quarter  of  an  ounce  as 
their  unit.  Postage-stamps  are  also  in  almost 
universal  use  over  the  civilised  world. — See,  as 
regards  the  British  Post-office,  Lewins's  JTer 
Majesty's  MaUs  (Lond.  1864),  and  the  BrUit^  Postal 
Guide, 

POST-OFFICE,  Offences  AOAnrar.  Owing  to 
the  conspicuous  part  which  the  post-office  plays  in 
modem  civilisation,  a  small  coae  of  laws  belongs 
to  it,  the  substance  of  which  is  as  follows :  Every 
persoQ  employed  by  the  post-office  who  steals  a 
post-letter,  is  guilty  of  felony;  and  if  it  contain 
money  or  a  valuable  chattel,  the  punishment  is 
increased.  So  whenever  letters  are  stolen  by 
strangers  out  of  the  custody  of  the  post-office  or  its 
officers.  The  moment  a  letter  is  put  into  the  post- 
office  or  delivered  to  the  postmaster,  the  protection 
of  the  statutes  commences.  Many  nice  questions 
have,  however,  arisen  as  to  the  application  of  the 
rule  to  speciEbl  circumstances,  and  as  to  what 
cwnatitutes  an  employment  by  the^  post-office. 
Whoever  steals,  secretes,  or  destroys  printed  papers 
or  newspapers  sent  by  post,  commits  a  misde- 
meanour. So  if  a  letter-carrier  delay  the  deUvei^ 
wilfully,  excespt  in  the  case  where  the  person  is 
dead,  or  the  direction  cannot  be  read,  or  the  postage 
is  neglected  to  be  paid.  Receivers  of  letters 
improperly  taken  or  stolen  from  the  post-office,  are 
guilty  of  felony.  By  the  1st  Vict  33,  s.  2,  any  per- 
son oomreying  otherwise  than  b^  post  a  letter  not 
exempted  from  the  exclusive  privilege  of  the  post- 
master-genenU,  incurs  a  penalty  of  £5  for  every 
letter,  l^is  exclusive  pnvilege  of  carrying  letters 
exKsnds  to  letters  only,  and  not  to  printed  oooks  or 
newspapers.  There  are  also  exceptions  to  the 
general  rule,  that  letters  can  only  be  sent  b}r  the 
post-office.  Thus,  one  may  send  a  letter  by  a  private 
mend,  and  not  by  the  post-office.  So  letters  sent 
by  messenser  on  purpose  on  the  private  affairs 
of  tho  sender  or  receiver,  commissions  and  legal 


write,  merchante*  letters  sent  by  vessels  or  along 
with  goods,  are  excepted.  But  no  person  is  autho^ 
ised  to  collect  and  send  these  excepted  letters, 
though  in  the  legal  manner  describeo,  for  tills  is 
doing  the  work  of  the  post-office.  Moreover,  thers 
are  certain  persons  expressly  prohibited  from  carry* 
ing  letters  even  gratuitou^y,  as  common  carriers, 
except  the  letters  relate  to  goods  in  their  carte  or 
wagons ;  owners,  masters,  or  commanders  of  ships, 
except  such  letters  relate  to  goods  on  board;  and 
passengers  on  board  ships.  Though  no  penalty 
or  punishment  is  prescribed  for  violating  these 
prohibitions  of  the  Post-office  Act,  it  is  an  indictable 
offence  to  contravene  the  stetute. 

PO'STULATR  This  word  occurs  in  Geometry, 
and  signifies  something  that  is  demanded,  and  must 
be  granted  before  the  demonstrations  of  the  science 
can  be  wrought  out.  The  postulates  of  Eudid  have 
reference  to  certain  constructions  indispensable  to 
the  reasoning.  They  are  these  three  :  '  A  straiffht 
line  may  be  drawn  from  one  point  to  another ;  A 
line  already  drawn  may  be  produced ; '  and  '  A 
circle  maybe  described  from  a  given  oentre,  with 
a  given  x^us.'  The  object  of  layinff  down  these 
in  the  shape  of  demands,  is  to  fuM  one  great 
condition  oi  demonstrative  science,  which  is,  that 
nothing  shall  be  proceeded  on,  in  the  course  of  the 
reasonmff,  without  being  explicitly  stated  at  the 
outeet  It  has  been  noticed  by  critics  that  the  three 
postulates  of  Euclid  do  not  exhaust  the  demands 
actually  made  in  the  course  of  his  demonstrations. 
Thus,  in  the  4th  and  5th  Propositions,  Book  L,  this 
postulate  is  assumed :  '  Any  figure  may  be  removed 
from  place  to  place  without  uteration  of  form,  and 
a  VJAne  figure  may  be  turned  round  on  the  plane.' 

The  postulate  is  something  different  m>m  the 
axiouL  An  axiom  is  a  general  and  fundamental 
principle,  such  as  no  one  can  deny,  and  serving  as 
the  ultimate  foundation  (in  Logic,  the  major  pre- 
mise) of  deductive  inferences;  as,  for  example, 
'  Things  eoual  to  the  same  thing  are  equal  to  one 
another.'  The  postulate,  in  Euclid's  sense,  is  a 
special  accessory  to  the  reasoning,  different  from 
the  axioms. 

But  in  Philosophy,  the  postulate  takes  a  much 
wider  sweep,  and  expresses  the  most  fundamental 
concessions  implied  m  all  reasoning,  being  pre- 
requisite in  order  to  the  esteblishment  of  the  axioms 
themselves. 

Thus,  it  is  a  postulate  necessary  to  reasoning 
and  discussion  that  a  reasoner  shall  be  consistent 
with  himself —that  he  shall  not  affirm  a  thing  one 
minute  and  deny  it  the  next.  The  so-called  Laws 
of  Thought — Identity,  Contradiction,  and  Excluded 
Middle — are  so  many  forms  of  the  postulate  of  con- 
sistency. These  laws  are  tantamount  to  demanding 
that  the  same  thins  shall  not  be  maintained  in 
one  form,  and  denied  in  another.  If  we  say  this 
room  is  hot,  we  must  not,  at  the  same  time,  say  that 
it  is  not  hot.  So  the  ordinary  law  of  the  syllogism, 
*  Whatever  is  true  of  all  the  members  of  a  class,  is 
true  of  each,'  is  not  so  much  an  axiom  as  a  postulate 
of  consistency;  we  must  be  prepared  to  repeat 
individually  the  statemento  that  we  have  affirmed 
collectively. 

The  ultimate  premises  of  all  truth  and  reasoning 
maybe  put  in  the  form  of  postulates,  as  follows: 
1.  Present  Consciousness  must  be  admitted  as  a 
ground  of  certainty.  *I  am  thirsty,'  *I  hear  a 
seund,'  as  facts  of  present  consciousness,  are  to  be 
held  as  trustworthy  in  the  highest  degree,  or  as 
amounting  to  the  highest  certainty.  2.  But  present 
consciousness  is  not  enough ;  it  must  further  be 
conceded  that  Past  Consciousness  is  a  ground  of 
certainty.  Present  consciousness  does  not  amount 
to  an  experience  of  value  for  future  purposes,  unless 


POSTULATION— POTASSIUM. 


Wen  %ith  past  Now,  althon^h  a  remembrance 
ihat  is  long  past  is  often  uncertam,  a  recent  remem- 
brance most  be  pronounced  absolately  certain,  not 
Jess  than  a  present  consciousness.  That  '  I  was 
thirsty  a  short  time  aflo,'  I  must  be  certain  of,  in 
order  to  establish  the  induction,  'that  water 
quenches  thirst'  3.  It  must  further  be  conceded, 
tnat  *  What  has  been  in  the  past,  all  circumstances 
holding  the  same,  will  be  in  the  future.'  That  a 
thing  has  been,  does  not  imply  that  it  will  be.  We 
may  admit  that  the  sun  has  risen  to-day,  and  rose 
yesterday,  and  so  on,  and  without  inconsistency, 
refuse  to  admit  that  it  will  rise  to-morrow.  People 
are  generally  well  enough  disposed  to  treat  this  as  a 
certainty ;  indeed,  there  is  a  strong  natural  tendency 
of  the  mind  to  expect  that  the  future  will  resemble 
the  past,  which,  when  corrected  and  regulated  by 
experience,  constitutes  our  belief  in  causation  and 
the  uniformity  of  nature^  Still,  a  blind  instinct 
is  no  guarantee  for  truth ;  and  as  the  assertion  of 
the  future  is  a  distinct  position,  it  should  be 
formally  assumed  in  a  separate  postulate.  However 
often  a  thing  may  have  nappened,  we  still  make  a 
leap,  and,  so  to  speak,  incur  a  risk  in  venturing  to 

SimUct  its  future  recurrence.  Our  confidence  no 
oubt  increases  with  repetition,  but  nothing  can 
obliterate  the  line  between  what  has  bean  aud  what 
Utobe. 

These  three  Postulates  of  Experience,  coupled 
with  the  Postulate  of  Consistency,  seem  adequate  as 
a  basis  of  all  the  recogmsed  axioms  and  truths  of 
experience.  In  other  words,  the  concession  of  them 
is  enough  to  commit  any  one  to  the  reception  of  all 
inductive  and  deductive  evidence. 

POSTULATlON  (Lat  'an  asking'),  m  Canon 
Law,  means  a  presentation  or  recommendation 
addressed  to  the  superior,  to  whom  the  right  of 
appointment  to  any  digni^  belonss,  in  favour  of 
one  who  has  not  a  strict  title  to  &e  appointment 
It  is  one  of  the  forms  of  proposing  to  the  pope 
persons  nominated,  but  not,  stricUy  speaking,  elected, 
to  a  biBhopric.  It  is  also  used  in  the  case  of  elec- 
tions in  which  the  candidate,  although  regularly 
chosen  by  the  electors,  yet  labours  under  some 
legal  disability  which  involves  the  necessity  of  a 
dispensation.  The  presentation  of  candidates  for 
the  episcopacy,  as  it  exists  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  in  Ireland,  is  called  postulation. 

PO'STURES,  the  name  given  to  the  attitude 
observed  in  worship^  whether  private  or  public, 
but  es|)ecially  the  latter.  They  are  the  natural 
expressions  of  the  feeling  which  accompanies  or 
characterises  the  particular  devotion  in  wliich  they 
are  employed,  ana  are  used  by  suppliants  to  man 
as  well  as  to  €UxL  Four  postures  are  found  to  have 
been  used  by  the  ancient  Christians  in  their 
prayer — the  standing,  the  kneeling,  the  bowing  or 
mclined,  and  the  prostrate.  Of  these,  the  ordinary 
one  was  kneelin^^ ;  but  for  it  was  substituted,  dur- 
ing the  Easter-time  and  on  the  Sundays,  a  standing 
posture,  which  was  understood  to  symbolise  the 
resurrection  of  our  Lord.  To  this  usa^e  we  find 
allusions  as  early  as  the  time  of  Justin  we  Martyr. 
In  the  paintings  of  the  catacombs,  and  on  uio 
ancient  enamelled  glasses  found  therein,  the  stand- 
ing posture  in  prayer  is  accompanied  by  outstretched 
and  upraised  himds.  The  bowing  posture  was 
rather  a  special  act  of  reverence  accompanying  a 
particular  address  or  a  particular  part  of  an  addreas, 
than  a  sustained  posture.  It  occurred  at  frequent 
intervals  in  the  ancient  liturgy,  and  is  still  used  in 
the  Roman  mass  as  well  as  (even  more  profusely) 
in  those  of  all  the  various  rites,  GrecK,  Syrian, 
Coptic,  Armenian,  and  Russian.  The  prostrate 
posture  was  the  attitude  of  the  deepest  humiliation, 

710 


and  was  mainly  used  by  the  Penitents  (q.v.), 
especially  in  that  grade  A  public  penance  whidi 
was  known  under  the  name  'prostration.'  It  is  ako 
used  still  in  the  solemn  onunatio!i  of  sabdeaooai^ 
deacons,  and  priests,  as  performed  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church.  The  question  as  to  the  use  of 
particular  postures  was  a  subject  of  much  oootro- 
versy  between  the  Puritans  and  the  Gfanrdi  of 
England;  and  has  recently  been  revived  in  the 
Pk^byterian  Church  of  ScoUand. 

POTASH  AND  PEARL-ASH,  in  Commeroe. 
See  PoTAfiSiuic  The  chief  source  of  this  important 
article  in  Britain  is  Canada,  where  it  is  derived 
from  the  vast  quantities  of  wood  cat  down  and 
homed  in  clearing  the  forest  for  culture,  and  abo 
from  ^e  branches  of  the  trees  felled  for  timbo. 
The  aiiheB,  mixed  with  a  small  quantity  of  quick- 
lime, are  put  into  hiW  wooden  ciatenis,  sad 
covered  with  water.  Tsie  whole  is  well  stined 
up,  and  allowed  to  settle;  the  next  day,  the 
clear  liquor  is  drawn  ofif,  and  evaporated  to 
dryness  in  iron  pots,  whence  it  is  called  pattuL 
Wnen  a  sufficient  quantity  is  got  to  fill  a  cssk 
of  5  cwt,  it  is  fused  at  a  red  neat,  and  poured 
into  the  cask.  The  mass  when  cold  is  ooloored 
gray  externally,  but  when  broken,  shewa  a  pinkish 
tint  internally.  It  is  very  deliquescent,  and  eon- 
sequently  the  casks  require  to  be  nearly  air-ti^i 
In  this  state,  potash  contains  a  large  quantity  of 
foreign  materials,  amounting  to  about  A  per  coiL, 
amongst  which  sulphur  and  carbonaceous  matter 
predominate.  This  is  th^  crude  American  potuh 
of  commerce.  If  it  is  calcined  by  a  reverbeimtocy 
furnace,  the  sulphur  is  driven  off^  and  the  car- 
bonaceous matter  burned  out;  the  carbonic  add, 
however,  combines  with  the  potash,  and  forms  it 
into  a  carbonate.  To  form  it  into  pearl-€uh^  it  is 
then  broken  up,  and  dissolved  in  water  in  a  wooden 
cistern,  having  a  perforated  bottom,  covered  with 
straw,  throng  which  it  filters,  and  is  afterwards 
evaporated  in  flat-bottomed  iron  pan£  As  it 
approaches  diyness,  it  is  stirred  with  iron  rods, 
which  break  it  up  into  round  lumpy  masses  of  a 
pearly- white  colour,  and  in  this  state  it  is  the  pearl- 
ash  of  commerce,  and  contains  about  50  per  cent  of 
pure  potassa.  All  land-plants  yield  potttsh  when 
burned,  and  many  in  much  greater  proportions  thaa 
the  timber-trees  of  North  America ;  out  the  circum- 
stances in  which  the  materials  are  obtained,  give  an 
advantage  to  our  colonial  manufacturers,  which 
hitherto  has  enabled  them  to  compete  with  the 
whole  world.  The  quantity  imported  annually  of 
'  pots  *  and  '  pearls,'  as  they  are  technically  ca&ed, 
reaches  the  value  of  nearly  half  a  million  sterling. 
See  PoTASSiUBL 

POTA'SSITJM  (symb.  E,  equiv.  39,  sp.  gr.  0^865) 
is  one  of  the  alkaline  metals.    The  letter  K  is 
selected  as  its  symbol,  as  being  the  first  .letter  ol 
JTo/t,  the  Arabic  word  for  potash,  tiie  letter  P  being 
preoccupied  as  the  symbol  for  phoaphomia.    The 
foUowiuff  are  the  chief  characters  of  this  meteL    It 
is  of  a  Dluish-whito  colour,  and  presente  a  strong 
metallic  lustre.    At  32*,  it  is  brittle,  and  has  a 
crystalline  fracture;  at  a  somewhat  higher  tem- 
perature, it  is  malleable ;  at  60*,  it  is  soft,  and  of  the 
consistence  of  wax ;  at  190*,  it  is  completely  liquid ; 
and  at  a  red  heat,  it  becomes  oonv«rted  xnto  a 
beautiful  green  vapour.    Its  affinity  for  oxygen  is  to 
great,  that  on  exposure  to  the  air,  it  imioMdist^ 
becomes  covered  with  a  film  of  oxidsL  Wlien  heated, 
it  bums  with  a  violet  flame.    Ito  intense  affinity  iior 
oxygen  is  well  shewn  by  throwing  it  into  water,  on 
whioh,  from  its  low  specific  gravity,  it  floata    Tbs 
metal  abstracts  oxygen  from  the  water,  and  fonsi 
oxide  of  potassium  (potash);  wlule  tlus  libentad 


POTASSIUM. 


hydro^  oaniee  off  a  small  portion  of  fhe  Tolatiliaed 
potMuam,  and  taking  fire  from  the  heat  evolyed  by 
the  enex^etic  ohemiciQ  action,  burns  with  a  brilliant 
violet  flame.  ^  The  experiment  is  a  very  beautiful 
one,  the  bumins  metal  swimming  about  rapidly  on 
the  water,  and  finally  disappearing  with  an  explosion 
of  steam,  when  the  fflobule  of  melted  pota^  be- 
comes sufficiently  cool  to  come  in  contact  with  the 
water.  At  an  elevated  temperature,  this  metal 
removes  oxygen  from  almost  all  bodies  into  tiie 
constitution  of  which  that  element  enters ;  and  in 
the  laboratory  it  is  often  employed  to  remove  any 
traces  of  oxygen  from  hydrocarbons,  by  distilling 
the  latter  with  a  small  quantity  of  the  metaL 
From  the  above  facts,  it  is  obvious  that  potassium 
must  always  be  kept  in  some  fluid,  su(^  as 
purified  rock-oil  or  naphtha^  which  contains  no 
oxygen. 

Potassium  does  not  occur  in  the  native  state,  and 
can  only  be  obtained  by  the  reduction  of  its  oxide, 
fjotash.  There  are  three  principal  modes  of  reduc- 
tion, all  of  which  deserve  a  brief  special  notice, 
either  on  historical  grounds  or  for  tneir  practical 
value. 

1.  Davy,  in  1807,  decomposed  a  fragment  of 
hydrate  of  potash,  by  the  current  of  a  strong 
voltaic  battery,  into  potassium,  which  separated  as 
globules  at  the  negative  ]>ole,  and  oxvgen,  which 
was  evolved  at  the  positive  pole.  Tnis  mode  of 
procuring  potassium  yields  only  very  small  quan- 
tities, and  is  expensive ;  \h.t  the  experiment  was 
a  most  important  one  for  the  progress  of 
chemistry,  as  shewing  for  the  first  time  that 
potash  is  not,  as  was  previously  snpp<»ed,  a  simple 
body. 

2.  Stimulated  by  Davy's  discovery,  Gay-Lussac 
and  Thenard,  in  the  following  year  (1808),  succeeded 
in  obtaining  the  metal  by  purely  chemical  means  in 
greater  abundance,  by  decomposing  potash  by  means 
of  metallic  iron  at  a  white  heat.  The  oxygen  of  the 
potash  combines  with  the  iron,  and  the  potassium 
m  a  gaseous  form  is  condensed  in  a  receiver  filled 
with  naphtha,  and  kept  cooL 

3L  The  method  now  usm^y  adopted  consists  in 
the  distillation  of  a  mixture  of  carbonate  of  potash 
and  charcoal  at  a  white  heat,  in  an  iron  retort.  If 
proper  proportions  are  taken,  the  mixture  is 
wholly  converted  into  carbonic  oxide  and  potas- 
sium, as  is  shewn  in  the  equation : 


which   remains   in   solution ;   the    changes  being 
expressed  by  the  equation : 


CaiteoaM 
of  Potaah. 


KO,CO,  -I-  2C  =  K  + 


CBri>oiiU 
Osl<l«b 


Potassium  forms  two  compounds  with  oxygen, 
viz.,  a  protoxide,  RO,  which  constitutes  potash, 
and  is  strongly  basic,  and  a  teroxide,  KOg,  which 
does  not  combine  with  acids,  and  of  which  it  is 
unnecessary  to  say  more  than  that  it  is  a 
yellowish-brown  substance,  which  is  found  when 
the  metal  is  burned  in  an  excess  of  oxygen 
gas. 

Potaah  can  be  procured  in  the  anhydrous  form  by 
oxidising  thin  shees  of  the  metal  in  air  perfectly 
free  from  moisture  or  carbonic  acid.  It  is  white, 
very  deliquescent,  and  caustic.  When  moistened 
with  water,  it  becomes  incandescent,  and  the  water 
cumot  be  expelled  by  any  degree  of  heat.  A  far 
more  important  substance  is  the  Hydrate  of  Potash 
or  CausHe  Potash  (KO,HO).  This  is  commonly 
prepared  by  dissolving  carbonate  of  potash  in  ten 
times  its  weight  of  water,  and  gradually  adding  to 
the  boiling  solution  a  quantity  of  slaked  lime,  equal 
in  weight  to  half  the  carbonate  of  potash  used. 
The  resulting  compounds  are  carbonate  of  lime, 
which  faUs  as  a  precipitate,  and  hydrate  of  potash, 


Oarttottiitr  of 
Poiuh. 


Shkfdliaob 


LinM. 


HTdntii4 
P«iaak. 


KO.CO,  +  CaO,EO  =  CaO,CO,  -|-  KO,HO. 

The  clear  supernatant  fluid  is  removed  by  decanta* 
tion,  or  by  means  of  a  sy^^on,  into  a  clean  silver  or 
iron  basin,  and  is  rapidly  evaporated  till  it  flows 
tranquilly   like    oil;    it    is  then  either  cast  into 
cylinders  in  metallic  moulds,  or  is  poured  upon  a 
cold  slab,  and  solidities  on  cooling.    It  may  also  be 
obtained  in  acute   rhombohedrons,  if  allowed  te 
crystallise  from  a  hot  concentrated  solution;  the 
crystals  containing  four  atoms  of  water.    A  solution 
of  hydrate  of  potash  being  one  of  our  most  important 
chemical  re-agents,  it  is  very  essential  tiiat  it  should 
be  obtained  pure.    When  obtained  in  the  metiiod 
that  has  been  described,  it  is  apt  to  be  contaminated 
with  carbonic,  sulphuric,  hydrochloric,  and  silicic 
acids,  lime,  alumina,   oxides  Of  iron,  &&,  any  of 
which  substances  can  be  detected  by  the  appropriate 
tests.     Pure  caustic  potash  is,  however,  perfectly 
soluble  in  alcohol,  which  does  not  dissolve  any  of 
the  above-named  impurities.     Hence,  by  forming 
an  alcoholic  solution  of  potash,  and  by  evaporating 
it  in  a  silver  vessel  till  the  whole  of  the  akohol  is 
expelled,   we  obtain  this  substance  in  a  state  of 
purity.      Hydrated    potash,    on    solidifying   after 
fusion,  occurs   as   a  hard,  grayish-white,  opaque 
body,  with  a  crystalline  fracture,  which  may  be 
readily  azain  fused  into  a  colourless  oily  fluid,  but 
which  only  volatilises  at  a  very  high  temperature. 
It  is  soluble  in  about  half  its  weight  either  of  water 
or  of  alcohol,  and  rapidly  absorbs  both  carbonic 
add  and  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.    It  acts  as 
a  powerful    caustic,    and  quickly    destroys    both 
ammal  and  vegetable  tissues,  and  hence  its  solutions 
can  only  be  filtered  through  pounded  glass  or  sand. 
Its  affinities  are  so  powerful  that  few  vessels  are 
ca|)able  of  resisting  its  influence.    Its  solution  must 
be  preserved  in  ^ass  bottles,  into  the  composition 
of  which  no  oxide  of  lead  enters,  as  it  has  the  pro- 
perty of  dissolving  this  oxide  out  of  the  glass. 
Vessels  containing   silica   (porcelain,  earthenware, 
&C.)  are  decomposed,  and  platinum  itself  is  oxidised 
when  heated  in  contact  with  it    The  principal  uses 
of  this  substance  are  thus  briefly  summed  up  by 
Professor   Miller.     'Potash  decomposes  the  fixed 
oils,  and  converts  them  into  soluble  soaps;  when 
fused  with  silicious  minerals,  it  displaces  the  bases, 
and  combines  with  the  silica,  forming  silicate  of 
potash.     Potash  is  extensively  employed   in  the 
arts :  to  the  soap-boiler  and  the  ^lass-maker,  it  us 
indispensable;  when  combined  with  nitric  acid,  it 
enters  largely  into  the  manufacture  of  gunpowder; 
and,    in    greater    or    less    quantity,    it   furnishes 
important  aids  to  a  variety  of  processes  employed 
in  the  manufactures  of  the  country.    In  the  labor- 
atory, potash  is  in  constant  use  for  absorbing  acid 
gases,  such  as  carbonic  acid,  and  for  separating  the 
metallic  oxides  from  solution^  of  their  salts,  since, 
owing  to  the   powerful  affinity  of  the  alkali  for 
acids,  it  readily  decomposes  the   salts  of  all  the 
metals  which  produce  oxides  insoluble  in  water.' 
— Etements  of  CheTnistry,  2d  edition,  voL  ii  p.  353. 

The  salts  which  potash  forms  with  acids  are  for 
the  most  part  readuy  soluble  in  water,  and  colour- 
less, unless  (as,  for  example,  in  permanganate  of 
potash)  the  acid  is  coloured.  Most  of  them  are 
crystalUsable,  and  they  all  communicate  a  violet 
tint,  characteristic  of  potash,  to  the  flame  of  spirit 
of  ¥dne  and  to  that  of  the  blowpipe.  Many  of 
them  occur  in  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms, 
and  the  ashes  of  plants  contain  them  in  large 
quantity.    We  shall  now  briefly  notice  the  most 

711 


FOTASSroM. 


important  of  these  salts.  Carbonate  of  PoUuk 
(KOiCOj)  is  obtained  by  barning  plants  in  dijr  pits, 
dissolving  the  ashes  in  water,  evaporating  tdl  the 
sulphates,  chlorides,  &c.,  separate  id  crystals,  and 
then  boiling  the  mother  liquid  to  dryness  in  iron 
pots.  See  Potash.  The  quantity  of  pure  car- 
bonate of  potash  contained  in  it  is  liable  to  great 
variation,  and  the  process  termed  AlkalmOry  has 
been  invented,  with  the  view  of  rapidly  determining 
the  amount  of  this  salt,  on  which  the  commercial 
value  of  the  pearl-ash  depends.  Different  plants 
furnish  varying  quantities  of  this  sall^  and  the 
leaves  and  young  shoots  are  the  parts  which  furnish 
it  most  abunduitly.  The  potash  is,  of  course, 
obtained  by  the  plants  from  the  soil,  which,  when 
capable  of  supporting  vegetable  life,  always  contains 
that  substance ;  ana  does  not  exist  in  the  plants  in 
the  form  of  carbonate,  but  in  union  with  various 

Xnic  acids  (such  as  acetic,  malic,  tartaric,  and 
r  acids),  which,  by  incineration,  become  decom- 
posed into  carbonates.  The  purified  carbonate  of 
potash,  employed  in  pharmacy  and  for  chemical 
purposes,  Ib  prepared  from  the  crude  salt  b^  adding 
an  equal  quantity  of  cold  water,  agitatmg,  and 
filtering.  By  this  means,  all  the  less  soluble  foreign 
bodies  are  got  rid  ol  The  solution  is  then  boiled 
down  to  a  small  bulk,  and  allowed  to  cool,  when  the 
carbonate  separates  in  small  crystals,  containing  20 
per  cent  of  water,  and  represented  bv  the  formula 
kO,CO,  +  2Aq.  Carbonate  of  potash  is  extremely 
deliquescent,  and  is  soluble  in  less  than  its  own 
weight  of  water,  but  is  insoluble  in  alcohoL  It  has 
an  acrid,  alkaline  taste,  and  its  reaction  upon  test- 
paper  is  strongly  alkaline.  It  ia  a  compound  of 
great  importance,  both  as  a  chemical  re-agent,  and  as 
entering  largely  into  the  preparation  of  most  of  the 
other  comx)ounds  of  potash,  and  into  the  manufac- 
ture of  soap  and  glass.  Bicarbonate  of  Potash 
(KO,CO.  +  HO,COg)  is  obtained  in  white  rhombic 
prisms,  by  passing  a  current  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
through  a  strong  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash. 
These  crystals  aro  permanent  in  the  air,  but  are 
decomposed  by  heat;  water  and  carbonic  acid  being 
evolved,  and  the  simple  carbonate  left.  This  salt  is 
much  less  soluble  than  the  carbonate,  requiring  four 
parts  of  cold  water  for  its  solution,  which  is  nearly 
neutral  to  test-paper,  and  has  a  much  milder  taste 
than  the  preceding  salt.  It  is  employed  largely  in 
medicine  for  making  effervescing  draughts.  Sulphate 
of  Potaak  (formerly  known  as  eal  polychrest)  is 
obtained  by  dissolving  in  water  the  acid  residue  of 
bisulphate  of  potash  (KO,SO,  -|-  HO,SO,)  which  is  left 
in  the  retort  in  the  preparation  of  nitnc  acid.  This 
solution,  on  being  neutralised  with  carbonate  of 
pota^,  furnishes  hard  transparent  crystals  of  this 
salt.  From  its  extreme  hardness,  this  salt  is  used 
in  medicine  (as,  for  example,  in  Dover's  Powder), 
for  the  piirpose  of  finely  comminuting  vegetable 
matters.  The  ^i«u2|pAafe  o/Po^oa^,  from  which  the 
preceding  salt  is  ODtained,  is  the  eal  enixam  of 
the  older  chemists.  Except  that  it  is  occasionally 
employed  as  a  flux  it  is  of  no  special  importance. 
Nitrate  of  Potash,  has  been  alrea<^  described  under 
the  head  Nitrb.  Chlorate  of  Potash,  (K0,010b) 
occurs  in  white  rhomboidal  tablets  of  a  pearly  lustre. 
It  has  a  cooling  taste  like  that  of  nitre.  It  fuses 
at  a  gentle  heat  without  decomposition,  but  on 
increasing  the  heat,  it  gradually  aves  off  all  its 
oxygen,  and  is  converted  into  chloride  of  potassium, 
according  to  the  equation : 

K0,C10,     =    KCl   +    60. 

It  is  not  very  soluble,  as  it  requires  for  its  solution 
16  parts  of  cold  and  17  parts  of  boiling  water.    It 
•Ven    exceeds  nitrate  of  potash  as  an  oxidising 
7ia 


agent ;  and  if  oombnstiU.e8absAaiioea,snijeh  m  osAob, 
sulphur,  or  phosi^oros  be  heated,  or  forcibW  robbed 
with  it,  a  detonation  or  explosion  occurs.  This  ssH 
is  employed  in  the  mantttaotoze  of  Incif  er^natches, 
in  oertam  operations  in  calioo^rinting,  and  for 
filling  the  friction-tubes  employed  for  firing  cannon : 
the  best  mixture  for  these  tubes  consisting  of  2  parts 
of  this  sait^  2  of  sulphide  of  antimony,  and  1  cl 
powdered  glass.  A  nuxture  known  as  WkiU  Qwh 
powder,  consisting  of  chlorate  of  potash,  dried  feno- 
cyanide  of  potassium,  and  sugar,  iiaa  been  employed 
for  blasting  purposes,  but  its  preparation  is  aocom- 
ponied  by  so  much  danger,  that  it  is  seldom  used, 
llbds  salt  does  not  oocur  as  n  natural  product,  bat 
may  be  obtained  by  passing  a  current  of  chlorims 

rs  through  a  hot  solution  of  caustic  potash; 
eq.  of  chlorine  oombining  with  6  eq.  of  potash 
to  mrm  5  eq.  of  chloride  of  potassium,  and  1  e^ 
of  chlorate  of_potash,  according  to  the  egoatioa: 
6  a  -H  6  (KO,HO)  ==  5KC1  -H  KO,aO,  -»-  6H0.  The 
two  salts  are  easily  separated  by  crsrstallisatifln, 
as  the  chlorate  is  comparatively  insoluble,  and  the 
chloride  extremely  soluble.  HypochlorUe  of  Pokuk 
(K0,C10)  can  only  be  obtained  in  solution.  Under 
the  titie  of  Bkm  de  JaveUe,  it  is  sold  as  a  bleaching 
agent.  It  is  obtained  by  passing  chlorine  g»s  throng 
a  cold  dilute  solution  of  carbonate  of  potash,  wl»& 
chloride  of  potassium  and  hypNOchlorite  of  potash 
are  formed,  from  which  the  chloride  may  be  removed 
by  cnrstalUsation.  The  PhoaphaUe  of  Pota^  f  onned 
by  the  different  varieties  of  phosphoric  acid,  srs 
sufficiently  noticed  in  the  articles  jPhobphatb  (in 
Physiology)  and  Phosphobub.  The  SUicaiee  if 
PoUuh  are  important  compounds  in  connection  with 
the  manufacture  of  glass ;  thev  also  enter  into  the 
composition  of  Fuch^  Water-glass,  or  Soluble  OUuSt 
and  have  been  employed  by  Bansome  and  othets  sm 
a  coating  by  which  the  decay  of  nuuznesian  and  otiier 
limestones  may  be  prevented.  l£e  Chromate  and 
Biehromate  of  Potash  are  sufficiently  noticed  in  the 
article  Chromiuii.  The  haloid  sslts  of  potasnnm 
may  be  iMAsed  over  very  briefly.  The  Chloride  of 
Potassium  (KCl)  is  obtained  in  laige  quantity  in  tiis 
preparation  of  chlorate  of  potash,  or  may  be  pro- 
cured by  burning  potassium  in  chlorine  gas,  inken 
the  result  of  the  brilliant  combustion  which  takes 
place  is  this  salt.  In  its  general  characters,  it 
closely  resembles  common  Bait  (NaCl),  except  that 
the  former  communicates  a  violet,  and  the  latter  a 
yellow  tint  to  the  flame  of  alcohol.  It  is  a  con- 
stituent of  sea-water,  of  salt  marshes,  and  of  many 
animal  and  vegetable  fluids  and  tissues.  The 
Bromide  and  Iodide  of  Potasamtn  are  sufficientiy 
noticed  in  the  articles  Bromine  and  Iodivk 
Fluoride  of  Potassium  (KFl)  possesses  the  propet^ 
of  corrodinff  glass.  There  are  no  less  than  fivs 
sulphuies  of  potassium^  commencing  with  the  proto 
sulphide  (KS),  and  terminating  with  the  paita- 
sulphide  (KS^.  The  latter  is  we  main  ingrediait 
in  the  Hepaar  sulphuris,  or  Liver  of  sulphur^  nsed  in 
medicine.  It  is  a  brown  substance^  obtained  by 
fusing,  at  a  temperature  not  exceeding  482%  3  eq. 
of  potash  and  12  eq.  of  sulphur,  the  resulting  com- 
pounds being  2  eq.  of  pentasulphide  of  potaasiass 
(2KS«),  and  1  eq.  of  hyposulphite  of  potash 
(KOjS^O,).  From  this  mixture,  tne  pentasniphids 
may  be  removed  by  alcohol,  in  which  it  dissolvesi 
The  Yellow  and  the  Red  Prussiaie  {or  the  ^erroc^o- 
nide  and  Ferridcyanide)  of  Potash  are  notioed  in  the 
articles  Ferrocyanooen  and  FERBn>CTAMOQSs. 
The  Cyanide  qf  Potassium  (KOy)  may  be  nroeiii«d 
by  heating  potassium  in  cyanogen  gas,  when  tailfiaBt 
combustion  occurs,  and  the  resulting  product  is  thii 
salt.  It  may,  however,  be  more  chefM>ly  mmL  eaci^ 
prepared  by  Liebig's  process,  which  does  not,  hoi^ 
ever,  yield  it  pure,  out  mixed  with  cyanaie  ol 


POTASSIUM. 


riotash — an  impuriijr  which  is  of  no  consequence 
tor  most  of  the  aptihcations  of  cyanide  of  potassium, 
as,  for  example,  electro-plating  and  gilding.  Eight 
parts  of  anhydrous  ferrocyamde  of  potassium  are 
mixed  with  three  parts  of  dry  carbonate  of  potash ; 
the  mixture  is  thrown  into  a  red-hot  earthen 
crucible,  and  kept  in  fusion  till  carbonic  acid  m 
ceases  to  be  developed,  and  the  fluid  portion  of  the 
mass  becomes  colourless.  After  a  few  moments' 
rest,  the  clear  fused  salt  is  decanted  from  the  heavy 
black  sediment,  which  consists  diiefly  of  metallic 
iron  in  a  state  of  minute  division.  It  has  recently 
been  derived  from  an  unexpected  source.  In  some 
of  the  iron  furnaces  where  raw  coal  is  used  for  fuel 
in  the  hot-blast,  a  saline-looking  substance  is  some> 
times  observed  to  issue  in  a  fused  state  from  the 
tuyere-holes  of  the  funiace,  and  to  concrete  on  the 
outside.  Dr  Clark  of  Aberdeen  has  shewn  that  tiiis 
substance  is  mainly  cyanide  of  potassium.  This 
salt  forms  colourless  deliquescent  crystals  very 
soluble  in  water.  It  exhalea  an  odour  of  hydro- 
<^anio  acid,  and  is  said  to  be  as  poisonous  as 
that  acid.  Its  fl;reat  deoxidising  power  at  a  high 
temperature  renaers  it  a  valuable  agent  in  many  of 
the  finer  operations  of  metaUur^. 

The  following  are  the  ordmaiy  tests  for  the 
potassium  compounds :  1.  Solution  of  tartaric  add 
added  in  excess  to  a  moderately  strong  solution  of 
a  potassium  salt,  gives  after  some  tmie  a  white 
crystalline  precipitate  of  cream  of  tartar.  See 
Tabtarig  Acid.  The  result  is  hastened  by  stirring 
or  shaking.  2.  Solution  of  bichloride  of  platinum 
gives  a  crystalline  yellow  precipitate,  which  is  a 
double  salt  of  bichloride  of^platmum  and  chloride 
of  potassium.  If  not  previously  acid,  the  mixture 
to  be  tested  should  be  acidulated  with  hydrochloric 
acid.  See  Platinujc  3.  The  violet  tint  occurring 
in  the  presence  of  potassium  in  the  outer  flame  of 
the  blowx)ipe,  or  in  the  flame  of  spirit,  has  been 
already  noticed.  4.  The  spectrum  of  a  flame  con- 
taining potassium  exhibits  a  characteristio  bright 
Une  at  the  extreme  limit  of  the  red,  and  another  one 
at  the  opposite  violet  limit  of  the  spectrum.  See 
Spectkum  Analysis. 

The  British  Pharmacopoeia  contains  the  following 
preparations  of  this  metaL  CcataUc  Potash,  or 
HydraU  of  Potash  (KO,HO),  which  occurs  in  hard 
white  pencils.  From  its  being  fused  before  being 
poured  into  the  moulds  which  give  it  the  form  of 
pencUfl,  it  is  often  termed  Potassa  fusa.  From  its 
power  of  dissolving  the  animal  tissues,  it  is  some- 
times used  as  a  caustic,  although  its  great  deli- 
quescence renders  it  somewhat  cufficult  to  localise 
its  action  to  the  desired  spot.  In  bites  of  venomous 
serpents,  mad  do^  Ac.,  it  may  be  applied  with 
advantage,  and  it  is  useful  in  destroying  warts  and 
fungoid  growths  of  various  kinds.  It  can  be 
em^oyed  with  greater  safety  than  the  lancet  in 
cpening  certain  abscesses,  especially  those  of  the 
hver.  Solution  of  Potash,  commonly  known  as 
Liquor  potassat,  is  obtained  by  the  process  already 
given  for  the  preparation  of  hvdrate  of  potash — 
namely,  bv  the  action  of  slaked,  lime  on  a  boiling 
sohition  of  carbonate  of  potash.  Its  sp.  gr.  is  1*058, 
and  hence  the  solution  is  somewhat  weaker  than 
that  of  the  London  Pharmacopoeia,  whose  sp.  gr.  is 
11)63,  and  which,  according  to  the  experiments  of 
Mr  Phillips,  contains  6'7  grains  of  potash  in  100 
grains  of  the  solution.  'One  fluid  ounce  requires, 
for  neutralisation,  48'25  measures  of  the  volu- 
metric solution  of  oxalic  acid.'  Liquor  potassse,  in 
combination  with  a  tonic  infusion,  is  of  service  in 
cases  of  d^^spepeia  which  are  accompanied  with 
excessive  acidity  of  the  stomach,  such,  for  example, 
as  often  occur  in  habitual  spirit-drinkers.  It  is 
also  frequently  given  with  the  view  of  rendering 


the  urine  alkaline^  or  of  diminishing  its  acidity 
in  cases  in  which  that  secretion  is  loo  acid.  In 
chronic  skin-diseases,  especially  those  of  a  scaly 
nature,  it  often  gives  reuef,  if  given  in  full  doses, 
and  for  a  sufficient  time ;  and  in  chronic  bronchittf 
it  is  given  with  advantage  for  the  purpose  of 
diminishing  the  viscidity  of  the  bronchial  mucuSt 
The  usual  dose  is  ten  drops,  gradually  increased  to 
as  much  as  a  fluid  drachm.  Infusion  of  orange 
peel  and  table-beer  are  fluids  whidi  conceal  its 
unpleasant  taste.  Veal-broth  has  also  been  reeom* 
mended  as  a  medicine  in  which  to  present  it.  Its 
too  prolonged  use  renders  the  urine  alkaline  and 
sedimentary  (firom  the  deposit  of  phosphate  of  lime), 
and  tends  to  impoverish  the  blood.  StUphurated 
Potash,  or  Potassa  sulphurata — ^which  is  the  new 
name  for  the  sulphuret  of  potassium,  or  liver  of 
sulphur  (Hepar  sulphuris) — is  obtained  by  fusing 
together  carbonate  of  potash  and  sublimed  sulphur. 
It  occurs  in  solid  greenish  masses,  which  are  fiver- 
brown  when  recently  broken.  It  is  alkaline  and 
acrid  to  the  taste,  readily  forminfi;  with  water  a 
yellow  solution,  which  has  the  odour  of  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen,  and  evolving;  that  eas  freelv,  on 
the  addition  of  an  excess  of  hydrocmoric  acid.  It 
is  sometimes  given  internally  in  doses  of  three 
grains  (in  the  form  of  a  pill  made  with  soap),  in 
obstinate  skin-diseases,  but  is  chiefly  used  as  a 
lotion,  bath,  or  ointment  for  these  diseases.  It 
must  be  recollected  that  this  compound  is  an  ener- 
getic narcotico-acrid  poison,  its  action  being  very 
like  that  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen.  Acetaie  of 
Potash  {KX),Cfifi^  is  obtained  by  the  action  of 
acetic  acid  on  carbonate  of  potash,  and  occurs  in 
white  foliaceouB  satiny  masses.  In  its  passage 
through  the  system,  it  is  converted  into  carbonate, 
and  urns  renders  the  urine  alkaline.  In  small 
doses,  as  from  a  scruple  to  a  drachm,  it  acts  as  a 
diuretic,  and  is  of  service  in  some  forms  of  dropsy. 
Combined  with  other  potass-salts,  it  is  much 
given  in  acute  rheumatisnu  CarhoTiate  of  Potash 
(KOyCO,  -I-  2Aq)  is  employed  in  medicine  in  the 
same  cases  as  those  in  which  solution  of  potash  is 
used.  In  large  doses,  it  acts,  like  caustic  potash,  as 
an  irritant  poison.  It  is  frequently  employed  in 
the  preparation  of  effervescing  draughts,  20  grains 
of  tnis  salt  being  neutralised  oy  17  grains  of  citric 
acid,  or  18  grains  of  tartaric  acid,  or  by  half  a 
fluid  ounce  of  lemon-juice.  Bicarbonate  of  Potash 
(K0,H0,2G0|)  may  be  used  in  the  same  cases  as 
the  carbonate  or  solution  of  potash.  It  is  chiefly 
used  for  the  manufacture  of  effervescing  draushtSi 
20  grains  of  the  crystallised  salt  being  neutriiJised 
by  14  of  citric  add,  15  of  tartanc  acid,  and 
si  drachms  of  lemon-juice.  Chlorate  of  Potash 
(KO,C10b)  is  prescribed  with  advantage  in  diseases 
of  a  low  type,  such  as  scarlatina  maligna,  cancrum 
oris,  diphtheria,  scurvy,  &c.  As  it  is  eliminated 
imchanged  by  the  kidneys,  its  modus  operandi  is 
unknown.  Ijt  may  be  prescribed  in  doses  of  from 
ten  to  twenW  grams  three  times  a  day  in  solution. 
CitraU  of  Potash  (3KO,C^HflOn)  is  obtained  by 
neutralising  a  solution  of  citric  acid  with  carbonate 
of  potash,  filtering,  and  evaporating  to  dryness, 
when  the  salt  is  deposited  as  a  white  powder  of  a 
saline,  feebly  acid  taste,  deliquescent,  and  very 
soluble  in  water.  It  is  procured  extempore  in  a 
state  of  solution  in  the  effervescing  draughts  for 
which  we  have  given  prescriptions  m  our  remarks 
on  the  carbonates  of  potash.  It  acts  mildly  on  the 
skin,  bowels,  and  kidneys,  whose  secretioiis  it 
promotes,  and  is  an  excellent  cooling  diaphoretic  in 
fevers  with  a  hot  and  dry  skin,  being  less  liable  to 
act  on  the  bowels  than  the  tartrate  or  acetate  of 
potash.  In  irritability  of  the  stomach,  it  is  an 
excellent  remedy,  when  given  as  an  effervescing 


POTATO. 


draught.  It  ma^  be  taken  in  doses  of  a  scruple  or 
half  a  drachm  in  solution  every  few  hours.  The 
therapeutic  uses  of  nitfxUe  of  poUuh  are  noticed  in 
the  article  Nitre.  SulpheUe  qf  potash  <KO»SOg)  is 
ujefnl  as  a  mild  laxative,  a  scruple  of  this  salt» 
especially  if  combiued  with  ten  grains  of  rhubarb, 
Qsuallv  acting  mildly  and  efiSdently.  It  has  con- 
sideraDle  power  in  repressinff  the  secretion  of  milk, 
and  has  been  much  used  for  this  purpose.  The 
reason  why  it  is  an  incredient  of  Dovw's  Powder, 
has  been  already  noticed. 

The  uses  of  the  tartrates  of  potash  are  noticed  in 
the  article  Tartaric  Acid.  Bromide  of  Potassium 
(KBr)  occurs  in  white,  transptrent,  cubical  crystals, 
and  is  occasionally  employea  in  enlargement  of  the 
spleen  and  in  certain  forms  of  epilepsy.  The  uses 
of  iodide  of  potassium  are  described  in  the  article 
Iodine. 

POTATO  {Sdlanum  tuberosum;  see  Solanuh), 
one  of  the  most  important  of  cidtivated  plants,  and 
in  universal  cultivation  in  the  temperate  parts  of 
the  globe.  It  is  a  perennial,  havmg  herbaceous 
stems,  1 — 3  feet  high,  without  thorns  or  prickles ; 
pinnate  leaves  with  two  or  more  pair  of  leaflets 
and  an  odd  one,  the  leaflets  entire  at  the  margin ; 
flowers  about  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  hau  in 
breadth,  the  wheel-shaped  corolla  being  white  or 
purple,  and  more  or  less  veined ;  followed  by  globu- 
lar, purplish  fruit,  of  the  size  of  ordinary  goose- 
bernes ;  the  roots  producing  tubers.  The  herbage 
has  a  sUghtiy  narcotic  smell,  although  cattle  do  not 
refuse  to  eat  a  little  of  it,  and  the  tender  tops  are 
used  in  some  countries  like  spinach.  The  tubers 
are,  however,  the  only  valuable  part  of  the  plant. 

The  P.  is  a  native  of  mountainous  districts  of 
tropical  and  subtropical  America,  probablv  from 
Chui  to  Mexico;  but  there  is  difficulty  in  deciding 
where  it  is  really  indigenous,  and  where  it  has 
spread  after  being  introduced  by  man.  Humboldt 
dfoubted  if  it  had  ever  been  found  truly  wild ;  but 
subsequent  travellers,  of  high  scientific  reputation, 
express  themselves  thoroughly  satisfied  on  this 
point.  Except  that  the  tub^  are  smaller,  the  wild 
plant  differs  little  from  the  cultivated.  Maize  and 
the  P.  are  the  two  greatest  gifts  which  America 
has  given  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  P.  has 
been  cultivated  in  America,  and  its  tubers  used  for 
food,  from  times  long  anterior  to  the  discovery  of 
America  by  Europeans.  It  seems  to  have  been 
first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Spaniards,  from  the 
neighboumood  of  Quito,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
16tn  c,  and  spread  from  Spain  into  the  Nether- 
lands, Burgundy,  and  Italy,  but  only  to  be  oulti- 
Yated  in  a  few  gardens  as  a  curiosity,  and  not  for 
general  use  as  an  article  of  food.  It  long  received 
Sirougbout  almost  all  European  countries  the  same 
name  with  the  Batatas  (q.  v.),  or  Sweet  Potato, 
which  is  the  plant  or  tuber  meant  by  English 
writers  down  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  c,  in  their 
use  of  the  name  potato.  It  appears  to  have  been 
brought  to  Ireland  from  Virginia  bv  Hawkins,  a 
slave-trader,  in  1565;  and  to  England  by  Sir  Francis 
Brake,  in  1585,  without  attractmg  much  notice,  till 
it  was  a  third  time  imported  from  America  by  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh  in  1623^  It  was  still  a  long  time 
before  it  began  to  be  extensively  cultivated.  Qierard, 
in  his  UerhaUj  published  in  1597,  gives  a  fiffure  of 
it  under  the  name  of  Batata  Virginiana  ;i3\jX  so 
little  were  its  merits  appreciated,  that  it  is  not  even 
mentioned  in  the  Complete  Gardener  of  London  and 
Wise,  published  more  than  a  century  later,  in  1719 ; 
whilst  another  writer  of  the  same  time  says  it  is 
inferior  to  skirret  and  radish !  It  besan,  however, 
to  be  imagined  that  it  might  be  usea  with  advan- 
tage for  feeding  *  swine  or  other  cattie,'  and  by  and 
hy  that  it  might  be  useful  for  poor  people,  and  for 


the  prevention  of  famine  on  failures  of  the  grsin* 
crops.  The  Royal  Society  took  up  this  idea,  ud  ia 
1663,  adopted  measures  for  extending  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  P.,  in  order  to  the  prevention  of  faminiss. 
To  this  the  example  of  Irelana  in  some  measure  led, 
the  P.  bavins  already  come  into  cultivation  thoe, 
to  an  extent  ur  greater  than  in  any  other  European 
countrv,  and  with  evident  advants^  to  the  people. 
From  Ireland,  the  cultivation  of  the  P.  was  intro- 
duced into  Lancashire  about  the  end  of  the  17th  c, 
soon  became  general  there,  and  thence  spread  over 
England ;  so  that,  before  the  middle  of  tbe  18tfa  &, 
it  had  become  important  as  a  field-crop,  which  it 
became  in  the  south  of  Scotland  some  20  or  30 
years  later;  about  the  same  time,  in  Saxony  and 
some  other  parts  of  Germany ;  but  not  until  the 
latter  part  of  the  century,  in  some  other  parts  of 
Germany  and  in  France.  In  France,  the  extensioB 
of  P.  culture  was  very  much  due  to  the  exertions  of 
Parmentier.  In  some  parts  of  Germany,  the  govern- 
ments took  an  interest  in  it»  and  promoted  it  by 
compulsory  regulations. 

The  P.  is  en  great  importance  as  affording  food 
both  for  human  beings  and  for  cattie ;  and  next  to 
the  principal  cereals,  is  the  most  valuable  of  idl 
plante  for  numan  food.    It  is  also  used  for  vazious 

Surposes  in  the  arts.  No  food-plant  is  more  widdy 
iffused;  it  is  cultivated  in  subtropical  countries; 
and  struggles  for  existence  in  gardens,  even  within 
the  arctic  circle,  yielding  small  and  watery  tubers ; 
although  the  effects  of  late  spring  frosts,  or  eariy 
autumnal  frosts,  upon  its  foliage,  often  prove  that  it 
is  a  plant  properly  belonging  to  a  filimi^.^  milder 
than  that  of  most  parts  m  Britain.  Ko  more 
important  event  of  its  kind  has  ever  taken  place 
than  the  general  introduction  of  P.  culture  into  tiie 
husbandry  of  Britain  and  other  European  oountries. 
It  has  exercised  a  most  beneficial  influence  on  the 
general  welfare  of  the  people,  increasing  national 
wealth,  and  preventing,  as  a  few  far-seeing  thinkers 
had  anticipated,  the  once-frequent  returns  of  famiiw^ 
That  in  1846  and  1847>  terrible  famine  resulted  in 
Ireland  and  elsewhere  from  the  failure  of  the  P. 
crop  itself,  was  owing  only  to  the  excess  to  which 
its  cultivation  had  been  earned.  The  resohs 
confirmed  two  great  laws,  that  plants  long  veiy 
extensively  or  almost  exclusively  cultivated  in 
anv  distnct^  however  successfully  they  may  he 
cultivated  for  a  time,  are  sure  to  fail  at  last ;  and 
that  the  exclusive,  or  almost  exclusive  dependenee 
of  a  people  on  one  source  or  means  of  support^ 
b  unfavourable  to  their  welfare  in  respect  to  all 
their  interests. 

Humboldt  calculates  that  the  same  extent  of 
ground  which  would  produce  thirty  pounds  of  wheats 
would  produce  one  thousand  pounds  of  potatoes. 
But  potatoes  are  not  nearly  so  nutritious  as  wheat, 
and  the  constant  employment  of  them  aa  the  chief 
article  of  food,  is  not  favourable  to  the  developmenct 
of  the  physical  powers,  and  is  consequently  in  its 
protracted  influence  unfavourable  to  mental  energjr. 
All  this  is  too  well  illustrated  in  Ireland  and  Ss 
Highlands  of  Scotland,  in  a  race  capable  of  the 
highest  development  of  both.  It  is  calculated  that 
100  parts  of  good  wheat-flour,  or  107  parts  d  the 
grain,  contain  as  much  actual  nutriment  as  613 
parts  of  potatoes.  The  inferior!^  of  the  P.  in 
nutritious  power  is  very  much  owing  to  the  com- 
paiatively  small  quantity  of  nitrogenous  substaaoas 
which  it  contains,  in  consequence  of  which  it  is 
most  advantageously  used  along  with  some  venr 
nitrogenous  article  ox  food,  in  Britain  generally  with 
animal  food,  in  some  parts  of  Europe  ¥Pith  cards  or 
with  chees&  The  P.  tuber,  in  a  fresh  state,  con- 
tains about  71 — 80  per  cent,  of  water ;  15 — 20  ai 
starch,  3 — ^7  of  fibre  or  woody  matter,  3>>-4  of  gam^ 


POTAXa 


daxtrine,  and  sugar,  and  2  of  albumen,  gluten,  and 
casein.  There  are  considerable  differences,  how- 
ever, in  different  yarieties,  in  different  stages  of 
maturity,  and  in  different  soiU  and  seasons. 

Potatoes  are  nsed,  both  raw  and  boiled,  for  the 
feeding  of  cattle.  For  human  food,  they  are 
variously  prepared  by  roasting  or  boiling,  but 
now  chiefly  by  boiling,  a  process  oy  which  they  are 
freed  from  all  that  is  narcotic  and  noxious  in  their 
juice.  The  water  in  which  potatoes  have  been  boiled 
IS  not  wholesome,  and  those  modes  of  preparing 
them  for  the  table  which  do  not  admit  of  ite 
complete  rejection,  oueht  to  be  avoided. 

The  herbage  or  hauun  of  the  P.  has  been  used  for 
making  paper,  but  the  results  were  not  encouraging. 
The  bernes  are  sweetish,  but  not  pleasant ;  nauseous 
when  fermented,  but  yield  by  distillation  a  tolerable 
spirit 

The  varieties  of  the  P.  in  cultivation  are 
extremely  nimierous.  Any  enumeration  or  classi- 
fication of  them  is  impossible.  New  ones  are  con- 
tinually appearing,  and  old  ones  passing  away. 
Those  most  advantageously  cultivated  in  particular 
soils  and  climates,  are  often  found  to  degenerate 
when  removed  to  a  small  distance.  Many  of  the 
new  varieties  of  P.  are  raised  in  Lancashire,  but 
particularly  of  the  garden  kinds,  which  generslly 
differ  from  those  pr^erred  for  field-culture  in  their 
^ater  earliness,  and  not  unfrequently  in  their 
inferior  productiveness,  and  in  their  being  less 
mealy  and  less  nutritious.  Potatoes  differ  consider- 
ably in  the  character  of  their  herbage — ^which  is 
sometimes  erect,  sometimes  straggling — and  in  the 
size  and  colour  of  their  fiowers;  out  are  more 
generally  distinguished  by  the  size,  form,  and  colour 
of  their  tubers,  which  are  round,  long,  or  kidney- 
shaped,  white^  red,  dark  purple,  variegated,  &c. 

New  varieties  of  P.  are  produced  from  seed ;  but 
potatoes  are  ordinarily  propagated  by  planting  the 
tubers,  or  cuttings  of  uie  tubers,  each  containing  an 
eye  or  bud.  Late  crops  of  early  potatoes  are  some- 
times procured  by  cuttings  of  the  stalks  or  by 
layers ;  methods  which  might  probably  be  pursued 
with  moro  advantage  whero  the  summer  is  longer 
than  in  Britain.  Much  has  been  written  oy 
gardeners  and  agriculturists  on  the  comparative 
advantages  of  punting  whole  tubers  or  cuttings ; 
but  the  latter  method  generally  previuls. 

Potatoes  aro  planted  in  drills,  made  either  by  the 
spade  or  plough  ;  or  in  kusy  bedsy  which  are  always 
made  by  the  spade,  and  are  beds  in  which  the  sets 
of  potatoes  aro  covered  over  with  earth  dug  out  of 
the  alleys.  The  alleys  serve,  although  imperfectly, 
for  drains  in  undrained  land.  The  cultivation  of 
potatoes  as  a  field-crop  seems  to  have  been  first 
attempted  in  lazy  beds.  They  are  stUl  common  in 
many  parts  of  Ireland,  but  aro  now  raro  in  most 
p^rts  of  England  and  Scotland.  They  are  very 
suitable  for  strong,  heavy,  and  somewhat  moist 
land,  and  aro  profitobly  used  in  reducing  some  kinds 
of  soil  to  cultivation,  but  aro  generally  unsuitable 
for  field-culture,  owing  to  the  expense  of  labour 
required.  In  strong  heavy  land,  potatoes  are 
cultivated  in  raised  dnlls ;  in  lighter  and  drier  soils, 
the  raising  of  the  driUs  is  unnecessary.  Muiure 
is  eeneralnr  given,  consisting  generally  of  dung  and 
weU-rotted  straw  from  the  fsffm-yaid.  Guano  and 
other  strong  artificial  manures  are  apt  to  produce 
an  excessive  erowth  of  stalks  and  leaves,  which  is 
to  be  guarded  against  by  diminishing  or  even  with- 
holding manure  in  certain  soils;  potatoes  of  too 
iuxuriant  growth  being  always  particularly  liable 
to  diseases.  The  cultivation  of  potatoes,  after  they 
aro  planted,  whether  in  the  field  or  wden,  consists 
chiefly  in  keeping  the  ground  clear  of  weeds,  and  in 
earthing  up  the  ^ants,  to  promote  the  formation  of 


tubers.  Potatoes  are  taken  up  either  by  the  fork 
or  by  turning  over  the  drills  with  the  plough. 
Garden  potatoes  are  generally  used  long  before  they 
are  really  ripe,  f ormmg  a  favourite  dish  in  a  vei^ 
unripe  state,  when  they  aro  far  from  being  a  me 
article  of  food,  and  contribute  not  a  litUe  to  the 
prevalence  of  cholera  and  kindred  diseases  »n, 
summer.  Field  potatoes,  unless  when  intended 
for  the  supply  of  tne  markets  of  towns,  like  garden 
potatoes,  are  allowed  to  ripen  thoroughly,  and  are 
then  ottpable  of  being  stored  for  winter  and  spring 
use.  Early  potatoes  are  forced  in  hot-beds,  and  in 
the  spare  ground  of  hothouses,  that  they  may  bo 
obtained  very  early  ;  also,  after  being  thus  brought 
forward  in  some  degree,  they  are  planted  out  in 
gardens,  for  a  succession  of  young  tuber&  The 
plantii^  of  potatoes  in  the  open  air  cannot  bo 
successfully  practised  in  most  parts  of  Britain  before 
February  or  Maroh,  and  in  manv  seasons  the  later- 
planted  are  found  as  early  as  the  earlier-planted, 
and  more  pnxluctive.  The  storing  of  potatoes  is 
variously  accomplished  in  dry  lous  or  sheds,  in 
airy  cellars  or  bams,  and  in  pits,  which  are  some- 
times holes  excavated  to  a  small  depth  in  the  earth, 
and  the  potatoes  piled  up  above  the  surface  of  the 
^und,  m  a  cooical,  or  m  a  roof-like  form,  some- 
times mere  heaps  of  one  or  other  of  these  forms 
upon  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  covered  with 
straw  and  earth  to  keep  out  light  and  frost  The 
access  of  light  makes  potatoes  green,  bitter,  and 
unwholesome,  as  is  often  seen  in  wose  which,  whilst 
growing,  have  been  partially  above  ground.  P. 
pits  are  often  ventilated  by  means  of  pipes,  as 
without  ventilation  the  potatoes  are  apt  to  heat 
and  sprout  Potatoes  taken  from  the  ground  before 
they  are  quite  ripe  aro  extremely  apt  to  heat  and 
sprout. 

The  P.  crop  is  now  an  important  one  in  almost 
all  the  rotations  practised  in  Britain,  although  its 
cultivation  is  in  most  districts  not  quite  sp  extensive 
as  before  ite  failare  from  the  P.  d%9eaae  in  1845  and 
subsequent  years,  and  farmers  are  more  careful  not 
to  depend  too  much  upon  it  It  very  commonly 
succeeds  a  grain-crop,  but  sometimes  is  advan- 
tageously planted  on  land  newly  broken  up  from 
grass. 

The  P.  is  subject  to  a  number  of  diseases,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  P.  DtsMue  (q.  v.)  or  P. 
Murrain.  Before  it  began  to  prevail,  the  chief 
diseases  affecting  the  P.  were  those  called  Curly 
Scab,  Dry  Hot,  and  Wet  RoL  Of  all  these  diseases, 
it  would  seem  that  one  principal  cause,  however 
combined  with  other  causes,  is  the  exhaustion  of 
the  vegetative  powers  of  the  plant,  from  frequent 
propagation  by  tubers  or  cuttings  of  tubers.  It  is 
to  be  Dome  in  mind  that  propagation  by  tubers  is 
not  properly  reproduction,  but  one  plant  is  divided 
into  a  multitude ;  and  the  whole  analog  of  nature 
seems  to  shew,  that  althouflh  it  may  hve  longer  in 
this  way  and  more  healthmlly  than  if  left  to  the 
spot  where  its  seed  first  germinated,  ite  existence 
win  come  to  an  end,  and  the  species  must  be  pre- 
served by  reproduction  from  seed.  It  was  iouff 
since  observea  as  to  Cubl,  the  dread  of  farmers  aaa 
^pudeners  before  the  P.  disease  was  known,  that  it 
most  readily  attacks  potatoes  which  sprung  from 
weak  sets.  Curl  is  a  disease  affecting  the  foUage 
and  general  health  of  the  P.  plant,  and  does  not 
seem  to  be  necessarily  connected  with  the  presence 
of  any  vegetable  parasite  or  insect  enemy.— Scab  is 
a  disease  of  the  tubers,  which  become  covered  with 
brown,  oblong,  and  finally  Confiuent  and  cup-shaped 
spots,  whilst  under  the  surface  is  a  powdering  of 
minute  olive-yellow  grains,  a  fungus  called  Tubers 
dnia  JScahies,  of  the  division  Hypfiomyceles,— Dry 
Hot  is  also  ascribed  to  the  growth  of  a  f  unsos  of 


POTATODISEASB-POTATO-PLY. 


the  same  order,  Fumeporhim  Solanif  and  attacks  the 
tubers  either  whea  stored  for  winter  or  after  being 
planted.  It  was  very  carefully  inyestiffated  by 
Martina,  and  described  in  a  memoir  published  in 
1842.  It  was  first  observed  in  Germany  in  1890, 
and  caused  great  loss  in  that  country  throughout 
many  years.  The  tissues  of  the  P.  tuber  b^me 
hardened  and  completely  filled  with  the  mycelium 
of  the  fungus,  which  at  last  bursts  forth  in  littie 
onshion-shaped  tufts  loaded  with  fructification. — 
Wbt  Kot  differs  from  Dry  Rot  in  the  tubers 
becoming  soft  and  rotten  instead  of  hard  and  dry, 
and  is  always  characterised  by  the  presence  of  a 
fungus  referred  by  Fries  to  his  genus  PeriolOi  but 
which  Berkeley  regards  as  another  form  or  stage 
of  the  same  fimgns  which  causes  or  is  inseparably 
connected  with  Diy  Rot.  Both  Dry  Rot  and  Wet 
Rot  have  often  b^en  observed  along  with  the  P. 
cfisftue,  which,  however,  is  always  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  another  peculiar  fungus. 

But,  besides  its  value  as  a  culinary  vegetable,  the 
P.  is  important  in  other  respectsL  Its  starch  is 
very  easu;^  senarated,  and  is  in  large  proportions ; 
hence  it  is  cneaper  than  any  other  kind.  It  is 
manufactured  on  a  ver^  laige  scale  both  in  this 
country  and  on  the  continent.  It  is  chiefly  used  in 
textile  manufactories  under  the  name  of  farina, 
which  is  converted  into  dextrine  or  British  gum. 
See  Staroh.  In  Holland  and  in  Rnssia,  where 
there  is  much  difficulty  in  keeping  potatoes  through 
the  winter,  and  there  is  consequently  a  necessity 
for  using  the  crop  quickly,  large  quantities  of  starcn 
are  mac^  and  this  is  convertMl  into  sugar  or  syrup. 
See  SuoAB.  The  refuse  of  the  starch>manufactories 
is  all  economised ;  it  is  pressed  out  from  the  water, 
and  either  used  for  pig-feeding  or  for  manure.  In 
the  north  of  Europe,  much  spirit  for  drinking  is 
made  from  potatoes ;  it  is  called  Potato  Brandy. 

POTATO  DISEASES,  or  POTATO  MURRAIN. 
Ko  subiect  connected  with  Agriculture  or  with 
Botany  has  ^ven  rise  within  so  short  a  time  to  so 
extensive  a  uterature  as  this.  It  has  been  treated 
in  books  and  pamphlets,  and  in  manizines  and 
periodicals  of  every  kind.  The  terrible  famines 
caused  by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in  Ireland 
and  other  countries,  particularly  in  18^  and  1847, 
concentrated  upon  it  the  attention  of  the  whole 
civilised  world ;  and  yet  it  remains  very  obscure. 

The  potato  disease  seems  to  have  been  at  first 
confounded  with  Dry  Rot  and  Wet  Rot  (see  Potato), 
which  appeared  a  number  of  years  before  it  to  a 
formidable  extent,  although  not  to  be  compared 
with  it  in  their  ravages.  This  fact — ^and  aU  the 
more  if  the  potato  disease  is  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
presence  of  a  different  and  peculiar  fungus — may 
perhaps  be  held  as  giving  support  to  the  opinion 
that  its  chief  cause  was  really  the  weakemng  of 
the  plant  through  too  constant  cultivation  on  the 
same  land,  and  continued  propagation  by  tubers 
alone. 

The  potato  disease  was  first  observed  in  Germany, 
and  first  assumed  a  very  serious  character  near 
Li6ge  in  1842.  In  1844  it  broke  out  in  Canada^  and 
all  at  once  proved  very  destructive.  In  1845,  it  was 
first  noticed  in  England,  and  first  in  the  Isle  of 
Wight.  But  during  that  year,  its  rava^  were 
considerable  in  the  British  Islands ;  much  more  so 
in  the  year  following,  when  the  Irish  famine  was  the 
consequence,  and  in  the  same  year  it  prevailed  very 
extensively  over  almost  all  parts  of  JEhxrope.  The 
summer  was  unusually  cloudy  and  moist,  a  ciscum- 
stance  probably  not  without  its  effect  In  1847, 
the  disease  was  still  prevalent,  but  to  a  smaller 
extent ;  and  since  that  time  its  prevalence  has 
gradually  diminished,  although  it  occasionally  breaks 
out  in  particular  localitieo,  Meanwhile,  it  is  to 
lis 


be  observed,  that  almost  all  the  varieties  of  potsio 
cultivated  to  any  considerable  extent  before  1846^ 
have  disappeared,  and  been  replaced  by  otiiera  Leik 
too  much,  however,  should  be  inferred  from  this  is 
favour  of  a  particular  theory,  it  must  also  be  lUtod, 
that  potatoes  newly  raised  hrom  seed  were  Bome- 
times  severely  attacked  by  the  disease  during  the 
period  of  its  greatest  prevalence. 

No  fully  satisfactory  theory  as  to  its  came  or 
origin  has  been  proposed.  That  it  has  Ions  existed 
in  the  western  parts  of  America,  may  proeably  be 
true,  as  has  been  alleged,  although  tiie  distioctioB 
between  it  and  other  disiesses  of  the  potato  might 
not  perhaps  be  noted  with  sufiSctent  care ;  bat  even 
this  would  not  account  for  its  sudden  appearaaoe 
and  terrible  devastations  in  other  parts  of  the  world. 
Many  observers  ascribed  it  to  insects  and  ooiri, 
some  even  to  infusoria  in  the  tissues,  but  the 
presence  of  none  of  these  was  found  to  be  consimtk 
and  they  appeared  therefore  rather  to  be  the  conse- 
quences than  the  cause  of  the  disease.  It  is  other- 
wise with  the  funffus,  BatrytU  infukiHs  (see 
BoTRTTis),  which  is  luways  present,  although  prob- 
ably, like  other  parasites,  it  generally  attiicks  as 
already  weakened  plant.  The  disease  generally  fint 
appears  in  the  leaves,  and  thenoe  extends  to  the 
tubers,  although  it  has  been  sometimes  observed  to 
appear  in  the  tubers  of  some  of  the  early  kinds  of 
wmch.  the  leaves  have  perished  before  tiie  seawa 
when  it  breaks  out.  It  sometimes  also  lies  donnant 
in  the  tubers  for  months,  so  that  after  being  stored 
apparently  sound  in  autumn,  they  become  di^ased  is 
the  following  spring.  When  the  disease  appean  in 
the  growing  plant,  brown  spots  are  fiist  to  be 
noticed  on  the  margins  of  the  leaves,  corrugating  tin 
leaves  as  they  spread.  Very  rapid  extension  ot  the 
disease,  and  decay  of  the  leaves  and  stalks,  oftea 
ensue.  It  is  on  the  under  surface  of  the  leaf  tiiat 
the  Botrytia  is  found ;  it  abounds  also  in  the  diseased 
tubers,  which,  when  cut.  produce  an  abundant  crop 
of  it  from  the  fresh  surface,  and  it  sometimes  vege- 
tates even  from  the  natural  surface.  The  same 
fungus  has  been  found  in  the  berries  of  the  Tomato 
(q.  y.)  when  diseased,  and  on  the  leaves  of  other 
plants  of  the  natural  order  SolanecB,  but  never  on 
any  plant  not  of  that  order. 

The  starch  granules  which  exist  within  the  oeDa 
of  potatoes  seem  not  to  be  affected  by  the  potato 
dis^Ase,  but  remain  unaltered  in  quality,  so  tost  as 
good  potato  staroh  is  made  from  unsound  ss  froa 
sound  tubers.  On  occasion  of  the  great  ravages  of 
the  disease  in  1846,  however,  advanta^  was  bni 
partially  taken  of  this  fact,  partly  from  ignorance  of 
it ;  partly  from  an 
apprehension,  ap- 
parently quite  un- 
founded, tnat  the 
starch  might  prove 
unwholesome;  and 
partiy  from  the 
want  of  machinery 
to  grate  down  the 
diseased  potatoes 
before  rottenness 
had  involved  the 
whole. 

POTATO-FLY 

{Anthonyia    tuber* 

osa),   a   dipterouB 

insect  of  the  same 

genus    with     the  Potato-fly: 

Beet*fly,  Cabbage*    I,  larva  or  maggot,  aataral  disi 

fly.  Turnip-fly,  &c        «.  !»▼•  magnliled ;  8,  Pocat«-«y. 

In      its      perfect 

state,  it  is  very  like  the  House-fly.    The  mak  il 

about  five  lines  long,  grayiah-Uack,  bristly,  vith 


POTCHINKY— POTENTILLA. 


five  indistinct  broad  ttripes  on  the  back,  and  foor 
ochreona  spot*  on  the  second  and  third  segments; 
the  female  ashy-slate  colour,  with  two  indistinct 
ochreous  spots  on  the  second  abdominal  segments 
The  maggots  are  veiy  abundant  in  bad  potatoes 
in  autumn,  and  are  very  different  from  the  maggots 
of  the  House-fly,  being  homy,  spiny,  bristiy,  and 
tawny;  the  Ions  tail  ending  in  six  long  bristles. 
The  pupa  is  veiy  like  the  larva. 

POTOHrNKT,  a  district  town  of  European 
Russia,  in  the  government  of  l^ijni-Novgorod,  110 
miles  south-south-east  of  the  city  of  that  name, 
and  800  miles  south-east  from  St  Petersburg.  It  is 
one  of  the  centres  of  the  corn-trade  c^  the  country, 
and  exports  potash.    Pop.  7554 

POTEMKIN,*  Okboort  Alezandrovitoh,  the 

most    celebrated  of   the    Czarina   Catharine  IL's 

favourites,  was  bom  near  Smolensk  in  September 

1736.    He  was  descended  of  a  noble  Polish  fsunily, 

and  at  an  early  age  entered  the  Russian  army,  and 

rose  to  be   ensign  in  the  imperial   horse-guards. 

Happening  to  at&act  the  notice  of  the  czanna  by 

his  noble  appearance  and  handsome  athletic  figure, 

he  was  forthwith  (1762)  attached  to  her  household, 

and  appointed  cdond  and  gentleman  of  the  bed- 

dhaml>er.     After  a   time   (1774),  he    superseded 

Gregory  Orlov  (q.  v.)  in  the  good  graces  of  the 

ezarina,  and  became  her   favourite  and   avowed 

lover.      He   played  the   part   of   lover   for  only 

two  years,  when  he  was  superseded  by  a  younger 

and  more  amiable  successor;  but  the  ascendency 

which  he  had   acquired  over  the  czarina  was  in 

nowise    affected  by  this  change.     He  knew  well 

how  to  flatter  her  vanity,  rouse  her  fears,  and 

make  her  believe  that  he  alone  could  protect  her 

from  the  numerous  conspiracies   (some  of  which 

were  real,  and  many  mythical)  which  were  beins 

constantly  formed  a^unst  her.  Catharine  submitted 

to  bH  his  caprices,  consulted  him  in  everything,  and 

was  in  almost  all  cases  ffuided  by  his  advice.    P. 

was  consequently,  from  1770  till  the  year  of  his 

death,  the  true  representative  of  the  Russian  policy 

in  Europe ;  and  Frederick  the  Great  of  Prussia,  ana 

even  the  hau^ty  Hapsburgs,  Maria  Theresa  and 

Joseph  IL,  orm^ed  at  nis  feet^  and,  at  the  demand 

of  the  czarina,  loaded  him  witii  titles  and  honours ; 

though,  much  to  his  chagrin,  he  failed  to  obtain  the 

English  order  of  the  Garter,  and  the  French  one  of 

the   Holy   Spirit.      P.   interfered   little  with   the 

internal  government   of   Russia^   beyond   offering 

many  valuable  suggestions  for  the  development  m. 

manufactures  and  mdustry,  which  were  carried  out; 

his  important  achievements  being  connected  with 

the  foreign  policy  of  Russia,  especially  as  far  as  it 

related  to  Turkey.    It  was  at  nis  instigation  that 

tfar)  Turks  were  forced  into  war,  and  robo^d  of  their 

territories  north  and  east  of  the  Black  Sea,  in  order 

that  Russia  might  possess  a  southern  sea-boa^; 

and    after   this   haa   been    done,  P.  immediately 

ordered  tiie  creation  of  a  Black  Sea  fleet,  and  the 

building  of  Kherson,  Kertch,  Nikolaiev,  and  Sebas- 

topoL     For  his  services,  he  was  created  governor  of 

the    Taurida   (q.  v.),  and   loaded  with   numerous 

honours  and  presents.    In  1787,  Catharine  paid  a 

visit  to  him  at  his  jrovemment,   and  the  'hoax' 

which    he   played  off  on   his   sovereign   is  well 

described  by  De  Se^rur.     He  caused  an  immense 

number  of  wooden  pamted  houses  to  be  constructed, 

and  grouped  into  towns  and  villages  along  the  route 

the  czarina  was  to  take,  and  hired  people  to  act  the 

l>art  of  villagers,  merchants,  tradesmen,  and  mi- 

culturists,  engaged  in  their  various  pursuits.    The 

czarina's  vanity  was  hugely  gratified  at  the  seeming 

*  The  name  is  pronouneod  PaUumkim  by  Buwiana 


Potent. 


improvements  of  the  oonntiy  under  her  rale,  and 
P.  was  rewarded  for  his  dexterity  by  fmiher 
honours  and  emoluments.  Almost  immediatdy 
after  this,  a  war  broke  out  with  the  Turks,  and  P. 
was  placod  at  the  head  of  the  army,  with  Suwarof 
and  Kepnin  for  his  lieutenants.  His  career  was  one 
of  uninterrnpted  victory.  Bessarabia  and  the  two 
principalities  were  conquered,  and  he  was  about  to 
advance  on  Constantinople,  when  the  empress  com- 
manded a  cessation  of  hostilities ;  but  before  P.  had 
time  to  bring  her  round  to  his  own  views,  he  was 
seized  with  sudden  illness  on  the  road  between 
Jassy  and  Nikolaiev,  and  died 
there,  October  16, 1791. 

POTENT,  Cboss,  in  Heraldry, 
ft  cross  crutch-shaped  at  eadi 
extremity.  It  is  also  called  a 
Jerusalem  cross,  from  its  occur- 
rence in  the  insignia  of  the 
Christian  kingdom  of  Jerusalem, 
which  are,  A^ent  a  cross  potent 
between  four  crosslets  or.  This 
coat  is  remarkable  as  being  a 
departure  from  the  usual 
h^aldic  rule  which  prohibits  the  placing  of  metal 
uponmetaL 

POTENT  OOTJNTER-POTENT,  one  of  the 

heraldic  furs,  in  which  the 
field  is  filled  with  cratch- 
shaped  figures  alternately 
of  metal  and  colour,  those 
of  opposite  tinctures  being 
placed  base  against  base, 
and  point  against  point. 
The  metal  a^  colour  are 
understood  to  be  amnt  and 
azure,  unless  they  be  sped-  Potent  Oounter-Poteat. 
ally  blazoned  otherwise. 
Potent  oounter-potent  is  sometimes  blazoned  Yairy* 
cuppy. 

POTENT^E,  a  heraldic  line  of  division  which 
takes  the  form  of  the  outline 
of  a  succession  of  crutch-shaped 
figures. 

POTENTIXLA,  a  eenus  of 

Slants  of  the  naturtu  order 
laaaouB,  suborder  PotenHUecs, 
differing  from  Fragaria  (Straw- 
berry) m  the  fruit  having  a  dry 
instead  of  a  succulent  receptacle. 
The  species  are  very  numerous, 
natives  chiefiy  of  northern  tem- 
perate regions,  and  some  of 
them  of  the  coldest  north ;  most  of  them  perennial 
herbaceous  plants,  wit^  yellow,  white,  red,  or 
purple  fiowers,  and  pinnate,  digitate,  or  teniate 
leaves.  They  are  often  called  Cinqubfoil  (Fr. 
five-leaved) ;  and  some  of  the  species  are  favourite 
garden  fiowers.  A  few  are  natives  of  Britain; 
one  of  the  rarest  of  which  is  a  shrubby  species 
(P.  fiutieosa),  forming  a  large  bush,  with  pmnate 
leaves,  and  a  profusion  of  yellow  flowers,  often 
planted  in  shrobberies.  P.  reptana,  a  common 
British  species,  with  creepinc  stems,  digitate  leaves^ 
and  yellow  flowers,  once  nad  a  high  reputation  as  a 
remedy  for  diarrhcea,  from  the  astringent  property 
of  its  root,  of  which  most  of  the  species  partake 
with  it.  But  P.  an«erina,  a  very  common  British 
species,  popularly  known  as  Szlyebwbed,  having 
creeping  stems,  yellow  flowers,  and  pinnate  leaves, 
which  are  beautifully  silky  Mid  silvery  beneath, 
has  an  edible  root,  with  a  taste  somewhat  like  that 
of  the  parsnip.  Swine  grub  it  up  with  avidity,  and 
it  was  onoe  much  esteemed  as  an  article  of  food  in 
some  parti  of  Scotland,  particularly  in  the  Hebrides^ 

nt 


Plotent6e 


POTENZA— POTSDAM. 


where  it  abonnds  and  has  been  a  reBonroe  in  times 
of  famine.— The  name  P.  ia  said  to  be  derived  from 
the  Latin  potens,  powerful,  and  to  allude  to  medi- 
cinal virtues  now  known  to  merit  little  regard. 
Tormentil  (q.  ▼.)  is  sometimes  referred  to  this 
genus. 

POTE'KZA  (anc.  PotenHa),  in  South  Italy,  the 
chief  town  of  the  province  of  Ba8ilicata»  ia  situated 
on  a  hill  of  the  Apennines,  near  the  river  Vasente  or 
Basento,  54  miles  east  of  Salerno.  Pop.  12,789.  It 
is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  has  a  fine  cathedral  of 
the  Doric  order,  and  is  the  seat  of  an  archbiBhop. 
P.  was  shaken  b^  earthquakes  in  1273,  1694,  and 
1812.  The  province  of  Basilicata  is  that  which 
suffers  most  from  brigandage,  because  of  the  hills 
and  woods  which  surround  it. 

POT-HERBS  are  not,  as  misht  be  supposed 
from  the  name,  the  vegetables  chiefly  used  for 
culinary  purposes  as  supplying  articles  of  food,  but 
rather  those  which  are  of  secondary  importance,  and 
vtJuable  chiefly  for  flavouring,  as  parsley,  fennel,  ko, 

POT-METAL  is  an'  alloy  of  lead  and  copper, 
obtained  by  throwing  lumps  of  copper  into  red-not 
melted  lead.  It  is  of  a  gray  colour,  brittle  and 
granular. 

POTO'M  AO,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  formed 
by  two  branches,  which  rise  in  the  Alleghany 
Mountains,  and  unite  20  miles  south-east  of 
Cumberland,  Maryland,  from  which  point  the  river 
flows  in  a  generally  south-easterly  course,  400 
miles,  and  falls  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  where  it  is  6 
to  8  zniles  broad,  75  miles  mm  the  ocean.  Line-of- 
battle  ships  ascend  to  Washington,  120  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  the  tide  reaches  G^rgetown. 
Between  Westport  and  Washington,  220  miles,  it 
&lls  1160  feet  The  scenery  in  this  portion  of  its 
course  is  wild  and  beautifnl,  especially  where  it 
breaks  through  the  Blue  Bidge  at  Harper's  Ferry. 
Its  principal  affluents  are  the  Shenandoah,  Savaffe, 
Monacacy,  and  Acqnia  Creek.  The  P.  forms  the 
greater  part  of  the  ooundary  between  Virginia  and 
Maryland.  During  the  war  which  began  in  1861, 
botli  Federal  and  Confederate  armies  crossed  several 
times  the  fords  of  the  Upper  Potomac,  and  severe 
actions  were  fought  upon  its  banks. 

PO'TOROO,  or  KANGAROO  RAT  (JTupHpHm- 
ntu)t  a  genus  of  marsupial  quadrupeds,  of  the  family 
MaeropidcB  (see  Kakoaroo),  differing  from^  kan* 
garoos  chiefly  in  having  distinct  canine  teeth  in  the 
upper  jaw.  The  first  pair  of  incisors  in  the  upper 
jaw  are  aLao  longer  and  larger  than  the  others. 
The  molars  decrease  in  size  backwards ;  and  when 
not  worn,  preaent  four  blunt  tuberclea.  The  fore- 
limbs  are  proportionallv  longer,  the  hinder-limbs 
less  powerful  than  in  tne  kangaroos.  The  general 
form  and  habits  are  similar;  there  is  the  same 
sitting  on  the  hind-feet  with  help  of  the  tail  for 
support,  and  a  somewhat  similar  hopping,  but  not 
nearly  an  equal  power  of  vigorous  leaping.  The 
stomach  is  large,  and  divided  into  two  sacs,  with 
several  inflations ;  the  food  entirely^  vegetable. 
There  are  several  species,  all  of  small  aize,  none  of 
them  larger  than  a  rabbit,  and  all  natives  of 
Australia,  timid  and  harmleas  creatures.  They  are 
generally  clothed  with  a  dense,  and  sometimes  a 
beautiful  fur ;  but  the  tail  is  nearly  destitute  of 
hairs,  and  scaly. 

POTO'SI,  one  of  the  richest  mining-towns  of 
South  America,  the  second  town  of  IB^livia,  and 
capital  of  a  department  of  the  same  name,  stands 
in  a  dreary  and  barren  district,  13,330  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  lat.  19"  36'  S.,  and  long.  66'  25'  W.,  70 
miles  south-west  of  Chuquisaca.  It  covers  a  large 
area,  and  in  1611,  its  population  was  170,000,  but 

ns 


in  1858,  it  had  fallen  to  22,800,  and  grat  pot 
of  the  town  was  in  ruins.  In  its  centra  is  a 
larfle  square,  around  which  are  ranged  the  principil 
public  edifices,  as  the  government-house,  town- 
nouse,  cathedral,  ko.  The  mint  is  a  large  building 
in  which  the  average  amount  now  coined  smoonlB 
to  about  2,000,000  doUan  annually.  In  tbe 
central  square,  an  obeliak  in  honour  of  BoUw 
was  erected  in  1825b  English  and  French  oianii- 
factures  are  imported;  ana  as  the  country  in  the 
vicinity  produces  little  or  nothing,  all  anpplies 
have  to  be  brought  from  a  distance.  The  Oeiro 
(sierra)  de  Potosi,  or  Silver  Mountain,  is  lt^200 
feet  high.  Its  summit  is  honey-combed  viih 
upwards  of  5000  mines,  and  operations  are  nov 
carried  on  at  a  lower  level,  where  the  inrnab 
of  water,  however,  often  compela  the  minen  to 
abandon  the  richest  mines,  yp  to  the  year  1816» 
the  quantity  of  silver  eztractea  from  the  mines  of 
this  mountain  amounted  to  £330,544,31  L—BoUaofi 
AfUiquUies  of  South  Americcu 

POT-POURRI,  in  French,  the  name  of  a  mixton 
of  sweet  scented  materiala,  chiefiy  flowera^  dried, 
and  usually  placed  in  a  vase  with  a  perforated  lid, 
in  order  that  their  perfume  may  be  diffused  throng 
rooms  in  which  it  is  placed.  The  principal  insie- 
dients  are  roae-petala,  lavender  flowers  and  atuks, 
violets,  jessamine  flowers,  woodruff  leavea,  ciovei, 
orria-root,  pimento,  musk,  sandal-wood  raapin^ 
cedar-shavings,  &c.  But  it  also  signifies  a  dish  of 
different  sorts  of  viands,  and  corresponds,  in  tiiia 
sense  to  the  hotek-potch  of  Scotlazid,  and  the  OSa 
Podrida  (q.  v.)  of  Spain. 

POT-POURRI,  in  Music,  a  selection  of  favounfta 
pieces  strung  together  without  much  anangemeDti 
so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  medley. 

PO'TSDAM,  the  capital  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Brandenburg,  and,  next  to  Berlin,  the  handsoaiesl 
and  beat  built  town  in  Prussia,  ia  situated  on  an 
island  at  the  noint  of  junction  between  the  small 
stream  of  the  Nuthe  and  the  river  Havel,  16  nil  a 
south-weat  of  Berlin.  Population  at  the  dose  of 
1861,  34,869,  with  6955  miUtary.  P.  ie  divided 
into  the  Old  and  New  Town,  and  is  surrounded  by 
ramparts  with  nine  gates,  from  which  seven  bridces 
over  the  Havel  and  the  canal  lead  to  tiie  anbans. 
The  streets  are  broad  and  regularly  built,  and 
there  are  fine  squares,  some  of  which  are  planted 
with  trees,  forming  pleaaant  public  wallu.  Of 
the  many  laree  and  nandsome  buildings,  one  of 
the  most  worthy  of  notice  is  the  old  royal  pslao, 
an  oblong  parallelogram,  three  atones  high,  with 
a  magniticent  colonnade  facing  the  fine  Havel 
Bridce.  P.  has  several  benevolent  and  ednca- 
tional  institutions  connected  with  the  state,  as, 
for  instance,  two  asylums  for  the  orphan  childifa 
of  military  men,  and  one  for  those  of  persooa 
belonging  to  the  civil  service ;  schools  for  cadets, 
subalterns,  and  privates;  the  Luisendenkmal,  an 
institution  for  providing  for  indigent  girls  of 
irreproachable  character;  a  gymnasium,  a  high- 
school,  and  various  other  training  and  apecial 
schoola.  Among  the  churehes,  the  most  noteiror&y 
are  the  Gamisonskirehe,  with  a  tower  400  feet  hig^h, 
a  fine  chime  of  bells,  and  a  noble  marUe  polpiti 
below  which  rest  the  remains  of  Friedrich- mlhelm 
I.  and  Friedrich  II.,  and  St  Nicolai's,  lately  k> 
buUt  after  the  model  of  the  Pantheon  at  rari& 
The  Brandenburger-Thor,  which  ia  the  handsomast 
of  the  various  gates,  is  a  triumphal  arch  copicl 
from  Trajan's  i&ch  at  Rome;  and  this,  like  tlw 
other  gates,  opens  upon  a  fine  all6e  of  ^eea  P.  s 
surrounded  with  pleasant  public  walks  and  gardens, 
wooded  heights,  and  vine-covered  banks;  while 
in  the  immediate    neighbourhood    are   muDeron 


POTSDAM-.POTTER. 


royal  country  palaces,  aa  Sans-Souci,  the  favoimte 
residence  of  Frederick  the  Ghreat,  surrounded  by  a 
fine  park,  pleasnre-grounda,  and  choicely-stocked 
gardens,  near  which  stands  the  Ruinen1>erg,  with 
artificially  constructed  ruins,  designed  to  conceal 
the  water- works  which  supply  the  fountains  of  the 
palace.  Near  the  park  is  tne  New  Palace,  begun 
in  1763,  680  feet  in  length,  containing  nearly  100 
rooms,  many  of  which  are  flUed  with  costlv  works 
of  art.  Near  Sans-Soud  is  Charlottenhof,  built  by 
the  late  king,  a  pleasant  yilla,  with  lovely  flnrdens, 
in  which  stands  a  Pompeian  hous&  The  Russian 
colony  of  Alexandrowska,  with  its  Russian  houses 
and  Greek  church,  lies  near  the  Pfingstberg,  which 
is  surmounted  with  an  unfinished  palace,  from 
whence  a  fine  view  is  obtained  of  the  numerous 
royal  parks  and  gardens,  and  the  surrounding 
country.  In  the  New  Garden  stands  the  Marble 
Palace,  with  arcades  adorned  with  frescoes  of  the 
Nibelungen  Lied, 

P.  is  the  seat  of  the  provincial  government,  and 
of  several  of  the  state  manufactories.  Of  these,  the 
most  important  is  the  manufactory  of  arms,  at 
which  the  rifles  for  the  army  are  finished  with  all 
the  newest  applications  of  science,  and  made  ready 
for  use.  A  ndlway,  16  miles  in  length,  connects 
P.  with  Berlin.      * 

P.  owes  its  creation  as  a  town  to  the  great  elector, 
Friedrich-Wilhelm,  who  built  a  royal  palace  here 
between  1660  and  1673,  and  laid  out  several  good 
streets.  Prior  to  that  period,  it  was  an  insignificant 
fishiuff  village,  built  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
Wen&h  setuement. 

POTSDAM,  a  township  and  village  in  New 
7ork,  U.S..  on  Racket  River,  St  Lawrence  County, 
in  the  norUiern  portion  of  the  state,  between  Lakes 
Ontario  and  Champlain.  There  are  quarries  of 
sandstone,  miUs  ana  factories  on  the  falls  of  the 
river,  a  railway  connecting  it  with  Watertown,  a 
bank,  and  10  churches.    Pop.  (1860)  6737. 

PO'TSTONE,  Laj^  OUarU  of  the  ancient 
Romans,  a  variety  of  Talc  (q.  v.),  or  rather  a  mineral 
formed  bv  a  mixture  of  talc  with  chlorite,  Ac  It 
is  generally  of  a  grayish-green  colour,  sometimes 
darK  green.  It  occurs  massive,  or  in  granular  con- 
cretions. It  is  soft  and  easily  cut  when  newly  dug 
up ;  greasy  to  the  touch,  and  infusible  even  before 
the  ^owpipe.  It  becomes  hard  after  exposure  to 
the  air.  It  is  made  into  pots  and  other  household 
utensils,  which  communicate  no  bad  taste  to  any- 
thing contained  in  them,  and  wheu  greasy  are 
cleaned  by  the  fir&  It  was  well-known  to  the 
ancients ;  and  Pliny  describes  the  manner  of  making 
vessels  of  it.  It  was  anciently  procured  in  abunf 
ance  in  the  isle  of  Sinhnos  (now  Siphanto),  one  of 
the  Cyclades,  and  in  Upper  Egypt  Laree  quarries 
of  it  were  wrought  on  tne  Lake  of  Oomo,  mmi  about 
the  beginniufl'  of  the  Christian  era,  to  25th  August 
1618,  when  they  fell  in,  causing  the  destruction  of 
the  neighbouring  town  of  Pleurs,  in  which  it  was 
wrought  into  cminary  vessels,  slabs  for  ovens,  &c 
It  is  quarried  in  the  Valais,  where  it  is  called 
Giltstein  ;  in  Norway,  Sweden,  Greenland,  and  near 
Hudson's  Bav,  &c.  *  Should  you  again  visit  Italy, 
and  pass  by  the  Great  St  Bernard,  if  the  cold  of  that 
frigid  region  should  induce  you  to  warm  yourself 
in  the  refectory  of  the  hospitable  monks  of  the 
convent,  you  will  there  see  a  stove  of  potstone.' — 
Jackson  on  MinerdU  and  their  Uses. 

POTT,  Aug.  FRiEDB.,a  distinffuished  philolodML 
was  bom  at  Nettelrede  in  180^  attended  school 
at  Hanover,  studied  theology  and  philology  at 
Odttingen  (1821),  and  finally  (1833)  became  pio- 
l«98Bor  of  the  science  of  langnitfe  in  the  university 
olHaUei  Next  to  W.  Humbokn,  Bopp,  and  Grimm, 


the  name  of  P.  stands  pominent  in  the  new  science 
of  comparative  philolo^.  The  foundation  of 
his  reputation  was  laid  by  his  JBtymtdogische 
Foraekungen  (Etymological  Researches,  2  vols., 
Lemgo,  1833 — 1836),  a  work  second  in  importance 
only  to  Bopp's  Comparative  Chrammar.  In  a  well- 
known  article  in  Ersch  and  Gruber's  Encyclopaedia, 
Indogermanischer  Spradutamm  (2d  sect  vol  18), 
he  gave  a  masterly  sketch  of  the  Ar^an  Languages 
(q.  v.).  In  numerous  articles  in  periodicals,  ana  in 
separately  published  treatises  (e.  ^.,  De  BorvMico* 
Luhuanica  tarn  in  Slavicis  quam  tn  LeUkis  LingutB 
Pnneipaiu,  Halle,  1837—1841 ;  and  Die  Zigeuner 
in  Burqpa  und  Aden,  2  vols,  Halle,  1844—1845), 
he  carried  his  researches  into  special  fields  of  this 
great  province.  Die  Quinare  und  Vigedmale  ZdhJU 
methode  (The  Quinary  and  Vigesimal  Notation, 
Halle,  1847)t  and  Die  Peraonennamen  (Proper 
Names,  Leip.  1853),  are  admirable  treatises,  con- 
taining an  overwhelming  mass  of  information,  and 
shewing  an  astonishing  knowledg;e,  not  only  of  the 
Aryan  languages,  but  of  other  Asiatic,  African,  and 
American  races.  He  has  since  published  a  work 
on  the  Difference  of  Races  from  a  Philological  Point 
qf  View  (Lemgo,  1856). 

POTTER,  JoHir,  D.D.,  an  English  scholar  and 
divine,  the  son  of  a  linen-draper  of  Wakefield,  in 
Yorkshire,  was  bom  in  1674,  studied  with  great 
diligence  and  success  at  Oxford,  where  he  took  his 
degree  of  M.A.  in  1694,  and  in  the  same  year  went 
into  orders.  He  was  appointed  chaplain  to  (iueen 
Anne  in  1706,  professor  of  divinity  at  Oxford  in 
1708,  bishop  of  Oxford  in  1715,  and  finally  in  1737 
attained  the  highest  dignity  in  the  Enfflish  Church 
— ^the  archbishopric  of  Canterbury.  He  died  Oct; 
21,  1747,  and  was  buried  at  Croydon.  P.  was  really 
a  superior  scholar,  but  of  the  dull  and  plodding  sort 
Nowhere  does  he  flash  a  rav  of  clear  searching 
intelligence  on  his  subject;  his  habit  of  mind  is 
quite  uncritical,  and  consequently  his  learned 
labours,  though  creditable  to  his  industry,  have 
added  nothing  to  our  knowledge,  and  have  now 
'followed'  their  mediocre  author  into  something 
very  like  oblivion.  P.'s  principal  work  is  his 
ArehcBologia  Ormea  {*  Antiquities  of  Greece,*  2  vols. 
1698),  superseded  for  many  years  by  Dr  W.  Smitiii's 
Dictionary  of  Chreek  and  Roman  Antiquitiea;  besides 
which,  however,  we  may  mention  his  edition  of 
Lifcophron  (1697),  and  of  Clemens  Alexandrintia 
(1715).  As  a  church  di^itary,  the  linen-draper's 
son  is  said  to  have  been  naughty ;  he  was  likewise 
very  *  zealous '  in  matters  ecclesiastical,  a  vigilant 
guiurdian  of  clerical  interests,  and  strictly,  perhaps 
we  may  even  say  excessively,  orthodox,  if  such  a 
thing  M  possible ! 

POTTER,  Paul,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
masters  of  the  Dutoh  School  He  was  torn  at 
Enkhuyzen  in  1625,  and  was  the  pupil  of  his 
father,  Pieter  Potter,  an  obscure  painter.  His 
progress  was  so  rapid,  that  by  the  time  he  had 
attained  the  age  of  15,  his  reputation  as  an  artist 
was  high.  He  left  Amsterdam,  and  established 
himself  at  the  Hague,  where,  in  1650,  he  was 
married ;  in  1652,  however,  he  returned  to  Amster- 
dam, at  the  solicitation  of  the  burgomaster  Tulp^ 
who  commissioned  him  to  paint  a  great  number 
of  works;  but  his  health,  which  was  delicate, 
gave  way  under  constant  application  at  his  easel, 
and  he  died  before  he  had  completed  his  29th  ^ear. 
Paul  P.'s  cattle-pieces  are  perhaps  more  highly 
valued  than  pictures  of  that  class  by  any  other 
master,  for  none  have  combined  and  Drought  oat 
with  such  admirable  technical  skill  so  many  of 
the  qualities  that  give  a  charm  to  such  works.  His 
pictures  bring  immense  prices,  particularly  those 


POTTEE'S  CLAY— POTTERY. 


painted  between  1652  and  1654,  when  lie  died.    He 
executed  some  admirable  etchingt. 

POTTER'S  CLAY  or  FIOULINE,  a  kind  of 
Clay  (q.  v.) ;  either  slaty  and  massive,  or  more 
generally,  earthy ;  vellow,  yellowish-white,  gray,  or 
sometimes  cireenish;  adhering  strongly  to  the 
ton^e,  and  formiDg  a  paste  with  water.  ^  The  earthy 
variety  is  sometimes  very  loose,  sometimes  almost 
■olid  P.  0.  is  a  mineral  of  very  common  oocnr- 
rence  in  alluvial  districts,  and  sometimes  occurs  in 
beds  of  considerable  thickness.  It  occurs  in  many 
parts  of  Britain.  It  is  used  in  potteries  for  the 
manufacture  of  earthenware ;  the  different  varieties 
of  it  being  adapted  to  different  kinds  of  earthen- 
ware. Houses  are  built  in  f^;ypt  of  |)otB  of  this 
material — P.  0.  is  also  employed  in  agriculture  for 
the  improvement  of  light  sandy  and  calcareous  soils. 
PO'TTBRY.  This  term— supposed  to  be  derived 
from  poterion,  the  drinking-cup  of  the  Greeks,  and 
transmitted  by  the  French  word  poterie — is  applied 
to  all  objects  of  baked  clay.  The  invention  of 
pottery  dates  from  the  most  remote  period,  and  its 
Application  is  almost  universal— objects  of  nottery 
bemg  in  use  amongst  races  even  semi-baroarous. 
The  art  of  moulding  or  fashioning  vessels  of  moist 
day,  and  subsequenuy  drying  th«Bi  in  the  sun,  is  so 
obvious,  that  it  is  not  above  the  intelligence  of  the 
rudest  sava^  Hence,  at  the  most  remote  antiquity, 
the  Egyptians,  to  whom  precedence  must  be 
anigned  m  this  art,  made  bricks  of  unbaked  or 
Bun-dried  day,  cemented  with  straw,  which  were 
quite  sufficient  for  the  purposes  of  construction  in  a 
country  where  little  or  no  rain  falls.  These  bricks, 
in  shape  resembling  those  in  use  at  the  present  day, 
but  ox  larger  dimensions,  were  impreoBed,  at  the 

earliest  period,  with  the  marks  of 
the  bricK-maker,  and  later,  with 
the  names  and  titles  of  the  kings 
for  whose  constructions  they  were 
made.      The   oppression  of   the 
Hebrews  chiefly  consisted  in  com- 
pelling them  to  work  in  the  briok- 
nelds — a  task  imposed   on  cap- 
tives taken  in  war  and  reduced 
to  daveiy;    and  the  fortresses 
of  Pithom  and  Rameses,  on  the 
Fife  L-Unrfased  Egyptiim  frontira,  were  made  of 
Egyptian  Bottle  onckM  by  the  Hebrews.      Kiln- 
in   the   British  dried    brides,   in   fact,  did   not 
Huseum.  come  into  use  in  Egvpt  till  the 

Roman  dominion,  although  some 
ezoeptional  objects  of  the  class  of  bricks  have  been 
fonnd,  such  as  a  kind  of  conical  plug,  stamped 
on  the  base  with  the  names  of  tne  tenants  of 


Fig.  2.— Olased  Egyptian  Yases  in  the  British  Muaenm. 

the  tombs.  A  few  other  objects  were  made 
in  unbaked  day;  but  vases  of  baked  earthen- 
ware were  in  use  at  the  earliest  period  of  Egm[>. 
tian  dvilisation,  and  are  contemporary  with  the 


Pyramids  themadv«i.    The  Egyptians  made  a  red 
ware,  a  pale-red  or  ydlow  ware,  and  a  Instrous 
or  polished  red   ware— the  two  first  being  used 
for  vases  destined  for  onUnary  and  other  purposes, 
the  last  for  vases  of  more  refined  use,  sach  as  hold- 
ing perfumes,  wine,  honey,  and  other   ddicaeies. 
But  the  most  remarkable  Egyptian   pottery  was 
the  so-called  porcelain,  made  of  a  fine  aand  or  frit 
loosdy  fused  toeetfaer,  and  covered  with  a  tfai^ 
silidons  glaae  of  a  blue,  green,  white,  purple,  or 
yellow  odour.    This  oelebrated  ware,  the  porodain 
of  the  old  world,  sometimes  exhibits  the  most  bean- 
tifnl  tints  of  blue,  a  odour  which  was  produced  by 
an  oxide  of  copper,  and  which  is  still  nnrivaDea 
Objects  were  made  of  this  material  for  the  decoration 
of  the  dead  and  for  the  toilet    They  were  exported 
from  Egypt  to  the  ndghbouring  countries,  and  are 
found  alike  in  the  tombs  of  tiie  Greek  ides,  the 
sepulchres  of  Etmria,  and  the  graves  of  Greeee. 
M!ost  of  the  figures  of  deities,  the  sepulchral  ones 
deposited  with  the  dead,  a  few  degant  vaaes,  portioni 
of  mlaying,  objects  of  the  tdlet,  and  beada  and  otiier 
decorations,  are  made  of  this  porcelain.     Still  finer 
work  of  this  kind  was  produced  b^  carving  scarafaa 
and  other  small  objects  in  steatite,  and  covering 
them  with  a  blue  glaze,  so  as  to  combine  brilliancy 
of  colour  with  delicacy  of  execution.   The  Ejgyptians 
had  at  the  earliest  period  the  simpler  manipulations 
and  tools  of  pottery — the  potters  lathe  or  whee^ 
moulds  for  stamping  objects,  and  various  other  todh. 
On  the  decadence  of  the  country  under  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  the  pottery  became  awsimilatpd  to  the 
Greek  and  Roman. 

In  the  contemporary  empires  of  Amynm  and 
Babylon,  potterv  was  dso  in  use  at  an  early  period. 
Sun-dried  and  kiln-dried  bricks  were  made  in  tiie 
reiffns  of  Urukh  and  other  mooarchs  of  the  oldest 
Babylonian  dynasties,  about  2000  B.a  Platforms 
for  devating  the  larger  edifices  were  made  of 
them ;  and  the  bricks,  like  the  Egyptian,  were 
stamped  with  the  names  and  titles  of  the  monardi, 
to  which  was  added  the  locality  for  which  they 
were  destined.  Glazed  bricks  of  various  colours, 
occasionally  enriched  with  scenes  and  omamentd 
designs,  were  introduced  into  constructionB ;  and 
Semiramis  is  said  to  have  adorned  with  them  the 
walls  of  Babjrlon.  The  Assyrians  and  Babylonians 
employed  this  materid  for  historical  and  le^ 
purposes,  making  cylinders,  hexagond  prisma,  and 
purse-shaped  objects  of  it,  on  which  were  impressed 
extensive  writings.  One  of  these  remarkable  objects 
contains  the  account  of  the  campaign  of  Souia- 
cherib  against  Judea  and  the  tributes  of  Hezekiah. 
The  Assyrian  and  Babylonian  pottery  resembles,  but 
is  not  entirely  the  same  as  the  Egyptian,  being  of  a 
pale  red  ware,  of  thinner  substance,  finer  paste,  and 
more  refined  shape.  At  a  later  period,  figures  of 
deities  were  modelled  in  terra  cotta.  The  g^aaed 
ware  of  Babylon  and  Assyria  is  coarser  than 
the  finest  Egyptian,  and  is  the  earliest  example 
of  the  employment  of  materids  for  colouring 
like  those  now  in  use;  the  g^aze,  however,  is 
silicious.  The  objects  most  remarkable  for  sise 
are  the  lai^  coffins  found  at  Warka,  siqxpoeed  by 
some  to  be  the  Ur  of  the  Chddees,  with  ovd 
covers,  and  ornaments  of  the  Sassanian  period. 
The  potteries  of  Mesopotamia  continued  to  nouridi 
under  the  Parthian  and  Sassanian  monarcha  till  tiie 
conquest  of  Asia  by  the  Mohammedans. 

The  potter's  art  is  mentioned  in  the  Seiiptmes; 
but  few  specimens  of  Hebrew  wares  have  been 
found.  Some  vases  have  been  exhumed  in  Phce- 
nida.  The  most  remarluible  pottery  of  aniiqnitf 
was  the  Greek,  which  seems  to  have  had  anotiitf 
origin  than  the  oriental.  The  terma  lerennot  9td 
o§Moon  were  applied  by  them  to  tfaia  material,  ani 


tb«r  made  object*  and  tmm  in  Mm-drfed  d»j,  tenrn 
cotta,  and  gUaed  wan-  Xbs  om  of  briok*  waa  by 
an  meuu  extauaive  ia  Oreao«,  altboogli  some 
public  ediSoea  were  made  of  them.  Their  fint 
lue  ia  attributed  to  Hnwrbina  of  Crete,  and 
EuiyalnB  or  AgroU*.  The  brinks  were  made  by 
ft  mould  (plainon)  and  were  called  after  tlie  dudi- 
ben  of  palnu-length.  Some  were  ao  light  thut 
thay  floated  on  water.  Beeidee  bricCa,  tiiee, 
Domicea,  artificial  omamenta,  friena,  pipes  for  cod- 
dnctiug  water,  and  draina,  were  monlded  in  tern 
cotta.  Stataea  and  amall  figure*,  pdiaoi,  gail;  and 
apijropriataly  painted,  corered  with  a  ieucoma,  or 
white  ground,  and  oecaaionally  partly  gilded,  were 
iu  common  ute  for  votive  and  other  purpoaea, 
and  sold  at  a  cheap  price  by  the  Sgnrist  {koroplti- 
Aiui).  Dolls,  conee,  and  varions  smaller  objects 
were  tnade  by  the  potters ;  they  were  sometames 
madelled,  but  more  generally  moulded.  The  Greeks 
claimed  the  invention  of  the  potter's  wheel ;  and 
the  principal  citiea  contested  the  honou'  of  the  art, 
which  is  msntionad  in  Homer,  and  attributed  to 
Corcebus  of  Athena,  Hyberbina  of  Corinth,  or  Talos, 
the  nephew  of  Dn^ua.  Numerous  vases  for  all  the 
onUluuy  purposes  of  life  were  oiade  by  it,  and  others 


Ti^  3. — Qreek  Taaei  ot  vaiions  itylea. 


of  large  form,  decoisted  also  by  sept 

anblanata,  attached  to  them.    I^fge  oaaka  or  pultoi 

were  modelled  on  a  framework  m  wood.  Great 
quantities  of  ampbone,  manufactured  on  the  wheel, 
aud  used  to  contain  the  choice  winea 
of  Greece,  were  exported  from  Rhodes 
and  oth^  cities ;  and  their  dfibris  are 
fonnd  in  the  Crimea,  Alexandria, 
Sicily,  and  other  cities.  Some  of  the 
earlier  apecimeoa  of  a  glazed  earthen- 
ware were  painted  with  colours  in 
fresco  or  encaustic,  from  which  after- 
wards came  the  more  elaborate  pio- 
tuna  of  the  glazed  vaaes  of  Greece. 
To  these  succeeded  two  or  three 
clatae*  of  painted  wan,  coosisldna  of 
rude  representations  of  animals  laid 
U|ion  the  pale  red  ground  of  the  clay 
in  brown  outline,  a  style  prevalent  at 
Athens  and  Atia  Minor;  which  was 
followed  by  the  potteries  of  Corinth, 
or  the  so-c^ed  Phcenician  or  Egyptian 
atyle.  The  paste  of  the  vases  ia  ot  a 
light  red  or  yellow,  the  figiuea  in  a 
black  or  maroon  colour,  witli  portions 
euriohed  with  crimson  or  purple ;  the  "t- 

backgrounds  of  a  pale  straw  or  lemon 
oolonr  :  the  animals,  of  a  larger  size  than  those  of 
the  Athenian  vases,  iutenningled  with  obiuueroa  and 
other  inonstera ;  tie  backHroonds  variegated  with 
tsnren — thewhcdederivednomorientalart  Gradu- 
ally, hnntan  Ggnrea,  with  all  tike  charaoteristic*  of 


arehaio  Greek  art,  were  introduoed,  with  aooompany> 
ing  inscriptions,  which  oaonot  ba  later  than  the 
6ta  or  fitb  c  b.  a  The  subjects  of  these  vaaea  ware 
derived  from  the  oldeet  Greek  myths.  The  style  of 
this  pottery  by  degrees  improved :  the  paste  became 
pole  red  or  salmon  colonr ;  the  human  tWnres.  which 
had  been  at  firrt  subordinate,  refdacea  the  friesee 
of  animal  and  large  omaments.  As  the  improve- 
ment went  on,  the  baokgnninds  wero  made  of  a 
bright  oraoge-i«d  colour,  the  Egnrea  of  a  deep 
black;  while  portions,  as  the  hair,  garmenta,  and 
flesh  of  female  flgnres,  were  coloured  white.  The 
style  of  art  became  muoh  freer,  although  still  retain- 
ing the  rigidity  of  tbe  jSlginean  schooL  Names  of 
figures  represented,  of  the  artists  who  painted  and 
the  potters  who  made  the  warea,  were  added, 
with  speeches,  and  the  namw  of  celebrated  beauties 
■nd  athletes  of  tbe  day.  Iu  these  styles,  the 
vases  made  on  tlie  wheel  appear,  while  yet  soft, 
to  have  had  the  subjects  traced  upon  them  with  a 
finely-pointed  tool ;  the  Qgnres  were  then  filled  in 
with  a  lucid  black  pigment  of  manganese,  and 
then  returned  to  the  furnace.  The  details  of  the 
mnsoles  and  other  portions  were  incised  through 
the  black  with  a  sharp  tool,  so  as  to  shew  tbe  lighter 
background,  and  the  uurplea,  crimsons,  blues,  and 
other  oolonis  were  laid  on.  lite  snbjecte  are  chiefly 
derived  from  the  war  of  Troy  and  the  heroic  age ; 
and  the  shinies  in  use  wsn  oil-jars  {ieeyliioi), 
water-pails  (AudriiE),  wine-vases  ((Toteres),  wine- jugs 
lanochoa),  and  ampkora.  They  seem  to  have  con- 
tinued in  nse  till  about460or  ^&c,  when  thered 
figures  were  substitnted  for  black,  by  tracing,  aa 
befn«,  the  figures  on  the  clay,  then  running  round 
them  a  thick  line  of  flock,  and  finally  filling  up  the 
baokgrouiid  entirely  with  black  colooi^-the  mnselsa 
and  mDM"  marking  not  being  incised,  bnt  traoed  in 
black  and  brown  outlines.  The  earlier  vaaes  ol 
this  doss,  which  are  of  the  strong  style,  resemble 
those  of  the  black  figures ;  bnt  the  style  ovdnalb 
improved,  and  resembled  the  art  of  Phidias  and 
Zeuxia ;  while  tbe  letters  are  thoae  in  nse  after  the 
arehonahipof  Euclid,  403  B.C.  The  style  and  form 
of  theae  vases  altered  according  to  the  art  of  the 
period,  till  the  ultimate  disose  of  fictile  or  punted 
ware,  about  300  B.  a,  when  the  ooiranests  ot  Alex- 
ander the  Great  and  the  inorease  of^  loinry  caused 
it  to  be  Buposeded  by  vases  in  metals.    In  it*  last. 


4.— Greek  Vases  ot  later  style,  found  in  Italy. 

stage,  the  pottery  became  moulded,  and  waa  gliusd 
entirely  black,  or  else  variegated  with  opaque  white 
figures  and  ornaments.  The  subjects  of  theae  later 
I  vases  differ  conaiderably  from  the  earUer,  being 
I  ohiefiy  (lerived  from  tiis  theatre  or  mytha  of  tlu 


POTTERY. 


Uter  poets.  Vaaet  of  ihis  dMcriptioii  are  found  in 
Greece,  the  ialee  of  the  Archipelago,  and  Italy ;  into 
which  latter  country  they  appear  to  have  been 
imported  from  Gh-eece. 

in  Italy,    indeed,  the  Etmscans,  at    an  early 

Sriod,  and  perhaps  some  of  the  |>nncipal  cities  in 
tLftiOA  GrsBcia,  manufactured  their  own  pottery. 
That  of  the  Etmscans  consists  principally  of  three 
kinds^an  nnfflazed  red  ware;  a  lustrons  brown 
ware,  made  suo  by  the  neiffhboaring  Sabines  and 
Oscaos;  and  a  black  ware,  the  paste  or  substance 
of  which  ii  black  throughout,  not  superficial,  as 
amongst  the  Greeks,  and  made  by  mixing  some 
colouring  material  with  the  clay.  The  Etruscan 
pottery  is  rarely  painted — the  black  ware  never — 
out  it  is  distinguished  bv  having  ornaments  in 
salient  and  bas-relief  modelled  or  moulded  on  it,  and 
by  the  shai>es  of  the  vases  apparently  being  derived 
from  works  in  metaL,  and  reproducing  the  fantastic 
combinations  of  oriental  art.  This  ware,  which 
was  in  use  from  600  to  320  B.  a,  was  the  source  from 
which  subsequently  arose  the  Aretiue  and  Roman 
pottery.  It  was  ornamented  sometimes  with  incised 
ornaments;  the  subjects,  however,  are  generally 
uninteresting,  and  it  never  attained  a  hifh  position 
in  art.  The  Etruscans,  however,  in  mter  times 
imitated  the  painted  vases  of  Greece,  but  their  clay 
is  much  paler,  the  drawing  coarser,  and  the  shapes 
less  elegant  In  terra  cotta  statues,  they  parti- 
cularly excelled,  and  supplied  the  Romans  witn  the 
figures  of  their  divinities.  Even  sarcophagi  were 
Quule  of  this  material. 

On  the  decline  of  the  pottery  of  the  Greeks  and 
'Etruscans,  a  new  kind  of  ware  was  made  at  Arezso, 
or  Arretium,  to  which  has  been  given  the  name  of 
Aretine,  and  which  resembled  the  later  ware  of  the 
Greeks.  It  is  evidently  imitated  from  works  in 
metal,  in  all  probability  from  the  chased  cups  of 
silver  and  gold  which  be^n  to  come  into  use  in 
Italy,  and  was  a  continuation  of  the  later  moulded 
wares  of  Greece  and  Italy.  The  vases  were  of  a 
bright  red  or  black  colour;  the  paste,  uniform  in 
colour  throughout,  but  covered  with  a  lustrous  sili- 
dous  glaze.  The  red  colour  nearly  resembles  in 
colour  and  texture  a  coarse  sealing-wax,  the  paste 
is  often  remarkably  fine.  The  vases,  generally  of 
small  dimension,  were  turned  on  the  lathe ;  the 
ornaments  were  moulded  separately,  and  attached 
to  the  vase :  patterns  were  produced  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  same  mould,  or  by  placing  bas-reliefs 
from  various  moulds  on  the  vases.  This  kind  of 
pottery  was  first  made  at  Arezzo,  but  subsequently, 
or  nearly  simultaneously,  was  produced  at  Capua  and 
Cunue  m  the  let  c.  a.d.  It  afterwards  extended 
over  all  the  Roman  world,  and  was  made  in  Gaul 
and  Germany.  It  was  called  Samian  ware  under 
the  republic,  and  was  at  first  extremely  fine,  but 
deteriorated  under  the  last  of  the  twelve  Cassars, 
and  is  no  longer  found  under  the  Antonines ;  a  red 
ware,  glazed  with  red-lead  and  copper,  having  been 
substituted  for  it.  The  names  of  several  hundred 
potters  are  found  stamped  upon  extant  specimens 
of  this  ware,  and  some  of  them  are  evidently  of 
Graulish  or  British  origin.  These  names  are  followed 
by  F.,/ccii,  or  made ;  M.,  manu,  or  bythe  hand  of ; 
and  OF.,  offieina,  or  establishment  The  ware  was 
extensively  imported  into  Britain  and  the  remoter 
provinces  of  the  empire ;  and  wherever  found,  shews 
the  influence  of  Roman  civilisation.  Furnaces  for 
it  have  been  fouud  in  France  and  Germany,  but 
not  in  England.  The  other  kinds  of  Roman  ware 
were  local,  evidently  made  upon  the  spots  where 
found,  but  with  inferior  ornamentation.  Black* ware 
seems  to  have  succeeded  this,  and  to  have  been 
produced  by  confining  the  smoke  of  the  furnace, 
and  throwing  it  down  upon  the  heated  ware.  In 
723 


Britain,  varieties  of  this  ware  were  made  at  Osstor 
in  Northamptonshire,  ornamented  with  bas-relief, 
laid  on  by  tne  process  of  depositing  a  fluid  day  on 
the  wet  ware,  and  moulding  it  with  a  tooL  The 
style  ol  art  is  Ganlisfa.    OUier  vases  of  glased  ware 


Fig.  6.— Roman  Yi 


Fig.  Ol — ^Anglo  Roman 
Vsse  [Castor]. 

were  manufactured  at  Upchurch  near  Rochester, 
and  at  Orockhill  in  the  New  Forest  They  hare 
only  a  few  ornaments,  either  stamped  or  painted  in 
a  white  pipeclay  on  the  surface.  These  vases  sre 
probably  as  late  as  the  Sd  c.  A.D.  Later,  arose 
a  black-ware,  generally  bottles  or  ju^  glazed 
externally,  and  with  single  words,  invitations  to 


Hg.  7.— Roman  Amphora. 

drinking,  painted  on  them,  in  a  white  pipeclay. 

Many  varieties  of  unglazed  ware,  red,  yellow,  white, 

and  gray,  were  extant  in  the  2d  and  3d  centoriea. 

The  mrge  culinary  and 

other  vessels  were  made 

of  these — such  as  casks 

{dolia),  amj^iorcB,  jugs 

{lageruB),  and  mortajfs 

(fnortoWa)— the  last  at 

Lyon.     The    Romans 

made    great     use     of 

brickwork  terra  cotta. 

All  over   the   empire, 

bricks  were  made  for 

public      and     private 

muldings,  and  stamped 

at  Rome  with  the  name   TSg.  fi. — ^Boman  flange  TOe. 

of   the   proprietors  of 

the  land,  the  potters,  and  the  consulate  of  the  period, 

till  the  middle  of  the  dd  c.  A.  D.    Bricks  were  also 


Fig.  9.— Roman  flue  TSIa, 

extensively  manufactured  by  the  legionaries,  and 
bear  their  names  and  titles.     The  graves  of  the 


■oldieiy  were  often  conitmcted  of  them.  At  Rome, 
the  Ugt  ioicribed  brichs  sra  thote  of  TheoiloHc ; 
Done  ao  late  have  bewt  faaad  in  Britain  or  Qaui 
Tiles,  cornices,  roof-ornameatt,  and  giittert  were 
formed  oE  terra  cotta,  ea  wera  tbe  votive  fignrea 
offered  to  the  godi ;  bat  they  all  diaappeared  at 
the  invaiioQ  of  the  northern  barbariaaa,  although 
tbey  continued  till  then  to  be  manofactnred  by 
local  potteries. 

Among  the  northern  natloni,  eapedally  tbe  Celti 
and  Scandinavian!,  long  prior  to  the  Roman  con- 
questa  of  Gaul  and  Britain,  at  the  remote  ace  of  the 
Stona  and  Bronze  Periods,  large  and  smul  vases, 
perbapa  ori^ually  employed  for  domestic,  hut  aub- 
eeqiiently  for  mori^uary  purposes,  are  found  amongst 
tbe  cromleoba,  the  tumuli,  and  gravea  of  Northern 
Europe.  They  are  formed  of  a  coarse  clay,  mixed 
vith  small  pebbles,  and  have  been  feebly  baked  by 
aurrounding  them  with  hay,  dried  ferna,  or  other 
combustible  vegetable  matteie,  which  have  been 
burned  inside  and  around  tham.  The  interior  of  the 
walla  are  black ;  the  exterior,  of  a  pale  brown  colonr. 
Their  moutha  are  large,  the  omamenta,  hatchings, 
and  rude  line  lometimca  mailing  an  elaborate  mttem 
or  tattouiag  all  over  the  vaac  Those  from  Britain 
were  culled  baeeaudte,  or  baaketa,  by  the  Romans. 
A  moditication  of  this  class  of  ware  vaa  con- 
tinued under  the  Saxons  and  Merovinfiana,  and 
is  distinct  from  the  Gallo-Roman  ana  Bomsno- 
Britiah  potteriea  :  the  clay  being  better  baked,  and 
the  ormunents,  stamped  or  impressed  from  a  mould, 
more  regular.  The  use  of  pottery  among  these 
races  was  to  a  great  extent  superseded  by  glass, 
metal,  and  other  substancea  lor  drinking  and 
culinary  veasela,  and  few  or  no  specimen*  of 
medieval  unglaied  vessels  are  known.  Terra  cotta, 
indeed,  oontmued  to  ba  amiUed  for  making  figure* 
from  the  14th  to  the  ISth  o.  in  Europe;  but  in 
Eoiiland,  even  the  use  of  bricks,  a  manufacture 
difEcult  to  have  been  lost,  was  restored  by  Alfred. 
Un"kued  ware  was,  in  fact,  inperseded  or  abandoned 
in  £uro[>e  after  the  fall  of  the  Roman  empire  i  but 
in  modem  timea,  the  use  of  terra  cotta  and  such  hke 
ware  is  found  extended  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Atricik,  varying  in  texture  and  excellence  from  the 
coarse  flower-pot*  to  the  thin  and  graceEul  water- 
bottles  of  the  Arabs  and  modem  Ef^tians.  Even 
the  Nigritic  races  continue  to  manufacture  a  feebly- 
baked  earthenware,  rudely  coloored  with  pismenta 
not  baked  on  the  ware.  In  the  New  World,  the 
existence  of  unglazed  earthenware  seems  to  date 
from  the  most  remote  antiquity.  The  vases  and 
other  objects  found  in  the  northern  portions  of 
America,  indeed.  ai«  of  tbe  radeat  kind,  and  bear  a 
striking  resemblance  to  those  of  the  early  Scandi- 
navian, Celtic,  and  Teutonic  Rrarea,  in  paste,  shape, 
and  ornamentation.  The  Mexican  and  Peruvian 
potteries,  however,  evince  a  much  greater  mastery 
of  the  art,  and  both  are  modelled  with  Kreat  spirit 
gaily  coloured,  and  profosely  ornamented.  Some  of 
the  oldest  Penivian  wares,  indeed,  rival  in  their 
modelling  European  art;  but  they  never  attain 
to  glazing.  The  other  nnglaied  wares  of  the 
Kew  World  differ  according  to  the  localities  where 
they  have  been  manufactured,  and  in  the  moat 
highly -isvilised  portions,  reBeot  or  rival  tbe  Mt«  ol 
the  people  by  lAiicb  it  has  been  ooKuuBed.  Those 
of  the  exiatmg  native  race*  are  very  feeble,  and 
the  proceeae*  are  aometimea  acoompanied  hj_  magio 
ceremonie*.  The  pottery  of  the  aouUiem  hemisphere 
is  quite  recent,  la  none  of  tbe  racea  seem  to  have 
been  acquainted  with  the  art.  The  Fiji*,  indeed, 
have  a  ware  glazed  with  the  resin  of  a  tree,  bnt 
it  appean  to  tuiva  been  derived  from  Europe. 

llie  knowledge  of  glaiea  originally  acquired  by 
the  Egyptian*  and  Assytiaot,  wm  continued  under 


'  the  Roman  empire  at  Alexandria,  and  appean 
to  have  been  transmitted  to  the  Persians,  Moors, 
and  Arabs.  Fayences,  and  enamelled  bricks  and 
ptaquea,  were  in  use  among  them  in  the  12th  c, 
and  among  the  Hindus  in  the  14th  c  A.  D.  The 
Moon  introduced  into  Spain  the  use  of  glazed  tilea 
about  711  A.  D.,  example*  of  which,  cjjld  Azuligo*, 
as  old  as  the  13th  c,  are  found  in  the  Alhambra. 
Beaide*  these,  tbe  manufacture  of  glazed  or  enamelled 
fa^nc«*  in  Spain,  diatinguiahed  by  a  metallio 
indescence,  came  into  use  from  the  13th  c  in  Spain. 
In  Italy,  they  are  auppoaed  to  have  been  introdnced 
aa  early  as  the  conquest  of  Majorca  by  the  Piaans, 
1119  A.  D. ;  but  the  first  appearance  of  Italian 
enamelled  fayence,  the  precursor  of  modem  porce- 
lain, does  not  date  earlier  than  about  1420,  when 
it  was  used  for  lubjects  in  relief  by  Lucca  della 
Robbia.  About  a  century  later,  plate*  and  other 
ware  were  manufactured  at  Pisaro  and  Gubbio, 
decorated  with  subjects  derived  from  the  composi- 
tions of  Bapiiael  and  Marc  Antonio,  painted  in  gay 
and  brilliaat  colours.  But  the  establishment  was 
abandoned  in  1574,  although  pieces  of  majolica 
continued  to  be  fabricated  in  various  cities  of  Italy 
till  the  18th  century.  From  Italy,  this  enamelled 
ware  passed  int«  Franco  in  1590  with  Catharine  de' 
Medici,  where  it  was  manufactured  till  the  end  ol 
the  17th  century.  In  1555,  the  celebrated  Palissy 
discovered  at  Samtes  the  art  of  glazing  or  enamelling 
a  gray  paste,  and  introduced  dlahea  and  other 
objects  with  fruit,  fish,  and  animals  moulded  from 
life,  distributed  over  the  surface,  as  a  kind  of 
onuunental  ware.    At  the  same  time,   or  earlier, 


Kg.  la— Vaee  of  Henry  IL  ware. 

WM  made  what  is  eaDed  Heoiy  IL  ware,  and 
which  is  now  so  predona,  ooDsisting  of  glazed 
white  ornamental  pieces.  Glaxed  or  Nomuut 
tiles,  however,  a*  they  are  colled,  date  from  two 
oenturica  before.  At  tbe  close  of  the  13th  o., 
glazed  ware  wh  made  in  Alsace ;  bnt  it  was  not 
till  two  eentarie*  later  that  majoUca  was  fabricated 
at  Nurembeig ;  and  the  manufacture  was  continued 
in  various  puts  of  Oeimany  till  tbe  IStb  oentur^. 
Delft,  whieb  gave  it*  name  to  its  own  fabric,  is  said 
to  have  produced  a  glased  ware  as  early  as  I3W^ 
and  contuined  to  do  so  till  the  19th  century. 
Holland  was  cbiefiy  celebrated  for  its  bottles  of 


tig.  u. 


with  two 


aby  tL 

orden  from  tiie  12tb  to  the 
18th  ceDtuhei;  uid  glued 
bottles,  juga,  ud  onM  ure 
foand  of  the  time  of  Heanr 
ILi  while  Edw»id  lit 
fKvooTed  the  establishment 
of  potteries  in  Gngluid. 
The  English  want,  how- 
ever, were  saperwded  by 
Delft  and  Dutch  stonewares 
till  tlie  dose  of  the  17th  c, 
when  the  coarse  wu«e 
nude  at  Bnrslem  were  im- 
proved by  the  discovety 
of  salt  and  other  glaxes. 
Some  Oermans,  named 
£len,  from  Norember^ 
settled  there,  and  produced 
an  improved  ware  called 
the  red  Japanese  ;  but  find- 


ing that  the  ■! 

covered  by  Ajitbury,  left 
for  Lambeth,  where  they  eiteblished  themselves  in 
1710'  From  this  period,  various  improvementt 
were  introduced  by  Astbujy,  Booth,  and  finally  by 
Wedgewood,  who  discovend  more  soitahle  clayt 
in  1709,  and  called  to  his  aasistanoa  the  arts  of 


Tig.  1!:— Tfg  of  Staffaidshiia  ware. 


ibsequently 

ivefed.    Still  later,"  other  moterials,  as  felspar 
were  used  in    the  composition  of  tnis 


plate     printing    and    gilding 

pottery.  Delft-stone  and  other  wares  wt 
at  different  piocen,  as  Liverpool,  Lowestoft,  and 
elsewhere;  biit,  after  different  vicissitudes,  most 
of  the  potteries  have  disappeared  except  those  of 
the  stoneware  at  Lambeth  and  VauihalL 

None  of  this  ware,  however,  was  of  the  natnra  of 
the  Chinese  porcelain  which  had  been  imported  by 
the  Arabs  in  the  13th  c.,  was  known  in  Italy  in 
1330,  and  waa  imported  into  f^vnce  ai  early  as 
1370,  and  into  England  much  later.  The  name 
porcelain,  from  porteOana,  an  obscure  Portuguese 
word,  supposed  to  mean  a  shell,  is  applied  to 
a  mixtore  of  alumina  or  htoUn  and  silez  or 
pettintit,  which,  when  baked,  does  not  fuse  at 
"  'i  as  140*  of  Wedgewood's 
' 'e  of 


a  temperature  as  high  as  140*  of 
nynnneter,  and  the  gtaza  of  which  ii 
beins  scratched  by  a  knife.    Ttui  po 


•hail 


at  King-te-cliin,667A.lt. 


3000  fumaoea  were  in  activity,  and  wboe  the  ui- 
ufocture  is  still  carried  on.  There  an  ihoot  IS 
renowned  potteriei  in  the  empire.  The  art  of  potter 
in  China  is  said  to  be  as  old  as  2599  B.C.  la  Jl[«^ 
hard  porcelain  dates  from  37  B.  a  j  tno^nceM 
porcelain  was  made  about  672  A.  D. ;  bat  bttwtra 
1211  and  1221,  Kotosiro,  a  Japanese  potter,  went  to 
China  to  improve  his  process.  Here  are  18  cek- 
brated  potteriea  In  Japan ;  and  in  modem  tinia, 
the  pieces  exported  come  chiefly  from  InuJi,  in  tbg 
province  of  Pizen.  In  1044,  the  Dutch  eipa1«l 
44,943  pieces  from  Japan.  At  the  beginnisg  of  the 
16th  c,  the  porcelain  of  China  began  to  be  ertm- 
aivdy  imported  into  Europe,  and  various  nncncNn. 
ful  attempts  were  mode  to  discover  the  secret  of  it 
mannfacture,  but  without  auoceea,  both  *■  to  ttie 
material  and  the  proeasi.  The  Peraiana,  indeed,  m 
said  to  have  produced  tnuialnoent  pottery  aJKot 
the  ISth  a  A.  D. 

After    some    trials,    which   resulted   alhs-  m 
ths  production  of  a  kind  of  opsqne  gloss  or  time- 
ware,     BOttcher    or    BOttger.    an    alchemist   (vho 
had  been  seised    by  Frederick    Augustas  IL  m 
1701),  after  Sohnorr.  in  1709,  had  discovered  whitf 
faiofin   at   Atie,   produced   from   it   a  whits  lurd 
porcelain  at  Ueissen,  near  Dresden  ;  and  the  porce- 
lain eetabhshment  tiiere  was  founded  under  ronl 
auspices.      Extraordinary  precautions  were  tiken 
to   prevent  the  process  being  diacovraed,  by  im- 
posing oaths  upon  the  workmen,  aad  the  prona 
there  pursued  waa  not  cranmnnicated  till  ISIS  to 
Braiwniart,     The   secret,  however,  waa  betnjni 
W   Stitfiel,  a  workman  of  Meisaen,  ^Ae  fled  lo 
Vienna  in  1720,  where  an  imperial  estabtiahraiit 
was  founded,   which   exists  to   thia   day.     Oths 
workmen  carried  the  aecret  from  those  cstsbHdi- 
ments  all  over  Germany.     Royal  works  were  wt 
up  at  Berlin  in  1755,  at  8t  Peteraburg  in  1744,  ud 
at  Munich  in  1768.   From  Uiia  period,  two  diffout 
kinds  of  porcelain  ware  made  in  Ean>p«t  a  scA  sod 
a  hard.     In   ^»nce, 
ai^     porcelain    waa 
mads  at  3t  Cloud  in 
1695,   and   waa    not 
diKiontinued  till  ISOi. 
The    accidental    dis- 
cover;,  by   Madame 
Darnel^  of   iooiin  at 
31  Yrieii  la  Perche, 
in   1765,   led   to  the 
production    of    hard 
porcelain    at   Sevres, 
where,     after     1800, 
only   thia   kind   was 
mode.    Various  placea 
in  France  made  both 
kinds;  and  in  Italy, 
both   were   produced 
at   La    Doceio,    near 
Florence,  at  Capo  di 
Monte,   near   Naplea, 
and  at  Venice.   Other 

ish  at  Madrid  and 
Oporto,  established  in 
the  18th  century. 
The  manufacture  ol 
soft  porcelain  appeaia 
to  have  been  intro- 
duced in  England,  at 
Bow,  as  early  as  tha 
17tJi     &,     and     tba 

Chelaaa   woAs   wera  Fig.  13.-8tB]Icadihin)Gntaa. 
set  up  still  earlier,  ac- 
cording to  some,  by  Elera.  Tbenof  the  ait  wm  tn 
feired  to  Derl^  in  1748;   and  


POTTERY. 


at  WoroeBter,  founded  in  1751  by  Br  Wall,  it 
said  to  have  first  printed  on  porcelain.  Hard 
porcelain  was  made  oy  Cookworthy  at  Plymoutb 
in  1705»  and  afterwards  at  Bristol,  but  was  sub- 
sequently abandoned  as  unprofitable,  although 
again  made  by  Minton  in  Staffordshire  in  18^. 
One  of  the  last  inventions  in  porcelain  has  been 
the  introduction  of  Parian,  or  statuary,  used 
for  the  production  of  small  figures  and  statues, 
by  Copeland  and  Minton.  Amongst  the  oriental 
nations,  the  production  of  porcelain  seems 
limited  to  China  and  Japan,  although  fayences  and 

f  lazed  wares  are  manufactured  all  over  the  East, 
'he  production  of  a  white  porcelain,  either  soft  or 
hard,  capable  of  being  momded  and  painted  with 
various  colours,  effected  a  revolution  in  the  ceramic 
art:    sculptors    were    employed  to   mould   small 
figures  ana  other  objects  bv  we  different  establish- 
ments, and  the  vases,  which  at  first  were  decorated 
with  rode  copies  or  poor  imitations  of  their  Chinese 
originals,  by  degrees  introduced  on  their  surfaces 
the  art  of  the  countiv  where  they  were  made. 
The  paintinss  on  porc^ain  thus  resembled  those  on 
enamel,  ana  when  the  pieces  were  of  considerable 
dimensions,  and  paintea  by  distinguished  artists, 
became  of  great  value.    Thus,  copies  of  works  of 
Baphael  anaof  Tintoretto,  in  the  Exhibition  of  1851, 
were  valued  at  £1000  and  i:880.  Even  ordinary  cups, 
when  painted  with  vignettes,  have  their  value  much 
augmented.     So  also  the   M>pUcation  of  delicate 
colours,  as  blue,  green,  and  rose-pink,  added  a 
charm  not  found  in  the  monochrome  glazed  ware  of 
the  middle  age&    For  these,  Dresden  and  Sdvres 
were  formerly  unrivalled;  but  the  colours  of  late 
years  have  been  changed,  and  do  not  equal  the  old. 
The  style  of  art  has  varied  in  each  century;  the 
old  rococo  shapes  having  been  superseded  at  the 
commencement  of  this  century  by  classical  shapes, 
and  again  by  modified  medieval  forms.    The  pre- 
sent age  has  been  distinguiBhed  by  an  attempt  to 
reproduce  majolica^  pcUigsi/f  and  other  wares ;  by 
the   improvement  of  printing  in  colours;  by  the 
invention  of  statuary  i)orcelam,  and  an  application 
of  the    material  to    other   purposes,  as    outtons, 
stamped  or  pressed  from  a  mould  or  die.    Besides 
the    ornamentation    of    vases,   a    trade-mark   is 
often  added,  either  stamped  in  or  painted  on  the 
ware.     This,  on  the  early  majolica,  had  the  date, 

Slace,  and  name  of  the  artist;  but  the  Dresden, 
5vre8,  Chelsea^  and  other  establishments  intro- 
duced devices,  monograms,  arms,  &&,  as  swords, 
anchors,  crowns,  and  other  devices.  The  Chinese 
has  devices,  mottoes,  names  of  makers,  and  the  date 
of  the  reign  when  made,  commencing  with  the  first 
monarch  of  the  Min^  dynasty  about  1480,  generally 
in  red  colour,  and  mutating  the  seals  or  stamps 
used  for  sealing  documents.  These  marks  are  con- 
tinued to  the  present  dav  (see  below). 

Brongniart,  TraiU  des  Arts  Ceramiquea  (8vo, 
Paris,  1844) ;  Birch,  AneiaU  Pottery  (1858) ;  Marryat, 
Pottery  (1857) ;  Arnoux,  Lectures  on  the  Results  cf 
the  OrecU  ExkibitMm  (12mQ,  Lond.  1851) ;  Lardner, 
Great  ExhibiHon  (12mo,  Lond.  185S;  p.  123); 
Jacqaemart  and  Le  Blant,  Histoire  de  la  PoreeUUne 
(8vo.  Paris,  1862). 

Mafmfacture, — The  dough-like  condition  into 
which  ^y  can  be  workd  with  water,  and  the 
hardneea  it  may  be  made  to  acquire  by  burning,  are 
qoalitieB  which  have  been  turned  to  account  by 
man  from  the  earliest  times,  and  it  is  upon  these 
that  the  potter*8  art  essentially  depends  ;  out  there 
is  great  variety  in  clay,  and  it  is  only  by  knowing 
aomething  of  its  nature  and  constituents,  that  any 
real  advance  has  been  effected  in  pottery.  U 
a  piece  of  cUr  be  examined,  it  will  be  found  that 
it   oonsists  of  exceedingly  minute  particlesi  held 


together  by  aggregation  when  moist;  but  if  dried, 
it  can  be  easify  reduced  to  an  impalpable  powder 
by  mere  pressure ;  and  i£,  instead  of  drying,  we  add 
an  excess  of  water,  it  may  be  so  mixed  and  held  in 
suspension  in  the  water  that  it  appears  almost  to  be 
dissolved.  In  time,  however,  it  is  deposited  as  a 
sediment,  and  when  the  excess  of  water  is  removed, 
it  is  a  soft  tenacious  paste,  which  is  so  non-elastic 
that  it  will  retain  the  smallest  impression  made  in  it 
without  change.  This  minute  division  of  its  particles, 
and  the  absence  of  elasticity,  are  its  most  valuable 
qualities.  But  all  clays  are  not  of  the  same  purity 
and  quality;  the  commonest  is  that  of  brick- 
fields, which  is  one  of  the  most  abundant  substances 
in  nature ;  but  it  is  so  mixed  up  with  iron  and  other 
foreign  ingredients,  that  except  for  bricks,  tiles,  and 
the  coarsest  kinds  of  pottezy,  it  is  not  used. 

The  purest  kinds  of  pott^'  clay  are  cidled  baolhif 
and  are  believed  to  have  been  formed  by  the  decom- 
position of  rocks  containing  large  proportions  ol 
felspar,  a  slightly  variable   compound  substance, 
which,  in  general  terms,  may  be  said  to  be  a  com- 
bination m   neutral  silicate  of  alumina  and    the 
silicates  of  potash,  soda,  lime,  or  ma^esia,  together 
or  singlv.    Certain  kinds  of  granitic  rocks,  espe- 
cially the  whiter  varieties,  by  their   atmospheric 
decomposition,  yield  fine  kaolin.    Great  experience 
is  required  in  selecting  and  using  the  materials, 
because  in  nature  the  plastic  materials  are  very 
irregularly  mixed  with  other  substances,  which  have 
a  more  or  less  deteriorating  effect.  Most  of  the  best 
known  clays  contain  a  certain  portion  of  free  silica 
in  addition  to  that  in  combination  as  natural  silicate, 
whidi  requires  to  be  removed  for  veiy  fine  wares 
by  boiling  in  caustic  potash,  otherwise,  it  proves 
injurious.     The  finest  china-clay  of  Qreat  Britain 
is  obtained  from  Cornwall,  where  the  decomposed 
granite   is  washed    by  streams    of  water,  which 
carry  it  awav  into  ponds  called  catehpools.    The 
discovery  of  this  source  of  china-clay  was  made  by 
Mr   Codkworthy  about  the  middle  of  last   cen- 
tury, and  alone  afforded  means  for  improving  our 
native  pottery,  which  were  most  admirably  turned 
to  account  by  Mr  Josiah  Wedge  wood,  and  after 
him,  by  Mr  Herbert  Minton,  Mr  Copeland,  and 
others.  Previous  to  this,  although,  as  belore  noticed, 
fine  pottery  was  made  in  Britain  in  two  or  three 
places,  yet  the  general  character  .of  our  pottery, 
which  was  chiefly  manufactured  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Burslem,  in  Staffordshire,  was  most  miser- 
able both  in  material  and  in  desisn.    The  clay  was 
inferior  in  colour,  prepared  with  very  little  cars, 
and  covered  with  a  coarse  white  or  yellow  lead 
glaase;  but  the  discovery  of  the  Cornish  clay,  by 
affonUng  a  material  of  excellent  quality,  stimulated 
tiie  manufacturers  to  improve  the  general  style  of 
their  mamx&wtuxe.    Scarcely  second  in  importance 
to  this  discovery  was  Wedgewood^s  good  taste  and 
antiriuff  zeal  in  working  out  that  revolution  in  the 
art  of  we  British  potter,  tiiat  has  led  to  its  present 
enormous  development    In  1790,  when  Wedgewood 
was  bom  at  Burslem,  in  Staffordshire,  that  place 
supplied  the  greater  part  of  the  common  household 
pottery  of  Great  Britain ;  but  so  small  was  the  tradcu 
that  it  was  but  little  more  than  a  village  encumbered 
with  heaps  of  broken  crockery,  and  its  environs 
disfigured  with  day-pits  and  piles  of  refuse;  now 
it  is  the  centre  of  a  populous  district  called  *  The 
Potteries,'  comprising  about  48  square  miles.     In 
this  limited  space  there  are  now  nearly  280  kilns 
at  work,  employing  more  than  100,000  operatives. 

The  method  pursued  in  making  pottery  and 
porcelain  iB  the  same  in  principle  everywhere; 
we  shall  therefore  give  the  general  outline  of 
the  process  without  entering  into  the  minute  differ- 
ences which  distinguish  the  variations  produced  by 


difiereot  nunufaeturen  b  this  uid  other  oouatries. 
Potteiy  uid  porcelain  differ  chiefly  in  thiK.  that  tlie 
■uperiot  quality  of  the  mateiials  used  in  making  the 
latter,  givee  it  a  peculiar  tnuuluoency.  For  pottery, 
inferior  loateriala  are  u>ed,  and  a  coDaiderahle 
admixture  of  calcined  flint,  bone  ubes,  or  native 
phoapliBte  of  lime,  are  added  to  the  clay.  The 
iiBe  of  the  calcined  fliat  woi  said  to  have  been 
lint  adopted  by  a  Burslem  potter  nuned  Aetbur^, 
who,  whilit  travelling  to  London  on  horseback,  id 
I   year   1720,  had  occasion,  in  passing  throueh 


Dunstable,  to  seek  the 


if  an  hostler, 
n  his  horse's  eyes.  He 
noticed  that  the  man  took  a  piece  of  Sint,  burned 
it,  and  then  reduced  it  to  a  tine  pavder,  which 
lie  blew  into  the  horee'i  eyes.  Aitbuiy  aoticiDE 
the  beautiful  whiteness  of  the  powder,  conceived 
the  idea  of  uaing  it  in  his  pottery ;  and  did  so  with 
great  Buocess. 

The  ingredients,  tuch  as  the  clay  and  calcined 
flints,  ars  gronad  by  separate  means  ;  the  former  in 
the  pug-mill,  which 
r  is  represented  in  &g. 
14.  This  is  an  up- 
right, iron-bound, 
wooden  cylinder, 
with  an 
turned  by 
nery  ;  projecting 
from    A   are   seven 

which      has     three 
knives  fixed   in 
with      the      poi 
'ontwsrd,     and 
arranged  that  they 
spread      over       the 
largest    amount    of 
space   in   the   inte- 
rior ;  and  altogether 
they  are  placed 
Tig.  14.  a  spiral  manner, 

that  when  in  moti<-  _, 
the  clay,  which  is  thrown  in  lumiis  into  tiie 
hopper-shaped  upper  part  of  the  vat,  is  worked 
down,  and  is  so  cut  and  kneaded  by  the  knivi 
that  it  is  forced  out  at  an  openins  at  C,  in  tL. 
state  of  soft  pap.  This  is  aided  by  the  knives 
on  the  lower  part  of  tlie  lowest  arm  being  con- 
nected together  by  a  plate  D,  which  preveatfl  all 
seitlement  at  the  bottom.  This  paplika  clay 
passes  into  a  large  wooden  tank,  in  which  it  is 
agitated  with  water  until  quite  incorporated,  so  as 
to  resemble  milk  in  colour  and  consietency.  In 
another  mill  (fig.  15),  o(  a  different  eonstmction. 


tba  ConiUh  granite  and  calcined  flints  are  b«ng 
reduced  to  a  somewhat  similar  state.  This  mill  is 
Tray  strongly  constructed,  and  consists  of  a  tub-like 
nt  A,  in  Uie  centre  of  which  tarns  an  axle  8, 


moved  by  tnacbinary ;  in  the  bottom  of  the  *at  is  a 
thick  stone-bed  C,  consisting  either  of  Ant  or 
horn  (tone.  From  the  upper  part  of  the  axis,  thra 
strong  anus,  D,  D,  D,  project  like  the  spokts  of  a 
whe^;  and  strongly  attached  to  these  are  stoat 
beams,  o,  pointing  downward,  and  nearly^  toncli- 
ing  the  stone-bed  C.  As  the  axis,  with  its  arms 
aira  beams,  tuma  round,  the  beams  push  some 
large  masses  of  the  Oomish  granite  or  of  cliCT-t  stone 
round  with  tbem,  and  these  triturate  the  calcined 
Sints  and  other  hard  materials,  and  stir  Dp  the 
water  with  which  the  vat  is  kept  constantly 
supplied,  whilst  it  overflows  in  a  milky  state, 
charged  with  the  finely-divided  materials,  into  s 
cistern,  where  it  is  kept  stirred  until  it  is  mffi- 
ciently  supplied  with  the  solid  materials,  and  tbc 
thickened  milky  liquid  is  then  drawn  off^  in  propei 
proportions,  into  a  vat  to  which  the  prejuUHl  clay 
IS  also  passed.  The  mixture  of  the  two  is  tba 
allowed  to  subside  until  the  water  is  neaHy  clear, 
when  it  is  drawn  off;  and  the  sediment  is  depnvnl 
of  its  surplus  moisture,  either  by  evaporatimi,  or,  in 
the  beat  works,  by  a  pneumatic- exhausting  appar- 
atus, which  does  it  very  quickly.    The  compoeiuoB 

then  a  fine  plastic  material  of  the  conaiatency  of 
tough  dough,  and  is  ready  for  the  potter's  ose.  Is 
preparing  the  finer  materials  for  porcelain,  many 
other  operations  are  required,  all,  however,  having 
the  same  object,  viz.,  the  extremely  nmrate  divisioa 
of  the  substances  used. 

The  prepared  clay  is  taken  to  the  Itrvitimy- 
machine,  or  pottrr't  tatiie,  which  is  repnaented  in 
Sg.  16.    This  consists  of  a  fixed  table  A,  tbrotif^ 


Pi«.18L 

whii;b  passes  the  axle  B,  and  rises  a  little  above  its 
lurface,  and  having  on  its  upper  end  a  dac  C, 
*hich  revolves  with  it.  The  axle  is  put  into  rapid 
notion  Ijy  turning  the  fly-wheel  D,  either  by  hand 
or  machinery  ;  and  this  caoses  a  rapid  rovolution  nf 
the  disc  C.  npon  which  is  placed  the  soft  mas  of 
clay  to  be  moulded.  At  E  is  seen  an  npricht,  with 
a  small  sliding-bar  regulated  by  a  screw  ;  ^is  ia  the 
guide  fur  the  potter  to  regulate  the  hraght  of  tbe 
vessel  he  is  making.  When  the  lump  of  claj  ■ 
revolving,  the  potter, 
with  his  nands  or  with 
proper  tools,  fashions 
It  into  anjr  shape  he  j 
pleases ;  his  manag 
ment  of  this  reqnin 
considerable  ^ill,  i 
nearly  eveij  article  I 
requires  a  different  con- 
figuration. But  some 
articles  are  formed  in 
moulds,  the  moulds 
being  made  of  plaster 

of  Parit    This  answers         

well  for  fine  porcelain  Fif.  17. 

intended   to    be   very 


tt,  M  that  it  adnut*  of  huidliDg  which  id  a 
tittar  atata  wonld  be  very  difficult  The  paite  ii 
ued  ao  liqnid  that  it  ean  be  pooled  into  the 


moolda.  It  ia  oaoal,  m  casting,  to  have  a  mould 
for  each  part,  aa  seen  in  ftga.  17,  18,  19,  which 
repraeent  the  body,  neck  and  lip,  and  foot  of  the 
cream  ewer,  bg  20  For 
Dearly  Oat  articles,  inch 
M  dinner  plates,  a  plan  is 
,  adopted  which  combines 
'  both  processes  a  mould, 
usually  of  plaster,  fig  21, 
a,  la  placed  on  the  disc  of 
the  throwing  wheel,  b,  and 
a  thm  layer  of  the  paste 
IB  pressed  on  to  it,  so  as 
completely  to  take  its 
form  then  to  the  guide 
post,  e,  is  attach^  an 
arm,  d,  with  a  small  brass 
^ate,  e,  on  its  lower  side. 
This  plate  IB  ant  to  the 
outline  of  half  the  plate, 
or  dish ;   as   it   reTolves,   this    pares   down   and. 


Kg.  SO. 


Kg.  21. 

the  clay  to  its   own  outline,  and  to  the 

thickncas  to  which   it  ia  set, 

there  being  an  arnugement 
on  the  arm  of  the  guide-post 
by  which  this  can  be  effected. 
Sometimea,  aa  in  the  case  of 
deep  veasels,  moulds  are  used 
for  the  exterior,  and  the  inte- 
rior is  fonued  by  the  hand. 
This  procew  (Hg.  22}  insure! 
Ceitaioty  of  size  anil  shap^ 
which  is  important  in  making 
larea  nombarn  of  similar 
article%  aa  tea-cups,  fto.  The 
monld  ia  lined  with  a  thin 
cake  of  clay,  and  when  placed 
OD  the  revolving  disc,  it  ia 
fashioned  inaide  Dy  band,  and 
finished  off  with  a  wet  tponge. 
Sometime*  metal  of  horn  tools 
naed  for  produoiog  monldings  and  other  raised 
■      -     for  gmovea,  wlwn  the  turning  or 


KB,29l 


throwing  wheel  ia    used.     If   the   articles    made 

require  Dandles  or  other  aimilar  accessory  parts, 
they  are  always  moulded,  unless  of  vecy  umple 
forms,  and  ore  attached  whilst  they  and  the 
body  are  still  soft  enouEh.  They  are  joined  by 
a  thin  fluid  paste  called  a  lUp,  and  the  junc- 
tion is  smoothed  over  with  the  wet  sponge,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  of  the  potter's  tools. 
Being  formed,  the  articles,  of  whatever  kind,  are 
now  taken  to  the  drving-atove,  where  they  are 
placed  on  shelves,  and  remain  there  some  time, 
exposed  to  a  heat  of  about  85°  Fahr.    When  quite 


ev  are  next  taken  to  a  woikshop  near  the 

,  _jd  they  are  here  carefully  packed  in  coarse 

earthenware  vessels,  called  tggari  (fig.  23),  which 


kila. 


FIC.M. 

a  ao  made   that  they  can   bs  ^ed  npon  r 


taotber  tt  a  Kre>t  h^ght  id  the  kiln,  aa  lean  in 
fig.  24,  in  which  aome  of  the  Mggui  are  aeen  in 
■witioii.  for  the  pnrpoae  of  making  the  OTTangemaut 
more  intelligible.  Ai  the  a>>ggan  axe  generally 
•nude  large  enough  to  hold  a  namber  of  articlea, 
which  would,  when  highly  heated,  adhere  if  thej 
touched,  a  nniuber  of  curionalj  ahaped  pieoea  at 


bumad  day  are  uaed  for  placing  between  them,  to 
■a  to  make  them  rest  on  pointi ;  theae  are  called 
tealAm,  oxk^pvrt,  triangia,  ttUtt,  &c,  fis.  29.    In 

the  leggar,  filled  with 
platea  (tig.  20),  the  plates 
aie  aaea  each  reeting  on 
eocktpurt,  which  prevent 
them  touching.  Another 
object  ia  gained  by  this, 
fl«t     articlea 


h'lirp&tei 


F1»M 


plaoed  one  upon  another, 
would  not  be  fired  eqoallv, 
bat  when  they  are  bald 
apart,  the  heat  affecta  all  parta  alike.  Hie 
a<^nn  are  ao  piled  in  the  kiui  that  tli«  oontre 
i>  boUow,  and  tiime  at«  free  apacea  bMweia 
(hem  through  which  the  fire  can  aacend ;  prtqja, 
a,  a,  a,  fig,  24,  being  BO  placed  aa  to  keep  them 
from  immediate  contact  with  the  sidea  all 
roand.  Thna,  each  B^gar  forma  a  unall  oven,  in 
which  one  or  more  pieces  of  pottery  or  porcdain 
are  baked,  and  the  aeggan  prevent  any  unequal 
heating  of  the  pieces,  and  also  protect  them  from 
smoke.  A  kUn  has  generally  eight  furnaces,  and  it 
is  luual  to  raiss  liz  piles  of  seggara  between  every 
two  furnaces,  or  rather  between  their  flues,  whicK 
rise  tu  a  conaiderable  height  iu  the  kilns.  Each  pile 
of  Beggars  ia  technically  called  a  Atiii;,  so  that  there 
are  generally  48  or  SO  bungi  to  the  charge  of  a 
kiln.  When  all  thia  ia  arranged,  the  famacea  are 
lighted,  and  great  care  ia  taken  to  have  the  beat 
coal,  OS  it  enablea  the  manufacturer  to  make  a  more 
certain  caJcnlation  aa  to  its  effecta,  and  is  leas  liable 


baking  crfiring  requires  greatcare  and  attention,  and 
there  are  niany  uuse  regulations  connected  with  it 
to  guide  the  workman.  It  usually  laata  from  40  to  42 
houn.  The  fire  il  then  allowed  to  go  out,  and  the 
kiln  tc  cool  vary  gradually,  after  which  it  ia  opened, 
and  the  aeggars  removed,  to  be  unpacked  in  a 
separate  wi^ahop.  The  articles  are  now  in  the 
state  called  btacmt-ware,  and  require  both  the  glaze 
and  any  patterns  they  may  be  intended  to  bear. 
Common  pottery  is  often  figured  by  pi-inting  the 
design  in  enamel  ooLoura  on  paper,  and  whilst  the 
printing  ia  still  wet,  applying  it  to  the  biscuit- ware ; 
the  wore  abaorba  the  enamel  ink,  and  the  paper  is 
removed  by  water,  leaving  the  pattern  on  the  ware. 
It  ia  then  lired  in  seggars,  or  a  muffle,  to  fix  the 
colour,  and  is  then  dipped  into  composition  called 
gloM,  of  which  three  kinds  are  used  in  the  Stafford- 
shire potteries.  The  flrst,  for  common  pipeclay 
inrt,  IS  composed  of  Cornish  granite,  16  parts ; 
flint,  36  parts ;  white-lead,  53jparta ;  and  collet, 
or  broken  flint-glass,  4  parte.    Iliese  materials  are 


triturated  with  watsr,  with  die  same  esiB  aod 
by  similar  meana  to  thoM  eaiplored  in  fonBtng 
paste,  and  an  reduced  with  water  to  the  iisiss 
milk-like  liouidit;^.  Bach  woikman  has  ■  tub  of 
the  glaze  before  lum;  and  as  the  articles  of  biaciut- 
ware,  either  with  or  without  decorations,  are  bnx^t 
to  him,  he  dips  them  in  the  glaze,  so  as  to  insm 
a  uniform  coaling  over  them  ;  and  by  nioe  many 
ment,  he  prevents  any  large  dnms  or  aocami^ 
tions  on  one  part  more  than  another.  The  poroos 
biscuit-ware  rajridly  absorbs  the  moisture,  and  drie* 
up  the  thin  film  of  gUze  on  tbe  surface  of  ttw 
articles,  which  are  again  placed  in  seggar*,  and 
carried  to  the  ^laze-kiln,  where  they  undergo 
another  firini^  which  melts  the  glaze,  and  convflita 
it  into  a  perfectly  transparent  glass,  like  water,  all 
over  the  surface,  and  renders  any  pattern  previously 
printed  upon  it  verv  plain.  The  temperature  in  Ilia 
glaze  or  enamel  kiln  is  only  increased  very  gradn- 
sRy,  and  is  kept  up  for  about  14  hours,  after  which 
it  is  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  and  the  articles  are 
taken  out  completed.  8o  far,  this  description  hsa 
applied  to  the  manufacture  of  pottery  and  poroelun 
on  a  large  scale,  for  general  purposes ;  iMt  wbem  it 
is  applied  to  more  costly  and  artistic  works,  very 
special  arrangements  are  required  -,  and  in  the  caae 
of  remarkably  fine  piece^  instead  of  tbe  huge  kilns, 
which  hold  frequently  many  thousand  piece*, 
muffle  fnnutcea   (fig.    27)  are  both  used  tot  Um 


Kg.  37. 

biaouit,  the  glaae,  and  the  coloured  and  gildad 
decorationa.  which,  in  poroelain,  an  iqtplied  on  *ln> 
^aae,  and  not  on  tJie  biscuit. 

Ths  deooration  of  poroelain  baa  long  hdd  a  lusli 
rank  as  a  fine  art ;  and  the  exquiaile^kiU  aheWain 
Bome  of  the  finest  woiks  <A  tbe  continental  maan- 
factni^  uid  lately  in  those  of  Britain,  has  fliriy 
entitled  it  to  that  rank.  The  ooloun  employed  bm 
all  ooloured  glaases  gtonnd  to  impa^»ble  powden, 
and  mixed  with  borai  or  some  other  flnzi^  matedal ; 
for  iiae,  thev  are  generally  made  liquid  wHh  oil  of 
■pike,  and  they  are  laid  on  with  hair-peocila,  in  tha 
same  way  as  (»1-ciJouib.  The  whole  process  ia 
exactly  the  same  aa  in  painting  or  stainis^  ^aas ; 
the  glaie  on  the  biaooit-poroelaui  being  tnw  ^bb, 
and  the  enamel  colour*  bsing  exactly  the  aaoe  aa 
those  used  by  tbe  glass  deoorator.   The  ooloors  m 


de  by  mixing  the  maUrials  of  iriikA  j^aB 
e  wiUi  the  ixJouHng  material  and  the  flnx.  or 
mply  with  the  ah-e^dy  coloured  glass  and  the  Ha. 


Wlien  tbe  formec  plan  if  «npk>yed,  the  falknri^ 


POTTERY. 


are  the  coloaring  material  emploj«d:  oxide  of 
chromtiuii  for  green ;  oxide  of  iron  for  red,  brown, 
violet,  grav,  and  yellow;  oxide  of  UTanium  for 
onoge,  yellow,  black ;  oxide  of  manganese  for  violet, 
brown,  black,  and  jporple ;  oxide  of  cobalt  for  blae, 
gray,  and  black ;  oxide  of  antimony  for  yellow ;  oxide 
of  fitanitim  for  yellow ;  oxide  of  copper  for  green ; 
suboxide  of  copper  for  red ;  eeequioxide  of  iziditim 
for  fine  black;  protoohromate  ca  iron  for  brown; 
chromate  of  lead  for  yellow ;  chromate  of  barytes 
for  yellow ;  cbloride  of  silver  for  deepening  reds  and 
purples;  purple  of  caasins  for  ruby  and  pnrpla 
Several  oi  these  colours  are  much  increased  in 
brilliancy  by  the  addition  of  oxide  of  zinc,  which 
of  itself  gives  no  colour;  and  the  transparent  ones 
are  rendered  opaque  by  the  addition  of  oxide  of  tin. 
Other  fluxes  besides  borax,  or  borate  of  soda, 
are  used — as  sand,  felspar,  boracic  acid,  minium  or 
litharge,  salt,  saltpetre,  potash,  and  soda.  Nothing 
enriches  the  appearance  of  porcelain  more  than 
good  gilding ;  for  this  purpose,  gold-leaf  is  rubbed 
down  with  oil  of  turpentine ;  or  pulverulent  gold  is 
produced  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  gold  in  aqua- 
regia,  by  the  addition  of  a  solution  of  sulphate  of 
iron.  The  gold  is  precipitated  as  a  brown  powder, 
which  is  washed  and  dried,  and  then  worked  up 
with  one-sixteenth  of  its  weight  of  oxide  of  bismuth 


and  oil  of  tmpentine. 
and  afterwaros  bu 


It  is  painted  on,  then  fire^ 
burnished.  Peculiar  and  beautiful 
metallic  lustres  are  produced  upon  potterjr  by  pre- 
cipitated platinum  and  other  means ;  but  it  is  not 
within  the  soope  of  this  article  to  enter  into  aU  the 
details  by  which  the  almost  numberless  variations 
are  produced  in  the  manufacture  and  decoration  of 
this  material.  The  literature  relating  to  its  history 
is  rich  in  treatises  for  the  guidance  of  those  engaged 
in  the  art 

The  f ollowinff  are  the  chief  varieties  of  oeramio 
materials,  and  weir  usual  composition :  1.  Porododn^ 
— ^At  Sdvxes,  kaolin,  48  parts;  sand  (pure  white), 
48  parts;  chalk,  4  parts.  At  Dresden,  kaolin,  63 
parts ;  felspar,  26  parts ;  broken  biscuit-porcelain, 
2  parts.  At  Berlin,  kaolin,  76  parts;  felspar,  24 
puis.  In  England,  three  mixtures  are  used — ^For 
common  china,  ground  flints,  75  parts;  calcined 
bones,  180  PAits ;  china-clay,  40  parts ;  day,  70parts. 
For  fine  cnina,  ground  fliDts,  66  parts;  calcined 
bones,  100  parts;  china-clay,  96  parts;  Cornish 
cranite,  80  parts.  Fine,  for  modelbng  figures,  Ac., 
Lynn  sand,  150  parts ;  calcined  bones,  SX)  parts ; 
china-clay,  100  parts;  potash,  107  parts.  The 
glazes  require  to  be  varied  for  nearly  all,  so  that 
their  fusibility  may  be  ffreater  or  less,  according  to 
the  more  or  less  fusible  character  of  the  biscuit 


P   ^ 

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16 


I,  Fsniiini 


dngton,  Liverpool,  1760— 178D;  2,  Plymouth,  about  1760;  8,  Bichavd  Champion,  Bristd,  1772—1790; 
4,  Charies  Green,  Leeds,  1790;  5,  Bow,  1780—1790;  6.  Absolon,  Yaimouth,  about  1790;  7,  Cfcelsea,  1730— 
1^84 ;  8,  Swansea,  Wales,  1790;  9,  Woieester,  1760—1780;  10,  Yarmouth,  about  1790;  11,  Derby,  1751—1769; 
12,  Oown,  Derby,  1780-1830;  13,  Shiopshiie,  1772—1799;  H  CooJcworthy,  Plymouth,  1760;  15,  D<»by— 
Ghelaea,  177a 


ijigredients.  2.  i\irtafk— The  composition  for  this 
ifi  Uie  same  as  that  for  the  fine  English  china,  but  it 
is  used  in  a  liquid  state,  so  as  to  m  poured  into  the 
plaster  of  Paris  moulds.  It  requires  very  great 
in  the  firing.     8.   JBlarthenware  (Fr.  FaXeMe, 


from  Fayeua,  the  name  of  a  place  in  Italy  where 
it  was  made ;  Dvteh,  2>e{/t,  from  its  having  been 
chiefly  made  at  Delft,  in  Holland).~Made  of 
various  kinds  of  clay,  varying  in  colour  from  yellow 
to  white,  according  to  the  quality  required;  and 


POTTO— POULTRY. 


more  or  lera  of  powdered  calcined  flints  are  mixed 
with  it,  to  give  it  body  and  hardnewai  Sometimea, 
as  in  porous  vessels,  only  clay  is  used.  4  Stonewart, 
such  as  is  used  for  jars,  bottles,  drain-pipes,  Ac,  is 
made  of  several  kinds  of  plastic  clay,  mixed  with 
felspar  and  sand,  and  occasionally  a  little  lime^  but 
the  materials  vary  much  in  different  localities. 

In  this  count^,  the  potteries  not  only  supply 
the  demand,  but  are  estimated  to  export  about 
^1,300,000  annually.  The  entire  produce  in  1851 
was  £2,450,00a  In  1852,  there  were  185  esUb- 
lishments;  70,000  operatives  were  employed,  and 
84,000,000  pieces  exported.  England,  Franoe,  and 
Germany  only  export;  England  to  the  greatest 
amount.  France,  which  had  only  five  or  six  estab- 
lishments, did  not  produce  more  than  £200,000 
worth  annually,  and  exported  £18,000  worth. 
Germany,  which  had  40  manufactories,  exported 
about  5000  tons.  The  chief  exports  are  to  If  orth 
America,  where^  however,  in  the  various  states 
there  are  rising  potteries,  as  Jersey,  Philadelphia, 
Liverpool  in  Ohio,  and  other  places. 

Most  of  the  celebrated  manufacturers  of  pottery 
and  porcelain,  both  at  home  and  abroad,  have 
employed  a  special  mark  to  distinguish  their  works, 
and  these  are  now  of  considerable  importance  in 
enabling  us  to  ascertain  the  origin  of  choice  speci- 
mens. On  the  preceding  page  are  given  some  of  the 
more  important  marks  and  monograms,  so  used  by 
the  earlier  English  makers,  when  their  names  in  full 
were  not  imprmted,  as  was  often  the  case. 

PO'TTO.    See  KnncAJOU. 

POTTSYILLE,  a  vUlage  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  Schuylkill  River,  at  the  entrance  of  Norwegian 
Greek,  93  miles  north-west  of  Philadelphia,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  railway.  It  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  rich  anthracite  coal  and  iron  region,  and 
has  four  iron  foundries,  a  brass  fotmdry,  manufac- 
tures of  iron  safes,  sashes,  and  wood- work ;  county 
buildings ;  3  English,  3  €krman,  and  1  Wel^  paper; 
and  16  churches,  3  of  which  are  Welsh.  Popi  in 
1860,9444 

POTT',  a  district  town,  and  rising  seaport  of 
Russia,  in  the  Caucasian  eovemment  of  Kutais, 
stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Rion,  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  the  Black  Sea.  The  Rion  connects 
the  port  with  the  interior,  and  since  the  establish- 
ment of  regular  steam  communication  by  the 
Russian  Trade  and  Navigation  Company  in  this 
quarter,  the  commerce  and  especially  the  transit- 
trade  of  this  town  has  greatly  increased.  The 
number  of  inhabitants  is  small,  but  is  increasing. 

POUCH,  MiLiTABT,  a  stout  leather  box,  black 
or  brown,  lined  with  tin,  covered  with  a  strong 
flap,  and  ornamented  with  the  device  of  the 
regiment,  serves  to  carry  the  cartridges  required 
by  a  soldier  for  immediate  use.  When  cartridges 
are  suppUed  for  a  whole  day's  service,  two  pouches 
are  worn,  one  on  the  front  point  of  the  hip,  and  a 
larger  one  on  a  belt  suspended  over  the  left 
shoulder. 

POUCHED  BAT  (P^eudo^Umui)^  a  genus  of 
MuridcB,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  natives 
of  parts  of  North  America  west  of  we  Mississippi, 
and  some  of  them  very  troublesome  from  tne 
ravages  they  commit  in  fields  and  jpardens.  They 
have  four  molars  on  each  side  in  each  jaw.  The 
tail  is  short.  The  cheeks  are  furnished  with 
pouches,  to  which  the  name  refers,  the  openings  of 
which  are  from  the  outside,  and  not  from  the  mouth. 
The  pouched  rats  burrow  in  the  ground,  and  do 
great  mischief  to  root-crops. 

POUGHKEETSIE,  a  city  of  New  York,  U.a, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  75  nules 
nortii  of  New  York,  finely  situated  on  a  table-land, 
ISO 


about  200  feet  above  the  river.  The  city  bss  farad 
and  handsome  streets,  with  fine  public  sod  private 
edifices.  The  collegiate  school  u  situated  qd  an 
eminence  which  rises  500  feet  above  the  rirer,  and 
from  which  a  magnificent  prospect,  embraeinff  an 
area  2500  square  miles  in  extent,  may  be  obtained. 
P.  contains  a  city-hall,  academy,  law-school,  lyeeam, 
orphan  asylimi,  6  public  schools,  an  endowed  female 
college,  a  rural  cemetery,  4  banks,  extensiTie  inm- 
works;  carriage,  chaur,  and  carpet  factoiiea; 
breweries,  21  churches,  and  has  railway  and  steam- 
boat conmiunication  with  New  York  and  Albany. 
P.  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in  1690;  daring  the 
Revolution,  it  was  the  state  capital,  and  the  Con- 
volition  met  here,  1788,  to  ratify  the  constitatioD  d 
the  United  States.    Pop.  in  1860, 14,726. 

POULPE  {Octopus),  a   senus   of   Cephalopoda 
(q.  v.),  of  the  order  DibrcmcKiata;  faavine  eight /(Xi 
or  arms,  nearly  equal,  united  at  the  base  by  a  mem* 
brane,  and  venr  long  in  proportion  to  the  bod?. 
There  is  no  shell,  but  it  is  represented  by  two  small 
grains  of  horny  substance  imbedded  in  the  back, 
one  on  each  side.    The  arms  are  used  for  swimming 
in  water,    creeping    on   land,    and  seizing  prey. 
Poulpes  swim  by  contractions  of  the  moscusr  wA 
of  the  body,  which  extends  upon  the  anna    They 
creep  on  shore  in  a  spider-like  manner,  with  spraw- 
ling arms.    Like  other  cephalopoda,  when  alsrmed 
or  annoyed,  they  discharge  an  inky  fluid.    One 
species  (0.  vulgaris)  is  occasionally  found  on  the 
the  British  shores,  and  is  mora  common  on  the 
southern  shores  of  Ihirope,  and  elsewhere  in  the 
Mediterranean.    It  is  the  PolypuM  of  the  sncienia. 
Its  arms  are  six  times  as  long  as  its  body,  and  each 
furnished  with  120  pairs  of  suckers.    (See  Cephalo- 
poda.) ~  In  warmer  seas,  very  lara;e  species  occor; 
and  although  the  stories  related  of  their  laying  hold 
of  and  swamping  boats,  seisdng  and  killing  swim- 
mers, &c.,  may  probably  be  fabulous,  yet  it  ii 
certain  that  some  of  them  have  arms  at  least  two 
feet  long,  and  there  is  probable  reason  to  suppose 
that  much  larger  species  exist,  which  must  be 
powerful  and  dangerous  creatures.    A  P.,  with  its 
eyes  fixed  on  its  adversary,  and  its  beak  threatening 
to  approach,  must  have  a  sufficiently  formidable 
aspect    It  was  no  doubt  a  P.  which  Mr  Beak 
encountered  on  the  shore  of  the   Benin  IsUnds, 
which  he  attempted  to  intercept  in  its  retreat  to- 
wards the  sea,  and  which  turned  and  fastened  apon 
him,  laying  hold  of  him  with  its  arms,  and  trying 
to  bite  him   with  its  parrot-like  heaik.—Ndiod 
Hisiorp  and  Fi^^ay  of  the  Sperm  Whole, 

POUXTIOE.    See  Gataplasic. 

POUXTRT  (Fr.  pouie,  a  hen),  a  collective  name 
for  usefiU  domesticated  birds.  It  is  sometimes 
limited  to  the  domesticated  gallinaceous  bird^  but 
its  ordinary  use  includes  alfthe  birds  reared  fs 
economical  purposes.  These  belong  exdnsively  to 
two  orders  of  birds,  the  OaUinaeeoys  and  PaJbniped; 
the  common  fowl,  pea-fowl.  Guinea-fowl,  tniibey, 

fuan,  and  pigeon  belonging  to  the  former;  and  the 
ifferent  kmds  of  duck  and  goose,  as  well  sa  the 
swan,  to  the  latter.  For  what  relates  to  the  different 
species  and  their  varieties,  we  refer  to  these  heads ; 
devoting  this  article  to  some  general  remarks  as  to 
the  management  of  poultry. 

In  general,  the  rearing  of  poultry  is  regarded  as  s 
very  subordinate  branch  of  rural  economy,  and  it  ii 
pursued  chiefly  where  agriculture  is  in  a  st-mewhst 

Primitive  state,  the  skUSil  and  enterprising  fumer 
eeming  it  beneath  his  attention,  or  finding  that  hs 
has  not  time  to  attend  to  it,  anil  often  looking  os 
the  feathered  inmates  of  his  fann-yard  ahuostssi 
nuisance  because  of  their  invasions  of  his  fielda  It 
may  pretty  safely  be  asserted  that  there  is  no  good 


WDiUd  ilirajB  be  found  a  aourcs  of  pAiftt  The 
farm-yud  oaordi  ^reat  sdvantBges  tCiT  the  keeping 
of  poultry,  And  the  mcreasiiig  demand  of  the  DUrket 
promiBea  a  sure  return.  In  same  pacts  of  Britaia 
aad  in  Ireland,  where  the  farmi  are  (mall,  poultry 
■re  very  eitenBively  kept  b;  farmen  and  cottagen  ; 
but  Uie  north  of  France  and  Pomerania  exceul  all 
other  parts  of  Europe  in  poultry- keeping,  which 
there  u  not  unfrequently  t^e  leading  object  of 
hnjbaodry,  and  the  traffic  in  the  proauota  of  the 
poultry-yard  i«  on  a  truly  great  scale. 

There  it  very  conimonly  no  building  erected  for 
the  special  aocommodation  of  poultry ;  but  perches 
and  places  for  nesta  are  provided  for  them  in  a 
cow-house  or  some  uther  farm-building  ;  or,  in  very 
many  casee,  when  kept  by  cottagers,  they  roost  on 
ioiats  of  the  roof,  within  the  door  of  the  cottage 
Itself.  In  such  cases,  they  roam  at  liberty  during 
the  whole  day.  and  find  much  of  their  food  in  the 
fields  and  on  Uie  road  sides,  although  the  feeding  of 
them  with  corn  and  other  food  is  not  neglectedby 
the  careful  housewife.  But  it  is  often  nndeairable, 
for  the  sake  of  fields  or  gardens,  that  so  much 
liberty  should  be  allowed  to  poultry,  and  they  may 
be  veiT  advantageously  kept  either  wholly  or  mostly 
in  connnement.  If  ctrcumstances  permit,  it  is  good 
for  them  to  be  let  out  for  an  hour  or  two  daily  into 
a  crass  field,  but  it  is  not  necessary,  if  they  are  pro- 
vided with  a  warm,  clean,  and  well- ventilated  house, 
to  which  a  spacious  open  court  is  attached,  and  are 
regularly  supplied  with  abundance  of  food,  water, 
sand,  or  fine  ashes,  lime,  and  small  stones,  all 
reqiiiutes  to  their  healthful  existence.  The  food 
must  also  be  of  various  kinds.  Poultry  mnst  have 
■applies  of  grain  or  pulse,  and  of  soft  food  made  of 
the  meal  of  ^in  or  pulse ;  the  kind  may  depend 
upon  conveDient!«  and  cheapness  ;  and  instead  of 
such  food,  boiled  potatoes  may  to  some  extent  be 
nsed.  Bran  is  a  very  good  article  of  food  for  poultry. 
But  the  same  food,  without  variation,  shoold  not  be 
given  for  any  considerable  time.  And  it  is  indis- 
pensable that  all  kinds  of  poultry  be  frequently,  if 
not  even  daily,  supjdied  with  green  food,  as  blades 
of  kale,  cabbage,  cauliflower,  turnips,  Ac.  or  lettuces, 
cresses,  chickweed,  sow-thistle,  to.  It  is  pretty 
safe  to  observe  the  kinds  which  they  like,  and  to 
allow  them  to  choose  for  themselves.  When  they 
have  no  opportunity  of  seeking  worms,  snails,  slugs, 
and  insects  for  themselves,  .inimal  food  must  be 
given,  and  ths  refuse  of  the  kitchen  cannot  be  more 

eohtably  employed.  It  is  possible  at  some  seasons 
give  too  mueh  food,  makm^  the  poultry  too  fat, 
and  diminiihinu  the  production  of^  eggs ;  bnt  at 
other  times,  as  (luring  the  aeason  of  moulting,  food 

cannot  be  given  too 

■"3.  plentifnlly.       Water 


venient ;  bnt  warmth 
oannot  be  too  much 
regarded.  A  poultry' 
,   house    erf    four   feet 
i-j.rM    »   iur  u..i:.i   "li*™,  shoold  hsve 
tb«  '•pmrimrnt   far   B  yard  at  least  eight 
>i  *.  wUh  l-jing  and    feet    by    four.      The 
f*'lien'i  ''oil"'inrfciTi^    yard  is  enclosed   by 
.,  .ur  ^..icbinit-bouu;  ana/.^   wire-netting.         The 
■paiUHnt  fgr  Uftaf.  floor    of    the    house, 

made  of  olay  or 
other  material,  eugfat  to  be  so  firm  md  hard  as  to 
admit  of  its  being  eaiUy  sw^t,  and  this  should  be 
oft^j  ^IM.     The  honte  i>  providad  with  nxwting 


Pig.  L— Plan  of  Poultry-hi 


C laces  on  the  ground  or  above  it.  kccording  ta  fh* 
ind  of  pooltrj',  and  with  nests  for  laying  in. 
Hatcbiiur  ought  to  be  conducted  in  a  separate 
place.  The  court  should  be  furnished  with  a 
'  tean'to '  shed  on  one  side,  under  which  the  bints 
may  find  shelter  from  sun  or  rain,  and  here  thev 
should  find  sand  or  fine  ashes  to  fiinj;  over  then- 
selves,  according  to  their  manner,  to  nd  themselves 
of  insect  tormentors.  Lime  is  also  necessary  for 
them,  large  quantities  of  it  being  used  to  make  egg- 
shells, besides  what  the  animiU  system  otherwise 
requires.  It  may  be  very  conveniently  supplied 
in  the  form  of  lime  rubbish  from  old  walls,  in 
which  also  occur  in  abundance  such  small  stones 
as  birds  need  in  order  to  the  trituration  of  the  food 
in  their  gizzard. 

In  the  places  appropriated  to  hatching,  it  is  gpod 
to  have  a  fresh  turf  deposited,  to  prevent  tiie  eggs 
from  becoming  too  dry.  and  it  il  even  TecoEnmcna<»l 
that  the  egm  should  be  slightly  moistened  every 
day.  It  Is  said  that  the  inner  membrana  of  the  egg 
is  otherwise  ant  to  become  hard,  so  that  the  young 
chick  cannot  break  throuf^h  it 

Where  purity  of  breed  is  of  importance,  ae  when 
fowls   are  to  be  exhibited  in  prize  competiM  his. 


Eg.  2.— Poultry-pen.  * 

great  care  must  be  taken  to  keep  the  different  kinds 
perfectly  sciarate ;  otherwise,  intenniiture  to  a 
certain  extent  is  not  undesirable.  It  isalwoys.  indeed, 
to  be  desired  that  each  good  kind  be  kept  pure  and 
in  as  great  perfactioQ  as  ^mssible,  for  imnrovement 
of  the  stock.  But  even  m  a  small  poultry-bouse, 
it  is  desirable  to  have  different  kinds,  some  being 
particularly  estimable  for  their  flesh,  some  for  the 
abundance  and  quality  of  their  eggs,  some  tor  their 
disposition  to  incubate,  &c.  For  web-foot«d  birds, 
free  accea*  to  water  is  reqniicd;  but  some  of  tiia 

m 


P0UNCI&-P0U8SIN. 


kinds    are   well   cnoiigh   pnmded   by   a   pretty 
Gapacious  troagh. 

Among  the  diaeaBee  of  poultry,  Oapes  (q.  v.)  is 
one  whidi  very  frequently  OemandB  attention,  par- 
ticularly in  young  cnlckens.  Pip  (^.  v.)  or  Baup  is 
another.  iSoine  of  the  maladieii  which  cut  ofif  sreat 
numbera  of  youn||[  chickens,  and  still  more  of  tu&ey- 
poults,  may  be  in  a  great  measure  prevented  by 
supplviag  abundance  of  nourishing  and  sufficiently 
vaned  f  (^  with  water  and  lime ;  and  by  preventing 
the  young  birds,  particularly  turkeys^  xrom  getting 
amon^  wet  grass. 

It  18  sometimes  taken  for  granted  by  writers  <m 
this  subject,  that  all  the  birds  which  can  be  domes- 
ticated with  advantage,  have  already  been  domesti- 
oated.  The  assumption  ia  quite  ^tuitous^  and  it 
might  as  well  be  asserted  that  improvement  has 
reached  its  utmost  in  any  other  direction.  The 
concurrent  supposition  that  the  common  domesti' 
cated  kinds  were  given  to  man  at  fint  as  domestic, 
is  likewise  unsupported  by  evidence,  although  the 
domestication  of  some  of  our  poultry  birds  must  be 
referred  to  a  very  early  date.  Among  the  Anatidos 
some  progress  has  recently  been  made  in  the  domea- 
tication  of  new  kinds ;  and  a  beginning  may  even 
be  said  to  have  been  made  as  to  soma  additional 
gallinaceous  birds. 

Much  valuable  informatiim  on  the  maoamaent 
of  poultry  will  be  found  in  The  Henw^  H^ 
oion  JSxperience  in  her  own  Poultry-yard,  by  Mrif 
Fergusson  Blair  of  Balthayock  (Edin.  2d  ed  1861). 

POUNCE,  powdered  roein,  or  some  sum  resin 
such  as  mastic,  sandtfach,  or  oopal,  and  also  the 
powder  of  cuttle-fish  bones.  It  is  used  for  sprinkling 
over  freshly- written  writing,  to  prevent  blotting; 
fine  sand  is  often  subatitutea  for  pounce.  Blottin|{i 
^per  has  almost  superseded  the  use  of  pounce  m 
Great  Britain. 

POUND,  in  English  Law,  means  an  enclosure, 
of  which  there  was  generally  one  in  every  parish, 
or  at  least  every  manor,  in  which  stray  cattle  were 
put  and  detained  until  the  damage  done  by  them 
was  paid  for.  Whenever  a  stranger'a  or  neighbour's 
cattle  trespass  on  another's  lands,  the  latter  can 
seize  them,  and  take  them  to  the  pound,  or  impound 
them,  as  it  is  called,  damage  feasant,  and  can  keep 
them  there  tiU  the  expenses  are  repaid.  There  was 
a  distinction  between  pound  overt,  or  oommon 
pound,  and  pound  covert,  or  dose  pound;  in  the 
former  case^  the  owner  of  the  beasts  could  go  and 
feed  and  water  his  cattle  while  impounded,  and  it 
was  his  duty  to  do  so ;  but  not  in  the  latter  case^ 
Now,  it  is  compulsory  for  the  impounder,  in  all 
cases,  to  supply  the  cattle  with  food,  otherwise 
he  incurs  a  penalty;  and  if  impounded  cattle  are 
not  sufficiently  fed,  a  stranger  who  feeds  them  may 
not  only  trespass  on  lands  to  do  so,  but  can  recover 
the  costs  from  the  owner  of  the  beasts.  This  was 
formerly  an  important  head  of  law,  and  it  ia  not 
obsolete,  for  the  power  to  impound  sttaf  cattle  still 
exists,  though  common  pounds  are  msappearing, 
for,  in  point  of  law,  they  are  not  necessary,  since 
the  impounder  can  put  tne  cattle  in  his  own  stable 
or  fiel<L 

POUND  (Sax.  pund,  Get,  pfvnd,  Lat.  pondus, 
*  weight')  the  unit  of  weijght  in  the  western  and 
central  states  of  Europe,  differing,  however,  in  value 
in  all  of  them.  The  symbol  {Ib^,  for  it  is  equally 
general,  and  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  Uhra. 
The  old  English  pound,  which  is  said  to  have  been 
the  standara  of  weight  from  the  time  of  William 
the  Conqueror  till  that  of  Henry  VII.,  was  derived 
from  the  weight  of  7680  grains  of  wheat,  all  taken 
from  the  middle  of  tiie  ear,  and  well  dried  After 
this  time,  the  troy  pound,  which  waa  heavier  by 


^th  than  the  old  EngHsh  pound,  becsne  ti» 
standard,  but  it  was  divided  into  only  6760  gniu, 
Henry  YIIL  introduced  the  avotrdupoie  pound  for 
weighing  butcher  meat  in  the  market,  and  ife 
fl;radual^  came  to  be  used  for  all  coarse  goods  ia 
frequent  demand;  it  contained  7000  troy  gnina 
The  troy  and  avoirdupois  pounds,  both  1^ 
measures,  continued  in  regular  use  from  this  penod 
— the  former  being  griMLually  appropriated  by 
jewellers  and  apothecaries ;  and,  to  prevent  Tsria> 
tion,  a  brass  weight  of  one  pound  troy  wss  oon- 
structed  in  1768,  and  placed  in  charge  of  the  cUik 
of  the  House  of  Commons.  This  weight,  in  182^ 
was  declared  by  act  of  parliament  to  he  *th« 
original  and  genuine  standard  measure  of  weight 
and  that  from  which  the  value  of  the  ounce,  grain, 
pound  avoirdu^is,  .&c.  were  to  be  deduced,  but 
Doing,  along  with  the  standards  of  measure,  d^ 
stroyed  in  1834^  a  commission  was  appointed  to 
consider  the  best  means  of  replacing  thein.  After 
long  deliberation,  hearing  of  evidence,  and  sifting 
of  auggestions,  it  was  agreed,  inter  aUa,  that  the 
standard  of  weight  shouH  be  a  piece  of  platinum, 
weighing  7000  grains  (an  avoirdupois  pound),  bat 
that  this  piece  should  not  be  de6ned  with  reference 
to  anv  natural  standard  The  troy  pound  thus 
osased  to  be  the  standard,  but  its  use  was  allowed 
ta  jewellers  and  (differently  divided  and  subdivided) 
to  apothecariea. 

Tne  pound-weight  of  silver,  a  common  mone^ 
atandard  among  uie  ancient  Bomana,  was  intro- 
duced by  them  into  the  countries  they  conquered, 
and  thus  the  term  '  pound '  became  a  designatiaii 
of  a  certain  amount  of  coined  money.  Thus, 
now-a-days,  the  English  pound  is  considered  is 
something  (a  coin  or  otherwise)  equivalent  to  20 
'*^f^^**'flfc  but  originally  it  denoted  the  pound  of 
silvev  iNiiah  was  coined  into  20  Bhillings.  From 
Edward  II. 's  time,  the  coins  were  more  and  more 
diminished  in  size,  that  monarch  coining  25  shilUngi 
from  a  pound  of  silver;  while  from  the  same  wei^ 
of  bulfion  his  various  successors  coined  90,  45^ 
48,  96,  144v  288,  in  the  time  of  Elizabeth  eo,  snd 
(during  the  leignS  of  her  successors)  62  shillinga. 
€^rge  L  coined  66  shillings  to  the  pound  of  sQvei; 
and  this  rate  still  continues,  the  term  'pound' 
having  been  completely  severed  from  its  oricuial 
meaning,  and  appropriated  to  signify  20  shimi^ 
of  the  present  coinage. 

POUin)EB,  the  term  used  in  describing  the 
force  of  a  cannon  employed  in  firing  solid  shot^  sB 
a  '  9-pounder  field  gun,*  a '  SOO-pounder  Armstroni^* 
fto.    See  Calibbx. 

POUSSIK ,  NiooLAS,  a  painter  of  great  celebrity, 
bom  near  Le  Grand- Andely,  in  Normandy,  in  1593 
or  1594  was  first  a  pupil  of  Quintin  Varin,  then 
painting  pictures  for  the  church  of  Grand-Anddy, 
but  at  the  age  of  18  went  to  Paris,  studied  under 
Ferdinand  file,  the  Fleming,  Lallemand,  sad 
others;  but  chiefly  improved  himself  by  drawing 
from  oasts,  and  drawings  and  prints  after  fi^pbaa 
and  JttUo  Romano,  in  tne  coUeetion  of  M.  Coiutois, 
who  accorded  him  access  to  theuL  After  a  loi^ 
and  hard  struggle,  he  attained  the  object  of  his 
desire — namely,  the  means  of  visiting  Bomfr  He 
was  30  years  of  age  when  he  arrived  there,  and 
a  considerable  periwl  elapsed  after  that  before  he 
obtained  much  emj^oyment  At  length,  however, 
he  received  several  important  oommisBiQDs  from 
the  Cardinal  Barberim,  which  he  executed  so 
successfully,  that  he  afterwards  rapidly  acquired 
fame  and  fortune.  After  an  abaenoe  of  snteea 
years,  he  returned  to  Paris  with  IA.  de  Ctiantdoa, 
and  was  introduced  by  Cardinal  Richelien  to  Louis 
XIIL,  who  appointed  him  his  painter  in  ordinanr, 


POUSSm-POWEBa 


with  apartmeatB  in  the  Toilerieii  and  a  saUiy  of 
£120  a  year.  P.  returned  to  Rome  for  the  purpose 
of  givinff  up  hia  establishment  there,  and  taking  his 
wife  to  Fans ;  but,  while  he  was  occupied  with  &ese 
arrangements,  Louis  XIII.  haying  died,  he  gave 
up  all  thoughts  oi  returning  to  his  native  country, 
remained  in  Rome,  and  after  a  Tery  successful  careeri 
died  in  1666.  His  reputation  mainly  rests  on  his 
success  in  aiming  at  the  classio  styla  Sir  Joahna 
Reynolds  says :  ^Ko  works  of  any  modem  have  so 
much  the  air  of  antiane  painting  as  those  of  Povssin.* 
Man V  prefer  his  landscapes,  or  those  pictures  of  his 
m  which  the  landscape  piedominates,  to  his  compo- 
sitions in  which  his  attention  has  been  bestowed 
chiefly  on  the  figures.  Upwards  of  200  prints 
haye  been  engrayed  from  his  work&  The  National 
Gallery  has  seyeral  of  P.*8  pictures,  two  of  which 
are  particularly  praised,  *A  Bacchanalian  Dance,' 
and  '  A  Bacchanalian  FestiyaL^ 

POUSSIlf,  Oaspab,  a  celebrated  landscape 
painter,  was  the  son  of  a  Frenchman,  settled  m 
Rome,  and  was  born  there  in  1613.  He  was  the 
pupil  of  Nicolas  Pouasin,  who  had  married  his  sister, 
and  from  respect  to  that  great  artist,  adopted  his 
name  in  place  of  his  own,  which  was  Dughet.  He 
was  called  by  the  Italians  Gaspare  Buche,  and  he 
inscribed  his  etchings,  eight  in  number,  in  that  way. 
His  landscapes  are  composed  in  general  from  studies 
in  the  Campagna  of  Rome  and  surrounding  country, 
worked  out  with  the  feeling  of  a  mind  deeply 
imbued  with  classical  associations,  and  tendmg 
towards  melancholy  reflection,  by  contrasting  the 
glory  of  the  past  with  the  decadence  of  the  present 
>— ideas  entirely  the  opposite  of  those  of  Claude, 
who,  trustijig  to  the  neyer-fading  beauty  of  nature, 
endeayoured,  from  the  scenery  and  architectural 
remains  in  Italy,  to  realise  the  classic  age  in  idl  its 
glory.  The  National  Gallery  possesses  six  speci- 
mens of  P.,  some  of  them  being  reckoned  master- 
pieces, as  the  '  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,'  a  '  Land  Storm,' 
and  an  '  Italian  Landscape  with  a  View  of  a  Town.' 
P.  died  in  Rome  167& 

POW'AN  {Coregamts  [q.y.]  CepedeS),  a  flsh  found 
in  Loch  Lomond,  Scotland,  and  often  called  Fresh- 
vxUer  Herring,  It  is  not  found  in  any  other  British 
lake  or  riyer,  and  has  not  yet  been  identilied  with 
any  tish  of  the  continent  of  Europe,  although  pro- 
bably it  is  to  be  found  in  some  of  the  Scandmayian 
lakes.  It  resembles  the  Pollan  (O*  ▼•)  of  the  Irish 
lakes,  but  is  readily  distinguished.  The  P.  sometimes 
attains  the  lenffth  of  sixteen  inchea  Great  shotUs 
are  seen  in  Loch  Lomond,  rippling  the  surface  of  the 
water,  and  approaching  the  snores  in  the  mominss 
and  eyenings.  They  are  neyer  seen  in  the  middle 
€i  the  day.  The  P.  is  hii^hly  esteemed  for  the 
table;  and  is  in  best  conoition  in  August  and 
September.    It  is  generally  caught  by  nets. 

POWDERED,  or  SEM^E,  in  Heraldry,  strt'wn 
with  an  indefinite  number  of  small  charges. 

POWELL,  Thb  Ret.  Badxk,  an  eminent  English 
sayant,  son  of  a  London  merchant,  was  bom  at 
Stamford  Hill,  near  London,  22d  August  179i},  and 
studied  at  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  where  he  graduated 
M.  A.,  with  first-class  mathematical  honours,  in  1817. 
P.  took  holy  orders  in  1820,  and  was  appointed 
yicar  of  Plumstead,  in  Kent,  in  1821.  In  1824,  he 
was  elected  a  Fellow  of  the  Royal  Society ;  and 
three  years  later,  was  appointed  Sayilian  Professor 
of  Ckometry,  a  chair  which  he  held  till  his  death, 
which  took  place  in  London,  June  11,  1860.  As 
a  professor,  his  great  aim  was  to  brine  about  a 
laiser  recognition  of  the  importance  o?  physical 
and  mathematical  science,  in  the  curriculum  of 
learned  study  at  Oxford,  and  his  efforts  have  not 
been  altogether  in  yaia.      To  the  '  Philosophioal 


Transactions,'  the  *  Repoiti'  of  the  British  Associa- 
tion, and  other  yehicles  of  scientific  instruction, 
he  contributed  numerous  yaluable  papers  ;  but  is 
perhaps^  best  known  by  hia  strenuous  exertions 
to  obtain  for  modem  science  the  riffht  of  modi- 
fying the  yiews  of  nature  and  the  origin  of 
the  world,  expounded  or  thought  to  be  expounded 
in  the  Jewish  Scriptures.  Li  this  periiona  de- 
nartment  of  controyersy  P.  displayed  great 
Ic^^niing,  logical  ^wer,  moderation  of  tone,  and 
philosophic  urbamty;  but  his  conclusions  were 
too  unmistakably  rationalistic  to  be  palatable  to 
the  orthodox.  Among  his  works  may  be  men- 
tioned A  Short  Elementary  Treatise  on  Experimen" 
tal  and  Mathematical  Optics^  Designed  for  the  Use 
qf  StudenU  (Oxford,  1833) ;  Kevehium  and  Scienos 
(Oxford,  1833);  A  Historical  View  of  the  Pro- 
gress qf  the  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences 
(Lond.  1834};  The  Connection  qf  Natural  and  Divine 
Truth  (Lond.  1838) ;  TradUion  Unveiled;  a  Candid 
InquifTf  into  the  Tendency  o/*  the  Doctrines  advo- 
oated  tfi  the  Oxford  Tracts  ;  A  General  and  Element 
tary  View  of  the  Undulatoru  Theory  cls  applied  to 
the  Disparwm  of  Light,  &c.  Ux>Dd.  1841);  Essays  on 
the  Spirit  </  the  Inductive  Philosophy^  &c  (Lond. 
1855) ;  Christianity  without  Judaism  (1857) ;  The 
Order  qf  Nature  considered  with  E^erence  to  the 
Claims  of  Revdation  (1859) ;  and  On  the  Study  and 
Evidences  qf  Christianity  in  Essays  and  Reviews 
(1860). 

POWER,  in  point  of  law,  means  an  anthorily 
giyen  to  some  person  who  would  otherwise  not  fate 
entitled  to  do  the  speeifio  thing  empowered.  Thus 
an  authority  giyen  to  an  agent  to  act  for  another  is 
called  a  power  of  attorney ;  and  there  are  numerona 
examples  of  powers  contsAued  in  marriage  settle- 
ments, wills,  and  misoellaneons  deeds,  which  autho- 
rise one  of  the  parties  to  do  something  in  certain 
oontingencies.  Thus  a  power  of  reyocation  is  often 
reseryM  to  a  part^  to  reyoke  a  will  or  deed.  There 
is  a  power  of  appointment  giyen  to  a  married  woman 
or  widow  to  bequeath  or  diyide  certain  property 
in  certain  eyents  among  her  children.  So  a  power 
to  charge  or  jointure  an  estate,  and  to  secure  the 
portions  of  children.  There  are  many  nice  and 
difficult  rules  of  law  applicable  to  matters  connected 
with  and  arising  out  A  powers.  A  power  is  created 
by  a  deed  or  will :  and  it  is  said  to  be  executed 
when  it  is  carried  out  In  Scotland,  powers  are 
genendly  called  Faculties  (q.  y.). 

POWERS,  HiBAic,  American  sculptor,  son  of  » 
farmer,  and  the  eighth  of  nine  children,  was  bom 
at  Woodstock,  Vermont,  July  29, 1805,  and  acquired 
the  rudiments  of  education  at  a  free  district-schooL 
While  still  a  boy,  he  went  to  Cincinnati,  Ohio, 
where  he  became  an  apprentice  to  a  dockmaker, 
and  about  the  same  time  formed  the  acquaintance 
of  a  Grerman  sculptor,  who  taught  him  to  model 
in  plaster.  Subsequently,  he  was  employed  for 
seyeral  years  makins  wax-figures  and  fitting  them 
with  machinery,  ror  the  Oincinnati  museum, 
where  his  *  Infernal  Regions '  horrified  thousands  of 
visitors.  In  1835,  he  went  to  Washin^n,  where 
he  executed  the  busts  of  seyeral  distinguished 
persons;  and,  with  the  aid  of  Mr  Nicholas  Long- 
worl^  in  1837  went  to  Italy  to  study  his  art,  since 
when  he  has  resided  in  Florence.  In  1838,  he 
produced  his  statue  of  'Eye,'  which  excited  the 
admiration  of  Thorwaldsen;  and  in  1839,  the  still 
more  popular  'Greek  Slave,'  of  which  six  copies 
in  marble,  with  cast  copies  innumerable,  were 
produced.  Of  his  'Fisher  Boy,'  three  copies 
were  ordered.  Among  his  other  works  the  chief 
haye  been  'Proserpine,'  'II  Penseroso,'  'Cali- 
fornia,' 'America'  (the  last  for  the  Crystal  Palace, 

Ttt 


POYNTELL—PRACTICE. 


Sydenham) ;  ttatnes  of  Waahingtoii  for  the  rtate 
of  Louisiana,  of  Calhonn  for  South  Carolina,  and 
Webster  for  Boston ;  and  busts  of  Adams,  Jackson, 
Marshall,  Van  Buren,  and  other  distinguished 
Americans. 

POT'NTELL,  payement  or  tilea  laid  in  amall 
lozenge  form. 

POZZO  DI  BORGO,  Oablo  Akdrea,  a  cele- 
brated Russian  diplomatist,  was  bom  at  Alala  in 
Ck>r9ica,  March  8th,  176S,  and  was  educated  at  the 
uniyersity  of  Pisa.  Returning  to  Corsica,  he 
adopted  the  profession  of  adyocate,  in  which  he 
soon  became  distinguished  for  his  acuteness, 
ingenuity,  and  brilliant  eloquence ;  and  about  this 
time  an  intimacy  sprung  up  between  him  and  the 
two  young  Bonapartes,  Napoleon  (L)  and  Joseph. 
P.'s  great  ability  soon  gained  for  him  the  esteem 
of  Paoli  (q.  y.),  who  made  him  the  confidant  of  his 
plans,  to  the  intense  disgust  of  the  Bonaparte 
zamily,  who  considered  themselyes  slighted.  A 
coolness  in  consequence  spnmg  up  between  P.  and 
young  Napoleon,  which,  as  their  paths  in  life 
diyerged  more  and  more,  passed  through  the 
yarious  grades  of  antagonism,  dislike,  distrust,  and 
hatred,  till,  when  the  Utter  swayed  the  scep^  of 
France,  and  the  former  became  the  supreme  tiusted 
adviser  of  Russia  and  Austria,  it  culminated  in  a 
deadly  stnig^le  for  victory  between  the  diplomatist 
and  the  warrior,  to  be  ended  only  by  the  death  of 
one  or  the  destruction  of  his  power.  P.  represented 
Corsica  in  the  French  National  Assembly  (1791 — 
1792) ;  but  his  party,  that  which  wished  to  unite 
liberty  and  hereditary  rule,  being  overpowered  by 
their '  radical*  opponents,  he  was  compelled  to  return 
to  Corsica,  where  he  again  attached  himself  to 
Paoli's  party ;  and  on  we  failure  of  that  chiefs 
plans,  retired  to  London.  Here  he  became  the 
agent  of  the  French  refugees ;  and  in  1798,  haying 
now  thoroughly  broken  with  the  Bonapartes,  he 
went  to  Vienna  to  promote  an  alliance  of  Austria 
and  Russia  against  France,  and  accompanied  the 
Russian  army  in  the  subsequent  campaign  of  1799. 
In  1803,  he  entered  the  Russian  service  as  a  coun- 
cillor of  state,  from  this  time  deyoting  his  whole 
attention  to  diplomacy.  He  was  at  the  bottom  of 
the  Russo- Austrian  alliance,  which  was  dissolved  by 
the  battle  of  Austerlitz  (1805) ;  but  after  the  treaty 
of  Tilsit,  fearing  lest  Napoleon  might  insist  upon  his 
surrender,  he  retired  to  Austria,  from  which  country 
Napoleon,  in  1809,  demanded  his  extradition.  The 
Emperor  Francis  refused,  but  P.,  to  saye  trouble, 
retired  to  England  (1810),  where  he  stayed  for  some 
time  ;  and  then  returned  to  Russia.  He  soon  after 
induced  the  Emperor  Alexander  to  make  certain 
custom-house  regulations  which  offended  Napoleon, 
and  were  a  chief  cause  of  the  rupture  which  resulted 
in  the  campaign  of  1812 ;  he  also  suggested  to  the 
emperor,  and  effected  the  seduction  of  Murat^ 
Bemadotte,  and  Moreau  from  the  Napoleonic  cause ; 
and  after  the  victorious  allies  had  driyen  Napoleon 
across  the  Rhine,  P.,  at  the  congress  of  Frankfurt- 
on-the-Main,  drew  up  his  famous  declaration, '  that 
the  allies  made  war  not  on  France,  but  on  Napoleon.* 
From  this  time^  his  whole  energies  were  deyoted  to 
the  task  of  keeping  Alexander  inflexible  with 
regard  to  Napoleon*s  seductiye  offers  of  accom- 
modation ;  but  after  his  old  antagonist's  downfall, 
he  exerted  himself  with  equal  vigour  at  Paris 
(where  he  signed  the  treaty  of  1815  as  Russian  am- 
bassador) ai^  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1818)  to  ameliorate, 
as  much  as  possible,  the  hard  conditions  imposed 
upon  France.  After  the  accession  of  the  Emperor 
mcholas,  he  was,  though  highly  esteemed,  less 
confided  in,  and  accordingly  accepted  the  post  of 
Rus^iian  ambassador  in  London;  but  retired  from 
73i 


Sublic  life  in  1839,  and  settled  in  Plaris,  idwre  he 
ied  15th  Februuy  1842. 

POZZUO'LI,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy,  at  tba 
east  of  the  bay  of  Nadlee,  with  14,752  inhabitants; 
it  giyes  name  to  a  suVprefecture,  and  has  maaa- 
factures  of  soap.  But  the  interest  which  attaches 
to  it  is  drawn  from  its  numerous  memorials  oi 
classic  age&  Its  cathedral  was  the  Temple  of 
Augustus.  There  is  the  Temple  of  Serapia,  as 
F^gyptiaa  god,  who  was  inyoked  by  the  prieate 
to  render  the  mineral  waters  of  the  place  ^ca- 
cious  as  remedies.  The  interior  of  the  templd 
had  a  portico  of  24  pillars,  surrounded  by  70 
chambers  for  the  sick  and  for  the  priests.  In  the 
harbour  there  may  still  be  seen  13  pillars,  which 
formerly  supported  as  many  arcades,  under 
which  the  inhabitants  used  to  oongr^ate  to 
watch  for  the  yessels  coming  from.  Africa.  Then 
is  an  arch  erected  to  Antoninus  Pius,  for  having 
restored  20  of  those  pillars.  There  are  the  remains 
of  an  amphitheatre  which  might  have  contained 
25,000  spectators.  The  Solfatara  {Forum  Vuleatd^ 
is  a  half-extinct  yolcano  near  P.,  from  which  springs 
saline  water,  used  as  a  remedy  for  cutaneous 
diseases.  Near  the  Montenuoyo  there  is  the 
famous  Lsgo  d^Avemo,  enclosed  amons  hills ;  and 
at  a  short  distance  from  it  there  is  the  SibyPs  Care 
{La  Orotta  della  Sibilla),  which,  however,  is  nothing 
more  than  a  subterranean  passage  from  Baja  to 
Ayemo.  On  a  plain  there  is  an  extinct  yolcano; 
there  Cumss  once  stood,  now  all  in  mins.  In  the 
enyirons  of  P.  are  to  be  seen  the  promontory  of 
PosilipoL  the  Elysian  Fields  {Oampi  Misi^  near 
the  harbour  of  Miseno,  and  the  Lake  of  Agnano^ 
formerly  the  crater  of  a  volcano. 

P.  was  probably  built  by  tiie  Cumani  (Greek 
colomsta  of  Cumae),  who  gave  to  its  gulf  the  name  of 
Cumanus,  Thejt  called  the  new  port  De  CcnirvAia, 
a  name  which  was  afterwards  changed  to  Puteoli,  in 
allusion  perhaps  to  the  sulphur  wells  or  springs 
{puiei)  with  which  it  abounded.  Pnteoli  is  tint 
mentioned  in  history  during  the  Second  Panic  War, 
when,  by  order  of  the  senate,  it  was  surrounded  by 
strong  waUs.  In  214  B.  a  it  repulsed  Hannibal,  and 
from  this  period  rose  in  importance  until,  towards 
the  close  of  the  republic,  it  became  yirtuaUy  the 
port  of  Rome,  and  during  the  empire  was  really  the 
tirst  emporium  of  commerce  in  Italy.  Puteoli  was 
destroyed  by  Alaric,  Genseric,  and  Totila,  and 
though  rebuilt  by  the  Byzantine  Greeks,  it  was 
exposed  to  new  deyastations,  to  earthquake!^  and 
yolcanic  eruptions,  and  soon  sank  into  the  decay 
which  continues  to  mark  it. 

PRA'OTICE,  in  Arithmetio,  is  the  name  giTen 
to  a  method,  or  rather  a  system  of  expedients,  for 
shortening  or  ayoiding  the  operation  of  oompoaBd 
multiplication.  The  nature  of  the  expediente  inQ 
be  best  understood  by  an  example :  suppose  that 
the  price  of  64,875  articles  at  £2,  17&  6(1  is 
required.  It  is  obyions  that  the  price,  at  £1,  would 
be  £64,875 ;  therefore,  at  £2,  it  is  £129,750;  at  UK 
it  is  the  half  of  that  at  £l,yiz.,  £32,437, 10a. ;  at  5^ 
the  half  of  this  last  sum,  or  £16,218,  15e. ;  and  at 
28,  6d.,  the  half  of  this,  or  £8109,  7«.  Gd.  The  som 
of  these  partial  prices  giye  the  whole  price— thoi^ 


£  a.   A 

Prioe  at  2  0  0 
N  It  0  10  0 
If  II  0  5  0 
w ii_0^  a_6_ 

If     II  2  17    6 


,  =  *of£l. 
=  |oflO».J, 

;=*of4».). 


129750    0  0 

32437  10  t 

1S3I8  U  0 

8109    7  < 

1860U12  I 


The  general  principle  of  the  method  is  to  decom- 
pose the  lower  denominations  of  the  oompocmd 
factor  into  aliquot  parte  of  the  highuer  nmt   A 


PR-aEPECT— PRAGMATIC  SANOnON. 


still  simpler  way  with  the  above  example  is  the 
following : 


£  $,  4, 

Frloe  mt  S    0  0 

tf     If  0    «  6    ( 

^     N  2  17  6 


iof£l) 


£     $,   4, 
194685    0    0 
8109    7    6 

186515  IS"  6 


PRJB'FEGT,  a  common  name  applicable  to 
Tarious  Roman  functionariee.  The  most  important 
was  the  Prafeetua  urU^  or  warden  of  the  city, 
whose  office  existed  at  an  early  period  of  Roman 
history,  but  was  revived  under  Augustus,  with 
new  and  greatly  altered  and  extended  authority, 
including  the  whole  powers  necessary  for  the 
maintenance  of  peace  and  order  in  the  city,  and 
an  extensive  jurisdiction  civil  and  criminal  The 
PriEfectuB  prtBtorio  was  the  commander  of  the  troops 
that  guarded  the  emperor's  person. 

PR^MUNI'RE,  the  name  given,  in  English 
Law,  to  a  species  of  offence  of  the  nature  of  a 
contempt  against  the  sovereign  and  his  govern- 
ment, and  punishable  with  forfeiture  and  imprison- 
ment. The  name  is  derived  from  the  first  words 
{proemunire  or  prcemonere  facias)  of  a  writ  orig- 
inally introduced  for  the  purpose  of  repressing 
papal  encroachments  on  the  power  of  the  crown. 
The  first  statute  of  praemunire  was  passed  in 
the  reign  of  Edward  L  The  attacks  of  the  popes 
on  the  rights  of  private  patrons,  by  bestowmg 
bishoprics,  abbacies^  &a,  on  favourites  before 
they  were  void,  were  the  immediate  cause  of 
vanous  subsequent  statutes  of  pncmunire,  which 
made  it  penal  to  endeavour  to  enforce  the  autho- 
rity of  papal  bulls  and  provisions  in  Eneland.  By 
later  statutes,  a  numb^  of  offences  of  a  miscel- 
laneous description  have  been  rendered  liable  to 
the  penalties  of  a  prsmunire,  as  (by  6  Anne  c.  7) 
the  asserting  by  preaching,  teaching,  or  advisedly 
speaking,  that  any  person,  other  than  according  to 
the  Acts  of  Settlement  and  Union,  has  any  right  to 
the  throne  of  these  kingdoms,  or  that  the  sovereign 
and  parliament  cannot  make  laws  to  limit  the 
descent  of  the  crown.  The  knowingly  and  wil- 
fully solemnising,  assisting,  or  being  present  at  an^ 
marriage  forbidden  by  the  Royal  Marriage  Act,  is 
declarMl  by  12  Qeo.  IIL  c  11  to  infer  a  prcemunire. 

PB^NE'STlC    See  Palestrhta. 

PR.fi'TOB  (probably  a  contraction  for  prtekor, 
from  prce-eo,  to  precede,  also  to  order)  was,  among 
the  ancient  Romans,  the  title  given  to  the  consuu 
as  leaders  of  the  armies  of  the  state ;  but  it  was 
specially  employed  te  designate  a  magistrate  whose 
powers  were  scarcely  inferior  to  those  of  a  consul 
The  praetorship,  in  this  specific  sense  of  the  term, 
was  first  instituted  in  366  b.  o.,  as  a  compensation  to 
the  patricians  for  hema  obliged  to  share  with  the 
plebeians  the  honours  m  consulship.  It  was  virtu- 
ally a  third  consulship;  the  protor  was  entitled 
eo&ega  consultbus;  he  was  elected  by  the  same 
auspices  and  at  the  same  comitia.  For  i^oariy  30 
years,  patricians  alone  were  eligible  for  the  omee ; 
out,  in  337  B.  a,  the  plebeians  made  good  their  right 
to  it  also.  Tlie  pnetoi's  functions  were  chidly 
judiciaL  Though  he  sometimes  commanded  armies, 
and,  in  the  abMuce  of  the  consuls,  exercised  con- 
sular authority  within  the  city,  yet  his  principal 
business  was  the  administration  of  justice  both  in 
matters  civil  and  criminal ;  and  '  to  the  edicto  of 
successive  pretors,'  says  Mr  G.  Long,  *  the  Roman 
law  owes,  in  a  great  degree,  ito  development  and 
improvement.'  Originafly,  there  was  only  one 
praetor ;  but  as  the  city  and  state  increased,  and 
their  relations  with  otiier  nations  became  more 
complicated,  others  were  added.  In  246  B.a,  a 
•ecoad  ^ntor  was  appointed,  to  settle  dispiitos 


that  might  arise  between  Romans  and  foreignen 
temporuilT  resident  at  Rome,  for  trading  or  other 
purposes,  hence  called  proetor  peregrinus  (foreign 
prsstor),  to  distingoish  him  from  the  original  prater 
urbanua  (city  praetor).  In  227  B.C.,  two  new  praetors 
were  appointed,  to  administrate  affairs  in  Sicily  and 
Sardinia ;  and  in  197  B.  c,  two  more  for  the  Spanish 
provinces,  or  six  in  alL  Sulla  increased  the  number 
to  eight,  and  Julius  Caesar  to  sixteen.  Augustus 
rsduMd  the  number  to  twelve ;  but  at  a  later  period 
we  read  of  eighteen,  il  not  more.  The  city-pnetoro 
ships  were  reckoned  the  highest;  and  after  a 
person  had  filled  these  offices,  he  sometimes  received 
the  administration  of  a  province  with  the  title  of 
proprcetor  OT  prooontul, 

PB^TO'BIAN  BANDS  (Lat.  PrcBloria 
Cohortegf  and  Prcetoriam)  the  name  given,  more 
particularly  during  the  period  of  the  Roman  empire, 
to  a  body  of  solmers,  organised  for  the  purpose  of 
protecting  the  person  and  maintaining  the  power 
of  the  emperors.  We  indeed  read  of  a  prastaria 
eohorg,  or  select  guard  of  the  most  valiant  soldiers 
attached  to  the  person  of  Scipio  Africanus,  who, 
according  to  Festiis,  received  six-fold  nay,  and  the 
exi^ncies  of  the  civil  wars  naturally  increased 
their  number,  but  it  was  to  Augustus  that  the 
institution  of  them  as  a  separate  force  is  owing. 
He  formed  nine  or  ten  cohorts,  each  consisting  of 
a  thousand  men  (horse  and  foot),  but  kept  only 
three  of  them  in  Rome,  the  rest  being  dispersed  in 
cities  not  far  off.  Tiberius,  however,  assembled 
the  nine  cohorto  at  the  capital  in  a  permanent 
camp,  and  Vitellius  increased  their  number  to 
sixteen.  The  Praetorians  served  at  first  for  twelve, 
and  afterwards  for  sixteen  years;  they  received 
double  pay ;  the  privates  were  held  equal  in  rank 
to  the  centurions  m  the  regular  army,  and  on  their 
retirement  each  received  20,000  sesterces.  They 
soon  acquired  a  dangerous  power,  which  they  exer- 
cised in  the  most  tinscmpulous  manner,  de}X)sing 
and  elevating  emperors  at  their  pleasure.  Aspirante 
for  the  imperial  dignity  found  it  advisable,  and 
even  necessary,  to  bribe  them  largelv ;  while  those 
who  acquired  that  dignitjr  without  their  assistance 
were  accustomed  on  their  accession  to  purchasa 
their  favour  by  liberal  donations.  The  PraetoriaDS, 
however,  had  no  political  or  ambitions  views ;  they 
were  simply  an  insolent  and  rapacious  soldiery, 
fond  of  substantial  gratifications,  and  careless  how 
they  got  them.  After  the  death  of  Pertinax  (193 
▲.  D.),  they  actually  sold  '  the  purple '  for  a  sum  of 
money  to  Didius  JuHanns;  but  in  the  same  year 
their  peculiar  organisation  was  entirely  broken  up 
by  Severos,  who  formed  new  cohorts  altogether  out 
of  the  best  legions  serving  on  the  frontiers,  which 
he  increased  to  four  times  the  number  of  the  old. 
After  several  other  changes,  they  were  entirely 
abolished  by  Gonstantine  (312  A.D.),  who  dispersed 
them  among  his  regular  legionsi 

PBA6A.    See  Wabsaw. 

PBAQMA'TIO  SANCTION,  or  RESCJRIPT,  ^ 
solemn  ordinance  or  decree  of  the  head  of  a  legis- 
lature relating  either  to  church  or  state  affairs. 
The  term  originated  in  the  Byzantine  empire,  and 
signified  a  public  and  solemn  decree  by  a  prince, 
as  distinguished  from  the  simple  rescript,  which 
was  a  declaration  of  law  in  answer  to  a  ^uesticm 
propounded  by  an  individual  This  name  is  given 
to  several  important  treaties,  of  which  theprincipal 
axe :  I.  An  ordinance  of  Charles  VII.  of  Jmnce,  in 
which  the  ri^teof  the  Gallican  Church  were  asserted 
in  opposition  to  the  usurpation  of  the  pope  in  the 
appointment  <^  bishops.  Twenty  years  later,  Louis 
XL,  in  order  to  d[ease  Pope  Pius  IL,  was  induced 
to  give  up  this  P.  S.,  wnioh  was  ignominiously 


PRAOUK-PRAIRI& 


dimgged  tiiroagh  the  sUocU  of  Home;  bat  at  * 
snbaeqaent  date,  a  quarrel  having  ariwn  between 
Louis    and  the  pope,  the  P.  8.  was  re-enacted. 

2.  The  instmment  which  settled  the  empire  of 
Germany  in  the  Home  of  Anatria  (1499  A.i>.). 

3.  The  ordinance  by  which  Ghariea  VL,  Smneror 
of  Gimnany,  having  no  male  iasoe,  eettled  hie 
dominions  on  his  daughter,  the  Archduchess  Maria 
Theresa,  which  was  confirmed  by  the  diet  of  the 
empire,  and  goaranteed  by  Oread  Britain,  France, 
the  States  General,  and  most  of  the  European 
powers.  4.  The  settlement  of  the  succession  of 
the  Idngdom  of  Naples,  which  was  ceded  by 
Charles  II.  of  Spain,  in  1759,  to  hia  third  son  and 
his  descendants. 

PRAGUE  (Ger.  Prog,  Slav.  Praha)^  capital  of 
the  kingdom  of  Bohemia,  is  situated  in  50"*  5'  K. 
lat.,  ana  14"  dCK  E  long.,  on  the  slope  of  the  hills 
which  skirt  both  sides  of  the  river  Moldau,  251 
miles  north-east  of  Vienna  by  railway.  Pop.  in 
1857, 142,58a  P.,  which  ranks  as  the  third  city  of 
Gennany,  presents  a  highly  picturesque  appearance 
from  the  beauty  of  its  site,  and  the  numerous  lofty 
towers  (upwards  of  70  in  number)  which  rise  above 
tim  many  noUe  palaces,  pubUc  buildings,  and 
bridges  en  the  city.  It  consists  of  four  nrincipal 
parts :  L  The  Kleinseite,  chiefly  oocupiea  by  the 
public  offices,  and  the  residences  of  the  officials ;  2. 
The  Hradflchin  (or  palace  district),  surmounted  by 
the  vast  imperial  castle,  and  contuning  some  of  the 
most  ancient  and  interesting  churches  and  palaces 
of  P.;  3k  The  Jews'  Quarter,  now  known  ss  the 
Josephstadt,  which  forms  the  chief  business-quarter, 
and  contains  numerous  churches,  ecclesiastical  and 
educational  establishments;  4  The  'Kew  Town,' 
containing  the  largest  number  of  streets  and  open 
squares,  with  many  modem  palaces,  charitable 
institutions,  and  places  of  public  resort  P.  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  bastions,  and  has  eight  oates. 
The  citadd,  the  ancient  residence  of  the  old  dukes 
ol  Bohemia,  is  well  fortified,  and  from  its  elevated 
position  above  the  Moldau,  thoroughly  commands 
the  city.  P.  has  55  Catholic,  and  3  Protestant 
churches,  15  monasteries,  and  10  synagogues. 
Among  the  most  noteworthy  of  these  are  the 
Metropolitan,  or  St  Veits,  with  its  lofty  tower,  a 
fine  but  unfinished  specimen  of  the  Grothic  of  the 
I4th  c,  containing  the  remains  of  St  Ludmilla,  first 
duchess  of  Bohemia,  and  of  seven  kings  and 
'  emperors  of  Gennany,  with  the  grave  of  St 
Wenaelaus,  and  the  silver  saroophagos  of  St 
Nepomuk  (see  St  John  of  Nepomuk),  a  popular 
saint  of  Bohemia ;  St  Nicolas,  or  the  church  of  the 
Jesuits,  with  its  many  towers  and  costly  decora- 
tions; the  Thein  Church,  built  in  1407;  the  old 
Hussite  church,  with  the  grave  of  Tycho  Brahe, 
and  its  marble  monuments  <3  the  Slavonic  martyrs, 
Cyril  and  MethodiusL  Among  the  numerous  public 
and  other  buildings  of  note  in  P.,  the  following  are 
some  of  the  more  interesting:  the  Royal  Piuace, 
the  Cathednd,  the  Theresa  &stitution  for  Ladies, 
tiie  ancient  Byzantine  church  of  St  Geoi^,  the 
Hradschin  Sqnare,  with  the  im^sing  nalaees  of  the 
primate,  the  ex-emperor,  and  Prince  Scnwaraenberg ; 
the  Loretto  Chapet  with  its  gorgeously  bejewelled 
diurch  vessels;  the  vMt  CsemiTalaoe,  now  used 
as  an  institution  of  charity;  the  Pietore  Gallery; 
ti^e  Pnemonstratentian  monastery  of  Strahow ;  the 
royal  library ;  and  at  the  summit  of  the  Laurens- 
b^g,  the  restored  Church  of  St  Lawrence.  P.  has, 
however,  numerous  public  gardens  and  walks  in 
the  suburbs,  which,  with  the  several  royal  and 
noble  parks  open  to  the  puUic  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  city,  aflford  varied  resources  for  health  and 
open  air  recreations.  The  suburb  d  Karolinen- 
thai,  vdiioh  is  traversed   by  tha  great 


d  the  railway,  and  la  of  modem  growth,  haa 

some  fine  build^gs,  numerous  gardens,  barradca, 
and  manufacturing  estabhahments ;  and  somewhat 
further  north  is  Sie  great  botani<;al  saiden,  wi& 
the  neighbouring  prnblic  walks  on  tiie  Moldsa.  The 
university,  which  is  the  most  ancient  in  Gesmaay, 
having  l)een  founded  in  1348,  enjoyed  the  lycaitiil 
oelebnty  in  the  15th  a,  when  manj  tbooaaad 
scholars  came  from  foreign  countries  to  study  in 
its  haUs.  It  is  now  in  a  state  of  activity,  after  a 
prolonged  period  of  decay,  and  has  good  medicsl 
and  Buigical  schools;  a  lilnrary  containing,  in  1851, 
109,880  volumes,  and  7762  manuscripts,  of  which 
some  are  very  rare;  a  fine  observattny;  mnaetims 
of  soology  and  anatomy ;  a  botanical  garden,  Ac 
P.  has  MSO  1  polytechnic,  3  gymnasia,  Bohemian 
and  German  training  schools,  and  aboat  20  parish 
schools.  The  manuuctures  include  leather,  oottoo, 
and  linen  goods,  stockings,  printed  cottons, 
machinery  of  various  kinds,  beet-root  sugar,  fta  P. 
Ib  the  great  centre  of  the  oommeroe  of  Boiiens^ 
and  the  seat  of  an  important  transit  trade. 

History, — ^According  to  popolar  traditioii,  P.  was 
founded  in  722  by  ue  Ducness  Libussa.  In  ^bs 
13th  c.,  its  importanoe  was  fnlly  recognised ;  in  tin 
14th  and  15th  centuries,  its  munificently  endowed 
university  brought  foreigners  to  it  from  every  part* 
until  the  decision  of  the  Emperor  Wenzdans  ts 
favour  Bohemian  students  more  than  otkera  drove 
thousands  of  the  scholars  with  their  prafeaaon  to 
other  spots,  and  led  to  the  foundation  of  univcnBties 
at  Leipzig,  Ingolstadt,  Rostock,  and  Oraoo>w.  fai 
1424,  r,  was  conquered,  and  ahnoet  destroyed  by 
the  Hussites,  who  had  made  a  suocessfnl  stand 

r'nst  the  emperor  Sigismnnd's  armjr;  but  after 
subsequent  defeat  and  submission  of  ^ 
insurgents,  the  city  was  rebuilt.  In  the  ^lirty 
Teara^  War,  it  suffered  severely,  and  in  1020  the 
battle  was  fought  at  the  White  liountain,  near  the 
city,  in  which  the  Elector-Palatine,  fVederick  V^ 
known  as  the  Winter  King,  and  son-in-law  ci 
James  I.  of  England,  was  completely  defeated,  and 
compelled  to  renounce  his  assumed  crown,  and  to 
give  up  the  town  into  the  power  of  the  empenm 
Swedes  and  Imperialists  successively  gained  pes* 
session  of  it  during  the  war;  and  a  centoiy  later, 
during  the  Seven  Years'  War,  it  again  fdl  into 
the  lumds  of  different  victors,  having  beea  ocm- 
pelledy  in  1744,  to  capitulate  to  Fredaiok  the 
Great  of  Prussia:  and  until  the  war  of  deliveranoe 
in  Gennany,  and  the  downfall  of  Napoleon,  the 
city  continued  to  suffer  more  or  less  directly  from 
the  troubles  in  which  the  house  of  Austna  had 
been  involved.  During  the  last  fifty  years,  it  has, 
however,  made  raj^  strides,  and  enjoyed  proqierity 
and  quiet,  except  m  1848,  when  the  meeting  of  the 
Slavonic  Congress  within  its  walls  called  forth  such 
strongly  marked  democratic  demonstrations  on  the 
part  of  the  supporters  of  Panslavism  (q.  v.),  that 
the  Austrian  government  dissolved  the  conclave, 
and  restored  quiet  by  the  summary  method  of 
causing  the  old  and  new  town  to  l>e  bombarded 
for  two  days. 

PRAIA  GRAITBB.      See  Rio  DS  Jabxebo, 

Provincb. 

PRAPRIE  (Fr.  meadow)  was  tiie  name  given, 
by  the  early  French  explorers  of  the  northern  por- 
tion of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  North  America,  to 
the  vast  fertile  plains  iHiich  extend  from  Western 
Ohio  and  Southern  Michigan,  across  the  states  of 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Iowa,  Tf*«>»^ 
and  Nebrsska  and  Dakota  Territories,  indnding  the 
southern  portions  of  Wisconsin  and  Minnesota 
These  great  plains  or  savannas  are  sometiBies  fia^ 
hot  oftoner  toUing  like  the  long  awelk  of  tiis  ooeas^ 


PRAIRIE  DOG— PRAJNA  PARAMTTA. 


a  from  300  to  ISOO  feet 
They  sra  drbined  b^ 
unmerDOH  riven,  bnaohea  of  the  Uhin,  If  uiinippi, 
•nd  Minooti,  or  emptying  into  I^e  Michigan, 
whose  -t'*'">"^i  teepi  to  hdre  been  worn  to  the 
depth  o{  fiO  to  300  feet,  with  v«itiul  wolU  or  UuOa 
of  UmeatoDfl,  uuiditona,  dispUyine  in  lome  place* 
bMlkl  ol  day,  m^  and  bam,  200  feet  in  thickncsi. 
Beneath  (he  prainea  north-weat  of  the  Ohii 


re  coal-fielda.  with  depoaiti  of  iron,  lead,  &c 
The  aoil  ia  tiaely  comiuinDted,  rich,  and  extremely 
fertile,  Tuying  in  tbickneea  from  one  or  two  feet, 
to  the  bottom-lands  on  the  bocdera  of  the  riven, 
whioh  are  of  great  depth  and  inexhaoBtible  fertility. 
These  plains  are  destitute  of  treea,  except  in  isolated 
groves,  k  few  rocky  ridges,  and  the  borden  of 
■treama.  They  are  corered  with  fioe  gnuses,  and 
brilliaot  Bowen  of  various  species  of  the  helianthoid 
Compotita.  Water  is  found  from  15  to  30  feet 
below  the  surface.  These  great  prairies,  coveriua 
D  area  of  about  400,000  aqunre  miles,  formerly  fed 


timber  ia  attributed  by  some  to  the  fineness  c£ 
the  soiL  Remains  of  ancient  mouBds,  fortifica- 
tions, and  cities  ehew  that  they  were,  at  same 
distant  period,  inhabited  by  a  more  civilised 
race  than  the  Indians  found  by  European  dis- 
coverers. These  great  rolling  plains,  or  natural 
pjLSturee,  with  only  the  labour  Si  ploughiog,  produce 
large  crops  of  wheat  and  maiie,  and,  pcoetrated 
hy  navigable  riven,  and  oroMed  by  cheaply  bnilt 
railways,  they  form  one  of  the  most  easily  enlti- 
Tatcd  and  prolitic  regions  of  the  world,  and  are 
capable  of  suatainiog  immense  populations. 

PRAIBIE  DOO  {Arclomya  LvdoBieiamUl,  avery 
interesting  speciea  ciC  Marmot  (q.  v.),  an  inhabitant 
of  sunw  of  the  western  Prainea  (q.  v.}  of  !North 
America.  It  ia  about  the  size  of  a  squirrel  or  large 
rat ;  and  has  soft,  reddish-gray  for,  each  hair  bei^ 


Frdrie  Dog  {Ardtmyt  LtidmieUttn*). 

ved,  with  a  white  tip.  The  name  P.  D.  seems 
to  have  been  given  to  it  from  its  frequent  utterance 
of  a  sound  somewhat  like  the  bark  of  a  verv  young 
puppy.  For  the  same  reason,  it  is  also  called  the 
Barbmg  Squirrel  A  more  correct  name  would  be 
Barking  Mannot,  or  Prairie  Marmot  The  P.  D. 
does  nut  inhabit  the  rich  grasa-covered  prairies 
vhere  the  buffalo  (bison)  aboimds  j  but  those  which, 
from  want  of  water,  eihibit  a  oomparatively  scanty 
vegetation  ;  and  in  these  it  is  to  be  found  in  vast 
mmiWrs,  being  gregarious  in  its  habits,  burrowing 
tn  tiio  ground,  and  throwing  up  mounds  of  esjih,  on 


the  sntDtnit  of  which  the  tittle  creature  often  sita  as 
if  on  watch.  The  whole  extent  of  a  great  level 
prairie  is  often  covered  with  theae  hillocks.  '  Their 
number  is  incredible,'  says  the  Honourable  C  A. 
Murray,  in  his  Travtlt  tn  Norlh  Amrrica,  'and 
their  cities,  [or  they  deserve  no  less  a  name,  full  of 
activity  and  bustla'  As  soon  as  tlic  hand  is  raised 
to  a  weapon  or  missile,  they  pop  into  their  holes, 
with  sjnoiing  rapidity,  and  then  wheel  round  and 
look  out  at  the  enemy.  Still  more  interesting  ia 
the  frequent  associaliriD  of  the  P.  D.  with  the 
buiTowing  owl  and  the  rattlesnake  in  the  same 
burrow ;  an  association  which  has  been  van- 
oualy  described  as  one  of  strange  friendsliip  amons 
very  different  creatures,  in  a  state  of  nature ;  and 
s*  of  the  most  opposite  character,  the  owl  and  the 
rattlesnake  being  suppoecd  to  prey  upon  the  P.  D. 
and  its  youag.  But  in  so  far  as  the  owl  ia  concerned, 
this  is  rendered  very  doubtful  by  the  fact,  that  ita 
eaaU  seem  to  shew  its  food  to  consist  entirely  o{ 
insects,  It  probably  finds  the  burrows  of  the 
marmots  its  only  convenient  retreat,  and  their 
proper  inmates  hsjmless  neighbours. 

PBaIRIB  UEK.    See  Gtiouax. 

PHAJAPATI  (from  pr^d,  creation,  created 
bcin^ ;  and  paH,  lord)  is,  in  Hindu  Mythology, 
a  name  of  the  god  BrabmA,  but  also  a  name  ol 
those  divine  personages  who.  produced  by  BrahmA, 
created  all  existing  wings,  inclusive  of  gods,  demons, 
and  natural  phenomeoa.  Mann  knows  of  ten  such 
PrajUpnlit  engendered,  through  pure  meditation,  by 
the  god  BrnhmA— viz.,  Martchi,  Atri,  Angiraa, 
Pulaatya,  Pulaha,  Kratu,  Prachetas  or  Uakaba, 
Vasiaht'ho,  Bhr'ign,  and  Nlrodn.  The  MahlbhSxata, 
however,  leaves  out  Daksha,  Bhr'igu,  and  Klroda  ; 
and  other  varieties  occur  in  the  dmurent  Pur&n'as. 
Whereas,  also,  these 'lords  of  creation,'  in  cooformity 
with  Msnn,  are  in  some  of  these  works  looked  upon 
as  the  mind-bom  sons  of  Brahmt,  some  Fuiin'aa 
derive  them  from  different  parts  of  BrahmA's  body. 
The  only  interesting  point  in  this  theory  of  tha 
Prajfinatis  is  the  assumjition,  that  the  world  did  not 
immediately  proceed  from  Brahmt,  the  highest  ^pA, 
tmt  through  the  intermediate  ^gency  of  bemgt 
which  thus  stand  between  him  ana  creation, 

PGAJnA  PARAMITA  (literaUy,  the  wisdom 
which  has  gone  to  the  other  shore,  viz., of  its  object; 
L  e.,  absolute  or  transcendental  wisdoni,  from  the 
Sanscrit  prajnA,  wisdom,  pdram,  to  the  other 
shore,  and  tta,  gone)  is  the  title  of  the  principal 
Satra  (q.  v.)  of  the  MahAyOna  school  oE  the  Buddhists 

See  Buddoish).  Its  miuo  object  ia  metaphysical; 
ut  the  commencement  of  the  work  is  merely  a 
eulogy  of  BuddliB,  and  of  the  Bodhisattwaa,  who 
form  his  retinue.  Other  parts  of  it  contain  iuci- 
dental  narratives  of  wondenul  phenomena  coaaected 
wiUi  the  apparition  of  Buddhist  saints,  or  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  benelita  arising  from  an  observance  of 
the  Buddhistic  doctrine,  or  verses  in  which  the 
Buddha  is  praised  by  his  disciples,  and  similar 
irrelevant  matter.  It  is  jirobably  on  account  of  the 
extent  which   could   easily  be   imparted  to  Euch 


the  P,  are  in  existaacc,  both  with  the  Buddhists 
and  Tibetans  (see  LAUAiau);  some  of  these  do  not 
contain  more  than  700  or  3000  or  10,000  slokas,  or 
par^rapbs;  but  othen  amount  to  18,000,  25,000,  or 
100,000  s'lokas.  The  following  may  serve  as  a. 
specimen  of  the  abetruse  ideas  treated  of  in  this 
great  work  of  tiie  Buddhistic  doctrine.  No  object 
has  existence  or  non-existence  ;  nothing  belongs  to 
eternity  or  non-etemity,  to  pain  or  pleasure,  to 
vacuity  or  nun-vacuity.  All  objects  are  without 
attribute*  and  with  attributM,  wiUi  and  without 

m 


PRAKHTT-PEAWN. 


characterittic  mi^rica.  Bodbisattwa  (the  name  f<nr 
a  dcided  saint)  and  PrajnA  (wisdom)  are  synony- 
mous terms ;  sach  a  term  neither  arises  nor  perishes ; 
it  exists  neither  inwardly  nor  outwardly,  because  it 
cannot  be  seized ;  but  the  Bodhtsattwa  must 
accoTTipUsh  his  career  under  this  fiallacious  name ;  it 
is  his  duty,  however,  to  look  neither  upon  form  nor 
anything  else  as  an  eternal  or  non-eternal,  as  a 
ptire  or  impure  matter,  kc  Then  only  when  he  is 
m  a  condition  of  complete  indifference  regarding 
evervthins,   is   he   capable  of   encompassing   the 

whole  wienom The  absence  of  nature  is 

the  nature  of  everything ;  all  obiects  are  separated 
fmm  their  characteristics.  All  objects  neither 
appear  nor  are  bom,  nor  disappear,  nor  cease  to  be, 
nor  are  they  pure  nor  impure,  nor  are  they  acquir- 
able nor  non-acquirable.  Want  of  understanding 
is  the  not  understanding  that  objects  are  nonentities. 
From  the  want  of  understandmg  proceed  all  sub- 
jectiye  notions  ;  and  through  the  latter  one  becomes 
mcapacitated  from  fulfiUmg  the  behests  of  the 
sacred  doctrine,  and  from  entering  the  path  which 
leads  to  wisdonL  •  •  .  .  Everything  is  like  the 
echo,  or  a  shadow,  or  anjrthing  else  without  sub- 
stance. In  short,  the  doctrine  oi  the  P.  is  the  entire 
negation  of  the  subject  as  well  as  the  object ;  and 
whatever  be  the  difference  in  detail  between  the 
points  of  view  from  which  it  looks  upon  subject  or 
subject,  or  between  its  comparisons  and  circumlo- 
cutions, the  result  is  always  the  same :  that  the 
object  of  ascertainment,  or  the  highest  wisdom,  has 
no  more  real  existence  than  the  subject  striving  to 
attain  to  it,  or  the  Bodhisattwa.— -See  K  Bumonf, 
Introduction  A  VHUtoire  du  Buddhistne  Jndien 
(Paris,  1844) ;  .W.  Wassiljew,  Der  Buddhismus,  aeine 
Dofpihen^  Qeachkhlt  tmd  LUercUur  (St  Petersburg, 
1860). 

PrAkRIT  (from  the  Sanscrit  prakr^Ui,  nature ; 
hence,  natural,  not  accomplished,  vulrair)  is  the 
collective  name  of  those  languages  or  dialects  which 
are  immediately  derived  from,  or  stand  in  an  imme- 
diate relation  to  Sanscrit^  or  *the  accomplished' 
Language  (q.  T.)  of  the  Hindus.  These  languages, 
however,  must  not  be  confounded  with  those  modem 
languages  of  India  which  also  have  an  affinity  with 
the  Sanscrit  langUM^;  for,  in  the  Pr&kr'it  lan- 
guages, however  much  they  may  differ  from  Sanscrit 
m  their  phonetic  laws,  the  words  and  grammatical 
forms  are  immediately  derived  from  that  language  ; 
whereas,  in  the  modem  tongues  of  India,  there  is 
not  only  no  connection  between  their  phonetic  laws 
'  and  those  of  Sanscrit,  but  their  grammatical  forms 
also  are  wholly  different  from  those  of  the  ancient 
language ;  and  while  many  of  their  words  have  no 
Banscntic  origin,  even  those  which  have,  shew  that 
they  are  not  immediatdy  drawn  from  that  source. 
The  Prftkr'it  languages  comprise,  besides  the  Pdli 
(q.v.),  which  generally,  however,  is  not  included 
amongst  them,  those  dialects  which  are  found  in  the 
dramas  and  in  the  oldest  inscriptions.  In  the 
dramas,  it  is  women,  except  female  reIis;ions  char- 
acters, and  subordinate  male  personages,  who  are 
made  to  speak  in  these  languages — ^the  use  of 
Sanscrit  being  reserved  for  the  higher  characters  of 
the  play — and  amon^  the  former,  again,  the  choice 
of  the  specitd  PHIkr'it  dialect  is  adapted  by  the  poet 
to  the  rank  which  such  a  suborduate  personage 
holds,  the  more  refined  dialect  being  appropriate 
for  instance,  to  the  wives  of  the  king  or  hero  of  the 
play ;  an  inferior  Prftkr'it  to  his  minierters ;  others  less 
in  degree  to  the  sons  of  the  ministers,  soldiers,  town- 
people,  and  the  like ;  down  to  the  lowest  Prttkr'it, 
which  IB  spoken  only  by  servants,  or  the  lowest 
classes.  A  work  on  the  poetical  art,  the  Sd/ut' 
yadarpan%  enumerates  14  such  Prftkr^it  dialects 
^viz.,    the    ffawoioU,    lidMrdMti^    lidgadhi. 


Ardhamdaadki,   Prdehnd,  JeaatiM,  DMka^Atfi, 
S'dkvarU  Bd/dUd,  Drdvid%Abklri,Ckdn'd'dU,ir{iiai, 
and  Paia'dM;  but  VAramchi,  the  oldest  knoim 
grammarian  of  the  PrfLkrlt  dialects,  knows  bat  fov 
— vix.,  the  Mdkdrdthtfi,  STauramit,  Mdgadbl,  and 
PaWdM;  and  Laseon,  in  the  Indiseke  AUertlmmt' 
hundf^  holds  that,  of  those,  only  the  SaMmmoA  and 
the  MAijadhX  have  a  really  local  character— tbe 
former,  as  he  assumes,  having  been  the  vemacalarof 
a  large  district  of  Western,  and  the  latter— which  ii 
also  the  PiAkrlt  in  the  inscriptions  of  Kin^  Af^oka 
—of  Eastern  India;  whereas  the  Mahteteht^ri,  or 
the  language  of  the  Mahrattas,  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  we  language  of  the  oonntry  the  name  of 
which  it  bean ;  imd  the  Pais'idil,  or  the  languagi 
of  the  Pis'Acha,  is  obviously  merriy  a  fancy  oana 
The  principal  PHtkr'it  dialect  is  the  Mahirftahtil; 
the  lowest,  aooording  to  some,  the  Pais'ibcht,  of  which 
two   varieties  are   mentioned;    bnt  acoordin^  to 
others,    the    Apabhrwrno'a. — ^whioh    word   en^- 
ally  means  'a  falling-off' — ie.,  a  dialect  whidi 
completely  deviates  from  the  granimaticsl  lava  d 
Sanaorit,   but  in   this   special    apfdication  would 
designate  a  dialect  even  inferior  to  the  Paas'khl, 
and  IS  com^mred  by  a  grammarian  to  the  langua^ 
of  the  reptiles.    On  tm  grammar  ctf  the  Piiki^it 
languages,  see    Chr.   Tflnnrn,  IntiUutUme$  Lugta 
FracrUUxB  (Bonn,  1837).    The  Satras,  or  gFunma- 
tical  rales  of  VAraruchi,  have  been  edited  in  the 
same  work;  but  more  elaborately,  with  a  com- 
mentary,  copious  notes,    an   English  traualatioo, 
appendices,  and  an  index,  by  Edward  Byles  Cow«U, 
who  has  also  added  to  this  excellent  edition.  An 
Eaey  fntt-oduetion  to  Prdkr^U  Orammar  (Hertfoid, 
1854). 

PRASE,  a  green  variety  of  Quartz  (q.  v.),  some- 
times found  crystallised  in  the  same  fonoB  as 
common  quarts,  but  more  generally  maaaive,  or  in 
prismatic  and  granular  concretions,  it  ia  rather  a 
rare  mineraL  It  is  sometimes  cut  as  an  ornamental 
stone,  but  ia  not  highly  esteemed. 

PRATIQUE  is,  strictlv,  a  limited  (jnarantina  A. 
ship  is  said  to  have  performed  pratique  when  her 
captain  has  convinced  the  authorities  of  a  port  that 
his  ship  ia  free  from  contagious  disease ;  and  be  ia 
thereupon  permitted  to  open  trade  and  commimica- 
tion  with  tne  shore. 

PRAWN  {Palamon),  a  genHS  of  erfistaoeans,  of 
the  order  DeeapodOy  and  sub-order  MacrourxK  in 
general  form  resembling  lobsters,  craytisb,  aod 
shrimps,  but  belonging  to  a  funily  {Palam<midet) 
remarKable  for  a  long  serrated  beak  projeetiD^  from 
the  carapace.  The  npper  antennae  are  termmated 
by  three  filaments.  There  are  many  species  d  P^, 
and  some  of  those  which  inhabit  tiie  seas  of  wani 
climates  attain  a  large  sise.  Many  of  them  an 
semi-transparent,  and  exhibit  very  fine  colosn; 
they  are  also  very  active  creatures,  and  mnst  into^ 
estin^  inmates  of  an  aquarium,  bat  are  excesNTdy 
voracious,  and  apt  to  make  great  havoc  amonsr  its 
other  inhabitants.  The  Commok  P.  (P.  mriattuij 
attains  a  length  of  three  or  foor  inche&  It  ia 
common  on  we  British  coasts,  although  not  ao 
abundant  as  the  shrimp,  and  is  TOneraOy  taken  ia 
the  vicinity  of  rocks  at  a  little  distaaoe  from  the 
shore,  and  not  in  rock-pools.  It  is  more  esteemed 
for  the  table  than  even  the  shrimp.  Osier-bssketB, 
similar  to  those  employed  for  catching  lobsters,  an 
employed  for  the  capture  of  prawns ;  ahK>  n«t8 
about  ^ve  or  six  feet  wide,  whidi  are  puahed  along 
by  means  of  poles,  and  are  called  PMUiMg  SA 
One  side  of  the  thorax  of  a  P.  is  often  found 
remarkably  distended,  l^is  is  owing  to  a  jstv 
sitic  crustacean,  Bopynu  erttngorum^  one  of  thi 
Itopodti,  lodged  under  the  cacapaceL 


PRAXTTELfe-PRAYER  FOR  THE  DEAD. 


PRAXI'TEL^S,  a  celebrated  sculptor  of  ancient 
Greece,  of  whose  life  nothing  is  known,  except  that 
he  was  a  citizen  of  Athens,  and  lived  in  the  4th  a 
B.  c.  Pliny  gives  the  date  364  B.  a  apparently  as 
that  in  which  P.  began  to  flourish.  His  principal 
works — all  of  which  have  now  perished — were  :  1. 
Statues  of  Aphrodite  (at  Cos,  Onidus,  Thespiie, 
Latmian  Alexandria,  and  Rome),  of  which  that  of 
Cnidus  was  the  most  famous;  2.  Statues  of  Eros 
(at  Thespiffi,  and  Parium  on  the  Propontis) ;  3. 
Statues,  single  and  in  groups,  from  the  mythology 
of  Dionysus  (at  Elis,  Athens,  Megara,  and  other 
places) ;  4.  Statues  of  Apollo,  the  best  of  which  was 
that  representing  Apollo  as  the  Lizard-slayer.  So  far 
as  we  are  entitled  to  form  an  opinion  of  the  works 
of  P.  from  the  descriptions  and  criticisms  of  ancient 
writers,  it  would  seem  that  they  marked  an  epoch 
in  the  history  of  Greece— viz.,  the  transition  from 
the  earnest,  heroic,  and  reverential  age  preceding  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  to  the  more  comipt  and  sensual 
times  that  followed  it.  The  sculpture  of  Pheidias 
is  inspired  by  a  profound  veneration  for  the  majesty 
of  the  gods;  that  of  P.  sought  to  give  expression 
to  the  looser  and  less  divine  conceptions  of  the 
national  religion.  The  bewitching  beauty  of  woman, 
and  the  intoxication  of  Bacchic  pleasures,  were  his 
favourite  subjects ;  bat  in  his  treatment  of  these, 
he  displayed  unrivalled  sweetness,  grace,  and 
naturalness.  His  gods  and  goddesses  were  not 
very  divine,  but  they  were  ideal  figures  ol  the 
fairest  earthly  loveliness. 

PRATER  is  a  universally  acknowledged  part  of 
the  worship  due  to  God;  a  simple  and  natural 
expression  of  dependence,  which  seems  almost  neces- 
sarily to  follow  from  a  belief  in  the  existence  of  a 
god.  Accordingly,  we  find  it  both  where  the  object 
of  worship  is  one  Supreme  Being  and  in  systems  of 
polytheism.  It  is  also  combined  with  every  other 
part  of  worship.  According  to  the  Christian  system, 
however,  prayer  is  not  the  mere  spontaneous 
approach  of  man  to  Crod,  in  the  enaeavour  to 
ap})ease  his  wrath,  to  win  his  favour,  or  to  obtain 
from  him  any  blessing ;  but  the  right  to  approach 
him  in  prayer,  and  the  warrant  to  expect  advantage 
in  doing  so,  rest  on  the  revelation  of  his  own  wilL 
Nor  is  any  truth  more  indisputably  taught  in  the 
Bible,  or  more  frequently  brought  into  view,  both 
in  the  Old  and  in  the  JNew  Testament^  than  that 
God  is  the  hearer  of  prayer. 

But  a  difficulty  presents  itself,  in  respect  to  what 
may  be  called  the  theory  of  prayer.  How  can 
prayer  be  supposed  to  influence  the  divine  mind  or 
will  ?  How  can  a  belief  in  its  power  be  reconciled 
with  any  view  of  the  divine  decrees,  from  the  most 
absolute  doctrine  of  predestination  to  the  roost 
modified  scheme  which  recognises  the  Greator  as 
supreme  in  the  universe  ?  Such  questions  bring  up 
the  same  difficulty  which  attends  all  other  questions 
of  the  relations  between  the  human  will  and  the 
divine,  the  freedom  of  man  and  the  sovereignty  of 
God.  But  whatever  seeming  inconsistencies  may 
be  implied  in  speculation  concerning  them,  the 
necessity  of  prayer  and  the  power  of  prayer  are 
acknowledged  equally  b^  men  of  the  most  opposite 
views ;  and  generally  with  an  acknowledgment  of 
the  inability  of  the  human  mind  to  solve  somo  of 
the  problems  which  are  thus  presented  to  it.  The 
extreme  predestinarian  includes  prayer  among  the 
means  decreed  of  God  along  with  the  end  to  which 
it  contribute&  And  whilst  prayer  is  regarded  by 
all  Christians  as  of  great  value  in  its  reflex  influence 
on  the  feelings  of  the  worshipper,  this  is  scarcely 
ever  stated  as  its  whole  value ;  however  important 
this  view  of  it  may  be  deemed  as  illustrating  the 
divine  wisdom  in  making  it  one  of  the  oMef  '  means 
of  grace.' 


Trtkj^r  being  regarded  by  Christians  as  an  ordin* 
ance  of  God,  it  follows  that  they  must  seek  to  Ks 
guided  in  prayer  by  the  rules  of  his  revealed  will,  in 
so  far  as  his  will  has  been  revealed.  It  is  therefore 
held  by  Christians  in  general,  in  accordance  with 
their  doctrine  of  the  Atonement  (q.v.)  and  of  the 
Intercession  (q.  v.)  of  Jesus  Christ,  that  the  onl^  true 
way  of  access  to  God  is  through  the  mediation  of 
Jesus  Christ,  and  that  prayer  must  be  made  in  the 
exercise  of  faith  in  him  ;  the  worshipper  taking  his 
stand  upon  the  ground  of  the  obedience  or  *  finished 
work  and  accepted  sacrifice*  of  Christ,  and  looking 
up  to  Christ  as  now  interceding  in  Heaven.  It  is 
also  held,  in  accordance  with  the  doctrine  of  man*a 
corruption,  that  prayer  can  be  truly  made,  in  faith, 
and  for  things  agreeable  to  God's  will,  only  by  the 
help  of  the  Holy  Spirit  Prayer,  to  be  acceptable, 
must  be  for  things  agreeable  to  God's  "will,  as  that 
will  is  revealed  in  his  Word;  and  therefore 
prayer  for  mere  temporal  or  earthly  good  must  be 
made  in  entire  submission  to  his  will ;  but  prayer 
mav  be  thus  made  for  temporal  or  earthly  good,  the 
will  of  God  having  been  revealed  to  that  effect— an 
admirable  instance  of  the  grace  of  God. 

Adoration,  thanksgiving,  and  confession  of  sins, 
the  accompaniments  or  adjuncts  of  prayer,  are  veiy 
generally  regarded  as  parts  of  prayer  ;  and  prayer, 
which  is  strictly  mere  T^fft^ion,  is  defined  acooraingly. 

The  Protestant  churches  all  hold  that  prayer  is 
to  be  made  to  God  alone ;  the  mediation  of  Jesus 
Christ  and  the  help  of  the  Holy  Ghost  being  duly 
acknowledged.  But  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  to  some  extent  in  the  oriental  churches,  prayer 
of  a  kind  is  made  also  to  saints,  the  Virgin  Mary, 
and  angels.    See  ImrocATiON. 

Prayer,  according  to  Christians  in  general,  must 
be  made  not  merely  in  form  or  words,  out  with  the 
heart  Accordingly,  Protestants  hold  that  prayer 
ought  to  be  conducted  in  a  language  known  to  the 
worshippers.  The  Church  of  Kome  has,  on  the 
contrary,  maintained  the  general  use  of  the  Latin 
language,  where  that  language  is  unknown  to  most 
of  the  worshippers. 

Prayer  for  the  dead  (see  following  article)  is 
rejected  by  Protestants,  as  having  no  warrant  in  the 
Word  of  God.  But  according  to  the  Protestant 
creed,  prayer  is  to  be  made  for  all  the  living — not 
only  for  believers  but  for  unbelievers. 

PRAYER  FOR  THE  DEAD,  the  practice 
which  prevails  in  the  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and 
other  oriental  churches,  of  praying  for  the  souls  of 
the  deceased,  with  the  intention  and  expectation 
of  obtaining  for  them  an  alleviation  of  their  sup- 
posed sufferings  after  death,  o:\  account  of  venial 
sins,  or  of  the  penalty  of  mortal  sins,  remitted 
but  not  fully  atoned  for  during  life.  The  practice 
of  praying  for  the  dead  supposes  the  doctrine  of 
PUROATOBT  (q.  v.),  although  perhaps  the  converse  is 
not  necessarily  true.  Practically,  however,  the  two 
may  be  regamed  as  forming  part  of  one  and  the 
same  theory,  and  especially  if  taken  in  connection 
with  the  doctrine  of  the  Communion  of  Saints.  It 
being  once  supposed,  as  the  Roman  Catholic  system 
supposes,  that  relations  subsist  between  the  two 
worlds,  tiiat  their  members  may  mutually  assist  each 
other,  it  is  almost  a  necessary  consequence  of  the 
doctrine  of  puraatory,  that  the  living  ought  to 
pray  for  the  relief  of  their  suffering  brethren  beyond 
the  grave.  We  can  but  present  an  outline  of  this 
doctrine  and  of  its  history.  It  seems  certain  that 
some  such  doctrine  existed  in  most  of  the  ancient 
religions,  and  especially  in  those  of  Egypt,  India» 
and  China.  It  gives  significance  to  many  of  the 
practices  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans  in  reference  to 
their  dead.  Its  existence  among  the  Jews  is  attested 
by  Idle  well-known  assurance  in  2d  Maccabees,  chap* 

m 


PRE-ADAMITES— PRECEDENCE. 


ziL,  that  'it  is  a  holy  and  wholesome  thought  to 
pray  for  the  dead,  that  thev  may  be  loosed  from 
their  sins.'  The  continned  maintenance  of  the 
practice  among  the  Jewish  race,  is  plain  from  their 
sacred  books ;  and  a  still  more  interesting  evidence 
of  its  use  has  recently  been  discovered  m  the  in- 
scriptions disinterred  in  several  Jewish  catacombs  of 
the  first  three  centuries,  at  Some  and  in  Southeni 
Italy,  which  abound  with  supplications :  '  May  thy 
sleep  be  in  peace ! '  '  Mayest  thou  sleep  in  peace  I  * 
'  Thy  sleep  be  with  the  good  I '  or  *  witn  the  just  I  * 
&C.  Roman  Catholics  contend  that  the  doctrine, 
as  well  as  the  practice,  is  equally  recognisable  in  the 
early  Christian  Church.  Ihey  rely  on  the  parable 
of  liazarus  and  the  rich  man  (Luke  zvi.  19--31)  as 
establishing  the  intercommunion  of  this  earth  with 
the  world  Beyond  the  grave ;  and  on  Matt  xiL  32, 
as  proving  the  remisaibility  of  sin  or  of  punishment 
after  deat£ ;  as  well  as  on  1st  Cor.  xv.  29,  as  attesting 
the  actual  practice,  among  the  first  Christians,  of 
performing  or  undergoing  certain  ministrations  in 
behalf  of  the  dead.  The  Fathers  of  the  2d,  3d,  and 
still  more  of  the  4th  and  following  centuries,  fre- 
quently allude  to  such  prayerA,  as  Clement  of 
.Alexandria,  Tertullian,  St  Cyprian,  and  especially 
St  John  Chrysostom,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  and  St 
Augustine.  The  liturgies,  too,  of  all  the  rites  with- 
out exception  contain  prayers  for  the  dead ;  and  the 
sepulchral  inscriptions  from  the  catacombs,  which 
reach  in  their  range  from  the  1st  till  the  5th  c,  con- 
tain frequent  prayers  in  even  greater  variety,  and 
more  directly  intercessory,  or  rather  more  directly 
implying  release  from  suffering  than  those  of  the 
contem[K)rary  Jews.  In  the  services  of  the  medieval 
and  later  church,  prayers  for  the  dead  form  a  pro- 
minent and  striking  element.  See  Requieic  The 
Abyssinians  have  separate  services  for  the  dead  of 
all  the  several  conditions  and  degrees  in  life,  and 
continue  to  offer  the  mass  daily  for  forty  days  after 
the  death.  The  Protestant  churches  wiuiout  excep- 
tion have  repudiated  the  practice.  In  the  Burial 
Service  of  the  first  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
authorised  in  the  Church  of  England,  some  prayers 
for  the  deceased  were  retained;  but  they  were 
expunged  from  the  second  Book ;  and  no  trace  is  to 
be  found  in  that  sanctioned  under  Elizabeth. 

PRE- ADAMITES,  supposed  inhabitants  of  the 
earth  anterior  to  Adam.  The  author  of  the  opinion, 
or  at  least  the  writer  in  whose  hands  it  first  took  a 
scientific  form,  was  Isaac  de  la  Peyrere,  better  known 
by  his  Latinised  name  Pereriua.  He  was  bom  of  a 
Calvinist  family  of  Bordeaux  in  1594^  and  was 
attached  to  the  service  of  the  Prince  of  Cond6.  His 
theory  was  first  made  public  in  1655,  in  the  form  of 
a  commentary  on  the  12th,  13th,  and  I4th  verseS  of 
the  5th  chapter  of  St  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 
which  was  followed,  in  the  same  year,  by  the  first 
part  of  a  formal  treatise  on  the  Pre-adamite  hypo- 
thesis, and  the  theological  consequences  to  be  derived 
therefrom.  According  to  his  hypothesis,  Adam  was 
the  progenitor  of  the  Jewish  race  only,  and  it  is 
only  of  nim  and  his  race  that  the  Bible  is  designed 
to  supply  the  history.  Other  races  existed  on  earth 
before  that  of  Adam ;  but  of  them  the  Bible  con- 
tains no  record,  nor  did  the  Mosaic  law  regard  them 
or  impose  any  obligation  upon  them.  It  was  only 
under  the  gospel  that  they  began  to  be  compre- 
hended in  the  law,  which  through  Christ  was  given 
to  all  the  human  races  of  the  eartii ;  and  it  is  in  this 
sense  that,  according  to  Peyrere,  sin  is  said  (Rom. 
▼.  13),  to  *have  been  in  the  world  until  the  law,* 
but  not  to  have  been  *  imputed  when  the  law  was 
not.'  For  the  Pre-adamite  race,  as  the  law  was  not, 
there  was  no  legal  offence.  The  only  evil  which 
Peyrere  recognised  was  natural  eviL  The  same 
limited  interpretation  he  extended  to  most  oHher 
7iO 


details  of  the  Mosaic  history.  Thus,  he  legvded 
the  deluge  as  partial,  being  confined  only  to  vbe 
Adamite  race.  Other  miraculous  nanativei  of  the 
Pentateuch  and  even  of  other  books  he  rotricted 
similarly.  As  his  book  was  published  in  the  Lov 
Countries,  he  fell  under  the  animadversion  of  Uu 
Inquisition,  and  eventually  was  arrested  in  the 
diocese  of  Mechlin,  but  was  released  at  the  instanoe 
of  the  Prince  of  Cond&  He  afterwards  went  to 
Rome,  where  he  conformed  to  the  Catholic  rdiKion, 
and  made  a  full  retractation  of  his  erroneous  opiniuoi 
He  was  offered  preferment  by  the  pope,  AlezuHler 
VIL,  but  returned  in  preference  to  Paris,  where  he 
entered  the  seminary  of  Notre  Dame  des  Votoi, 
in  which  he  resided  till  his  death  in  167G.  The 
discussion  has  acquired  new  interest  by  recent 
discoveries  of  supposed  evidences  of  human  art  and 
industry,  in  positions  which,  considered  gedoeicaU j, 
appear  to  their  discoverers  to  be  of  an  age  oeyinJ 
those  limits  which  the  Mosaic  chronology  asngu  to 
the  creation  of  Adam. 

PRE'BEND  (Lat  prcshenda^  from  TpfniS)er%  to 
furnish),  the  income  or  other  provision  assigned  for 
the  maintenance  of  a  so-called  prebendary,  out  of 
the  revenue  of  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  chorch.  Afta 
the  definite  constitution  of  chapters  for  the  jam- 
tenance  of  the  daily  religious  services  in  the  bishop'i 
church,  or  in  other  churches  similarly  established 
endowments  were  assigned  to  them,  which  were  to 
be  distributed  {piteftenacB)  in  fixe<l  proportions  unoog 
the  members.  These  portions  were  called  porima 
eanonica  or  nrcebendce.  To  the  prebend  was  oom* 
monly  attached  a  residence.  The  person  enjoyiog 
a  prebend  is  called  a  prebendary. — ^The  nazu 
preoend  is  also  given  to  an  endowment  assigned  to 
a  cathedral  chunsh  for  the  maintenance  of  a  secohr 
priest 

PRECEa>ENCE,  the  order  in  which  indiriduali 
are  entitled  to  follow  one  another  in  a  sUte  pro- 
cession or  on  other  public  occasiona  We  tiod 
questions  of  precedence  arising  in  very  early  agn 
both  in  Europe  and  in  the  £ast  Where  snch 
questions  have  arisen  among  ambassadors,  as  the 
representatives  of  different  countries,  great  teoscitf 
has  often  been  shewn  in  supporting  the  claims  to 
rank  of  the  states  represented.  In  England,  the 
order  of  precedence  depends  partly  on  the  statute 
31  Henry  VIIL  a  10,  partly  on  subsequent  statato, 
royal  letters  patent,  and  ancient  usages.  Among 
questions  of  precedence  depending  on  usage,  there 
are  some  which  can  hardly  t>e  considered  so  settled 
as  to  be  matter  of  right,  and  are  in  a  sreat  d^iee 
left  to  the  discretion  of  the  officers  of  the  crown. 
Formerly,  they  were  adjudicated  on  by  the  Cos- 
stable  and  Marshal  in  the  Coiurt  of  Chivalry ;  and 
since  that  tribunal  has  fallen  into  abeyance,  the 
practice  of  persons  aggrieved  in  these  matters  is  to 
petition  the  crown,  which  generally  refers  the  dis- 
puted question  to  the  officers  of  arms.  In  Scotland, 
the  Lyou  Court  has  the  direct  jurisdiction  in  all 
questions  of  precedence. 

It  is  a  general  rule  of  precedence,  that  perKins  of 
the  same  rank  follow  according  to  the  order  of  the 
creation  of  that  rank ;  and  in  the  precedence  of  the 
English  peerage,  it  has  been  fixed  that  the  jmvpf 
sons  of  each  preceding  rank  take  place  immediately 
after  the  eldest  son  of  the  next  succeeding  raaL 
Married  women  and  widows  take  the  same  nek 
among  each  other  as  their  husbands,  except  snch 
rank  be  professional  or  official,  and  it  is  an  inraii* 
able  rule  that  no  office  gives  rank  to  the  wife  cr 
children  of  the  holder  of  it.  Unmarneii  womes 
take  the  same  rank  with  their  eldest  brother ;  the 
wife  of  the  eldest  son,  of  any  deme,  howev^, 
preceding  the  aistezs  of  her  husband  avi  all  oUmt 


FRECEDEKCB. 


} 


Being  of  the 

degree 

of  Barooe. 

Above  ell  of 

tbeir  degree  | 

if  Dnkee. 

above  all' 

Dnkee,  fta 


ladies  in  the  Bame  degree  with  them.  Marruige 
with  an  inferior  does  not  take  away  the  precedence 
which  a  woman  enjoys  by  birth  or  creation ;  with 
this  exception,  tiiat  the  wife  of  a  peer  always 
takes  her  rank  from  her  husband.  The  following 
tables  exhibit  the  precedence  of  different  ranks  as 
recognised  in  England. 

TABLB  or  PABOSOSSGB  AMOlia  MSV* 

The  Sovereign. 

The  Prinoe  of  Walee. 

8oa<«  of  the  Murereltin. 

Grundtions  of  the  Sovereign. 

Brothem  of  the  Sovereign. 

Undue  of  the  Sovereign. 

The  Sovereign's  Brothers'  or  SIstere'  Sons. 

H  K.II.  I'rince  Leopold,. King  of  the  Bclgiaiia 

The  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  Primate  of  all  EngUndi 

The  Lord  High  Ciiancellor,  or  Loid  Keeper. 

The  Archbiihop  of  York,  Primate  of  Bnifland. 

The  Archbishop  of  Armagh,  Primate  of  Ireland. 

The  Archbishop  of  DabUn. 

The  Lord  High  Treaaarer. 

The  Lord  President  of  the  Privy  Coonofl. 

The  I.oi-d  Privy  Seal. 

The  Lord  Gnat  Chambcrlala* 

The  Lord  High  Constable. 

The  E«rl  MarKbal. 

The  Loid  High  Admiral. 

Tho    Lord    Steward    of    Her    H^eety*s 

House  'Old. 
The  Lord  Chamberlain  of  Her  Uijeet/e 

lIouMhold. 
Dukes. 
Eldest  Sons  of  Dukee  of  the  Blood  RojaL 

Marquiie^. 

Dukes'  Bldeat  Bone. 

Earls. 

Younger  Sons  of  Dukes  of  the  Blood  BojsL 

Marquises*  Eldi-st  Sons. 

Dukes*  Yonnger  Sons. 

Tiscounta 

EarU*  Eldest  Sone. 

Mnrqui>>es'  Yonnger  Sona 

Bishops  of  London,  Durliam,  and  Winchester. 

All  other  English  Bishope  according  to  senlorltj  of  Ooo- 
secration. 

Bishoiis  >  f  Meath  and  Kildare. 

All    othiT   iriah  Bishope   aocording  to   tenioritj  of  Con- 
secmtion. 

Secretiriui  of  State,  if  of  degree  of  a  Baron. 

B/.rons.  i 

The  Sp*«ker  of  the  House  of  Commons* 

Comniifsiouera  of  the  Great  HeaL 

Treasurvr  of  Hur  M^)eKty's  Household. 

Comittroller  of  Her  Majesty's  Household. 

Master  of  the  Horse. 

Vice  Ch;imlierlNin  of  Her  Msjesty's  Honeehold. 

Beoviarii  e  of  State,  under  the  degree  of  Baron. 

ViMsonnia*  Eldest  ^ona. 

Earls'  Younger  Sons. 

Barons'  Eldest  Sons. 

Knights  i»f  the  Garter. 

Privy  C-'uncillora, 

The  Chatioeilor  of  the  Order  of  the  Garter. 

The  c^hani-ttUor  of  the  Exchequer. 

The  CtisnccUor  of  the  Duchy  ut  T<ancaster. 

The  lA>rd  Chief  Just loe  of  Uie  Queen's  Beoeh. 

The  Mnstor  ot  ttie  RoHa. 

Lord  Chi.-f  JuMtlce  of  the  Common  Pleaa. 

Lord  Chief  Baron  of  the  Exchequer. 

Lord^  JuHtices  of  the  Court  of  Ap|H>al  in  Chanoetj. 

Vice  chMncellors. 

Judges  and  Barons  of  the  degree  of  the  Coif  of  the  said  Courts. 

Commi  s  oners  of  the  Coui  t  of  liankruptcy. 

BannervU  made  by  the  Sovereign  under  the  Royal  Standard  In 
open  wht. 

Viscounts'  Younger  Bonsii 

Bamnit*  Younger  Sons. 

Baronets. 

Bnnnvrets  not  made  by  the  Sovereign  in  penon. 

Knights  of  ti>e  'Ih  stie. 

Knighu  Grand  Ci  oases  of  the  Bath. 

Knighu  of  St  Patrick. 

KnightH  (irand  Crosses  of  St  MIehael  and  8t  Georgo. 

Knigiits  Commanders  of  the  Bath. 

Knights  CoiumMnders  of  St  Michael  and  St  George^ 

Knights  Hachelors. 

Com|H  nlon<«  of  the  Rath. 

Cavaiieri  and  Companions  of  St  MIdiael  and  St  Qeorgo. 

Eldest  Sons  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Fmn, 

EaroaeU'  Eldest  Sons. 


Eldest  Sons  of  Knights  of  the  Garter. 

Rannereto*  Eldest  Sons. 

Eldest  Sons  of  Knights  of  the  Bath. 

Knighu'  Eldest  Sons. 

Yonnger  t^ons  of  the  Yonnger  Sons  of  Pi 

Baroneta'  Younger  Sons. 

Esquii«s  of  the  Sovereign's  Body. 

Gentlemen  or  the  Privy  Chamber. 

Esquires  of  the  Knights  of  the  Bath. 

Baqufres  by  Creation. 

Esquires  by  OIB«-«. 

Younger  Soni  of  Knights  of  the  Chvter. 

Younger  Sons  of  Bannerets. 

Younger  Sons  of  Knights  of  the  Bath. 

Younger  Sons  of  KnUhts  Bachelors. 

Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear  Arms. 

Clergymen,  Barristevs-at-law,  iif&otsn  In  the  Army  and  Navy* 

who  are  all  gentlemen,  and  have  their  preoedenoy  in  theif 

respective  professions. 
Oltixens. 


TABLB  or  rasosnaifon  AMona  wombit. 


TheQtt< 

The  Prtnoess  of  Wales. 

Prinoesees,  Daughters  of  the  Soveivlgn. 

Princesses  and  Ducheeses,  Wives  of  the  Sovereign's  Sou. 

Grand-daughters  of  the  Sorereign. 

Wives  of  the  Sovereign's  Grandsons. 

The  Sovereign's  Sisters. 

Wives  of  the  Sovereign's  Brotheci. 

The  Sovereign's  AuntSt 

Wives  of  the  Sovereign's  Uncles. 

Ducheeses. 

Wives  of  the  KMeel  Sons  of  Dnkee  of  tho  Blood  RoyaL 

Daughters  of  Dukee  of  the  Blood  RoyaL 

Marchionessee. 

Wives  of  the  Eldest  Sons  of  Dukee. 

Daughters  of  Dukee. 

Countesses, 

Wives  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Dukes  of  the  Blood  Royil, 

Wives  of  the  Eldest  Sons  of  Marquises. 

Daughters  of  Marquises. 

Wives  of  the  Yonnger  Sons  of  Dnkee. 

V  Isoonnteeses. 

Wivea  of  the  Bldeet  Sons  of  Earls. 

Daughters  of  Earls. 

W  ires  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Marquises, 

Baronesaee. 

Wivee  of  the  Bldeet  Sons  of  Visoonnte. 

Daughters  of  Viscounts. 

Wives  of  I  he  YouuHcr  Sons  of  Earls. 

Wives  of  the  Eldest  Sons  of  Barons. 

Daughters  of  Baruns. 

Maidi  of  Honour. 

Wives  of  Knighu  of  the  Garter. 

Wives  of  Hannerete. 

Wives  f if  the  Younger  Sons  of  Vlsoounti, 

Wives  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Barons. 

Wives  of  BaruneU. 

Wives  of  Knights  Grand  Crosses  of  the  Order  of  the  Bath. 

Wives  of  Knights  Gr«nd  Cros««es  of  Si  Midiael  snd  St  GeorgOb 

Wives  of  Knighu  Commanders  of  the  Order  of  the  bath. 

Wives  of  KiiighU  Comniand«w  of  St  Michael  and  St  George. 

Wives  of  Knighu  Bachelors. 

Wives  of  Companions  of  the  Rath. 

Wives  of  Cavaiieri  and  Companions  of  St  Michael  and  St 

George. 
Wivee  of  the  Eldest  Sons  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Peers. 
Dsughters  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Peers. 
Wives  of  tho  EldeKt  Sons  of  liarunets. 
Daughters  of  liaronets. 

Wives  of  tlie  K  dest  Sons  of  KnIghU  of  the  Garter. 
Daughters  of  Knighu  of  the  Garusr. 
v\  ivte  of  the  £  dest  S<>ns  of  Bannerets. 
Daughters  of  Bannerets. 

Wives  of  the  Eldest  8ons  of  Knighu  of  the  Bath. 
Daughters  of  Knights  of  the  Buth. 
Wives  of  the  Eldest  Sons  of  KnighU  Bachelors. 
Dnugliters  of  KnighU  Bachelors. 

Wivus  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Peen. 
Wivee  of  the  Younger  Sons  of  Baronets. 
Wives  of  Esquires  of  the  Sovereign's  Body. 
Wives  of  EM|uiree  to  the  Knighis  of  the  liHth. 
Wives  of  Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear  Arms. 
Daughters  of  Esquires  entitled  to  bear  Arms,  who  are  Gentle* 

women  by  birth. 
Dsughters  of  Gentlemen  entitled  to  bear  Arms,  who  are 

Gentlewomen  by  birth. 
Wives  of  Clergymen,  Banristers-at-law,  Offioers  in  the  Army 

Hud  Navy. 
Wives  of  Cltlaenik 
Wi  res  of  Burgesses. 

At  the  coronation  of  Charles  L,  the  mie  of 

741 


PRECENTOE-PEECESSION. 


Tireced3nc3  of  the  nobility  of  Engknd  wm  intro- 
duced in  Ok  otiand ;  and  it  was  arranged  that  peers 
of  Ensland  (or  their  sons,  ftc.)»  of  a  given  degree, 
shoula  witliin  England  take  precedence  of  peers 
of  Scotland  of  the  same  degree ;  and  that  this  pre- 
cedence should  be  reversed  in  Scotland.  But  by 
the  acts  of  Union  of  Scotland  and  Ireland,  the 
precedence  in  any  given  degree  of  the  peerage  has 
been  established  as  follows :  1.  Peers  of  England ; 
2.  Peers  of  Scotland ;  3.  Peers  of  Great  Britain ;  4 
Peers  of  Ireland ;  5.  Peers  of  the  United  Kingdom, 
and  Peers  of  Ireland  created  subsequently  to  the 
Irish  Union.  A  similar  order  is  understood  to 
obtain  in  regard  to  baronets.  The  relative  ranking 
of  the  great  officers  of  the  crown  in  Scotland  was 
thus  settled  by  statute  in  1623  and  1661 : 

Lord  Chancellor. 

JLord  Trtfntiirer. 

Archbishop  of  St  Andrewti 

Archbishop  of  (ilasgow. 

Earls  and  Viscounts  according  to  their  Fsaka 

Bishops  according  to  their  raiika. 

t^^:^H  "'*-""'- 

Lord  Presidinc  of  the  Court  of  Seaiion. 
Lord  llegister. 
Lord  AdTocate. 
Lord  Justice  Clerk. 
Lord  Treasurer  l>epnte. 
Lords  of  Session,  according  to  their  admininn. 
Barons  and  Gentlcuicn,  bulng  CoundUors,  ocoordtng  to  their 
admission. 

The  right  of  the  judcres  of  the  Court  of  Seasion, 
in  Scotland,  to  precede  baronets,  has  generally  been 
admitted. 

There  are  ndes  for  precedence  for  the  members  of 
different  professions,  recognised  among  themselves, 
but  which  do  not  confer  general  sociid  precedence. 
Doctors  in  the  universities  rank  thus:  1.  Of 
Divinity ;  2.  of  Law ;  3.  of  Medicine. 

PREGE'NTOR  (Lat  prce,  before ;  and  cantor,  a 
singer),  the  official  in  a  chapter,  whether  cathedral 
or  collegiate,  whose  duty  it  was  to  lead  the  singing. 
He  commenced  the  psalm  or  hymn,  which  was 
taken  up,  and  repeated  either  by  the  celebrant  or 
another  of  the  boay,  or  by  the  rest  of  the  choir.  In 
modem  chapters,  the  precentor  ranks  next  in 
dignity  to  the  provost  or  dean.  Among  the  Presby- 
terian bodies,  tne  precentor  is  the  official  who  raises 
and  conducts  the  psalmody,  and  is  generally  pro- 
vided with  a  desk  mimediately  beneaui  the  pnlpit^ 

PRE'CEPT,  a  legal  term,  used  in  Scotch  Law 
in  certain  departments,  generally  signifies  an 
order  to  do  something.  ^  Thus,  a  precept  of  sasine 
is  an  order  by  the  superior  of  lands  to  his  bailie  to 
infeft  the  vassaL  A  precept  of  dare  constat  is  an 
order  by  a  superior  to  infeft  the  vasBars  heir,  so 
called  l>ecau5e  the  superior  is  quite  satisfied  of  the 
propinquity. 

PREGE'PTORY,  the  name  given  to  certain 
bouses  of  the  Knights  Templar,  the  superiors  of 
which  were  called  Knights  Preceptor.  AU  the  pre- 
ceptories  of  a  province  were  subject  to  a  provincial 
superior,  callea  Grand  Preceptor;  and  there  were 
tm^e  of  these  who  held  rank  above  all  the  rest, 
the  grand  preceptors  of  Jerusalem,  Tripolis,  and 
Antioch.  Other  houses  of  the  order  were  called 
*  commanderies.' 

PRECE'SSION.  If  the  earth  were  truly  spherical 
and  homogeneous ;  or  if  it  were  composed  of  s|>her- 
ical  layers  each  of  imiform  density ;  or,  more 
generally,  if  it  were  such  that  the  resultant  of  the 
attractions  exerted  on  all  its  parts  by  any  other 
body  should  always  pass  through  a  definite  point  in 
its  mass,  its  diurnal  rotation  would  not  be  affected 
by  the  attraction  of  an^  other  bodies.  If  originaJly 
rotating  about  a  principal  axis  of  Inertia  (q.  v.),  it 


would  for  ever  revolve  about  it,  and  Uie  diiectkni  U 
the  axis  woidd  remain  fixed  in  space.    To  put  thii 
in  more  popular  language,  the  Pole-star  (q.  t.)  would 
always  be  the  same  stiur.    But,  althou^  tlie  esrth 
rotates   about  an  axis  almost  exactly  auncidiiig 
with  its  axis  of  figure,  the  attraction  of  Tuiooi 
bodies,  especially  the  sun  and  moon,  on  tiie  oblite 
portion  at  the  equator,  tends  to  give  it  a  rotation 
about  an  axis  in  the  plane  of  the  equator ;  and  the 
combination  of  these  two  rotations  gives  rise  to  t 
shifting  of  the  instantaneous  axis  of  rotation  in  ths 
earth  and   also  in  space.     As  already  mentiuned 
(see    Nutation),    the    earth^s    axis    of  revolntioa 
describes  a  waved  curve  (very  nearly  circular)  about 
the  pole  of  the  ediptic,  and  in  a  direction  contrary 
to  that  of  the  order  of  the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  (q.r.). 
This  waved  curve  may  be  conceived  to  be  described 
as  follows.    The  pole  of  the  earth,  P,  revolves  n 
about  19  years  in  a  little  ellipse,  whose  centre,  0, 
travels  uniformly  in  a  small  circle  of  the  sphere^ 
AO ;  the  centre,  E,  of  the  latter  is  the  pole  of  ^ 
ecliptic    The  precession  is  the  portion  AO  of  itm 
circle  measured  from  any  assumed  point.  A;  and 
the  small  arc,  OP,  by  which  the  true  place  of  the 
earth's  pole  difiers  from  its  mean    place,  is  the 
nutation.    The  nutation  is  generally  resolved  along, 
and  perpendicnlar  to,  £0  ;  and  the  components  ao 
found  are  the  nutation  in  ediptical  latitude  and 
longitude.    This  rough  sketch  is  intended  merely 
to  shew  the  nature  of  the  phenomenon,  for  the  curve 
described  by  P  about   O  is    only  approximately 
elliptic.     Its  greatest   radius-vector,   however,  is 
exceedingly  small,  amounting  only  to  about  eigliteea 


seconds  of  are.  AO,  also,  is  not  exactly  circakr, 
but  very  nearly  so,  as  its  radius,  ED,  is  the  ol'Uguiif 
of  the  jEcliptic  (q.  v.),  which  we  know  varies  vaj 
little  from  the  angle  23*  28'.  The  equinoxes,  bang 
90"*  distant  from  £,  and  also  from  O,  which  ma?  be 
taken  as  the  mean  place  of  P,  are  at  ^  andCp 
in  the  diagram.  And  as  0  moves  roond  £  in  tb 
reverse  order  of  the  signs,  so  do  tiie  equinoxes 
and  in  the  same  period— viz.,  25,868  years.  Tbe 
effect  is,  of  course,  that  while  the  esjih^s  ysk 
describes  the  small  circle,  AO,  in  the  heavens,  about 
the  pole  of  the  ecliptie,  tiie  equinoxes  make  one 
complete  revolution  in  the  ecliptic  against  the  orda 
of  the  signs.  Thus»  in  turn,  all  stars  lying  nejn  the 
circle  AO  become,  each  for  a  time,  the  Poie^gtar 
(^.  v.).  It  may  seem  strange  that  the  term  pre^s- 
sion  should  be  applied  to  a  retrograde  motion ;  bat 
.from  the  point  of  view  of  the  observer,  it  is  eridinl 
that  the  equinox,  if  on  one  day  it  arrive  at  tbe 
meridian  of  a  place  simultaneonaly  with  a  fixed 
star,  will  next  day  arrive  at  the  meridian  aoontr 
than  the  star,  or  will  precede  it  in  time  of  transit  i 
and  this  is  the  origin  of  the  term. 
^  The  physical  explanation  of  the  caase  of  pr^ 
sion  is  almost  identical  with  that  of  the  conical 
motion  of  the  axis  of  a  top  about  the  vortical ;  tb« 
difference  between  the  two  being  that,  in  the  cm 
of  the  top,  the  conical  rotation  of  the  axis  toko 
place  in  the  same  direction  as  the  rotation  of  tht 
top  about  the  axis,  while  in  the  case  of  Htf  csitb, 
the  pole  of  the  axis  turns  about  the  pole  ot  t£9 


PBIBCIOUS  STOKES-JPREOOONITIOK. 


ecliptic  in  the  opposUe  direction  to  that  in  which 
the  earth  revolves  about  its  axis.    But  the  circum- 
stances  of  the  earth's  motion  are  easily  procured 
hy  a  modification  of  the  spinning-topi  such  as  that 
of  Troughton  (used  for  the  det^nination  of  latit- 
udes at  sea),  if  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the  whole 
mass  be  depressed  balow  the  iwint  of  susi^enaion. 
If  the  axis  of  a  top  be  vertical,  there  is  no  preces- 
sion ;  similarly,  when  the  sun  or  moon  is  in  the 
plane  of  the  equator,  no  effect  is  proiiuced  by  them 
on  the  position  of  the  earth's  axis.    When  the  axis 
of  the  common  top  is  inclined,  gravity  tends  to 
make  it  fall  over ;  in  similar  drcumstanoes,  it  tends 
to  restore  the  axis  of  Troughton's  top  to  the  vertical ; 
in  either  cose  tendinjy^  to  give  the  top  a  rotation 
a})out  a  horizontal  axis  perpendicular  to  that  about 
which  it  is  at  the  instant  rotating;  and  the  effect 
on  the  top  is  to  cause  a  slow  conical  motion  of  its 
axis  about  the  vertical.    The  sun  or  moon,  in  like 
manner,  when  not  in  the  plane  of  the  equator,  tend 
to  make*  by  their  attraction,  the  earth  turn  about 
an  axis  perpendicular  to  that  about  which  it  is 
actually  rotating.     It  is  the  composition  of  these 
rotations  which  gives  rise  to  precession;  but,  though 
it  would  not  be   difficult  to  give  a  satisfactory 
investigation  of  the  question  without  using  formid- 
able mathematical  methods,  the  length  of  such  an 
investigation   prevents  our  giving  it    here.     The 
simnlest  approximation  we  can  give  to  the  physical 
explanation,  that  originally  given  by  Newton,  must 
therefore  suffice.      We  have  seen  (see  Febturba- 
Tio.ss)  that  the  node  of  a  satellite's  orbit  tends 
always  to  regrede  on  the  plane  of  relative  motion 
of  the  primary  and  the  disturbing  body.    Suppose, 
for  an  instant,  the  protuberant  parts  of  the  earth 
at  the  equator  to  be  satellites,  revolving  about  a 
sphttricdl  earth.    The  effect  of  the  sun's  or  moon*s 
disturbing  force  upon  these  satellites  would  be  to 
make  the  nodes  of  their  orbits  resrede.  And  exactly 
the  same  result  will  follow  if  they  be  attadied  to 
the  earth,  only  that  the  rate  of  regression  will  now 
be  much  slower,  tfs  the  whole  mass  of  the  earth 
will  share  in  the  motion.    This  is  one  of  the  most 
ingenious  of  the  wonderful  series  of  explanations  of 
celestial    phenomena   which   were   given   in   the 
Principitu 

PKECIOtJS  STONES,  a  name  almost  synony- 
moua  with  Gevaa  (q.  v.)  in  its  widest  sense,  and 
partially  extended  to  stones  of  larger  sixe  employed 
for  ornamental  purposes,  but  not  to  those  which 
are  used  in  architecture. 

PRECIPITATION,  in  Chemis^,  is  an  opera- 
tion in  which  decomiiosition  occurs  in  a  fluid,  either 
through  the  action  of  the  air,  or  of  a  gas,  or  of  a 
chemical  a^nt  in  solution ;  and  is  accompanied  by 
the  deposition  of  a  solid  substance  that  was  pre- 
viously held  in  solution.    The  substance  employed 
to  produce  the  precipitation  is  called  the  pt^eetpUant^ 
ana  the  substance  which  is  separated  by  its  action, 
the    precipUate,     For  example,   if   a  solution  of 
carbonate  of  protoxide  of  iron  be  exposed  to  the 
»ir,  &  precipitate  of  hydrated  sesquioxide  or  per- 
oxide of  iron  speedily  falls ;  if  a  current  of  sulphur- 
etted hydrogen  gas  be  passed  through  a  solution  of 
acetate  of  lead,  a  black  precipitate  of  sulphide  of 
Jead  is  thrown  down  from  the  dear  and  colourless 
solution ;  and  if  a  solution  of  corrosive  sublimate 
(bichloride  of  piercury)  be  added  to  a  solution  of 
iodide  of  potassium,  a  yellow  precipitate  of  biniodide 
of  mercury  is  thrown  down.    The  precifiitant  must 
be  added  with  caution,  as,  in  many  cases,  an  excess 
of   it   re-dissolves  the  precipitate.     In  quaUtative 
aiudyais — that  is  to  say,  in  determininfi^  the  presence 
of  substances  without  reference  to  their  quantity — 
the  ooloor,  solubility,  &o,t  of  the  pieoipitate  thrown 


down  by  numerous  tests,  as  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
solutions  of  nitrate  of  silver,  iodide  of  potassium, 
ferrocyanide  of  potassium,  &c.,  affurd  the  most 
useful  information ;  and  in  quantitative  analysis, 
the  amount  of  precipitate  thrown  down  from  a 

Siven  quantity  of  a  solution,  is  often  employed  to 
etermine  the  strength  of  the  latter.  For  example, 
if  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  silver  is  added  to  an 
ounce  of  a  solution  of  hydrocyanic  acid  of  unknown 
strength,  till  no  further  precipitation  ensues,  we 
may  readily  calculate,  from  the  weight  of  the  white 

Erecipitate  of  ot^anide  of  silver,  how  much  anhydrous 
ydrocyanic  acid  was  presentb 

PRECO'CITY  has  been  regarded  as  an  indication 
of  cerebral  disease ;  and  American  physicians  have 
not  hesitated  to  identify  this  manifestation  with 
chronic  inflammation  of  the  membranes  of  the  brain. 
If  it  is  not  always,  it  is  often  associated  with  such 
intense  activity  of  the  whole  system,  and  with 
morbid  conditions,  such  as  the  scrofulous  diathesis. 
as  to  usher  in  actual  disease,  premature  decay,  and 
early  death.  The  decay  often  consists  iii  mental 
feebleness  and  fatuity ;  or  whero^  no  such  formid- 
able  issue  follows,  in  the  reiluction  of  what  pro- 
mised to  be  transcendent  genius  to  commonplace 
mediocrity.  The  closing  chanters  of  the  histojy  of 
many  wonderful  calculators— Infant  Roeciuses,  Infant 
Lyras,  &a— illustrate  this.  It  ia  hence  no  mere 
poetic  fleure  to  say  that  the  lamp  of  the  mind  lives 
upon  and  burns  itself  out.  Yet  there  are  numerous 
excejitions,  such  as  Johnson,  Mozart,  Fergussoik 
Davy,  where  early  genius  grew  into  great  and 
masculine  powers.  This  rapid  developmcut  in 
infancy  or  youth  of  faculties  which  are  generally 
the  result  of  protracted  growth  ;  and  the  intuitive 
acquisition  of  knowledge,  which,  under  ordinary 
circumstances,  is  attained  by  laborious  effort  and 
cultivation,  are  most  frequently  witnessed  in  those 
of  feeble  and  delicate  constitution  and  of  stunted 
frame.  It  is  often  seen  as  a  concomitant  of  rickets* 
as  in  Pascal,  Pojie,  &a  ;  and  the  dux  of  the  school 
may  often  be  pointed  out  from  the  disproportionate 
size  of  his  head.  While  this  development  includes 
marvellous  exercise  of  memory,  of  imagination,  of 
constructive  talent,  of  artistic  genius,  it  rarely 
extends  to  judgment,  reasoning,  and  sa^acit^. 
There  appears  to  be  evidence  twit  this  quality  it 
not  merely  morbid,  but  that  it  exercises,  reflexly,  a 
detrimental  influence  upon  healthy  assimilation  and 
growth,  and  arrests  or  retards  that  building  up  of 
the  organisation,  upon  which  the  ultimate  capacity 
and  usefulness  of  the  individual  depend.  Education 
sometimes  produces  such  prematurity,  or  fosters  it 
where  it  has  previously  existed ;  so  that  the  modem 
form  of  mental  exhaustion,  *the  overworked  brain,* 
may  be  said  to  originate  in  the  school-room.  It  i^ 
certainly  illogical  to  employ  this  fact,  as  has  been 
done,  against  infant  schools ;  but  it  is  incumbent 
to  keep  such  a  relation  in  view  in  all  eilucational 
efforts;  to  avoid  high  pressure  and  stimulation, 
to  adapt  the  kind  of  instruction  to  the  age,  and, 
so  far  as  may  be  practicable,  to  the  strength  and 
tendencies  of  the  pupils  ;  and  to  combine  S3^te- 
matic  physical  with  all  intellectual  training.-r 
Brigham,  Jiemark§  on  tfie  Influence  of  Mental  CvUi- 
vatwn  and  Mental  Excitement  upon  H€<dth;  Comb^ 
Os  Uije  Management  ofli^fancy;  Caldwell,  T/iougkt^ 
on  Fhydcal  Education, 

PRBOOGNI'TION,  a  Scotch  leflsl  term,  which 
denotes  the  heads  or  substance  <S  the  evidenes 
which  a  witness  in  a  criminal  cause  proposes  to  give 
at  the  trial  In  all  cases,  before  a  triat  it  is  neoss- 
sary  for  the  solicitor  to  see  the  witnesses,  and  elidt 
from  them  the  nature  of  the  testimony  they  can 
g^ve  'f  and  the  heads  of  this  testimony  are  called  the 


PBEDESnKATION—'PREr  EXISTENCE. 


preoo^nitioiis,  when  written  out  Bat  the  word  has 
a  technical  meaning  when  applied  to  the  examina- 
tion of  the  witnesses  before  a  justice  of  the  peace 
or    the    judge-ordinaiy    by   the    procurator-fiscal, 

Srevious  to,  and  by  way  of  enabling  him  to  know 
ow  to  frame,  the  charge.  On  such  an  occasion,  the 
witnesses  are  examined  or  precognosced,  a  i>rooeed- 
ing  which  corresponds  to  the  evidence  given  in 
England  before  a  magistrate  or  justices  of  the  peace, 
and  called  there  the  depositions. 

PREDESTINATION,  a  theoloncal  woid,  used 
(o  denote  the  eternal  decree  of  God,  whereby  *  the 
elect*  are  foreordained  to  salvation.  The  correla- 
tive decree,  whereby  others  are  held  to  be  fore- 
ordained to  perdition  (though  it  might  with  perfect 
correctness  ot  language  be  mcluded  under  the  same 
term),  is  commonly  distinguished  by  the  other  term 
-—Reprobation. 

The  theorv  of  Predestination  had,  like  fhe 
doctrine  of  Election  (q.  v.),  its  origin  in  the  attempts 
of  theological  system  to  define  the  relations  of  the 
human  and  the  divine  will,  and  to  reconcile  the 

Shenomena  of  human  freedom  with  the  belief  in 
ivine  omnipotence  Gkxl's  absolute  wiU  is  repre- 
sented by  it  as  determining  the  eternal  destiny 
of  man,  not  according  to  the  foreknown  charac- 
ter of  those  whose  late  is  so  determined,  but 
according  to  God's  own  mere  choice.  They  who 
are  thus  foreordained  to  eternal  life  are  led  to 
believe  and  live  by  the  'irresistible  grace'  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  In  human  salvation,  therefore,  Chd^a 
will  is  everything;  fnaiCa,  nothing.  It  was  in  the 
discussions  between  Pelaeius  and  Augustine  that 
the  Predestinarian  view  of  the  divine  *  decree  *  was 
first  fully  evolved ;  and  since  their  time,  opinion  in 
the  church  has  run  in  two  great  currents — ^the  one 
perpetuating  the  influence  of  Pelagius,  who  regarded 
that  decree  as  subordinated  to  the  divine  fore- 
knowledge of  human  character ;  the  other,  that  of 
Augustine,  who  maintained  the  absolutism  of  that 
decree,  and  its  independence  of  all  prior  human 
conditions.  Pelagius  recognised  a  possibility  of 
good  in  human  nature ;  Augustine  denied  any  such 
possibility,  apart  from  tiie  influences  of  divine  grace. 
The  one  held  that  the  choice  of  salvation  lay  in 
man's  will ;  the  other,  that  man's  will  had  no  active 
freedom  or  power  of  choice  since  the  fall  In  529, 
the  system  of  Augustine  was  established  by  the 
Council  of  Arausio  (Orange)  as  the  rule  of  orthodoxy 
in  the  Western  Church ;  but  the  reaction  against 
the  strictly  logical  yet  essentially  unmoral  nature  of 
his  dogma  has  been  perpetually  manifested  by  repre- 
sentatives of  the  more  humane,  though  perhaps  less 
logical  doctrine  of  Pelagius,  in  every  period  of  the 
ehurch.  In  the  days  of  the  schoolmen,  the  discus- 
lions  of  the  Scotists  and  Thomists — after  the  Refor- 
mation, the  contests  leading  to  the  condemnation  of 
Arminius  in  the  Council  of  Dort,  and  the  widening 
separation  that  now  divides  the  disciples  of  Calvin 
from  Uiose  theologians  who  hold  broader  and  freer 
views  on  the  subject  of  the  aUmement — indicate  the 
impossibility  of  the  human  reason  and  conscience 
ever  resting  satisfied  with  a  merely  and  absolutely 
logical  theory  of  the  relations  between  the  will 
of  God  and  the  moral  responsibility  of  man.  The 
tendency  of  modern  inquiry  seems  to  be  to  abandon 
the  discussion  of  a  point  so  obviously  incapable 
of  being  determined  by  human  intelligence,  and  to 
pursue,  instead,  examination  into  the  moral  and 
practic»al  bearing  upon  our  human  conditions  of 
that  which  we  are  able  to  learn  concerning  God 
and  His  wili  The  moral  meaning  of  that  wul  is  of 
▼ital  moment  to  men ;  the  extent  of  its  power  over 
their  own  wills,  they  apparently  cannot  determine. 

PREDIOABLES.      This   is    a  term   in    the 


scholastic  logic  connected  with  the  schfmf^  of  dasii- 
fication.  There  were  five  designations  employed  in 
classifying  objects  on  a  systematic  plan:  yeniu^ 
species,  differenee  (differentia),  property  (proprinm), 
and  accident  (accidens).  The  first  two — ^Genus  and 
S^iecies— name  the  higher  and  lower  classes  of  ths 
tnin^  classified ;  a  Genits  comprehends  several 
Species.  The  other  three  designations — Difference, 
Property,  Accident— express  the  attributes  tiiat  the 
classification  turns  upon.  The  Difference  is  what 
distinguishes  one  species  from  tiie  other  species  of 
the  same  genus ;  as,  for  example,  the  peculiarities 
wherein  the  cat  differs  from  the  tiger,  lion,  and 
other  species  of  the  genus  /elis.  The  Property 
expresses  a  distinction  that  is  not  ultimate,  out  a 
consequence  of  some  other  peculiarity.  Hiua,  *  ths 
use  01  tools'  is  a  property  of  man,  and  not  a  differ- 
ence, for  it  flows  frum  other  assignable  attributes 
of  his  bodily  and  mental  organisation,  or  from  the 
specific  differences  that  characterise  him.  The 
Accident  is  something  not  bound  up  with  the 
nature  of  the  species,  but  chancing  to  be  present  ia 
it.  For  instance,  the  high  value  of  gold  is  aa 
Accident ;  gold  would  still  be  gold  thoa^  it  wers 
plenty  and  cheap 

It  was  by  an  arbitrarjr  and  confusing  employment 
of  the  notion  of  Predication,  that  these  various  items 
of  the  first  attempt  at  a  process  of  systematic  oIasai« 
fication,  were  called  Predicables,  or  attributes  tiiat 
miffht  be '  predicated,'  that  is,  affirmed,  of  thiz^ 
All  that  is  needful  to  affirm  is  that  a  certain  thing 
belongs  to  a  given  species  or  genus ;  and  that  to 
belong  to  the  species  is  to  possess  the  specific  differ- 
ences ;  and  to  oelong  to  the  genus  is  to  possess  tiie 
generic  differences.  We  may  also,  if  'we  please^ 
affirm  (or  predicate)  that  the  thing  does  belcmg  to 
the  species,  or  does  possess  the  specific  difference ; 
but  tnis  power  of  affirming  has  no  need  to  be  form- 
ally proclaimed,  or  made  the  basis  of  the  whole 
scheme. 

The  allied  termv  'Predicament*  is  another  case 
where  an  abusive  prominence  is  given  to  the  idea  ol 
predication.  The  Predicaments,  or  Categories,  were 
the  most  comprehensive  classes  of  all  existing  thingp 
— under  such  neads  as  substance,  attribute,  quantity, 
quality,  &c.;  and  it  could  be  predicated  of  any- 
tiling  falUng  under  any  one  head  that  it  does  so  faJl 
under.  Thus,  '  virtue '  is  an  attribute  ;  and  there- 
fore we  might  say  that  'attribute'  can  be  prtdi' 
oated  of  *  virtue.'  But  the  notion  of  predioating  does 
not  indicate  the  main  fact  of  the  process  in  this 
case,  any  more  than  '  predicable'  in  the  foregoing. 
GlasgifiooUum,  and  not  predication,  is  the  ruling  idea 
in  each. 

PRETDICATE.    See  Pboposttiox. 

PBE-ESTA'BLISHED   HARHONT.    See 

LElBNITZi 

PRE-EXraTENCE,  Doctrine  of.  The  notion 
that  human  souls  were  in  existence  before  the 
generation  of  the  bodies  with  which  they  are  united 
m  this  world,  was  anciently,  and  is  still,  wid^ 
spread  throughout  the  East  The  Greek  philoso- 
pners  too,  especially  those  who  held  the  doctrine  ol 
Transmigration  (q.  v.),  as  the  Pythagoreans,  Empe- 
docles,  and  even  Plato — if  with  him  nre-existenoe 
is  not  simjil^r  a  symbolical  myth — were  familiar  witii 
the  conception.  Among  the  early  Christians,  the 
assumption  of  such  pre-existence  was  connected 
with  the  belief,  that  God  had  created  the  souls  ai 
men  before  the  world,  and  that  these  woe  amted 
with  human  bodies  at  generation  or  at  birtii.  Sab- 
sequently,  the  followers  of  this  opinion  were  teemed 
Pre-nigtencistBy  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Tntdm- 
cianista,  who  held  that  children  received  soul  as  w^ 
as  body  from  their  parents.     Direct  iatelVsctail 


PRflPET— PREMONSTRATENSIAN  ORDER. 


interest  in  this  doctrine  has  nearly  altogether  ceased 
in  modern  times,  yet  the  dream— for  whether  true 
or  false,  it  is  and  can  be  nothing  but  a  dream 
in  our  present  state,  and  with  our  present  capa- 
bilities of  knowledge— has  again  and  a^in  haunted 
^  Individual  thinkers.  Wordsworth  has  siven  poetical 
'  expression  to  it  in  his  famous  ode — intimations  of 
Immortcdity  from  BecoUections  of  Early  Childhood: 

Onr  birth  is  but  a  sleep  and  a  fonettin'g. 
The  soul  that  rises  with  uB-*-^mr  file's  star. 

Hath  had  elsewhere  its  setting^ 

And  oometh  from  afar, 
Kot  in  entire  foigetfulnoss, 
And  not  in  utter  nakedness, 
But  trailing  c^pnds  of  glory  do  we  oome 

Itrom  Qod,  who  is  our  home. 

Xor  must  we  overlook  the  foot,  that  the  latest  philo- 
sophy of  Qerman^-^that  of  the  youncer  Fiohte,  has 
revived  the  doctrme ;  while  it  forms  the  basis  of  one 
of  the  deepest  works  in  modem  theology,  that  of 
Julius  MUlier,  Die  Chrittliehe  Lehre  tfon  dor  8nnde 
(The  Christian  Doctrine  of  Sin.  RngljiiH,  Edin. 
1856). 

PR^FET,  the  name  of  an  important  magistrate 
in  modem  France,  so  called  from  his  exercising 
functions  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  the  Prctfectus 
urbi  at  Rome.    See  Prefect.    In  old  times,  the 
officers  whose  duty  it  was  to  superintend  the  details 
of    administration    in    the    provinces  were    called 
Maitres  dea  Reju^tea.    Under  Henry  IL,  their  office 
was  rendered  permanent;  and  at  a  later  period, 
their  powers  were  much  extended,  and  they  were 
known    by  the    designation  of   Intendants.     The 
intendants  were  abolished  at  the  Revolution ;  and  a 
law  of  1800  first  appointed  pr6fets  for  the  depart- 
ments, with  powers  greatly  similar  to  those  of  the 
intendants.     The  office,  as  it  now  exists,  includes 
the  superintendence  of  the  police  establishment,  the 
enforcement  of  the  laws,  and  the  entire  control  of 
the  administration  of  the  departments.    The  pr^fet 
is  the  head  of  the  executive,  exercises  most  of  the 
government  patronage,  including  the  appointment 
of  a  soiis-pr^fet  for  each  anvndimementf  and  in  time 
of  tumult  may  call  out  the  military,  or  provisionally 
declare  a  state  of  siege.    The  chief  check  on  these 
extensive  powers  is  to  be  found  in  the  Conaeil  de  la 
Prefecture,  which  acts  in  some  measure  as  a  court  of 
appeal  from  the  decisions  of  the  pr€fet 

PRE'GEL,  a  river  of  Prussia,  rises  in  the  pro- 
vince of  East  Prussia,  where  it  is  formed  by  the 
anion  of  the  Pissa  and  the  Angerap  near  Inster- 
burg^.  It  flows  almost  due  west  past  Wdhau  and 
Konigsberg,  and  after  a  course  of  more  than  90 
nilea,  enters  the  Frisches  Hafi^  about  six  miles 
^elow  the  latter  town.  The  P.  is  navij^able  even  at 
[nsterbur^;  and  at  K<5nigsberg,  is  720  feet  broad. 
[ts  principal  tributaries  are  the  Alle  from  the 
;outh,  and  the  Inster  from  the  north.  The  canal  of 
Deine  connects  it  with  the  Kurisches  Haff. 

PREGKANCY,  CoNCEAL3i£yT  of,  is  a  criminal 
)ffence,  or  rather  it  is  taken  to  be  th^  main  proof  of 
;he  offence  of  concealing  the  birth  of  a  child  in 
certain  circumstances,  fi  is  ojily  where  the  child 
8  dead,  and  has  been  secretly  disposed  of  under 
iuspicious  circumstances,  that  the  mother  is  punish- 
able. Hence,  the  offence  consists  in  endeavouring 
o  conceal  the  birth,  and  as  part  of  such  conceaC 
Dent,  to  conceal  the  pregnancy,  the  child  having 
Iready  died.  If  the  woman  failed  to  give  publicity 
>f  her  situation  beforehand,  it  is  presumed  this  was 
lone  from  the  imprciper  motive,  viz.,  to  murder  or 
lestroy  the  child.  To  complete  the  offence,  it  is 
lot  necessary  that  the  child  should  have  been  bom 
Jive  ;  but  if  the  child  can  be  shewn  never  to  have 
Lvedy  the  prisoner  must  be  acquitted.     A  usual 


test  of  concealment  is,  that  the  mother  made  no 
preparations  for  her  delivery,  nor  provided  dbild'n 
clothes. 

PRE'HNITE,  a  mineral,  composed  chiefly  of 
silica,  alumina,  and  lime,  the  silica  sometimes  about 
50  per  cent,  of  the  whole;  but  with  small  and 
variable  proportions  of  peroxide  of  iron,  peroxide  of 
manganese,  potash,  soda,  and  water.  It  is  a  widely- 
diffiised  mineral,  and  although  first  discovered  at 
the  Cap«  of  Good  Hope,  has  been  found  in  great 
beauty  in  some  places  on  the  continent  of  Europe 
and  m  ScotlancL  P.  exhibits  a  creat  variety  of 
forms,  with  considerable  variety  of  colour;  being 
found  in  crystals  in  fan-shaited  and  cockscomb-like 
croups,  granular,  reniform,  nbrous,  &c  It  is  colour- 
less, or  more  genmtdly  greenish,  and  sometimes 
yellowish.    See  Jad& 

PKEXATB  (Lat  prceUUus,  one  set  over),  in 
Churchy  Law,  is  the  name  given  to  the  holders  of 
those  higher  dignities  in  the  church,  to  which,  d 
their  own  right,  is  attached  a  proper  jurisdiction, 
not  derived  by  delegation  from  any  superior  official. 
In  this  sense,  the  name  comprises  not  only  prelates 
of  the  first  class,  as  bishops,  but  also  the  heads  of 
religions  orders,  abbots  or  priors  of  religious  houses^ 
ana  other  similar  ecclesiastical  dignitanes.  These, 
for  the  most  part,  are  privileged  to  wear  the  insignia 
of  the  episoopal  rank.  In  tne  Roman  court,  many 
of  the  officials,  although  not  possessing  episcopal  or 
quasi-episcopal  jurisdiction,  nave  the  insignia  and 
the  title  of  prelate.  They  are  of  two  classes — 
the  higher,  called  del  marUdletto  (*of  the  little 
mantle"),  and  the  secondary,  called  del  mantellone 
(*  of  the  great  mantle '},  from  the  robe  which  they 
respectively  bear. 

PRB'LFDE  (Lai  prce,  before,  and  ludo,  I  play), 
in  Music,  a  short  preface  or  introduction  to  a  piece^ 
intended  to  awaken  the  attention  of  the  audience, 
generally  smooth  and  flowine,  and  consistin||r  of  a 
short  motive  which  is  kept  throughout ;  or  it  may 
be  composed  of  a  succession  of  harmonies  unin- 
terrupted or  connected  by  passages.  It  is  in  the 
same  key  with  the  piece  wnich  it  is  to  introduce^ 
and  to  which  it  is  intended  as  a  preparation. 

PRE'MISES  is  a  common  legal  term  to  signify  a 
house  or  building,  and  the  outhouses  and  places 
belonging  to  it,  all  of  which  are  treated  as  one  thing. 
It  is  also  used  to  denote  a  certain  part  of  an 
English  deed,  which  is  further  subdivided  into  the 
form,  date,  parties,  recitals,  testatum,  and  parcels. 
The  use  of  uie  word  in  this  sense  is  derived  from 
the  subject-matter  of  a  conveyance  or  deed  being 
first  stated  or  described  in  full,  and  afterwards 
referred  to  collectively  as  the  premises  (Lat,  pr^ 
mieaa,  things  spoken  of  or  reheai^ed  before). 

PRE'MISa    See  Stllooism. 

PREMONSTRATENSIAN  (called  also  NOR- 
BERTINE)  ORDER,  a  religious  oider,  which  at 
one  time  was  among  the  most  numerous  and  power- 
ful of  the  monastic  bodies  of  Germany,  in  which 
coimtry  its  most  important  houses  wqre  established. 
It  was  founded  in  the  early  part  of  the  12th  c.  by 
St  Norbert,  a  native  of  Xanten,  in  the  diocese  of 
Cleves,  of  which  church  he  was  a  canon.  Struck  by 
tiie  prevailing  irregularities  and  carelessness,  not 
only  of  secular,  but  also  of  conventual  life  among 
the  clergy  and  the  monks,  he  resolved  on  attempt- 
ing a  reform  of  both,  and  obtained  permission, 
in  1120,  to  found  a  cloister  in  the  diocese  of  Laon, 
in  B^nce.  The  place  selected  by  him  was  a  spot 
in  the  forest  of  Coney,  pointed  out,  as  he  believed, 
in  a  vision,  and  thence  called  PrS  MontrS,  or  in 
Latin,  Pratum  Monstratum,  *  the  indicated  meadow,' 
from  which  the  name  of  the  order  was  taken. 
In  accordance  with  the  doable  object  which  bo 

745 


PItVNZLOW-FREF08rnOll& 


•ought  to  attain,  Norbert  ornaiaed  hia  new 
order,  which  waa  aubstaiitially  that  of  the  Gaoona 
Begular  of  St  Augustine,  aa  well  with  a  view 
to  the  aanctification  of  the  menibexa,  aa  to  their 
uaehilneaa  in  effecting  the  reformation  of  the  age. 
Hlmaelf  a  man  of  remarkable  pietv  and  aua- 
terity  of  life,  hia  rule  ia  a  return  to  the  primitive 
fervour  of  the  monastic  institute;  and  tne  ffreat 
work  which  he  proposed  for  his  brotherhood,  in 
addition  to  the  daily  choral  servicea  of  the  church, 
waa  the  practical  instruction  of  the  people,  and  the 
direction  of  consciencea  in  the  confessional.  It  waa 
taken  up  with  ardour,  and  apread  rapidly  in  France 
and  the  Low  Countriea,  and  afterwards — on  Nor- 
bert's  bein^r  chosen,  in  1127,  Archbishop  of  Magde- 
burg— in  Germany ;  the  abbot  of  the  mother-house 
at  Coucy,  however,  retaining  the  rank  of  general 
and  of  sux>enor  of  the  entire  onler.  It  does  not 
aeem  at  any  time  to  have  made  much  progress,  or 
at  least  to  have  established  mauy  houses,  in  Italy  or 
Spain.  In  tlie  same  spirit  of  reformation,  Norbert 
established  an  order  of  nuns,  which  attained  to  equal 
auccesa.  lu  the  end  of  the  15th  a,  the  P.  0.  had  no 
fewer  than  1500  convents  of  men,  and  500  of  women, 
nearly  all  in  France,  Germany,  and  the  northern 
kingaoms.  A  relaxation  of  the  institute  having 
taken  place,  in  the  progress  of  time  there  was  a 
movement  in  the  oraer,  towards  the  close  of  the 
16th  c  (1573),  similar  to  that  which,  in  the  Fran- 
ciscan Order  (q.  v.),  led  to  the  reform  of  the 
to-called  conventual  Franciscans ;  but  the  reformed 
communities  in  the  Premonstmtensiau  institute 
remained  united  with  the  older  body ;  and  in  1630, 
the  reformed  rule  waa  accepted  by  all  in  common. 
The  order,  however,  has  gradually  fallen  in  popu- 
larity. In  France,  its  numbers  had  declined  very 
much  even  before  the  Revolution.  Since  that 
event,  it  may  be  said  to  have  disappeared,  except  in 
Gennany,  where  (in  Austria)  some  magnificent, 
thoagh  thinly  x>eopled  houses  of  the  order  are  atill 
maintained. 

PRE'NZLOW,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the  province 
of  Brandeubura,  stands  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
lower  Lake  ifcker,  71  miles  north-north-east  of 
Berhn.  It  contains  a  mineral  spring,  several  baths, 
and,  among  its  churches,  the  beautiful  Gothic 
MarienHrcne^  one  of  the  most  remarkable  brick 
buildings  in  the  country ;  date  1325 — 1340.  Popu- 
lation 13,213,  who  carry  on  seTeral  manufactures, 
but  are  chiefly  engaged  in  erowing  tobacco  and 
com,  and  in  breeding  and  trading  in  cattle.  Here, 
in  October  1806,  a  body  of  Prussian  troops,  16,000 
strong,  under  the  Prince  of  Hohenlohe,  surrendered, 
after  the  defeat  of  Jena»  to  the  French  under 
Murat. 

PREPOSITIONS  are  words  that  expreaa  certain 
relations  between  ideas — ^between  the  idea  of  an 
action  and  the  idea  of  a  thins,  or  between  the  idea 
of  one  thing  and  the  idea  of  another  thing.  *  The 
river  runs  io  Uie  sea.  The  glass  stands  on  rae  table. 
The  dog  lies  under  the  taUe.  He  runs  nmnd  me. 
She  runs  from  me.  The  house  hy  the  wood.  The 
house  in  the  wood'  In  all  the  instances  just  given, 
the  relation  is  of  one  kind— that  of  place  or  direc- 
tion. And  this  was  the  original  signification  of  all 
prepositions.  They  gradually,  however,  came  to 
express  other  relations.  Thua:  'That  depends  on 
you.  Subjects  are  under  the  sovereign.  She  got 
rownd  her  father.  Vice  ^rings  Jrom  idleness. 
Wood  is  consumed  by  fire,  Xoxxr  enemy  is  in  your 
power.'  The  transition  from  the  palpable,  physical 
relation  to  the  more  abstruse  mental  relation,  ia, 
in  most  cases,  obvious. 

A  preposition  is  distinguished  from  an  adverb  by 
its  always  requiring  an  object  (a  noun  or.  pronoun) 

f46 


after  it  In  the  sentence,  '  He  runs  ahoiMi^  niavi 
is  an  adverb  describinff  tilie*  mode  of  runriDg;  in 
*He  runs  about  the  nouae,'  it  is  a  prepootinn 
referring  the  direction  of  the  running  to  a  particohr 
obiectk 

Many  relations  are  expressed  by  prepontknal 
phnuu;  aa,  instead  qf,  with  regard  to,  apoti  from. 
The  preposition  beside  is  evidently  an  abbreviatiia 
of  such  a  phrase — by  the  side  of.  This  tendcitcy  in 
phrases  to  become  simple  prepositions,  is  manifest 
in  other  cases.  Instead  of  the  full  expression,  'on 
this  side  of  the  river,'  we  often  hear,  *  t^  side  the 
river,'  where  tlds-side  has  the  force  of  a  preposition, 
and  may  yet  come  to  be  written  Hdasldt, 

Of  the  relations  expressed  in  the  modem  forms  of 
the  Aryan  tongues  oy  prepositions,  a  great  m&ny 
were  formerly  expressed  by  cases.    See  Decleksios, 

iNFLECnON,  PUILOLOOr. 

Along  with  prepositions  are  dassed  cerUia 
particles,  which,  although  they  may  not  stuid  by 
themselves  and  govern  a  case,  are  yet  used  in 
composition  with  verbs  in  the  same  way  si  the 
prepositions  proper ;  as  in  otifmn,  replace. 

The  simple  prepositions  (Eng.  in,  Dan.  t,  I^  in, 
Or.  ea;  EIng.  on^  Gr.  and  Goth,  oxul,  Ger.  an,  Slav. 
na ;  Eng.  q/,  Goth,  a/,  O.  H.  Ger.  aba  or  apa,  Ger. 
afr.  Sans,  apa,  Gr.  apo^  Lat.  ft,  cdt;  Bog.  bp  [be], 
Goth,  fri,  Ger.  bei,  Gr.  qf>i.  Sans.  oAhi ;  £:.)  liekng 
to  the  primary  or  radical  words  of  langoage.  Tbcy 
are  often  identical  with  the  pronominal  roots  (see 
Pbonouns),  and  along  with  them  form  a  dass  of 
roots  whose  primary  signification  is  position  <r 
relation  in  apace.  All  attempts,  like  those  of 
Tooke,  to  make  tbem  derivatives  from  verbs,  an 
futile.  On  the  contrarv,  verbs  and  other  pa.U  of 
speech  are  often  derived  from  prepositions,  as  uUtr 
from  otU  ;  open  and  upper  from  up.  Some  prepon* 
tions  have  a  derivative  form,  as  ajter  {from  the  rook 
of  q/*),  Lat  inter  (in);  others  are  compooiuled  of 
two  prepositions,  or  a  preposition  and  prepositioBal 
particle,  as  upon,  but  (L  e.,  by  out,  or  be  owt),  befmt 
unthin,  into.  Other  prepoaitiona,  again,  ooatain  a 
noun,  aa  against  (A.  S.  ongegen^  or  id  gegnes;  wha% 
from  the  forms  in  the  allied  langnagea,  the  dement 
gegen  is  clearly  a  aubstantive,  uie  primary  meaoing 
of  which,  however,  has  not  been  made  out) ;  ajioay 
(A.  S.  gemcaig  or  ongemang^  gemang  meaning  piioi* 
arily  mixture);  betuxen  (L  sl,  bjr  or  b^  twoof 
twain).  Such  prepositions  aa  during^  excepts  vcn 
originally  participlea  used  absolutely ;  thus,  'dining 
the  war  ss  the  war  during  or  lasting  i  ei,  whue 
the  war  dured  or  lasted;  'except  this'  ~  thu 
excepted  {hoc  excento). 

The  study  of  tne  etymological  relations  of  pre- 
positions is  instructive,  as  shewing  how  near  to  one 
another  often  lie  the  most  opposed  meaninga  Tb«y 
are,  as  it  were,  the  op^xmite  poles  of  one  and  the  same 
conception — correlatives  depending  on  a  comnioa 
groimd  relation,  and  are  thus  naturally  expressed 
by  words  that  are  radically  the  same.  Tboa,  £n(;. 
up  corresponds  to  Goth.  V«  Sans,  vpo,  Gr.  iji7'^ 
Latb  sub.  The  meaning  of  up  ia  motion  from  belov 
to  above,  leaving,  however,  the  idea  ol  the  opivr 
terminua  the  more  prominent ;  ^fy  hypo^  guK  on  the 
contrary,  are  used  to  express  under  ;  but  that  the 
notion  of  upward  motion  lurked  in  these  mots,  is 
dear  from  such  Latin  compounds  as  suipkiOf  to 
look  up  at  a  thing;  svstineo^  to  hold  up ;  ana  it  only 
required  a  slight  modification— a  kind  d  oooipar^ 
— to  convert  them  into  t(/ar,  hyper^  super,  meaning 
*  above '—a  result  which  the  fkiglish  attains  hj 
addiuj;  the  preposition  on  (upon).  The  same  pnn- 
dple  is  copiously  exemplified  in  the  numeroas  fonni 
and  derivatives  of  the  prepositional  root  FR,  is 
Sana.,  Gr.,  Lat,  and  SL,  PR,  in  which  mottoo  or 
removal  from  the  speaker  in  the  front  dirvtioi 


PREROGATIVE  COURT— PRESBYTER,  PRESBYTERIANISM. 


wemt  to  be  the  ground  idea.  For  example,  when, 
in  reference  to  anv  epoch,  we  speak  of  the  events 
that  have  preceded  and  those  that  are  predicted  as 
to  come,  the  same  particle  j^re  |x>ints  in  two  opposite 
directions. 

PREROGATIVE  COURT,  in  England,  was 
the  court  wherein  all  wills  were  proved,  and  admini- 
strations taken  ouL  It  was  so  caUed  because 
it  belonged  to  the  prerogative  of  the  archbishop  to 
take  charge  of  these  matters,  which  formerly  fell 
under  ecclesiastical  superintendenca  Hence  there 
was  a  Prerogative  Court  for  the  province  of  Canter- 
bury, and  another  for  the  province  of  York.  This 
jurisdiction  was  entirely  taken  away  in  1858  from 
the  ecclesiastics,  and  transferred  to  a  new  court 
called  the  Probate  Court  (q.  v.). 

PRE'SBURG  (Lat.  Posonivm;  Magyar, Pazsony; 
Slav.  Pressburek)^  a  town  in  the  extreme  west  of 
Hungry,  close  upon  the  frontier  of  Lower  Austria, 
is  built  on  the  left  or  northern  bank  of  the  Danube, 
41  miles  by  railway  east  of  Vienna.  The  neighbour- 
ing hills  are  clothed  with  vineyards.  It  was  long 
the  principal  city  of  Hungary,  having  been  made 
the  capital  in  1511,  when  the  Turks  seized  posses- 
sion of  Hilda;  and  even  as  late  as  the  last  quarter  of 
the  18th  a,  it  was  the  most  beautiful,  and  the  most 
populous  town  in  the  kingdom ;  but  when  Joseph  II., 
in  1784,  restored  to  Buda  its  ancient  dignity  of 
being  the  <»mtal  of  Hungary,  and  the  scene  of  the 
coronation  of  its  kings,  the  sources  of  the  prosperity 
of  P.  be<4an  to  be  dried  up.  Its  population,  in  1857« 
was  43,863,  of  whom  more  than  two-thirds  were 
Roman  Catholics ;  about  7000,  Lutherans ;  and 
5000,  Jews.  Fully  one-half  of  the  inhabitants  are 
German,  and  German  is  the  prevalent  langua^. 
The  most  notable  buildin;:^  in  the  town  are  tne 
(Gothic)  cathedral,  in  which  the  kings  of  Hungary 
were  crowned ;  the  royal  palace,  a  vast  square 
structure  overlooking  the  town,  accidentally  burned 
in  1811,  and  not  since  repaired;  the  Capuchin, 
Franciscan,  and  Ursuline  monasteries,  with  beautiful 
churches  attached  to  them;  the  Land-Haus  (Hall 
of  the  Hungarian  Diet),  &c.  The  transit-trade  by 
steam-boat  and  railway,  especially  in  com,  is  very 
great,  and  gives  considerable  animation  to  an  other- 
wise quiet  place.  P.  carries  on  manufactures  of 
silks,  woollens,  leather,  paper,  tobacco,  glass,  and 
chemical  products*  Outside  the  town  lies  the 
*  King's  Hul  *  (K6nigahilgel)^  to  which  the  sovereijgns 
of  Hungary  were  wont  to  ride  after  their  coronation, 
and  brandish  their  sword  towards  the  four  quarters 
of  the  heavens,  signifying  by  that  symbolic  act  that 
they  would  defend  Hungary  from  danger— come 
whence  it  might.  A  treaty  was  concluded  here 
between  Napoleon  and  the  Austrian  emperor — 
known  as  the  *  Treaty  of  Presburg ' — December  27, 
1805,  in  virtue  of  which  Austria  ceded  Venice  to 
France,  and  the  Tyrol  to  Bavaria. — P.  gives  name 
to  a  *  county.' 

PRB'SBTTER,  PRESBYTE'RIAKISM.  Pres- 
byter (Gr.  preabffteros,  elder)  is  the  title  of  an  office 
or  din;nity  in  the  Jewish  synagogue,  and  also  of 
one  of  the  grades  in  the  Christian  hievarchy.  In 
the  latter  sense,  the  title  has  been  the  occasion 
of  a  protracted  controversy  as  to  the  respective 
cdaims  of  the  Bishop  (q.  v.)  and  the  Presbyter, 
which,  except  historically,  would  be  out  of  plaoe 
In  tiiese  pagea  The  word  presbyter  not  unfre- 
^uently  occurs  in  the  Epistles  and  the  Acts  of  the 
Apostles,  and  in  more  than  one  of  these  passages,  it 
IS  certainly  apphed  to  persons  whose  office  would 
seem  to  be  in  all  respects  the  same  as  that  which  is 
cUimed  for  the  '  bishop*  in  the  episcopalian  theory. 
From  this  identity  of  name,  the  identity  of  office 
lias  been  inferred,  and  it  has  been  henoe  concluded. 


that  the  distinction  of  bishops  and  presbyters  is  a 
human  and  post-apostolic  ordinance.  Advocates  of 
the  ppisco]>al  theory  admit  that  the  name  prc&byter 
is  occasionally  given,  both  in  Scripture  and  in  the 
early  church  writers,  to  persons  who  bore  the  office 
of  bishop  (episcopo^,  and  that  the  latter  certainly 
was  in  all  cases  a  presbyter ;  but  they  contend  that 
besides  being  a  presbyter,  he  was  also  sometbinff 
more  and  something  higher.  That  the  office  <3 
Timothy,  for  example,  was  superior  to  that  of  a 
presbyter,  is  conceived  to  be  plain  from  St  Paul's 
mstruction  to  aim  (1st  Timothy  v.  19)  as  to  how  he 
should  receive  testimony  against  a  presbyter.  The 
same  is  inferred  from  Titus  i.  5.  On  the  other  hand, 
no  exampl^  it  is  affirmed,  appears  of  a  presbyter 
sitting  in  judgment  on  a  bisnop,  or  'appointing 
bishops  in  every  city.'  But  Presbyterians  do  not 
admit  the  validity  of  these  arguments,  inasmuch 
as  thev  assert  the  identity  of  presbyter  and  bishop, 
and  the  right  of  co-presbyters  Ijoth  to  judge  a 
brother,  and  also  to  oroain  to  the  office  of  the  min* 
istry.  Episcopalians  rely  still  more,  however,  on  the 
apostolic  Fatners,  and  those  of  the  3d  and  4th 
centuriea  Among  the  Fathers  of  the  former  period, 
Clement  of  Rome,  and  even  more  plainly,  Ignatius  ol 
Antioch,  point  to  the  bishop's  superiority  as  idready 
established,  and  they  are  followed  by  TertuUian, 
Irenieus,  Clement  of  Alexandria,  and  Cyprian.  On 
the  Presbyterian  side,  a  remarkable  i)assage  is 
quoted  from  Jerome,  in  which,  while  repressing  the 

iiretensions  of  deacons  to  equality  with  presbyters, 
LC  appears  to  place  the  preshyter  on  the  same  level 
with  the  bishop  in  all  the  functions  of  the  ministry 
except  the  power  of  ordination.  The  explanation 
of  tlus  pa|Ssage,  according  to  the  Episcopalian  view, 
is  found  in  what  has  been  already  indicated  by  the 
community  of  name  which  existed  even  in  the 
primitive  times ;  while  they  aUo  rely  on  the  differ- 
ence implied  in  the  very  important  exception  which 
even  Jerome  admits,  in  this  very  passage — viz.,  the 
power  of  ordaining.  The  offices  of  presbyter  and 
oishop,  according  to  the  Roman  Catholic  theory,  both, 
although  in  different  degrees,  belong  to  what  Roman 
CathoUcs  regard  as  the  priesthood  of  the  New  Law. 
This  priesthood  the  bishop  possesses  in  its  fulness, 
the  presbyter  only  in  part,  but  the  functions  which 
belong  to  that  part  are  discharged  alike  by  the 
presbyter  and  the  bishop,  although  by  the  former 
only  in  subordination  to  the  latter.  What  these 
functions  are,  will  be  detailed  under  the  head 
Priest  (q.  v.) ;  but  the  principle  of  a  certain  dis* 
tinction  of  functions,  and  the  limitation  of  the  power 
of  the  presbyter  as  to  one  at  least— that  of  ordina- 
tion— is  expressly  recognised  by  Jerome  in  the 
passage  alluded  ta  The  name  presbyter  has  been 
retained  even  in  the  Roman  Catholic  theory  of  a 
priesthood ;  but  although,  by  the  opponents  of  the 
Episcopalian  doctrine,  the  word  is  used  with  the 
express  design  of  excluding  the  sacerdotal  idea, 
it  has  come,  in  the  popular  language  of  Roman 
Catholic  theolog^r,  to  oe  identical  with  Priest 
From  an  early  period,  however,  a  distinction  of  rank 
among  the  presoyters  came  into  use.  Several  being, 
in  some  cases,  attached  to  a  single  church,  one  of 
the  number  received  the  title  otproto-presbyter  or 
archi-preibyter ;  but  it  is  quite  certain  this  office 
bore  no  analogy  to  that  of  tne  bishop. 

In  all  existmg  Presbyterian  churches,  a  primary 
element  is  the  representation  of  congregations 
in  presbyteries,  Ac,  by  their  delegated  elders;  of 
whom  the  *  minister,'  or  preaching  elder,  is  always 
one ;  and  this  system  of  representation  is  advocated 
partly  on  the  general  ground  of  the  unit/  of  the 
church,  and  partly  on  the  special  ground  of  the 
example  of  the  church  in  the  apostolic  ag^  (Acts  zv.). 
The  aSain  of  particnlar  congregations  are  managed 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA-PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  ENGLAJH). 


Yty  a  court,  styled  in  Scotlaad  the  Kirk-seuton,  con- 
nating  of  the  minister,  or  ministers,  if  there  are 
more  than  one,  and  the  other  elders,  the  minister  or 
one  of  the  ministers  presiding,  but  each  member 
having  equal  power  and  vote.  From  the  decisions 
of  this  court,  an  ap[)eal  lies  to  the  Presbytery,  which 
is  usually  constituted  of  the  ministers  of  a  certain 
number  of  congregations  and  one  'ruling  elder  *  from 
each  con^gation.  Further  ajipeals  may  be  taken 
to  Synods  and  General  Assenmies,  in  churches  so 
large  that  for  convenience  the  presbyteries  of  a 
district  are  grouped  into  a  *  Provmcial  Synod,*  and 
all  the  provincial  synods  are  subordinated  to  a 
General  Assembly  ;  but  in  respect  of  this  there  are 
considerable  diversities,  and  the  *  supreme '  church 
court,  whether  Synod  or  General  AsaemJdy^  is 
variously  constituted  by  direct  representation  of 
each  congregation,  of  elich  presbytery,  or  of  each 
provincial  synod.  I^or  are  oiversities  of  this  kind 
redded  as  in  the  least  degree  affecting  the 
pnnciple  of  Preabyterianism. 

Presbyterian  churches  generally  recognise  an 
order  of  Deacons  (q.  v.)  as  existing  in  the  church, 
with  power  only  over  its  secular  affairs ;  but  in 
many  Presbyterian  churches  this  office  is  merged  in 
that  of  the  elder,  and  all  its  functions  are  exercised 
by  the  members  of  the  Kirk*session.  A  tendency 
to  revive  the  distinct  office  of  deacon,  has,  however, 
been  recently  manifested  in  some  of  the  Presbyterian 
churches. 

Some  Presbyterians  maintain  the  divine  ri^t  of 
presbytery^  as  the  one  system  of  church  government 
authorised  by  the  Wora  of  (}od;  others  only  main- 
tain that  f^byterianism  is  consistent  with  the 
Word  of  God ;  whilst  many  Presbyterians  maintain 
that  the  Presbyterian  system,  whatever  its  imper- 
fections as  existing  anywhere,  is,  of  all  systems  that 
have  ever  existed  in  the  church,  the  most  a:;reeable 
to  the  principles  of  church  government  which  may 
be  deduced  from  Scripture. 

Presbyterianism,  variously  modified,  is  the  form 
cf  church  government  subsisting  in  many  Protestant 
churches,  but  is  most  perfectly  developed  in  Britain 
and  America.  In  Britain,  it  prevails  chiefly  in 
Scotland,  although  on  the  revolution  in  the  17th 
c,  it  was  for  a  ver7  short  time  in  the  ascendant 
in  I^gland  also.  This  consistorial  system  of  the 
continent  of  Europe  (see  Consistory)  cannot,  in 
any  of  its  modifications,  be  regarded  as  essentially 
Presbyterian,  although  in  some  respecte  it  approaches 
to  Presbyterianism.  The  French  consistonal  system 
is  more  nearly  Presbyterian  than  the  German,  and 
is  not  perfectly  so  only  from  the  pressure  of  the 
civp  power.  In  other  churches,  also,  as  well  as  in 
the  Protestant  Church  of  France,  Presbyterianism 
is  more  or  less  modified  by  the  relations  of  the  church 
to  the  state. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 

The  first  Presbyterians  in  America  were  emigrants 
from  Scotland  and  Ireland.  The  first  Presbyterian 
congregations  in  America  were  orc^nised  in  Mary- 
land before  the  close  of  the  17th  c. — ^the  oldest, 
that  of  Snow  li ill  dating  about  1690;  and  the  first 
presbytery  in  Philadelphia  in  1705.  A  synod,  con- 
sisting of  four  presbyteries,  was  constituted  in  1716. 
Dissensions  ensued ;  but  in  1758  the  American  Pres- 
byterian churches  were  united  in  one ;  anJ  in  1789  a 
Greneral  Assembly  was  instituted,  the  whole  number 
of  con^egations  being  then  419,  and  of  ministers 
188.  The  increase  of  the  church  was  rapid,  aad  in 
1834  it  contained  22  synods,  HI  presbyteries,  and 
about  1900  ministers.  In  1801,  a  scheme  of  union 
was  adopted  between  Presbyterians  and  Congrega- 
tionaliste,  under  which  hundreds  of  congre^nitions 
were  formed  in  the  state  of  New  York  and  else- 
where. About  the  beginning  of  the  •present  century, 


the  Cumberland  Presbyterians  (q.  v.)  separated 
from  the  main  body;  and  in  1838,  the  Ameriaa 
Presbyterian  Church  was  divided  into  two  great 
sections,  commonly  known  as  Old  School  and  Xn 
School  Presbyterians;  the  former  holding  hidi 
Calvinistic  doctrines ;  the  latter,  a  somewhat  mooi* 
fied  CalvinisnL  Both  of  these  churches  arc  extended 
over  the  whole  of  the  United  States,  and  both  d 
them  have  missions  in  different  parts  of  the  heathen 
world,  their  collections  for  missions  f ormine  a  lain 
part  of  the  contributions  for  that  object  uom  toa 
United  Steles  of  America.  The  Old  School  Pres- 
byterian Church  reckoned,  in  1860,  8592  congrega- 
tions, with  more  than  2693  ministers,  and  292.867 
members;  the  New  School,  1483  congrcgatioQit, 
1527  ministers,  and  134,933  members.  The  OM 
School  Presbyterians  possess  the  following  theo- 
logical seminaries:  *  Princeton'  (Princeton,  N.J.), 

*  Western'  (Alleghany  City,  Pa.),  * Hampden-8id- 
ney*  (P.  Edward  Co.,  Va,),  'Columbia'  (Columbia, 
S.C.),  •Danville'  (Danville,  Ky.),  and  'Nortbwesi' 
(Chicago,  111.).  The  New  School  Presbyterians 
have  the  *  Union'  (New  York  City).  *  Auburn' 
(.\uburn,  N.Y.),  *Lane'  (near  Cincinnati,  Obioj, 

*  Blackburn*  (Carlinville,  111.),  and  *  Lind'  (Chicago, 
111.). — Besides  the  Cumberland  Preshyterianft, 
there  are  other  minor  branches  of  the  Presby- 
terian Church  in  America,  connected  with  dif- 
ferent denominations  in  Scotland. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHXTRCH  IK  ENGLAinr 
The  principles  of  the  Puritans  (q.  v.)  were  essentialiv 
Presbyterian,  although  many  of  them  were  so  much 
occupied  with  questions  of  doctrine  and  disdplme, 
and  with  resistance  to  power  exercised,  as  they 
believed,  contrary  to  the  word  of  God,  that  they 
paid  littJe  heed  to  the  development  of  their  prin- 
ciples in  church  government.  In  general,  they  felt 
80  much  the  constraint  of  circumstances,  that  they 
refrained  even  from  the  attempt  to  constitute  s 
church  on  the  principles  which  they  maintained, 
resting  satisfied  m  giving  effect  to  these  pinciples 
by  mere  resistance  in  particular  cases  m  whidi 
their  consciences  were  aggrieved.    Tet»  in  1572,  s 

Eresbytery  was  formed  at  Wandsworth,  in  Surrey, 
y  ministers  of  London  and  ite  neighbourhood, 
separating  from  the  Church  of  England ;  and  other 
presbyteries  were  soon  formed,  notwithstanding  ths 
extreme  hostility  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  When  tho 
Westminster  Assembly  met  in  1643,  the  Piuitans 
of  £n(;land  were  |;enerally  inclined  to  adopt  Presby* 
terianism  as  their  system  of  church  govemmenti 
fdthough  some  still  preferred  a  modlHed  c^piscopocy, 
and  some  had  adopted  the  principles  of  Indepoi- 
dency  or  Congre^tionaliBm.  The  Presbyterians 
were,  however,  the  strou^t  party  in  the  bearing 
of  the  Bevolution,  althougn  the  Independents  gained 
the  ascendency  afterwaj^  The  establishment  of 
Presbyterian  chiuvh  government  in  the  Church  of 
England  was  voted  by  parliament  (the  Long  Parlia- 
ment), 13th  October  1647 ;  but  it  was  never  really 
esteblished.  The  influence  of  tlie  Independents 
prevented  it  London  and  ite  neighbourhood  were, 
meanwhile,  formed  into  twelve  presbyteries,  ooo* 
stituting  the  Provincial  Synod  of  London,  which 
continued  to  hold  regular  half-yearly  meetings  till 
1655,  tiie  meetin<T8  of  presbyteries  being  continned 
till  a  later  date;  but  the  whole  Presbyterian  system 
was  overturned  by  Cromweirs  Committee  of  Triers, 
ap]>ointed  for  the  examining  and  approving  of  aU 
persons  elected  or  nominated  to  any  ecclesiastical 
office.  Cromweirs  policy  aimed  at  bringing  all 
ecclesiastical  matters  under  the  immediate  cuntrd 
of  the  civil  power.  The  Restoration  was  followed 
by  the  frtiitless  Savoy  Conference  (q.  v.),  and  soon 
after  by  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  which  came  into 
force  on  24th  August  1662 ;  and  on  that  day,  sbooft 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  IBBLAND-PRBSCOTT. 


2000  ministen  in  England  and  Wales  resigned  their 
benefices,  or  submitted  to  be  ejected  from  them, 
for  conscience'  sake.  The  first  NoncoDformists 
(q.  V.)  were  mostly  Presbyterians,  but  a  small 
minority  of  Independents  among  them  prevented 
the  institution  of  a  regular  Presbyterian  system, 
and  the  consequence  was  that  'the  Nonconformists 
of  England  became  in  general  practically^  Indepen- 
dents Antinomianism  and  Arminianism  soon 
appeared  among  them,  and  were  followed  by 
Socinianism  or  Unitarianism  to  such  ap  extent, 
that  the  name  Presbyterian  became  synonymous  in 
England  with  Socinian  or  Unitarian;  ola  endow- 
ments,  legacies  of  Presbyterians,  being  in  many 
instances  enjoyed  by  Unitarians.  Meanwhile, 
there  existed  in  England  a  few  congregations  con- 
nected with  the  Church  of  Scotland  and  with  the 
Scottish  Secession  Church ;  and  these  were  formed 
into  cJiurc/ieSf  connected  more  or  less  intimately 
with  the  Scottish  Presbyterian  churches,  to  which 
other  English  congregations  allied  themselves.  Of 
late,  the  JPresbyterians  of  England  have  shewn  a 
strong  inclination  to  dissociate  themselves  from  the 
Presbyterian  churches  of  Scotland,  of  which  they 
assert  a  complete  independence.  This  is  particu- 
larly the  case  with  the  *  Synod  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  England,*  the  most  intimate  relations  of 
"which,  however,  are  with  the  Free  Church  of  Scot- 
land, and  which  reckons  a  number  of  presbyteries 
in  different  parts  of  England,  and  has  a  theological 
college  in  London,  and  missions  in  China  and 
elsewhere. 

PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  IRELAND. 

The  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  originated  in  the 
settlement  of  Ulster  by  Scottish  colonists  during  the 
reign  of  James  L  Scottish  ministers  carried  over 
to  Ireland  their  peculiar  views,  and  after  various 
struggles,  a  Presbyterian  church  was  founded  by 
the  formation  of  a  presbytery  at  Carrickfer^ 
on  10th  June  1642.  The  rresbyterian  population 
of  Ulster  was  greatly  inci*ea8ed  in  number  by  immi- 
gration from  Scotland  about  the  middle  of  the 
17th  c;  and  notwithstanding  many  difficulties, 
from  the  opi)08ition  of  prelates  and  of  the  civil 
power,  the  church  continued  to  increase.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  Presbyterian  ministers  received 
a  pension  from  government,  under  Charles  IL,  in 
1672,  which  Regium  Donum  j(q.  v.),  however,  was 
sot  regularly  paid,  and  soon  ceased  to  be  expected 
by  the  Presbyterian  ministers.  In  the  reign  of 
William,  the  Regium  Donum  was  augmented, 
although  only  to  the  paltry  amount  in  all  of 
j£12U0  a  year.  The  sum  has  since,  however,  been 
repeatedly  augmented,  and  is  now  £70  for  each 
mmister.  A  seminary  for  the  education  of  ministers 
"was  also  erected  at  Killaleagh.  In  1710,  the  synod 
r>f  the  Presbyterian  Church  resolved  to  institute 
the  preaching  of  the  gospel  to  the  Irish  in  their 
own  language.  During  this  period  of  its  history, 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  experienced  the 
utmost  opposition  from  the  High  Church  party. 
Afterwards,  dissensions  sprung  up  within  it,  and 
these  with  reference  to  the  most  important  doctrines. 
A  body  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  tha  Westminster 
Confession  of  Faith  was  organised  as  the  Presbytery 
of  Antrim.  But  the  doctrine  of  the  Westminster 
Confession  was  more  and  more  departed  from  in 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  itself,  which  became 
to  a  large  extent  Arian  or  Unitarian.  The  Regium 
J}onum  was  augmented  in  1792,  and  again  in  1803. 
In  ISdO,  a  separation  took  place  from  the  Arians, 
"who  then  formed  the  Remonstrant  Synod  of  Ulster^ 
Arian  views  having  become  very  prevalent  among 
the  Presbyterians  of  Ireland.  But  since  that  date, 
the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  has  continued  to 
lucrease,  and  the  Remonstrant  or  Arian  body  has 


not  increased  in  like  proportion.  In  1840,  a  union 
took  place  of  the  Irish  Presbyterian  Church  forming 
the  Synod  of  Ulster^  and  the  Secession  Church  in 
Ireland,  an  offshoot  of  the  Scottish  Sccesaon 
Church,  which  then  reckoned  141  congregations  in 
the  north  of  Ireland.  The  Irish  rresbyterian 
Church  now  consists  of  about  6U0  congregations 
and  has  not  only  displayed  much  zeal  for  the 
advancement  of  Protestantism  in  Ireland,  but  aJso 
of  Christianity  in  other  parts  of  the  world,  and 
supports  a  very  successful  mission  in  Guzerat. 

PRE'SBYTERT,  the  space  in  the  chou*  of  a 
church  in  which  the  high  altar  is  placed ;  the  name 
is  sometimes  extended  to  the  whole  choir. 

PRESBYTERY,  in  Scotch  Law,  is  an  ecclesi- 
astical division  of  the  country,  as  well  as  a  court. 
In  its  local  sense,  it  includes  a  combination  of 
parishes,  varying  from  four  to  thirty,  and  the 
General  Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  has 
power  to  vary  the  size.    See  Scotland,  Chubch  of. 

PRE'SCOT,  a  manufacturing  and  market-town 
of  Lancashire,  8  miles  east  of  Liverpool  At 
Huyton,  l^  miles  distant,  there  is  a  station  on  the 
London  and  North-western  Railway.  P.  has  long 
been  well  known  for  its  manufactures  of  watch- 
tools,  watch-movements,  small  files,  &c  Potteries 
are  in  operation  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1851),  7393 ; 
(1861),  6066. 

PRESCOTT,  William  Hicklino,  LL.D.,  Amer- 
ican historian,  son  of  a  distinguished  lawyer  and 
statesman,  and  grandson  of  Colonel  William  Pres- 
cott,  an  officer  of  the  Revolution,  was  bom  at 
Salem,  Massachusetts,  on  May  4,  HoiSw  He  entered 
Harvard  0>11^  in  1811,  and  graduated  in  1814 
During  his  cofiege  course,  he  had  one  eye  blinded 
by  a  piece  of  bread  playfully  thrown  by  a  fellow- 
student,  and  his  studies  so  affected  the  other,  that 
he  was  sent  abroad  for  his  health,  and  travelled  in 
England,  France,  and  Italy.  On  his  return  to 
America,  he  married,  and  abandoned  the  study  of 
law  for  literature.  In  1819,  he  determined  to  devote 
ten  years  to  study,  and  the  succeeding  ten  to  com- 
position. He  contributed,  however,  several  papers 
to  the  North  American  Review,  collected  in  his  Mis- 
cellanies. In  1825,  he  was  engaged  in  the  study 
of  Spanish  literature,  and  selected  materials  for  his 
History  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  While  engaged 
in  this  work,  his  sight  failed,  and,  with  the  aid  of 
a  reader  who  knew  no  Spanish,  he  went  through 
the  seven  quarto  volumes  of  Mariana's  History. 
After  ten  years  of  painful  labour,  his  work  was 
made  ready  for  the  press,  and  a  few  copies  struck 
off  for  his  friends,  whose  warm  api>roval  secured  its 
publication  in  1837  ^3  vols.  8vo,  Boston  and  London), 
it  met  with  imme^.iate  success,  and  was  translated 
into  French,  Spanish,  and  German.  He  next 
devoted  six  years  to  the  History  of  the  Conquest  of 
Mexico  (3  vols.,  1843,  London  and  New  Y'ork) ;  and 
four  years  to  the  Conquest  of  Peru  (2  vols.,  1847). 
These  careful,  elaborate,  and  charmingly  written 
works  made  for  him  a  high  reputation.  He  was 
chosen  corre8{)onding  member  of  the  French  Insti- 
tute ;  and,  on  his  visit  to  Europe  in  1850,  he  was 
received  with  the  highest  distinction.  In  1855,  he 
published  two  volumes  of  his  History  of  Philip  IL^ 
and  a  thini  volume  in  1858,  but  left  it  untinished. 
He  died  at  Boston,  January  28,  1859.  Mr  Prescott 
was  an  elegant  scholar  and  writer,  a  man  of  a 
cheerful  humour  and  affectionate  character,  metho- 
dical in  his  habits,  and  persevering  in  his  pursuits. 
He  walked  five  miles  regularly  every  day,  com- 
posing as  he  walked.  He  devoted  five  hours  to 
Uterary  labour,  two  hours  to  novel-reading,  for 
the  refreshment  of  his  mind— Scott,  Dickens,  Dumas, 
and  Sue  being  his  &voarite  authors.  He  gave  one 
®  749 


PRESCBIPTIOK. 


tenth  of  his  ample  income  in  charity,  and  divided 
his  time  between  his  winter  mansion  in  Boston,  a 
summer  residence  at  Nahant,  and  a  faimhoiise, 
where  he  spent  the  autamn.  In  his  Urge  library, 
with  the  light  carefully  regulated  for  his  imperfect 
vision,  he  wrote  with  a  stylus  each  day  what  he 
had  compceed,  which  was  then  copied,  read  over, 
and  carefully  corrected.  His  hfe,  by  George 
Ticknor,  was  published  in  1864 

PRESCRI PTION  is  the  term  applied  to  the 
written  direction  or  receipt  given  by  the  physician 
or  sui^^n  to  the  chemist  for  the  preparation  of  a 
medicinal  substance  suitable  to  a  special  case.  In 
prescribing,  the  medical  practitioner  may  either 
order  an  officinal  or  an  fxtemporaneotu  compound. 
Officinal  compounds  (or  preparations,  as  they  are 
frequently  termed)  are  those  for  which  formulse 
are  introduced  iuto  the  national  pharmacopoeias, 
and  are  therefore  supposed  to  be  always  at  hand 
in  the  laboratory  of  tne  dispensing  chemist  (such, 
for  example,  as  Mistura  Ferri  Composita,  Ptdvis 
IpeeactianJuE  ComposUus,  Cor\fectio  Aromatica,  &c.) ; 
while  extemporaneous  compounds  are  those  which 
are  dcnsed  on  the  instant  with  the  view  of  meeting 
the  various  peculiarities  which  almost  every  case 
of  disease  presents.  *  Too  much  importance,*  as  Dr 
Paris  very  truly  observes,  'cannot  be  assigned  to 
the  art  that  thus  enables  the  physician  to  adapt 
and  graduate  a  powerful  remedy  to  each  particular 
case  D^  a  prompt  and  accurate  prescription.  If  he 
prescribes  upon  truly  scientific  principles,  he  will 
rarely,  in  the  course  of  his  practice,  compose  two 
formulas  that  shall  in  every  respect  be  perfectly 
similar,  for  the  plain  reason,  that  he  wul  never 
meet  with  two  cases  exactly  alike.* — Pkannacologia^ 
9th  ed.,  1843,  p.  374 

The  author  whom  we  have  just  quoted,  and  who 
is  the  highest  English  authority  on  the  subject,  lays 
down  Jive  objects  which  the  physician  should  have 
in  view  in  the  construction  of  an  extemporaneous 
formula  or  prescription.  They  are :  1.  To  promote 
the  action  ot  the  principal  medicine  (or,  as  he  terms 
it,  tiie  basis)  of  a  formula.  2.  To  correct  the 
operation  of  the  basis.  3.  To  obtain  the  joint 
operation  of  two  or  more  medicines  which  act  in 
totally  different  ways.  4  To  obtain  a  new  and 
active  remedy  not  afforded  by  any  single  substance. 
ft.  To  select  an  eligible  form. 

The/r«^  object  may  be  attained  (a)  by  combining 
different  preparations  of  the  same  substance,  as,  for 
example,  tincture  of  senna  with  infusion  of  senna  in 
the  ordinary  Black  Draught ;  or  (6)  by  combining 
different  substances  of  a  similar  action,  as,  for 
example,  opium  with  hyoscyamus  or  conium;  or 
sulphate  of  magnesia  with  the  preparations  of 
senna;  or  quinme  with  the  preparations  of  iron. 
The  second  ohject  may  be  obtained  in  various  ways. 
For  example,  the  addition  of  extract  of  hyoscyamus 
to  the  compound  extract  of  oolocynth  renders  the 
purgative  action  of  the  latter  much  lesa  gripinc,  but 
notless  efficacious ;  the  addition  of  dilute  sulphuric 
acid  to  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  magnesia  renders 
tiiat  purgative  salt  less  liable  to  gripe,  and  makes 
it  sit  easier  on  the  stomach ;  and  extract  of  elate- 
rium,  if  given  in  hot  brandy  and  water,  acts  equally 
powerfuUv  as  a  hydrasocue  cathartic  without 
causing  the  depression  ot  the  vital  powers,  which 
it  often:  occasions  if  ^ven  alone.  As  an  illustration 
of  a  mode  of  attaining  the  third  objecty  we  may 
refer  to  the  operation  of  purgatives  and  of  diuretics. 
If  we  administer  a  purgative  which  acts  mainly  in 
increasing  the  peristaltic  motion  of  the  intestines, 
their  contents  will  be  ureed  forward  and  evacuated, 
bnt  the  operation  will  ne  slow  and  difficult,  and 
probably  be  accompanied  with  griping ;  but  if  we 
combine  this  medicine  with  one  which  acts  by 
7M 


increasing  the  flow  of  flnida  into  the  intestine,  the 
purgative  action  will  be  increased  and  (quickened, 
and  all  griping  will  be  avoided.  A  combination  of 
foxglove,  squill,  and  blue  pill  or  calomel  will  act 
much  more  powerfully  as  a  diuretic  than  any  one 
of  the  substances  taken  alone ;  and  they  probably 
all  act  in  different  ways  on  the  system.  The/bv7t4 
object  is  usually  attained  by  chemical  deoompoeition. 
The  activity  of  the  Mistura  Ferri  Composita  is  dns 
to  the  carbonate  of  iron  which  it  contains,  and 
which  is  yielded  by  the  double  decomposition  of 
the  two  ingredients  of  the  mixture,  sulphate  of  iron 
and  carbonate  ci  potash.  By  prescribing  a  mixture 
of  solution  of  iodide  of  x^otassium  and  corroave 
sublimate,  we  obtain  an  extemporaneous  formation 
of  biniodide  of  mercury.  The  Black  Wash  (see 
LiKZMENTs)  owes  its  active  ingredient  to  the  decom- 
position of  calomel  by  lime-water.  In  some  case^ 
where  no  chemical  action  is  apparent  or  probable, 
a  mixture  of  two  or  more  drugs  seems  to  modify 
the  physiological  effect  of  each  ingredient.  For 
example,  Dover's  Powder  contains  as  its  actirs 
ingredients  ipecacuanha  and  opium,  and  yet  in 
well-regulatea  doses  it  neither  exhibits  the  nause- 
ating properties  of  the  former,  nor  the  narcotie 
influence  of  the  latter  substanco.  The  ^fifth  object, 
the  selection  of  the  most  eligible  form  of  tbe  remedy, 
is  of  extreme  importance.  The  physician  here  has 
to  determine  whether  he  shall  prescribe  his  remedy 
in  the  form  of  pill,  powder,  or  mixture;  whether 
he  shall  administer  it  as  an  injection  into  the  lower 
bowel ;  whether  the  patient  shall  (in  certain  cases) 
inhale  it ;  &c  As  a  general  rule,  we  should  accom- 
modate the  form  and  flavour  of  our  remedies,  pro- 
vided we  do  not  sacrifice  their  virtues,  to  the  taste 
of  the  patient,  who  usually  prefers  pills  to  dranghts 
or  powders.  The  unpleasant  taste  of  many  medi- 
cines which  must  be  given  in  the  fluid  form  may 
often  be  obviated  by  the  skill  of  the  prescriber. 
Castor  oil,  cod-liver  oil,  and  copaiba  are  most  easily 
taken  on  the  surface  of  oranse  wine,  or  water  con- 
taining a  bitter  tincture,  care  being  taken  to  moistoi 
with  water  the  edge  or  rim  of  the  glass  at  the 
part  applied  to  the  montL  The  taste  of  soln^on 
of  potash  and  of  lime-water  is  best  covered  wfth 
milk ;  and  the  disa^eable  flavour  of  senna  is  aaid 
to  be  concealed  if  its  infusion  is  made  with  stnmg 
tea.  » 

In  conclusion,  it  maybe  remariced  that  bt  tins 
country  it  is  the  custom  to  write  prescriptiotts  in 
the  Latin  language,  to  abbreviate  well-known  wrads, 
to  use  symbols  for  weiglits  and  measures,  and  to 
commence  each  prescription  with  the  symbol  R, 
which  signifies  Redpe,  take.  As  an  illustration» 
we  append  a  prescription  for  a  tonic  draught : 

(Name  of  PaUaU.) 

K  Infiia  Calumbe,  /.  Jix 

Tinct  CalumbsB,  /  ^ 
Acid.  Sulph.  Dilut.,        Iltx 

Syrup.  Aurant.,  /.  3  in 

M.    Fiat  Haustus  tar  g^uotidie  summdus. 

Date  (m  Latin),  (InitiaU  or  noaw  ^prcicrAer.) 

PBESORIPTIOK,  in  Law,  is  tiie  limit  of  tim* 
within  which  one  may  acquire  certain  legal  rights 
by  reason  of  the  want  of  vindication  by  some  other 
person  of  such  rights,  and  putting  in  force  his  legal 
remedies.  In  England,  however,  it  has  a  ItTnir^MJ 
meaning,  confined  to  a  certain  class  of  rights  relating 
to  lands,  such  as  rights  of  way,  of  wator-conrse,  « 
fishing,  shooting,  Ac. ;  while  in  ScoUand,  it  is  a 
general  term,  applicable  to  all  legal  rights  and  to 
real  property;  and  hence  prescription  m  Scotland 
corresponds  to  prescription,  pltu  limitation  (q.  v.), 
in  England.     Prescription  m  England  is  thus  a 


PRESENTATION— PRESERVES,  PRESERVED  PROVISIONS. 


mode  of  aoqniring  a  legal  right,  incident  to  land,  by 
the  mere  force  of  claimmg  and  exercising  it,  without 
dispute,  for  a  certain  length  of  time.  Thus,  if  a 
neighbouring  owner  has  for  90  vears,  without 
interruption,  actually  enjoyed  a  right  of  common, 
such  as  pasture,  fishery,  shooting,  &a,  orer  another's 
lands,  he  will  be  entitled  to  it  as  a  le^eal  right  for 
ever  after,  unless  in  certain  exceptional  cases ;  and 
if  he  has  enjoved  it  for  60  yearn,  his  title  for  ever 
after  cannot  oe  defeated.  So,  if  a  jperson  has 
for  20  years  enjoyed,  without  interruption,  a  right 
of  way,  or  of  watercourse,  or  of  watering  cattle, 
and  simi  .r  Easements  (q.  v.)  on  anothers  lands, 
he  will  be  entitled,  for  ever  thereafter,  to  enjoy 
these,  except  in  a  few  exceptipnal  cases ;  and  if  the 
enjoyment  has  been  for  40  years,  he  is  entitled  in 
all  circumstances.  So,  if  a  person  whose  house 
adjoins  another's  lands,  and  whose  windows  open 
upon  such  land,  has  enjoyed  the  lieht  comix^;  to 
these  windows  for  20  years,  he  can  tor  ever  there* 
after  preyent  his  neighbour  from  building  on  his 
land,  and  thereby  darkening  such  lights,  in  Scot- 
land, prescription  includes  such  rights  as  have  been 
already  mentioned,  and  also  the  other  substantive 
rights  of  property.  With  respect  to  servitudes, 
such  as  right  of  way,  water-course,  fuel,  feal,  and 
divot,  the  right  can  be  gained  by  the  enjoyment 
for  40  years.  Prescription  is  divided  into  positive 
and  negative.  By  the  positive  prescription,  when- 
ever one  enjoys  lands  for  40  years,  and  can  shew  an 
infeftment,  or  a  series  of  infeftments,  during  such 
time,  though  no  previous  title  at  the  commencement 
of  such  period,  such  person  obtains  a  right  to  the 
pro{>erty.  This  enactment  applies  to  all  kinds  of 
heritable  subjects,  including  leases  and  servitudes, 
which  require  no  infeftment,  and  as  to  which  mere 
possession  for  40  years,  without  interruption,  will 
give  the  right.  By  the  negEitive  prescription  of  40 
years,  rights  are  cut  off,  unless  sued  for  within  that 
period  as  a  debt  due  on  a  heritable  bond,  and  on  all 
contracts  whatever.  Servitudes  are  also  lost  by  the 
lapse  of  40  years  without  enjoyment.  Besides  these 
prescriptions,  there  are  others,  called  the  lesser 
prescriptions.  Thus,  there  is  a  20  years'  or  vicennial 
prescription,  applicable  to  certain  written  contracts ; 
a  ten  years'  or  decennial  prescription,  applicaUe  to 
actions  against  tutors  and  curators ;  a  seven  years*  or 
septenni^  prescription,  applicable  to  actions  against 
cautioners;  m  sexennial  or  six  years'  prescription, 
ap])licable  to  actions  on  bills  of  exchange ;  a  quin- 
queunial  or  five  years'  prescription,  applicable  to 
actions  for  arrears  of  rent  and  verbal  contracts ; 
a  three  years'  or  triennial  prescription,  applicable 
to  actions  on  ordinary  merchants'  accounts,  for 
servants'  wages,  rent  due  on  a  verbal  lease,  and  for 
work  done  by  workmen,  attorneys,  fto.  With 
regard  to  crimes,  also,  in  Scotland  but  not  in 
England,  a  20  years'  prescription  applies,  and  no 
prosecution  is  competent  after  that  period. 

PBESENTA'TION  is  the  act  by  which  a  patron 
of  a  living  in  the  Established  Church  of  Scotland 
appoints  a  minister ;  and  it  is  so  called  because  the 
presentee  must  be  presented  to  the  presbytery  for 
.  inquiry  into  his  qualifications,  and  for  induction,  if 
,  these  are  satisfactory.  If  the  patron  fail  to  pre- 
sent within  six  months,  the  right  then  devolves 
*  on  the  presbytery.  When  a  presentee  was  object«i 
to  by  the  major  part  of  the  congregation,  whether 
with  or  without  reason,  the  General  Assembly 
of  the  church  formerly  claimed  the  right  to 
declare  that  he  should  not  be  inducted  or  entitled 
to  the  benefice.  This  declaration  was  contained 
in  an  act  of  Assembly,  dated  1835,  called  the  Veto 
Actb  But  after  much  litigation,  it  was  decided 
by  the  courts  of  law  that  such  Veto  Act  was 
ultra  vires  and  void;  and  this  decision  led  to  a 


secession  of  many  ministors  and  people  from  the 
Established  Church,  and  to  the  formation  of  a  new 
dissenting  church,  called  the  Free  Church  (q.  v.). 
The  law  is  now  settled  that  it  is  the  presbytery, 
and  not  the  people,  who  are  to  judge  of  the  reason- 
ableness of  any  objections  made  to  the  presentee,  for 
which  purpose,  reasons  and  objections  are  heard  on 
both  sides,  and  a  wide  discretion  is  exercised  by  the 
presbytery.  If  the  presbytery  dismiss  the  objections, 
they  then  proceed  to  the  tnal  and  Induction  (q.  t.) 
of  tne  presentee. 

PRESB'NTMENT  is,  in  English  Law,  the  formal 
representation  made  by  a  erand-jury  of  the  finding 
of  an  indictment ;  by  churchwardens  to  the  ordinary 
of  the  state  of  the  parish ;  by  the  Court  of  Quarter 
Sessions  of  the  fact  of  the  disrepair  of  a  bridge,  &c. 
Presentment,  with  reference  to  oills  of  exchange,  is 
the  formal  demand  made  by  the  creditor  to  the  debtor, 
who  is  primarily  liable,  calling  upon  him  to  accept 
the  bill  or  to  pay  it.  If  the  Dill  is  not  paid,  then 
notice  of  dishonour  must  be  sent  to  the  other  parties 
secondarily  liable^  who  tu^  then  bound.  See  BiLlM 
ov  Exchange. 

PRESERVES,  PRESERVED  PROVISIONS, 

&c.  Much  variety  is  comprehended  under  these 
terms:  the  first  is  generally  understood  to  mean 
f mite  preserved  with  sugar  or  brandy ;  and  the 
latter,  such  articles  of  animal  or  vegetable  food 
as  are  used  ordinarily,  but  which  are  preserved  by 
any  means  for  the  convenience  of  carnage,  and  for 
use  beyond  the  time  they  would  remain  uninjured 
b^  ordinary  keeping.  Fruito  intended  for  confec- 
tionary are  preserved  in  four  different  ways :  First, 
They  may  be  preserved  in  the  form  of  jam,  in  which 
the  fruit  is  simply  boiled  with  from  one-half  to 
equal  ito  weight  of  sugar.  By  this  method,  the 
fniit  becomes  broken,  and  the  juice  set  free;  but 
all  is  preserved,  as  the  latter  forms  a  thick  syrup 
with  the  sugar.  Such  preserves  can  be  kept,  if  well 
made,  for  several  years,  but  are  best  used  during 
the  first  winter.  A  second  plan  is  to  preserve 
only  the  juice,  which,  when  carefully  strained  from 
the  solid  portions  of  the  fruit,  and  boiled  with  a 
third  or  half  ite  weight  of  refined  sugar,  constitutes 
the  fruit-jellies  of  the  cooks  ana  conf ectionersv 
Another  method  is  called  candying,  and  consisto  in 
tddng  fruito  whole  or  in  pieces,  and  boiling  them 
in  a  clear  syrup  previously  prepared.  In  this  way, 
they  absorb  the  syrup,  and  are  then  dried  by  a  genua 
heat,  which  causes  the  sugar  of  the  syrup  to  crystallise 
on  the  surface  and  through  the  substance  of  the 
preserved  fruits,  which  retein  their  form,  and  much, 
if  not  all  their  colour.  The  renfaining  method  is  to 
carefully  stew  them  in  a  weak  syrup  of  refined 
sugar  and  water,  so  that  they  are  rendered  soft, 
but  are  not  broken.  They  are  then  transferred, 
with  the  syrup,  to  jars  wiui  well-prepared  covers, 
to  prevent  evaporation ;  and  pale  brandy,  equal  in 
quantity  to  the  syrup,  is  added.  As  a  rule,  only 
stone-fruits,  such  as  peaches,  plums,  and  chorriesa 
are  preserved  in  this  way.  Several  fruite  and 
vegetables,  such  as  oUves,  cucumbers,  cabbage,  &c, 
are  preserved  for  food  in  a  saturated  solution  of 
salt  and  water  poured  in  hot ;  others,  in  vinegar. 
See  Pickles. 

But  the  most  approved  methods  of  preserving 
vegetable  and  animal  substances  for  food-purposes, 
so  as  to  be  used  as  nearly  as  possible  as  if  they 
were  in  the  fresh  stote,  is  either  to  desiccate 
them,  or  to  seal  them  in  au>tight  cases.  The  first 
method  was  introduced  by  M.  Chollet  of  Paris  in 
1852,  and  patented  in  England  in  1854  It  was,  and 
still  is,  chiefly  applied  to  vegetables,  and  a  few  kinda 
of  fruit,  such  as  apples  and  pears,  which  have  a 
small  amount  of  juice.    By  his  method,  M.  Chollel 

751 


FEE3ES  OF  MEEnKG-PBESS,  FREEDOM  OF  THR 


entirely  removes  all  moisture  from  the  v^tables,  by 
drying  either  in  a  vacuum  or  by  the  aid  of  heated 
air,  which  reduces  their  bulk  more  than  one-half. 
They  are  then  compressed  under  powerful  presses, 
■which,  beside  rendering  them  extremely  portable, 
also  makes  them  less  liable  to  absorb  moisture  from 
the  atmosphere,  which  is  very  desirable,  as  they 
are  very  absorbent  In  this  way,  both  the  colour 
and  distinctive  flavour  of  the  vegetables  are  com- 
pletely  preserved,  and  mere  soaking  in  water 
restores  them  almost  precisely  to  t^eir  original 
condition.  The  introduction  of  this  process  has 
been  of  great  benefit  to  voyagers,  as  it  enables  ships 
to  carrv  a  complete  supply  of  vegetable  provisions 
on  the  longest  voyage. 

The  method  of  baling  cooked  provisions  in  air- 
tight metalUc  cases,  which  is  now  so  laraely  in  use, 
is  of  comparatively  recent  invention,  and  has  only 
been  brought  into  use  during  the  present  century. 
In  1810,  Augustus  de  Heine  took  out  a  patent  m 
this  country  for  preserving  food  in  tin  or  other 
metal  cases,  by  simply  exhausting  the  air  by  means 
of  an  air-pump ;  but  it  was  unsuccessful  It  was 
followed  by  a  number  of  others  by  various  persons, 
all  of  which  were  more  or  less  failures,  until 
WerthetiDer*s  patents,  which  were  three  in  num- 
ber, from  1839  to  1841.  By  his  plan,  the  pro- 
visions of  whatever  kind  are  put  into  the  metal 
cases,  and  closely  packed,  and  tne  interstices  filled 
in  with  water  or  other  appropriate  liquid,  such 
as  gravy  in  the  case  of  flesh-food.  The  lids  are 
then  soldered  on  very  securely ;  two  small  perfora- 
tions are  made  in  each  lid,  ana  the  cases  are  set  in  a 
water-bath,  in  which  muriate  of  lime  is  dissolved, 
and  heat'  is  applied  until  the  whole  boils,  and  the 
air  is  expelled  through  the  small  openings  in  the 
lids  of  the  cases.  When  this  is  complete,  which  the 
operator  knows  by  practice,  the  small  holes  are 
quickly  soldered  up,  and  the  tins  are  removed  from 
the  bath.  The  muriate  of  lime  is  used  because  its 
solution  can  easily  be  maintained  at  a  heat  of  270'' 
to  280*  Fahr.,  without  material  evaporation.  When 
required  for  use,  it  is  usual  to  put  the  tin-case  in  a 
proper  vessel,  and  cover  it  with  water  until  it  boils. 
The  top  is  then  removed  by  a  knife  made  for  the 
purpose,  and  the  contents  are  turned  out  into  a 
disn  ready  for  the  table.  Henry  Gunter,  Stephen 
Gk)ldner,  and  others  patented  plans  similar  in 
principle,  but  varying  in  the  mode  of  apnlying  it. 
Latterly,  a  large  business  of  this  kind  nas  been 
successfully  carried  on  by  John  Gillon  &  Co., 
Leith,  whose  cases  of  preserved  meats  and  soups 
are  well  known  as  an  article  of  commerce. 
But  the  plan  in  use  now  is  that  just  described. 
A  very  ingenious  and  scietftific  plan  for  preserving 
meat  fresn  was  invented  by  Professor  George 
Hamilton  of  Cheshire.  It  consists  in  cutting  the 
meat  small,  and  putting  it  into  jars  of  binoxide  of 
nitrogen,  which  perfectiy  preserves  its  sweetness 
and  ordinary  appearance.  This  plan  has  been 
tried  with  success  on  a  small  scale,  and  was  shewn 
in  the  Paris  Exhibition  of  1855  as  a  French 
discovery,  although  Professor  Hamilton's  paper  was 
in  Paris  in  1854 

PRE'SES  OF  MEETING,  a  name  given  in 
Scotland  to  the  chairman  of  a  meeting,  who  is  often 
popularly  bdieved  to  have  some  mvsterious  power 
or  authority ;  but  in  point  of  fact,  he  has  no  more 
power  than  any  other  person  present,  and  is  merely, 
for  convenience,  used  as  a  mouthpiece  for  putting 
questions  and  amendments  to  ascertain  the  wifi 
of  the  majority.  In  meetings  of  creditors  under 
the  Bankrupt  Act,  a  preses  requires  to  be  elected 
before  any  business  is  done ;  but  his  power  is  con- 
fined to  that  of  constituting  the  meeting,  and 
j«.«rju,g  order.  «.  to  «  the  creditor.  u.utu.Uy 


agree  to  obey  his  suggestions.  As  a  general  lole,  a 
preses,  or  chairman,  has  only  a  single  vote,  like 
other  persons,  and  not  a  castine  vote,  unless  when 
some  act  of  parliament  expressly  gives  it  to  him, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  meeting  held. 

PRESS,  Fbkeoom  of  the,  the  expression  used  to 
denote  the  absence  of  any  authorised  official  restnuot 
on  publication.  The  press  is  an  instniment  well 
adapted  for  disturbing  the  functions  of  government, 
and  committing  injuries  against  reputation;  and 
when  its  power  as  a  political  engine  was  first  dis- 
covered, tne  European  eovemments  took  it  into 
their  own  hands,  no  one  being  allowed  to  print  any 
work  till  it  had  obtained  the  sanction  of  the  ^optr 
authorities.  The  clergy  also,  on  behalf  of  the  papal 
hierarchy,  claimed  a  snare  in  the  oeDSoiBhip,  whr>n 
questions  of  reli^on  were  concerned.  In  KngUbd, 
at  the  Reformation,  the  control  of  the  press  catne 
to  be  more  completely  centred  in  the  crown  thia 
elsewhere,  the  ecclesiastical  in  addition  to  the  eeeulsr 
department  being  vested  in  Henry  VII L  as  teiA- 
poral  head  of  the  church.  The  Company  of  Stationtar^ 
who  came  to  have  the  sole  ri^t  to  print,  were 
servants  of  the  government,  subject  to  the  conti  il 
of  the  Star  Chamber.  The  censorship  of  the  pre* 
was  enforced  by  the  Long  Parliament,  and  wa« 
re-established  more  rigorously  at  the  Restoratioa 
It  was  continued  at  the  Revolution,  and  the  statui^ 
regulating  it  was  renewed  from  time  to  time  tSL 
1693,  when  the  Commons,  by  a  special  vote,  struck 
it  out  of  the  list  of  temporary  acte  to  be  oontinoed. 
Since  that  time,  the  censorship  of  the  press  has 
ceased  to  exist  in  Britain.  But  though  there  are 
no  official  restrictions  on  what  shall  and  what  shall 
not  be  published,  the  authors  and  publishers  of 
criminal  or  injurious  matter  are  amenable  to  the 
law  of  libel ;  aud  there  are  certain  statutory  require- 
ments in  force  to  enable  them  to  be  traoiBd.  The 
existing  statutes  which  apply  to  all  printed  pnbliea- 
tious  are  39  Gea  III.  c.  79,  amended  by  51  Geo.  HL 
c.  65,  and  2  and  3  Vict,  a  12.  Every  person  who 
possesses  a  printing-press  or  types  for  printing,  and 
every  typefounder,  must  give  uotice  to  the  clerk  of 
the  |)eacc  Eveiv  person  selling  types  most  give 
an  account  of  all  persons  to  whom  they  are  sidd. 
Every  person  who  prints  anything  for  hire  or 
rewsupd  must  keep  one  copy  at  least  of  the  matter 
printed,  and  write  on  it  the  name  and  place  of 
abode  of  the  person  who  employed  him  to  print  iL 
By  statute  2  and  3  Vict  c.  12,  every  person  who 
shall  print  any  paper  meant  to  be  x>nblished,  moat 
print  on  the  front  of  the  paper,  or  on  the  first  or 
last  leaf,  his  name  and  usual  place  of  business ;  simI 
on  failure  to  do  so,  he  forfeits  the  sum  of  jC5i,  which 
penalty  can,  however,  be  sued  for  only  in  name  of 
the  Attorney  or  Solicitor-general,  or  the  Lord 
Advocate  of  Scotland.  A  few  exceptions  exist  to 
the  above  requirement  in  the  case  of  papers  printed 
by  parliament  or  government  offices,  engravini^ 
auction  lists,  bank-notes,  bills  of  ladinz,  reoeipfes  for 
money,  and  a  few  other  instances.  The  statutes 
afifecting  newspapers  are  60  Gea  IIL  and  1  Geo.  IV. 
c  9,  2  Geo.  IV.  and  1  Will  IV.  c.  73,  and  6  and  7 
Will  IV.  c.  76.  The  publisher  of  a  newspa|)er  must, 
under  a  penalty  of  £20,  enter  into  a  recognisance  or 
bond  of  £400  or  £300,  together  with  sureties  to  pay 
anv  fine  that  may  be  adjudged  against  him  for  ]iiil>- 
lishing  a  blasphemous  or  seditious  libeL  Before 
publication,  he  must  furnish  the  correct  title  of  his 
newspaper,  and  the  names  and  addresses  of  the 
printer,  publisher,  and  (with  certain  restrictions)  €^ 
the  proprietors.  At  the  end  of  every  newspaper 
must  be  printed  the  Christian  name  and  surname  of 
the  printer  and  publisher.  A  copy  must  also  be 
sent  to  the  Stamp  Office,  authenticated  so  tiiat  it 
may  be  produced  in  evidence  at  any  tnaL     Tbe 


PRESSING  TO  D£ATH*-PB£VOST.PARADOL. 


penalties  against  newspapers  can  onlv  be  sned  for 
in  the  name  of  the  Attorney-general  or  Solicitor- 
eeneral,  or  Lord  Advocate,  or  an  officer  of  Inland 
Ilevenne.  Certain  regulations  also  exist  regarding 
plays,  for  which  see  Theatre.  Subject  to  these 
restrictions,  the  freedom  of  the  press  has  subsigted 
in  Britain  since  1693. 

A  more  or  less  rigorous  censorship  of  the  press 
exists  in  most  European  states.  There  is  often  no 
direct  supervision  previous  to  publication,  but  the 
official  censor  has  it  in  his  power  to  stop  any  publi- 
cation which  he  deems  objectionable,  to  connscate 
the  edition,  and  to  prosecute  the  author  and  editor. 
New8pai>ers  and  pamphlets  are  generally  subjected 
to  a  stricter  censorship  than  larger  works. 

PRESSINa  TO  DEATH.  See  Pxnra  torts 
XT  Dure. 

PRESSIRO'STRES,  a  tribe  of  biids  of  the  order 
OrctlkUorea,  distinguished  by  a  bill  of  moderate  size, 
not  so  strong  as  in  the  CuUrirotitrea  ;  whilst  the  hind 
toe  is  either  wanting,  or  so  short  as  not  to  touch 
the  ^und  To  this  tribe  belong  bustards,  ploverSi 
lapwings,  oyster-catchers,  &c 

PRESSTI'SSIMO  (Ital.  very  quick)  is  the  most 
rapid  degree  of  movement  known  in  musical  com- 
position. 

PRESTER  JOHN.    See  John,  Prbster. 

PRE'STO  (ItaL  quick),  in  Music,  a  direction 
that  a  piece  should  be  performed  in  a  rapid  lively 
manner. 

PRE'STON,  an  important  manufacturing  and 
market  town,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  in  Lancashire,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Hibble,  and  at  the  head  of  the  estuary  of  that  river, 
23  miles  north-north-east  of  Liverpool  It  occni)ies 
au  eminence  120  feet  above  the  Ribble,  and  it  covers 
an  area  2  miles  square.  The  houses  are  mostly 
built  of  brick,  and  the  town  is  on  the  whole  well 
laid  out,  and  is  surrounded  with  pleasing  scenery. 
The  river  is  crossed  by  two  bridges  and  a  railway 
viaduct.  There  are  13  churches  and  twice  that 
number  of  Catholic  and  dissenting  chapels ;  among 
the  other  buildings  and  institutions,  the  chief  are, 
a  free  grammar  school,  founded  in  1663,  and  having 
an  income  from  endowment  of  £150  per  annum,  and 
numerous  other  schools,  the  Institution  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  Town-house,  Com 
Exchange,  House  of  Correction,  and  court-hous& 
Linen  manufactures  were  formerly  the  staple,  and 
though  still  extensive,  have  been  supplanted  by 
the  cotton  manufacture,  which  now  holds  the  first 
place.  P.  contains  in  all  about  90  cotton-mills, 
which  give  employment  to  about  27,500  hands. 
There  are  also  iron  and  brass  foundries,  iron 
shipbuilding  yards,  carria^-works,  and  machine 
shops ;  ana  malting,  brewmg,  and  ropemakmg  are 
also  carried  on.  P.  is  a  free  port,  and  is  reached  at 
8])nng-tides  by  vessels  drawing  14  feet.  In  1863, 
1064  vessels,  of  61,202  tons  entered  and  cleared 
the  port  Its  imports  are  chiefly  com,  iron,  and 
timber ;  its  exports  principally  coaL  Pour  great 
fairs  are  held  here  during  the  year,  besides  the 
usual  weekly  markets.  Tke  borough  returns  two 
members  to  the  House  of  Commons. 

P.,  that  is,  Priest's  Town,  so-called,  probably, 
from  the  number  of  its  religious  edifices,  the 
remains  of  some  of  which  are  stiU  visible,  is  of  high 
antiquity.  It  arose  after  the  decline  of  Ribohester 
(the  Roman  JRigodunum),  now  a  village  some  i^es 
lugh'*r  up  the  Ribble.  P.  was  parti^ly  destroved 
by  Brace  in  1322 ;  and  after  declaring  for  the  kmg, 
it  was  taken  by  the  forces  of  paniament  under 
General  Fairfax.  Here  also  ended  the  ill-fated  Jaco- 
bite rising  of  1715»  when,  after  a  brave  resistance, 

aeo 


the  insolvents  were  compelled  to  surrender.     See 
Dbrwsntwatsr. 

PRESTONPA'NS,  an  inconsiderable  viUage 
of  Haddingtonshire,  with  a  station  on  the  Norui 
British  Rauway,  81  miles  east  of  Edinburgh.  Salt- 
pans  are  supposed  to  have  been  erected  here  as 
early  as  the  12th  c.,  and  the  village  was  the  seat  of 
thriving  manufacturing  operations  for  many  years 
after  the  ReformatioiL  The  only  manufacture  with 
which  its  name  is  now  associated  is  that  of  a  Ueht 
bitter  beer.  In  the  vicinity,  on  the  21st  September 
1745,  was  fought  the  famous  battle  of  P.,  between 
the  royal  troops  under  Sir  John  Cope,  and  the 
Jacobites  under  Prince  Charles,  in  whicn  the  latter, 
with  a  loss  of  only  about  10  officers  and  120  men 
in  killed  and  wounded,  routed  the  royal  forces  with 
great  slaughter,  and  captured  their  cannon,  baggage, 
and  military  chest     Pop.  (1861)  1577. 

PRESTJ'MPTION  is  an  inference  drawn  by  the 
law  in  certain  circumstances  or  conditions  of  facts, 
and  is  used  generally  as  a  mere  starting-point  in  an 
argument  or  litigatioiL  Pk-esumptions  are  often 
divided  into  presumptio  juris  and  presumptio  juris 
et  de  jure.  The  former  serves  as  a  mere  starting- 
point,  and  may  be  rebutted  by  proof  to  the  con- 
trary. Thus,  a  person  who  has  possession  of  goods, 
is  presumed  to  be  the  owner  till  the  contrary  is 
proved.  A  man  is  presumed  to  be  innocent  until 
the  contrary  is  proved.  A  presumptio  juris  ei  de 
jure  is  said  to  b«  a  presumption  which  cannot  be 
rebutted ;  but  there  are  few  mstances  of  this.  Pre- 
sumptions abound  in  all  departments  of  the  law, 
and  are  adopted  from  the  necessity  of  coming  to 
some  conclusion  or  other  in  most  cases  where  the 
evidence  is  ^neral  or  inconclusive.  Thus,  a  common 
illustration  is  where  two  persons  are  drowned  at  sea* 
and  legal  rights  depend  on  the  fact  which  of  them 
survived  the  other.  In  such  a  case,  it  is  presumed, 
by  the  law  of  some  countries,  that  the  younger 
person  survives;  but  there  is  no  presumption  in 
England.  But  in  case  of  mother  and  child  dying 
during  delivery,  the  presumption  is  that  neither 
survived.  If  a  person  disappear,  and  is  not  heard  of, 
he  is  presumea  to  be  living.  But  by  an  act  of 
parliament  this  presumption  was  put  an  end  to,  or 
at  least  was  not  allowed  to  interfere  with  the  right 
of  a  married  woman  to  consider  herself  a  widow, 
after  her  husband  has  left  her,  and  has  not  been 
heard  of  for  seven  years. 

PRETE'NOB,  Escutcheon  or,  or  ESCUTCHEON 
SURTOUT,  in  Heraldry,  a  small  shield  plaoed  in 
the  centre  of  the  field  of  another  shield.  The  hus- 
band of  an  heiress  may  bear  the  arms  of  his  wife  in 
an  escutcheon  of  pretence,  instead  of  impaling  them. 
Feudal  arms  are  also  ^  sometimes  plaoed  on  an 
escutcheon  of  pretence,  particularly  in  the  insignia 
of  elective  sovereigns,  who  have  been  in  use  of  tar- 
ing their  own  proper  arms  in  surtont  over  those  of 
the  dominions  to  which  they  9,te  entitled.  The 
crown  of  Charlemagne  is  plaoed  in  surtout  in  the- 
arms  of  Hanover ;  and  from  1801  till  the  accession 
of  Queen  Victoria,  the  Hanoverian  insignia  occupied, 
an  escutcheon  of  pretence  in  the  centre  of  the  royal 
arms  of  the  United  Kingdom. 

PRBVOST-PARADOIi,  Lucten  Akatole,  a. 
distinguished  French  litterateur,  bom  at  Paris,  8th 
August  1829,  studied  at  the  ColUze  Bourbon  and. 
the  Ecole  Normale  ;  and  in  1851,  obtained  from  the- 
Academic  Fraiigaise  the  prise  for  eloquence,  for  his- 
ISloge  de  Bernardin  de  Saint- Pierre,  In  1855,  he 
was  named  to  the  chair  of  French  Literature  by  the* 
Faculty  of  Aix ;  but  in  the  following  year  resigned 
it,  and  became  one  of  the  editors  of  the  JounuU 
des  DibaUj  to  which  he  has  contributed  a  great 
number  of  articles  remarkable  Ua  their  precision  and 

7W 


PRIAM-PRICHARD. 


<%finement  ot  tlionght.  His  literary  and  political 
essays  are  among  the  soundest,  the  most  acute,  the 
most  scholarly,  and  the  most  elegant  that  have  p«o- 
ceeded  from  the  French  journalists  of  the  Empire. 
We  may  mention  in  particular  his  Eliaabeth  et  ffenri 
I V. ;  Jonathan  Sw{ft  (in  Latin) ;  Bevue  de  FHUtobre 
UniverseUe  (1854);  Du  R6le  de  la  Famills  datu 
V Education  (1857) ;  Nouvwux  Buau  de  Politique  et 
de  LiUirature  (1862). 

PRI'AM,  in  Homeric  legend,  was  king  of  Troy 
at  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war.  His  father  was 
named  Laomedon,  and  his  mother  Strymo  or  Hacia. 
P.  is  said  to  have  been  originally  called  Podarkea 
(the  Swift-footed),  but  to  have  received  his  later 
and  better-known  appellation  (from  Priamai,  to 
ransom)  on  account  of  havine  been  ransomed  by 
Ins  sister  Hesione  from  Herakles,  into  whose  hanaiB 
he  had  fallen.  His  first  wife  was  Arisbe,  daughter 
of  Merops,  whom  he  gave  away  to  a  friend  in  order 
to  marry  Hecuba,  by  whom,  according  to  Homer, 
he  had  nineteen  sons;  but  as  his  intercourse 
with  the  other  Bex  was  not  limited  to  Hecuba,  the 
epic  ix)et  gives  him  in  all  50  sons;  while  later 
writers  add  as  many  daughters.  The  best-known 
of  these  are  Hector,  Paris,  Delphobos,  Helenus, 
Troihis,  and  Cassandra.  P.  is  represented  as  too  old 
to  take  any  active  part  in  the  Trojan  war  ;  and  in 
Homer,  only  once  appears  on  the  field  of  battle. 
The  oldest  Greek  legends— i  e.,  the  Homeric,  are 
silent  respecting  his  fate;  but  the  later  poets — 
Euripides,  Virgil,  &c — say  that  he  was  slain  by 
Pyrrhus  at  the  altar  of  2eus  Hcrkeios,  when  the 
Greeks  stormed  the  city. 

PRICE,  Richard,  was  bom  at  Tynton,  in  Wslea, 
on  22d  February  171S3L  His  father,  Rioe  Price,  was 
a  dissenting  minister,  possessed  of  some  wealth,  and 
remarkable  for  his  intolerance.  A  leading  charac- 
teristic of  his  son's  mind,  on  the  other  hand,  was 
the  calm  resolution  with  which,  from  his  youth,  he 
declared  his  own  opinions,  and  advocated  freedom 
of  thought  for  others  He  declined  to  bend  his 
convictions  to  paternal  authority ;  accordingly,  on 
his  father's  death,  Richard  was  so  pooiiy  provided 
for,  that,  having  resolved  to  prosecute  his  studies  in 
London,  he  was  obliged  to  make  the  journey  chiefly 
on  foot.  He  obtained  admission  to  a  dissenting 
academy,  where  he  acquired  a  good  knowledge  of 
mathematics,  philosophy,  and  theology.  At  the  end 
of  four  years,  he  encaged  himself  as  diapbun  to  a  Mr 
Streatfield,  with  whom  he  lived  for  thirteen  years. 
Mr  Streatfield,  on  his  death,  left  P.  some  property ; 
and  his  circumstances  having  been  further  improved 
by  the  death  of  an  imde  in  1757,  he  was  enaMed  to 
'  carry  out  a  matrimonial  engagement  which  he  had 
formed  with  a  Miss  BlundeS. 

He  then  settled  as  a  preacher  at  Hackney;  but 
being  shortly  afterwards  chosen  minister  at  Newing- 
ton  Green,  he  removed  to  that  place,  where  he  lived 
till  the  death  of  his  wife  in  178i6,  when  he  returned 
to  Hackney.  Meanwhile,  his  life  had  been  one  of 
•considerable  literary  and  scientific  activity.  His 
Review  of  t/ie  Principal  Questione  and  Difficulties  in 
Morals  (Lond.  1758),  though  a  somewhat  heavy 
work,  established  his  reputation  as  a  metaphysician 
and  a  moralist  In  1769,  the  degree  of  Doctor  of 
Divinity  was  conferred  on  him  bv  the  university 
of  Glasgow.  In  the  same  year,  he  published  his 
Treatise  on  Reversionary  Payments;  this  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  compilation  and  publication  of  the 
ceiehT&ted  Northampton  Mortality  ^Toi^es,  and  various 
other  works  relating  to  life-assurance  and  annuities, 
forming  most  valuable  contributions  to  the  branch  of 
science  to  which  they  refer.  In  1776,  appeared  his 
Observations  on  CivU  Liberty  and  tJis  Justice  and 
Policy  of  the  War  with  America,     Of  this  work, 

76A 


60,0(X)  copies  are  laid  to  have  been  sold  in  a  few 
months.  So  greatly  was  it  admired  in  the  United 
States,  that,  in  1778,  the  American  Congress,  thitngh 
Franklin,  communicated  to  him  their  desire  to 
consider  him  a  fellow-citizen,  and  to  reoeive  hii 
assistance  in  regulating  their  finances;  sa  o%r 
declined  principally  on  the  ground  of  age.  He 
died  Apm  19,  1791.  P.  was  a  believer  in  tSie 
immateriality  of  the  soul,  holding  that  it  remained 
in  a  dormant  state  between  death  and  resarrectioo. 
Their  difference  of  opinion  on  this  subject  led  to 
a  controversy  of  some  celebrity  between  him  and 
his  friend  Dr  Priestlev.  His  views  respecting  th« 
Son  of  God  were  what  is  called  Low  or  seini- 
Arminian.  His  moral  character  appears  to  hare 
beeti  a  singularly  beautiful  one.  '  SimpUdty  of 
manners,'  says  Dr  Priestley,  'with  such  senmoe 
marks  of  perfect  integrity  and  benevolence,  diffused 
around  him  a  charm  wmch  the  forms  of  politenea 
can  but  poorly  imitate.'  See  Memoirs  of  the  JA/t 
qfRidiard  Priee^  D.D^  by  William  Morgan,  F.£i, 
Lond.  1815. 

PRICHARD,  Jameb  Ck>WLBB,  a  distingiushed 
ethnolorast  and  physician,  was  bom  at  Ross,  in 
Hereforashire,  on  the  1 1th  of  February  1786.  His 
father,  Thomas  Prichaxxl,  a  member  of  the  Sod^ 
of  Friends,  and  a  merchant,  had  been  marrid 
young,  and  was  early  left  a  widower  with  four 
childrien,  upon  whose  education  he  bestowed  the 
greatest  care.  Of  these  children,  James  Covlea, 
the  eldest,  was  educated  at  home  under  pnvato 
tutors.  He  learned  Latin  and  Greek  from  a  Mr 
Barnes ;  French  from  an  imigri  named  De  Bote- 
mond;  and  Italian  and  Spanish  from  an  Italian 
named  Mordenti— while  his  father  himself  taught 
him  history,  for  the  study  of  which  young  P.  shewed 
a  strong  predilection.  At  Bristol,  where  his  father 
resided  for  some  time  in  the  pursuit  of  his  bos- 
ness,  the  embryo  ethnologist  gave  the  fint  indica- 
tions of  his  love  for  the  stu^  in  which  he  after* 
wiupds  became  famous.  On  the  quays,  he  met  with 
foreigners  from  every  country,  luid  took  madh 
interest  in  observing  their  phjrsical  ^ipearance, 
occasionally  conversing  with  the  sailors  and  others, 
as  well  as  ne  was  able,  in  their  native  tongoea  On 
retiring  from  business,  his  father  again  took  op  hii 
abode  at  Ross,  where  the  son  continued  to  pnisoe 
his  studies  under  private  tutors.  When  the  tizae 
for  choice  of  a  profession  arrived,  young  P.  cbosB 
that  of  medicine  as  the  one  he  thought  most  t^kjn  to 
his  ethnological  pursuits.  He  accordingly  became 
a  student  of  medicine,  first  at  Bristol,  afterwards  at 
St  Thomas's  Hospital,  London,  and  finally  at  Edin- 
burgh, where  he  took  his  degree  of  M.D.  Before 
commencing  practice,  however,  he  entered  himself  a 
student  at  Trinity  College,  Cambridge,  where  he 
read  mathematics  and  theology  for  the  most  part 
Subsequently,  he  studied  at  St  John's  College  and 
Trinity  Coliege,  Oxford.  In  1810,  he  temmenced 
practice  in  Bristol  as  a  physician.  His  talents 
were  soon  recognised,  both  privately  and  pabhd;. 
He  was  first  appointed  physician  to  the  Clifton 
Dispensary  and  St  Peter's  Hospital,  and  afterwards 
phvsician  to  the  Bristol  Infirmary.  In  1813,  be 
puoUshed  his  first  work,  Researches  into  the  Physical 
aistory  of  Mankind,  which  at  once  gave  him  a  hi^ 
standinff  as  an  ethnologist  Of  this,  a  second  and 
enlarged  edition,  in  two  yds.,  appeared  in  1826; 
and  a  third,  still  further  improved  and  enlarged, 
in  five  vols.,  appeared  between  the  years  1S36 
and  1847.  The  second  and  third  editions  of  tha 
work,  each  in  succession,  gave  remarkable  prooa 
of  the  extraordinary  seal  with  which  Dr  P.  pa^ 
sued  his  ethnological  investigations;  and  n<4 
only  so,  for  at  the  same  time  he  devoted  iumaeH 
much  to  the  pursuit  of  philology,  which  hs  nghtly 


PRICKLE-PRroEAUX. 


judged  to  be  absolnteW  necessary  to  an  enlarged 
fituoy  of  ethnology,     in  a  few  years,  he  became 
acquainted,  not  only  with  the  Teutonic  and  Celtic 
languages,  but  with  Sanscrit,  Hebrew,  and  Arabic ; 
shewing  a  practical  result  of  his  studies  in  the  pub- 
lication of  his  work  entitled  The  Ba&tem  Origin 
of  the  Celtic  NaUtms.     In  this  publication,  which 
appeared    at  Oxford  in  1831,   ne   compared   the 
different  dialects  of  the  Celtic  with  the  Sanscrit, 
Greek,  Latin,  and  Teutonic  languages,  and  succeeded 
in  proving  a  strong  affinity  between  them  all,  from 
which  he  argued  in  faronr  of  a  common  origin  for 
all  the  peoples  speaking   those   languages.     His 
theory  has  met  with  general  acceptation  ;  and  the 
work  in  which  it   appeared,  says  Mr  Norris,  *i8 
admitted  by  the  most  distiuffuished  philologists  to 
be  unsurpassed  in  ability  ana  soundness,  while  not 
a  few  deem  it  to  be  that  which  has  made  the 
greatest  advance  in  comparative  philology  during 
the  present  century.*     A  previous  work — ^namely, 
his  Analif$is  o/JBgifptian  Mythology^  first  published 
in  1819,  had  the  honour  of  bein^  translated  into 
German  in  1837,  and  edited  by  A.  W.  Schlegel,  who, 
however,  took  occasion  to  dissent  from  some  of  the 
author's  views.    In  1843,  Dr  P.  published  the  first 
edition  of  his  Natural  History  of  Man^  in  2  vols. 
Two  other  editions  of  this  work  appeared  during 
the  author^s  lifetime ;  and  a  fourth,  ably  edited  and 
enlarged,  by  Mr  Edwin  Norris,  was  given  to  the 
world  in  1855.     Dr  P.*8  other  published  works  are 
for  the  most  part  on   medical    subjects — ^namely. 
History  of  the  Epidemic  Fevers  which  prevailed  in 
Bristol  during  the  years  1817,  1818,  and  1819,  pub- 
lished in  1820  ;  TrecUise  on  Dieeaeee  of  the  Nervous 
System  (1822) ;  A  Treatise  on  Insanity  and  other 
Diseases  affecUng  the  Mind   (1835);  and  On  the 
Different  Forms  of  Insamty  m  JRdation  to  Jurispru- 
dence (1842).      He  also  contributed  various  articles 
to  the  Cydopadia  of  Practical  Medicine  and  to  the 
Library  of  Medicine,    As  a  tribute  to  his  eminence 
as  an  ethnologist,  Dr  P.  was  elected  President  of 
the  Ethnological  Society;  while,  in  recognition  of 
his  researches  into  the  nature  and  various  forms  of 
insanity,  he  received  the  government  appointment 
of  Commissioner  in  Lunacy.    This  occasioned  his 
removal  from  Bristol  to  London,  where,  unfortu- 
nately for  the  interests  of  science,  he  expired  of 
rheumatic  fever,  on  the  22d  of  December  1848,  at 
the  comparatively  early  age  of  62.    Dr  P.'s  fame  as 
the  greatest  of  ethnologists,  which,  during  his  life- 
time, was  universally  aduiowledffed,  remains  undis- 
turbed to  this  da3^,  notwithstanding  any  difference 
of  opinion  as  to  his  favourite  doctrine  of  the  unrhr 
of  the  human  race,  which  he  constantly  upheld,    fife 
was  the  first  to  raise  ethnology  to  uie  rank  of  a 
science,  and  in  his  work.  The  Physical  History  of 
Mankind,  he  has  left  behind  him  a  noble  monument 
of  his  genius,  skill,  and  perseveranceti 

PRICKLE  (Aculeus)t  in  Botany,  a  strong  and 
hard,  eloncRited  and  pointed  hair.  See  Haibs,  in 
Botany. — ^Tne  prickle  is  connected  only  with  the 
bark,  and  not  with  the  wood,  in  which  it  essen- 
tially differs  from  the  spine  or  thorn.  Prickles  are 
sometimes  straight,  sometimes  curved.  They  have 
often  a  pretty  extended  base — of  some  definite  shape 
— by  which  they  are  attached  to  the  bark. 

PRICKLT  HEAT  is  the  popular  name  in 
India  and  other  tropical  countries  for  a  severe  form 
of  the  skin-disease  known  as  Lichen.  It  more  fre- 
quently attacks  strangers  from  temperate  climates 
tlian  the  natives,  althon^h  the  latter  are  not 
alto^retlier  exempt  from  it.  The  sensations  of 
itching  and  stinging  which  attend  it  are  intense, 
and  give  rise  to  an  almost  irresistible  propensity  to 
scratching,  which   of  coarse  only  aggravates   the 


irritation.  Little  or  nothiug  can  be  done  in  the  way 
of  treatment,  except  keeping  as  cool  as  possible  • 
but  the  remedies  recommended  in  the  article 
LiGHSN  may  perhaps  slightly  alleviate  the  symptoms. 

PRICKLY  PEAR,  or  INDIAN  FIG  (Opuntia), 
a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural  order  Caeteoi  (q.  v.), 
having  a  fleshy  stem,  generally  formed  of  com- 
pressM  articulations,  sometimes  of  cylindrical  arti- 
culations ;  leafless,  except  that  the  youngest  shoots 
produce  small  cylindrical  leaves,  which  soon  f^  off; 
generally  covered  with  clusters  of  strong  hairs  or 
of  prickles;  the  flowers  springing  from  among, the 
clusters  of  prickles,  or  from  tne  margin  or  summit 
of  the  articulations,  solitary,  or  corymboso-panicu- 
late,  generally  yellow,  rarely  white  or  rea ;  the 
fruit  resembling  a  fig  or  pear,  with  clusters  of 
prickles  on  the  skin,  mucilaginous,  generally  eat- 
able— ^that  of  some  species  pleasant,  Siat  of  others 
insipid.  The  fruit  imparts  a  red  colour  to  the 
urine.  The  prickles  of  some  species  are  so  strong, 
and  their  stems  grow  up  in  such  number  and 
strength,  that  thev  are  used  for  hedge-plants  in 
warm  countries. — The  Common  P.  P.  or  L  F.  (0. 
vulgaris) t  a  native  of  Virginia  and  more  southern 
parts  of  North  America,  is  now  naturalised  in  lAauy 
parts  of  the  south  of  Europe  and  north  of  Africa, 
and  in  other  warm  countries.  It  grows  well  on  the 
barest  rocks,  and  spreads  over  expanses  of  volcanic 
sand  and  ashes  too  arid  for  almost  any  other  planl 
It  is  of  humble  growth  ;  its  fruit  oval,  rather  larger 
than  a  hen's  egg,  yellow,  and  tinged  with  pur^e, 
the  pulp  red  or  purple,  juicy,  and  pleasantly  com- 
bining; sweetness  with  acidity.  It  is  extensively 
used  in  many  countries  as  a  substantive  article  of 
food.  In  the  south  of  England,  the  P.  P.  lives  in 
the  open  air,  and  occasionally  ripens  its  fruit.  In 
America,  it  is  cultivated  considerably  to  the  north 
of  its  native  r^on.  Lime  rubbish  is  often  mixed 
with  the  soil  m  which  it  is  to  be  planted.  The 
fruit  is  imported  into  Britain,  to  a  small  extent, 
from  the  Mediterranean.— The  Dwabf  P.  P.  (0. 
na9)a),  very  similar,  but  smaller,  and  having  prostrate 
stems,  is  naturalised  in  Europe  as  far  north  as  the 
sunny  slopes  of  the  Tyrol— The  Tcjna  (0.  tuna), 
much  used  in  some  parts  of  the  West  Indies  as  a 
hedge-plant,  and  also  valuable  as  one  of  the  species 
which  afford  food  to  the  cochineal  insect,  yields  a 
pleasant  fruit.  It  has  red  flowers,  with  loug 
stamens,  which  display  a  remarkable  irritability. 

PRIDE,  in  Heraldry.  A  peacock,  or  other  bird, 
when  the  tail  is  spread  out  in  a  circular  form,  and 
the  wings  dropped,  is  said  to  be  '  in  his  pride.' 

PRIDEAUX,  HuMPHBET,  an  Endish  scholar 
and  divine,  was  bom  of  an  ancient  and  honourable 
family  at  Padstow,  in  Cornwall,  May  3,  16^  He 
was  educated  first  at  Westminster  School,  under  Dr 
Busby ;  and  afterwards  at  Christ  Church,  Oxford, 
where  he  took  the  degree  of  B.A.  in  1672.  In 
1676,  he  published  an  account  of  the  Arundelian 
Marbles,  under  the  title  of  Marmora  Oxoniensia, 
which  greatly  increased  his  fame  as  a  scholar,  and 
in  the  following  year,  took  the  degree  of  M.A. 
The  Marmora  procured  for  P.  the  friendship  of  the 
Lord  Chancellor  Finch  (afterwards  Earl  of  Notting- 
ham), who,  in  1679,  appointed  him  rector  of  St 
Clement's  at  Oxford,  ana,  in  1681,  a  prebendary  of 
the  cathedral  of  Norwich.     After  several  minor 

Sreferments  he  was  collated,  in  1638,  to  the  arch- 
eaconiy  of  Suffolk ;  and  in  1702,  was  made  Dean 
of  Norwich.  He  died  November  1,  1724.  His 
principal  works  are,  his  Life  qf  Mahomet  (1697), 
whidi  was  long  very  ix)pular,  and  has  gone  through 
many  editions,  but  is  now  entirely  superseded ;  and 
The  Connection  qf  the  History  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testament  (1715—1718).    The  last  of  these  treats 

ff6 


PRBSSSNITZ-PEIEST. 


with  much  learning,  but  less  diBoemment,  the  affiun 
of  ancient  Egypt,  Aasyria,  Persia,  Judea,  Greece,  and 
Rome,  as  far  as  they  bear  on  the  subject  of  sacred 
prophecy.  P.  was  a  sealous  but  not  an  intolerant 
churchman,  most  conscientious  in  the  discharge  of 
his  own  duties,  equally  anxious  that  others  should 
do  theirs,  and  possessed  of  a  considerably  greater 
•hare  of  piety  than  was  usual  in  his  age. 

PRIE8SNITZ,  Vincent,  the  founder  of  Hydro- 
pathy (q.  T.),  was  bom  at  Grttfenberg  (q.  v.),  in 
Austrian  Silesia,  October  6,  1799.    He  was  the  son 
of  a  peasant-proprietor,  and  received  at  the  school 
of  Freiwaldau  an  education  suitable  to  his  station, 
and  afterwards   farmed  his  paternal    estate.      It 
api)ear8  that  a  neighbour,  who  had  been  in  the  way 
ot  healing  trifling  wounds  on  himself  and  others  b^ 
means  of  cold  water,  treated  P.  successfully  in  this 
way  for  a  serious  injury  from  the  kick  of  a  horse ; 
and  P.,  having  thus  had  his  attention  directed  to 
the  virtues  of  cold  water,  and  being  indisputably 
possessed  of  great  sharpness  of  inteUect  and  apti- 
tude for  the  practice  of  the  healing  art,  began  to 
give   advice    to  his  neighbours  how  to  cure    all 
ailments  with  cold  water,  and  soon  attained  con- 
siderable renutation  among  them.    Although  several 
times  brougnt  before  the  authorities  for  unlicensed 
practising,   the  simplicity  of  the  means   he  used 
made  it  impossible  to  interfere  with  him.    As  the 
number  of  applicants  for  advice  went  on  increasing, 
he  gradually  came,  by  experimental  modifications  of 
the  way  of  applying  his  remedy,  to  form  a  kind  of 
system  of  treatment  for  the  various  cases  that  pre- 
sented themselves.    At  last,  about  1826,  strangers 
began  to  repair  to  Gr&fenberg,  and  stay  there  for 
some  time  for  treatment ;  in  1829,  there  were  as 
many  as  49  water-patients,  and  in  1837,  the  number 
had  risen  to  586.     P.  continued  till  1833  to  carry 
on  his  farming ;  but  after  that,  his  pnvctice,  and  the 
care  of  the  establishments  which  he  had  to  provide 
for  the  reception   and  treatment  of  his  ]>atients, 
fully  occupied  him.     He  died  November  28,  1851, 
leaving  his  establishment  to  his  son-in-law.     Very 
different  judgments  have  been  pronounced  on  the 
character  of  JP.  and  his  system  of  treatment,  mostly 
according  to  the  prejudices  of  the  critics.     He  him- 
self has  left  nothing  in  writing  on  his  method  of 
cure. — Wunde,  Die  Urdf.  WasscrheilanstaU  und  die 
F.'sche  Curmethode  (6th  ed.  Leip.  1845). 

•  PRIEST  (Gr.  presbyteros,  Lat.  presbyter,  Fr. 
pritre),  the  title,  in  its  most  ceueral  si^ification, 
of  a  minister  of  public  worship,  but  speci^ly  applied 
to  the  minister  of  sacrifice  or  other  mediatorial 
offices.  In  the  early  history  of  mankind,  the  func- 
tions of  the  priest  seem  to  have  commonly  been 
discharged  by  the  head  of  each  family  ;  but  on  the 
expansion  of  the  family  into  the  state,  the  office  of 

Snest  became  a  pubho  one,  which  absorbed  the 
uties  as  well  as  the  privileges  which  before 
belonged  to  the  heads  of  the  separate  families  or 
communities.  It  thus  came  to  pass  that  in  many 
instances  the  priestly  office  was  associated  with 
that  of  the  sovereign,  whatever  might  be  the  par- 
ticular form  of  sovereignty.  But  in  many  religious 
and  political  bodies,  also,  the  orders  were  maintained 
in  complete  independence,  and  the  priests  formed  a 
distinct,  and,  generally  speaking,  a  privileged  class 
(see  Egyptian  Priests,  Indian  Priests,  below).  The 
priestly  order,  in  most  of  the  ancient  religions, 
included  a  graduated  hierarphy ;  and  to  the  chief, 
whatever  was  his  title,  were  assigned  the  most 
solemn  of  the  religious  offices  in&nsted  to  the 
body.  In  sacred  mstory,  the  patriarchal  period 
furnishes  an  example  of  the  family  priesthood; 
while  in  the  instance  of  Melchizedec,  king  of  Salem, 
we  find  the  union  of  the  royal  with  the  priestly 
756 


character.    In  the  Mosaic  law,  the  whole  theory  d. 
the  priesthood,  as  a  sacrificial  and  mediatoiial  office, 
is  fully  developed.      The  priest  of  the  Mosaic  Uw 
stands  in  the  position  of  a  mediator  between  God 
and  the  people ;  and  even  if  the  sacrifices  which  he 
offered  w  regarded  as  but  typical  and  prospectiTie 
in  their  monu  efficacy,  the  priest  most  be  conadeRd 
as  administering  them  with  full  authority  in  all 
that  regards  their  legal  value.    The  Mosaic  priest- 
hood was  the  inheritance  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  of 
the  tribe  of  Levi.     It  consisted  of  a  high  priest 
(q.  y.),  and  of  inferior  ministers,   distributed  into 
24  classes.    The  age  for  admission  to  the  priest- 
hood is    nowhere    expressly  fixed;   but  from  2d 
Chronicles  xxxi.  17,  it  would  seem  that  the  mini- 
mum age  was  20.    In  the  service  of  the  temple,  the 
priests  were  divided  into  24  claoaea,  each  of  which 
was  subject  to  a  chief  priest,  and  served,  each  com- 
pani^  for  a  week,  following  each  other  in  rotatioo. 
Their  duties  in  the  temple  consisted  in  preparing 
slaying,  and    offering  victims;    in    preparing  tb 
shew-bread,  burning  the  incense,  and  tending  the 
lights   of    the    sanctuary.      Outside,    they  were 
emuloyed  in  instructing  the  people,  attending  to  the 
daily  offerings,  enforcing  the  laws  regarding  kgal 
uncleanness,  &a     For  their  maintenance  were  set 
aside  certain  offerings  (see  Fibst-Fjeiuiis)  and  other 
gifts.    They  wore  a  distinguishing  dress,  the  chief 
characterisncs  of  which  were  a  white  tunic,  lo 
embroidered  cincture,  and  a  tmrban-ahaped  head- 
dress.    The  Jewish  priesthood  may  be  said  to  hare 
practically  ceased    with   the   destruction  ol  the 
temple. 

In  the  Christian  dispensation,  the  name  piimi- 
tively  given  to  the  public  ministers  of  rdigiffli 
was  presbyteroSf  of  which  the  English  name  *  phest' 
\b  but  a  form  derived  through  the  old  pRnch 
or  Norman  prestre.  The  name  siven  in  clasfucal 
Greek  to  the  sacrificing  priests  of  we  pagan  relifiioo, 
Gr.  hiereus,  Lat.  saeerdas,  is  not  found  in  the  Kew 
Testament  explicitly  applied  to  ministers  of  the 
Christian  ministry ;  but  very  early  in  ecdesiaatical 
use,  it  appears  as  an  ordinary  designation;  and 
with  all  those  bodies  of  Christians,  Roman  Csthohcs, 
Greeks,  Syrians,  and  other  orientals  who  regard 
the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice  (see  Mass),  the  tvo 
names  were  applied  indiscriminately.  The  priest- 
hood of  the  Chnstian  church  is  one  of  the  grades  of 
the  Hierarchy  (^.  v.),  second  in  order  only  to  that  of 
bishop,  with  which  order  the  priesthood  has  many 
functions  in  common.  The  priest  ia  regarded  ae  the 
ordinary  minister  of  the  Eucharist,  whether  as  a 
sacrament  or  as  a  sacrifice;  of  baptism,  penance, 
and  extreme  unction ;  and  although  the  contracting 
parties  are  held  in  the  modem  schools  to  be  them- 
selves the  ministers  of  marriage,  the  priest  is 
regarded  by  all  schools  of  Roman  divines  as  at  leasl 
the  normal  and  official  witness  of  its  celebration. 
The  priest  is  also  officially  charged  with  the  instroc- 
tion  of  the  people  and  the  direction  of  their  spiritnil 
concerns,  and  by  long-established  use,  special 
districts,  called  Parishes  (q.  v.),  are  assigned  to 
priests,  within  which  they  are  intrnsteii  with  the 
care  and  supervision  of  the  spiritual  wants  of  all 
the  inhabitants.  The  holy  order  of  priesthood  can 
only  be  conferred  by  a  bi^op,  and  he  is  ordinarily 
assisted  by  two  or  more  priests,  who,  in  common  with 
the  bishop,  impose  hands  on  the  candidate.  Tbe 
rest  of  the  ceremonial  of  ordination  consists  in 
investing  the  candidate  with  the  sacred  instrumenti 
and  ornaments  of  his  order,  anointing  his  hands, 
and  reciting  certain  prayers  significative  of  the  zifts 
and  the  duties  of  tne  office.  The  distiogmshing 
vestment  of  the  priest  is  the  chasuble  (Lat  planeta]. 
In  Roman  Catholic  countries,  priests  wear  eT«a  is 
public  a  dirtinctive  dressy  whi(»i,  however,  in  <ao< 


FRIBST. 


respects  is  common  to  them  with  the  other  orders 
of  the  cler^.  in  the  Latin  Church,  priests  are 
bouDd  to  a  life  of  celibacy.  In  the  Greek  and  oriental 
cb  arches,  married  men  may  be  advanced  to  the 
priesthood ;  but  do  one  is  permitted  to  marry  after 
ordination,  nor  is  a  married  priest  permitted  to 
marry  a  second  time,  should  his  wife  die. 

In  the  Church  of  England,  and  other  Reformed 
Episcopal  Churches,  the  term  priest  is  retained  as 
the  designation  of  the  second  order  of  clergy,  whose 
special  office  it  is  (1)  to  celebrate  the  Stocrament  of 
the  Lord*8  Supper ;  (2)  to  pronounce  the  forms  of 
Absolution  in  the  Morning  and  Evening  Prayer,  in 
the  Communion  Service,  and  in  the  Office  for  the 
Visitation  of  the  Sick ;  and  (3)  to  preach,  though ' 
this  last  office  is,  by  special  licence,  sometimes ! 
extended  to  deacons.  { 

Priests  only  can  hold  a  benefioe  with  cure  of 
souls.  The  age  for  admission  into  the  priesthood  is 
2 1-  years.  ( For  the  manner  and  ceremonies  of  admis- 
sion,  see  OBDiNATioir.)  Priests  in  the  Church  of 
England  are  ordinarily  distinguished  during  divine 
service  by  a  black  stole  of  silk  worn  upon  the  sur- 
plice over  both  shoulders.;  deacons,  according  to 
the  ancieut  use,  wearing  it  over  one  shonkler  only. 
Marriage  is  permitted  in  the  Church  of  England  to 
all  orders  of  the  clergy. 

Effyptian  Priests. — In    the   political  division  of 
Ecryut,  the  population  is  supposed  to  have  been 
divided  into  three  or  four  castes,  at  the  head  of 
which  was  the  sacerdotal,  or  priests.    This  division,  | 
however,  was  not  veiY  starictlv  observed,  as  the  son 
did  not  invariably  rollow  the    profession  of   the , 
father.    That  of  the  priest  appears  most  honourable, ; 
and  two  principal  classes  of  priests  were  in  existence  ' 
at  the  earliest  periods— the  hont^  or  prophets,  and  ' 
the  ab,  or  inferior  priests.    The  first  were  attached  < 
to  the  worship  of  all  the  deities  of  Egypt ;   and 
in  the    greater  cities,  there  was   hont  apt,  high  ! 
prophet,  or  priest,  who  presided  over  the  others ;  ' 
at  Thebes  there  were  as  many  as  four  prophets  of 
AmmoD.    Their  duties  appear  to  have  comprised 
the  general  cultus  of  the  deity.    They  also  inter- . 
preted  the  oracles  of  the  temples.     Besides  the 
prophets  of  the  gods,  others  were  attached  to  the 
worship  of  the  king,  and  to  various  offices  connected 
with  the  administration  of  the  temples.    The  class  1 
of  priests  called  ab,  or  'pure,'  were  inferior,  and 
were  also  attached  to  the  principal  deities  and  to 
the  personal  worship  of  the  monarch.    They  were  • 

E resided   over  by  a  superintendent,  but  had  no  ' 
igh  priest.    A  third  class  of  priests,  the  karheb, ', 
appear  in  connection  with  funeral  and  other  cere- 
monies,  and  some   other  inferior  persons   of   the 
hierarchy.     The  scribes  formed  a  caste  apart,  but 
those  who  were  attached  to  the  temple  were  of  the 
priestly  order.     Besides   these  above   mentioned,  | 
the  Greeks  enumerate  a  variety  of  sacred  officials. 
The  administration  of  the  temples  by  the  hierarchy  ; 
"waa  as  follows :    the  temple  was  governed  by  a 
superintendent,  or  epistetes^  called  in  Egyptian  fii«r, 
either  the  high  priest  or  a  prophet.      Under  him 
was  a  vicar,  and  a  royal  officer,  called  epimdeies,  or 
overseer,  by  the  Greeks.     These  attended  to  the 
receipts  and  expenses.    Lay  brethren,  or  hierodtdes^ 
attended  and  assisted  the  priests  in  their  functions ; 
and  in  addition  to  these,  there  were  a  kind  of  monks 
ill  the  Serapeium,  who  lived  within  the  precincts 
of    the  temple,  which  they  were  not  allowed  on 
any  account  to  quit.      At  Alexandria,  under  the 
Ptolemies,  there  was  a  priest  of   Alexander  the 
Oreat,  and  others  attached  to  the  worship  of  the 
deceased  Ptolemies,  and  also  one  attached  to  the 
i^'orship  of  the  living  monarch.      This  priest»  it 
appears,  was  nominated  by  the  king  himself,  and 
drew  a  revenue  from  the  different  temples  of  Egypt 


He  was  at  this  period  the  high  priest  of  the  whole 
country,  and  had  no  doubt  superseded  the  formef 
high  priest  of  Ptah  at  Memphis,  and  of  Amen-Ra  at 
Thebes,  who  had  formerly  exercised  a  kind  of  ponti- 
ficate. On  solemn  occasions  a  sjmod  of  the  priests 
was  held  for  purposes  affecting  the  whole  body. 
Some  lifl^ht  has  oeen  thrown  on  the  relative  dignities 
of  the  hierarchy  by  the  hieroglyphical  inscription  on 
a  statue  of  Bakenkhonsou,  a  nigh  priest  of  Amen- 
Ra,  now  at  Munich.  At  the  age  of  16,  he  held  a 
civU  employment  under  Sethoe  L ;  he  was  then 
made  pnest  <tb  of  Amen-Ra,  which  office  he  exer- 
cised for  four  years ;  after  this,  he  rose  to  the 
rank  of  '  divine  father '  of  the  god,  which  office  he 
held  for  12  years;  after  that,  he  became  third 
prophet  of  the  same  deity  for  16  years ;  then  second 
prophet  for  12  years  ;  and  finally,  at  the  age  of  59, 
chief  prophet  or  high  priest  of  the  god— -held  the 
post  jfor  27  years,  and  died  at  the  age  of  86.  The 
youthful  age  at  which  offices  were  held  was  prob- 
ably owing  to  the  careful  education  which  the 
young  priests  had  to  undeigo^  and  the  habits 
required  for  the  order.  They  were  required  to  be 
scrupulously  neat  and  dean,  entirely  shaven,  clad  in 
linen,  and  shod  with  papyrus  sandals,  and  to  main- 
tain a  rigid  diet,  in  whicn  was  a  careful  abstaining 
from  pork,  mutton,  beans,  and  salt,  to  which  was 
added  a  bath  twice  a  day,  and  other  ablutions. 
They  also  fasted,  and  one  of  their  fasts  lasted  42 
days;  others  even  longer;  they  then^  lived  on 
vegetable  food  alone,  and  exercised  a  rigid  conti- 
nence. They  were,  however,  not  unmarried,  but 
allowed  one  wif&  Their  support  was  derived  from 
various  sources — as  from  royal  and  other  endow- 
ments of  the  temples,  from  the  gifts  of  votaries, 
and  from  charges  on  the  produce  of  the  country. 
On  festivals,  not  only  were  they  often  clad  in  fine 
linen,  but  the  addition  of  a  panther-skin  was  often 
added  to  their  attire ;  and  they  were  anointed  with 
perfumes  and  unguents.  ^BY  offered  water  and 
burning  incense.  Although  Herodotus  has  stated 
that  no  woman  was  a  priestess  in  Egypt,  many 
functions  connected  with  the  temples  were  held 
by  women.  The  most  important  was  that  of 
*  divine  wife  of  Amen-Ra,'  called  by  Diodorus  the 
paUakis,  or  concubine,  of  Jupiter,  which  was  con- 
ferred upon  queens  and  princesses  onlv.  Another 
title  was  that  of  *  divine  hand,*  or  adorer  of  the 
same  god,  a  rank  also  held  by  royal  personages. 
During  the  4th  dynasty,  at  the  time  of  Cheops  and 
the  pyramids,  there  were  prophetesses;  but  the 
order  does  not  appear  to  have  been  kept  up,  for  at 
a  later  period  there  only  appear  the  sua,  or  singing 
women  of  the  ^ods,  and  tne  aAo,  or  performers,  of 
the  principal  deities,  who  attended  with  sistra  at  the 
festivals.  Besides  these,  other  women  had  charge 
of  certain  things  connected  with  the  temple,  and 
canephoroi,  or  basket-bearers.  They  had  no  distinc- 
tive dress,  and  were  often  the  wives  of  prophets  or 
other  priests. — ^Boeck,  Corp.  Inscr,  Orcec^  p.  xxix., 
p.  303 ;  Schmidt,  De  Sacerdot.  jE^yptior. ;  Wilkinson, 
Manners  and  Customs,  voL  L  p.  257',  Dev6ria« 
Monument  de  Bakenkhonsou  (Paris,  1862). 

Indian  Priests. — The  priesthood  of  India  belongs 
to  the  first  caste,  or  that  of  the  Br&hman'as  exclu- 
sively ;  for  no  member  either  of  the  Kshattriya  ot 
the  Vais'ya,  or  the  S'ddra  caste  is  allowed  to 
perform  the  functions  of  a  priest.  But  as  the 
proper  performance  of  such  functions  requires,  even 
m  a  Br&hman'a,  the  knowledge  of  the  sacred  texts 
to  be  recited  at  a  sacrifice,  and  of  the  complicated 
ceremonial  of  which  the  'sacrificial  acts  consist, 
none  but  a  Brfthman'a  learned  in  one  or  more 
Vedas  (q.  v.),  and  versed  in  the  works  treating 
of  the  ritual  (see  Kalpa-S^tura),  possesses,  accord- 
ing to  the  ancient  law,  the  qualification  of  a  priest ; 


PRIEST—PBIESTLEY. 


and  BO  strict,  in  ancient  times,  were  the  obligations 
imposed  upon  a  priest,  that  any  defective  knowledge 
OP  his  part,  or  anj  defective  performance  by  him 
of  the  sacrificial  ntes,  was  supposed  to  entail  npon 
him  the  most  serious  consequences  both  in  this  life 
and  in  the  future.  As  the  duration  of  a  Hindu 
sacrifice  varies  from  one  to  a  hundred  days,  the 
number  of  priests  required  at  such  a  ceremony  is 
likewise  stated  to  be  varying ;  again,  as  there  are 
sacri^cial  acts  at  which  verses  from  the  R'igveda 
only  were  recited,  others  requiring  the  inaudible 
muttering  of  verses  from  the  Yajurveda  only; 
others,  again,  at  which  verses  only  of  the  S&maveda 
were  chanted ;  and  others,  too,  at  which  all  these 
three  Vedas  were  indispensable — there  were  priests 
who  merely  knew  and  practised  the  ritual  of  the 
K'igveda,or  the  Yajurveda,  or  the  Silmaveda;  while 
there  were  others  who  had  a  knowledge*of  all  these 
Vedas  and  their  rituals.  The  full  contingent  of 
priests  required  at  the  great  sacrifices  amounts 
to  16.  Other  inferior  assistants  at  a  sacrifice, 
such  as  the  ladle-holders,  slayers,  choristers,  and 
the  like,  are  not  looked  upon  as  priests.  Such 
was  the  staff  of  priests  required  at  the  great 
and  solemn  sacrifices,  which  took  place  on  special 
occasions,  and  could  be  instituted  only  by  very 
wealthy  people ;  from  one  to  four  priests,  however, 
sufficed  at  the  minor  sacrifices,  or  those  of  daily 
occurrence.  These  were  the  rules  and  practices 
when  the  Hindu  ceremonial  obeyed  the  canon  of 
the  Vaidik  ritual ;  and  the  latter  probably  still 
prevailed  at  the  epic  period  of  India,  though  many 
deviations  from  it  are  perceptible  in  the  MahAbhflrata 
and  R&m&yan'a  (q.  v.).  But  at  the  PanrAn'ik  period, 
and  from  that  time  downwards,  when  the  stud^  of 
the  Vedas  had  fallen  into  disuse,  and  the  Vaidik 
rites  had  made  room  for  other  ceremonies  which 
required  no  knowledge  on  the  part  of  a  priest, 
except  that  of  the  reading  of  a  prayer-book,  and  an 
acquaintance  with  the  obeervanoes  enjoined  by  the 
PuHln'as,  but  easy  to  go  through,  almost  every 
BrAhman,  not  utterly  ignorant,  became  qualified  to 
be  a  priest. — For  the  priesthood  of  the  Buddhists, 
Jainas,  and  Tibetans,  see  Btjddhism,  Jainajb,  and 
Lamaisic 

PRIESTLEY,  Joseph,  son  of  Jonas  Priestley,  a 
cloth-draper  at  Fieldhead,  near  Leeds,  was  born  at 
Fieldhead  on  13th  March  1733,  O.S.  His  mother 
having  died  when  he  was  six  years  old,  he  was 
adopted  by  an  aunt,  by  whom  he  was  sent  to  a  free 
school  There  he  learned  Latin  and  Greek.  During 
vacation,  he  taught  himself  various  languages,  both 
ancient  and  modem.  For  some  time  he  was  obliged 
to  abandon  his  studies,  owing  to  weak  health :  he 
then  betook  himself  to  mercantile  pursuits.  With 
returning  strength,  his  literary  studies  were 
resumed,  and  successfully  prosecuted  at  a  dissent- 
ing academy  at  Daventry  under  Mr  (afterwards  Dr) 
Asnworth,  successor  to  I>r  Doddridge.  Though  his 
father  and  aunt  were  strong  Calvinists,  their  nouse 
was  the  resort  of  many  men  who  held  very  different 
opinions ;  and  the  theological  discussions  which  he 
was  in  the  habit  of  hearing,  seem  to  have  had  much 
effect  on  young  P. :  before  he  was  19,  he  calls  him- 
self rather  a  Wiever  in  the  doctrines  of  Arminius, 
but  adds :  '  I  had  by  no  means  rejected  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  or  that  of  the  Atonement.'  Before 
leaving  home,  he  wished  to  join  a  Calvinistic  com- 
munion, but  he  was  refused  admission,  the  ground 
of  refusal  being,  that  he  had  stated  doubts  as  to  the 
liability  of  the  whole  human  race  to  *  the  wrath  of 
God  and  pains  of  hell  for  ever.*  During  his  residence 
at  the  academy,  he  conceived  himself  called  on  to 
renounce  nearly  all  the  theological  and  metaphysi- 
cal opinions  of  his  youth.  *  I  came,*  he  savs,  '  to 
embrace  what  is  called  the  heterodox  side  of  every 
758 


question.'    In  1756,  be  became  minister  to  s  nuQ 
congregation  at  Needham  Market,  in  Suffolk,  with 
an  average  salaiy  of  £30  per  annum.    While  here, 
he    composed    his   work    entitled    Tke  Seriphtn 
Doctrine  o/Bemiashn,  wlueh  gkewa  that  Uie  Death  oj 
Christ  is  no  proper  Sacriike  nor  SaHs/aetiumfor  SU. 
His  leading  theolo^cal  aoctrine  seems  to  hareheeo, 
that  the  £ble  is  mdeed  a  divine  revelation,  made 
from  Ood  to  man  through  Christ,  himself  a  mat 
and  no  more,  nor  claiming  to  be  morei    He  aeems 
to    have   rejected   all    theological    dognus  whidb 
appeared  to  him  to   rest  solely  upon  the  inta- 
pretation  put  npon  certain  passages  of  the  Bible 
oy  ecclesiastical  authority.    Kvea  the  fundamental 
doctrines  of  the  Trinity  and  of  the  Atonement 
he  did   not  consider  as  warranted   by  Seriptnie, 
when  read  by  the  light  of  his  own  heart  and  lmde^ 
standing.    It  does  not,  however,  apnear  that  tbeu 
doctrinal  errors,  produced  any  monuly  evil  resoltB. 
He  not  only  contrived  to  live  on  £30  a  year;  bnt 
by  adding  a  little  to  his  income  by  means  of  teach* 
ing,  he  was  enabled  to  purchase  a  variety  of  inskni- 
ments  to  help  him  in  his  scientific  studies.  Id  17oS, 
he  quitted  ifeedham  for  Nantwich ;  and  in  1761  be 
removed  to  Warrington,  where  he  was  appointed 
successor  to  Mr  (afterwards  Dr)  Aikin,  as  teacher 
of  languages  and  belles-lettres.    At  Warrington,  be 
marrira  Miss  Wilkinson,  a  lady  of  great  taunt  and 
amiability.     Here  his  literaiy  career  may  be  said 
first  fairly  to  have  begun.    A  visit  to  London  led 
to  his  making  the  acquaintance  of  Franklin  and  of 
Dr  Price.      The  former  supplied  him  with  books 
which  enabled  him  to  writohis  History  and  PretaU 
State  of  Electricity,  published  in  1767.    It  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  woi'k  (m  ViMon^  Light,  and  Colours.  In 
1762,  he   published  his   Theory  t^  Langwi/ge  asi 
Universal  Orammar.     In  1766,   he  was  made  a 
member  of  the  Royal  Society,  and  a  Doctor  of  Lava 
by  the  university  of  Edinbni^h.     In  the  following 
year,  he  removed  to  Millhill,  near  Leeds,  where  be 
was  appointed  minister  of  a  dissenting  chapel  The 
fact  of  a  brewery  being  beside  his  dweUing  gave  a 
new  direction  to  his  energetic  and  versatile  mind; 
he  began  to  study  pneumatic  chemistry,  pahlisbiiig 
various  important  works  connected  with  this  scienca. 
*  No  one,*  says  Dr  Thomson,  '  ever  entered  oo  the 
study  of  chemistry  with  more  disadvantages  than 
Dr  raestley,  and  yet  few  have  occupied  a  mote 
dignified  station  in  it.'    While  at  Leeds,  he  agreed 
to  accompany  Captain  Cook  on  his  second  voyage; 
but  certain  ecclesiastics    having  objected  to  the 
latitude  of   his   theological  views,  the   Board  of 
Longitude   refused   to  sanction  tiie  arrangement, 
and  he  did  not  go.    In  1773,  he  was  appointed 
librarian  and  litenry  oompanion  to  Lord  Shdban, 
with  a  salary  of  £250  per  annum,  and  a  separate 
residence.      He  accompanied  the  eari  on  a  cooti- 
nental  tour  in  the  year  1774     Having  been  told 
by  certain  Parisian  savans  that  he  was  the  only 
man  th^  had  ever  known,  of  any  undeistanding, 
who  believed  in  Christianity,  he  wrote,  in  reply,  tl» 
Letters  to  a  Philosophical  (InbeUever,  and  various 
other  works,  containing  criticisms  on  tiie  doctrines 
of  Hume  and  others.      His  public  position  was 
rather  a  hard  one ;  for  whUe  laughed  at  in  Faiii 
as  a  believer,   at  home   he  was  branded  as  au 
atheist     To  escape  the  odium  arising  from  thr 
latter  imputation,  ne  published,  in  1777,  his  Dispti 
sUion  Rdatinff  to  Matter  and  SpiriL     In  this  work, 
while  he  partly  materialises  spirit,  he  at  the  tame 
time  partly  spiritualises  matter.    He  holds,  how- 
ever, that  our  hopes  of  resurrection  must  rest  solely 
on  the  truth  of  the  Christian  revelation,  and  that 
on  science  they  have  no  foundation  whatever.    The 
doctrines  of  a  Revelation  and  a  Resurrection  anpev 
with   him  to   have  supported  one   anothei     Us 


PRILOXJKY— PRIMOGENrnmE. 


I>elieved  in  a  ReTeUtion,  beoaufle  it   declared  a 
Besurrection ;  and  he  believed  in  a  Resurrection, 
becaiiae  he  found  it  declared  in  the  Revelation.    On 
leaving  Lord  Shelburn,  he  became  minister  of  a 
dissenting  chapel  at  Birmingham.    The  publication, 
in  1786,  of  his  Bistorjf  ofJCaHy  Optnione  eoneeming 
Jegus  Christt  occasioned  the  renewal  of  a  contro- 
versy, which  had  begun  in  1778,  between  him  and 
Dr  Horsley,  concerning  the  doctrines  of  Free  Will, 
Materialism,  and  Unitarianism.   The  victory  in  this 
controversy  will  probably  be  awarded  by  most  men 
in  accordance  with  their  own  preconceived  views  on 
the  questions  at  issue.    His  reply  to  Burke's  B^flec- 
tioM  on  the  Frendi  RecolvtUm  led  to    his  beinff 
made  a  citizen  of  the  French  Republic ;  and  this  led 
to  a  mob  on  one  occasion  breaking  into  his  house, 
and  destroying  all  its  contents,  books,  manuscripts, 
scientific  instruments,  &c.    He  states  that  the  sum 
awanied  to  him  as  damage  fell  £2000  short  of  the 
actual  pecuniary  loss.    A  brother-in-law,  however, 
about  this  time  left  him  £10,000,  with  an  annuity 
of  £200.    In   1791,  he  succeeded  to  the  charge  at 
Hackney,  which  had  become  vacant  by  the  resig- 
nation of  Dr  Price.    He  did  not  remain  lone  here, 
however.    His  honestly-avowed  opinions  had  made 
him  as  unpopular  as  an  honest  avowal  of  opinions 
generally  does.     He  removed  to  America,  where  he 
was  received  with  respect,  if  not  with  enthusiasm. 
He  had  the  offer  of  the  professorship  of  Chemistry 
at  Philadelphia,  which  he  declined.    In  1796,  his 
wife  died.     To  the  day  of  his  death,  he  continued  to 
pursue  his  literary  and  scientific  pursuits  with  as 
much  ardoiu:  as  he  had  shewn  at  any  period  of  his 
active  life.    He  died  6th  February  1804^  express- 
ing his  satisfaction  with  his  havine  led  a  life  so 
useful,  and  his  confidence  in  immort2£ty.   At  Paris, 
his  iloge  was  read  by  Cuvier  before  the  National 
Institute.       He  has  given  us  his   autobiography 
down  to  24th  March  1795.    He  was  a  man  of  irre- 
proachable moral  and  domestic  character,  remarkable 
for  zeal  for  truth,  patience,  and  serenity  of  temper. 
He  appears  to  have  been  fearless  in   proclaiming 
his   convictions,   whether  theological,  political,  or 
scientific.     See  Memoirs  of  his  own  life,  continued 
by  his  son  with  observations  by  T.  Cooper.    Also 
life  by  John  Corry. 

PRILOU'KY,  a  district  town  of  Little  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Poltava,  and  150  miles  north- 
west of  the  town  of  that  name.  Tobacco,  corn, 
cattle,  and  tallow  are  the  principal  articles  of  trade, 
and  are  sold  on  the  spot  to  dealers  for  export  to 
Moscow,  St  Petensbiu^,  Riga,  Poland,  and  abroad. 
The  climate  is  good,  and  the  soil  fertile.  Pop. 
10,484,  most  of  whom  are  engaged  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  tobacco. 

PBI'M A  DO'NNA  (ItaL),  the  first  female  singer 
in  an  oi)era. 

PRIMARY  or  PRIMITIVE  LIMESTONE, 
the  name  formerly  given  to  crvstalline  limestones, 
becaui^e  it  was  supposed  that  they  belonged  to  the 
oldest  ])rimary  dejiosits.  But  as  it  is  now  known 
that  many  of  these  limestones  are  of  much  later 
origin,  some  even  as  late  as  the  Tertiary  Period,  the 
name  has  fallen  into  disuse.    See  Marble. 

PBI'MATE  (Lat  primus^  ¥r,  primai,  first)  is 
the  title  of  that  grade  in  the  hierarchy  which  is 
immediately  below  the  rank  of  patriarch.  The 
title  Ftrictly  belongs  to  the  Latin  Church,  but  in  its 
general  use  it  corresponds  with  that  of  exarch  (Gr. 
eaoarchoa)  in  the  Greek  Church,  although  there  were 
Bome  exarchs  who  were  not  immediately  subject  (as 
-were  all  primates)  to  a  patriarch.  This  arose  in  l^e 
Gastem  Church  from  the  variation  in  the  limits  of 
the  patriarchates,  which  were  not  of  simultaneous 
origin ;  but  in  the  West,  where  the  patriarch  (i  e.. 


the  Roman  bishop)  was  recognised  as  possessing 
universal  jurisdiction,  this  exemption  of  any  par- 
ticular primate  from  superior  jurisdiction  could  not 
of  coarse  arise.  The  primate,  as  such,  was  th^* 
head  of  a  iMurticular  church  or  country,  and  held 
rank,  and,  in  some  churches,  a  certain  degree  of 
jurisdiction,  over  all  bisho|)s  and  archbishops  within 
the  national  church.  This  jurisdiction,  however,  was 
confined  to  the  right  of  visitation  and  of  receiving 
appeals.  In  Africa,  the  Bishop  of  Carthage,  without 
tne  title,  possessed  all  the  rank  and  authority  of  a 
primate.  The  chief  primatial  sees  of  the  West 
were :  in  Spain,  Seville  and  Tarragona,  afterwards 
united  in  Toledo ;  in  France,  Aries.  Hheims,  Lyon, 
and  Rouen  (among  whom  the  Archbishop  of  Lyon 
claims  the  title  of  I^rimat  dea  PriTtuttSt  *  Primate  of 
the  Primates  *) ;  in  England,  Canterbury ;  in  Ger- 
many, Mainz,  Salzbuig,  and  Trier ;  in  Ireland, 
Armagh,  and  for  the  Pale,  Dublin ;  in  Scotland,  St 
Andrews  ;  in  Hungary,  Gran  ;  in  Poland,  Gnesen  ; 
and  in  tiie  northern  kingdoms,  Lund.  In  the 
Church  of  England  the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury 
is  staled  Primate  of  all  England ;  the  Archbishop  of 
York,  Primate  of  England* 

In  Ireland,  the  Ardibishop  of  Armagh  is  Primate 
of  all  Ireland,  and  the  Archbishop  of  Dublin 
Primate  of  Ireland.  The  title  of  Primate  in  England 
and  Ireland  confers  no  jurisdiction  beyond  t^t  of 
archbishopi  The  name  prvnvua  is  apphed  in  the 
Scottish  Episcopal  Church  to  the  presiding  bishop. 
He  is  chosen  by  the  bishops  out  of  their  own  uum* 
her,  without  their  being  Dound  to  give  efi^ect  to 
seniority  of  consecration  or  precedency  of  diocese. 

PRIMATES,  the  name  given  by  Linnceus  to  the 
first  order  of  Mammalia  in  ms  system,  and  which  he 
placed  first  (whence  the  name,  Lat.  primus,  first), 
because  he  ranked  man  amongst  them,  and  accounted 
them  highest  in  the  scale  of  nature.  He  assigned 
as  the  characters  of  the  order,  incisor  teeth  in  the 
front  of  the  mouth,  four  in  the  upper  jaw,  in  one 
row;  mammaB  two,  pectoral.  In  this  order  he 
placed  four  genera,  Homo  (in  which  he  included 
man  and  the  orang-outang),  Simia,  Lemur,  and 
Vespertilio ;  corresponding  to  the  Bimana  (Man 
alone),  Quadrumana,  and  Cheiroptera  of  Cuvier. 
That  many  of  the  P.  of  Linnaeus  really  occupy  a 
higher  place  in  the  scale  of  nature,  either  as  to 
organisation  or  intelligence,  than  many  other 
Mammalia,  is  more  than  doubtful 

PRIME  (Lat.  prima,  the  first — ^i.  e.,  hour),  the 
first  of  the  so-called  *  lesser  hours '  of  the  Roman 
Bbeviabt  (q.  v.).  It  may  be  called  the  public 
morning-prayer  of  that  church,  and  corresponds  in 
substance  with  the  morning  service  of  the  other 
ancient  liturgies,  allowance  ^eing  made  for  Latin 
peculiarities.  Prime  commences  with  the  beautiful 
hymn  of  Prudentius,  Jam  luds  orto  Hdere,  which 
is  followed  b^  three,  and  occasionally  four  psalms, 
the  last  portion  of  which  consists  of  the  opening 
verses  of  the  118th  (in  the  authorised  version,  119th) 
psalm,  which  is  continued  throughout  the  rest  of 
the  'lesser  hours.'  Prime  concludes  with  prayers 
appropriate  to  the  beginning  of  a  Christian's  day. 

PRIMOGE'NITURE  is  the  rule  of  law  under 
which  the  eldest  son  of  the  family  succeeds  to  the 
father's  real  estate  in  preference  to,  and  in  abeiblute 
exclusion  of,  the  younger  sons  and  all  the  sisters. 
This  is  the  rule  adopted  in  Britain  and  in  most 
European  countries,  though  latterly  the  pohcy  of 
the  rule  has  been  disputed,  and  the  contrary  example 
of  France  pointed  to  as  an  example  or  a  warning, 
according  to  the  theory  advocated.  The  rule  operates 
as  follows :  whenever  a  man  dies  intestate,  leaving 
real  estate — i.  e.,  lands  and  houses — his  eldest  son  in 
the  only  person  entitled  by  law  to  the  whole ;  aud  ii 


FBDIOOENTnjRE— PEIMB06E. 


tlie  otber  brotbeT*  uid  tha  liitert  *re  not  otbarwue 

;roTided  for  out  of  the  penonnlity  they  are  left 
estitute.  If  the  eldest  bod  is  de«d,  bat  baa  left 
aa  elde^  Bon,  luch  gnndioD  of  tbe  deceased,  io  Lke 
maaner,  succeeds  to  the  whole  lands  exclusively,  and 
so  on,  followiDK  ii>  SDCcenion,  the  eldest  sons  of 
elJEst  soiis,  and  their  next  eldest  soni,  one  by  one, 
in  their  order  of  teniority.  But  when  the  male  line 
is  Bihansted,  then  femiljca  do  not  succeed  in  the 
same  wa^  sin);!;  and  by  leniority,  bat  all  together 
succeed  jointly.  Such  is  the  rule  in  England  and  in 
Scotlsind.  The  preference  of  males  to  females  was 
also  the  Jewish  rule  and  the  Greek  mle,  or  at  least 
that  which  prevailed  at  Athena ;  hut  it  was  unknown 
to  Uie  Komang.  It  is  generallv  said  our  preference 
of  males  took  its  origin  from  the  feudal  eystem,  by 
which  the  devolution  of  land  depended  on  the  per- 
sonal ahihty  of  the  party  to  perform  military  service. 
Onr  Danl^  ancestors  seem  not  to  have  acknow- 
ledged nny  preference  of  the  males,  hut  the  Saxons 
did  BO.  Our  law  does  not,  like  the  Salic  law,  totally 
exclude  females,  but  merely  postpones  them  until 
the  males  are  exhausted.  Thouah,  however,  it  is 
the  gi-neral  law  of  England,  as  well  as  Scotland  and 
Iretsjid,  there  is  one  county  in  England,  that  of 
Kent,  where,  by  ancieot  custom— called  gavelkind — 
a  different  rule  prtvaila,  and  the  land,  instead  of 
going  wholly  to  the  eldest  son,  is  divided  equally 
among  all  the  sona.  So  there  is  an  eice])tion,  called 
Borough  English,  in  some  boroughs  and  cities  of 
England,  where  the  land,  instead  of  going  to  the 
eldest  HOD,  goes  wholly  to  the  youngest  son.  The 
evils  said  to  be  attendant  on  the  law  of  primogeni- 
ture are  alleged  to  be,  that  it  often  produces  great 
hardship,  by  making  one  of  the  family  enormously 
rich,  and  the  others  veiy  jioor,  thereby  introducing 
■  sense  of  inequality  and  injustice  among  those  who 
are  apt  to  believe  themselves  equals  by  the  law  of 
nature.  It  also  tends  to  encourage  the  accumula- 
tion of  landed  property  in  a  few  bands,  and  thereh;- 
cuta  off  the  great  mass  of  the  people  from  the 
gratification  of  a  natural  desire  and  from  one  incen- 
tive to  indnstr; — viz.,  the  acquisition  of  a  portion 
of  the  soil  On  the  other  band,  it  is  said  that  the 
cases  of  hardship  in  reality  seldom  occur,  for, 
eapecially  in  modem  times,  an  equal  amount  of 
personal  property  is  often  held  by  the  same  owners, 
and  the  rule  does  not  apply  to  peisonalty,  which 
is  equally  divided  among  ail  the  children.  More- 
over, the  great  landowners  seldom  die  intestate, 
but  almost  invariably  provide  for  their  younffer 
children  by  means  of  charges  or  burdens  on  the 
family  estate,  and  so  counteract  the  effect  of  the 
law  of  primogeniture.  The  accumulation  of  landed 
property  is  said  to  be  not  an  evil,  but  the  con- 
trary, for  it  enables  agriculture  to  flourish,  inas- 
much  as  the  hirger  the  farms,  the  greater  is  the 
capital  required,  and  the  greater  benefit  te  tiic  land, 
ftnd  ultimately  to  the  public  The  law  of  primo- 
ceuiture  io  England  is  not  as  it  is  or  was  in  Scot- 
Lind,  stereotyited  in  its  most  odious  form  by  the 
practice  of  entailing  the  lands,  and  so  locking  them 
np  for  generations  in  one  family,  secluding  them 
from  commerce,  and  of  necessity  preventing  the 
snccessive  heirs  in  poesession  from  making  improve- 
ments. The  evils  of  Uie  Scotoh  entail  system  have 
long  been  exposed,  and  led,  in  1848,  to  a  relaxation 
of  tne  law,  by  which  the  practice  of  disentailing  the 
property  is  made  more  ea^  and  frequent  But  in 
England,  land  cannot  be  locked  up  for  a  greater 
penod  tbim  the  lives  of  persons  in  existence,  and 
for  21  years  more,  after  which  the  parties  entitled 
can  sell  or  bring  the  lands  into  the  market  at  their 
discretion  ;  so  that  it  is  not  correct  to  say  that  the 
ocoumulition  of  land  in  the  great  families  is  caused 
by  the  law  of  primogeniture,  for  practically  each 
IW 


.  do  what  it  likes  with  te 
property,  and  squander  it  at  wilL  It  is  ontj  by  tU 
operation  of  the  natural  feelings  of  fanulj  jnd» 
that  the  family  estates  ore  kept  togetho  in  a  luiilf, 
The  mode  in  which  this  is  practicailv  done  in  Ew- 
land  is  ss  follows  ;  the  peer  or  head  of  tiK  tnmj 
being  tenant  lor  life,  and  the  inheritance  betog 
entaSed  upon  his  eldest  son,  who  is  iboat  to  msiTf, 
the  father  and  son  take  the  props  legsl  rt^pi 
(which  they  can  always  do  jointly)  for  nnsettliig 
the  estate,  and  obtoiniDg  the  absolnte  doniaim 
over  it.  They  tbeo  prooeed  to  reaetlla  ths  cstste, 
making  the  father  as  before  tenant  for  ble,  tbm  As 
son  is  reduced  in  his  torn  to  a  tenant  for  life  sb^ 
after  the  father,  instead  of,  as  before,  beingtenaatii 
tail,  or  full  proprietor.  Tfaua,  the  maiutenuice  of  lit 
family  digmty  is  secured  for  uiother  geaentiHi  by 
settling  the  inheritance  on  the  eldest  nule  iaue  il 
the  intended  fltorriage;  and  when  the  grandua 
attains  the  age  of  21,  or  is  about  to  marry,  he  tul 
his  father  act  in  the  same  way  towards  the  seit 
generation.  The  English  law  of  landed  pni]Wrty 
baa  been  said  to  answer  admirably  all  the  pDrpm* 
to  which  it  is  applicable,  for  a  testamentary  pmnr 
is  given  which  sbmulatas  industry,  and  enconni^ 
accumulation ;  and  while  capricious  limitatioDS.  neb 
OS  perpetual  entails,  are  restrained,  pro|)^y  il 
allowed  to  be  moulded  according  to  Uie  ciiciuib 
stances  and  wante  of  every  family. 

PRI'MBOSE  (Pnntula),  a  genus  of  plsnta  of  tiis 
natural  order  Primvlacea,  having  a  bellahaped  <x 
tubular  S-toothed  calyx,  a  salver-shaped  «>ki11b 
with  five  segments,  five  stamens,  a  globose  gemm 
containing  many  ovnies,  and  a  many-aeoled  capnlt 
opening  by  five  valves,  and  generally  witb  ten  teetli 
at   the    apex.      The    species   are    all   hcrb»otoiB 


with  BCBpes  bearing  solitary  flowers. 
of  them  are  natives  of  Europe  and  the  north  ot 
Asia.  Some  of  them  are  among  tlie  flncst  oru- 
menla  of  our  groves  and  meadows  ;  some  are  (mail 
in  mountainous  regions.  Tbeii  line  eoloun  sad 
soft  delicate  beauty  have  led  to  the  enltivalUB  il 


CMnmon  Primrose  (Priauda  VulgarUy 

some  of  them  as  garden  flowera,  mobably  bom  &• 

very  beginning  of  floricolturft  The  noma  P-  (ft- 
Prlmevire,  Lat  Primula)  is  derived  from  the  LiCiii 
primvt,  first,  and  refers  to  the  early  appesnoct  (J 
the  flowers  of  some  of  the  most  oommon  apeoi  i> 
spring.— The  Common  P.  {P.  vuigarit),  abandaat  in 
woods,  hedgebanks,  and  pastures  in  Britain  tai  a 
most  parte  of  Europe,  has  oborate-obl<»i|^  wrinkled 
leavea,  and  single- flowered  scapes ;  the  fiowen  iboit 
an  inch  broad.  yeUowiah  white.  This  is  the  plut  M 
which  tlia  English  name  P.  specially  belungs.  Aka 


P&IMULACEJfi— PRINGB  EDWARD  ISLAND. 


to  it  is  the  Cowslip  (q.  v.),  or  Paigls  (P.  verU), 
and  perhaps  still  more  nearly  related  is  the  Ozlip 
{P.  datior),  apparently  wild  in  some  puts  of 
England,  particularly  in  the  eastern  counties,  but 
supposed  oy  some  Dotanists  to  be  iotermediate 
between  the  Common  P.  and  the  Cowslip,  which 
they  therefore  r^ard  as  extreme  fonns  of  one 
species.— 'The  Poltafthus  (q.T.)  is  a  cnltivated 
variety  of  the  Cowslipw^The  Aubioula.  <q.  t.) 
{P,  auricula),  an  Alpine  species^  is  a  favourite 
garden  flower.— The  biKD's  £yb  P.  {P,  farinom) 
ahd  the  Scottish  P.  (P.  Sooiiea)  are  both  flowers 
of  exquisite  beauty,  foimd  in  the  northern  psrts  of 
Britain ;  the  latter  chiefly  on  the  coasts  of  Suther- 
land, Caithness,  and  the  Orkney  Islands.  The  Alps 
and  the  Himalaya  Mountains  produce  several' 
species.— The  Chinisb  P.  {P,  SinenMs)  has  for  more 
tnan  thirty  years  been  very  common  in  Britain, 
not  only  as  a  greenhouse  but  a  window  plant.  ^  It 
produces  compound  umbels  of  very  numerous  lilao 
or  white  flowers,  which  are  displayed  in  autumn, 
winter,  and  spring. 

PBIMULA'CE^,  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
plants,  containing  more  than  200  known  species, 
mostly  natives  of  temperate  and  cold  regions.  They 
are  aU  herbaceous,  or  scarcely  half-shrubby,  with 
leaves  generally  all  radical,  and  no  stipules.  The 
calyx  is  generally  5-cleft,  inferior  or  half-superior, 
regular,  persistent;  the  corolla,  with  the  limb 
divided  into  as  many  sclents  as  the  calyx,  rarely 
wanting ;  the  stamens  mserted  on  the  corolla,  one 
opposite  to  each  of  its  lobes;  the  ovary  one-celled, 
the  style  solitary,  the  stigma  capitate ;  the  capsule 
with  a  central  placenta  and  many  seeds.— Many  ol 
the  P.  have  flowers  of  much  beauty,  and  some  are 
very  fragrant,  as  the  Primrose,  CoMrslip,  Auricula, 
I^pernel,  Loosestrife,  fta 

PRI'MUM  MCXBILR    See  Ptolebcaic  System. 

PRINCE  (Lat  princepB,  from  prvmuB,  first,  and 
«apto,  I  take),  an  epithet  which  was  originally 
AppUed  to  the  princeps  tenaiiU  of  the  Roman  state, 
and  afterwards  became  a  title  of  dignity.  It  was 
adopted  by  Augustus  and  his  successors;  hence 
the  word  was  afterwards  applied  to  persons  enjoying 
kingly  power,  more  especially  the  rulers  of  smaU 
states,  either  sovereign,  as  in  the  case  of  the  ancient 
Princes  of  Wales,  or  dependent,  like  the  rulers  of 
certain  states  in  Germany.  The  title  is  now  very 
generally  applied  to  the  sons  of  kings  and  emperors, 
and  persons  of  the  blood-royaL  In  various  parts 
of  continental  Europe,  the  title  Prince  is  borne  by 
families  of  eminent  rank,  but  not  possessed  of 
sovereignty ;  and  in  England,  a  duke  is,  in  strict 
heraldic  langiiage,  entiUed  to  be  styled  *High 
Puissant  and  most  Noble  Prince ;'  and  a  Marquess 
or  Earl  as  'Most  Noble  and  Puissant  Pnnoe.' 
Practically,  however,  in  Britain,  the  term  prince 
is  restricted  to  memben  of  the  royal  family.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  reigning  sovereign  is  by  a  special 
patent  created  Prince  of  Wales,  and  this  is  the  only 
case  in  which  the  title  prince  is  connected  with  a 
territorial  distinction,  in  Germany,  the  ambiguity 
of  applying  the  same  title  to  the  members  of  royal 
houses  and  princely  families,  not  sovereign,  is 
avoided,  the  former  being  styled  *  Frins,'  the  latter 
*  Flirst'  The  German  Fiirst  takes  rank  below  the 
Duke  (Herzog).  Most  of  the  counts  who  had  a  seat 
in  the  old  German  Diet  were  elevated  to  the  dignity 
of  Prince  on  their  acquiesoenoe  in  the  dismember- 
ment of  the  German  empire.  In  a  more  general 
acceptation,  the  term  pnnce  is  often  used  for  a 
sovereign  or  the  ruler  of  a  state; 

PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND,  a  British  North 
American  colony,  in  the  south  of  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  and  separated  from  New  Brunswick  and 


Nova  Scotia  by  the  Strait  ci  Northumberland,  lal 
about  46'  56'— 47*  4'  N.,  long.  62**— 64»  2^  W. 
Length,  134  miles;  breadth,  4  to  34  miles;  area^ 
2137   square  mUes.    Pop.   <1841),  47,034;   (1848), 
62,678 ;  (1861),  80,857.    The  surface  is  unduktinff; 
but  few  of  the  hiUs,  the  chief  of  which  are  in  thi 
middle  of  the  island,  and  run  from  north  to  south, 
are  upwards  of  300  feet  in  height    The  coasts  are 
girdled  b^  a  bold  line  of  red  sandstone  cliffs,  vary- 
ing in  height  from  20  to  100  feet,  and  are  indented 
with  numerous  bays  and  inlets,  several  of  which, 
as  Cardigan   Bay  on   the   east,  the  entrance  to 
Georgetown,  and  Hillsborough  Bay  on  the  south, 
the  entrance  to  Charlottetown  (the  capital  of  the 
colony),  are  deep  and  spacious,   and  afford  safe 
anchorage    for   large    vessels.      Other   inlets    are 
Bedeque  and  Egmont  Bays    on    the   south,  and 
Holland,  Richmond,  and  St  Peter^s  Bays  on  the 
north.    The  rivers  are  mostly  short    The  soil,  whidi 
is  well  watered  with  niunerous  springs  and  rivers, 
rests  upon  red  sandstone,  and  consists  for  the  most 
part  of  a  layer  of  vegetable  matter  above  a  light 
loam,  which  rests  upon  stiff  clay  above  sandst<uie. 
It  is  of  great  fertility,  and  the  agricultural  products 
are  about  double  uie  quantify  required  for  local 
consumption.     Of   the  whole  area,  consisting  of 
1,360,000  acres,  1,300,000  acres  are  *good'  land,  and 
60,000  acres  are  *  poor  *  land ;  and  in  1851,  there  were 
under  cultivation  215,389  acres;  in  1861,  368,127 
acres.    Since  the  year  1848,  agriculture  has  become  a 
much  more  important  branch  of  industry.    In  1861, 
the  inhabitants  were  20,000  more  in  number  than 
in  1848;  and  within  the  same  time  the  agricultural 
products  had  increased  in  many  instances  fourfold. 
In  1861,  the  amount  of  spring-wheat  produced  was 
346,125  bushels;  of  barley,  223,105  bushels;  oats» 
2,218,578    bushels ;    buck- wheat,   50,127  bushels  ; 
potatoes,  2,972,335  bushels ;  turnips,  348,784  bushels ; 
hay,  31,100  tons.    The  soil  and  cUmate  are  admir- 
ably adapted  for   producing  wheat,   and  all  the 
cereals,  fruits,  and  vegetables  grown  in  temperate 
climes  are  produced  here.      Tne  climate,  milder 
than  that  of  the  continental  rsgions  in  the  vicinity, 
and  free  from   the   fogs  which  prevail  on  Cafw 
Breton  and  Nova  Scotia,  is  very  healthy.    P.  EL  L  is 
ezbreanely  poor  in  minerals;  oopi)er  and  bog-iron  ore 
are  known  to  exist  in  small  quantities.  In  the  neigh- 
bouring  waters^  extensive  and  profitable  tishenes 
are  carried  on.    In  1861,  the  colony  owned  1239 
boats  engaged  in  the  fisheries  ;  and  the  total  value 
of  the  fi£  caught— principally  mackerel,  ale  wives  or 
gaspereaux  (which  oelong  to  the  herring  family), 
herrings,  cod-fish,  and  hake— was  220,000  dollars. 
ManuMctures  are  not  important,  though  cloth  is 
made  to  some  small  extent    In  1860,  2314  vessels, 
of  173,796  tons,  entered  and  cleared  the  ports  of  the 
colony,  and  of   these  2206  were  British  vessels. 
The  imports  for  the  year  ending  January  31,  1863, 
amounted  to  £211,240,  the  exports  to  £150,549. 
The  revenue  of  tiie  colony  for  the  same  year  was 
£25,861,  and  the   expenditure  £34,451;    and  the 
public  debt  amounted  at  the  close  of  the  year  to 
£54,803.    The  colonial  govemment  is  vested  in  a 
lieutenant-governor,  aided  by  a  House  of  Assembly 
of  30  memboB,  a  legislative  council  of  13  members, 
formerly  appointed  by  the  crown,  but  now  (since 
February  1863)  elective ;  and  an  executive  council, 
who  are  appointed  by  the  lieutenant-governor  from 
the  majority  of  the  colonial  parliament,  and  are 
responsiole  for  the  government  as  long  as  they 
are  in  office.    Charlottetown,  with  two  banks,  two 
colleges,  the  Prince  of    Wales's  College,  and   St 
Dunstan*s  (Catholic),  and  a  population,  in  1861,  of 
6700,  is  the  capital.    Besides  the  educational  insti« 
tutions  at  Charlottetown,  there  are  also  a  normal 
and  263  elementary  schools,  attended   by  about 

7«l 


PRINCE  07  WALES-PRINCE  OF  WALES  ISLAND. 


11,000  papila.  In  1862,  £11,000  warn  diabnned 
from  The  colonial  treasury  for  fmblio  education.  The 
island  is  divided  into  3  coonties — ^Prince,  Qneen's, 
and  King's  counties— of  which  the  chief  towns 
are  respectively  Summerside,  Charlottetown,  and 
Georgetown.  All  parts  of  the  island  an  traversed 
bv  coach-roads ;  and  50  miles  of  telegraf)!!,  10  miles 
of  which  are  submarine,  belong  to  we  island.  Of 
the  entire  population,  44,975  are  Protestants  of 
different  denominations,  and  35,882  are  Roman 
Catholics.  The  island  was  first  taken  possession 
of  by  the  British  in  1745,  and  was  retaken  by  them, 
and  finally  annexed  to  their  possessions  in  1758. 

PRINCE  OF  WALES,  the  title  borne  by  the 
eldest  son  of  the  sovereign  of  Enj^^Iand.  The  native 
sovereigns  of  Wales  were  so  designated  in  the  days 
of  Webh  independence;  and  on  the  conquest  of 
Wales,  the  principalitv  of  WiJes  and  earldom  of 
Chester  were  bestowed  by  Heniy  IIL  on  his  son, 
afterwards  Edward  L,  but  as  an  office  of  trust  and 
government,  rather  than  as  a  title.  It  is  tradition- 
ally related  that  Edward  I.  engaged  to  give  the 
Welsh  people  a  prinoe  who  would  be  bom  among 
them,  and  not  know  a  word  of  English,  and  ful- 
filled the  promise  by  bestowing  the  principality  on 
his  infant  son,  Edward,  bom  at  Caernarvon  Castle. 
Edward,  by  the  death  of  his  elder  brother,  became 
lieh>apparent.  Edward  III.,  his  son,  was  never 
Prince  of  Wales ;  but  in  1343,  he  invested  his  son 
Edward  the  Black  Prince  with  the  principality,  and 
from  that  time  the  title  of  Prince  oi  Wales  has  been 
borne  by  the  eldest  son  of  the  reigning  king.  The 
title  is,  however,  not  inherited,  and  has  usually 
been  bestowed  by  patent  and  investiture,  though, 
in  a  few  instances,  the  heir  to  the  throne  has  become 
Prince  of  Wales  simply  by  being  so  declared.  The 
eldest  son  of  the  sovereign  ib  bv  inheritance  Duke 
of  Cornwall,  a  title  first  conferred  in  1337  on 
Edward  the  Black  Prince,  on  the  death  of  his 
uncle,  John  of  Eltham,  the  last  Earl  of  Cornwall, 
and  held,  according  to  the  terms  of  the  grant,  by 
the  firet-beeotten  son  of  the  king.  The  title  of  Earl 
of  Chester,  Dome  bv  Edward  IIL  before  his  acces- 
sion to  the  throne,  has  since  been  given  along  with 
the  principality  of  Wales.  That  earidom  was,  by  21 
Richard  IL  c.  9,  erected  into  a  principality ;  and  it 
was  enacted  that  it  should  be  given  in  future  to 
the  king's  eldest  son — ^a  precedent  which  has  since 
been  fmlowed,  although  that  statute,  along  with 
all  others  in  the  same  parliament,  was  repeMed  by 
1  Henry  IV.  c.  3.  On  the  death  of  a  Prince  of 
Wales  in  his  father*s  lifetime,  the  title  has  been 
conferred  on  the  sovereign's  grandson,  or  next 
younger  son,  being  heir-apparent.  As  heir  of  the 
crown  of  Scotland,  the  eldest  son  of  the  sovereign 
IB  Prince  and  High  Steward  of  Scotland,  Duke  of 
Rothesay,  Earl  of  Carrick,  Baron  of  Renfrew,  and 
Lord  of  the  Isles.  The  high  office  held,  by 
the  House  of  Stewart  (see  Stewabt,  House  ov) 
became  merged  in  the  crovm  when  Robert  IL, 
the  representative  of  the  family,  ascended  tlie 
throne  of  Scotland  in  1371.  llie  earldom  of 
Carrick  was  conferred  by  Robert  IL  on  his  eldest 
son.  The  dukedom  of  Rothesay  was  created  by 
a  solemn  council  held  at  Soone  in  1398,  and  con- 
ferred on  David,  eldest  son  and  heir  of  Robert 
IIL ;  and  when  David,  in  1402,  fell  a  victim  to 
the  ambition  of  his  uncle,  it  was  transferred  to  his 
brother  James,  afterwards  James  L  of  Scotland. 
Renfrew  was  the  chief  patrimony  of  the  Stewards  of 
Scotland,  to  whom  it  was  granted  by  the  sorereign 
in  the  12th  century,  their  principal  residence  having 
been  in  the  burgh  of  Renfrew.  In  1404,  King 
Robert  III.  granted  the  barony  of  Renfrew  and 
other  portions  of  the  estates  of  the  Stewards  to  his 
■on  and  heir,  James  since  which  time  the  eldest 
lis 


son  of  the  sovereign  has  borne  the  title  of  Bsrm 
of  Renfrew.  By  act  of  the  Scottish  pariiament  of 
1469,  the  titles  of  Prinoe  and  High  Steward  of  Scot- 
land, Duke  of  Rothesay,  Earl  of  Cairick,  Banm  oi 
Renfrew,  and  Lord  of  the  Isles  were  vested  in  the 
eldest  son  and  heir-apparent  of  the  crown  of  Scot- 
land for  ever.  The  present  Prinoe  of  Wain  wis 
created  Eari  of  Dublin  on  September  10,  1849, 
that  dignity  being  destined  to  nim  and  his  hein, 
kings  of  the  Unitra  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  sod 
Ireland,  for  ever. 

An  annuity  of  £40,000  was  settled  on  the  Prinoe 
of  Wales  by  26  Vict  a  1.  He  has  besides  the 
revenues  of  the  dnchy  of  ComwalL  These  amounted 
previously  to  1840  to  between  £11,000  and  £16,000 ; 
since  that  period,  they  have  risen  to  £50,000,  with 
every  prospect  of  increasing.  Only  a  small  part  of 
this  income  has  been  expended  since  the  birth  d 
the  present  Prince  of  Wales,  the  yearly  aocumn]a> 
tions  amounting  in  Novembiar  1862  to  upwards  of 
£500,00a  An  income  of  £11,000  has  been  settled 
by  parliament  on  the  Princess  of  Wales,  to  be  raised 
to  £30,000  in  the  event  of  her  widowhood.  The 
annuities  of  the  Prince  and  Princess  of  Wales  srs 
charged  on  the  Consolidated  Fund. 

The  Prince  of  Wales  has  a  separate  household,  ss 
also  has  the  Princess  of  Wales.  Act  35  Gea  IIL 
a  125  makes  provision  to  prevent  the  accumulation 
of  debt  by  any  future  heir-apparent  to  the  crown, 
and  enacts  that  as  soon  as  he  shall  have  a  separate 
establishment,  the  treasurer  or  principal  officer  shall 
make  a  plan  of  such  establishment  in  distinct 
departments  and  classes,  with  the  salaries  and  pay- 
ments of  each  class,  and  of  each  individual  officer; 
a[nd  the  treasurer  is  made  responsible  for  the 
punctuality  of  all  payments,  and  reqoired  to  submit 
nis  accounts  to  tne  Lords  of  the  Treasury.  The 
statute  of  treasons,  25<£dw.  IIL,  makes  it  treason 
to  compass  the  death  of  the  Prince  of  Wales,  or 
violate  the  chastity  of  his  consort. 

By  a  statute  of  the  order  of  the  Garter,  of  date 
1805,  the  Prince  of  Wales  becomes  a  Knight  of  the 
Ckuter  as  soon  as  he  receives  that  title. 

In  1788,  on  the  illness  of  George  IIL,  it  vas 
made  a  question  whether  the  Prinoe  of  Wales  was 
not,  as  heir-apparent,  entitled  to  the  regency;  the 
recovery  of  the  king  prevented  the  necessity  for  a 
decision,  but  it  is  now  held  that  he  has  no  sach 
rightb 

The  arms  of  the  Prinoe  of  Wales  are  those  of  tiis 
sovereign,  differenced  by  a  label  of  tliree  points 
argent,  and  the  present  Prinoe  of  Wales  bears  es 
mirtout  the  escutcheon  of  the  house  of  Saxony.  The 
supporters  and  crest  are  the  same  as  those  of 
royalty.  The  ancient  coronet  of  the  Princes  of 
Wales  was  a  circle  of  gold  set  round  with  four 
crosses  pat^  and  as  many  fleurs-de-lis  ahonately 
Since  the  Restoration,  it  has  been  dosed  with  one 
arch  only,  adorned  with  pearis,  surmounted  by  a 
motmd  and  cross,  and  furnished  with  a  cap  trimmed 
with  ermine,  like  that  of  the  sovereign.  The  Prince 
of  Wales  has  further  a  distinguishing  badge,  com- 
posed  of  a  plume  of  three  white  oetrich  mathen, 
encircled  by  an  ancient  coronet  of  a  Prince  of 
Wales,  and  accompanied  by  the  motto  '  Ich  dien ' 
(I  serve).  This  oevice  is  said  by  a  tradition,  on 
which  considerable  doubts  have  been  thrown,  to 
have  been  first  assumed  by  the  Black  Prince  «fter 
the  battle  of  Cr^,  in  13&,  when  he  took  su^^h  a 
plume  from  John,  king  of  Bohemia,  whom  he  had 
slain  with  his  own  hand.  The  motto  has  been 
supposed  to  allude  to  the  fact  that  the  kin^  of 
Bohemia  served,  or  was  stipendiaiy  to  the  Freock 
king  in  his  wars. 

PRINCE  OP  WALES  ISLAlfTD.  or  PULO 
PINA'NG  (Betel  Nut  Island),  an  important  BntiA 


PRINCE  BJJFE&TB  DROPS— PRINCIPAL  AND  AGENT. 


poMeanon,  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  strait  of 
Malacca*  a  few  miles  from  the  west  ooast  of  the 
MaUy  Peninsula,  in  Ut  6'  16'~6"  3^  N.,  and 
long.  lOO"*  9^— 100''  25'  £.,  and  has  an  area  of  154 
square  miles.  Popk  45,000.  A  belt  of  oooo-nut  and 
lofty  areca  palms  runs  alon^  the  coasts  A  slip  of 
low  land,  interspexsed  with  hills,  stretches  along  the 
east  side  of  the  island,  where  rice,  pepper,  betel, 
fruits,  provisions,  fta,  are  planted  on  the  level 
parts;  nutmeg  axid  clove-trees  on  the  heights.  This 
district  is  watered  by  numerous  streams,  cut  by 
well-kept  roads,  and  dotted  with  villas  and  gardens. 
Sugar,  coffee,  and  pepper  plantations  are  on  the 
south  and  south-west  c<Mists;  tbence  rues  a  wooded 
moimtain  ridge,  which  increases  in  elevation 
towards  the  north,  where,  at  the  Sanitaiiimi 
bungalows  of  Strawberry  Hill,  it  attains  a  hei^^ht 
of  2700  feet  The  rocks  are  granite  and  mica 
schist;  the  soil,  a  rich  vegetable  mould. 

The  cUmate  of  P.  of  W.  L  is  healthy,  a  sea-brecEe 
blowing  every  day,  and  rain  falling  during  all  the 
months  of  the  vear,  except  January  and  I^bruaiy. 
In  the  low  lands,  the  thermometer  ranges  from  80** 
to  90%  and  at  Strawberry  Hill,  from  62^  to  75% 
affording  a  pleasant  change  within  a  few  miles  of 
Georgetown.  From  the  Sanitarium,  a  splendid 
view  is  obtained  of  the  plantations,  town,  shipping, 
and  the  lofty  hills  of  Queda. 

The  products  are  timber,  pepper,  sugj^,  nutm^s, 
cloves,  coffee,  coco  and  areca  nuts,  ginger,  sweet 
potatoes,  rice,  &c.;  and  the  pine-appTe,  shaddock, 
plantain,  banana,  orange,  lemon,  mango,  guava, 
fta,  abound.  The  large  spice-plantation,  Glucer, 
produces  from  £12,000  to  £15,000  annually.  The 
import  and  export  trade  has  an  average  yearly 
value  of  about  £600,000.  European  and  American 
manufactures,  and  a  share  of  the  produce  of  the 
Eastern  Archipelago,  China,  India,  Siam,  and 
Burmah,  enter  the  emporium  of  P.  of  W.  L,  thence 
to  find  their  way  to  suitable  markets. 

Georgetown,  the  capital  {\wp.  26,000),  is  situated 
in  the  north-east  of  the  island,  and  is  defended 
by  Fort  Cornwalli&  The  governor's  house  and 
the  hospital  are  at  some  distance  from  the  town, 
which  is  the  seat  of  government  for  the  Eastern 
Straits  settlement^  including  Malacca  and  Siiiga^ 
pore.  On  the  peninsula  opposite,  lies  the  province 
of  Wellesley,  with  an  area  of  160  square  miles,  laid 
out  in  sugar,  nutmeg,  and  clove  plantatious.  The 
population  of  this  de})endency  and  the  island 
amounts  to  upwards  of  90,000,  of  whom  62,000  are 
Malays,  16,000  Chinese,  ^OO  Europeans  and  their 
desoendanta,  the  remainder  being  Siamese,  Burmans^ 
Bengalese,  &c. 

Towards  the  end  of  last  century,  a  Captain  F. 
Light  married  the  daughter  of  the  kingof  Queda, 
from  whom  he  received  the  gift  of  P.  of  W.  L ;  but 
in  1786,  it  was  handed  over  to  the  East  India 
Company,  who  retained  Captain  Light  as  super* 
intendent^  and  paid  the  king  6000  doUars  annually. 
By  an  arrangement  to  pay  an  additional  4000 
dollars  yearly,  the  province  of  Wellesley  was  after- 
wards oaded  to  the  Company,  Population  rapidly 
increased,  the  forests  were  cleared  for  plantations, 
and  a  large  trade  sprung  up.  It  has  been  nearly 
stationary  for  several  years,  except  in  agriculture, 
owing  to  the  more  favourable  situation  of  Singapore 
for  the  general  commerce  of  these  seas. 

PRINCE  RUPERT'S  DROPS.  These  scientific 
toys,  so  called  from  Prince  Rupert  (see  Rufebt), 
their  inventor,  are  simply  drops  of  glass  thrown, 
when  melted,  into  water,  and  thus  suddenly  consoli- 
dated. They  have  usually  a  form  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  tad}K>le.  The  thick  end  may  be  subjected 
to  smart  hammering  on  an  anvil  without  its  breaking ; 
but  if  the  smallest  fragment  of  the  tail  be  nipped  oS, 


the  whole  flies  into  fine  dust  with  almost  explosive 
violence.  The  phenomenon  is  due  to  the  state  of 
strain  in  the  interior  of  the  mass  of  glass,  caused  by 
the  sudden  consolidation  of  the  crust.  The  crust  is 
formed  while  the  internal  mass  is  still  liquid.  This 
tends  to  contract  on  cooling,  but  is  prevented  by 
the  molecular  forces  which  attach  it  to  the  crust. 
It  is  therefore  somewhat  in  the  state  of  the  dog- 
head  of  a  gun  on  full-cock,  which  will  stand  a  smart 
blow  without  falling ;  while  a  slight  touch  applied 
to  the  trigger  allows  the  spring  to  act  Another 
example  <»  the  same  state  ot  constraint  is  the 
Bologna  phial — a  glass  cup  with  its  sides  thin,  but 
the  M>ttom  very  thick.  It  also  is  pooled  as  quicklv 
as  possible.  A  bullet  may  be  dropped  into  it  with 
safety  from  a  considerable  height ;  but  if  a  small, 
sharp-edged  fragment  of  flint  be  dropped  in,  so  as  to 
scratch  the  sunace  in  the  slightest  degree,  the 
molecular  forces  axe  set  free,  and  the  whole  falls 
to  pieces. 

PRINCE13  METAL.    See  Tin. 

PRI^NCETON,  a  township  and  village  in  New 
Jersey,  40  miles  north-east  of  Philadelphia,  and  11 
miles  north-east  of  Trenton ;  the  site  of  a  celebrated 
Presbyterian  theological  seminary  founded  in  1812. 
It  has  a  bank,  newspaper,  several  churches,  the 
College  of  New  Jersey,  founded  in  1746,  which  was 
presided  over  by  Rev.  Aaron  Burr  and  Rev.  Jona- 
than Edwards ;  it  has  19  professors,  300  students, 
and  a  library  of  24^000  volumes.  P.  was  the  scene 
of  a  battle  fought  3d  Januarv  1777,  between  Amer- 
icans under  Washington,  and  British  troops  under 
Colonel  Mawhood.  The  latter  were  defeated.  Pop^ 
in  1860,  3772. 

PRI'NCIPAL,  a  presiding  governor,  or  chief  in 
authority.  The  wora  is  applied  to  the  head  of  • 
college  or  uiiversity  in  Scotland. 

PRINCIPAL,  in  Music,  the  name  of  a  stop  or 
row  of  metal  mouthpipes  in  an  organ,  the  pitcn  of 
which  is  an  octave  higher  than  the  open  diapason, 
and  an  octave  lower  than  the  fifteentn.  It  serves 
to  blend  these  stops,  as  well  as  to  increase  the 
volume  of  sound.  The  principal  is  the  stop  first 
tuned,  and  idl  the  other  stops  are  tuned  from  it 

PRINCIPAL,  the  name  given  to  the  chief  rafters 
and  braces  in  a  Roof  <q.  v.). 

PRINCIPAL  AND  ACCESSORY.  See  Acces- 
sary. 

PRINCIPAL  AND  AGENT.  The  law  of  princi- 
pal and  agent  is  founded  on  tiie  absolute  necessity 
of  having  some  one  to  act  for  another  in  times  and 
places  when  the  latter  is  not  personally  present, 
and  this  necessity  pervades  nearly  all  branches  of 
the  law ;  and  as  a  general  rule,  the  act  of  the  agent 
is  just  as  binding  on  the  principal,  and  produces  the 
same  effect,  as  regards  his  UabUity,  as  if  the  princi- 
pal had  acted  in  person.  Asents  are  divided  into 
many  classes ;  indeed,  nobody  can  escape,  in  one 
capacity  or  another,  being  occasionally  the  agent  of 
somebody  else.  Attorneys,  solicitors,  advocates, 
lm>kers,  auctioneers,  &&,  ma^  be  said  to  make  a 
bnsiness  of  agency.  A  wife  is,  in  Law,  for  many 
purposes  of  household  management,  the  agent  of 
the  husband,  and  so  are  the  children.  Mercantile 
agents  are  generally  eidled  factors  or  brokers.  The 
contract  between  principal  and  a^ent  implies  that 
the  agent  shall  keep  within  the  limits  of  his  com- 
mission, and  that  the  principal  will  ratify  and 
accept  all  his  contracts,  and  relieve  him  of  the  lia- 
bilities. The  remuneration  of  the  agent  is  ^nerall^ 
called  his  commission.  As  the  agent  bmds  his 
principal,  it  follows  that  the  principal  can  be  sued 
oy  third  parties  who  deal  with  the  agent     The 


PRINCIPAL  AND  8UBETY— PRINTINa. 


nice  distinctions  that  exist  in  the  law  on  this  subject 
as  to  the  mutual  rights  and  liabilities  of  the  parties 
are  too  numerous  to  be  here  noticed. 

PRINCIPAL  AND  SUBBTY.    See  SuBxrr. 

PRINCIPATO,  CiTSA  and  Ultra,  formerly  the 
name  of  two  provinces  of  the  kincdom  of  Naples. 
JPrineipato  CttrOy  now  forming  tiie  province  of 
Salerno  in  the  reoreaniaed  kingdom  of  Italv,  ia  a 
maritime  province,  bounded  on  the  &W.  bgr  the 
Mediterranean,  and  on  the  N.  by  the  province  of 
PrindpaJUy  UUra^  now  called  Avellina  The  united 
area  of  the  two  provinces  is  3405  sqnare  mika ; 
pop.  883,877.  PrincijMl  towns  in  Prinoipato  Citra 
are  Salerno  (from  which  it  derives  itspresent  name), 
Same,  and  Pagani;  in  Principato  Ultra^  Avellino 
(from  which  it  takes  its  present  name),  Ariano,  and 
Cervinara. 

PRINTERS,  Law  as  to.  Then^  ate  varions 
restrictions  on  the  sale  and  use  of  printing-presses, 
which  have  been  imposed  in  consequence  of  the 
extended  and  secret  influence  often  exercised  by 
them  ;  and  the  law  of  treason  and  libel  is  intimately 
associated  with  the  press.  By  an  act  of  39  Geo.  III. 
c  79  (amended  by  51  Geo.  III.  c.  65,  and  2  and  3  Vict. 
c  12),  entitled  an  act  for  suppressing  seditious  and 
treasonable  practices^  reciting  the  mischief  produced 
by  the  publication  of  irreligious,  treasonable,  and 
seditious  libels,  and  the  diSSculty  of  tracing  the 
authors,  it  is  enacted  that  every  ])er8on  having  a 
printing-press,  or  types  for  printing,  shall  give 
notice  thereof  to  the  clerk  of  the  peace  where  the 
same  is  intended  to  be  used,  ana  shall  obtain  a 
certificate  of  registration,  otherwise  he  is  liable  to 
a  penalty  of  £20.  But  the  Queen's  printers  for 
Eouland  and  Scotland,  and  the  university  presses 
of  Oxford  and  Cambridge,  are  excepted.  So  letter- 
founders  and  makers  of  tjrpes  must  register  them- 
selves under  a  like  penalty ;  and  they  must  keep 
an  account  of  all  the  persons  to  whom  types  and 
presses  are  sold,  which  account  may  be  inspected  by 
a  justice  of  the  peace.  So  printers  must  keep  a 
copy  of  every  paper  they  print  for  hire  or  reward, 
and  shall  endorse  thereon  the  name  of  the  person 
employing  them  to  do  so,  under  a  penalty  of  £20. 
Every  pnnter  who  shaU  print  a  book  or  paper 
without  having  the  printer  s  name  and  addrem  on 
the  first  or  last  leaf  thereof,  shall,  by  the  act  2  and  3 
Vict.  c.  12,  s.  2,  forfeit  £5  for  every  copy  printed ; 
but  the  only  person  who  can  sue  for  or  enforce  this 
penalty  is  the  Attorney  or  Solicitor  General  of 
England,  or  the  Lord  Advocate  of  Scotland.  But  for 
the  previous  penalties,  any  informer  may  sue,  and 
the  justices  may  mitigate  the  penaltiea  to  £5.  It 
follows  from  these  enactments  that  a  printer  cannot 
recover  his  expenses  for  labour  and  materials  in 
printing  a  work,  unless  he  has  complied  with  the 
statutory  requirements.  On  a  recent  occasion,  in 
which  a  printer  in  England  who  sued  for  his  account 
was  met  with  a  defence  founded  on  these  statutes, 
it  was  discovered  by  the  London  printers  that  few 
of  them  had  registered  themselves,  and  accordingly 
they  took  occasion  to  repair  the  error.  With  reaard 
to  the  printing  trade,  many  customs  prevail  wnich 
do  not  differ  in  point  of  law  from  the  customs 
afiecting  other  trades,  it  being  the  rule  that  customs 
of  a  peculiar  trade  are  binding  unless  specially 
excluded.    As  to  obscene  prints,  see  Obscxnb. 

PRINTING  is  the  art  of  producing  impressions, 
from  characters  or  figures,  on  paper  or  any  other 
substance.  There  are  several  distinct  branches  of 
this  important  art — as  the  printing  of  books  with 
movable  types,  the  printing  of  engraved  copper  and 
steel  plates  (see  Enoravino),  and  tiie  taking  of 
impressions  from  stone,  called  Lithography  (q.  v.). 
We  have  now  to  describe  the  art  of  printing  books 


or  sheets  with  movable  tjrpes,  generally  ealkd 
letter-prtsa  vnating,  and  which  may  undoabtedly 
be  esteemea  the  jgreatest  of  aU  human  inventions. 

The  art  of  prmting  is  of  comparatively  moden 
origin,  only  4Q0  years  having  elapaed  since  the  &nfe 
book  was   issued  from  the  press;  yet  we  have 
proofs  that  the  principles  upon  wfakh  it  was  ulti- 
mately   developed    existed    among    the    ancient 
Assyrian  nations.    Entire  and  nndecayed  bricks  of 
the  famed  d^  and  tower  of  Babylon  have  been 
found  stamped  with  yarions  symbolical  figures  and 
hieroglyphic  characters.     In  this,  however,  as  is 
every  similar  relic  of  antiquity,  the  object  whkk 
stamped  the  figures  was  in  one  Uock  or  pieoe,  and 
therefore  could  be  employed  only  for  one  disfeinok 
subject     This,  though   a   kind  of  printbg;  ma 
totally  useless  for  the  propagation  of  literature,  on 
account  both  of  its  expensiveness  and  tediooBDesa. 
The  Chinese  are  the  only  existing  people  who  still 
pursue  this  rude  mode  of   printing  hy  stampmg 
paper  with  blocks  of  wood.    The  work  which  they 
mtend  to  be  printed  is,  in  the  first  place,  carefnllv 
written  upon  sheets  of  tiiin  transparent  ^per ;  ea» 
of  tiiese  sheets  is  glued,  with  the  face  downwards, 
upon  a  thin  tablet  of  hard  wood ;  and  the  engrafer 
then,  with  proper  instruments,  cuts  away  the  wood 
in  all  those  parts  on  which  nothing  is  traced ;  thus 
leaving   the  transcribed  characters  in  reOrf^  and 
ready  for  pvnting.    In  this  way,  as  many  tablets 
are  necessary  as  uiere  are  written  pages.    !f  o  press 
is  used ;  but  when  the  ink  is  laid  on,  and  the  paper 
carefully  placed  above  it,  a  brash  ia  passed  orcr 
with  the  proper  degree  of  pressure.     A  similar  kind 
of  printing  by  blocKs,  for  the  production  of  playing 
cards  and  rude  pictures  of  scriptural  subjects,  was 
in  use  in  Europe  towards  the  end  of  the  14th  cen- 
tury.   But  in  all  this  there  was  little  merit    The 
great  discovery  was  that  of  forming  every  letter  or 
character  of  the  alphabet  separatSy,  so  as  to  he 
capable  of  rearrangement,  and  forming  in  suocesdoa 
the  paces  of  a  wo»,  thereby  avoiding  the  intermin- 
able labour  of  cutting  new  blocks  of  types  for  every 
page.     The  credit  of  discovering  this  simple  yk 
marvellous  art  is  contested  by  the  Dutch  in  favoor 
of  Laurence  Coster  (q.  v.),  between  1420  and  1426; 
and  by  the  Germans,  on  behalf  of  Johann  (xios- 
fleisch  of  the  Outenberg  (q.  v.)  family,  aboat  143S. 
In  all  probability,  the  discovery  was  made  almost 
simultaneously — ^such  a  theory  htetng  oonsiEtaiit  with 
the  general  social  progress  at  the  period,  and  the 
secrecy  which  both  inventors  at  nrst  maintained 
respecting  their  art    The  types  first  employed  were 
of  wood ;  but  soon  the  practice  of  casting  them  in 
metal  was  introduced.    See  Tyfiss.     The  eariiest  of 
these  metal  types  resembled  the  black  letter  in  nse 
by  transcribers,   and  one  great  aim  of  the  lint 
printers  was  to  produce  books  which  should  ckwely 
resemble  the  works  in  manuscript  hitherto  in  nae. 
Between  1460  and  1455,  GutenDerg  succeeded  in 
printing  a  Bible,  copies  of  which  are  now  exceedindy 
rare  and  valuable.    It  is  in  quarto   size,  doable 
columns,  the  initial  letters  of  the  chaptos  being 
executed  with  the  pen,  in  colours.      Besides  this 
Bible,  some  other  specimens  of  the  work  of  Guten- 
berg, the  produce  of  his  press  at  Mayence,  have 
been  discovered      The  Dutch,  at  Hurlem,  pro- 
serve  and  shew  with  reverential  care  aunilar  speci- 
of    early   printing    by   Coster.      Ma3reno^ 


mens 


Strasburg,  and  Haarlem  were  indisputably  the 
places  where  printing  was  executed  b^ote  tite  ait 
was  extended  to  Rome,  Venice,  Florence,  Milan, 
Paris,  Tours,  and  other  continental  cities.  Pit^rions 
to  1471,  it  had  reached  these  and  varions  other 
places;  and  about  the  same  year,  Caxton  (q-v.) 
introduced  the  art  into  England,  by  setting  ap  a 
press  in  Westminster  Abbey. 


Piiutiiig  WM  inttodaeed  into  Scotland  abont 

30  yean  after  Caiton  had  braught  it  to  Sogland  ; 
in  1661,  it  reached  Dubliii.  and  to  other  qnarten  it 
found  ita  way  very  slowly.  While  coming  into 
notice,  ita  progreis  bad  been  interrupted  by  the 
broils  oonae^nent  on  the  Reformation  j  and  looii 
afterwards,  it  was  retarded  by  the  avil  war  ii 
Great  Britain.  Even  the  Btatoratioo  acted  detii- 
mentally,  for  it  led  to  an  aot  of  parliament  which 
pieventeil  more  than  20  jaintars  oanying  on  their 
ait  in  Englaiid.  FrintiiiK,  in  short,  haa  in  almost 
every  ooimtry  baen  an  iU-uaad  ait  (  and  ia  stilt  in 
TMiouH  couotriea  practiaed  noder  flacal  reatrictiana. 
Id  Germany  and  Holland,  where  it  originated,  it 
haa,  on  aocoont  of  sandry  obstmotiDoa,  gained 
little  way — the  work  produced  at  Mayenoe  and 
Haarlem  bein^,  for  example,  atill  of  a  very  inferior 
kiod ;  while,  in  recent  tim^s,  in  England  and  the 
United  Statea,  the  att  has  attained  to  extraordinary 
proficiency.  Priattog  is  now  condacted  in  all  the 
British  colonial  poateaaion*,  but  in  few  ia  the  wtsk- 
of  a  auperior  character— the  beat  perbapa  being  that 
produced  at  Melbourne  in  Victoria. 

Retarded  by  the  jealonay  of  govsraments,  printii^ 
for  some  a^ea  derived  httle  advanta^  from  mediani- 
oal  ingenuity.  Originating  atthemiddle  of  tlie  ISth, 
the  art  oontinued  to  be  conducted  notdl  the  '"■'i^t" 
of  the  ITth  c  in  a  very  olumay  manner.  The 
preaa  ntembled  a  acrew-preaa,  with  a  oontrivance 
for  mnnipg  the  form  of  types  uoder  the  point  of 
pretBure  ;  force  having  been  thos  applied,  the  screw 
w>u  relaxed,  and  the  form  withdrawn  with  the 
impression  executed  on  the  paper.  The  defects  of 
tb-is  very  rude  mechanism  were  at  length  partially 
remedied  by  an  ingenious  Dutch  mechanic,  Willem 
Jsnsen  Blaeu,  who  carried  on  the  business  of  a 
mathematical  inatrament-niaker  at  Amaterdam. 
He  contrived  a  press,  in  which  the  carriage  holding 


FI(  L— Old  Oammoo  Fnai. 

the  form  was  wound  below  the  point  of  presauto, 
which  was  ^ven  by  moving  a  handle  attained  to  a 
■crew  hanging  in  a  beam  having  a  spring,  which 
spring  cansed  the  eonw  to  fly  back  as  soon  as  the 
impression  was  given.  IMa  apeciea  of  prem,  which 
was  almost  entirely  formed  of  wood,  continued  in 
ceneral  use  in  every  country  in  Europe  till  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.  WiUi  oertain 
lever  powera  attached  to  the  aoew  and  handle,  it  ia 
repreaentcd  above. 

In  connection  with  thja  repreaentation  of  the  old 
common  press,  the  procesa  of  printing  may  be 
described.  The  form,  being  laid  on  the  sola  of  the 
press  (t),  ia  fixed  at  the  aides,  so  as  to  render  it 
unmovable  from  ita  position.  There  are  two  men 
employed  ;  one  puts  ink  on  the  form,  either  by 
means  of  staffed  balls  or  by  a  oompodtion-niller, 


aad  the  other  wotka  the  press.  The  latter  lifts  a 
blank  sheet  from  a  table  at  his  side,  and  places  it 
on  what  ia  called  the  tympaa  (f),  which  is  compoaed 
of  parohment  and  blanket-ataff,  fitted  In  a  frame, 
and  tightened  like  the  top  of  a  drum — and  hence 
ita  name — and  which,  by  mean*  of  hinges  connecting 
it  with  the  sole,  Mds  down  like  a  lid  over  the 
form.  As  the  sheet,  however,  would  fall  off  In  the 
act  of  being  brought  down,  a  skeleton-like  slender 
frame,  called  a  fndxt  (/),  Is  hinged  to  tbe  upper 
extremity  of  the  tympan,  over  whioh  It  ia  broimht 
to  hold  on  the  paper.  Thus,  tbe  friaket  being  first 
folded  down  over  the  tympniD,  and  the  tympan  next 
folded  down  over  the  form,  the  impreasion  is  ready 
to  be  taken.  This  la  done  by  the  left  hand  of  the 
presamaD  winding  the  carriage  below  the  platlen  {p), 
or  preaaing  aurface,  and  tbe  impreasion  is  performed 
by  the  right  hand  palling  the  handle  attached  to 
the  screw  mechanism.  Ine  carriage  is  then  wound 
back,  the  printed  sheet  lifted  off,  and  another  put 
on  the  tympan,  the  form  again  inked,  and  so  on 
successively.  In  tbe  above  engraving,  tbe  presa 
appears  with  tha  frisket  and  tympan  sloping 
upwards,  ready  to  remive  the  sheet,  the  frisket 
being  sustained  from  falling  backwards  by  a  alip 
of  wood  depending  from  the  ceiling.  One  of  the 
greatest  niceties  connected  with  Otia  art  is  the 
printing  of  the  abeet  on  the  second  aide  in  such  a 
manner  that  each  page,  nay,  each  line,  abati  fall 
exactly  on  the  corrt«ponding  page  and  line  on  the 
aide  Grat  printed.  To  pn>duce  this  desirable  effecti 
two  iron  points  aie  fixed  in  the  middle  of  tbe  aides 
of  the  frame  of  (he  tympan,  which  make  two  email 
holes  in  the  aheet  during  tbe  first  pressure.  When 
the  abeet  is  laid  on  to  receive  an  impression  from 

form,  these  holes  are  plaoed  on  the  same 
points,  BO  as  to  cause  the  two  impressions  to  corres- 
pond. This  is  tenned  prodacmg  rrginleT ;  and 
nnleas  good  register  ia  efiwted,  (he  printing  has  a 
very  indifierent  appearance.  However  improved,  a 
press  of  tlte  above  description  could  not  impreaa 
more  than  half  a  abeet ;  and  the  practice  was  to 
Srvt  squeeze  so  much  of  the  sheet,  then  relax  the 
handle,  wind  the  second  half  below  tbe  platteo,  and 
— !_..  1^  !..  j,„.[j_     Thua,  each  sheet  required  tour 

<  complete  it^— two  on  each  side  It  is 
without  a  degree  of  wonder  t^t  one  rGtlecU  on 
the  mdimentiry  clnmBmeBB  of  the  whole  operationt 
and  it  aeema  not  less  marvellous,  that  It  waa  bv  mo 
other  pruceai  that  the  best  typography  could  be 
produtwd  until  the  conclusion  of  the  LSth  century. 
The  first  improvement  upon  the  printlng-preM 
aa  made  by  tbe  celebrated  Earl  of  Stanhope.  He 
oonatructed  the  preas  of  iron,  and  that  of  a  aize 
anfficient  to  print  tbe  whole  smfaci;  of  a  aheet,  and 
be  applied  such  a  cumblned  action  of  levers  to  the 
■Drew  «« to  make  tbe  pull  a  great  deal  less  laborious 
to  the  pressman ;  the  mechanism  altogether  being 
aacb  oa  to  permit  much  more  rapid  and  efficient 
working.  A  multitude  of  improvementa  speedily 
aucceeded  that  of  Earl  Stanhope,  in  most  of  which 
the  screw  was  dismissed,  the  pressure  being  gener- 
ally effected  by  levers,  or  by  the  simple  and  efficient 
principle  of  irtraighteuing  a  joinL  Among  those 
which  have  gained  a  large  share  of  approbation  may 
be  mentioned  tha  Coluiniian  prai,  which  is  al 
American  invention.  This  preas,  a  representation 
of  which  ia  annexed,  was  brought  to  Great  Britain 
in  1818  by  Mr  George  Clymer  of  Fblladelphia,  and 
patented.  The  pressing-power  in  this  Inatanoe  is 
procured  by  a  long  bar  or  handle  acting  upon  a 
combination  of  exceedingly  powerful  levers  (o,  a,  a,  a) 
above  tbe  platten ;  tha  retnm  of  the  handle  or  lever* 
being  effected  by  means  of  counterpoises  or  weights 
{c  e).  Vat  ease  and  facUtty  of  pull,  this  presa  is 
preferred  by  moat   workmen;   and  certainly  the 


powerful  comniand  vhieh  tie  leverage  eniUei  tbe 
workman  to  eiercise,  a  favourable  to  delicacy  and 
s  of  iiriDting— hi*  arm  feeling,  aa  it  i 


Fig,  2.— ColnmbUa  Ttrm. 

throngh  the  aeriea  of  leven  to  the  vary  faoe  of  the 
types.  In  the  present  day,  the  old  wooden  preai  of 
Blaea  i«  entirely  discarded  from  nse. 

To  secure  good  printing,  the  following  points  are 
CMentiaL  1.  The  types,  carefully  set,  fixed  with 
precision  in  forms,  rendered  level  all  over,  to  that 
all  parts  may  be  prassed  alike,  and  the  wW( 
properly  cleaned  by  a  waah  of  potaih  lye.  2.  A 
nnitorm  inking  of  the  sarface,  to  give  uniformity 
of  colour.  3;  The  paper  damped  equably,  neither 
too  much  not  too  little,  so  ai  to  tahe  an  imftreS' 
sion  easily  and  «v«nly.  4.  An  equable,  firn), 
and  smart  pressure,  and  vnOi  that  degree  of  steadi- 
ness in  the  mechsnisin  that  the  sheet  shall  touch 
and  leave  the  types  without  shaking  and  blurring. 
5.  Care  in  adjusting  the  pointert  (or  gan^),  so  that 
perfect  register  may  be  secured  in  pnnting  the 
second  side.  6.  Sue*  frequency  in  changing  Jig  or 
nndsr-sheets  on  the  tympan,  that  the  first  nide  shall 
not  gi:!t  dirtiiMl  by  off-setting  when  printing  the 
seooi^  side.  7.  The  laying  <rf  small  patches  on  the 
tympsD,  where,  from  any  inequality,  it  seems 


are  leqnind;  also  whom  maehliiei;  is  iinsHiia 
able  1  bnt  in  general  aircnmitanoea,  and  more  jar- 
ticulsrly  to  meet  the  demand  for  popular  reaifin^ 
printing  is  now  executed  by  one  or  other  of  th* 
varieties  of  cylindei^preaaaa,  moved  b;  ateanv- 
power.  Attempts  have  indeed  been  made  t« 
introduce  flat-pressure  machines,  by  which  as  many 
M  700  aide*  ntn  be  printed  per  bonrj  tnit  theses 
tboog^  poMetaing  the  advantage  of  stiperwiling 
•enre  bodily  labonr,  and  detnantUng  only  the  ser- 
vice* of  a  boy  to  lay  on,  and  anoUwr  to  take  otf 
the  sheets,  have  never  become  ocmnuHi.  We  offer 
■  representation  of  a  machine  of  this  kind,  mads 
by  J.  Brown  &  Oo.,  engineeis,  Kirkcaldy.  More 
success,  as  regards  flat-pressure  machines,  has  been 
attained  in  tbe  United  States,  where  mncfa  fine 
work  is  provided  by  a  clever  adaptation  of  this 
'~'~  '  particnlarly  in  New  Yoric,  Boaton,  and  Fhilo- 

."1         W~    d-4    ^^ ...„     L,^_- _     *-_     _„ 1^ 


rollers  mode  of  a 


D  composition,  to  Bapersede 


constitutes  the  duty  of  a  pressman.     Bod  printing 
is  usually  a  r^ult  of  old  and  worn  types,  want  d 
proper  cleaning,  smd  an  inferior  kind  of^ink. 
ranting  by  Eand-presset  of  an  improved  kind  oon. 


Kg.  3.— Elat-pressnie  Maahine. 


.    ._  .-Qprovemc  _  _ 

embodies  umoat  every  principle  since  so  sncces*- 
folly  applied  to  printing-niacfainea  j  and  althoo^ 
be  did  not  oairy  his  views  into  practical  effea^ 
little  has  been  left  for  snbsequent  engioeeis  to  d^ 
but  to  apply,  in  the  moat  judicious  nutnaer,  Uw 
principlea  he  laid  down  in  hk  patent  Whether 
Mr  Nicholson's  ideas  were  known  to  Mr  Kiinig,  a 
tiennan,  is  now  uncertain ;  but  to  him  is  doe  the 
distinguished  merit  of  carrying  steam-printing  Grst 
into  enact.  Arriving  in  London  about  1804,  be  first 
projected  improvements  on  tile  common  press  ;  but 
after  a  while,  he  turned  hia  attentioa  to  cylinds^ 
printing.  The  lirst  result  of  his  experiments  wis 
a  small  machine,  h  which  tbe  two  l^Miing  featniea 
of  Nichcilsoo's  invention  were  embraced  (the  cylin- 
ders and  the  inking-rollers),  which  he  exhibited  to 
Mr  Walter,  proprietor  of  the  Timet  newspaper; 
and  on  shewing  what  further  improvements  were 
contemplated,  an  agreement  was  entered  into  for 
the  erection  of  tno  machinee  for  printing  that 
journaL  Acoordinf^,  on  tbe  28th  of  November 
1814,  the  pnbhe  were  ^prised  that  the  number  ot 
the  Tima  of  that  date  was  the  lirst  ever  printed 
by  machinery,  steam -propelled.  At  this  imiod. 
but  few  persons  knew  of  any  attempts  going  on 
for  the  attainment  of  this  object ;  whilst  among 
those  connected  with  printing,  it  had  often  been 
talked  of,  but  treated  as  chimerical 

After  the  utility  of  cylindrical  printing  had  been 
thus  proved,  it  was  thought  hii^hly  desirable  that 
the  principle  should  be  applied  to  printing  Sua 
book-wo^,  where  accurate  register  is  indispenaaUe. 
This  was,  to  a  certain  extent,  attained  by  nsing  two 
large  caudate,  the  sheet  of  paper  beins  conveyed 
from  the  bottom  of  tbe  first  cylinder  (wlwre  it  had 
received  the  first  impression)  by  means  of  tape*, 
leading  in  a  disgonu  direction  to  the  top  of  tlk* 
•eoond  cylinder,  round  which  the  sheet  was  CMnied 
till  the  second  side  was  printed.  The  &i«t  nuchine 
of  this  description  was  erected  at  Mr  HciiJiij'a 
office,  where  it  continued  at  woric  for  aotna  yean, 
till  more  modem  moebinea  tuperaeded  it. 

In  the  cooiM  of  1818,  Me**»  Aptdegatii  and 
Uowper  took  out  a  patent  for  improvement*  in 
cylindrical  printing  machiner^r.  The  dlief  improre- 
ments  were,  the  applioatioa  of  two  drams  plsoed 
betwixt  the  oylind^  to  insure  aeooracy  u  tlM 


i^bUt,  over  and  nnder  vhich  the  Hheet  wu  oon- 
Teycd  Id  itH  progreai  from  one  cvlinder  to  the  otiier, 
instead  of  being  carried,  m  in  kuniffi  nuchiDs,  in 
*  itraight  line  mtm  the  one  cylinder  to  the  other ; 
and  the  mode  of  dirtributinE  tbe  ink  npm  tkUea 
instead  of  rollers— two  principles  which  hare  teeored 
to  machines  of  this  conitniction  a  decided  preference 
for  tine  work.  Mochinea  of  this  constraotiDn  were 
made  by  Appl«ath  and  Coin)er  for  the  pnncipal 
printing  eetablishments  in  London,  Parii,  E^nburoh, 
and  many  other  dtlet;  and  it  is  nearly  npon  Uie 
model  of  their  machines  that  other  nuurauiatnrers 
now  construct  their  steam-messes  for  the  eseontion 
of  ordinary  book-work.  Printing-machine*  may 
be  divided  into  two  diftinct  olassea  —  thoaa  lot 
printing  book-work,  in  which  r^iiter  ia  reqnired, 
and  thoae  for  printing  newspapo*,  in  which  r^istO' 
is  Dot  sought  tor,  and  speed  ia  <rf  first  conaeqnenoa 
Applegath  and  Cowper's  book-niaohin«,  as  jiut 
mentioDol,  remains  the  beet  of  ite  kind.  The 
machine,  moved  by  ateam-power,  from  which  the 
sxed  engraving  is  taken,  is  one  of  thia  deecrip- 

.    It  ia  abont  18  feet  Ion 

ta  of  a  veiy  atrong  c—t  irt 


IS»  4.— Book-Hadiine. 

togctlier  by  two  ends  and  aeveral  CTDaB-bat&  To 
thia  frame,  all  parta  of  tbe  machine  are  fixuL  In 
external  figure,  aa  seen  in  the  cut,  it  is  a  laige 
apparatus,  of  imposing  appearance.  On  approaching 
it  when  at  work,  we  perceive  two  cylinders,  as  large 
aa  hogeheads,  revolvmg  on  upright  Bupports ;  two 
smaller  cylinders  or  drums  revolving  above  them; 
and  beneath,  witMn  the  framework,  a  table,  on 
-which  lie  the  types  at  tioth  ends,  going  constantly 
backward  and  forward.      A  belt  from  a  iteam- 


bo  observed  that  a  boy,  marked  a  in  the ,  — 

standing  oa  the  top  of  some  steps  feeding  in  sheets 
of  paper,  each  of  which,  on  being  delivered,  ia  swept 
round  the  first  cylinder  b  (being  held  on  by  tapes), 
gets  its  impreflsioa  below  from  tbe  typea,  is  carried 
tnrer  and  betwixt  the  drums  above,  and  then  brought 
tound  on  the  second  cylinder  c  i  now  it  gets  its 
•ecoud  side  printed,  and  issuing  into  the  space 
between  the  cylinders,  ia  seized  by  the  boy  d,  who 
laya  it  on  a  table  completely  printed.    The  whole 


B  accompanied  with  a  loud  noise,  from 
e  revolving  of  the  cylind«s,  the  working  of  the 
notched  wheels,  and  the  driving  of  the  table  to  and 
tro  by  a  rack  beneath,  but  without  any  strain  on 
the  mechanism,  or  risk  of  injury  to  the  attendonta. 
On  minutely  examining  the  parts,  we  observe  that 
at  each  end  there  ia  an  apparatua  of  rolleta  taking 
ink  from  a  doctor  or  reservoir  of  that  Tn«tjfi^f| 
and  placiiiK  it  opon  a  portion  of  tiie  moving  table 
beneath ;  here  other  rollers  distribata  it,  while 
others  take  it  off  and  roil  it  upon  tiia  pagea  td 
*- — B,  ready  for  each  impression. 

le  two  printing  oylinden  are  newly  nine  feet  in 


typea,  re 

Xlieti 


circnmferenM  e*oh,  and  are  placed  abont  two  feat 
apart.  Tb^  are  aconrately  turned,  so  that  tba 
■urfacea  of  the  type-carriues  and  the  cylinders  may 
be  perfectly  paralld.     The  axis  of  each  oylindw 


with  which  the  oyliaden  are  allowed  tt  ,   ._ 

tbe  types  may  be  r^nlated  to  any  degree  of  tuce^. 
Ovur  abont  two  feet  of  the  eireamference  of  each 
cyLnder  which  forms  tba  printing-aurCace.  two 
folds  of  cloth,  called  blonketa,  are  stretched  hy 
means  of  rollera  placed  inside  the  cylinder.  The 
lower  blanket  ia  seldom  changed,  but  tbe  upper 


printing),  mv 
ithaadisorbi 


be  shifted  as  soon  as  the  ink  which 
irbed  from  the  printing  on  the  first  side  of 
the  sheet  begins  to  set  off,  or  soil  the  paper,  when 
receiving  tbs  aeonnd  impression.  This  uiifting  is 
spMdily  effeoted,  by  nnrolling  a  sufficieot  quantity 
of  the  cloth  off  one  roller,  and  winding  it  op  aa 
the  o^r,  to  pnaent  a  clean  ptstion  to  t£e  printing 

The  cylinders  have  ■  eontinaons  rotary  motion 
towards  each  other,  given  by  two  large  toothed 
wheels,  whilat  the  type-oarriages  move  backward 
and  forward  under  iLem.  Tbe  movements  are  so 
contrived  that  tbe  type-carriages  shall  have  gone 


isequently,  each  Bucccaaive  impression  is  taken 
from  the  types  by  the  same  part  oE  each  cylinder. 
The  two  dnims  plaoed  between  the  cylinders  are 
for  tiie  pnrpoae  of  causing  the  sheet  of  pajier  to  pass 
smoothly  and  aconrately  from  one  printing  cylinder 
to  the  other.  To  preserve  the  Bheet  in  its  proper 
place  on  the  cylinders,  and  carry  it  forward  through 
the  difCerent  intrie  of  its  journey  from  the  hand  of 
the  one  boy  to  tbat  of  the  other,  there  is  an  exten- 
sive apparatus  of  tapes,  some  of  which  are  observable 
in  the  cut.  These  tajies  are  half  an  inch  broad,  and 
are  formed  into  series  of  endless  bonds,  amuiged 
at  certain  distances  apart,  so  as  t  '  "  '  '  - ' 
'of  the  form  , 

between    the    type 


margins  of  the  forms,  and  therefore 

crtumed   between    the    types    and 

cylinders.     The  machine  may  be  stopped  at  any 


escape    belntr 


instant  by  turning  the  handle  of  a  lever,  which 
shifts  the  belt  from  tbe  fast  to  a  loose  pulley, 
without  stopping  the  engine. — Such  is  the  form  of 
the  machine  that  has  printed  the  present  work, 
which  may  be  taken  as  a  fair  specimen  of  what  thia 
kind  of  press  can,  with  carefulness,  produce,  at  the 
rate  of  7w  sheeta  etonplete  per  hour. 

Non-registering  machines  for  rapid  printing  are 
of  vBriona  kinda,  according  to  the  degree  of  speed 
which  ia  demanded.  In  those  first  introduoed,  the 
principle  waa  that  of  pteaaure  by  a  cyhndar  on  a 
form  of  t^^tee  laid  upon  a  table,  which  was  passed 
beneath  it  by  a  forward  and  retrograde  motion  ; 
the  inking  bemg  effected  as  in  the  above  described 
perfecting  machinea.  Having  received  one  side  by 
this  means,  the  sheets  were  anerwards  printed  on  tbe 


ngle    cylinder   printing-machine  v 
well  adapted  lor  newspapers  of  which  only  a  few 
tbooaand  copies  were  wanted  ;  and  for  this  purt>ose. 


n  4000  or  COOO  imprea- 


it  is  still  in  use,  particularly  in  provincial  towns  u 
Great  Britain.  Aa  presses  of  this  sort,  however,  d 
not  usually  yidd  n         " 

and  upwards,  the  whole  of  which  must  be  promptly 
produced  by  a  certain  hour  every  morning.  The 
liberation  «  newapapei*  from  the  obligatory  penny- 
■tamp   in  ISSC,  canaed  so   great  an  increase   <4 


circulation,  that  nons  of  tlie  ordiiutfy 

iDcluding  tbat  jiut  referred  to.  va*  at  al 

for  the  work  required.     BecoDtm  had  to  b« 

to  an  entirely  new  method  of  priDting,  the  iDTcniiua 

of  which  ia  due  to  Ricbsrd  M.  Hoe  of  New  York. 

Hoe'a  proceu  ooosiata  in  placing  the  t^pea  on  a 
hMiniDtal  cylinder,  TCTolving  on  its  aiia,  againat 
which  the  sheeta  are  preesed  by  exterior  and  imaller 
cylinders.  A  similar  prooeas,  by  means  of  an  nprieht 
cylinder,  had  been  employed  by  hit  Applugnth  tor 
prinlingthe  Tima  in  1848;  but  the  expenie  involved 
in  its  Donatmction  and  working  preveoted  it  oomiDg 
into  general  nse.  Hoe'a  proces*  w»H  therefore  the 
first  mocenf  ul  attempt  to  print  on  this  angularly 
ingeoions  and  effective  principle.  Aa  types  miut 
necneinrily  stand  on  a  ant  simace,  in  oraer  to  be 
held  together  and  properly  printed,  it  will  seem 
inoomprehensible  how  they  should  be  built  up  on 
the  exterior  of  an  iron  dnun,  and  there  yield  legible 
impreesiooB,  Yet,  this  ia  done  by  Hoe's  proceM. 
The  pages  of  type  we  (urauged  In  aegmeata  of  « 
cirale,  each  seonent  forming  a  frame  that  can  be 
fixed  on  the  cylinder.  These  frames  are  tecbjoically 
called  turtUi.  £ach  column  of  type  stands  on  a 
level  strip  of  the  turtle,  while  between  the  columns 


1   of 


bevelled  dk>p« — the  bevel  eorraponding  Is  ^ 
convexity  of  the  turtle ;  so  tiiat  by  menu  i  tlia 
bavelling,  the  form  of  typn  is  susceptible  al  )jaif 
ti^iteora  Dp  and  made  rudy  for  ptat.  The  tmi 
ooenpy  only  a  poitioa  of  the  main  cylinda,  tiu 
remamder  affording  space  for  the  inking  ippsntiu. 
The  «iin»llnr  snrrouDding  cylinders  for  ejecting  Uu 
pres*iiu«  are  arranged  in  a  frame-irork,  ip  coaDcctiai 
with  alopeo,  by  which  the  sheeta  it  fed  in  bluk, 
and  oome  ont  printed.  The  size  of  tbe  miii 
cylinder,  the  number  of  exterior  cybDilen,  tod  tU 
rate  al  speed  at  which  the  whole  machine  it  kspt 
working,  detennioe  the  niunber  of  impnsiioiu 
priuted  per  hour.  Such  is  the  method  oi  vutkiug 
Hoe's  rotary  machines,  which,  as  wanted,  m  miilt 
with  2,  4,  6,  8,  or  10  subsidiary  cy linden ;  thoK  of 
the  lai^est  dimensions  being  now  emulnj'ud  In 
printing  the  daily  newstiapers  in  New  Ink.  Va 
tint  introduced  into  Europe  {with  the  eii¥|)tin[i 
of  one  made  for  the  Paris  newspaper.  La  PeMr, 
in  I848J  was  one  with  six  cylinders  for  pnnlmt 
Uoyir*  Weeidy  Ntwapaper  in  LoodoD,  m  \W. 
Upwards  of  forty  of  these  DuKhioes,  of  diffuent 
sixes,  are  now  in  operation  in  London,  MsDcheitei. 
Liverpool,  Leeds,  Birmingham,  Edinhui^h.  Ijlusdv, 
and  other  cities  in  Great  Britain,  where  cheap  itij 


Kg.  tL — Hoe's  Machine. 


newspa[>ers  are  produced.  Some  idea  of  the  procew 
of  working  may  t>e  obtained  from  the  annexed  cut, 
repreecatiag  a  rotary  machine  with  six  cylinders, 
which  is  employed,  along  with  two  of  larger  dimen- 
sions (viz.,  one  with  8,  and  another  with  10 
cylinders),  in  printing  the  Mandiater  Examinir  and 
Tima.  The  working  of  the  rix-cylinder  machine  is 
thus  described :  '  The  lar^  cylinder  being  pnt  in 
motion,  the  type  imbedded  in  it  is  carried,  sncces' 
sively,  to  the  six  impression- cylinders,  which  are 
placed  horizontally  to  the  large  one,  and  arranged 
at  proper  distances  around  it.  These  subsidiary 
cylinders  give  the  impression  to  six  sheets  of  paper 
introducei  one  at  each  cylinder.  For  each  imprea. 
sion-cylinder  there  are  two  ioking-rollers,  which 
revolve  on  tlie  distributing  surface,  and  take  op  a 
supply  of  ink,  and,  at  the  proper  moment,  pass  over 
the  type,  giving  it  the  requisite  amount  of  ink. 
after  which  they  again  fall  to  the  distributing 
surface.  Six  persons  are  reqiured  to  feed  in  the 
sheets,  which,  after  receiving  the  impression,  are 
carried  out,  by  means  of  ta^,  to  the  end  of  the 
machine,  and  laid  regularly  m  heaps  by  self-acting 
flyers.     In  order  to  produce  12,210  impressions  in 


one  hoar,  each  feeder  must  lay  in  sheets  at  the  ntt 
of  84  per  minute,  or  2040  per  hour.  In  each  Tff^ 
lution  of  the  large  cyUnder,  therefore,  aii  ibMs 
receive  each  its  impression  ;  and  at  it  moies,  aj, 
at  the  rate  of  34  revolutiona  in  a  minute.  9>t 
impressions  are  necessarily  produced,  giring  in  SO 
minutes,  or  one  hour,  12,24(1  impressiona  b  the 
S  and  10  cylinder  machines,  the  number  of  impra- 
sions  produced  per  hour  would  be,  respectivelj, 
16,320,  and  20,400 ;  but  the  larger  mu^ioH  ue 
not  rim  at  so  great  a  speed  as  34  revolatiMU  pii 
minute,  and  the  actual  number  produced  is.  there- 
fore, rather  less.  The  productive  power  of  the 
machine  is  only  limited  by  the  skill  and  deiWfin 
of  the  feeders  or  layers-on.  In  the  Aeu  i'o" 
Herald  printing-office,  the  manipulative  fowfr  of 
the  feeders  has  neen  so  mnch  incraaaed  by  fncbct 
that  2500  is  by  no  means  an  nnnsaal  niunber  of 
sheets  to  be  hud  on  by  each  workman  in  an  Ikwl 
Applying  this  to  the  six-cylinder  madiiD^  and  np- 
poaing  the  main  cylinder  to  revtJve  at  tiie  rsteiif 
42  tvTolutiona  per  minute,  wiUi  six  skilfol  feoien 
each 'capable  of  laying  on  42  sheeta  in  ainicut^  i> 
follows  that  2K  imprsMima  woold  be  jocdnoadi 


FBnrmcGk— FBI0R. 


and  as  the  ntiinber  of  nvolntioiis  perfunned  in 
one  hour  would  be  252D,  the  a^Kregate  Dumber  of 
impressions  prodnced  within  the  nour  would  amount 
to  15,120.'  A  machine  of  this  kind  can  be  set  np 
for  about  £3600;  one  with  ei^t  oylinders,  for 
£4500;  and  with  ten  cylinden,  for  £5500.  By 
machines  with  ten  oylindert,  such  as  thoee  now 
used  in  printing  the  London  lHme»t  Daily  Tdtgrapht 
Morning  Star,  Standard,  and  Manehetter  JSxaminer 
and  Timet,  as  many  aa  20,000  impressions  oan  be 
thrown  off  per  hour.  But  to  this  is  to  be  added 
another  marvel  in  typography.  Bv  taking  a 
stereotype-cast  of  the  forms  when  ready  for  preas, 
which  can  be  done  in  a  few  minutee,  two  seta 
of  types,  so  to  speak,  are  produced,  from  whidi 
duplication  aa  many  aa  40,000  impressions  can  be 
taken  in  the  hour ;  it  beine,  in  fact,  by  this  means 
that  the  proprietors  of  the  Time§  and  other  popular 
prints  are  able  to  supply,  at  an  early  hour  every 
morning,  the  extensive  demand  for  their  papers. 

See  STBREOTTPINa 

A  still  further  development  of  the  art  of  rapid 
printing  is  at  present  (Xanuaiy  1865)  in  progress. 
A  machine  has  been  constructed  in  London  for  the 
purpose  of  printing  a  continuous  sheet  of  paper, 
previously  damped,  unrolled  from  a  cylinder,  and 
which  receives,  as  it  passes  through  the  machine, 
impressions  on   both    sides   of   the    sheet     The 
impressions    are    given    from    stereotype    forms, 
fastened  on  horizontal  cylinders.     As  the   sheet 
passes  along  from  that  part  of  the  machine  where 
it  receives  the  impression,  it  is  out  by  a  verv 
ingenious  process,  and  the  detached  portions  (which 
are,   in  fact,  single  copies  of  the  newspaper)  are 
carried  forward  and  deposited,  one  above  another, 
in  heaps.    The  great  difficulty  to  be  overcome  at 
this  final  staee  of  the  process  arises  from  the  extreme 
rapidity  witn  which  the  sheets  come  out  of  the 
machine,  but  the  inventor  oonfidently  expects  to 
overcome  it    Should  this  machiue  be  successful,  it 
will  be  an  important  step  in  advance  even  of  Hoe's 
presses.     The  space  occupied  by  it  will  be  very 
much  less,  and  the  necessity  of  having  feeders  to  lay 
on  the  sheets  will  entirely  be  done  away  with,  there- 
by effecting  a  large  saving  in  expenses.      By  this 
machine,  the  sheet  will  be  printed  simultaneously 
on  both  sides,  which  cannot  be  done  by  Hoe*s  or 
any  other  press.    It  will,  in  reali^,  do  the  work 
of  two  of  lioe*s  machines,  and  with  an  immense 
saving  as  regards  room,  the  wages  of  layers-on, 
Ac.     various  other  novel  projects  have  been  sug- 
gested for  facilitating  the  art  of  letterpress-printing, 
to   notice  which  would  exceed  the  spaoe  at  our 
disposaL 

Anastatic  Printing  (so  called  from  anatUuis, 
resoscitation,  raising  up  affain)  originated  in  Ger- 
many about  1840,  and  is  tne  process  of  executing 
impreesions  from  zinc-plates  to  which  an  impression 
has  been  transferred  m>m  existing  |ninted  books  or 
sheets.  The  first  step  in  the  process  is  to  damp  a 
printed  sheet  with  water,  and  then  moisten  it  with 
dilate  nitrio  acid,  after  which  the  sheet  is  pressed 
firmly  and  evenly  on  a  prepared  zinc-plate.  The 
acid  now  eats  out  the  jplate  in  all  parts  except 
where  there  is  print,  which,  from  its  oleaginous 
character,  has  absorbed  neither  water  nor  acid. 
The  result,  after  due  time,  is  the  production  of  a 
typographic  surface  on  the  plate,  somewhat  resem- 
bling the  appearance  of  stereotype,  and  from  which 
may  be  printed  a  fao-simile  of  the  original  This 
Tery  ingenious  process,  which  has  been  made  the 
sabject  of  a  patent  in  Great  Britain,  may  be 
rendered  available  for  procuring  fac-simile  copies 
of  books  and  prints,  but  is  not  likely  ever  to  be 
carried  to  a  areat  length  in  competition  with  fresh 
typography.  Keoently-printed  matter  is  most  easily  | 


trttiifamd;  with  old  books,  the  transfer  is  effected 
with  diffioolty,  and  only  by  exercising  a  degree  of 
care  which  ordinaiy  operators  are  not  disposed  to 
taket  w.  a 

PRINTING,  Natorji.    See  Natctbs-pbxntino. 

PRINT-WORKS,  inpoint  of  law,  are  regulated 
by  the  statute  8  and  9  Vict  a  29,  so  far  as  regards 
the  labour  of  children,  youns  persons,  and  women ; 
and  the  statute  applies  to  all  buildings  where  persons 
are  employed  to  print  figures,  patterns,  or  designs 
by  means  of  blocks  or  cyunders,  Aa,  on  any  woven 
fiibrio  of  cotton,  wool,  hair,  fur,  silk,  flax,  hemp,  or 
jute.  The  works  are  subject  to  the  inspection  of 
the  factories*  inspectors,  to  whom  particulars  of  the 
business  and  place  are  to  be  duly  sent  Children 
under  8  yean  of  aoe  are  not  to  be  employed  Sur- 
gical certificates  of  age  are  to  be  given.  No  child 
under  13,  or  female,  is  to  be  employed  during  the 
night  Children  under  13  must  be  sent  by  the 
parent  to  school  for  at  least  60  days  in  the  year, 
and  certificates  of  these  school  attendances  must  be 
obtained  before  a  child  can  be  employed  in  a  print- 
work.  A  register  is  to  be  kept  of  fdl  the  i^ersons 
employed,  a^  the  times  of  employment ;  and  any 
employment  of  a  child,  ^oung  person,  or  woman 
contrary  to  the  act,  subjects  the  occupier  of  the 
works  to  a  penalty.  Minute  regulations  for  secur- 
ing observance  of  the  act  are  contained  in  the  act 
itsell 

PRrOK    See  Monastsby. 

PRIOR,  Matthbw,  an  English  poet,  was  bom,  it 
is  supposed,  in  London,  where  his  father  was  a 
joiner,  on  the  2l8t  July  16(^.  He  was  educated, 
through  the  liberality  of  an  uncle,  at  Westminster 
School ;  and  in  1682,  he  was  sent  by  the  Earl  of 
Dorset,  whose  friendship  he  had  formed,  to  St 
John's  College,  Cambridge.  Here  he  took  his  KA., 
obtained  a  fellowship,  and  made  the  acquaintance  of 
Charles  Montacu,  afterwards  Earl  of  Halifax,  in 
conjunction  wiui  whom  he  produced  The  Oity  Moute 
ana  Country  Mouse,  written  to  ridicule  Dryden,  in 
which  it  did  not  in  the  least  succeed,  although  it 
lives  yet  in  virtue  of  its  own  wit,  polish,  and  grace. 

After  1688,  P.  was  introduced  to  court  by  the 
Earl  of  Dorset,  and  was  i^pointed  secretary  to  the 
embassy  which  was  sent  to  the  Hague  in  1690.  His 
conduct  gave  satisfaction  to  King  William ;  and  the 
lucky  and  well-mannered  poet  was  appointed  after- 
wards to  several  poets  of  a  similar  description.  He 
was  a  favourite  at  the  courts  of  Holland  and  Franca 
In  1701,  P.  entered  parliament;  and  soon  after 
he  deserted  the  Whigs,  and  went  over  to  the  Tory 
Mirty.  In  1711,  he  was  sent  by  government  to- 
Paris  with  private  proposals  for  peace,  and  on  his 
return,  he  brought  with  him  one  of  the  French 
ministers,  who  was  invested  with  full  powers  tO' 
treat  At  P.'s  house,  shortly  after,  the  representa- 
tives of  the  British  ^vemment  met  the  French, 
plenipotentiary ;  and  his  connection  with  this  meet- 
ug  was  made  the  ground  of  a  charge  of  treason,  on. 
which  he  was  committed  to  prison,  but  released 
after  a  confinement  of  two  years,  without  a  triaL 
He  had  now  nothine  to  live  by  except  his  fellow- 
ship and  his  wits.  The  publication  of  nis  poems  by 
subscription,  however,  brought  him  4000  guineas:, 
and  at  the  same  time.  Lord  Harley,  son  of  the  Earlt 
of  Oxford,  bouffht  a  small  estate  in  Essex,  and. 
conferred  it  on  mm  for  life.  At  the  age  of  67>  he> 
died  at  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Oxford,  September- 
18,  1721.  A  monument  was  erected  to  him  im 
Westminster  Abbey. 

P.  was  one  of  the  few  poets  who  was  also  a  diplo- 
matist and  man  of  the  world  He  filled  his  public 
offices  with  credit  to  himself,  and  he  had  tlie  knack 
of  making  friends  amongst  those  who  had  the  giving 


PRISCUN— PEI80N  DISCIPLnnS. 


of  places  Mid  pentions.  His  poems,  which  comprise 
odes,  soucB,  epistles,  epigrams,  and  tales,  are  not 
much  t^tSL  He  has  no  fire,  no  enthusiasm,  but 
everything  is  neat,  pointed,  well  turned;  and  his 
lighter  pieces^  are  graceful  and  witty.  If  there 
is  Uttle  mspiration  in  his  Terse,  there  are  the  polish 
and  felicity  of  a  scholar  and  man  of  society. 

PRI'SCIAN  (Lat  Prisckmiu),  somamedCjESASi- 
XNSis,  either  because  he  was  bom  or  educated  in 
the  town  of  Ciesarea,  is  perhaps,  in  point  of  reputa^ 
tion,  the  first  of  Latin  grammarians,  though  one  of 
the  last  in  point  of  time.  He  belongs  to  the  middle 
of  the  6th  c,  if  he  is  not  even  considerably  later,  for 
he  is  mentioned  by  Panlus  Diaoonus  as  a  contem- 
porary of  Cassiodorus  (468—562  ▲.D.).  He  taught 
Latin  at  Constantinople,  probably  te  the  imperial 
court,  for  he  enjoyed  a  government  salary.  The 
work  which  has  mainly  preserved  his  name  is  his 
Commentariorum  OrammcUieorum  Libri  XVII I.^ 
dedicated  to  his  patron  the  consul  Julianus.  The 
first  16  books  treat  of  the  different  parts  of  speech 
as  conceived  by  the  ancients;  the  remaining  two 
are  devoted  to  syntax,  and  in  one  MS.  bear  the 
separate  title  of  De  Consiructhne  Ubri  duo.  P.*s 
Commentary  is,  for  the  time,  a  solid  and  compre- 
hensive work,  the  im)duction  of  a  man  of  great 
learning  and  good  sense,    and  is   enriched  with 

S quotations  from  many  Greek  and  Latin  authors  no 
onger  extant.  The  epitome  executed  bv  the 
German  bishop,  Rabanns  Maurus  (flor.  in  we  9th 
c),  was  very  popular  in  the  middle  ages.  Besides 
the  Commentary,  P.  wrote  six  smaller  grammatical 
treatises,  and  two  hexameter  poems  of  the  didactic 
sort,  De  Laude  ImperatorU  Anastani^  and  a  free 
translation  of  the  Periegesis  of  Dionysius.  The 
first  edition  of  P.  appeared  at  Venice  (1470) ;  the 
best  is  that  by  Krehl  (2  vols.,  Leip.  1819—1820). 
— The  phrase,  *  to  breiUL  the  head  of  ^riscian^'  means 
to  grossly  violate  the  rules  of  grammar. 

PRISCI'LLIAN,  the  author,  or  rather  the  chief 
propa^tor  in  Spain,  during  the  latter  part  of  the  4th 
c,  of  the  doctrines  profess^  by  the  sect  known  from 
his  name  as  PRiBCiLLiAKisxa.  The  first  seed  of  their 
doctrines  is  said  to  have  been  carried  into  Spain  by 
a  Memphian  named  Marcus.  P.  was  a  man  of  noble 
birth ;  and  by  his  elo<^uence  and  ascetic  life  obtained 
so  much  consideration,  that  a  numerous  party, 
includinff  some  priests,  and  at  least  two  bishops, 
attached  themselves  to  his  schooL  His  doctrine  was 
substantially  that  of  the  Manichieans  (q.  v.).  He 
taught  expressly  the  Dtudism  and  the  DoceUtm  of 
that  sect,  and  it  is  equally  certain  that  he  adopted 
the  moral  consequences  as  to  marriage,  ftc.,  by 
which  they  had  rendered  themselves  obnoxious 
even  to  the  civil  authorities  in  the  East  and  Africa. 
He  was  warmly  opposed  by  two  bishops,  Idacius 
and  Ithacius;  ana  the  council  of  Ctesar- Augusta 
(SaragoBsa)  having  in  the  year  380  condemned  his 
doctnoes,  a  decree  for  his  banislmient  was  issued  in 
tiie  same  year.  He  not  only  obtained,  however,  a 
reversal  of  this  decree,  but  succeeded  in  effecting 
the  banishment  of  lus  chief  opponent,  Ithacius.  By 
an  appeal  to  the  usurper  Maxmius  at  Treves,  Ithacius 
caused  P.  and  several  of  his  followers  to  be  brought 
to  trial,  and  put  to  death,  in  880;  a  proceedmg 
which  was  regarded  with  so  much  abhorrence  by  St 
Martin  of  Tours,  St  Ambrose,  and  other  bishops,  that 
they  separated  from  the  communion  of  Ithacius. 
The  sect  did  not  die  out  with  ite  founder,  thoueh 
there  was  a  considerable  reaction  against  it  at  the 
close  of  the  4th  c. ;  and  at  all  times  through  the 
medieval  period  we  find  ite  traces  under  various 
names  ana  forms,  especially  in  the  north  of  Spain, 
in  Langnedoc,  and  in  Northern  Italy. 

PRISM,  in  Geometry,  a  solid  figure  which  can 

770 


be  most  easily  conceived  of  if  we  imagine  a  nmnber 
of  plane  figures  (triangles,  quadiuaterals,  &c.) 
exactly  simiur  in  form  and  size  to  be  cot  out  of 
paper  or  any  thin  plate,  and  piled  one  above  tiie 
other,  and  then  the  whole  pile  to  become  one  body. 
It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  top  and  bottom  of  th^ 
prism  are  similar,  equal,  and  psfallel  to  each  o^faer, 
and  that  the  sides  are  plane  figures,  rectaii|^;alar  if  the 
prism  be  'right'  (i  e.,  if  in  the  above  illnstFation  tiie 
pile  of  plane  fi^jures  be  built  up  perpendiciilariy), 
and  rhomboidal  if  the  prism  be ' obuque'  (L  e^  if  tbs 
pile  slope  to  one  side) ;  but  under  all  circuiDatanoeB 
the  sides  of  a  prism  must  be  parallelograni&  Tbs 
top  and  bottom  faces  may  be  either  tnan^es, 
squares,  parallela^rams,  or  quadrilaterals  of  any 
sort,  or  figures  of  5,  6,  7»  ftc  sides,  provided  only 
both  are  alike;  and  the  number  of  aides  in  ins 
plane  figure  which  forms  the  top  or  bottom,  of 
course  determines  the  number  of  faces  of  the 
prism;  thus,  in  a  triangular  prism,  there  are  5 
faces  in  all  (3  sides  and  2  ends) ;  in  a  quadrangular 
prism,  6  faces  (4  sides  and  2  ends),  &&  If  two 
prisms,  one  being  '  rij^t,'  and  the  otiier  '  oblique,' 
nave  their  bases  of  equal  area,  and  be  of  the  same 
vertical  height,  their  solid  content  is  tiie  same,  and 
is  found  by  multiplying  the  area  of  the  base  by  the 
vertical  height.  The  Parallelepiped  (q.  ▼.)  is  a 
quadrangular  prism,  and  the  cube  is  a  paiticiilar  case 
of  the  parallelepiped. — Pbisk,  in  Optica,  is  a  triao- 
^lar  prism  of  glass  or  other  transparent  substance, 
ite  two  ends  being  isosceles  trianjg^ea,  and  having 
most  frequently  a  very  acute  vertical  angle,  which 
gives  the  prism  the  appearance  oi.  a  lon^  wedge. 
The  prism  is  a  most  important  instrument  in  experi- 
mente  on  the  refraction  of  lighl^  and,  in  the  hands 
of  the  most  eminent  optical  phUosojpi&era,  has  beat 
the  means  of  largely  adding  to  the  science  of  optica 
See  REFRAcnoN. 

PRISOK  DISCIPLINE  means  the  method  in 

which  criminals,  or  other  persons  subjected  to 
imprisonment  are  managed.  In  tlus,  which  is  its 
original  sense,  prison  discipline,  as  Skctnally  prac- 
tise may  be  good  or  bad  m  the  estimation  of  the 
person  speaking  of  it;  Of  late,  however,  the  term 
nas  obtamed  a  new  meaning,  having  been  used  to 
express  not  merely  the  practice  of  ruling  prisons, 
but  the  science  of  properly  ruling  them.  It  has 
gone  even  further,  and  sometimes  has  been  naed 
to  express  the  principles  of  penal  administration, 
or  the  philoBopny  and  practice  of  puniahinenl 
This  has  arisen  from  the  circumstance,  that 
gradually  other  punishmente  have  been  dropped  in 
this  country,  and  detention  within  edifices  and  the 
grounds  attached  to  them  has  become  almost  the 
only  method  of  punishment  for  crimes.  Torture, 
exposure  in  the  pillory,  and  other  like  dedicatioBa 
of  the  offender  to  public  vengeance,  have  been  kmg 
abandoned  as  barbarous.  I>eath-puniahment  has 
been  much  narrowed  in  ite  applicatum ;  and  trans- 
portation, apart  from  any  question  as  to  its  effee> 
tiveness,  has  been  rendered  impracticable,  except 
within  a  very  narrow  compass.  We  get  nothing 
from  the  practioe  of  the  times  anterior  to  Chris- 
tianity, nor  yet  from  that  of  the  middle  agess  to 
help  us  in  estimating  modem  systems  of  prison 
discipline.  They  are  a  development  of  civiliBatioii ; 
and,  contradictory  as  it  may  seem  to  say  so,  of 
personal  liberty.  The  instituaon  of  slavery  rendss 
any  such  system  unnecessary.  It  removes  the  func- 
tion of  punishing  ordinaiy  criminals  from  the  public 
administration  of  the  afiuurs  of  a  state,  and  jpAaces 
it  in  private  hands.  Hence,  we  have  no  cnminal 
law,  properly  speaking,  coming  down  to  ns  froB 
antiquity.  The  eorpuM  jurU,  so  full  of  minute  re^g» 
lations  m  all  matters  of  civic  right,  has  very  httis 
criminal  law,  because  the  criminals  became  s]avel^ 


PKBONERS  OF  WAR-PETTHU. 


and  ceased  to  be  objects  of  the  attention  of  the  law. 
When  imprisonment  became  a  function  of  the  state 
in  the  administration  of  justice,  it  was  often  care- 
lessly, and  hence  tyrannically,  exercised,  because 
the  practice  of  awarding  it  as  a  punishment  arose 
more  rapidly  than  the  organisation  for  controlling 
its  use.  On  several  occasions,  grave  abuses  have  been 
exposed  by  parliamentary  inquiries  and  otherwise 
in  the  practioe  of  prison  disei^ine  in  this  country. 
The  exertions  of  Howard,  Mrs  Fry,  and  other  inves- 
tigators awakened  in  the  public  mind  the  question, 
whether  any  practice  in  which  the  public  interest 
was  so  much  involved,  should  be  left  to  something 
like  mere  chance — to  the  negligence  of  local  autho- 
rities, and  the  personal  disposition  of  jailers.    The 
tendency  lately  has  been  to  regulate  prison  disci- 
pline with  extreme  car&.     The  public  sometimes 
complain  that  too  much  pains  is  bestowed  on  it — 
that  criminals  are  not  worthy  of  having  dean  well- 
ventilated  apartments,  wholesome  food,  skilful  medi- 
cal attendance,  industrial  training,  and  education, 
as  they  now  have  in  this  country.    There  are  manv 
arguments  in  favour  of  criminals  being  so  treated, 
and  the  objections  urged  against  such  treatment, 
are  held  by  those  who  are  best  acquainted  with 
the  siibject  to  be  invalid;  for  it  has  never  been 
maintained  by  any   one   that  a  course  of   crime 
has  been  commenced  and  pursued  for  the  piurpoee 
of    enjoying    the    advantages    of    imprisonment 
Perhaps  those  who  chiefly  promoted  the  several 
prominent  systems   expected  from   them    greater 
results,  in  the  shape  of  the  reformation  of  criminals, 
than  any  that  have  been  obtained.    If  they  have 
been  disappointed  in  this,  it  can,  at  all  events,  be 
said  that  any  prison  in  the  now  recognised  system 
is  no  longer  like  the  older  prisons,  an  institution 
in  which  uie  young  criminals  advance  into  the  rank 
of  profidenta,  and  the  old  improve  each  other's 
skill  by  mutual  commimication.    The  system  now 
received  is  that  of  separation,  so  far  as  it  is  practic- 
able.    Two  other  systems  were  tried — the  sOent 
system  and  the  solitary  s3rBtenL   The  former  imposed 
entire    silence   among   the    prisoners   even   when 
assembled   togetiier;   the   latter   endeavoured   to 
accomplish  their  complete  isolation  from  sight  of  or 
communication  with  their  race.     By  the  separate 
system,  the  criminals  are  prohibited  from  oommuni* 
eating  with  each  other;  but  they  are  visited  by 
various  persons  with  whom   intercourse  is  more 
likdy  to   elevate   than   to  debase — as   chaplains, 
teachers,  scripture-readers,  the  superior  officers  of 
the  prison,  and  those  who  have  the  external  oontiol 
over  it. 

PRISONERS  OF  WAR  are  those  who  are 
captured  from  the  enemy  during  naval  or  military 
operations^  By  the  laws  or  recognised  principles  of 
war,  the  entire  people  of  a  vanquished  town,  state, 
or  nation  become  the  absolute  property  of  the 
victors;  but  dvilisation  has  greatly  mocufied  this 
stem  rule,  and,  except  when  a  country  is  devastated 
for  military  reasons,  it  is  rare  for  non-combatant 
citizens  to  be  subjected  to  penalties  of  conquest, 
beyond  the  levying  of  contributions  in  money  or 
provisions.  The  combatants  who  have  laid  down 
their  arms  become  prisoners  of  war.  Their  lives 
and  liberty  are  at  the  disposal  of  their  conquerors, 
and  even  m  modem  times,  their  lives  are  sometimes 
taken,  as,  for  instance,  when  Napoleon  put  the 
Turkish  prisoners  to  death  at  Jaffa  in  1799 ;  other- 
wise, prisoners  of  war  are  kept  in  confinement  until 
peace  ensues,  or  they  are  excnanged  for  prisoners  of 
their  conqueror's  nation,  held  in  captivity  by  their 
own  countrymen.  It  is  unusual  to  subject  prisoners 
of  war  to  penal  discipline;  but  the  loss  of  liberty 
and  hard  fare  (for,  of  course,  they  are  allowed  no 
more   than  a  bare   snbsiBtence)  render  captivity 


sufficiently  irksoma  In  ancient  times,  the  treat- 
ment of  prisoners  of  war  was  ftf  mors  severe.  In 
the  Greek  wars,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  to  put 
the  whole  adult  male  population  of  a  conqueied 
state  to  the  sword,  while  the  women  and  children 
were  enshived.  Although  the  putting  to  death  of 
prisoners  became  less  frequent,  they  and  their 
families  were  commonly  reduced  to  slavery  to  as 
recent  a  period  as  the  I3itk  century.  About  that 
time,  the   more   humane    custom   of   exchanging 

Eners  came  into  practice.  Notwithstanding 
lent  exchanges,  large  numbers  of  prisoners  aocu- 
te  during  war.  In  1811,  about  47,600  French 
were  prisoners  in  England,  while  10,900  English 
languished  in  the  prisons  of  France.    See  Pabolb. 

PRISRE'NB,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the 
eyalet  of  Uskup  (Albania),  on  tiie  Rieka,  80  miles 
(»st  of  Scutari.  It  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
rich,  and  industrious  towns  in  Turkey,  witii  a 
citadel  situated  upwards  of  1100  feet  above  sea- 
leveL  It  contains  an  immense  numlx^  of  bazaars, 
and  carries  on  an  active  trade  in  flints,  saddlery, 
glass,  copper,  and  steel  wares.  Among  its  ediilces 
are  15  mosques.    Pop.  upwards  of  20,000. 

PRISTPNA,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  in  the 
eyalet  of  Uskup,  30  miles  north-north-east  of 
Prisrend,  stands  on  a  hill,  and  is  the  most  consideiv 
able  town  in  Old  Servia.    Pop.  about  9000. 

PRISTIS.    See  Sawvish. 

PR'ITHXT  is  the  name  of  several  le^ndaiy  kings 
of  ancient  India.  It  is,  however,  especially  one  king 
of  this  name  who  is  the  favourite  hero  of  the  Pur- 
ftn'as.  His  father  was  Ven'a,  who  perished  through 
his  wickedness ;  for  when  he  was  inaugurated  mon- 
arch of  the  earth,  he  caused  it  to  be  everjrwhere 
proclaimed  that  no  worship  should  be  performed,  no 
oblations  offered,  and  no  gifts  bestowed  upon  the 
Brahmans.  The  R'islus,  or  Saints,  hearing  of  this 
proclamation,  entreated  the  king  to  revoke  it»  but 
in  vain ;  hence  they  fell  upon  mm,  and  slew  him. 
But  the  kingdom  now  being  without  a  king,  as 
Ven'a  had  left  no  ofi&pring,  and  the  people  being 
without  protection,  the  sages  assembled,  and  con- 
sulted how  to  produce  a  son  from  the  body  of  the 
dead  king.  First,  then,  they  rubbed  his  thigh; 
from  it,  thus  rubbed,  came  forth  a  being  caUed 
Nishida;  and  by  this  means  the  wickedness  of 
Ven'a  having  been  expelled,  they  proceeded  to  rub 
tiie  right  arm  of  the  dead  king,  and  by  this  friction 
engendered  P.,  who  came  K)rth  resplendent  in 
person,  and  in  his  right  hand  the  mark  of  the  discus 
of  Vishnu,  which  proved  him  to  be  a  universal 
emperor,  one  whose  power  would  be  invindble  even 
b5[  tile  gods.  The  mighty  P.  soon  removed  the 
grievances  of  the  peopfe;  he  protected  the  earth, 
performed  many  sacrifices,  and  gave  liberal  gifts  to 
the  Brahmans.  On  being  informed  that»  in  the 
interval  in  which  the  earth  was  without  a  king,  all 
vegetable  products  had  been  withheld,  and  that, 
consequenuy,  the  people  had  perished,  he  in  great 
wratii  marched  forward  to  assail  the  earth.  The 
earth,  assuming  the  figure  oi  a  cow,  fled  before  him ; 
but  seeing  no  escape  from  the  power  of  the  king,  at 
last  submitted  to  him,  and  promised  to  renew  her 
fertility,  provided  that  he  made  all  places  leveL 
P.  therefore  uprooted  mountains,  levelled  the  snr^ 
face  of  the 'earth,  established  boundaries  of  towns 
and  villages,  and  induced  his  subjects  to  take  up 
thdr  abcKle  where  the  ground  was  made  leveL 
The  earth  now  fulfilled  her  promise ;  and  as  P.,  by 
thus  granting  her  new  life,  oecame,  as  it  were,  her 
father,  she  was  henceforth  called  IVithivi  However 
little  the  worth  of  this  pieoe  of  popular  etymology 
— for  pr^Uhivt,  or  pr^iAvoi,  'earth,'  the  feminine 
of    prWm   (Greek  pkUu)   means    etymoloncally 


PRIVATE— PKIVY-COUNODL 


'the  Urge'  or  *wide'~-the  Imnd  of  P.  ifcMlf 
•eems  to  record  some  historical  ttck  regarding  the 
civilisiDg  influencee  exerted  by  »  great  king  of 
Hiudu  antiquity. 

PBIVATB,  the  title  applied  in  the  Britiflh  army 
to  a  common  soldier  of  the  cavalry  and  infantiy ; 
the  ooirespondbg  rank  in  the  artillery  being  ganner 
or  driver,  and  in  the  cnjriiieerB,  the  sapper.  The 
pay  of  a  private  is  one  shilling  a  day  in  the  infantiy, 
and  Is.  3(1  in  the  cavalrv — exclusive,  in  each  case, 
of  one  penn^  a  day  for  beer-money.  A  private  in 
the  cavalry  is  sometimes  called  a  trooper. 

PRIVATEE'B,  a  ship  owned  by  a  {nnvate 
individual,  which,  under  govemment  permission, 
expressed  bv  a  Letter  of  Mftn|ue  (q.  v.),  makes  war 
upon  the  snipping  of  a  hostile  power.  To  make 
war  upon  an  enemy  without  this  commission,  or 
U|x>n  tne  shipping  of  a  nation  not  specified  in  it,  is 
piracy.  Privateering  was  abolished  by  mutual 
au:reement  among  European  nations  by  the  Treaty 
of  Paris  in  1856.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  how  far 
that  abolition  would  stand  in  a  general  war,  for 
privateering  is  the  natural  resource  of  a  nation 
whose  regular  navy  is  too  weak  to  make  head 
against  the  maritime  power  of  the  enemy,  especially 
wnen  the  latter  ofifers  the  temptation  of  a  wealthy 
oommerce. 

PRITET  {Liffiutrum)^  a  ^nus  of  plants  of  the 
natural  order  OUacecB,  contaimng  a  number  of  species 
of  shrubs  and  small  trees  with  opposite  leaves,  which 
are  simple  and  entire  at  the  mar^n ;  the  flowers 
small,  white,  and  in  terminal  panicles ;  the  calyx 
sliehtiiy  4-toothed ;  the  corolla  funnel-shaped  and 
4-^eft  i  the  stamens  two,  projecting  beyond  the  tube 
of  the  corolla;  the  bemes  2-celled.  Common  P. 
{L.  vulgare)  is  a  shrub  growing  in  bushv  places  and 
about  the  borders  of  woods  in  the  middle  and  south 
of  Europe,  and  in  some  parts  of  Britain,  now  also 
naturalised  in  some  parts  of  North  America.  It 
has  half-evergreen,  smooth,  lanceolate  leaves;  and 
berries  about  the  size  of  peas,  black,  rarely  white, 
yellow,  or  green.  The  flowers  have  a  strong  and 
sweetish  smell;  the  leaves  are  mildly  astringent, 
and  were  formerly  used  in  medicine;  the  berries, 
which  hang  on  the  shrub  during  winter,  have  a 
disagreeable  taste,  but  serve  as  fo<Kl  for  many  kinds 
of  birds;  they  are  used  for  dyeing  red,  and  with 
various  additions,  green,  blue,  and  olack.  A  rose- 
coloured  pigment  obtained  from  them  is  used  for 
colouring  maps.  The  wood  is  hard,  and  is  used 
by  turners,  and  by  shoemakers  for  making  wooden 

Ee^  P.,  although  not  spiny,  is  much  used  for 
edges,  often  mixed  with  some  spinv  shrub,  or 
with  beech.  It  bears  clipping  well,  ana  srows  well 
in  the  smoke  of  towns,  also  under  the  shaae  of  trees. 
— A  number  of  species  of  P.  are  natives  of  different 
parts  of  the  East,  and  some  of  them  have  begun 
to  be  introduced  into  shrubberies  in  Britain. — All 
kinds  of  P.  grow  readily  from  cuttings. 

PRI'YILEGE  (Lat.  prktOeffium,  from  privata  Ux, 
a  private  law),  a  special  ordinance  or  regulation, 
in  virtue  of  which  an  individual  or  a  class  enjoys 
certain  immunities  or  rights  from  or  beyond  the 
common  provisions  of  the  general  law  of  the 
community.  It  differs  from  a  c^Mpsnsa^n  inas- 
much as  the  latter  merely  relaxes  the  existinj^^ 
law  for  a  particular  case  or  cases,  while  the  privi- 
lege is  a  permanent  and  general  right.  Of  ancient 
and  medieval  legislation,  the  law  of  privilege 
formed  an  important  branch ;  and,  in  trutii,  the 
condition  of  the  so-called  *privileg|ed  classes'  was 
in  all  respects  different,  socially,  civilly,  and  even 
religiously,  from  that  of  the  non-privileaed.  In 
canon  law,  there  were  two  privileges  enjoyed  by 
the  clei^,  which  deserve  especial  notice,  from  the 
773 


frei^iiency  of  the  historieal  alliisioiis  to  tfaem-^khe 
'  privilege  of  the  canon  *  {prwSegwm  canonU)  and  the 
*  privilege  of  the  forum '  {privUegium  /ori^.  By  the 
former,  the  person  of  the  ekstgyiDMi^  of  whsiever 
degree,  was  protected  from  vioSioe  by  the  penalty 
of  exoommnnication  against  the  offender;  oy  tibte 
latter — known  in  En^and  as  'benefit  of  mrgv' 
(q.v.) — the  denprman  was  exempted  from  the 
ordinary  civil  tnbanala,  and  could  o^ly  be  tried  in 
the  eoclesiastical  court  Most  of  the  purely  civil 
privileges  are  abolished  throughout  £arope  by 
modem  legislation. 

PRIVILEGED  DEBTS,  m  tiie  Law  of  Scot- 
land, such  debts  as  are  first  paid  out  of  certain 
fnndsi  Thus,  when  a  man  dies,  a  certain  som  is 
allowed  out  of  his  estate  for  Moamings  (q.  v.)  te 
the  widow  and  children.  In  case  of  kankniptcy, 
servants'  wages  are  jirivileced  to  a  oertain  extent 
— PBiYnJEGBD  Deeds  are  holograph  deeds,  wbidi 
are  exempted  from  the  statute  which  reqmiea  other 
deeds  to  be  signed  before  witnesses. 

PBIVY-CHAMBEB,  Gk^ttlkmbk  of  thi; 
officers  of  tiie  royal  household  of  England,  instit- 
uted by  King  Henry  VIL,  to  attend  on  the  king 
and  queen  at  court,  and  in  their  progreaaea,  diver- 
sions, fta  For  a  number  of  yean  past,  no  aervioes 
have  been  reouired  of  these  officers,  and  no  salaiy 
or  fee  is  attacned  to  the  office.  There  are  also  four 
Gentlemen  Ushers  of  the  Privy-chamber,  who  are 
in  regular  attendance  on  the  sovereign,  waiting  in 
the  Presence-chamber,  and  attending  on  the  royal 
uerson;  they  have  the  honour  of  conducting  her 
Majesty,  in  the  absence  of  the  higher  offioetB. 

PBIVT-COUNCIL  {eongUivm  regis  prssatem), 
an  assembly  of  advisers  on  matters  of  state  •fyni»^tfd 
by  the  sovereign.  The  Privy-council  of  laigl^iM^ 
existed  at  a  very  early  period  in  the  liiatory  of  the 
country.  It  was  in  ifcs  beginning  a  small  pennaneat 
oommittee,  or  minor  council,  sdected  by  the  king 
out  of  the  great  council,  or  parliament ;  nnd  in  its 
powers  were  included — what  still  fotms  one  of  its 
tunctions — the  right  to  inquire  into  all  offenees 
against  the  state,  and  to  oommit  offendera  for  trial 
before  the  proper  courts  of  law.  It  alao  frequently 
assumed  the  cognizance  of  questions  of  private  r^t 
a  pTBCtioe  a^nst  which  the  statute  16  Chariea  L 
a  10  was  directed,  enacting  that  neither  kix^  ncr 
council  should  have  any  lurisdintion  in  mattiis 
rmrding  the  estates  and  liberties  of  the  snbjeci, 
whioh  should  be  tried  in  the  ordinary  tribonsis  of 
the  country.  The  Council  in  eariy  times  ooBsssted  of 
the  Chancellor,  the  Treasurer,  the  Justices  of  either 
bendi,  the  Esoheaters,  the  Serjeants,  some  of  the 
principal  Clerks  of  the  Chancery,  and  other  membos 
nominated  by  the  king,  who  were  generallv  biahops, 
earla,  and  barons.  OSie  Star-chamber  and  Court  of 
Bequests  were  both  committees  of  Privy-conndL 
The  number  of  members,  which  had  originally  been 
12,  was  ffradually  increased;  and  when  the  large 
number  nad  become  inconvenient,  the  sovereign 
sought  the  advice  of  a  select  body  of  the  more 
influential  amon£[  them.  Charles  IX.  Hw^^tffi  the 
number  of  councillors  to  30,  15  of  whom  comprised 
the  chief  officers  of  state  and  the  ex  ojfieio  membeia, 
to  whom  were  added  10  peers  and  5  oommoners 
named  by  the  sovereign ;  a^  it  was  intended  that 
the  Council,  thus  remodelled,  should  practicaUy 
resume  its  original  duties,  and  have  the  oontrj>l  A 
every  part  of  the  executive  administration.  Ths 
Court  of  Privy-council  has,  however,  long  ccaaed 
to  discharge  the  function  of  advisii^  the  crown  on 
the  genersTafCedrs  of  government  and  state  policy,  a 
select  number  of  the  oody,  under  the  denomination 
of  the  Cabinet  Council,  forming  the  recognised 
executive  coundl  of  the  crown.   Sm  MixiBiKr.  Tkt 


PRIVY-OOUNCIL. 


list  of  privT-ootmoillon  now  indadet  the  members 
of  the  royal  family,  the  Archbishops  of  Canterbary 
and  York,  the  Bishop  of  London,  the  great  officers 
of  state,  the  Lord  Chancellor  and  judges  of  the 
Courts  of  Eqaity,  the  Chief  Justices  of  the  Courts 
of  Common  Law,  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Admiralty 
Judges,  and  the  Judge  Advocate,  several  of  the 
Puisne  Judges,  the  Streaker  of  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, the  Ambassadors,  some  of  the  Ministers 
Plenipotentiary  and  Governors  of  Colonies,  the 
Commander-in-chief,  the  Master-general  of  the 
Ordnance,  the  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty,  and 
generally  also  a  Junior  Lord  of  the  Admiralty, 
as  well  as  necessarily  all  the  members  of  the 
Cabinet  The  Vice-President  of  the  Board  of  Trade, 
the  Paymaster  of  tne  Forces,  and  the  President  of 
the  Poor-law  Board,  are  also  generally  members  of 
the  PHvy-council ;  and  sometimes  other  persons 
who  have  filled  responsible  offices  under  the  crown. 
It  is  now  understood  that  no  members  attend  the 
deliberations  of  Council  except  those  who  are 
especially  summoned.  In  ordinary  cases,  only  the 
ministers,  the  great  officers  of  the  Household,  and 
the  Archbishop  of  Canterbury,  are  summoned ;  but 
on  some  extraordinary  occasions,  summonses  are 
sent  to  the  whole  Council — ^this  was  last  done  to 
receive  her  Majesty's  communication  of  her  intended 
marriage.  Meetings  of  Council  are  usually  held 
at  intervals  of  three  or  four  weeks  at  her  Majesty's 
residence ;  and  the  attendance  of  six  privy-coun- 
cillors at  least,  witii  one  of  the  clerks  of  Council, 
is  considered  necessary  to  constitute  a  counciL 

A  privy-councillor  must  be  a  natural- bom  subject 
of  Great  Britain.  The  office  is  conferred  by  the 
sovereign's  nomination,  without  any  patent  or  grant, 
and  completed  by  taking  the  oath  of  office.  The 
duties  of  a  privy-councillor,  as  defined  by  this  oath, 
are —to  the  best  of  his  discretion,  duly  and  impar- 
tially to  advise  the  king ;  to  keep  secret  his  counsel ; 
to  avoid  corruption  ;  to  strengthen  the  kind's 
council  in  all  that  by  them  is  thought  good  tor 
the  king  and  his  land;  to  withstand  those  who 
attempt  the  contrary,  and  to  do  all  that  a  true 
councillor  ought  to  do  to  his  sovereign  lord.  The 
office  of  privy-ooundllor  formerly  fell  by  the  demise 
of  the  crown;  but  by  6  Anne,  a  7»  the  Privy* 
council  continues  to  exist  for  six  months'  longer, 
unless  sooner  determined  ^y  the  successor.  Imme- 
diately on  the  decease  of  the  sovereign,  the  Privy* 
council  now  assembles  and  proclaims  his  successor, 
the  Lord  Chancellor  affixing  the  Great  Seal  to  the 
proclamation.  The  members  of  the  Privy-council 
are  then  re-sworn  as  council  of  the  suooeasor,  and 
take  the  oath  of  allegiance,  after  which  a  privy- 
council  is  held,  and  the  sovereign  makes  a  aeolar- 
ation  of  his  designs  for  the  good  government  of  the 
realm,  and  subscribes  the  requisite  oaths. 

The  king  in  Council,  or  a  committee  of  the 
Lords  of  Council,  have  been  empowered  by  various 
statutes  to  issue  orders  which  are  to  have  the  force 
of  law,  parliament  thus  delegating  its  authority  to 
regulate  such  matters  as  may  be  more  conveniently 
reculated  by  Order  in  CounciL  In  cases  of  extreme 
public  emergency,  at  a  time  when  parliament  was 
not  sitting.  Orders  in  Council  have  sometimes  been 
issued  in  contravention  of  the  existing  law,  and  the 
(ndemnification  of  parliament  has  afterwards  been 
sought  See  Obdkrs  in  Council^  The  sovereign, 
wiu  the  advice  of  the  Privy-council,  is  also  em- 
powered to  issue  proclamations,  which,  however, 
must  be  in  accordance  with,  and  in  furtherance  of, 
the  law  of  the  land.    See  Pboclahation. 

Almost  every  act  of  importance  done  by  the 
sovereign  in  person  is  performed  in  Council— such 
as  declarations  of,  or  public  engagements  by,  the 
sovereign,  and  consent  to  mamages  by  membws 


of  the  royal  family.  Among  the  functions  of  th« 
Privy-council  are  also  the  appointment  of  sherifb 
in  England  and  Wales,  and  the  issuing  of  orders 
for  the  laying  on  or  removing  of  quarantine,  or  for 
granting  reprisals,  or  for  embargoes.  The  sovereign 
m  Council  nas  still  more  ample  authority  in  all  that 
relates  to  the  colonies,  including  the  making  and 
enforcing  of  laws  in  such  colonies  as  have  no 
representative  assemblies;  and  approving  or  dis- 
allowing the  legislative  acts  of  suon  as  do  possess 
them. 

A  large  part  of  the  business  of  the  Privy-council 
is  transaisted  by  committees,  to  which  petitions  and 
other  matters  are  submitted  by  the  queen  in  Council. 
Among  the  permanent  committees  of  Privy-council 
are  the  Board  of  Council  for  Trade  and  Foreign 
Plantations  (see  Tradie,  Bqabd  of)  ;  the  Committee 
of  Council  for  Education,  appointed  in  1839,  to 
distribute  the  sum  voted  annually  fw  educational 
purpcMes;  and  the  Judicial  Committee  of  Privy- 
council.  This  last-named  committee  consists  of  the 
Keeper  of  the  Great  Seal,  the  Chief  Justices,  the 
Master  of  the  Bolls,  the  Chief  Baron  and  other 
great  iudicial  officers,  with  any  two  other  privy- 
couucillors  who  may  be  named  by  the  sovereign. 
It  was  established  by  3  and  4  WilL  IV.  c  41,  for 
the  purpose  of  deciding  certain  questions  of  rifiht  or 
privilege,  particularly  with  re^rd  to  the  colonies, 
and  hearing  appeals  in  certain  classes  of  oases, 
which,  notwithstanding  the  above-cited  act  of 
Charles  I.,  still  fell  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
Privy-counciL  Among  these  are  appeals  from  the 
Courts  of  Equity,  colonial  appeals  both  at  Common 
Law  and  in  Equity,  as  also  those  causes  which, 
prior  to  its  abolition  by  2  and  3  WilL  IV.  a  92, 
were  reviewed  by  the  Court  of  Delegates  (see 
Dblbqatbs,  Court  or),  as  the  supreme  cmirt  d 
appeal  in  ecolesiastical  and  maritime  oases.  The 
powers  of  the  judicial  committee  of  the  Privy- 
couudl  have  been  enlarged  and  reffulated  by  6  and 
7  Vict  c.  38.  The  powers  possessed  by  the  General 
Board  of  Health,  mstituted  by  11  and  12  Vict 
c  18,  and  17  and  18  Vict  o.  95,  are  now,  by  21  and 
22  Vict  0.  97t  vested  in  the  Privy-counciL  The 
acts  of  committees  of  the  Privy-council  are  desig- 
nated Acts  of  the  Lords  of  the  Council,  in  contra- 
distinction from  Orders  in  Council,  made  by  the 
sovereign,  who  is  personally  present,  by  advice  of 
the  Pnvy-counciL  The  crown  may  refer  to  a 
Committee  of  Council  any  petition  or  claim  of  riuht 
for  which  the  ordinary  tribunals  afford  no  remedy. 
The  Lords  of  Council  constitute  a  Court  of  Record 
for  the  investigation  of  offences  against  the  state, 
the  offenders  being  committed  for  trial  before  the 
ordinary  tribunals.  Certain  state  investigations, 
not  of  a  criminal  kind,  have  also  been  held  to  fall 
within  their  jurisdiction,  such  as  the  inquiry  into 
the  insanity  of  George  IIL,  the  claim  of  Queen 
Caroline  to  be  crown^  as  consort  of  George  IV., 
and  questions  regarding  alleged  illegal  marriages 
of  the  royal  family. 

The  Privy-council  is  styled  collectively  'Her 
Majesty's  most  Honourable  Privy-counciL'  Privy* 
connoiUors  are  entitled  to  the  designation  'Right 
Honourable'  prefixed  to  their  name,  and  take 
precedence  next  after  Knights  of  the  Garter.  The 
personal  security  of  a  member  of  Privy-council 
was  formerly  guarded  by  certain  statutes,  visiting 
with  fine  a  blow  struck  in  his  house  or  presence, 
and  making  it  felony  to  conspire  a^^ainst  him  or 
assault  him  in  the  execution  of  his  office ;  but 
these  immunities  were  done  away  with  by  9  Greo. 
IV.  c  31. 

The  Lord  President  of  the  Council  is  the  fourth 
great  officer  of  state,  and  is  appointed  by  letters- 
patent  under  the  Great  Seal    The  office  is  veiy 


PRIVY-COUNCIL  ON  EDUCATION. 


ancient,  and  was  Kevired  by  Charles  IL  in  favour 
of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury. 

Scotland  possessed  a  Priyy-coancil,  which  was 
merged  in  that  of  England  by  6  Anne,  c.  6.  There 
is  a  Privy-oonncil  for  Ireland,  which  at  present 
consists  of  58  members,  who  are  sworn  pursuant 
to  a  sign-manual  warrant  directed  to  the  Lord 
Lieutenant. 

PBIVY-COUNOIL  (Committed  of)  ON 
EDUCATION.  Till  within  the  last  thirty 
years,  popular  or  primary  education  in  England 
was  left  m  the  hands  of  individuals  and  societies. 
The  only  Societies  of  importance  which  endeavoured 
to  overtake  the  enormous  educational  destitution 
which  prevailed,  were  the  British  and  fV>reign 
School  Society,  founded  under  the  patronage  of 
George  IIL ;  and  the  National  Society,  of  more 
recent  date.  The  first- mentioned  Society  endea- 
voured to  get  rid  of  all  religious  difficulties  by 
avoiding  the  use  of  catechisms  in  the  school,  and 
confining  themselves  to  the  use  of  the  Bible  alone. 
The  Church  party,  however,  felt  that  in  accepting 
for  the  children  of  the  country  a  religious  training 
so  vasue,  they  were  untrue  to  their  principles,  ana 
would  probably  fail  to  secure  for  the  young  any 
efficient  religious  instruction  at  alL  Accordmgly, 
the  National  Society  was  set  on  foot  as  a  specially 
Church  institution.  The  object  of  both  these 
Societies  was,  by  means  of  contributions  collected 
from  benevolent  persons,  to  aid  in  the  foundation 
and  maintenance  of  elementary  schools  throughout 
Ei^land  and  Wales. 

The  prevailing  destitution  was,  however,  too 
widespread  to  m  met  by  voluntary  associations, 
and  it  consequently  became  necessary  that  the 
State  should  take  some  share  in  the  education  of 
the  people.  Parliamentary  grants  of  small  amount 
were  made,  which  were  distnbuted  by  the  Treasury 
under  regulations  issued  in  1833,  the  chief  of  which 
was  as  follows  :  '  That  no  application  be  entertained 
by  the  Treasury  unless  a  sum  be  raised  by  private 
contribution  equal,  at  least,  to  one-half  of  the  total 
estimated  expenditure.'  These  grants  were  for  the 
purpose  of  erecting  school-buildings.  In  1839,  after 
considerable  opposition,  it  was  resolved  to  increase 
the  parliamentary  grant,  and  to  appoint  a  Commit- 
tee of  Her  Majesty's  Privy-councu  to  administer 
it.  On  the  3d  June  1839,  an  order  of  Council  laid 
down,  that  the  grants  of  previous  years  not  yet 
appropriated,  as  well  as  the  grant  for  the  current 
year,  should  be  expended  for  &e  erection  of  schools, 
and  that  £10,000  voted  for  Normal  Schools  in  1835 
should  be  given  in  equal  proportions  to  the  British 
and  Foreign  and  the  National  Societies.  The  Privy- 
council  Committee  did  not  at  first  contemplate 
aiding  any  schools  but  those  in  connection  with 
the  two  Societies  which  we  have  just  named ;  but 
in  September  of  1839,  they  resolved  to  aid  other 
schools,  where  special  circumstances  prevented  their 
affiliation  to  the  Societies.  In  the  course  of  a  vear 
or  two  it  came  practically  to  this,  that  all  BcnooU 
were  aided  in  which  t/ie  Jaible  w<u  daily  rtad  from 
the  authorised  version. 

The  various  religions  denominations,  under  the 
influence,  partly,  of  the  strong  pecuniary  induce- 
ment held  out  by  the  Committee  of  Council,  now 
began  to  exert  themselves  to  erect  schools,  and  to 
claim  state  aid.  The  Committee  of  Council,  seeing 
the  large  probable  increase  in  the  number  ot 
schools  requiring  to  be  maintained  partially  out 
of  the  stats  funds,  had  their  attention  specially 
directed  to  the  principles  of  their  administration, 
and  the  conditions  on  which  alone  aid  was  to  be 
granted.  The  first  measure  of  importance  was 
the  appointment  of  inspectors  of  schools.  These 
were  appointed  by  Her  Majesty ;  but  the  Church 

774 


of  England  was  permitted  to  exercise  a  veto  en 
those  nominated  for  the  inspection  of  Church 
schools,  and  the  dissenting  edncatton  oomaiittees 
were  allowed  a  similar  privilege  with  referenoe  to 
those  nominated  for  dissenting  schools.  No  achool 
was  to  be  admitted  to  government  aid  in  any  form 
which  did  not  declare  its  willingness  to  anlnnit  to 
inspection.  The  next  measure  of  importance  was 
the  determining  of  the  conditions  on  which  aid 
should  be  given,  first,  for  the  ereotioii,  and, 
secondly,  for  the  maintenance  of  schoolfl.  Grants 
for  the  former  purpose  were  given  in  propor- 
tion to  the  nnmber  of  children  to  be  educated 
and  the  amount  of  money  raised  by  private 
contribution. 

In  184iS,  the  first  step  seems  to  have  been  made 
towards  making  grants  for  the  fnainienatiee  of 
schools.  It  was  resolved  to  apprentice  promising 
boys  to  their  teachers— these  boys  to  give  asnst- 
ance  in  the  school-woric,  and  to  be  paid  annual 
stipends  by  government  The  masters  were  to 
give  special  instruction  to  these  boys  in  tenna  of 
a  programme  drawn  up  by  the  Committee  of 
Councfl,  and  they  were  to  be  paid  a  small  aom  per 
annum  for  dischaiging  this  duty.  At  the  same 
time,  it  was  resolv^  to  dis&ibota  gratuities 
annually  among  deserving  teachers. 

The  course  of  instruction  for  these  apprentices^ 
who  were  to  be  designated  pupil-teachera,  extended 
over  five  years,  and  weir  remuneration  was  arranged 
as  follows :  First  year,  £10 ;  second,  j£12»  lOc ; 
third,  £15 ;  fourth,  £17,  10a ;  fifth,  £20l  To  schocds 
taught  by  the  humbler  dass  of  teachers,  etipoidiaiy 
monitors  were  allowed  at  a  smaller  rate  of  stqieod. 

In  contemplation  of  the  close  of  the  apprentice 
ship  of  pupil-teachers,  it  was  further  reaolved  to 
grant  them  a  scholarship  or  bursary,  to  en^le  them 
to  nursue  their  studies  at  one  of  the  namerona  mala 
and  female  normal  schools  which  had  come  into 
existence;  and  at  the  conclusion  of  their  tninin^ 
to  allow  a  grant  of  money  to  the  normal  achool  to 
which  they  had  resorted.  The  Queen's  Scholaiahip) 
as  the  bursary  was  called,  was  fixed  at  j^SO ;  ani 
the  grants  to  the  normal  school  at  £20,  £2S^  and 
£30,  according  as  they  had  trained  the  stodoit  fsB 
one,  two,  or  three  years— two-thirds  of  tiiese  sans 
being  allowed  in  the  case  of  female  atndenta.  It 
was  further  neoessary  to  contemplate  the  oomple 
tion  of  the  normal-school  training,  and  to  endeavour 
to  seoure  for  the  public  service  the  weQ-tzained 
teachers  who  had  been  educated  at  the  poblio 
expensa  Accordingly,  it  was  resolved  to  grant  to 
teachers  sums  ranging  from  £15  to  £90  per  annma 
(and  two-thirds  of  these  sums  in  the  oaae  of 
females),  provided  the  school-buildings  in  whidi 
they  taugnt,  aud  the  character  of  their  ^t»»^^ 
were  satisfactory  to  Her  Majesty's  inapectors.  A 
condition,  afterwards  added,  was,  that  the  teadMr 
should  receive  from  local  sonrcea,  indnding  sdiool- 
fees,  not  less  than  twice  the  amount  paid  by 
government,  of  which  one-half  should  be  from 
voluntary  subscriptions.  The  amount  whidi  the 
teacher  mi^ht  daim,  besides  being  payable  only  on 
the  conditions  stated  above,  was  made  partially 
dependent  on  the  grade  of  certificate  obtained  at 
the  normal  school  The  certificate  waa,  and  still 
oontinues  to  be,  ^nted  on  the  atodenfa  paasiiig 
a  satiafactory  examination  in  all  the  sabjecta  tan^t 
in  elementary  schools,  in  addition  to  physics! 
geography,  and  either  mathematics  or  Latin. 

These  are  the  principles  of  administration  which 
have  continued  to  refi;ulate  the  action  of  tiw  Frivy- 
council,  both  as  to  &e  class  of  schools  aided  and 
the  manner  of  aiding  them,  up  to  the  proscrt  data 
The  consequence  hM  been  an  astoniahin^y  >Bpid 
increase  in  the  number  of  primary  achoola  and 


PEIVY-PUKSE— PRIZE-COURT. 


nonnal  schools  or  colleges ;  of  the  latter,  there  are 
about  40  in  England  and  Scotland. 

Two  years  ago,  a  new  code  was  introduoed,  which 
came  into  full  operation  in  Jane  1863.  The  provi- 
sions of  this  code  were  sug^rested  by  a  Royal 
Gommissioni  appointed  to  inqaire  into  the  state  of 
primary  instruction.  They  reported  a  want  of 
sufficient  attention  in  elementary  schools  to  the 
vouneer  children  and  to  the  more  elementary 
brancnes.  It  had  so  happened  that,  in  1853,  a 
Minute  had  been  issuea  by  the  Frivy-council 
enabling  schools  to  claim,  in  addition  to  the  aug- 
mentation of  teachers*  salaries  referred  to  above,  a 
capitation  fee  for  every  child  who  had  attended  176 
days  in  the  course  of  the  year.  Acoordinely,  with  a 
view  to  sim])lify  their  administration,  and  to  render 
it  more  efficient,  the  Privy-counoil,  by  the  New  or 
Revised  Code,  resolved  to  pay  henceforth  only  in 
the  form  of  capitation  gnrnte  (a  svstem  already 
partially  adopt^),  a  sum  of  12s.  for  each  child, 
subject  to  a  deduction  of  2«i  8d.  for  every  child 
who  fails  in  reading;  and  similar  deductions  for 
those  who  fail  in  writing  and  arithmetic.  The 
managers  of  each  school  are,  under  the  Revised 
Code,  required  to  pay  the  teacher,  who  has  no 
longer  any  direct  connection  with  ^vemment,  and 
to  engage  an  additional  teacher,  either  adult  or  in 
the  form  of  a  pupil-teacher,  when  the  average ' 
attendance  reaches  90.  These  pupil-teachers  wiU 
be  examined  annuallv  as  heretofore  by  Her  Majest^*s 
inspector,  but  they  have  no  direct  connection  with 
government,  as  formerly.  The  managers  select  and 
pay  them  as  they  select  and  pay  the  principal  master 
or  mistress  (as  the  case  may  be),  trusting  to  local 
subscriptions,  fees,  and  the  government  capitation 
gjrants,  for  the  means  of  discharging  tiieir  obliga- 
tions, and  maintaining  the  school  m  efficiency. 

The  above  sketch  of  the  Privy-oouncil  system 
applies  also  to  Scotland,  with  this  difference,  that 
when  the  Revised  Code  was  issued  the  opportunity 
was  regarded  as  a  favourable  one  for  considering 
whether  there  were  not  peculiarities  in  the  educa- 
tional system  of  Scotland,  which  might  make  it 
advisable  either  to  separate  educational  administra- 
tion there  from  that  of  England,  or  to  found  a 
national  system  on  the  basis  of  the  time-honoured 
system  of  parochial  schools —excellent  in  them- 
selves, but  too  few  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
country.  With  these  objects  in  view,  a  Royal 
Commission  was  issued  in  1864,  which  is  now 
(January  1865)  taking  evidence  on  the  whole 
qneetion  as  it  affects  Scotland. 

PRIYT-PURSE,  Eester  of  th«,  an  officer  of 
the  royal  household  charsed  with  the  payment  of 
the  private  expenses  and  cnarities  of  the  sovereign. 
He  IS  independent  of  the  great  officers  of  the  house- 
liold,  and  has  no  control  over  any  official  or  house- 
hold charges.    The  office  is  of  modem  creation. 

PRIYT-SEAL,  the  seal  appended  to  grants 
'which  are  afterwards  to  pass  the  Great  Seal,  and 
to  doctunents  of  minor  importance  which  do  not 
require  the  Great  SeaL  l^e  officer  who  has  the 
custody  of  the  Privy-seal  was  at  one  time  called 
the  Keeper,  and  afterwards  the  Lord  Privy-seaL 
Aa  early  as  the  reign  of  Edwurd  IIL,  he  was  a 
member  of  the  kings  council,  and  a  resuonsible 
minister  of  the  crown.  The  Lord  Privy-seal  is  now 
the  fifth  great  officer  of  state,  and  has  generally  a 
seat  in  the  cabinet.  His  office  is  conferred  under 
the  Great  Seal  during  pleasure^  Since  the  reign  of 
JEIenry  VIIL,  the  Privy-seal  has  been  the  warrant 
of  the  legaUty  of  grants  from  the  crown,  and  the 
authority  for  the  Lord  Chancellor  to  affix  the 
Great  SeaL  Such  grants  are  slyled  letters-patent, 
smd.  the  office  of  t»i  Lord  Privy-seal  is  one  of  the 


departments  through  which  they  must  pass  to 
secure  their  validity.  Until  reoentiy,  all  letters- 
patent  for  the  grant  of  appointments  to  office  under 
the  crown,  of  patents  of  invention,  charters,  natu- 
ralisations, pensions,  creation  of  honours,  pardons, 
licenses  in  mortmain,  ^,  required  to  pass  m>m  the 
Signet  Office  to  the  Privv-wal  Office,  in  the  form 
of  Signet  bills,  verified  by  the  Signet  Seal  and 
superscription,  and  the  signature  of  the  clerk  of 
the  Signet  These  Signet  bills  were  the  warrant 
for  the  Privv-seal ;  and  on  the  Privy-seal  being 
attached  to  them,  they  were  forwarded  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor,  by  whom  the  patents  were  engrossed 
and  completed  in  the  office  of  the  Great  Seal  The 
statute  II  and  12  Vict  a  82,  abolished  the  Signet 
Office,  and  enacted  that  warrants  under  the  royal 
si^-manual,  prepared  by  the  Attorney-general  and 
Solicitor-general,  settine  forth  the  tenor  and  effect 
of  the  letters-patent  to  be  granted,  addressed  to  the 
Lord  Chancellor,  and  countersigned  by  one  of  the 
principal  secretaries  of  state,  should  be  a  sufficient 
authority  for  the  Privy-seal  being  affixed  ;  and 
that  the  sign-manual  so  signed,  countersigned,  and 
sealed,  should  be  sufficient  warrant  to  the  Lord 
Chancellor  to  pass  letters-patent  under  ike  Great 
SeaL  This  statute  abolished  the  previously-existing 
offices  of  Clerks  of  the  Signet  and  Clerks  of  the 
Privy-seaL 

There  is  a  Privy-seal  in  Scotland,  which  is  used 
to  authenticate  royal  grants  of  personal  or  assign- 
able rights.  Rights  such  as  a  subject  would  trans- 
mit by  assignation,  are  transmitted  by  the  sovereign 
under  the  Frivy-seaL 

PRIZE,  PRIZE-MONET,  terms  having  refer- 
ence to  property  captured  from  an  enemy,  or  to 
enemy*s  property  captured  from  a  neutral  in  time 
of  war.  The  circumstances  under  which  such 
capture  is  justifiable  are  stated  under  Capture,  as 
regards  naval  operations;  military  prize  and  its 
distribution  to  the  army  are  described  under 
BooTT.  It  remains  only,  therefore,  to  notice  the 
procedure  taken  in  respect  to  vessels  and  property 
captured  by  the  navy.  On  a  ship  being  taken,  she 
must  be  sent  to  a  port  belonging  to  the  capturing 
power,  where  the  Court  of  Admiralty,  on  fuu 
evidence,  adjudicates  whether  she  be  lawful  prize 
or  not  If  the  decision  be  affirmative,  the  pnze  is 
then  sold;  or  if  a  ship-of-war,  a  certain  allowance 
per  gun  is  granted  by  the  state.  The  produce  of 
the  sale  or  grant  is  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the 
Accountant-general  of  the  Navy,  for  distribution  to 
the  officers  and  men  who  assisted  at  the  capture.  The 
net  produce  of  the  sale  or  grant  is  first  divided 
rateably  among  any  ships  (if  there  be  more  than 
one)  concerned  in  Uie  capture.  The  share  of  each 
ship  is  then  divided  into  eight  equal  Pftrts.  If  she 
were  employed  under  the  orders  of  a  flag-officer,  he 
gets  one-eignth,  and  the  captain  two-eighths  :  if  not, 
the  captain  has  three-eighths ;  one-eighth  is  divided 
among  the  lieutenants  and  officers  of  corresponding 
relative  rank ;  one-eighth  is  shared  by  the  junior 
commissioned  officers  and  warrant  officers;  one- 
eighth  goes  to  the  midshipmen  and  petty  officers ; 
and  the  remaining  two-el^tha  among  the  seamen, 
marines,  and  boys. 

PRIZE-COURT  is  a  court  which  adjudicates 
the  property  in  vessels  captured  at  sea  from  a  belli- 

ferent ;  and  the  rule  is,  that  when  a  captor  brings 
ome  a  jnize,  the  tribunal  of  his  own  country  has 
jurisdiction  to  declare  whether  he  is  entitled  to  it, 
which  decision  is  binding  everywhere.  A  prize- 
court  differs  from  other  courts  in  this,  that  the 
Sroperty  of  foreigners  is  brought  within  its  juris- 
iction,  not  by  consent,  as  is  implied  with  regud  to 
the  ordinary  municipal  ooartB»  but  by  force.    By 

771 


PROA~.PROBABILISU. 


oatnisl  law,  one  wonld  MippoM  tliat  the  tribanal* 
d  tLa  captor's  oountry  Me  no  aore  tiie  rightful 
eictuBive  iudgea  of  captures  in  war,  made  on  the 
liiah  seu  &OD1  under  the  neutral  &ag,  than  ara  the 
tnbim»l»  of  the  neutral  country.  HeTertheleBB, 
Buch  ii  the  rule  of  intetuational  law,  which  vest* 
tiua  joiijdiction  in  the  prue-coort.  In  Britain,  the 
court  ia  crested  bv  oommiMioo  onder  the  Great  Seal, 
knd  tlie  judge  oi  tha  Admirklty  Conrt  is  niaally 
appointed.  Lord  Stowell  was  the  jndge  during  the 
French  ww,  uad,  during  the  time  he  aat  aa  judge, 
delivered  many  importMlt  judgmenti  in  tiiu  difficult 
branch  of  the  law. 

PRO' A,  commonly  known  as  the  '  flying  inoa,'  ia 
a  peonliarly-ahaped  canoe  in  uae  by  the  nktivea  of 
the  Eaetem  AJchipelago,  and  eepeoialljr  by  the 
Ladrone  piratea.  It  ia  ^MOt  SO  feet  in  length 
by  3  in  width,  and  baa  the  Item  and  «tem  equally 
•harp,  (o  as  to  aail  backward  m  forward  without 
being  turned  round.     One  nd«  ta  flat,  and  in  a 


■tfugfat  line  wiO)  the  etem  and  «teni;  tlie  other  side 
ia  rounded,  ai  in  ordinaiy  boate.  This  peeoliar 
fonnatiou  would  moke  it  liable  to  be  euily  upeet, 
were  it  uot  for  a  framework  which  projects  to  wind- 
ward, supporting  a  weight  which  counterbalances 
the  presBiire  of  the  wind  aa  the  aaiL  The  nil 
resembles  the  ordinary  Ing-sail,  and  ia  fonaxA  of 
mat  Shght  variations  from  this  form  ara  found, 
but  the  principle  of  oouBtruotiou  is  the  same. 

PRO'BABILISH  (Lat.  prtibabaUmiu,  a  bar- 
bsmms  technical  word,  from  pnAdbUia,  probable), 
in  Komau  Catholic  theology,  means  the  doctrine 
regarding  the  use  of  so-called  'probable  opinions' 
in  goidiug  the  conscience  as  to  the  lawfulness  or 
uolawf Illness  of  any  particular  action.  The  word 
came  prominently  into  discusdon  in  the  ITth  c, 
and  seems  now  fully  accepted  as  a  technical  name. 
As  the  ground  of  the  doctrine,  it  ia  asemued  that,  in 
human  actions,  absolute  certainty  is  not  always 
attainable  as  to  tbeir  lawfulness  or  unlawfulness. 
Short  of  this  certainty,  the  intellect  passes 
through  the  stages  of 'doubt'  and  of  'probability.' 
In  the  former,  it  is  swayed  between  oonflioting 
viewB,  so  as  to  be  unable  to  decide,  or  even  to 
approach  towards  deciding,  what  ia  tma.  In  the 
latter,  although  there  ia  a  confiict  of  views,  yet 
"■ --a  their  favour  are  not  so  equal  uat 


the  greater  or  leas  danger  of  moral  culpability  wfaid 
they  involve ;  and  this  greater  or  Usa  nxitil 
'  ssifety '  of  a  view  may,  or  may  not,  cmncide  with 
ita  ereater  or  less  'probability.*  The  doctrine  at 
'  iffobabiliam '  is  founded  upon  these  diotiuctioai ; 
and  it  presents  itself  in  four  differeat  schools,  all  of 
which  agree  in  professing  that  it  is  lawful,  in  certain 
ninni.  to  act  npcw  opinioui  whieh  tt*  merely '  prob- 
aUe.'  Opposed  to  all  these  four,  is  tho  scImmI  «f 
AiM-prmcS^itai,  which  rejects  altosether  tbe  nse  of 
probM>le  opiniona,  and  nqnirea  Uiat  fts  Msniai 
shall  be  absolutely  monUly  oertain,  in  order  Uiat  it 
may  be  lawful  to  act  npou  it  "Die  four  scIuMds  of 
probabilism  are  called  :  ProbaiUirm  Simple,  jEqai- 
probabUim,  Probabiliorum  (from  probabitior,  mora 
Nobable),  and  TSiliorUm  (from  Uiuior,  more  safe), 
liie  first  holds  that  it  is  lawful  to  act  upon  any 
probable  opinion,  no  matter  how  alight  its  frdb- 
ability.  The  seoond  requires  that  the  opinion  shsfl 
be  '  solidly  probable,'  but  holds  that,  provided  it  be 
really  probable,  it  is  lawful  to  act  upon  it,  evea 
though  the  conflicting  opini<»  should  be  eqnaUy 
probable.  The  third,  in  the  conflict  of  nofaaUe 
opinions,  will  only  permit  ns  to  act  on  tae  men 
probaUe  of  the  two  j  but  permit*  this  even  when 
the  less  probable  advene  opinion  is  the  '  auxe  aafb' 
The  fourth  requires  that  in  all  casea  tlie  more  safe 
opinion  shall  be  followed,  even  when  the  lea 
safe  opinion  ia  mnch  the  more  probable.  It  is 
commonly  said  that  tlie  systeni  of  Ntibabilian)  ia 
modem ;  but  this  is  only  true  of  tiie  diacttiaiona 
teganling  it,  for  the  doctrine  itself,  in  aoim  of  its 
forms,  is  sa  old  aa  the  stuc^  of  ethioe,  even  con- 
sidered as  a  moral  science.  The  dispat^  regardiqt 
it  arose  with  the  science  of  casuistry,  when  men,  ia 


controversy  between  the  Jesnits  and  the  J, 
although  It  is  a  great,  while  it  is  a  very  comn^ 
mistake  to  suppose  that  all  the  Jc«uito  were  pseb- 
abilisbi,  and  that  all  the  Janaeniate  were  opocmti 
thereto.  Very  few  Jesuits,  indeed,  were  of  tha 
school  which  IS  chiefly  assailed  in  the  fVotiaeiai 
Leltert  (see  PamuiJ,  that  <4  ProbMnliam  Sinplft 
Witbout  entering  into  the  hiatory  of  thia  vety 
curious  ooutroveisy,  it  will  be  enou^  to  aay  Ait 
the  Boman  Church,  while  oondemning  toa  tma 
extremes — the  extreme  of  anti-probabiluiB,  whiil 
excludes  all  use  even  of  the  most  probatde  opinioo^ 
and  the  lax  extreme  of  simple  probabilisBn,  wUek 
accepts  even  the  slightest  im>b«bility  aa  snfBcint 
— hu  left  the  Intermadiato  opinions  for  frss 
diacuBsion.  The  great  modem  master  on  the 
subject  ia  St  Alfonso  de  Lignori,  whose  syatea 
may  be  described  aa  a  kind  of  practical  prob- 
abilioiism,  in  which,  by  the  use  of  what  arc  called 
reflex  priuciples,  an  opinion  irhich  Mectiveff 
is  but  probable,  is  made  su^'ectireiy  the  basis  at 
a  certain  and  safe  practical  judgment,  Thoa 
can  be  no  doubt  tbat  the  system  of  ptotMbilinn 
has  been  pushed  by  some  individual  divinea  to 
scandalous  extremes;  but  it  is  only  just  to  add 
that  these  extremes  have  been  oondetBued  1^ 
authority  in  the  Boman  Clhuroh ;  and  that,  on  tM 
other  hand,  the  prinoiides  of  the  higher  Beaoaa 
schools  of  probaluliun  are  snbatantiaQy  the  aame 
as  those  of  all  moralists,  whether  of  tlie  old  or  i^ 
the  new  schools  of  ethica. 

Protestants,  however,  and  vitli  them  soua 
Roman  Catholics,  reprobate  probabilism  in  all  ita 
mAooIs  or  forms,  as  a  mere  scheme  for  the  delnsioa 
of  oonacienoe  and  excuse  or  jostafioation  of  iMmo» 
ality.  They  maintaia  the  Scriptonl  or  rhristisa 
rule,  and  the  only  mk  of  true  DKoality,  to  be  that 
no  man  is  entitled  on  any  aooount  to  do  that  «f 
which  b«  doubts  whether  it  ia  QOBtnwy  or  agraeaUa 


PROBABILITY. 


to  the  Uw  of  Ood.  Every  man  most  often  choose 
between  two  coanes,  as  to  which  is  the  most 
expedient ;  hut  this  they  hold  to  be  a  totally  differ- 
ent thing.  It  is  also  urced  against  the  xnrobabilists, 
that  they  make  the  authority  of  doeton,  or  learned 
theoloflpanB,  sufficient  lustitication  for  a  man's  doing 
that  which  otherwise  ne  would  deem  it  unlawful  to 
do;  asserting  that  it  will  keep  him  safe  at  the 
joc^gment  seat  of  Qod. 

PROBABILITY,  The  Mathematical  Thsobt 
ov.  Of  all  mathematical  theories  which  can  be 
made  in  any  sense  popular,  this  is  perhaps  the  least 
generally  understood.  Hiere  are  several  reasons 
for  this  curious  fact,  of  which  we  may  mention  one 
or  two.  Fird. — As  by  far  the  simplest  and  most 
direct  elementary  illustrations  of  its  priociples  are 
furnished  by  games  of  chance,  these  have  been 
almost  invariabJy  used  by  writers  on  the  subject; 
and  the  result  has  been  a  popular  delusion,  to  the 
effect  that  the  theory  tends  directly  to  the 
encouragement  of  gambling.  Nothing  can  be  more 
false  than  such  an  idea.  Indepenoeut  of  moral 
considerations,  with  which  we  have  nothine  to  do 
here,  no  arguments  against  gambling  can  oe  fur- 
nished at  ful  comparable  in  power  with  those 
deduced  from  the  mathematical  analysis  of  the 
chances  of  the  game.  Second. — In  many  problems, 
some  of  them  amongst  the  easiest  in  the  theory, 
the  very  highest  resources  of  mathematics  are  taxeid 
in  order  to  furnish  a  solution.  One  reason  is 
very  simple.  The  solutions,  however  elementary, 
involving  often  nothing  but  the  common  rules  of 
arithmetic,  sometimes  lead  to  results  depending 
upon  enormous  nimibers,  and  very  refined  analysis 
is  requisite  to  deduce  ecuil^  from  these  what  would 
otherwise  involve  calculations,  simj^e  enough  in 
character,  but  of  appidling  labour.  Higher  mathe- 
matics h^re  perfoi^rhrLt,  something  analogous 
to  skilled  laoour  in  ordinarjr  manufactures.  The 
simplest  illustration  of  this  is  in  the  use  of 
Logarithms  (q.  v.),  which  reduce  multiplication, 
division,  and  extraction  of  roots  to  mere  addition, 
aabtraction,  and  division  respectively.  Powerful 
as  logarithms  are,  analysis  fnmiriies  instruments 
almost  infinitely  more  powerfuL  The  large  num- 
bers which  occur  in  probabilities  are  usually  in  the 
form  of  products,  and  we  may  exemplify  the  above 
remarks  as  follows. 

To  find  the  value  of  the  product  1.3.8. 7»  no 
one  would  think  of  using  anything  but  common 
arithmetic ;  but,  if  he  were  required  to  find  the 

value  of  1.3.5.7.9 49,  he  would  probably 

have  recourse  to  logarithms,  merely  to  avoui  usdeaa 
labour  of  an  demerUary  Hnd.  But  in  very  simple 
c^uestions  in  probabilities,  it  may  be  requisite  to 
lind  (approximately)  the  value  of  a  product  such 

as  1.3.5.7.9 23999— i  e.,  that  of  the  first 

12,000  odd  numbers.  No  one  in  his  senses  would 
dream  of  attempting  this  by  ordinary  arithmetic, 
but  it  is  the  mere  labour,  not  the  inherent  diffi- 
oiilty,  which  prevents  hiJoL  Few  would  even 
attempt  it  by  means  of  logarithms ;  for,  even  with 
their  aid,  the  labour  womd  be  very  great  It  is 
here  that  the  higher  analysis  steps  in,  and  helps 
us  ecuUy  to  a  sufficiently  accurate  approximation  to 
the  value  of  this  enormous  number.  Thus,  it 
appears  that  this  objection  to  the  study  of  the 
theory  of  probabilities  is  not  applicable  to  their 
principles,  which  are  very  elementary,  but  to  the 
mere  mechanical  details  of  the  processes  of  solution 
of  certain  problems.  Third, — There  are  other 
objections,  such  as  the  (so-called)  religious  one,  that 
*  there  is  no  such  thing  as  ohsuce,'  and  that  'to 
calculate  chances  is  to  deny  the  existence  of  an 
all-mling  Providence,'  &c. ;  but,  like  m^my  other 
■imtlar  assertions,  these  are  founded  on  a  total 


ignorance  of  the  natore  of  the  science ;  and,  there- 
fore, although  pernioions,  may  be  safdy  treated 
with  merited  contempt.  The  authors  of  such 
objections  remind  us  of  the  Irishman  who  attempted 
to  smash  Lord  Bosse^s  flreat  telescope,  because  *  it 
is  irreligious  to  pry  into  the  mysteries  of  nature.* 

It  appears  to  ns  that  the  best  method  of  explain* 
ing  the  principles  of  the  subject  within  our  neces* 
Bsnly  narrow  limits,  will  be  to  introduce  definitions, 
&C.,  as  they  may  be  called  for,  in  the  course  of  a 
few  elementary  illustrations,  instead  of  elaborately 
premising  them. 

First  iMse, — ^The  simplest  possible  illustrations 
are  supplied  by  the  common  process  of  *  tossing '  a 
coin,  with  the  result  of  'head*  or  *taiL*  Put  H 
for  head,  and  T  for  taiL  Now,  the  result  of  one 
toss,  unless  the  coin  should  fall  on  its  edge  (which 
is  praotically  impossible),  must  be  either 

HorT. 
Also,  if  the  coin  be  not  so  fashioned  as  to  be  more 
likely  to  fall  on  one  side  than  the  other  (as,  for 
instance,  is  the  case  with  loaded  dice),  these  eoenia 
are  equally  Ulody;  or,  in  technical  language,  equaUy 
probMe,  To  determine  numerically  the  likelihood 
or  the  probability  of  either,  we  must  assign  some 
numerical  value  to  absolute  certainty.  This  value 
is  usuidly  taken  as  unity,  so  that  a  probability,  if 
^ort  of  absolute  certainty,  is  always  represented 
by  a  proper  fraction.  Suppose  that  p  (a  proper 
fraction)  refxresents  the  probability  of  H,  then 
evidently  p  is  also  the  probabiUty  of  T,  because 
the  two  events  are  equally  likely.  But  one  or 
other  must  happen ;  hence,  the  sum  of  the  separate 
prohabilitaes  must  lepresent  certainty.    That  is, 

1 
p-^p^hmp^  ^. 

Thus  we  have  assigned  a  numerical  value  to  the 
probabiUty  of  either  H  or  T,  by  finding  what  pro- 
portion each  bears  to  certainty,  and  assigning  to  the 
latter  a  simple  numeriosl  value. 

Suppose,  as  a  oontrast,  the  coin  to  be  an  unfair 
one,  such  as  those  sometimes  made  for  swindling 
purposes,  with  H  on  each  side.  Then  we  must  have 
mono  toss 

H  or  H; 
i  eu,  H  is  certain,  or  its  probability  is  1.  There  is 
no  possibility  of  T,  and  tnerefore  its  probability  is 
0.  Absolnte  impossibility  is  therefore  represented 
by  the  numerical  value  of  the  probability  becoming 
sero. 

Seoond  Cosft-^ppose  a  'Isir'  com  to  be  tossed 
twice  in  succession.  The  event  must  be  one  of  the 
four— 

H,H;  H,T;  T,H;  orT.T. 

Now  all  four  are  evidently  equally  likely ;  i  e.,  their 
probabilities  are  equal  .  But  one  of  them  must 
happen — hence  the  sum  of  their  probabilities 
amounts  to  certainty,  or  1.  That  is,  each  of  the 
four   cases   has  a  probability  measured   by  the 

fraction  -^ 

4 

Here  we  may  introduce  a  new  term.  What  are 
the  odds  against  H,  H?    The  answer  is,  the  chance 

or  probability  of  H,  His  2;  that  is,  one  case  in/mr 

is  favoarable,  hence  three  are  unfavourable,  and  the 
odds  are  said  to  be  3  to  1  against  the  event;  In 
general  the  odds  againd  any  event  is  the  ratio  o/the 
probability  that  U  wiU  not,  to  the  probabilUy  that  U 
toiU,  happen. 

Thus,  m  the  first  case  above,  the  odds  against  H 
in  one  toss  are  even. 

Third  Cose.— What  is  the  chance  of  throwing 
both  head  and  tail  in  two  tosses  of  a  coin  ?  Remark 
t>i*».  this  is  not  the  same  question  as, '  What  is  the 

771 


PBOBABILITT. 


ohatioe  of  head  foUowad  bj  tail,  in  two  tooaea?' 
The  latter  queatioo  waa  anawered  in  the  Seeond  Caae^ 

for  the  chance  of  H,  T  waa  there  shewn  to  be  -. 

The  preaent   event  oontemplatea  either  H,  T  or 

T,  H — and  ita  probability  ia  therefore  7  +  4*  or 

^,  ainoe  each  haa  the  aeparate  probability  -g*    Or  we 

may  reaaon  thus :  Of  the  f  onr  poaaible  caaea  of  two 
toeaea  of  a  coin,  two  eive  both  head  and  tail— aff 
four  are  equally  probaole — Whence  the  probability  ia 

2in4»orlui2;  i-e*>  5- 

Fourth  Case.—'WhaA  ia  the  chance  of  throwing  H 
in  two  toBses  ?  Remark  thai  thia  ia  not  the  aame 
queetion  as,  *  What  is  the  chance  of  H  anee  <nUy  in 
two  toaaea?*  The  latter  qnestion  ia  that  of  the 
Third  Case  merely  pnt  in  a  afferent  fonn.  KorwOl 
it  do  to  anawer  onr  qoeation  thua : 

Chance  of  H  in  firat  throw     »  ^ 

Chance  of  H  in  aecond  throw  &*  i. 

2 

Therefore  chance  of  H  in  two  throws  w  -  4-  ~  ^  1. 

For  by  thia  reaaoning  it  would  appear  that  we 
muH  get  head  once  at  leaat  in  two  throwa ;  which  ia 
obvioualy  absurd,  for  we  may  have  T,  T. 

This  ver^  elementary  example  ahewa  how  delicate 
the  reasoning  in  this  aubiect  ia,  and  how  liable  one 
ia  to  make  (complacently)  the  moat  prepoaterona 
miatakea. 

The  eiTor  of  the  above  prooeaa  ia  introduced  by 
the  fact,  that  we  have  not  considered  that  if  H  he 
chiained  in  the  first  throw^  our  obfeet  is  attained,  and 
no  eecond  throw  it  required.  The  correct  work  ia 
thia— 

Chance  of  H  in  firat  throw  a-^. 

If  H  come,  the  game  is  finished. 
Chance  of  T  in  the  first  throw,  in  which 

case  we  must  throw  againi 


1 
2 

Subsequent  chance  of  H  in  second  throw  «  - 


Combining  these,  we  have— 
Chance  of  H  at  aecond  throw  ontif  i 

Add  chance  of  H  at  first  throw 

Sum,  or  chance  of  H  in  two  throwa 


2^2*? 
1 

2 
3 

A  aimpler  method  ia  thia.    The  possible  throws^  all 
equally  likely,  are,  aa  before^- 

H,  H;  H,T;'T,  H;  and  T,  T. 

The  first  three  of  these  aatiaf y  the  reqnirementa  of 

the  queation ;  L  &,  the  required  event  has  3  chanoea 

o 

in  4  in  ita  favour,  or  ita  probability  ia  7. 

Fifth  Case, — ^The  chance  of  H  in  any  one  tiixow  ia 
|(by  FintCaee),    Thechance  otB^B.iBg{Seeond 

Case).    Now  1=0^0'  ^  ^*  ^®  chance  of  (he 

joint  occurrence  qf  tufo  independent  events,  at  leaat  in 

thia  aimple  case,  is  the  product  qf  thiar  separate 

probabilities.     Contrast  thia    with    the    prmciple, 

already  aeveral  times  employed,  that  the  probabUity 

qfan  event  which  may  arise  from  one  of  a  number  ^ 

tonuses  (910  two  cfvmdh  am  ooesBW^},  is  the  siumqfths 
776 


separate  probahiUtiies,  Simple  proofia  of  these  ibte* 
menta,  in  all  their  generality,  will  now  be  giYco, 
along  with  variona  other  important  propoaitioin. 

(A.)  If  an  event  may  occur  inp  ways,  and  iail  in  9 
ways  —all  being  equally  likely — ^the  probability  of  iti 

happening  ia  one  trid  i.^^  .ndrfifWH 

— and  the  odda  in  ita  favour  saepiq, 

p  +  J 

The  aimpleat  way  of  conceiving  thia,  and  many 
other  hypothetical  casea,  ia  to  auppuee  one  baU  to 
be  drawn  from  a  bag  which  contains  a  number  d 
balls,  differing  from  each  other  in  colour,  or  in  some 
other  quality  not  distinguishable  by  the  toucL 
Suppose  the  bag  to  contain  p  white  baUa  (W),  and 
q  black  ones  (B),  and  one  baU  to  be  drawn ;  what  ii 
the  chance  of  its  being  white  ? 

Here  there  are  p  chances  in  favour  of  a  vhite 
ball  being  drawn,  and  q  chances  against  it— them 
being  all  equaUy  Ukdy,  or  having  e^ual  probabUi&ft 
— the  chance  of  W  is  therefore  p  ta  p  +  q;  i  t^is 
expressed  by  the  fraction. 


The  chance  against  Wi8gin|>-|-2,  or 


And  the  sum  of  theae  fractiona  is  1,  or  certainiy, 
aa  it  ought  to  be — ^for  the  ball  drawn  must  be  either 
W,  or  not  W. 

(B.)  If  an  event  may  occur  in  p  ways,  and  fail  m 
q  ways,  all  being  equally  likely — what  are  the 
chances  of  (a)  its  mtppening  twice,  {b)  ita  happemog 
the  first,  and  foiling  the  second,  (<^  ita  failiiie  titt 
firat  time,  and  happening  the  aecond,  and  {ai  its 
failing  twice,  in  two  triala  ? 

Taking  the  illustration  in  (A)  aboTe,  we  see  that 
there  are  p  independent  ways  of  succeeding  in  the 
first  case,  and  p  in  the  second ;  hence,  there  are 
pxp,or  p"*  independent  waya  of  succeet^ng  tviee. 
Por  any  one  of  the  first  p  may  occur  alona  with  any 
one  of  the  aecond.  But  the  whole  poaaible  number 
of  ways  of  experimenting  twice  is  (i?  +  9)  (p  +  8)1 
or  (p  +  9)* ;  henoe,  the 

Chance  of  (a)  ie.  ancceeding  twice,  ia  .   \^  y 
Similarly,  chance  of  (5)  ia 


(c)  is 


P9 

TpTW 
ipT^ 


The  sum  of  these  ia  ^-i-^^ii' «  1,  aa  it  ongjit 

(C.)  An  attentive  conaideration  of  (B)  ahews  a 
that  when  we  have  the  independent  probabilities  of 
two  eventa,  the  probability  that  they  will  joiiit^ 
occur  ia  the  product  of  their  aeparate  probahilitiea 


Thna^  for  W,  in  firat  trial,  chance  ia 
a  «     aecond   «       ■ 


!>  +  « 
P 

J9  +  « 


Whose  product  ia  /p^  g)«»  ***  probability  of  W  ia 

each  of  two  auoceasive  trials. 

Again,  for  W,  in  the  firat  triaLchanoaia  -'--• 
— o  p  +  j 


B 


second 


FBOBABILITY. 


Whose  product  u ,  ^  ,&,  wluch  u  fonnd  Above  to 

be  the  chance  of  W B.    And  80  on. 

(D.)  This  may  be  generaUsed  as  follows — ^the 
process  will  be  evident  to  all  who  can  noderstand 
the  very  elementary  algebra  employed : 


+  fl* 


Certafaity-l-^±^ 
ven«ini»y  j^    (jp+g)« 

by  the  Binomial  (q.  v)  Theorem  of  Newton.    Now 
the  parts  of  this  expression^L  ei, 


«j>*"'g 


(P  +  er  (P  +  ?)- '  {p  +  e)" 

represent^  obviansly,  the  chances  of  W  n  times,  W 
n  ~  1  times  and  B  once,  W  n  -  2  times  and  B 

twice, ,  B  n  times,  in  n  trials,  where  the 

iyrder  of  occurrence  is  not  considered. 

If  the  order  be  considered,  the  chance  of  any 
arrangement)  snch  as  WBWWBBBW,  for  instance, 
18  evidently 

(p  +  g)'         "!?  +  «?• 

But  the  chance  of  4W  and  4B  in  8  trials,  mUioui 
respect  to  ord/er^  is  as  above,  the  term  oontaininff 
^9*  in  the  expansion  of  (p  +  9)*,  divided  by  (p  +  ^ 
— ie., 

70  pV 

(P  +  «)•• 

To  take  a  simple  example :  if  there  be  2W  and  IB 

in  a  bag,  and  each  ball  be  replaced  immediately 

after  drawing,  the  chance  of  W  4  times  in  succes- 

.      .    2»      16 
■ioni8^,  =  gj. 

Of  the  particular  combination  WBWB,  the  chance 
.2121  _£ 
"  3'3*3  3"" 81* 

But  the  chance  of  W  twice  and  B  twice,  mthoiU 

2'  1*      24 
respect  to  order,  is  6  —~-  =a  ~;  the  numerator  of 

the  fraction  being  the  term  of  (2  +  1)*  which  con- 
tains the  product  2  M^ 

(K)  From  the  preceding  results  it  is  obvious  that 
the  probability  qf  the  joint  occurrence  of  any  set  of 
independent  events  is  the  product  of  Aeir  separate 
probabilities. 

(F.)  We  may  vary  the  process  by  supposing  that 
there  are  several  bags,  each  containing  some  nails, 
-which  may  be  white  or  black ;  but  the  number  in 
each  bag,  and  the  proportion  of  white  to  black, 
being  any  whatever/  One  ball  only  is  to  be  drawn, 
-what  is  tne  chance  that  it  is  W  ? 

If  n  be  the  number  of  bags,  the  chance  that  the 

bftU  will  be  drawn  from  any  partieular  bag  is  - 

[se«  (A)].  And  if  in  that  bag  there  bep  of  W  and 
q  of  B,  Ihe  dumce  that  W  wm  be  drawn  from  it  is 

^  [Bee  (A)l. 

Hence  the  chance  that  W  is  drawn,  and  from  the 
pftrticular  bag,  is, 

n   p  +  q   "^  ^  ' 
And  the  whole  chance  that  W  is  drawn  is  the  sum 

1        V 
of  all  the  chances,  -  .  -^r— ,  for  each  of  the  bags. 

n    p  +  7 

Thus,  let  there  be  5  bags,  containing,  respectively, 

Wft  WW,  BB,  WWB,  WWW;   our   chance  is 


found  as  follows:   The  chance  of  the  ball 

drawn  from  any  particular  bag  is  ^9  since  all  are 

equally  likely  to  be  chosen.    Then,  supposing  the 

first  chosen,  the  chance  of  W  is  ^;  if  the  third  be 

chosen,  the  chance  of  W  is  0,  fto.  Hence,  on  the 
whole,  the  chance  of  W  is 

11.1,   .1^.1    2.1,       19 

6'2'*'6"*"6"*"6'3"*"530* 

(G.)  Hence,  if  an  event  may  happen  in  consequence 
of  any  one  of  a  set  ofcavsesy  sucli  Hiot  the  action  qf 
one  excludes  that  of  the  others;  Us  prcbabUUy  is  the 
sum  of  the  products  formed  by  mulUplying  the  chance 
of  the  action  of  each  cause  by  tne  chance  that  that  cause, 
if  operating,  will  produce  the  desired  event 

We  mi^t  easily  extend  this  very  simple  series  of 
results,  but  our  limits  restrict  us  to  ao  attempt  to 
shew  more  the  extent  of  the  subject  than  the  details 
of  its  application  to  any  particular  set  of  questions. 
We  themore  reluctantly  pass  to  the  consideration 
of  an  inverse  problem  or  two. 

(H.)  An  event  has  occurred,  which  may  have  arisen 
from  any  one  of  a  set  of  mutually  exclusive  causes  : 
to  determine  the  probability  that  any  particular 
cause  was  the  efficient  one — ^the  probabihty  of  the 
event's  happening,  when  any  particular  one  of  the 
causes  operates,  bcone  known. 

As  a  simple  exam^e  will  shew  us  how  to  proceed 
in  the  most  general  case,  take  the  6  bags  of  (F)  above. 
The  chances  of  drawing  W  from  them  are,  in  order, 

1  2 

o>  h  0,  ^,  L    Suppose  W  has  been  drawn,  what  is 

tl»e  chance  that  it  was  drawn  from  any  ^rticular 
bag  ?  It  is  obvious  that  the  chance  of  W  haviuff 
been  drawn  from  any  particular  bag  is  proportionid 
to  the  chance  that,  if^  that  bag  hira.  been  selected, 
W  would  have  becoi  drawn  from  it.  Hence,  if  P|, 
P»  P.8>  P4*  Pi  ^  ^^  chances  that  the  several  bagp 
furnished  the  W  actually  drawn,  we  have 

with  the  additional  condition,  that  the  ball  must 
have  been  drawn  from  one  of  the  bags,  and  therefore 

Pl  +  Pl+Pl  +  1>4  +  P8=  1- 

From  these,  by  elementary  algebra,  we  have 
3  6 

And  a  very  simple  application  of  algebra  will  eastlr 
conduct  us  to  the  general  formula  for  any  such 
case. 

(I.)  If  the  nature  of  a  cause  is  known  onl;r  bv 
its  results,  we  have  an  interesting  case  of  smiul- 
taneous  application  of  the  direct  and  inverse 
methods. 

Thus,  a  bag  oontains  8  balls,  each  of  which  may 
be  either  black  or  white.  A  ball  has  been  drawn 
from  it  on  two  occasiona— replacing  before  drawing—- 
and  on  each  of  these  occasions  the  ball  was  w. 
What  is  the  chance  that  a  third  drawing  will  give 
aUadbbaU? 

The  contents  of  the  bag  are  obviously  one  of  the 
following— viz.,  W,W,W  ;  W,W,B  ;  or  W,B,B— 
since  it  contains  oft«  W  at  least  Now,  if  WWW 
be  the  contents,  the  probability  of  the  observed 
event  (two  W  in  succession)  is  1  x  1 »  1. 


4  « 

O.P4*X9»P.-i9. 


If  W, W,B, 
UWfifi. 


2  24 

3  ""  3  "  »' 
1      1      1 


m 


PEOBABILITY. 


Hence  the  probabilities  that  tiiese  are,  lespeotiTely, 

the  contents  of  the  bag  area8l:5:7,oraa9:4;l; 

9    4  J  V   «r 

and  are  therefore  jg,  r^t  uid  jj  xespeotiTely,  sbce 

their  sum  most  be  1  or  certaintr. 
Now  for  the  chance  of  B  in  the  third  drawing;  if 

WWW  be  the  contents  (of  which  the  chance ' 

the  chance  of  B  is  0.    Hence  we  have  one  part  bf 

the  chance  for  B,  viz.  r^  ><  ^  ™  ^    Similady*  the 

otherpartoawjjXg-^,andjjXj-^    The 

whole  chance  of  B  in  the  third  drawing  is  therefore 

4        2       1 

As  exercises  on  the  above  principles,  we  will  take 
first  a  few  simple  questions  from  Life  Assurance^ 
the  subject  to  which,  above  all  others,  the  ele- 
mentary theory  of  Probability  has  been  of  the  most 
indispensable  service.  We  purposely  choose  the 
very  simplest  that  the  subject  can  fnmiBht  but 
they  sre  quite  sufficient  to  shew  the  great  value  of 
the  theory. 

A  Table  of  Mortality  (q.v.)  gives  the  numbers 
alive  at  each  successive  year  of  their  age,  out  of  a 
given  number  of  children  bom.  If  An  and  An  4- 1  ^ 
the  numbers  in  the  table  corresponding  to  the  n^^ 

and  n  +  l^b  years  of  afle;  the  inference  from  the 
table  is,  tiiat,  of  An  inmviduals  now  alive,  and  of 
fi  years  of  age.  An «.  i  will  live  one  additional  year 
at  least.  Hence,  the  chance  that  any  one  of  them 
die  during  the  year  is 

An  —  An  ♦  1 

— x;; — • 

Can  this  1  —  p,  then  p  is  the  chance  that  any  one 
of  them  will  survive  the  year. 

Questkms.  Of  two  individuals,  one  n  yean  old, 
and  the  other  n^,  what  are  the  chances  that 

{<l)  Only  one  lives  a  year  ? 
( 6.)  One,  at  least,  lives  a  year  t 
(c.)  Both  do  not  live  a  year  7 
Calling  the  individuals  A  and  B,  the  chance  of 
A  living  out  the  year  is  p,  and  the  chance  of  his 
dying  within  the  year  is  1  -*  i>.    For  B  these  are 
Pi  ami  I  ^Pi*    Hence 

(a.)  A  lives  and  B  dies— chance    p  (l  —  Pi)» ) 
B  lives  and  A  dies — chance      (1  —  p)pi.  \ 

Hence  answer  to  (a)  is  •       •     p  +  jPi  —  '2ppi. 

[b.)  This  includes,  in  addition  to  the  conditions  of 
(a),  the  chance  that  both  survive,  which  is  ppi. 

Hence  answer  to  (&)  is        p  -k-pi  —  ppi» 

(&)  In  tlus  case  the  chance  that  both  do  live  a 
year  is  ppi.    Hence  chance  of  (e)  is  1  —  ppi. 

As  another  very  instmotive  example,  let  ua  take 
the  question, 

*  In  how  many  throws  of  a  die  is  it  even  betting 
that  an  ace  will  be  thrown  t* 

This  may,  of  course,  be  worked  directly,  piooeed- 
ing  in  the  following  manner ; 

Chance  of  ace  in  first  throw  »  - . 

Then,  remembering  that  there  is  no  second  throw 
unless  the  first  faifi, 

Chance  of  ace  in  second  throw  »  ?  •  « ;  and  so  on. 

O      D 

Hence  the  odds  against  ace  in  1  throw  are   0 :   1. 

*  •  •         2  throws       25:11; 

and  so  on.  But  great  care  ia  requisite  la  this  mode 
of  worlung  the  problem. 

T80^ 


Tho  simplest  procedure  is  this : 

Chance  <^aifis<  ace  in  1  throw     2* 

o 

t  •  V      SthrowB  ^. 


Z 


125 

•       216* 

.  625 

s  .  .      4      .      1^ 

Hence  odds  against  aoe  in  1  throw      5 :     L 
«  ■  ■      2  throws   25:   IL 

■  .  .      3      .       125:   9L 

.  .  .      4      .       e25:67L 

That  is,  the  odds  are  considerably  againti  aoe 
occurring  in  three  throws,  being  about  11  to  8; 
while  in  four  they  are  slightly  in  its  favour,  as 
29 :  27  nearly.  One  is  sure,  therefore,  of  winning  in 
the  Ions  run,  if  he  can  ^  any  one  to  give  aim 
repeatedly  an  even  bet  agiauist  aoe  appearing  in  four 
throws  of  a  dia 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  when  we  say  *ta  (k 
long  run,*  we  mean  that  the  most  lik^  event  may 
not  be  that  which,  will  happen  in  the  mst  trial,  nor 
perhajM  for  many  trials  (because,  unless  its  proba- 
Dility  is  1  or  certainty,  it  is,  of  course,  pomoU  thafc 
it  may  never  occur).  But  what  is  certain  is  thii^ 
that  it  a  sufficient  number  of  trials  be  made^  we  can 
have  any  amount  of  probability  (abort  of  ootainty) 
that  the  ratio  of  the  number  of  successful  triaU  to 
the  number  of  &ilures,  will  be  in  the  ratio  ezpieoed 
by  the  odds  in  favour  of  success  in  any  one  InaL 

And  this  introduces  us  to  another  department  of 
the  theory  of  Probabilities,  what  is  called  Expeda- 
tion.  We  besin  with  a  simple  case,  not  involring 
what  ia  callea  if  oro/  ETspeetaJtion^  to  which  the  next 
example  will  be  devoted. 

Suppose  A,  B,  and  0  have  made  a  pool,  each  sab* 
scribmg  £\  ;  and  that  a  game  of  pvrt  duaaet  (La, 
not  dependent  on  skill)  is  to  be  played  by  tiieai  for 
the  £3L  What  is  (previous  to  play)  tiie  value  of  ti» 
expectation  of  each  7  By  the  conditions,  afl  in 
equally  likely  to  win  the  pool,  hence  its  continge&t 
value  must  oe  the  same  to  each ;  and,  obviomly, 
the  sum  of  these  values  must  represent  the  whole 
amount  in  question.  Hie  worth  of  the  expectatton 
of  each  is  therefore  £1.  That  is,  if  A  wnhei  ta 
retire  from  the  game  before  it  is  pla^yed  out,  the  bit 
price  which  B  or  C  ought  to  pay  him  for  his  shais 

ia  simply  £L    But  this  is  obviously  ^  x  j£3  ;  i  a, 

3 

the  value  of  the  pool  multiplied  by  his  chance  of 
getting  it.  Here  we  have  taken  an  extremely  simple 
case,  because  we  have  not  room  for  the  general 
proof  (though  it  is  closely  analogous  to  that  joat 
given)  that 

Th€  wdue^  of  a  corUingent  gain  is  the  product  oftU 
sum  to  be  gained  into  the  chance  qf  winning  it 

So  far,  it  has  been  assumed  that  the  payment  of 
his  stake  (which  may  be  wholly  lost)  has  not 
moraUy  affected  the  {xwition  of  any  of  the  playen ; 
L  a,  that  the  stake  is  a  sum  whose  loss  woi^  in 
nowise  embarrass  him.  And  it  is  only  witii  saeh 
cases  that  the  strict  mathematical  theory  can  deal ; 
for  we  cannot  estimate  with  mathematMsal  accoiaey 
the  value  of  the  stake  as  denendinff  on  the  fortuss 
(the  possessions,  not  the  luck)  of  tae  player.  The 
attempts  which  have  been  made  to  supply  this 
apparent  deficiency  in  the  theory  have,  of  conise, 
not  been  very  generaUy  accepted.  Still  tibers  is  no 
doubt  that  two  men  of  very  unequal  foatones  are 
placed  in  very  different  drcumstanoes  when  they 
nave  subscribed  equal  sums  to  a  pool  ^iriiicb  tivr 
have  equal  chances  of  gaining.  The  most  oonauaniy 


PBOBABnJTY. 


received  method  of  appr&xhntUing  to  a  solution  of 
such  a  qaestioQ  (for  it  is  obvious  that  here  we  have 
left  matbematical  oertainty  behind)  is  that  proposed 
by  Daniel  Bernoulli ;  which  is,  that  the  value  of  a 
small  gain,  or  the  inconvenience  of  a  small  loss,  is 
directly  pro^rtional  to  the  amount  of  the  cain  or 
loss  (which  IS  probably  correct),  and  inversdy  pro- 
portional to  the  fortune  of  the  person  affected 
(which  may  be  nearly  true,  except  m  very  extreme 
cases).  The  i4>plication  of  this  njrpothetioal  prin- 
ciple necessitates,  in  general,  ibe  use  of  the 
integral  calculus;  but,  to  shew  the  mathematical 
folly  of  gambling,  we  quote  one  of  Bernoulli's 
results. 
A,  whose  whole  fortune  is  £100,  bets  £80  even 

with  B  on  an  event  of  which  the  chance  is  5.   What 

is  the  moral  value  of  A's  fortune  after  making  the 
bet  (and  before  it  is  decided)  T  ]^  apnlyinff  the 
above  method,  he  finds  it  to  be  £87.  Thus  A,  by 
making  the  bet,  has  depreciated  by  13  per  cent  the 
value  of  his  property.  This  is  an  extreme  case,  of 
course  ;  and  the  method  employed  in  obtaining  the 
result  is  questi<mable ;  still,  it  is  certain  that  no 
iej;itimate  method  could  shew  that  A  had  otiier- 
wise  than  impaired  his  fortune  by  entering  upon 
any  such  transaction.  This,  of  course,  is  on  the 
supposition  that  the  bet  is  ^fair  one;  if  A  be  a 
swindler,  and  get  from  B  more  than  the  proper  odds 
against  the  event,  he  may,  of  course,  improve  to  any 
extent  the  value  of  his  fortune.  But  such  would  l>e 
a  question  of  flats  and  sharpers,  not  a  question  of 
probability. 

A  very  excellent  example  of  fnoral  as  distin- 
ffuished  nt>m  mathemalkal  probability  is  famished 
by  the  famous  '  St  Petersbui;c  Problem.* 

A  and  B  play  at  heads  and  tails.  A  is  to  pay  B 
£2  if  H  comes  at  the  first  throw,  £4  if  at  the  second 
and  not  before,  £8  if  at  the  third  and  not  before ; 
and  so  on,  doubling  each  time.  What  should  B  pay 
(before  the  game)  uae  his  expectation  t 

Applying  the  mathematical  method,  we  see  that 

Chance  of  H  at  first  throw  «  ^; 
in  which  case  B  gets  £2,  of  which  the  contingent 
value  is  -  X  £2  =  £1. 

Chance  of  H  at  second  throw,  and  not  before  «  ~; 

4 

when  B  is  to  get  £4  whose  value  is  therefore 
2  x£4a£l. 

Chance  of  H  at  third  throw,  and  not  before  »  - ; 

contingent  value  of  B*s  £8  is  therefore  g  x  £8  s  £1. 

And  so  on,  for  ever. 

Hence  B's  expectatian  (mathematical)  is 
iSl  +  £1  +  £1  +  ftc  for  ever,  or  an  infinite  snm. 
Now  it  is  obvious  that  no  man,  in  his  senses,  would 

y  even  a  moderately  lar|^  sum  for  saoh  a  chance. 

ere  tiie  moral  expectation  comes  into  play ;  but 
the  mathematical  solution  is  perfectiy  correct,  if  we 
interpret  it  properly.  It  does  not  attempt  to  tell 
tohat  will  he  the  actual  result  in  any  one  ffame^-thie  k 
pure  eAoiMe— but  it  tells  us  what  will  be  the  average 
to  wMch  the  results  of  larger  and  larger  numbers  of 
games  must  continually  tend.  In  otner  words,  if  B 
had  an  inexhaustible  purse,  he  might  safely  pay  any 
amount  to  A  before  each  game,  and  be  sure  o/vrin- 
ning  in  the  long  run^  after  an  indefinitely  great 
number  of  games  were  played.  But  this,  though 
theoretically  exact,  is  not  applicable  to  mundane 
gBaibling--where  limited  purses  and  limited  time 


g^< 


eircumacribe  the  field  requisite  for  the  proper 
development  of  the  mathematical  result. 

Before  quitting  this  part  of  the  8ubjew*t,  we  may 
fDve  a  couple  of  instances  in  which  the  maiJiematical 
theoiy  may  be  easily  tested  by  any  one  who  has  a 
littie  leisure.  One  of  these  we  will  develop  at 
length,  as  a  final  instance  of  the  simple  calculations 
generally  involved. 

*  To  find  the  chance  of  throwing  any  given  pos- 
sible number  with  two  dice.' 

As  the  fooes  of  the  dice  are  numbered  from  1  to 
6— the  smallest  throw  is  2,  and  tiie  greatest  12. 

In  one  throw,  the  changes 


Foir2»l  +  I:  --  ?*-^f 

the  probabxHties  bexns  mumplied  (E)  beoauas  the 
events  are  independent    For 


8 


8»l  +  %or2+I;  — : 
4al  +  3,2  +  2,or3+  1; 


5- 1  +  4k 2 +  3, 8 +  2, or 4  + I;  ^: 

0 

6»l-|-5,2  +  4,3  +  8,4  +  %or5+l;gg* 


6 


7«l  +  6,2  +  6,3  +  4»4  +  %6  +  0,or6  +  I;^: 
Then,  in  the  inverse  order-* 

8»2  +  6k3-*-IS^4  +  4k5-|.3,or6  +  2;^: 

and  so  on— the  fact  being  that  if  we  read  the  lower 
sides  of  the  dice  when  the  throw  is  8,  they  wUl  give 
6»  and  so  on— the  sum  being  always  14 

The  mathematical  expectation  for  any  one  throw 
is  therefore 

33.«^gij.8  +  5g-4  +  gg.6  +  gg.6+5g.» 

InaU— 

1(2  +  6+12  +  20+30+42+40+36+30+22+12)1 
3o 

or~. 252  =  7. 

The  meaning  of  this  is,  noi  that  we  shall  probably 
throw  seven  the  first  time,  nor  second,  nor  perhaps 
for  many  throws ;  but  that  if  we  throw  a  number 
of  times,  add  the  results,  and  divide  by  the  number 
of  throws,  the  finnl  result  will  be  more  and  more 
nearly  equal  to  seven,  the  greater  be  the  whole 
number  of  throws.  It  is  very  instructive  to  make 
the  experiment,  say  on  100  throws  of  two  dice, 
as  in  Dackgammon.  If  the  mathematical  result 
be  not  closely  verified  by  such  a  trial,  the  dice  art 
loaded;  or,  at  least,  are  iU-made. 

Another  illustration,  and  a  very  excellent  one, 
is  furnished  by  the  following  theorem. 

If  the  floor  be  ruled  with  equidistant  parallel 
lines,  and  a  straight  rod,  whose  length  is  equal  to 
the  distance  between  any  two  contiguous  lines,  be 
dropped  upon  it  at  random,  the  chance  of  its  falling 

2 
on  one  of  the  linea  is  -^  where  r  is  the  ratio  of 

the  drcumferenoe  of  a  circle  to  its  diameter  (see 
QuASBATCRX  OF  THB  Cibclb).  The  deduction  of 
tins  result  from  the  theory  of  Probabilities  requires 
the  use  of  the  integral  calculus,  and  cannot  be  given 
here;  but  we  may  put  the  above  theorem  to  the 
test  of  practice  in  the  following  way.    Let  the  rod 


PBOBABnJTT. 


be  tossed  a  number  of  times,  then  the  greater  this 
number,  the  more  nearly  shall  we  have 

Twice  number  of  throws  . 


Number  of   times   the  rod  falls  on  a  line 
s  3-14159,  fto. ; 

and  therefore,  by  simpiv  continuing  this  process 
long  enough,  we  may  obtain  as  accurate  a  Talue 
as  we  choose  of  tiie  ratio  of  the  circumference  to 
the  diameter  of  a  circle. 

To  shew  how  the  theory  of  Probabilities  would 
tend,  if  generally  known,  to  the  discouragement  of 
gambling,  would  require  a  treatise — as  every  species 
of  game  would  have  to  be  treated— we  shall  there- 
fore only  take  ono  case,  about  as  bad  a  one  as  can 
be.  This  is  when  a  man  makes  a  *  book*  on  a  horse- 
race, so  as  to  '  staad  to  win,*  whatever  be  the  result 
of  the  race.  This  is,  of  ooune,  immoral ;  for,  as  it 
can  make  no  matter  who  accepts  his  bets,  suppose 
them  all  taken  by  one  individuiaL  The  latter  must 
therefore  have  been  'done*  into  a  complex  tran- 
saction by  which  he  is  certain  to  lose.  The  method 
of  making  such  a '  book*  is  simple  enough ;  it  con- 
sists mainly  in  betting  agaifut  each  horse.  Thus,  if 
three  horses,  A,  B,  G,  are  to  start,  and  he  can  get 
the  following  bets  taken — 

£4  :  £3  against  A« 
£5t£4      1. .     B, 


£6:  £5 
his  book  stands  thus : 


C; 


If  A  win,  he  wins  £4  +  £5  -  d64  or  £S. 
«  B       »  B     £5  +  £3-£5  .  £a 

«G       •         ■     £4  +  £d-£6»£l. 

Now,  to  examine  this  case,  suppose  the  correct  odds 
to  have  been  laid  a^nst  A  and  B,  what  ought  in 

fairness  to  be  the  odcb  as  regards  C  t 

3 
Chance  of  A  winning  is         •  *       t 

B  ^ 

8     4      55 


Chance  of  A  or  B  winning 


8 


7^9""  6? 


Hence,  chance  of  C  winning  a  -^ ;  and  therefore 

the  legitimate  odds  against  C  are  55  to  8, 
whereas  our  betting-man  has  got  a  fool  to  accept 
6to5. 

The  true  cause  of  the  detestation  which  attaches 
to  ^mbling,  is  not  so  much  the  ruin,  insanity, 
suicide,  &a,  in  which  it  not  unfrequently  ends,  as 
the  fact,  that  a  gambler*s  work  in  no  case  increases 
the  wealth  or  comfort  of  the  state  ;  all  it  can  effect 
is  a  more  or  less  rapid  and  dishonest  transfer  of 
these  from  one  state  of  distribution  to  another.  It 
is  as  useless,  so  far  as  regards  production,  as  the 
prison-crank. 

There  is  a  common  prejudice  as  to  '  runs  of  luck,* 
which  are  popularly  supnosed  not  to  be  compatible 
with  the  mathematical  theory.  This,  also,  is  a  com- 
plete delusion.  To  take  a  very  simple  case,  the 
reader  will  easily  see  that,  if  he  writes  down  all  the 
possible  cases  which  may  occur  in  six  tosses  of  a 
coin,  the  odds  are  19 :  13  in  favour  of  a  run  of 
three  at  least. 

To  five  an  instance  of  the  principle  of  interpreta- 
tion wnich  we  have  several  times  above  applied  to 
the  mathematical  result— viz.,  that  the  greater  the 
number  of  trials,  the  more  nearly  will  the  average 
result  of  these  trials  coincide  with  it — let  us  recur 
to  heads  and  tails.  Suppose  a  coin  tossed  ten 
times,  and  let  H"  stand  for  H  n  times,  then  we 
have 
789 


of  which  the  terms  are  [as  in  (D)]  the  probabiltties  of 
H>*,  H*T,  H»T*,  &C.  respectively ;  the  order  not 
being  taken  account  of.    Hie  lai^gest  term  is  ths 

0th,  and  its  rslxub  is  ^  «i  ^qoP  ^  ^^xivt  g.    Tba 

is  the  chance  of  HT*,  without  regard  to  order,  in 
ten  throws.  Although  the  most  probable  result^ 
inasmuch  as  the  chances  of  HT*  and  H*T*  are  each 

about  ■=  only,  and  those  of  the  other  possible  com- 

binationa  much  smaller — ^yet  it  has  not  a  very  Isi^ge 

chance.     But  the  chance  of  a  result  not  devialug 

much  from  the  most  probable  one^   is  very  much 

larger  :  in  the  above  case,  the  chance  of  having  not 

less  than  3H,  and  not  less  than  ST,  is  as  moch  ai 

912 

j^2*    ^^^  ^^  tendency  of  the  bulk  of  the  results 

to  coincide  very  closely  with  the  nuMt  piobsble  one, 
is  much  more  evident  as  we  take  a  greater  snd 
mater  number  of  trials.  Thus,  in  100  trials  vith 
uie  coin,  we  have— 

-G-D" 

[yow  we  beffiin  to  see  how  the  hi^er  ansl|iis 
comes  in.    Who  is  to  work  out  hy  common  anth- 


metic  the  value  of  the  fraction 


lUO.  99  •  98... 51 


! 


1.2.3 50 

Some  calculating  boy  mighty  witii  no  very  enonnoas 
labour — but,  wait  a  moment,  we  may  wish  to  hats 
the  result  of  a  million  of  trials,  and  what  caleolatar 
(arithmetical)  will  tell  us  the  value  of 

1,000,000  X  999,999  x  x  500,001 

1        X       2       X X  500,000^ 

In  this  case,  the  most  probable  result  is  H^*T^,  with- 

out  regard  to  order,  but  its  chance  ia  only  about  tt. 


[The    exact    ^ne  .is 


100.99.98...^^.51 
fiO« 


2'*»  •    1.2.3 

Had  there  been  1000  throws,  the  chance  of  H^T** 

(the  most  likely  combination)    would   have  been 

I 
about  ^.    But^  as  the  number  of  throws  incresse% 

the  number  of  terms  isroaped  dose  to  the  largest 
in  the  expansion,  and'^ose  sum  far  exceeds  thst  of 
all  the  veetf  becomes  a  smaller  and  smaller  fraetioa 
of  the  entire  number  of  terms.  Hence  the  dianoe 
that  in  1000  tosses  there  should  not  be  more  than 
600  nor  less  than  400  H,  is  much  greater  thsn  that 
of  not  mMe  than  60  nor  less  than  40  H  in  100 
throws  I  and  so  on. 

Thus  it  is  that  all  our  statistioal  results,  say 
the  ratios  of  the  numb^s  of  birtiis,  manrisf^ 
suicides,  ftc  to  the  whole  population— -or  thst  of 
the  male  to  the  female  births— or  that  of  the  dead 
letters  to  the  whole  number  posted,  fte.— though 
perhaps  never  the  same  in  any  two  yean,  yet  flac- 
tuate  oetween  very  narrow  limits.  And  thus  it  is 
that  the  theory  of  Probabilities  has  been  iha  means 
of  solidly  establishing,  beyond  almost  the  possibility 
of  failure,  when  properly  applied,  the  inestiinsbto 
securities  afforded  by  life-assurance. 

Another  very  important  application  of  the  theory 
is  to  the  deduction  of  the  most  probable  vales  from  s 
number  of  observations  (astronomifai,  in< 


PEOBATE  COURT— PROCESSION  OP  THE  HOLT  GHOST. 


Ac),  each  of  which  ia  liable  to  error.  We  may  con- 
fidently assert  that,  but  for  tlis,  astronomv  could 
not  have  taken  the  gigantic  strides  by  which  it  has 
advanced  during  the  present  centuiy.  But  the 
*Mei/iod  ofLtati  SqworUy  as  it  is  called,  which  is 
furnished  for  this  purpose  by  the  theory  of  prob- 
abilities, is  far  beyond  the  scope  of  elementary 
mathematics,  and  can  therefore  only  be  referred  to 
here.  Its  fundamental  features  may  be  seen  in  the 
above  process  of  determining  the  probability  that 
the  result  of  a  number  of  trials  shall  lie  within 
certain  limits  on  each  side  of  the  most  probable 
result 

The  theory  of  Probabilities  has  been  applied  to 
many  other  miportant  questions,  of  which  we  may 
mention  only  two — the  value  of  evidence,  and  the 
probability  of  the  correctness  of  the  verdict  given 
Dy  various  majorities  in  a  jury.  But  for  these,  and 
for  the  further  devdopment  of  what  we  have  given 
above  from  the  simplest  points  of  view,  we  must 
refer  to  the  various  treatises  on  the  subject.  Of 
these,  the  most  accessible  to  an  Enslish  reader  are 
the  very  valuable  works  of  Galloway  and  De 
Moi^n.  Poiason,  Gauss,  and  especially  Laplace, 
have  also  treated  the  subject  in  the  most  profound 
manner.  But  the  difficulty  of  undenitanding 
Laplace*s  ^;reat  work  is  such,  that  few  have  ever 
mastered  it  completely;  and  it  is  therefore  par^ 
ticularly  satisfactory  that  the  lato  Professor  Boole, 
in  his  Law9  i^  Thought^  has  shewn  how  to  dispense 
with  a  great  part  of  the  analysis  which  renders 
Laplace's  work  so  formidable. 

PROBATE  COURT  is  a  court  created  in 
England  in  1858,  in  lien  of  the  old  Pren^tive 
Courts,  to  exercise  the  exclusive  jurisdiction  m  all 
matters  touching  the  succession  to  j^ersonal  estate^ 
The  rules  on  which  its  jurisdiction  is  founded  are, 
that  whenever  a  man  dies  he  must  either  leave  a 
will  or  not  If  he  leave  a  will,  then  it  must  be 
produced  and  verified,  so  as  to  demonstrate  to  all 
parties  interested  that  it  is  an  authentic  will,  and 
has  been  duly  executed  and  signed  in  presence  of 
witnesses,  and  therefore  that  the  rignt  to  the 
personal  estate  is  vested  in  the  executors  named  by 
the  wiU.  The  will  is  sworn  to  by  the  witnesses,  on 
being  produced ;  and  if  the  evidence  is  satisfactory, 
it  is  registered,  and  the  original  deposited  in  the 
court,  wnen  copies  are  made.  This  process  is  called 
proving  the  will,  and  the  act  of  court  is  called  the 
probate  of  the  wilL  If  there  is  no  will,  then  the 
rule  being,  that  the  personal  estate  devolves  on  the 
next  of  kin  and  widow,  if  any,  it  is  necessary  that 
an  application  be  made  to  the  court  to  appoint  one 
of  the  next  of  kin  to  be  the  administrator,  and  take 
chaise  of  the  payment  of  debts.  This  is  called 
taking  out  administration,  and  the  act  of  the  court 
appointing  the  administrators  is  called  letters  of 
administration.  Numerous  difficulties  often  arise 
as  to  irregularities  in  the  making  of  wills  and  as  to 
the  party  entitled  to  administration,  and  it  is  the 
function  of  the  Court  of  Probate  to  dispose  of  these. 

PROBOSCI'DEA,  a  section  of  Pachydermata^  of 
which  the  characters  are  given  \mder  that  head, 
contains  one  recent  and  one  fossil  genus,  Elephas 
(see  Elephant)  and  Mcuiodon  (q.  v.) ;  so  that  the 
P.  seem  not  to  have  been  numerous  at  any  period 
of  the  world*s  history.  Notwithstanding  the  ereat 
si2e  of  these  creatures,  comparative  anatomisto  nave 
pointed  out  various  resemblances  in  their  dentition, 
osteology,  &a,  to  rodents. 

PROBO'SCIS  MONKEY.    See  NxsALua 

PRO'BUS,  Marcus  AuBXLnjs,  Emperor  of  Rome, 
was  bom  at  Sirmium,  in  Pannonia.  His  father, 
Maximus,  served  first  as  a  centurion,  and  after- 
wards as  a  tribune  in  the  Roman  army,  and  died  in 


Ilgypt,  leaving  to  his  only  son  a  good  name  and  a 
moderate  income.  P.  early  entereid  the  army,  and 
had  the  sood  fortune  to  attract  the  favourable 
notice  of  the  Emperor  Valerian,  who  devated  him 
before  the  legal  period  to  the  rank  of  tribunei  Sm 
subsequent  conduct  justified  his  rapid  promotion, 
for  he  greatly  distinguished  himself  against  the 
Sarmatians  on  the  Danube,  and  subsequently  in 
Africa,  El^p^t,  Asia,  Gennany,  and  Gaul,  winning 
golden  opinions  from  Valerian's  successors,  G^^- 
enus,  Claudius  IL,  Aurelian,  and  Tacitua  By  the 
last-named  emperor,  he  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  whole  Asiatic  possessions  of  Rome,  and  declared 
to  be  the  chief  mamstey  of  the  Roman  power ;  and 
such  was  the  sealous  attachment  evinced  for  him 
by  his  aoldien^  whose  respect  and  love  he  had 
equally  won  by  his  firm  discipline,  by  his  care  in 
providing  for  their  wanto  and  comforts,  and  his 
liberality  in  the  distribution  of  plunder,  that,  on 
the  deaui  of  Tadtus,  they  forced  him  to  assume  the 
purple ;  and  his  rival,  Florianus,  having  been  re- 
moved, P.  was  enthusiastically  hailed  emperor  by  all 
classes  (276  A.  D.),  His  brief  reign  was  signalised  by 
brilliant  and  important  successes ;  the  Germans,  who^ 
since  Aurelian*s  time,  had  made  Gaul  almost  a  part  of 
Germany,  were  driven  out  with  enormous  slaughter, 
pursued  into  the  heart  of  their  own  country,  com- 
pelled to  restore  their  plunder,  and  to  furnish  a 
contiujgent  to  the  Roman  armies.  Pursuing  his 
victonous  career,  P.  swept  the  inimical  barbarians 
from  the  Rhffitian,Pannonian,  and  Thracian  frontiers, 
and  forced  Persia  to  agree  to  a  humiliating  peace. 
Various  aspiranto  to  the  imperial  purple  were  slso 
put  down.  On  his  return  to  Rome,  r.  celebrated 
these  fortunate  achievemento  by  a  triumph,  and 
then,  the  external  security  of  the  empire  beins 
established,  devoted  himself  to  the  development  <3 
its  internal  resources.  The  senate  was  confirmed  in 
ite  privileges ;  liberal  encouragement  was  given  to 
agriculture;  numerous  colonies  of  barbarians  were 
established  in  thinly-peopled  spoto,  that  they  might 
adopt  a  civilised  mode  of  life ;  and  all  branches  of 
industry  were  protected  and  promoted.  But  P.  was 
at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  his  army,  as  the  Romans 
had  now  no  enemies  either  at  home  or  abroad ;  and 
fearing  that  their  discipline  would  be  deteriorated  by 
a  life  of  inactivity,  he  employed  the  soldiera  as 
labourers  in  executing  various  extensive  and  im- 
portant works  of  pubhc  utility.  Such  occupations, 
considered  as  degrading  by  the  soldiers,  excited 
among  them  the  utmost  irritation  and  discontent ; 
and  a  large  body  of  troops,  who  were  engaged  in 
draining  the  swamps  about  Sirmium,  giving  way  to 
these  f  ^injgs,  under  the  excitement  produceicl  by  the 
presence  oi  tiie  emperor,  murdered  him,  282  a.i>. 
r,  possessed  great  military  genius,  combined  with 
equal  administrative  talent,  and  added  to  these 
a  wisdom,  justice,  and  amiability  equal  to  that  of 
Trajan  or  the  Antonines. 

PRO'OESS  is  the  system  of  action  by  which  a 
court  calls  parties  into  court  for  purposes  of  litigi^ 
tion.  There  are  numerous  rules  goveniing  the  steps 
of  process,  but  these  are  all  of  a  technical  nature^ 

PROCE'SSION  OF  THE  HOLT  GHOST,  that 
doctrine  regarding  the  Third  Person  of  the  Blessed 
Trinity  which  teaches  that  as  the  Son  proceeds  (or  is 
bom)  from  the  Father,  so  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds 
(or  emanates)  from  the  Father  and  nom  the  Son,  but 
as  from  one  principle.  The  question  of  the  origin  of 
the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  distinctly  raised  in  the  early 
controversies,  which  fell  chiefly  upon  the  Second 
Person.  In  the  Creed  of  Nicaea,  no  allusion  what- 
ever is  made  to  the  subject ;  and  in  the  Creed  of 
Constantinople,  the  Holy  Ghost  is  said  simply  to 
'  proceed  from  the  Father,*    Nevertheless,  this  wag 

r<3 


PROCESSIONAL-PROCLUa 


nndentood  in  tbe  Latin  Ohweh  to  mem  that,  as 
the  Son  proceeda  from  the  Father,  the  Holy  Ghost 
proceeds  from  both  Father  and  Son ;  and  in  the 
oonrse  of  the  7th  and  dth  centories,  the  words  *  and 
from  the  Son,'  for  ffreater  distuietness,'came  to  be 
added  to  the  creed  in  several  chnrohes — as  the 
West.  In  the  controversy  with  the  Latins,  Phoiias 
(q.  V.)  took  exception  to  this  addition,  as  nn- 
authorised,  and  made  the  addition  one  of  tiie 
grounds  for  his  charge  of  heresy  i^inst  them,  which 
was  resumed  on  the  consummation  of  the  schism 
nnder  Michael  Cerularius.  In  the  miion  of  tiie 
Greek  and  Latin  churches  at  Florence  (1437),  an 
article  of  agreement  on  this  head  was  adopted,  and 
the  words  FHioque  were  sung  twice  over  both  in 
Latin  and  in  Greek,  in  the  solemn  mass  which 
celebrated  the  union.  But  this  union  had  no  root 
in  the  popular  mind,  and  the  dispute  still  continues 
as  of  Old  to  divide  the  churches. 

PROCE'SSIOKAL  (Lat.  procegsionale),  the  ser- 
vice-book which  contains  the  prayers,  hymns,  and 
ffeneral  ceremonial  of  the  different  processions. 
Slany  ancient  books  of  this  class  have  been  pre- 
served. The  processional  approved  for  common  use 
is  that  of  Borne,  of  which  many  editions  have  been 
published. 

PROCESSIONS,  as  solemn  and  telinous  rites, 
are  of  very  great  antiquity.  With  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  they  took  place  chiefly  on  the  festivals  of 
Diana,  Bacchus,  Ceres,  and  other  deities ;  also  before 
the  beginning  of  the  cames  in  the  Circus ;  and  in 
spring,  when  the  fields  were  sprinkled  with  holy 
water  to  increase  their  fertility.  The  priests  used 
to  head  them,  carrying  images  of  the  gods  and 
goddesses  to  be  propitiated,  and  either  started  from 
certain  temples  or  from  the  CapitoL  Among  the 
Jet^  certam  processions  around  the  altar  were 
(and  still  are  to  a  certain  extent)  usual  on  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  ;  and  from  them  the  Mohammedans 
have  adopted  their  mode  of  encompassine  the  sanc- 
tuary seven  times  at  Mecca  (q*  v.).  Processions 
form  a  prominent  part  of  the  Buddhist  worship. 
The  practioe  was  early  adopted  in  the  (Christian 
Church.  The  Reformation  aoolished  it ;  and  even 
in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  especially  in  mixed 
countries,  processions  are  less  frequent  or  pojpular 
now  than  m  former  years.  They  are  there  either 
supplicatory  processions  or  emm  processions,  and 
are  either  directed  to  a  certain  distant  place, 
to  some  miraculous  image  or  object,  or  they  are 
confined  to  the  streets  of  the  cities  and  the 
churches.  Banners,  crosses,  and  images  are  gener- 
ally carried  in  front;  the  clergy  foUow;  and  the 
people  make  up  the  rear,  singing  hymns  or  reciting 
prayers.  In  some  Protestant  states,  thev  are  still 
permitted,  under  certain  restrictions.  There  is  no 
doubt  that,  whatever  their  general  intrinsic  value, 
thev  offer  in  many  instances  one  of  the  most  strik- 
ingly picturesque  features  of  the  Roman  faith ;  and 
that  tnev  answer  a  certain  instinctive  want  in  the 
multitude.  For  extensive  pilgrimages,  as  such, 
their  history  and  rites,  we  refer  to  Piu>eim,  Msooa, 
Febtiva&b,  ko. 

PROOHEIN  AMI,  the  old  Norman-Frendi  for 
next  friend,  still  often  used  in  English  law,  means 
the  person  in  whose  name  an  infant  sues  in  a  court 
of  law,  or  a  married  woman  in  a  court  of  equity. 
The  chief  object  is  to  have  a  person  responsible  for 
ooets.    See  Next  Friend. 

PRO'CIDA,  an  islet  of  Italy,  between  the  island 
of  Ischia  and  the  shores  of  Naples,  and  separated 
from  both  of  these  by  sea-wajni  about  a  mile  in 
width,  is  three  miles  long  and  one  mile  broad.  Pop. 
13,810.  On  its  shores  is  the  d^  of  the  same  name, 
with,  a  commodious  harbour,  a  nne  r^gal  palace^  and 

784 


a  horrible  state-prison,  rsoentlv  rendered  famous  by 
Carlo  Poerio^  who  w^a  oonfined  there  in  chains^ 

PROCLAMATION,  a  public  notice  giren  by  the 
sovereign  to  his  subjects.  The  power  of  issuing 
proclamations  is  part  of  the  prerogative  of  royalty 
as  the  fountain  of  justice,  lliey  sometimes  consist 
of  an  authoritative  announcement  of  some  matter  of 
state,  or  act  of  the  executive  government  aflw^ng 
the  duties  and  obligations  of  subjects.  The  demise 
of  the  crown,  and  accession  of  a  new  sovereign,  a 
declaration  of  war,  and  the  issue  of  new  coin,  are  all 
occasions  on  which  a  royal  proclamation  is  issued. 
A  proclamation  may  also  be  issued  to  declare  the 
intention  of  the  crown  to  exercise  some  prerogative 
or  enforce  some  law  which  has  for  a  long  time  been 
dormant  or  suspended.  In  time  of  war,  tbe  crown 
by  a  proclamation  may  lay  an  embargo  on  shipping 
and  order  the  ports  to  be  shut.  But  the  most  usual 
class  of  proclamations  are  admonitory  notices  for 
the  prevention  of  offences,  consisting  of  formal 
decimations  of  existing  laws  and  peniQties,  and  of 
the  intention  to  enforce  them  ;  such  as  the  procla- 
mation against  vice  and  immorali^,  appointed  to  be 
read  at  the  opening  of  all  oourts  of  Quajter  Sessioiis 
in  England. 

Proclamations  are  only  binding  when  they  do  not 
contradict  existing  laws,  or  tend  to  establi^  new  onea^ 
but  only  enforce  the  execution  of  those  which  are 
already  in  being,  in  such  manner  as  the  sovereifin 
judges  necessary.  A  proclamation  must  be  nnder  ue 
Great  Seal  Statute  31  Henrv  VIIL  a  8  declared 
that  the  kin^*s  proclamations  should  be  as  binding  as 
acts  of  parhament ;  an  enactment  wfaidi,  while  it 
subsistea,  made  an  entire  revolution  in  the  govern- 
ment ;  but  was  repealed  by  1  £dw.  VL  &  UL  In 
later  times,  it  was  attempted  to  be  maintained  by 
the  crown  lawyers  that  tne  kine  might  snspeod  or 
dispense  with  an  existing  law  by  proolamatioB;  a 

Sower,  however,  which  Mt  1  WuL  and  Maiy  a  2 
eclared  not  to  exists 

PRO'CLUS,  called  the  Suocessor  {l>iado<Ao9}-^ 
L  e,  of  Syrianus,  as  the  head  of  Uie  Athenian 
school— a  celebrated  Neo-Platonist,  was  bom  in 
Constantinople  in  412L  He  was  of  Lycian  arigin, 
and  received  his  first  instruction  at  Xanthus.  in 
Lycia.  He  then  studied  at  Alexandria  nnder 
Ajion,  Leonaras,  Hero,  and  especially  under  Helio- 
dorus,  with  whom  he  applied  hiinself  chiefly  to 
Aristotelian  and  Platonic  pnilosophy.  From  thence 
he  went  to  Athens,  where  a  certain  Platarefa,  a 
philosopher,  and  his  daughter,  Asck^pigieoaa| 
became  his  instructors— the  latter  a  pnesteas  ol 
Eleusis,  chiefly  in  theurgic  mysteriea.  The  vivid 
imagination  and  enthusiastic  tempeiament  which 
in  his  childhood  already  had  lea  him  to  bdieve 
in  apparitions  of  Minerva  and  Apollo,  naturally 
convinced  him,  when  all  the  infiuoicea  of  the 
Mysteries  (q.  v.)  were  brought  to  bear  npoo 
him,  still  more  of  his  immediate  and  direct 
intercommunication  with  the  gods ;  and  he  dis- 
tinctly believed  himself  to  be  one  of  ^e  few 
chosen  links  of  the  Hermaic  chain  through  which 
divine  revelation  reaches  mankind.  His  soul  had, 
he  thought,  once  lived  in  Nioomachus  the  Pytha- 
gorean, and,  like  him,  he  had  the  power  to  com 
mand  the  elements  to  a  certain  extent,  to  produce 
rain,  to  temper  the  sun^s  heat,  &c  The  Oiphie 
Poems  (q.  v.),  the  writings  oi  Hermes,  and  all 
that  strangely  mystical  literature  with  whidi  the 
age  abounded,  were  to  him  the  only  aooroe  of 
true  philosophy,  and  he  considered  them  all  more 
or  less  in  tne  light  of  divine  zevelataona.  Thsfi 
same  cosmopolitan  spirit  in  religious  matteis  whidi 
pervaded  Rome  towards  her  end,  had  qisead 
thxou^iiont  all  the  civilised  '  pagan'  world  of  those 


^ 


PRO(X)NSUL-PKO00P. 


days,  and  P.  distiiictly  laid  it  down  as  an  axiom, 
that  a  true  philosopher  must  also  be  a  hierophant 
of  the  whole  world.  Acquainted  with  all  the  creeds 
and  rites  of  the  ancient  Pantheons  of  the  different 
nations,  he  not  only  philosophised  upon  them  in  an 
allegorising  and  symoolising  spirit,  as  many  of  his 
contemporaries  did,  but  pramsed  aU  the  ceremonies, 
however  hard  and  painful.  More  especially  was 
the  practice  of  fasting  in  hononr  of  Egyptian  deities, 
while  on  the  one  hand,  it  fitted  him  more  and  more 
for  his  hallacinations  and  dreams  of  divine  inter- 
course, on  the  other  hand  more  than  once  endangered 
his  life.  Of  an  impulsive  j^ietv,  and  eager  to  win 
disciples  from  Christianity  itself,  he  mi^e  himself 
obnoxious  to  the  Christian  authorities  at  Athens, 
who,  in  accordance  with  the  spirit  of  religious 
intolerance  and  fanaticism  which  then  began  to 
animate  the  new  and  successful  religion  against 
which  P.  wa^ed  constant  war,  banish^  him  from 
this  city.  Allowed  to  return,  he  acted  with  some- 
what more  prudence  and  circumspection,  and  only 
allowed  his  most  approved  disciples  to  taJte  part  in 
the  nightly  assemblies  in  which  he  propounded  his 
doctrines  He  died  in  485,  in  his  full  vi^ur,  and 
in  the  entire  possession  of  all  his  mental  powers, 
for  which  he  was  no  less  remarkable  than  for  his 
personal  beauty  and  strength. 

Respecting  his  svstem,  some  modem  philoso- 
phers have  exalted,  it  to  an  extent  which  his 
own  works  would  hardly  seem  to  warrant.  Victor 
Cousin  holds  that  he  has  concentrated  in  it  all 
the  philosophical  rays  which  emanated  from  the 
heads  of  the  greatest  thinkers  of  Greece,  such  as 
Pythagoras,  Rato,  Aristotle,  ftc.  P.  reconiises 
a  certain  kind  of  unitv  of  the  Creator,  or  rather  of 
the  divine  mind,  of  which  he  took  the  human  to  be 
a  fra^ent;  and  he  speaks  of  the  'One*  and  'The 
Firs^  The  human  soul  he  considered  wrapped  up 
in  various  more  or  less  dense  veils,  according  to 
the  degree  of  perfection  attained;  and  he  further 
assumed  a  certain  sort  of  solidarity  between  the 
souls  of  those  who  naturally,  or  by  certain  immut- 
able circumstances,  were  linked  together,  such  as 
children  and  parents,  iiilers  and  subjects ;  and  he 
carried  this  doctrine  so  far  as  to  assert,  that  the 
children  must  naturally  participate  in  their  parents' 
faults.  Faith  alone,  he  further  held,  was  essential 
to  the  attainment  of  Theur;^,  which,  comprising 
mantio  and  supernatural  inspiration,  is  preferable  to 
aU  human  wisdom ;  and  in  this  he  chiefl v  differs  from 
Plotinus  (q.  v.),  with  whose  system  he  agrees  in 
most  other  respects.  He  further  tries  to  recognise 
and  to  fathom  the  original  mysterious  One  by  com- 
bination of  figures,  strongly  reminding  us  of  Gnosti- 
cism and  the  later  Kabbala.  His  way  of  developing 
the  finite  beincs  out  of  the  infinite  Unit  is  also 
peculiar.  A  whole  series  of  triads,  at  the  head  of 
each  of  which  again  stands  a  unit,  goes  in  various 
gradations  through  the  creation,  the  lower  powers 
emanating  from  the  higher,  which  are  the  thinking 
and  creative  ideas,  &c    See  Plotinus,  Gnostics. 

Of  his  manifold  works,  there  have  survived  several 
hymns,  which,  by  the  true  poetical  and  religious 
si)irit  which  pervades  them,  stand  out  most  favour- 
anly  among  the  generally  inane  Orphic  h^ns.  Of 
his  astronomical  and  mathematical  writings,  there 
have  survived  a  short  summary  of  the  chief  theories 
of  Hipparchua,  Aristarchus,  Claudius  Ptolemaeus, 
and  others,  a  work  On  the  Heavenly  Spheres,  a 
Commentary  on  Euclid,  and  a  work — only  known  in 
a  Latin  translation — On  the.  Effects  of  the  JSdipses  of 
thf  Sun  and  Moon,  His  grammatical  works  consist 
of  some  commentaries  on  Homer,  Hesiod,  ftc  The 
greater  part  of  his  writings  is  devoted  to  philosophy. 
These  are  partly  commentaries  and  paraphrases  of 
Platonic  dialogues,  and  partly  the  embodiments 
362 


of  his  own  ideas  in  a  systematic  form.  We  thus 
have  a  work — again  preserved  in  Latin  only— On 
Providence  and  Fate,  On  the  Ten  Doubts  about  Pro* 
fridenee,  Jkc,  On  Platonic  Theology,  and  other  minor 
works,  extant  in  a  more  or  less  fragmentary  form, 
and  repeatedly  edited,  with  translations  and  modem 
commentaries.  The  most  important  of  his  works, 
however,  is  the  PhUoeophicai  and  Theological  Insti* 
itUion,  in  which  P.  geometrically,  as  it  were,  evolves 
his  doctrines  by  heading  each  of  its  211  chapters  by 
a  kind  of  proposition,  which  he  proceeds  to  demon- 
strate, appending  corollaries  in  some  instances.  He 
chiefly  treats  in  it  of  unity  and  multiplicity,  on 
productive  causes  and  effects,  on  the  hi^nest  good, 
on  that  which  suffices  in  itself,  on  immooility,  per- 
fection, eternity,  divinity,  and  intelligence ;  on  the 
soul,  ftc  Next  in  importance  stand  his  commen- 
taries on  Plato's  T^imcewif  which,  however,  now  only 
embraces  a  third  of  this  dialogue,  a  similar  com- 
mentary on  Plato's  ParmenideSf  in  seven  books, 
on  GfrUtfltte,  the  I^rst  Aldbiadee^  and  fragments  on 
other  Platonic  writings.  Some  other  works  attri- 
buted to  P.  have  by  modem  investigators  been 
pronounced  to  be  spurious. 

PROCO'KStJL,  a  Roman  magistrate  not  holding 
the  consulship,  who  was  invested  with  powers 
nearly  approaching  those  of  a  consul,  not,  however, 
extending  over  the  city  and  its  vicinity.  The  pro- 
consul was,  at  first,  one  who  had  held  the  office  of 
consid,  whose  imperium  was  prolonged  to  enable 
him  to  bring  an  unfinished  campaign  to  a  close. 
The  duration  of  the  office  was  a  year.  During  the 
latter  period  of  the  republic,  when  the  consuls  were 
expected  to  spend  the  year  of  their  consulate  at 
Rome,  they  were  generally  apTK)inted  at  its  close  to 
undertake,  as  proconsuls,  eitner  the  conduct  of  a 
war  in  some  province,  or  its  peaceful  administration. 
Occasionally,  the  office  oi  proconsul,  with  the 
government  of  a  province,  was  conferred  on  a  person 
who  had  never  held  the  consulship.  Under  Con- 
stantine,  parts  of  certain  dioceses  came  to  be 
governed  by  proconsuls. 

PROOOP,  Andrw,  the  Hussite  leader,  known 
as   P.   the   Elder,  or  the  Holy,  or  the   Shaven, 
in  allusion  to  his  having  received  the  tonsure  in 
early  life,  was  born  towards  the  dose  of  the  14th 
&,  and  belonged  to  a  noble  family  of  Prague.    After - 
having  traveled  wilh   an    uncle   for  some  years- 
tiirough  France  and  Spaiui  he  returned  to  Bohemia 
at  the  outbreak  of  tne  religious  wars,  in  which 
Ziska  (q.  v.)  took  so  prominent  a  part,  and  at  once- 
entered  the  ranks  of  the  insui*gent  Hussites.    His* 
military  genius  soon  raised  him  to  the  rank  of  an 
influentisd  commander;  and  on  the  death  of  Ziska- 
in  1424,  P.  was   elected  by  the  Taborites,  who- 
formed  an  important  section  of  the  Hussites,  as 
their  leader,  and  from  this  period  till  1427,  his 
history  presents  an  almost  unbroken  series  of  daring 
attacks  upon  the  Austriana.      In  the  meantime, 
another  body  of  Taliurites,  who  called  themselves 
Orphans,  had  overran  Lausitz,  and  burned  Lauban,. 
under  the  leadership  of  a  man,  subsequently  known 
as  Procop  the  Lesser,  or  Younger,  who  now,  in. 
concert  with  the  more  distin^ished  P.,  attacked 
Silesia,  and  took  part  in  those  internal  feuds  of  the- 
Hussite  factions   by  which  Bohemia  was  almost, 
wholly  ruined.    The  threatened  approach  of  threes 
German  armies,  which  had  been  levied  b^  the  neigh- - 
bouring  states  to  carry  on  an  exterminating  crusade- 
against   the  heretics,  was   alone    able   to    restore- 
unanimity  to  the  divided  Hussites,  who,  under  the- 
leadership  of  the  two  Proco|is,  offered  a  desperate- 
and  successful  resistance  to  the  larger  nnmlKsrs  of 
the  Germans,  subsequently  pursuing  their  enemies 

with  fire  and  sword  through  Silesia^  Moravia,  and 

78b 


PROOOPius-PROoroRa 


Hungary,  as  far  as  PresbntTo;.  In  1429,  P.  made 
inroads  into  the  German  states  as  far  as  Magde- 
buig,  and  returned  to  Bohemia  laden  with  spoil, 
and  followed  by  a  numerons  band  of  captive  nooles 
and  knights ;  and  in  the  following  year,  at  the  head 
of  50,000  men-at'arms,  and  half  as  many  horsemen, 
he  again  broke  into  Misnia,  Franoonia,  and  Bavaria, 
and  after  having  burned  100  castles  and  towns,  and 
destroyed  1400  villages  and  hamlets,  and  carried  off 
a  vast  amount  of  treasure,  turned  his  arms  against 
Moravia  and  Silesia.  The  Emperor  Sigismund  at 
this  crisis  offered  to  treat  with  him,  but  the 
imperial  demand,  that  the  Hussites  should  submit 
to  the  decision  of  a  council,  afforded  P.  a  pretext 
for  breaking  off  all  negotiations  with  the  impen'al 
court  A  second  German  crusading  army  now 
advanced  in  1431,  but  was  thoroughly  defeated  at 
RiesenbuTg.  These  successes,  whicn  were  followed 
by  others  of  neariy  equal  importatice  in  Silesia, 
Hungary,  and  Saxony,  where  the  princes  had  to 
nurcEase  peace  at  the  hands  of  the  two  Procope,  on 
numiliating  tenns,  induced  the  council  of  Bi^l  to 
propose  a  meeting  between  the  Hussite  leaders  and 
ten  learned  Catholic  doctors  The  meeting  lasted 
fiftv  days,  but  was  productive  of  no  good  result, 
and  P.  returned  to  fiohemia,  where,  combining  his 
forces  with  those  of  Procop  the  Lesser,  he  laid  siege 
to  Pilsen.  The  council,  on  this,  passed  an  act, 
known  as  the  Basel  Compact,  by  which  the  Hus- 
sites were  allowed  the  use  of  the  cup  in  the  Lord's 
Snpper,  and  the  Bohemians  were  designated  by  the 
title  of  the  'First  Sous  of  the  Catholic  Church.' 
The  Taborites  and  Orphans,  under  the  leadership 
of  the  two  Procops,  refused,  however,  to  have  any- 
thing to  do  with  the  pope,  and  hence  dissensions 
arose  between  them  and  the  more  moderate  of  the 
Hussites.  After  many  lesser  encounters  between 
these  factions,  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  near 
Lipau  in  14^  in  which  P.  was  induc^Kl,  by  a 
feint  of  the  enemy,  to  leave  his  intrenchments. 
His  followers  at  first  fought  desperately  against 
the  troops  of  the  Bohemian  nooles,  who  were 
commanded  by  Meinhard  of  Neuhaus ;  but  at 
length,  under  the  influence  of  a  sudden  panic, 
they  gave  way,  and  took  to  flight  P.,  after 
vainly  striving  to  re-form  their  broken  lines,  threw 
himself  into  the  midst  of  the  enemy,  and  was  killed. 
Procop  the  Lesser,  following  in  his  steps,  was  also 
slain,  and  with  these  two  brave  Hussite  leaders 
the  cause  of  the  Taboritet  perished. 

PROCCyPIUS,  an  eminent  Byzantine  historian, 
was  bom  at  Ciesarea,  in  Palestine,  about  the  begin- 
ning of  the  6th  a,  went  to  Constantinople  when 
still  a  young  man,  and  acquired  there  so  high  a 
reputation  as  a  professor  of  rhetoric,  that  Belisarius, 
in  627,  appointed  him  his  private  secretary.  P. 
accompamed  the  great  warrior  in  all  his  important 
campaigns  in  Asia,  Africa^  and  Italy,  and  appears 
to  have  displayed  remarkable  practical  as  wdl  as 
literary  talent,  for  we  find  him  placed  at  the  head 
both  of  the  commissariat  department  and  of  the 
Byzantine  navy.  He  returned  to  Constantinople 
shortly  before  642,  was  highly  honoured  by  Justi- 
nian, and  appointed  prefect  of  the  metropolis  in 
562.  His  death  occurred,  it  is  thought,  about  three 
years  later.  P.'s  principal  works  are  his  Historke, 
in  8  books  (two  on  the  Persian  war,  from  408  to  553 ; 
two  on  the  war  with  the  Vandals,  from  395  to 
545 ;  four  on  the  €rothic  war,  goin^  down  to  553) ; 
KHsmata,  or  six  books  on  the  buildings  executed 
or  restored  by  Justinian ;  and  Anekdaia,  or  JSistoria 
Arcana  (of  doubtful  genuineness),  a  sort  of  chronique 
gcandaleuse  of  the  court  of  Justinian,  in  which  the 
emperor,  his  wife  Theodora,  Belisarius,  his  wife 
Antonina,  and  other  distinguished  persons,  are  de- 
picted in  the  darkest  colours.    The  most  valuable 

786 


of  these  productions  is  undoubtedly  tha  fink,  ti 
which  P.  writes  with  the  clearness,  wei^^t,  ind 
fulness  of  knowledge  that  might  be  expected  of  a 
man  who  had  been  an  eye-witness  of  much  of  wbt 
he  narrates,  and  who  had  occupied  a  position  that 
fitted  him  to  thoroui^y  undentand  what  he  had 
seen.  He  in  the  princinal  authority  for  the  re^ 
of  Justinian.  His  st^e  is  pure,  vigoroua,  ud 
flexibla  The  best  edition  of  his  complete  voikB  ii 
that  by  Dindorf  <3  vols.,  Bonn,  1833—18%). 

PRO'CRUSTES  (Gr.  *the  Stretcher*),  the  nt- 
name  of  a  celebrated  robber  of  Attica,  named 
Damastes,  or  Polypemon.  According  to  the  ancient 
legend,  he  was  wont  to  place  aU  persons  who  fell 
into  his  hands  upon  a  bed  which  was  made  either 
too  long  or  too  short  for  them,  and  where  be 
racked  their  limbs  till  they  died.  This  he  con- 
tinued to  do  until  Theseus  overpowered  him,  ud 
made  him  suffer  the  tortures  he  had  inflicted  on 
others.  The  story  has  given  rise  to  a  figoratire 
expession.  When  an  author  is  subject^  by  a 
cntio  to  a  cruel  or  unfair  mode  of  criticism,  he 
is  said  to  be  stretched  on  'the  bed  of  Procrastea.' 

PROCTER,  Brtan  Walter,  an  Enghsh  poet, 
better  known  as  Barbt  Cornwall,  was  bora  in 
1787»  and  educated  at  Harrow.  He  studied  lav, 
was  called  to  the  bar  in  1831,  and  for  many  yean 
was  one  of  the  Commissioners  of  Lunacy,  bat 
resigned  in  1860,  and  was  succeeded  by  hia  friend 
Mr  Torster,  the  historical  essayist.  His  Dramaik 
Scenes  and  other  Poems  were  published  in  1819, 
and  since  that  period  he  has  produced  lerenl 
volumes  both  of  verse  and  prose,  the  most  important 
being  Mirandoki^  a  Tragedy.  As  a  poet,  P.  hehtm 
to  the  school  of  Keats  and  Hunt,  and  throsgh  ul 
his  works  the  influence  of  the  old  E«nglish  dramatisti 
may  be  traced  like  a  vein  through  an  aaate.  Mira»- 
dola  was  produced  at  Covent  Churden  Theatre, 
where  it  had  considerable  snooesa.  It  is  not,  hov* 
ever,  on  his  Dranuxtie  Scenes  or  his  tragediea,  bat 
on  his  songs,  that  P.'s  reputation  rests.  He  may 
fairly  be  considered  the  b«t  of  our  modem  English 
song-writers.  The  best  collection  of  his  songs  is 
that  published  in  1851. 

PRO'CTOR  (formed  hj  oontraetion  from  lat 
procumtorf  one  who  cares  for  another)  is  the  nams 
given  to  thepractitionerB  in  Courts  of  Adminlty, 
and  in  the  Ecclesiastical  and  Prerogative  Coorti 
It  corresponds  to  attorney  or  solicitor  in  the  otha 
courts,  ^y  a  recent  statute,  which  abolished  the 
exclusive  jurisdiction  of  the  Adnuralty  and  Preroe* 
ative  Courts,  now  the  Probate  Court,  all  proctors 
were  put  on  the  same  footing  as  attomeva  and 
solicitors,  and  the  power  to  practise  in  the  new 
courts  indiflerentiy  was  given  to  each ;  and  at  tha 
same  time  compensation  was  given  for  tiie  loss  ol 
their  monopoly.  The  mode  by  which  one  beoconei 
a  proctor  is  therefore  the  same  as  that  by  which  one 
becomes  an  Attorney  or  Solicitor  (q.  v.). 

PROCTORS,  officers  in  the  universities  d 
Oxford  and  Cambridge  (two  in  number  in  each). 
whose  duties  are  to  preserve  the  peace  of  the  nni* 
versity,  to  repress  cusorden  amon^  the  stadenti, 
and  inflict  summary  academical  ponishment  They 
have  the  command  of  the  academical  constabaiaiy 
force,  and  have  also  an  extensive  police  jurisdictioa 
in  the  town.  The  proctors  must  be  Masters  d 
Arts,  and  are  chosen  oy  the  colleges  according  to  * 
certain  rotation.  They  nominate  two  pro-procton 
to  be  their  deputies  and  assistants.  The  sammuf 
authority  of  the  proctors  extends  both  to  ooder 
graduates  and  Bachelors  of  Arts.  Thev  have  also 
a  legislative  authority  as  assistants  to  the  heads  d 
houses,  and  vote  in  the  election  of  some  of  ths 
professors  and  other  officers. 


PROCURATOB^FISCAL-PROGRESSION. 


PBO'OUBATOR-FI'SOAL,  a  legal  practitioner 
in  Scotland  of  some  consequence,  owing  to  his 
being  the  public  prosecutor  for  a  local  district.    He 
is  generally  a  local  procurator,  or  law-agent,  and  is 
appointed  by  the  sheriff  of  the  county,  or  in  cities 
and  towns  b^  the  magistrates.     His  business  is  to 
take  the^  initiatiye  in  the  prosecution  of  crimes. 
There  being  no  coroner's  inquisition  in  Scotland, 
he   does  the  work  which  tnat   functionary  does 
in  England.    Wheneyer  he  has  reason  to  beUeye 
a  crime  has  been  committed,  his  duty  is  to  apply 
for  a  warrant  to  amst  the  alleged  criminal,  or  to 
summon  him  before  the  sheriff,  when  the  witnesses 
are  dted,  and  are  preoognosced— that  is,  they  giye 
what  evidence  they  are  in  possession  oi    All  the 
inquests  and  examinations  of  the  procurator-fiscal 
are  conducted  priyately ;  neither  the  press  nor  the 
public  being  allowed  to  be  present,    lliis  arrange- 
ment, as  tending  to  huddle  up  that  which  should 
be  fully  known — as,  for   example,   the   cause  of 
catastrophes  attended  with  loss  of  life — has  latterly 
been  the  subject  of  earnest  remonstrance.    If  the 
procurator-fiscal  is  informed  of  a  crime  which  he 
thinks  was  either  not  committed,  or  of  which  there 
is  no  evidence  satisfactory,  he  gives  his  oonciurence 
merely  to  the  private  party  who  suggests  it,  but 
does  not  himself  initiate  the  proceeding.   When  the 
prociu^tor-fiscal  takes  the   precognitions   of   the 
witnesses,  he  sends  a  copy  of  them  to  tiie  crown 
counsel,  of  whom  the  Lora  Adyocate  is  the  chief ; 
and  if  these  counsel  think  the  evidence  is  strong 
enough,  and  warrants  more  than  suspicion,  the  pro- 
secution is  proceeded  with  to  triaL     The  procura- 
tors-fiscal are  now  paid  by  salaries  according  to  the 
population  of  the  district. 

PRCyDIOT.    See  Omen. 

PBODU'CTION  OF  DOCUMENTS  is  often 
required  in  legal  proceedings,  or  in  the  course  of  a 
suit,  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  in  other  countries ;  but 
it  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  suit  when  and 
under  what  conditions  the  documents  must  be  pro- 
duced. As  a  general  rule,  whenever  a  right  is 
founded  on  a  document,  that  document  must  be 
produced  or  shewn  to  the  court  which  has  to  deter- 
mine the  nature  of  the  right. 

PRODUCTIVE,  andUNPBODUCTIVE, 
LiABOUB.    SeeLtABOUB. 

PROFE'SSOB,  an  officer  in  a  university  whose 

duty  it  is  to  instruct   students,  or  read  lectures 

on  particular  branches  of  learning.     In  the  early 

tiroes    of   universities,   the   degrees    conferred  on 

students  were  licensee  to  act  as  public  teachers; 

and  the  terms  Master,  Doctor,  and  Professor  were 

nearly  idoitical  in  signification.     As,  however,  the 

body  of  graduates  c^sed  in  the  course  of  time  to 

liaye  any  concern  in  public  teaching,  a  separate  class 

of  recognised  teachers  sprang  up,  paid  sometimes 

yvith  siuaries,  in  other  instances  by  fees.     Tliese 

were  called  professors;   and  in  the  German  and 

Scottish  universities  became  the  governing  body, 

and  sole  recoffuised  functionaries  for  the  purpose  of 

education.     In  the  universities  in  which  colle^te 

foundations  prevailed,  as  Oxford   and  Cambridge, 

they  became,  on  the  other  hand,  only  secondaries  or 

auxiliaries,  attendance  on  their  lectures  not  being 

^nerally  deemed  indispensable,  and  the  necessary 

business  of  instruction  beins  carried  on   by  the 

functionaries  of  the  several  colleges. 

The  word  professor  is  occasionally  used  in  a  loose 
'way  to  denote  generally  the  teacher  of  any  science 
or  branch  of  learning,  without  any  reference  to  a 
oniversity.  It  has  been  assumed  as  a  deugnation 
not  only  oy  instructors  in  music  and  dancing,  but 
by  oonjurors. 


PBO'FILB,  the  outline  of  a  section  through  t 
cornice  or  other  series  of  mouldings. — The  outiine  of 
a  capital  when  drawn  geometricaUy;  the  outline  of 
the  numan  face  in  a  section  through  the  median    ^ 
line;  ^ 

PBOGNCSIS  (from  the  corresponding  Greek 
word)  is  the  term  employed  in  medicine  to  indicate 
the  opinion  or  decision  of  the  physician  regarding 
the  probable  course  and  issue  of  a  disease.  The 
physician  is  suided  in  arriving  at  his  decision  by  his 
knowledge  of  the  course  which  the  disease  usually 
follows ;  and  as  some  diseases  almost  always  end  in 
recovery,  and  others  almost  invariably  terminate 
fatally,  the  final  resolt  may  often  be  predicted 
with  ^reat  confidence.  In  forming  a  prognosis,  the 
physician  must,  however,  not  only  take  into  his  con- 
sideration the  natural  history  of  the  individual 
disease,  but  numerous  modifying  influences,  such  as 
age,  sex,  mode  of  life,  previous  state  of  health,  &c. 

PBO/GBESS  OF  TITLES,  in  Scotch  Law,  means 
the  series  or  chain  of  conveyances  by  which  a  pro* 
prietor  of  lands  establishes  his  right  to  property. 
As  these  tities  are  the  sole  evidences  of  property* 
the  progress  of  tities — L  e.,  a  short  statement  of  the 
nature  of  each  conveyance,  in  their  historical  order — 
is  first  given  to  a  purchaser,  to  shew  that  the 
vendor  is  able  to  sell.    See  Sale  of  Lanb^ 

PBOGBirSSION,  in  Arithmetic,  is  the  succes- 
sion, according  to  some  fixed  law,  of  one  number 
after  another.  A  series  d  numbers  so  succeeding 
one  another  is  said  to  be  'in  progression.'  IVo- 
gression  may  be  of  various  kinds,  but  the  three 
Forms  of  most  frequent  occurrence  are  Arithmetical 
Progression  (q.  y.),  Oeometrieal  Progression  (q.  y.),  and 
ffarmonical  Progression,  The  conditions  of  the 
harmonical  progression  of  a  series  are  frequentiy 
stated  as  follow :  three  numbers  are  in  harmonical 
progression^  when  the  first  has  to  the  Viird  the  same 
nUio  that  the  excess  of  the  first  over  the  second  has  to 
the  excess  of  the  second  over  the  third,  L  e.,  a,  6,  e  are 
in  harmonical  progression  when  aicti  a—h  ih—e; 
but  a  much  simpler  conception  of  it  is  obtained  by 
means  of  one  of  its  properties,  viz.,  that  if  the  terms 
of  a  harmonical  series  be  inverted,  they  form  a  series 
in  arithmetical  progression ;  thus,  1,  2, 3,  4,  5,  6,  &a 
is  an  arithmetical  progression ;  and  1»  4f  i»  it  h  it 
&a  ia  a  harmonical  progression ;  I,  4«  0,  —  {,  —  1, 
ftc.  is  an  arithmetical  progression ;  and  1,  2,  oo 
(infinity),  —2,  —  1,  &c  is  a  harmonical  progression. 
This  series  is  principally  important  in  connection 
with  the  theory  of  music,  in  aetermining  the  length 
of  the  strings  of  instruments.    See  Musia 

PBOGBESSION,  Musical,  the  regular  succes- 
sion of  chords  or  movement  of  the  parts  of  a  musical 
composition  in  harmony,  where  tne  key  continues 
unchanged,  is  called  Progression ;  where  a  new  key 
is  intrMluoed,  it  is  not  progression,  but  Modulation 
(q.  y.).  Musical  compositions  move  from  note  to 
note  either  by  degrees,  when  the  interval  does  not 
exceed,  or  by  skips  where  it  does  exceed  a  whole 
tone.  Motion  in  music  of  two  parts  is  of  three 
kinds :  oblique,  when  one  part  repeats  or  holds  on 
the  same  note,  while  the  other  moyes  up  or  down ; 
direct,  when  both  parts  move  in  the  same  direction ; 
and  contrary,  when  one  moyes  up,  and  the  other 
down.  In  prooressing  from  chora  to  chord,  it  is  in 
general  desiraSe  to  retain  eyery  note  common  to 
both  dioids  in  the  same  part  in  which  it  appeared 
in  the  first  chord,  and  to  assign  every  new  note  to 
that  part  in  the  second  chord  which  is  nearest  to  iti 
There  are  certain  chords  which  require  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  certain  others  in  order  to  resolve  them 
(see  RsoLinTON) ;  and  there  are  certain  progressions 
which  must  in  ordinaiy  cases  be  avoidea,  more  par- 
ticulariy  oonseontive  fifths  and  consecutive  octaves^ 

7«T 


PROHIBITION— PROJECTILES. 


the  latter  being,  however,  admiiwiblft  'wfaen  employed 
to  strengtheii  a  part 

PROHIBITION.  Ph>hibitiTe  duty  refers  to  a 
practice,  obsolete  in  this  country,  of  prohibiting  the 
importation  of  goods,  with  the  view  of  encouraging 
native  industry.    See  Freb  Trade. 

PROHIBITION  is  a  writ  in  England  proceeding 
out  of  a  superior  court  of  law  to  prohibit  or  prevent 
an  inferior  court  from  proceeding  to  hear  or  dispose 
of  a  suit  or  matter  over  which  it  has  no  jurisdiction. 
— In  Scotch  law,  the  same  word  means  a  technical 
clause  in  a  deed  of  entail  by  which  the  heir  of  entail 
is  prohibited  from  selling  the  estate,  or  contracting 
debt,  or  altering  the  order  of  succession  under  pain 
of  forfeiture,  which  forfeiture  is  declared  by  another 
supplemental  clause  called  a  resolutive  clause. 

PRO  JE'CTILES,  Tbeort  of,  is  the  investigation 
of  the  ^th  or  trajectory,  as  it  is  called,  of  a  body 
which  IS  projected  into  space  in  a  direction  inclined 
to  that  of  gravitation.  A  body  thus  projected  is 
acted  upon  by  two  forces,  the  force  <^  projection, 
which,  if  acting  alone,  would  carry  the  body  onwards 
for  ever  in  the  same  direction  and  at  the  same  rate ; 
and  the  force  of  gravity,  which  tends  to  draw  the 
bod^  downwards  towards  the  earth.  The  force  of 
projection  acts  only  at  the  commencement  of  the 
body's  motion ;  the  force  of  gravity,  on  the  contrary, 
continues  to  act  effectively  during  the  whole  time 
of  the  body's  motion,  drawing  it  further  and  further 
from  its  original  direction,  and  causing  it  to  describe 
a  curved  path,  which,  if  the  body  moved  in  a 
vacuum,  would  be  accurately  a  parabolai  This  is 
readily  seen  by  considering  fie.  1,  in  which  A 
represents  the  point  from  whicn  the  body  is  pro- 
jected (suppose  the  embrasure  of  a  fort) ;  AB  the 
direction  of  projection  (horizontal  in  this  in- 
stance) ;  Al  the  distance  which  would  be  passed 
over  by  the  projectile  in  unit  of  time  if  gravity 
did    not    act;   1 — 2,   the   distance   which  would 


similarly  be  described  in  second  unit  of  time ;  2 — 3, 
3—4,  &C.  the  distances  corresponding  to  the  thurd, 
fourth,  &c  units  of  time — all  these  cOstances  being 
necessarily  equal,  from  the  impulsive  nature  of  the 
force  of  projection ;  Al',  again,  represents  the  dis- 
tance which  the  projectile  would  fall  under  tiie 
action  of  o^vity  alone  in  the  first  unit  of  time; 
1' — 2!  the  oistanoe  doe  to  gravity  in  the  second  unit 
of  time ;  2f — 3>  the  distance  due  to  the  third  unit,  &c, 
the  distances  Al',  A2',  A3l,  &c.,  being  in  the  propor- 
tion of  1, 4,  9,  &C.  (see  FALLma  Bodies)  ;  hence,  by 
the  well-known  principle  of  the  CompowtioH  qf  Forces 
and  Velocities  (q.  v.),  we  find  at  once,  by  completing 
tiie  series  of  parall^ograms,  that  at  the  end  of  the 
first  unit  of  tunc  the  ^dy  is  at  c,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  at  5,  at  the  end  of  the  third  at  s,  &a  Now, 
OS  the  lines  I'c,  2fb,  3'e,  &a  increase  as  tiie  numbers 
1,  2,  3,  &c.,  and  the  lines  Al',  A2',  A3',  ^  as  the 
numbers  1',  2',  3^,  it  follows  that  the  curve  Ache  is 
a  Parabola  (q.  v.).  As,  by  the  second  law  of  motion, 
each  force  produces  its  fuU  effect  undisturbed  by 
the  other,  it  follows  that  the  projectile  reaches  /in 
788 


the  same  time  as  it  would,  without  being  projected, 
havo  taken  to  fall  to  4'.  A  greater  velocity  d  pro- 
jection would  make  it  take  a  wider  flight ;  but  at 
the  end  of  four  seconds,  it  must  still  be  at  tome 
point  in  the  same  horixontal  line — at  g,  for  ezampk 
In  order  to  determine  exactly  the  motion  of  s 
projectile,  and  to  find  its  range,  greatest  altitade, 
and  time  of  flight,  it  will  be  necessary  to  examine 
its  nature  more  technically — ^for  which  some  slight 
knowledge  of  algebra  and  trisonometry  is  reqnisita 
Let  the  body  in  this  instance  be  projected  obuquely 
to  tiie  direction  of  gravity,  from  the  poont  A  (fig. 
2)  in  the  direction  AT,  and  let  the  velocity  ctf  pro- 
jection V  be  sufficient,  if  gravity  were  not  to  act,  to 
carry  it  to  T  in  <  units  of  time,  and  let  the  force 
of  gravity,  if  allowed  to  act  upon  it  at  test,  can; 


I1g.& 

it  to  G  in  the  same  time ;  then,  as  before,  the  body, 
under  the  action  of  both  forces,  will  be  found  at 
P  (which  is  found  by  completing  a  parallelogram  of 
which  AT  and  AG  are  the  sides)  at  the  end  of  t 
imits  of  time,  bavins  fallen  through  a  distance  eqoal 
to  TP  (not  at  once,  out  in  a  constant  succession  of 
minute  deflections,  as  indicated  in  fig.  1)  in  that  time. 
Let  (  represent  the  time  of  flight,  v  the  velodtj 
due  to  projection,  g  the  accelerating  force  of  gravity, 
and  let  A  be  the  an^e  of  elevation  TAB;  tlim 
AT  »  «<,  TP  =  igfi,  TM  a  v(  Bin.  A ;  and  cooae- 
quently  PM  (or  y)  =  vt  sin.  A  —  ^gfi  (L),  and  AM 
(or  x)  =  t^  COS.  A.  Now,  if  we  nnd  from  the  la&t 
two  equations  the  values  of  t,  and  equate  these 
values,  we  obtain,  by  an  easy  algebraic  pro- 
cess, the   equation    y^x    tan.    A  —  „>^       ,. ; 

2ir  COS.  A 

and  IE  the  height  through  which  the  body  most 
fall  to   acquire  a  velocity  equal  to   the  velocity 

of  projection  be  called  A,  then  i^s=2g.h,  h  =  aj 

4A  =s  — ,  and  r^  =*  "st- ,  substitating  which  in  the 

equation,  we  obtain  y  «  x  tan.  A  *-  -^ r-(^K 

4a. ooa.  A 

as  the  equation  to  the  path  of  a  projectile,  where  s 

is  the  horizontal  distance,  and  y  the  correspondiog 

height  above  the  level  of  the  point  of  projection. 

Sum)ose,  now,  that   we    wish    to    find   the  time 

ofjlight  on  the  horizontal  plane,  it  is  evident  that 

at  the  end  of  its  flight  the  projectile  will  be  at  B, 

and y  will  be  equal  to  zero ;  nence^  putting y  =  ois 

equation  I.,  we  obtain  t  »    ^"""--^    The  rmgt  or 

distance  AB  is  similarly  found  by  pnttias  y-* 
in  equation  IL,  when  x  is  found  to  be  eqmu  to  4* 
sin.  A  COS.  A,  or  2A  sin.  2A.    The  fp-eaisst  oMsir 


PROJECTILES— PROLAPSUS  ANL 


it  evidentiiy  the  point  which  the   projectile   has 
attained  at  the  end  of  haU  the  tune  of  flight, 


Fig.  a 

or  after  it  has  traversed  half  its  horizontal  range, 

hence,  by  putting  x  =  2A  sin.  A  cos.  A  in  equa- 

V  sin.  -A. 
tion  IL,  or  *=s- in  equation  L,  we  obtain 

y  »  A  8in.'A.  A  slight  examination  of  the  expres- 
sion for  the  range  will  shew  that  it  is  greatest 
when  the  body  is  projected  upwards  at  an 
angle  of  45*"  to  the  horizon,  and  that  a  body  pro- 
jected at  a  greater  angle  than  45  has  the  same 
range  as  one  projected  at  an  angle  correspondingly 
less  (fig.  3). 

These  results,  however,  do  not  correspond  to 
the  actual  circumstances  of  the  case,  except 
when  the  projectile  possesses  considerable  density 
and  its  motion  is  slow,  for  in  all  other  oases,  the 
resistance  of  the  air,  which  increases  in  a  rapid 
ratio  with  the  velocity  of  the  projectile,  causes  it  to 
deviate  very  considerably  from  a  parabolic  orbit, 
especially  during  the  latter  half  of  its  course  (fig.  4). 


Kg.  4 

The  problem  of  the  motion  of  a  projectile  thus  com- 
plicated becomes  of  considerable  difficulty;  partly 
because  our  knowledge  t)f  the  law  of  resistance  of 
the  air  is  imperfect  (it  was  supposed  by  Newton  to 
be  proportioned  to  the  square  of  the  velocity),  and 
partly  because  the  law  varies  with  every  minute 
change  in  the  form,  size,  and  density  of  the  body 
projected,  so  that,  under  these  circumstances,  tiie 
oeautiful  and  sii^ple  theory  sketched  above  is  prac- 
tically useless,  xne  chief  illustrations  of  the  theory 
of  projectiles  are  the  motion  of  missiles  thrown  by 
the  hand,  or  arrows  impelled  from  a  bow,  in  both  of 
which  cases  the  resistance  of  the  air  is  compara- 
tively ineffective,  the  velocity  being  small :  in  the 
far  more  important  case  of  ball-practice,  whether 
with  fire-arms  or  heavy  ordnance,  its  effects  are  so 

Sowerful  as  to  render  the  laws  of  gunnery  mere 
eductions    from    experience.      See    JEUrus   and 

RiFLKD  OUDNAJtCE,  and  GUNNS&Y. 

PROJE'GTION  is  the  representation  on  any 
surface  of  obiects  or  figures  as  they  appear  to  the 
eye  of  an  observer.  It  thus  includes  Perspective 
(q.  ▼.)»  Aud  is  most  simply  illustrated  by  the 
shadow  of  an  object  thrown  by  a  candle  on  a  wall ; 
the  shadow  being  the  projection,  and  the  place  of 
the  light  the  position  of  the  ^e.    The  theory  of 


projections  is  of  great  importance,  both  in  mathe> 
matics  and  geocraphy,  being,  in  the  former  case, 
perfectly  gener^  m  its  application;  while  in  the 
latter  only  the  projection  of  the  sphere  is  required. 
Projections  of  the  sphere  are  of  various  kinds, 
depending  upon  the  position  and  distance  of  the 
eye  from  the  sphere,  and  the  form  of  the  surface  on 
which  the  projection  is  thrown ;  thus,  we  have  the 
ortkoffraphic,  ttereograp/ac,  globular,  conical,  and 
cylindrical  or  Mercator*  projections,  all  of  which 
are  treated  of  under  the  article  Map.  Another  pro- 
jection freq^uently  employed  is  the  gnonumic  In 
the  gnomonic  projection,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be 
situated  at  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  and  the  surface 
on  which  the  projection  is  tiirown  is  a  plane  surface 
which  touches  the  sphere  at  any  one  point  (called 
the  principal  point).  It  is  evident  that  a  map  con* 
structed  on  the  gnomonic  projection  is  sensibly 
correct  only  for  a  circular  area  whose  circum- 
ference is  at  a  small  angular  distance  from  the 
principal  point.  From  the  position  of  the  eye  in 
the  gnomonic  projection,  it  follows  that  all  neat 
circles,  or  portions  of  ^eat  circles,  of  the  sphere 
are  represented  by  straight  lines,  for  their  planes 
pass  through  the  eye.  The  distance  of  two  points 
on  the  sphere,  when  measured  along  the  surface, 
is  least  if  they  are  measured  along  a  great  circle ; 
and  as  the  distance  of  the  projections  of  these 

Eoints  on  the  plane  is  represented  by  a  straight 
ne,  which  is  the  shortest  distance  between  two 
points  on  a  plane,  this  projection,  if  employed  in 
the  construction  of  manners'  charts,  would  at  once 
shew  the  shortest  course.  Maps  of  the  earth*s  sur- 
face have  been  projected  by  the  gncMnonic  method, 
the  surface  of  projection  1>eing  the  interior  surface 
of  a  cube  circumscribing  the  sj^ere,  and  the  com- 
plete series  conseouentfy  amounting  to  six  maps; 
but  it  is  not  fittea  for  the  construction  of  maps  of 
large  portions  of  the  earth's  surface.  Ilie  gnomonio 
projection  derives  its  name  from  its  connection  with 
the  mode  of  describing  a  gnomon  or  Dial  (q.  v.). 
The  orthographic  and  stereographic  projections  were 
employed  Dy  the  Greek  astronomers  for  the  con- 
struction of  maps  of  the  heavens;  the  former,  or 
analemmOj  bein^  the  best  known  and  most  used. 
The  stereoffraphic,  called  planisphere  by  the  Greeks, 
is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Hipparchus,  and 
the  gnomonic  is  described  by  Ptolemy.  The  others 
are  of  modem  invention. 

In  Mathematics,  the  theory  of  projections  is 
general  in  its  application,  and  has  been  employed 
within  the  last  few  years  to  generalise  the  ancient 
geometry,  and  as  a  powerful  aid  to  algebra.  Its 
basis  is  the  investigation  and  determination  of  those 
properties  which,  oeing  true  of  a  figure,  are  also 
true  of  its  projections,  such  properties  being  neces- 
sarily dependent,  not  on  the  'magnitude,'  but  on 
the  *  position'  of  the  lines  and  angles  lielonging  to  the 
figure.  These  properties  are  generally  denominated 
prqfecUve  properties.  For  instance,  we  three  conio 
sections,  the  parabola,  ellipse^  and  hyperbola,  aiti 
merely  various  projections  of  a  circle  on  a  plane, 
and  fdl '  positional  properties  of  the  circle  are  at 
once,  by  this  theory,  connected  with  similar  proper- 
ties of  the  three  conic  sections.  The  theory  is  also 
largely  employed  in  demonstrative  mechanics. — See, 
for  further  information,  Mulcahy's  Modtm  Geometry, 
Salmon's  Conic  Sections,  Mongers  Oiom^trie  Descrip^ 
Ove,  Poncelet's  PropriitSs  aes  Figures  ProjecUves, 
and  Poisson's  Traits  de  MHaniqus, 

PROLA'PSTJS  A'NI  is  a  common  affection  of  the 
termination  of  the  intestinal  canal,  and  consists  in 
an  eversion  of  the  lower  portion  of  the  rectum,  and 
its  protrusion  throng  the  anus.  It  may  depend  on 
a  naturally  relaxed  condition  of  the  parts,  ss  in 
infancy,  or  may  be  caused  by  violent  straining,  in 


PROLAPSUS  UTERI-PROMBrTHEUa 


casei  of  ooBtiTeness,  piles,  kc  Whenever  it  ocean, 
the  parts  should  be  washed,  and,  if  possible,  replaced 
by  careful  pressure  with  the  hand ;  and  if  they  do 
not  easily  return,  the  forefinger  should  be  oiled,  and 
pushed  np  into  the  anus,  and  it  will  convey  the  po- 
truded  intestine  with  it,  after  which  the  patient 
should  retain  the  recumbent  position  for  some  hours. 
If  it  cannot  be  returned  by  the  above  means,  snn;i- 
cal  assistance  should  be  at  once  sought.  In  order 
to  remove  the  tendency  to  prolapsus,  the  patient 
should  regulate  his  bowels  so  as  to  avoid  costive- 
ness,  shoiud  sponge  the  parts  after  every  evacuation 
with  cold  water  or  soap  and  water,  and  if  necessary, 
use  astrineejit  injections,  as,  for  example,  a  weak 
solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  one  nain  to  the  ounce. 
Dr  Dniitt  (in  nis  SurgtorCs  Vade  Mecum)  recom* 
mends  a  plan  first  suggested  by  Dr  M*Cormac — 
namelv,  that  when  the  stools  are  passed,  the  skin 
near  the  anus  should  be  drawn  to  one  side  with  the 
hand,  so  as  to  tighten  the  orifice.  If,  after  the 
adoption  of  these  means,  the  bowel  continues  to 
descend,  certain  siu^cal  means  must  be  resorted  to, 
as  deetroyins  a  smafi  portion  of  the  relaxed  mucous 
membrane  By  the  application  of  nitrio  acid,  or 
pinching  up  a  few  folos  of  the  protruded  membrane 
with  the  forceps,  and  applying  ligatures  to  them. 

PKOLA'PSUS  U'TERI—known  also  as  Pboci- 
DS3ITIA  or  DESGBNBirs  Uteri,  bv  writers  on  the 
diseases  of  women ;  and  as  '  failing  down  of  the 
womb,'  or  *  bearing  down,'  among  non-professional 
persons— consists  essentially  in  a  depression  of  the 
womb  below  the  natural  level  in  the  pelvis.  It  is  a 
common  affection  amongst  all  ranks,  and  is  most 
frequent  in  women  beyond  the  middle  age  who  have 
borne  large  families.  It  has,  however,  been  met  with 
in  women  who  have  not  borne  children,  in  virgins, 
and  even  (although  very  rarely)  in  children.  It  may 
occur  in  every  oegree,  from  the  ease  in  which  the 
mouth  of  the  woinb  is  a  Uttle  lower  that  its  natural 
level,  to  that  in  which  the  womb  itself  projects 
extemaUy,  and  forms  a  protruding  tumour  as  lai^ 
as  a  melon.  In  the  latter  case,  it  displaces  by  its 
tmction  the  bladder,  rectum,  and  other  important 
structures.  The  prolapse  is  termed  trnperfed  as  long 
as  there  is  no  external  protrusion,  and  perfect  when 
the  womb  is  protruded  externally.  .The  causes  of 
these  different  degrees  of  ptrolapse  are  the  same,  and 
the  symptoms  differ  only  in  intensity.  The  imme- 
diate causes  are,  according  to  Sir  G.  Clarke  r  (1.) 
Relaxation  of  the  ligaments  of  the  uterus ;  (2),  a 
want  of  due  tone  in  the  canal  leading  from  the 
uterus  to  the  external  surface.  The  latter  is  prob- 
ably the  chief  cause.  After  many  child-bearings,  it 
remains  dilated,  and  its  walls  lose  their  resisting 
power.  Similar  effects  result  from  repeated  uterine 
haemorrhage,  leucorrhoea  (popidarly  known  as  the 
Whites),  and  general  debUity.  Under  these  con- 
ditions, a  very  slight  downward  force  will  depress 
the  womb ;  and  this  force  is  supplied  by  the 
increased  weight  of  the  orffan  itself,  if  the  patient 
sit  up  or  wslk  soon  after  delivery,  by  violent  vomit- 
ing or  straining  (when  the  bowels  are  constipated), 
by  the  endeavour  to  lift  heavy  weights,  fto. 

The  symptoms  arise  partly  from  the  pressure  of 
the  womb  on  other  organs,  partly  from  the  simul- 
taneous displacement  of  aajacent  parts  (as  the 
bladder,  rectum,  &c.),  and  partly  from  reflex  action 
(see  Nervous  System).  Patients  with  only  a  slight 
<Usplacement  usually  complain  of  a  sensation  of 
fulness  in  the  pelvis,  of  weight  and  bearing  down,  of 
drag^ng  from  the  loins,  often  amounting  to  oain  in 
the  back,  these  symptoms  being  aggravatea  when 
the  upright  position  is  assumed.  Strangury  (q.  ▼.) 
is  occasionally  present,  and  if  the  womb  descend  low 
or  protrude,  there  is  always  more  or  less  difficulty 

in  evacuating  the  contents   of   the   bladder   and 
790 


rectum.    The  digestive  origans  soon  become  sifected 
through  vefiected  nervous  influence.   It  is  a  remsik- 
able  fact,  that  the  general  health  is  aften  mQch 
worse  in  those  cases  in  which  there  is  a  lii^t 
depression,  than  in  those  in  which  the  prolapse  ii 
complete,  and  the  womb  forms  an  external  tamoor. 
The  treatment  varies  with  the  degree  of  displaos- 
ment.  In  the  milder  cases,  medicine  uiould  be  aanain- 
istered  yrith  the  view  of  giving  tone  to  the  macoos 
membrane  of  the  relaxed  canal ;  while  in  the  seTeis 
cases,  mechanical  support  is  requisite.    Li  companp 
tively  mild  cases,  prolonged  rest  in  the  horizontal 
position  should  be  enforced,  and  cold  water  (from  half 
a  pint  to  a  pint)  should  be  slowly  injected,  ni^t  and 
morning,  into  the  canal  leading  to  the  uterus,  by 
means  of  an  elastic  bottle,  the  patient  being  in  the 
recumbent  position  as  she  receives  the  injection.  If 
thii  treatment  is  insufficient,  astringent  injectiooB, 
as  decoction  of  oak-bark  or  of  gaOs,  or  a  solution 
of  alum  (an  ounce  to  the  pint  of  water),  shonld  be 
tried.  If,  however,  there  is  any  congestion  or  inflam- 
mation of  the  parts,  astringents  must  be  avoided. 
In  a  case  of  complete  prolapse,  the  first  duty  of  the 
practitioner  is  to  attempt  to  r^tore  the  womb  to  Ha 
natural  position.     It  is    sometimes   necessary  to 
place  the  patient  in  a  warm  bath,  or  to  apply  fomen- 
tations or  leeches  to  the  tnmoor  before  it  can 
be  replaced;   and  occasionally,   irreducible  cases 
occur,  in  which  it  may  be  necessary  to  remove  the 
organ  altogether.    But  suppose  it  returned  to  iti 
position,  a  repetition  of  the  'prolapse  has  to  be 
prevented.    The  ordinary  method  is  by  the  intro- 
duction of  a  pessary— an  instrument  c^  an  oval  or 
globular   form,  and    usually   made  of   box-vood, 
which  mechanically  supports   the    uterus  in  its 
normal  position.    See  the  works  of  Ohurehill,  West, 
and  others  On  the  Diseases  of  Women.     In  some 
cases,  a  compress  and  bandage  will  afford  saffident 
support ;  while  in  other  cases  a  surgical  operation 
simdar  to  that  which  is  performed  for  Ptotaptss 
Ani  (q.  v.)  is  expedient. 

PBOLETAIRES,  a  term  used  by  the  Frendi 
(from  whom  it  has  been  partially  adopted  by  recent 
English  and  German  writers)  to  denote  the  lowest 
and  poorest  classes  of  the  community.  It  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  protekaii,  the  name  given  in  the 
census  of  Servius  Tullius  to  the  lowest  of  the  centu- 
ries, who  were  so  called  to  indicate  that  th^  were 
valuable  to  the  state  only  as  rearers  of  orapring 
{prates). 

PBOME'THEUS  (Forethought),  the  son  of  ti» 
Titan  lapetns  and  of  Clymene,  brother  of  Atlas, 
Menoetius,  and  Epimetheus  (Afterthought)— or, 
according  to  other  legends,  the  son  of  lapetos  and 
Asia,  or  of  Uranus  and  Clymene,  or  of  Knryme* 
don  and  Here — the  father  of  Deucalion,  Hellen, 
Lykns,  and  Chymoerus.  The  myth  of  P.  is  one 
of  the  oldest  of  Greek  antiquity,  being  mentioned 
by  Hesiod,  and  is  briefly  as  follows : — Once,  mider 
the  reign  of  Zeus,  men  and  gods  were  disputing  with 
one  another  at  Mecone ;  P.,  with  a  view  to  outwit 
Zeus,  cut  up  a  bull,  and  divided  it  into  two  parts, 
hiding  the  meat  and  the  intestines  in  the  skin, 
and  putting  a  bad  piece  (the  stomach)  at  the  top 
of  it ;  whue  he  laid  in  another  heap  tiie  bones, 
whidi  were  covered  with  fat  Zeus  pomted  oot  the 
unequal  division,  but  was  asked  to  choose,  where* 
upon  he  guessed  the  deceit  practised,  and  selected 
the  good  portion ;  but  irate  at  the  strataffem,  he 
avenged  nimself  on  the  mortals  bv  witiuwildisks 
from  them  the  iiro  necessary  for  tiio  cooking  « 
the  meat ;  whereupon  P.  stole  it  in  a  hoUow  stail^ 
and  brought  it  to  them.  Zeus,  to  punish  the  moitak 
caused  Uephsestus  to  mould  a  virgin  of  rsptorMS 
beauty.  Pandora,  whom  Epimetheus 


PROMISE-PROMOTION. 


enough  to  receive  as  a  preeent  from  Hermee ;  and 
thus  brouf^ht,  throngh  her  box,  all  imaginable  iUa 
that  flesh  is  heir  to  upon  humanity.    P.  mmaelf  was 
chained  to  a  rook,  and  an  eagle  sent  to  consume  his 
liver  in  daytime,  while  Zens  caused  it  to  grow 
again  at  night    Herakles,  however,  killed  the  ea^le, 
and,  by  the  permission  of  Zeus,  delivered  the  suffering 
Prometheus.    Thus  far  Hesiod's  legend.    .^Sschylus, 
in  his  tragedy  with  the  name  of  the  hero,  has 
perpetuated  another  view  of  the  myth.     P.,  accord- 
mg  to  him,  is  an  immortal  god,  a  friend  of  the 
human  race,  who  does  not  slirink  even  from  sacri- 
ficing himself  for  their  salvation.    He  is  the  long- 
suffering  hero,  who,  although  overcome  b^  Zeas^s 
superior  might,  yet  does  not  bend  his  mmd.    He 
at  IJrst  assists  Zeus  against  his  own  kindred,  the 
Tilans,  and  even  opens  his  head  at  the  birth  of 
Minerva.     But  when  Zeus,  having  come  to  the 
throne,  conceived  evil  plans  against  mankind,  wish- 
ing to  destroy  them  entirely,  in  order  to  create  a 
new  race,  P.  throws  himself  into  the  breach ;  and 
while  taking  from  them  the  evil  gift  of  foreseeing 
the  future,  gives  them  the  two  infinitely  superior 
gifts  of  hope  and  of  fire.     He  is  the  inventor  of 
architecture,  astronomy,  writing,  figures,  medicine, 
navigation,    the   mjrstery   of    prophecy,   the   arts 
of  working  in  metal,  and  all  other  arts  which 
embellish  and  adorn  life.     For  these  boons  con- 
ferred on  the  human  race,  he  is,  by  Zeus's  order, 
chained    to    a    rock    in   Scythia   by    Hephaostus, 
who   fid  His   this   task   reluctantly.     Here   he   is 
visited  by  the  Oceanides,  by  lo,  who  teUs  him  of 
her  own  miserable  wanderings,  and  by  Hermes, 
who  endeavours  to  find  out  that  which  P.  onl^ 
knows,  viz.,  who  will  be  the  son  of  Zeus  and  his 
successor.      Refusing  to  divulge  this  secret,  he  is 
struck  by  Zeus's  lightning,  and  hurled  into  Tar- 
tarus, whence  he  only  re-issues  after  a  time  to 
undergo  new  sufferings.      He  is  now  fastened  to 
Mount  Caucasus,  and  the  eagle,  an  ofiEspring  of 
Earth  and  Tartarus,  comes  to  torment  him  daily. 
Cheiron,  the  Centaur,  at   last   offers   himself   to 
supply  P.'s  place  in  Hades — ^for  on  no  other  con- 
dition was  he  to  be  liberated  than  that  some  other 
immortal  should  offer  himself  in  his  stead.   Cheiron, 
incurably  wounded  by  Herakles,  is  accepted  by 
Zeus. — Other  legends  give  varying  accounts.     One 
makes   P.  the  creator  of  man  out  of  earth  and 
water — Zeus  having,  after  the  flood  of  Deucalion, 
ordered  both  him  and  Here  to  make  man  out  of 
the  mud  left,  and  the  winds  to  breathe  life  into 
them ;   and   at  Panopeus,  in   Phocis,  a  piece  of 
that  creative  earth  was  in  after  times  snewn  to 
the  wonder-struck  multitude.     It  was  also  at  his 
suggestion  that  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha  built  the 
vessel  that  bore  them  safely  through  the  floods. 
P.   had   a  sanctuary  at  Athens,  and  torch-races 
took  place  in  his  honour.      Many  have  been  the 
explanations  of  this  myth,  one  of  which  is,  that  it 
represents  the  human  mind,  which,  in  the  conscious- 
ness of  its  own  power,  refuses  to  obey  implicitly 
the  will  of  2^us;  another,  that  it  embodies  tne  first 
atrf'ggles  between  the  ancient  (Pelasgian)  powers 
of  nature  and  the  awaking  of  the  mind,  as  repre- 
sented by  Zeus  and  the  Olympians,  &c  The  subject 
is  fully  oiscussed  in  Welcker  s  ^adiylUehe  TrUogie 
Prometheus  (Darmstadt,  1824). 

PROMISE,  in  English  Law,  is  often  used  to 
denote  one  side  of  a  contract  or  a^preement,  either 
by  word  of  mouth  or  in  writing  which  is  not  under 
aeaL  In  England,  an  action  cannot  be  brought  on 
•  promise  unless  some  consideration  was  given  for 
it;  bat  in  Scotland,  a  consideration  is  not  neoes« 
jaiy,  ])rovided  the  pronuse  was  made  in  earnest 
and  with  deliberation.  A  promise  of  matriage 
means  a  mutual  promise,  each  being  an  equivalent 


for  the  other;  and  accordinffly,  if  one  breaks  the 
promise,  the  other  can  sue  for  breach  of  it^  See 
Marbiaob. 

PRO'MISSORT-NOTE  is  a  contract  by  which 
A,  the  promiser,  agrees  to  pay  B,  the  promisee,  a 
sum  of  money,  either  on  request  or  on  a  future  day. 
A  is  called  the  maker  of  the  note,  and  B  the  payee 
of  the  note.  The  law  affecting  notes  is  substan- 
tially the  same  in  all  respects,  and  is  always  treated 
as  part  of  that  of  Bills  oi  Exchange  (q.  v.). 

PBOMOTION,  a  term  which  has  been  applievl 
to  the  granting  of  a  degree  by  a  imiversity.  The 
practice  of  conferring  the  title  of  doctor  by  authority 
and  after  examination,  seems  to  have  originated 
in  the  university  of  Bologna,  in  the  middle  of  the 
12th  centui^.  Degrees  were  at  first  conferred  by 
codpkUion^  i.  e.,  admission  by  the  common  consent 
of  the  body  of  doctors ;  but  in  the  beginning  of  the 
13th  c.,  Honorius  IIL  placed  promotions  under  thd 
control  of  the  archdeacon  of  Bologna. 

PROMOTION,  in  the  Army  and  Navt.  The 
efficiency  of  any  body  of  men  depends  upon  the 
energy  of  tiie  individuals  composing  it :  the  root  of 
that  energy  is  emulation ;  and  emulation  can  only  be 
secured  by  maintaining  a  proper  current  of  promo* 
tion.  The  efficiency  <m  a  service  is  thus  dependent 
on  the  sjrstem  of  promotion  adopted;  and  so 
important,  consequently,  does  promotion  become, 
that  in  the  present  article  it  is  purposed  to  glance 
at  the  rules  observed  in  the  principal  armies  of 
the  continent,  before  describing  the  system  which 
obtains  in  the  British  service. 

In  the  Army  qf  France,  it  is  a  common  saying,  that 
every  conscript  has  a  marshal's  bdton  in  his  knap- 
sack. Speakmg  of  the  times  of  the  revolutionary 
war,  this  was  doubtless  true,  for  battalions  chose 
their  chief  officers  from  their  own  ranks — a  con- 
script ol  one  year  was  often  a  lieutenant-colonel  the 
next,  and  perhaps  a  brigadier-general  the  following. 
In  the  quieter  times  of  recent  years,  however, 
progress  is  slower  ;  and  although  promotion  is  open 
to  idl,  and  a  considerable  proportion  of  the  officers 
do  rise  from  the  ranks,  yet  it  is  very  rarely  indeed 
tiiat  an  officer,  who  has  so  risen,  ever  attains  a 
l^gher  grade  than  that  of  captain.  Conscripts  are 
enrolled  for  seven  years ;  junior  commissions  are — if 
the  rule  of  the  service  were  strictiy  followed — ^given, 
one-third  to  men  from  the  ranks,  one-third  to 
cadets  from  the  military  schools,  and  one-third 
by  imperial  patronage.  In  practice,  it  appears  that 
in  the  ArtiQery  umL  Enjgineers,  two-thirds  of  the 
first  commissions  are  given  to  pupils  from  the 
Polytechnique,  and  the  remainder  to  men  from  the 
ranks ;  whue  in  the  Line,  two-thirds  of  the  officers 
rise  from  the  ranks,  and  one-third  come  from  the 
Military  School  of  St  Cyr.  Before  officers  can  be 
promoted,  certain  service  in  each  rank  is  required, 
via.,  as  2d  lieutenanti  two  years ;  as  lieutenant, 
two  yean ;  as  captain,  four  years ;  as  major,  three 
years ;  and  as  lieutenant-colonel,  two  y^eara.  These 
periods  are,  however,  curtailed  in  time  of  war. 
Promotion  takes  place  in  the  regiment  up  to  the 
rank  of  captain,  two-thirds  by  seniority,  and  one- 
third  by  selection.  From  captain  to  major  {ehtf 
dPucadnm  ou  de  bakullon),  promotion  is  divided 

anally  between  seniority  and  selection;  while  to 
I  higher  ranks  it  falls  exclusively  to  selection. 
The  selection  is  made  on  reports  by  the  inspectors* 
ffeneral  ol  the  several  arms — ^their  reports  being 
Munded  on  personal  observation,  and  the  testimony 
of  senior  regimental  officers.  To  maintain  rapidity 
of  promotion  there  is  a  fixed  age  at  which  officers 
must  retire,  viz.,  lieutenant-general,  65;  major- 
general,  62  ;  Colonel,  60 ;    lieutenant-colonel,   58 ; 

major,  56 ;  captain,  53 ;  lieutenant,  52. 

791 


l>R0NA0S-moNO-R0RN. 


Tn  Avilria,  all  uSoera  are  at  Arst  cadeta  ;  but  a 
\aTge  proportion  of  theae  cadeta  are  Dominated 
from  men  in  the  rsnlu  by  their  comradea.  The 
men  tbemKlvea  are  conacripta,  eomlled  for  agb% 
jrara.  Piomotioa  goei  bv  aeuiorit^,  and  in  Ui« 
regiment,    with   occaaional   (election    fzom    other 


The  o 


e  OTfianiBation  and  offioeriOK  of  the  PruMirat 
army  ub  both  peculiar.  Every  Pnuaian  inbject,  of 
wbateTer  rank,  ii  bound  to  lerve  from  the  age  of  20 
to  25 :  but  in  practice,  thia  aerrice  ia  reduced  to  a 
year  in  the  cage  of  profeasional  men.  Every  officer 
muat  serve  in  the  ranlu ;  but  not  neceaaarily  for 
more  than  a  day.  Young  gentlemen  intended  for 
oBicera  enter  the  ranks  aa  aipiranien.  They  do 
duty  at  common  soldiers  for  from  six  to  nine 
moDtht,  and  pass  two  ezaminations.  Afterwards 
they  remain  nine  months  at  a  Division  School,  or 
tw^ve  months  at  an  Artillery  and  Engineer  ScbooL 
They  then  beoome  eligible  tor  appointment  aa 
officers  when  vacancies  occur,  which,  however,  they 
cannot  obtain  onleaa  recommended  by  the  officers 


one-third  to  pupils  from  the  cftdet  achoola. 

In  the  Italian  army,  one-third  of  the  sub-lieal .  . 
auts  are  promoted  from  the  ranka.  Of  aubaequent 
promotion,  two-thirda  go  by  teniori^,  and  one-third 
by  selection. 

It  is  always  urged  against  the  Britinh  system 
of  army  promotion  that  it  is  too  exclusive,  and 
oonfines  the  oommiasions  to  tbe  upper  clamea  of 
society  1  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  promatioa  from 
the  ranke  ia  much  rarer  than  in  almost  any  other 
anny.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  argued,  tbe 
constituents  of  the  force  are  very  diiferent  Soldiers 
in  Britain  are  not  oonMripts,  who  necessarily  c<mi- 

C'se  men  of  all  olawea  and  all  degrees  of  education, 
t  are  taken,  •■  a  rale,  from  an  extremely  low  and 
very  nneduested  clasa  of  society.  Again,  Britain 
haa  a  true  middle  cUai,  which  is  wanting  in  almost 
every  continental  nation.     Its  army  is  not,  tbere- 


diff««nt  classes  of  society  differ  so  greatly,  that 
nnlcsB  the  soldier  be  very  snperior  to  his  comrades, 
promotion  to  a  oomniission  is  a  small  boon. 

With  reftard  to  the  actual  system  of  promotion 
which  obtains :  in  the  ranks,  prumotion  from  pri- 
Tate  np  to  compaoy-sei^eant  take*  place  in  the 
company,  and  ia  made  by  tlie  regimental  officer*. 
The  promotion  of  company-sergeants  to  be  staff- 
sergeants  is  made  throughout  the  regiment  All 
these  promotions  are  by  selecdon  entirely.  Of  the 
comnuBsioned  ofHcers,  the  qnarter-masters  and  rid- 
ing-maatera  ore  appointed  almost  exclusively  from 
the  ranks ;  but  they  have  no  further  promotion  to 
look  forward  to — sergeants  and  Bcrgeants-major  are 
occasionally  gazetted  to  ensignoiea  or  lieutenancies 
without  purchase,  bat  not  very  frequently.  The 
junior  combatant  officers  aoqnire  their  commiaaions 
either  by  a  competitive  examination,  without  pnr- 
chue,  or  by  a  pass-examination  with  purchase.  Th« 
Artillery  and  Engineers  are  aon.purchaae  coipa, 
and  are  officered  entirely  by  cadets  from  the  Royal 
Uilitary  Academy,  wboee  subsequent  promotion  ia 
by  aeQiority  only.  The  Cavalry,  Military  'ftain, 
Guards,  and  Line  are  purchase  corps.  The  vacancies, 
if  caused  by  officers  selling  out.  are  filled  by  officer* 
buying  in ;  if  caused  by  death  or  augmentation, 
they  are  Hlled  from  Sandhnrat  Military  Collie  by 
cadota.  who  are  selected  through  competitive  ex- 
amination, and  who  do  not  purchase,  or  by 
gentlemen  baying  subaltern  oommisaiona :  a  small 
proportion  of  these  TBcanoies  are  also  tilled  from 
the  ntnka.     The  promotion  of  offioera,  up  to  the 


rank  of  eaptain,  ia  exclnnrdy  regimnitsl.  aA  bj 
■eaionty,  qualified,  in  purchaae  oorpa,  by  Mrclnaa 
See  PctKOHASi  StvrxiL  Above  the  luk  <d<^)taiD, 
the  mme  pnnciplehokl*  torsiiJi«<aa(iieoTr«fBmlat 
nmk;  bat  offioera  may  bold  at  tiie  sshm  tint 
ornqr  or  imr(  rank,  ooaferred  for  distiiwiiihtd 
service,  or  for  mere  leniority  in  the  geneiu  lirtoi 
the  whole  army.  This  brevet  rank  cunwt  U 
purchaaed,  does  not  affect  the  poaitioa  in  s  r^ 
ment,  and  adds  but  a  amall  sum  to  the  offion'  ^\ 
but  it  is  of  great  importance,  inasmuch  u  coloddi 
rise  by  seniority  alone  to  be  general  offimn,  ual 
colonel  is  almost  exclusively  a  brevet  rank  |th«  ml; 
exceptions  being  in  tbe  Artillary  and  HkigiDcei, 
where  colonel  is  a  legimental  rank).  Under  th«a 
rules,  it  aometimes  happenj  that  on  officer  t'm 
has  never  held  higher  r^imental  rank  than  certain, 
may  become  suocessively,  for  good  service,  tmnt- 
nutjor,  brevet-lieutenaDt-oolonM,  and  brevelHsolcixl, 
until  he  succeeds,  in  hi*  turn,  to  the  rank  of  mjor 
general    Bee  also  Srirr. 

In  the  Navy,  the  promotion  of  sailns  to  I* 
petty  officers  is  made  by  the  captwn  o[  the  ship; 

a  offioera  are  appointed  to  be  wamnt-offion 
e  admiral  of  the  station,  snbject  to  Adminltf 
OOnBnnatiim.  The  commissioned  officers  ire  if- 
pointed  and  promoted  by  patronage  solely.  Wba 
a  ship  ia  first  commiaaioned,  the  captain  is  oIIoifhI 
to  nominate  one  cadet,  the  Admiralty  uuie  lltt 
reat.  Promotiona  are  made  by  selection  by  tin 
Admiralty,  except  death  vacancies  which  OMur 
abroad ;  tlieae  are  filled  up  I^  the  admiral  oonunsBd- 
ing  on  the  station  from  the  officen  of  his  flctt 
Above  the  rank  of  captain,  all  pramotiotu  tab 
place  by  absolute  aenionty.  l%ere  ia  no  pniclisM 
of  commissions  in  the  navy. 

PRONA'OB,  the  area  or  space  before  the  cell  ol 
a  temple,  through  which  it  waa  entered. 

PRONQ-HORK,  or  PHONO-HORNED  ANTE- 
LOPE {A  ntiiope  /urct/era,  Dienutoeena  fiircifer,  <* 
AntUofapra  Avtencana),  a  speciea  of  antelope  inks- 
biting  the  great  western  prauiea  of  North  Ameria 
It  ia  theCoMlor  CoArssofthe  Canadian  Toysgnm, 


Front-hoTiMd  Antslop*  {AnHbipt  f<trc^tra\ 

is  also  called  QocA  by  the  fui^tntden,  and  some- 
times reoeiveB  the  name  of  Spriitg-bu^    It  il  coo- 

mon  between  the  Soakatchewan  and  thi>  Miaonn, 
and  also  on  the  Columbia,  and  is  found  in  plsua 
and  on  low  hilla,  where  there  ia  no  wood,  or  «Jf 
scattered  olnmpa  of  trees;  never  in  mooatiisosi 
district,  nor  in  f orestik    It*  aiie  ia  nearly  thst  <i 


PROKOUNa 


the  roe ;  in  its  mm&nl  form  and  gait  it  resembleB 
the  chamoifl.  In  summer,  the  hair  of  the  P.  is 
smooth  and  flexible,  bnt  as  winter  approaches  it 
lengthens;  each  hair  becomes  thick,  its  interior 
becomes  white  and  spongy,  and  it  loses  its  flexi- 
bility, at  last  becoming  brittle,  so  that  its  point  is 
easily  robbed  off;  but  this  singular  fur  forms  a 
very  close  and  warm  ooyerinff  for  the  animal 
Tlie  P.  is  generaUy  seen  in  snudl  herds,  sometimes 
solitary,  it  is  very  curious  about  any  Strang 
object,  and  advantage  is  sometimes  taken  of  this 
by  Indian  hunters,  who  crouch,  run  a  few  yards, 
and  stop  a^^ain ;  the  prong-horns  wheeling  around 
tfa'em,  coming  nearer,  and  becoming  stdl  more 
curious,  till  they  are  within  shot. 

PRO'NOUNS,  one  of  the  classes  of  words  or 
parts  of  speech,  possessing  a  special  interest  both 
logical  and  philological.  */  am  sick.'  *  Thou 
knoweat  the  truth.'  *  John  was  here,  but  he  went 
away  again.'  *  Peter  struck  the  boy,  who  had  done 
him  no  harm.*  '  What  do  you  want  ?'  The  words 
in  italics  in  these  sentences  are  called  Pronouns, 
because  they  stand  for  (Lat.  pro)  nouns,  or  names 
of  persons  and  things ;  and  they  are  generally  said 
to  be  used  to  prevent  the  too  freouent  repetition  of 
the  nouns,  x  et  the  pronoun  ana  the  noun  are  not 
exact  equivalents  for  each  other.  No  noun  can  be 
an  exact  substitute  for  /,  thouj  or  who.  Pronouns 
are  symbols,  names,  or  highly-generalised  marks, 
applied  to  objects  to  signify,  not  any  inherent 
attribute,  but  merely  their  relations  to  the  act  of 
speaking.  They  might  therefore  be  called  relational 
names,  /,  for  instance,  is  a  name  applicable  to  all 
Bubiects  that  can  be  conceived  as  speaking.  In 
such  a  sentence  as  '  /  am  sick,'  in  which  the  state, 

*  sick,*  is  afiirmed  about  some  one,  the  exact  force 
of  /  may  be  thus  expressed :  The  person  of  whom 

*  sick '  is  affirmed  is  one  with  the  person  making  the 
affirmation.  Who  the  individual  person  is,  the 
pronoun  /  gives  no  indication ;  it  is  implied  that 
this  is  known  from  some  other  source.  Those 
present  learn  it  by  hearing  whence  the  sound 
comes;  in  a  book,  it  is  eathei^  from  the  contexl 

In  like  manner,  tlwu  is  a  generalised  name  for  all 
persons  spoken  to.  What  it  means  or  connotes  is — 
with  reference  to  the  example  above  mvea — that 
the  person  affirmed  to  know  the  truth,  and  the 
person  to  whom  the  affirmation  is  addressed,  are 
one  and  the  same.  What  particular  person  it 
denotes  must  be  learned,  as  before,  from  circum- 
stances. If  the  clause,  ^  he  went  away  again,* 
stood  by  itself,  what  person  is  denoted  by  he  would 
be  still  more  vague  than  in  the  case  of  i  and  thou. 
He  merely  implies  that  a  person,  neither  the  speaker 
nor  the  spoken  to,  but  one  known  in  some  way,  is 
tjie  subject  of  the  assertion.  Who  it  is,  is  deter- 
mined, m  the  example,  bv  Jdhn^  with  which  he 
stands  in  dose  relation.  Tr/to  designates  some  per- 
son already  named,  referring  us  back  to  that  name 
(the  antecedent)  for  determining  the  individual 
Wfuit  connotes  that  the  subject  is  unknown. 

Pronouns  are  usually  divided  into  Personal  and 
Relative. 

1.  Personal  Pronouns. — The  several  objects  con- 
cerned in  a  speech  or  sentence  stand  in  one  or  other 
of  the  three  relations  of  speaker  (First  Person), 
object  spoken  to  (Second  Penon),  object  spoken 
about  (Third  Person).  Pronouns  expressive  of  these 
relations  are  called  Personal  Pronouns.  They  are 
(in  the  nominative  case),  1st  person,  /,  we;  2d,  thou, 
ye  or  you;  3d,  ^,  <A«,  it,  ihey. 

Along  with  tiie  personal  pronouns,  and  most 
nearly  related  to  tiie  pronouns  of  the  third  person, 
may  be  classed  the  words  one  and  that  in  certain 
oonstructiona  In  phrases  like,  *  One  cannot  be  sure 
ol  that»'  one  is  an  indeHnite  pronoun,  designating 


any  person  whatever.  It  is  distinct  from  the 
numeral  adjective  oim^  being  derived  from  the 
French  on,  which  is  a  corruption  of  homme,  man 
When  we  say, '  I  like  peaches,  but  let  me  have  a 
ripe  one,  or  ripe  one*,*  we  have  now  the  numeral 
used  as  another  indefinite  pronoun.  The  first  of 
these  indefinite  pronouns  is  applied  only  to  persons; 
the  second,  both  to  persons  and  things. 

When  we  say, '  Give  me  this,  and  keep  thai^  this 
and  thai  mav  be  considered  as  demonstrative 
adjectives,  with  some  noun  understood — this  (thing). 
Bat  in  the  expression,  *He  mistook  his  own  room 
for  that  of  the  stranger,*  that  appears  to  be  as  much 
a  pronoun  as  one. 

2.  Bdative  Pronouns  (including  Interrogative), — 
Belative  Pronouns,  besides  standing  for  nouns,  have 
the  power  of  conjunctions.  They  join  sentences 
and  clauses,  by  relating  or  referring  back  directly 
to  something  just  namra.  The  relatives  in  English 
are  three — who,  whtch,  and  that  See  Relativb 
Pbonoukb. 

What  is  used  for  that  which,  thus  embracing  both 
relative  and  antecedent.  In  phrases  like  *sach  a 
stoim  as  now  burst  on  them,*  as  is  used  with  the 
force  of  a  relative  pronoun.  Perhaps  the  fall 
expression  would  be  *such  a  storm  as  (the  storm 
that)  burst' 

S.  /R<OTO|^(Ji»iVtMiottfU  are  those  used  in  asking 
questions ;  they  are  who,  which,  and  v^uiL 

These  are  the  simple  pronouns.  But  a  variety  of 
compounds  are  formed  by  joining  these  simple  pro- 
nouns with  other  words,  such  as  himsdf,  ^matever^ 
any  one. 

Pronouns,  as  we  have  seen,  express  the  most 
abstract  relations  in  language.  They  are,  in  fact, 
the  most  Lctenuated  and  colourless  signs  of  thought 
conceivable — the  highest  effort,  apparently,  of  man's 
generalising  powers.  Accordingly,  in  the  days  of 
purely  d  prum  speculation  on  the  orisn  and  growth 
of  language,  it  was  held  to  be  inoGsputabie  that 
pronouns  must  have  been  the  latest  product  of  the 
hmguage-making  faculty;  and  they  have  been 
appealed  to  as  a  conclusive  argument  against  the 
theory  that  the  meaning  of  all  words,  when  they 
are  traced  to  their  origin,  is  grounded  on  sensible 
properties  and  relations  of  material  things.  The 
philologist,  on  the  contraiy,  pursuing  his  investiga- 
tions on  the  historioo-comparative  method,  sees 
irresistible  proof  that  pronouns,  in  the  Aryan 
family  of  languages  at  least,  were  among  the  earliest 
words  in  use.  Ii^  fact,"  besides  their  independent 
use,  the  same  elements  are  found  as  suffixes  form- 
ing the  infiections  (see  Inflbction)  of  the  predica- 
tive roots,  and  first  making  them  real  words  capable 
of  entering  into  a  sentence.  In  the  beginning,  now- 
ever,  tiiey  were  iMr  from  being  the  impalpable 
abstractions  they  afterwards  became,  and  really 
form  the  strongest  proof  of  the  theorv  they  were 
supposed  to  upset  They  were,  in  fact,  simply 
d^onstrative  particles,  indicating  palpable  rela- 
tions of  space  or  position  (*  that'  or  '  there,* '  this*  or 
*here,*  'what*  or  •whore?*).  We  can  easilv  see 
how  the  indication  of  the  vocal  sign  would  at 
first  be  helped  out  and  made  precise  by  gesticula- 
tion ;  or  more  probable  still,  the  gesticulation  was  at 
first  the  fundamental  sign,  and  Sie  word  a  natural 
involuntary  utterance  acoompanying  it,  and  in 
process  ol  time  taking  its  place. 

Of  'the  various  demonstrative  radicals  still  trace- 
able in  the  Aryan  tongues  as  pronouns  and  suffixes, 
one  of  tiie  most  universal  and  outstanding  is 
the  sound  to  or  so  for  *that*  or  'this,'  *  there.' 
It  is  seen  in  the  Sanscrit  sa  (mas.),  sA  (fem.), 
tad  (neut);  Lat  (is)^  (is)^,  (is)<i«2;  Gr.  ho,  he, 
to;  Ooth.  so,  sd,  thaia;  A.-S.  se,  se6,  tiioBt;  as 
idso  in  the  numerous  allied  adverbs,  e.  g.,  Lat 

791 


PROOP— PROPAOANDA« 


torn,  tune;  Ger.  damn;  En^  m,  oi,  <Aai,  ikvs. 
Another  demonstratiTe  radical,  nia,  aeema  to 
have  been  need  to  call  attention  to  the  speaker 
— to  point  to  the  immediate  or  central  *nere;' 
in  short,  to  the  'me.'  Besides  oocurring  in  the 
oblique  cases  of  the  first  personal  pronoun,  the 
element  ma  or  m  enters  lai^y  into  the  suffixes  of 
the  first  person  of  verbs  in  the  older  languaces, 
such  as  Greek  and  Latin.  The  only  remnant  m  it 
in  English  is  in  /  am.  The  nominative  case  of  the 
first  person  pronoun  in  Sansc.  is  ahdm,  which  is 
conjectured  to  be  a  mutilation  of  a  fuller  fonn, 
ma*gha-m;  in  Gr.  and  Lat  mo,  GotiL  11,  Ger.  tcA, 
A.-S.  Eng.  /,  Ital.  to,  Fr.  Ye,  Xh%  m  has  completely 
disappeared.  In  the  oblique  cases  it  has  been 
better  preserved.  The  root  of  the  2d  pers.  pron. 
seems  to  have  been  the  syllable  ta  or  (va,  indicating 
a  position  intermediate  between  the  central  *  here 
and  the  more  distant  and  contrasted  'there.'  The 
form  of  this  pronoun  is  more  constant  throughout 
the  allied  languages  than  that  of  any  other :  Sanaa 
tvdTn,  Lat.  tu^  Gr.  ty  or  «^,  Ger.  du,  Eng.  tkou^  Fr. 
(tt,ItaL  tu. 

The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  person  are 
invariable  in  respect  of  gender,  and  are  never  used 
as  adjectives ;  the  pronouns  of  the  third  person  not 
only  take  the  form  of  adjectives  in  respect  of 
gender,  but  are  often — especially  in  the  olaer  lan- 
guages— ^joiDed  to  nouns,  in  which  case  they  are 
rather  demonstrative  (or  relative)  adjectives  than 

Sronouns ;  as  Lat.  iUe  homo,  Ene.  thai  hook.  It  is 
ifficult  to  trace  any  etvmolojy;ical  relations  between 
the  singular  and  the  plural  in  the  first  and  second 
pronouns — e.  g.,  between  Lat.  <u  and  vos,  or  Eng. 
thou  and  you;  but  this  is  not  to  be  wondered  at 
when  we  reflect  that  *  we '  is  not  equal  to  '  I '  and 
•I,'  but  to  'I*  and  «he,'  or  «I*  and  'thou;' and 
that  'you'  is  as  much  'thou'  and  'he'  as  'thou' 
and  '  thou.'  The  plurals  must  therefore  have  been 
compounded  of  several  elements,  which,  by  ooales- 
oence  and  abrasion,  have  become  irrecogniBable. 

The  declension  of  the  En^ish  personal  pronouns  is 
to  be  found  in  any  elementsrv  grammar.  That  of 
the  third  person  is  made  up  of  fragments  of  several 
Anglo-Saxon  words.  The  Anglo-Saxon  pronoun 
was  thus  declined : 

Sing.  Norn.  A«  (he),  he6  (she),  hit  (it) 
G^.  Ait         Atrs  kU 

Aoc.   hine       hi  hU 

Dat.   him       hire         him 


Hnr.  Nom.  Aoo. 
Gen. 
Dat 


hi 

hira  fheora) 

him  (heom) 


The  cases  marked  in  italics  are  still  used  in  modem 
English,  only  that  Aim  and  her  do  duty  in  the 
accusative  as  well  as  dative.  iJtis,  as  the  genitive 
of  the  neuter,  has  been  supplanted  in  recent  times 
by  the  secondary  senitive  tto,  a  word  which  does 
not  occur  once  in  the  English  version  of  the  Bible. 
She  does  not  represent  the  Anglo-Saxon  hed,  but  eeS, 
the  feminine  of  the  artide.  The  modem  plurals 
they,  their,  them,  have  no  direct  etymological  con- 
nection with  the  singular  he  (she,  it) ;  they  are  tsJcen 
from  the  demonstrative  or  article  that  (that,  the), 
which  has,  in  the  plural,  nominative  and  accusative 
thd^  genitive  thdra,  dative  iham,  ^TAtfm,  like  Aim, 
was  thus  originally  a  dative  case.  Is  it  a  lingering 
memory  of  uie  demonstrative  origin  of  them  that 
keeps  fJive  the  vulgar  error  of '  them  things  7 ' 

Such  being  the  arbitrary,  or  rather  chance  way 
in  which  the  English  pronominal  system  has  been 
built  up  out  of  the  wrecks  of  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
there  is  no  good  reason  why  them^  Aim,  her,  should 
not  have  been  used  in  the  nominative  as  well  as  in 


the  accusative;  and,  in  fact,  in  oertsin  ooDnection, 
these  forms,  together  with  me^  are  kabitoillj  m 
used,  although  grammarians  have  hitherto  refaied 
to  sanction  the  usaffe.  Such  expreauoiiBas,*Itii 
me ; '  '  better  than  nim,  than  tnem,*  fta,  are  nofc 
confined  to  the  uneducated ;  in  familiar  coDTens- 
tion,  the  most  cultivated  use  them  hi^tnaUy,  and 
in  preference  to  what  are  oonsidered  to  be  the 
comet  forms,  which  are  felt  somehow  to  be  atiff 
and  pedantic  This  usage  has  the  anslogy  of  &e 
French  in  its  favour  (e.  g.,  e'est  mot),  and  aome 
Ekiglish  philologists  have  oegun  to  defead  it  oa 
principle.    See  Alford,  The  QueenU  Enjj^eh 

From  politeness  and  other  rhetorical  motirei, 
various  substitutes  take  the  place  of  the  unial 
personal  pronouns.  The  EngHah  language  departs 
little  from  the  normal  usag^  exc^  in  you  Uxt  tkm, 
and  in  the  r^ral  and  editorial  we.  A  French  ahop- 
keeper,  instead  of  'What  do  you  wish  to  see?*  aaya : 
'  Wnat  does  the  gentleman  (or  lady)  wish  to  see?' 
All  modem  languages  use  suoh  substitutioni  as, 
'  Your  Majesty,  ^our  Excellen(nr,  wishes ; '  bat  the 
Italian,  in  speakmg  further  of  the  Excellenza,  aaya: 
'  It  {ella,  she)  wishes.'  The  Germans  use  regolaily 
they  (tfie)  for  ywi^  and  one  never  hears  yam  except 
from  the  pulpits  In  Hebrew,  politeness  took  the 
forai  of  saying :  *  Thy  servant  8aid«*  for  '  I  eauL' 
Similarly,  the  Chinese  use:  'little  man,  sabject, 
thief,  blockhead,'  for  *  I ; '  and  an  American  back- 
woodsman speaks  of  himself  as  'this  'oas,'  or'thia 
here  child.' 

PROOF.    See  Evidence. 

PROOF  OF  FIRE-ARMS.  Guns  of  all  dea- 
criptions  are  proved  before  being  issued  for  service. 
Muskets  are  tested  by  being  fired  with  heavier 
bullets  and  larger  charges  of  powder  than  they  vrill 
in  the  ordinary  way  be  required  to  carry.  Cannoa 
are  subjected  to  a  series  of  tests.  First,  they  are 
gauged  to  ascertain  that  the  dimensions  are  oonect^ 
the  utmost  variation  permitted  being  *d  inch  exte^ 
nally,  and  033  in  the  diameter  of  the  bore ;  but  the 
position  of  the  bore  may  deviate  "25  inch  from  the 
line  of  the  piece*s  axis.  The  next  trial  is  by  firing 
twice  with  heavy  charges — the  bore  being  auba^ 
qnently  minutely  examined,  to  detect  flaws  or  cr&* 
vices  in  the  metal  A  cavity  exceeding  in  depth  '2 
inch,  if  behind  tiie  first  reinforce  ring,  or  "25  if  before 
that  ring,  condemns  the  piece.  After  the  proof  by 
firing,  water  is  forced  at  a  great  pressure  mto  ^e 
bore,  in  order  that  it  may  permeate  any  honey- 
combs  or  flaws :  the  next  day,  the  bore  is  examined 
by  means  of  a  mirror,  which  casts  a  strong  li^ht  into 
it.  Flaws  are  then  easily  detected ;  for  while  the 
rest  of  the  bore  is  thoroughly  dry,  water  vill  con- 
tinue for  some  time  to  weep  or  mn  from  the  holes, 
and  will  stand  over  them  in  dropsw  This  operatioo 
completes  the  proof.  When  a  gun  bursts  m  proof, 
the  remainder  of  the  guns  of  the  same  sort  then  in 
proof  are  subjected  to  another  round. 

In  the  case  of  guns  of  hitherto  untried  form,  some 
are  tested  to  bursting,  as  specimens  of  the  pover 
and  endurance  of  the  whole  number.  For  FiW  of 
Powder,  see  Eprouvettk 

PROPAGA'NDA  (Lat.  De  Propaganda  JUe, 
Regarding  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith),  the  name 
of  a  Congregation,  and  also  of  a  Ooll^pe,  in  Borne,  iht 
object  of  which  is  to  direct  and  forward  the  props* 

gation  of  the  Catholic  religion,  especially  among  the 
eathen;  although  Christian  dissenters  from  tiie 
Roman  (^urch  are  not  absolutely  excluded  from  its 
operations.  Pope  Gregcoy  XTTl.  (1572—1584)  gave 
to  some  of  the  cardinals  a  special  charge  over  tbe 
oriental  missions,  and  caused  catechisms  and  othtf 
religioufl  books  to  be  printed  for  the  use  of 
oriental   ChristianB.     The   work  which   Gregoiy 


PKOPAGATION  OF  THE  FAITH-PROPHECY. 


XIII.  originated,  was  fully  organised  by  Gregory 
XV.,  who,  by  a  bnU  of  June  22,  1622,  established 
a   (>)ngregation    of    cardinals    for   this    purpose, 
which  his  successor.  Urban  VIIL,  extended  and 
endowed,    and   to   which   he    annexed  a   college 
for  the  education  of  missionaries  to  the  several 
countries;  one  great  feature  of  which  has  been 
to  provide  for  such  work  natives  of  the  several 
countries,  who  are  conveyed  to  Rome  at  an  early 
ace  for  ^e  purpose  of  being  specially  educated  in 
aU  the  necessary  learning  of  a  missionary.      The 
Con^gation  consists   of  a  number  of  cardinals 
appointed  for  life,  one  of  whom  is  prefect,  and  who 
are  assisted  by  a  secretary,  and  by  a  number  of 
consulters,  clerks  {minutatUi)^  and  other  officials. 
Originally,  their  meetings  were  held  weekly,  and  in 
the  presence  of  the  pope ;  now  they  are  monthly, 
there  being,  however,  weekly  conferences  {eonffressi) 
of  the  prefect,  secretary,  and  consulters ;  and  all 
important  bosiness  is  submitted  to  the  pope  in  per- 
son by  the  prefect  or  the  secretary.   This  Conjspnega- 
tion  conducts  .the  afiairs  not  only  of  the  missionazy 
countries,  properly  so  called,  but  also  of  those — as 
England,  the  northern   kingdoms,  fto. — in  which 
the  hierarchical  organisation  is  not,  or  has  not  been 
full  and  formal    The  College  of  ihe  P.  is  a  noble 
institution,  containing  nearly  200  pupils  of  idl  coun- 
tries, tongues,  and  complexions,  who  are  not  only 
maintained  and  educate  gratuitously  from  a  very 
early  age,  but  are  equipped  and  sent  forward  to  their 
several  destinations  at  the  charge  of  the  institution. 
The  P.  College  contains  a  most  valuable  library,  and 
museum  of  curious  objects  of  missionary  interest ; 
and  a  polyglot  printing-press  of  great  extent  and 
variety  of  resources  in  the  printing  art    Its  great 
festival  is  the  Epiphany  of  our  Lord,  or  of  His 
*  manifestation  to  the  Gentiles;'  and  this  feast  in 
celebrated  by  an  exhibition  of  exceeding  interest 
and  curiosity,  in  which  are  delivered  recitations  in 
every  language  represented  in  the  College  or  its 
missions,  amounting  often  to  60  or  60.     Of  this 
festival,  the  celebrated  Cardinal  Mezzofanti  (q.v.) 
used  to  be  the  guiding  spirit,  as  well  as  to  strangers 
its  chief  centre  of  attraction.    It  oontinues  to  be 
one   of  the  chief  literary  sights  of   the    Roman 
winter. 

PROPAGATION  OF  THE  FAITH,  Associa- 
tions FOR  Roman  CATHOua     The  earliest  and  the 
highest  in  disnity  of  these  has  been  already  described 
under  the   head  Propaganda  (q.  v.).     But   the 
present  century  has  produced  several  private  asso- 
ciations, the  resources  of  which  arise  entirely  from 
voluntary  annual  contributions,  and  the  organisa- 
tion of  which  is  most  complete  and  most  extensiva 
The  first  of  these  is  that  founded  at  Lyon  in  1822, 
under  the  title  '(Envre  de  la  Propagation  de  la 
Foi,'   with   a  branch   at   Paris,   and    subordinate 
branches  in  the  other  Catholic  king|dom&     It  is 
under  the  direction  of  a  council,  which  communi- 
cates as  well  with  the  local  associations  through 
-which   the  funds  are  supplied  by  small  weekfy, 
monthly,    or   yearly   contributions,    as    wi^h  the 
missions  to  the  aid  of  which  the  fund  so  raised  is 
applied,  by  an  apportionment  regulated  according  to 
the  necessities  of  each.    The  piety  of  contributors 
is  stimtdated  bv  the  exhortations  d  the  popes,  and 
the  granting  of  indul^noes  to  those  who,  with  the 
other  requisite  dispositions,  shall  aid  in  the  Mork. 
The  jonnial  of  the  society,  entitled  AnnaUs  de  la 
I*ropcLgation  de  ta  Fai,  is  a  very  interesting  bi- 
monthly collection  of  letters  and  reports  from  the 
different  missions  connected  with  the  oentral  body. 
The  receipts  of  this  association  for  the  year  1863 
were  4,788,496  fr.,  86  c    Of  this  sum,  by  far  the 
largest  proportion  was  raised  in  France— ^307,248 
f  r.     Italy  came  next>  though  at  a  long  interval. 


contributing  420,653 ;  Belgium  gave  271,597;  Qerv 
many,  251,873  ;  the  British  Islands,  127,000.  Spain, 
once  the  great  propagator  of  the  Gosp^  in  the  New 
World,  contributed  but  12,549;  but  it  is  to  ba 
observed  that  Spain  maintains  for  her  own  mit 
sionary  enterprises  a  laz^  and  liberal  establishment 
in  connection  with  the  mission  of  the  Philippines 
and  the  South  Sea. 

Another  association  of  somewhat  later  date  is 
the  <  Leopoldiner-Verein,'  established  at  Vienna  in 
1829,  the  chief  object  of  which  is  to  assist  the 
missions  of  German  origin,  especially  in  America. 
This  association  also  has  its  own  journal,  entitled 
Berkhte  der  Leopoldinen  St^ftung.  It  is  under 
the  presidency  of  the  Archbishop^  of  Vienna.  A 
third  is  that  established  in  Bavaria  as  an  offshoot 
of  the  Lyon  association,  under  the  name  '  Ludwigs 
Missions- Verein.'  Like  that  of  Vienna,  its  chie^ 
although  not  exclusive  object,  is  the  support  of  Ger- 
man missions.  The  Ludwies-Vereiu  is  conducted 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Archbishop  of  Munich. 
All  these  associations,  although  quite  independent 
in  their  management  and  direction,  nevertheless 
maintain  close  relations  with  the  Proiiaganda  of 
Rome,  and  are  often  guided  by  the  recommendations 
of  the  Cardinal  Prefect  in  the  distribution  of  their 
funds  to  particular  missions. 

PROPER,  in  Heraldry.  A  charge  borne  of  ita 
naturad  colour,  is  said  to  be  proper.  An  object  whose 
colour  varies  at  different  times  and  in  different 
examples,  as  a  rose,  whidi  may  be  white  or  red, 
cannot  be  borne  proper. 

PRO'PHEOY  (Gr.  propheteia)  is  a  word  of 
pregnant  signification.  According  to  its  usual 
acceptation  m  modem  English,  it  implies  pre* 
diction — the  telling  of  events  about  to  happen 
befordiand.  But  neither  according  to  the  original 
meaning  of  the  word  prophet  in  Hebrew  {nabi) 
or  in  Greek  ipropfietet),  nor  according  to  historical 
usage  of  the  verb  pnjpkuy  in  Engliui,  can  such  a 
meaning  be  considered  exclusive  The  etymological 
force  of  the  Hebrew  word,  according  to  the  best 
authorities,  denotes  '  a  person  who,  as  it  were,  bursts 
forth  with  spiritual  utterances  under  divine  influ- 
ence, or  simply  one  who  pours  forth  words.'  The 
NcM  is  tiie  meditun  of  special  divine  communi- 
cation— according  to  some,  the  inan  inspired  by 
God  to  whom  aivine  oommunications  are  made ; 
but  more  distinctively,  according  to  olJiers,  the  man 
who  delivers  the  burden  of  the  divine  thought 
imparted  to  him,  who  makes  known  the  decUrations 
of  God.  Besides  the  more  authoritative  expression 
NaJbi,  there  are  two  other  expressions  {Roih  and 
Chazeh)  used  in  the  Hebrew  original  with  some- 
thing  ol  the  same  meaning,  and  which  are  translated 
in  our  ^glish  version  *  seer.'  The  exaot  meaning 
of  the  several  words  in  their  relation  to  one  another 
nas  been  much  disputed.  The  beet  view,  uuon  the 
whole,  seems  to  be  that  which  considers  Nahi  to 
denote  specially  the  official  function  of  the  prophet, 
the  m^er  to  which  he  belonged;  and  the  other 
expreastons  to  point  peculiarly  to  the  nature  of  the 
prophetio  gift — ^the  intuition  or  vision  of  the  divine. 
The  one  may  stamp  more  the  objective  function  of 
the  prophet  as  a  teller  or  uUartr  of  the  divine,  the 
other  more  his  subjective  capacity  as  a  seer  of  the 
divine. 

The  original  and  proper  import  of  the  word 
prophecy^  therefore,  may  m  said  to  be  the  utterance 
of  the  (Uvine.  The  prophet  is  the  '  interpreter  of 
the  divine  wilL'  He  is  expressly  called  *  the  inter- 
preter and  the  messenger  of  Jehovah.'  The  idea  of 
prediction  is  not  of  course  excluded ;  but  this  idea 
is  not  a  radical  and  necessary  part  of  the  meaning 
ol  the  word,  nor  was  it  at  all  necessarily  an  element 

f9ft 


PROPHECY. 


of  ihft  prophetic  oiRoe.  This  10  apparent  from  the 
Qse  of  the  word  even  in  oar  Eoelisu  Bibles  and  our 
older  theological  literature^  The  'sons  of  Asaph, 
for  exami>le,  it  is  said  (1  Chron.  xxv.  3)  *  pro- 
phesied with  a  harp»  to  give  thanks  and  to  praise 
the  Lord,'  in  the  sense  of  merely  singing  or  uttering 
God's  praise  under  the  dictate  of  the  divine  Spirit. 
It  is  said  also  of  Philip  the  Evangelist  (Acts  xxi.  9) 
that  he  had  *four  daughters,  virgins,  which  did 
prophesy,*  in  the  sense  merely  or  mainly  of  declaring 
the  gospel  In  like  manner.  Bacon  speaks  in  his 
day  of  *  an  exercise  commonly  called  prophetying^ 
which  consisted  in  the  exposition  of  a  portion  of 
Scripture  by  successive  ministers  at  a  meeting 
appointed  for  the  purpose;  and  the  well-known 
title  of  one  of  Jeremy  Taylor's  books,  The  Liberty  of 
JProjtkesying — ^L  e.,  the  liberty  of  preaching — ^recalls 
the  same  use  of  the  word. 

Prophecy  among  the  Jews  was  a  distinct  office 
or  function  constituted  under  the  divine  sanction. 
The  prophets  were  an  order  instituted,  or  at  least 
reformed  and  more  thoroughly  organised  by  Samuel 
There  were  prophets,  indeed,  before;  Abraham  is 
called  a  prophet  (C^n.  xx.  7),  and  Moses  also 
(Deut.  xviii.  15 ;  xxxiv.  10)  ;  Aaron  is  the 
'prophet  of  Moaes'  (Ex.  vii  I),  and  Miriam  is  'a 
prophetess'  (Ex.  xv.  20);  but  it  was  Samuel  who 
first  established  the  office  as  a  systematic  part  of 
the  Jewish  reUgion*  For  this  purpose,  he  gathered 
together  companies  of  young  men  of  promising 
spmtual  attainments,  who  were  trained  under  his 
superintendence  for  various  religious  duties — the 
exposition  of  the  theocratic  law,  and  the  conduct  of 
the  theocratic  worship,  especially  of  its  elaborate  ! 
musical  departments  (1  Sam.  x.  5;  1  Chron.  xxv.  6).  ! 
The  use  of  the  psaltery  and  tabret,  pipe,  harp,  and  | 
cymbal,  was  the  peculiar  business  ot  the  proi>hets. 
The  young  men  were  set  apart  to  make  proficiency 
in  these  instruments;  they  were  placed  under 
an  elderly  head  or  president,  who  received  the 
name  of  father,  and  they  were  called  his  sons. 
They  were  '  all  under  the  hands  of  tiheir  father  for 
song  in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  with  cymbals, 
psalteries,  and  harps,  for  the  service  of  the  house 
of  €k>d'  (1  Chron.  xxv.  6).  The  prophetic  institu- 
tions have  been  called  b^  modem  divines  '  Schools 
of  the  Prophets ; '  but  this  name  does  not  occur  in 
Scripture,  nor  even  in  our  authorised  version. 
*  Sons  of  the  Prophets '  is  the  only  collective  name 
applied  to  the  separate  companies  into  which  tibey 
were  formed  by  Samuel  These  companies  were 
located  in  special  spots:  in  Ramah,  the  birthplace 
and  residence  of  Samuel ;  in  Bethel,  Gilgal,  Jericho, 
and  ultimately  Jerusalem.  They  lived  in  huts 
made  of  the  oranches  of  trees;  wore  a  simple, 
characteristic  dress ;  had  their  meals  together,  and 
were  found  in  numbers  sometimes  of  50,  sometimes 
even  of  400.  For  a  prophet  not  to  have  been 
trained  in  one  of  these  institutions,  was  deemed,  as 
Dean  Stanley  says  {Jetruh  Church,  vol  i  p.  429), 
'  an  exceptional  case.'  Some,  like  Isaiah  in  Jerusalem, 
or  Elisha  in  Samaria,  lived  in  great  towns,  in  houses 
of  their  own.     The  higher  prophets  had  inferior 

Srophets  or  servants  attendant  upon  them,  whose 
uty  it  was  to  pour  water  upon  their  hands,  and 
secure  provisions  for  them  (2  Kings,  iii  11 ;  v.  22). 
Thus,  Moses  had  Joshua  and  others;  Elijah  had 
Elisha;  Elisha  had  GehazL  Many  of  them  were 
married,  and  had  families;  for  example,  Moses, 
Samuel  Deborah,  David,  Hosea,  Isaiauh,  Ezekiel 
The  wife  was  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  IsaU^ 
called  *  the  prophetess.' 

The  prophets,  according  to  this  description,  were 
a  peculiar  order  of  teachers  among  the  Jews ; 
prophecy,  a  distinctive  part  of  the  divine  economy, 

oy  which  Qod  trained  and  educated  the  *  chosen 
fye 


people.'  Beginning  in  a  definite,  thon^  itni 
unorganised  form,  with  Moses  (for  it  u  only 
incidentally  that  Abraham  is  called  'a  prophet  1, 
it  assumes  a  regular  oi^gaoiaation  in  the  hsndi  i 
Samuel,  just  when  the  earlier  form  of  the  theocntio 
government  was  passing  away,  and  the  moDarchy 
was  established.  It  ^rew  np  alongside  tiie  older 
institution  of  the  Levitical  priesthood  withoat  any 
professed  or  formal  oppoeinon  to  the  latter,  bat 
playing  a  part  distinct,  and  often  practical^ 
opposML  to  it.  The  priests  ministered  at  the  altan 
01  sacrifice,  and  discharged  all  t^e  official  rites  of 
purification  enjoined  by  the  Jewish  law.  Tbey 
were  only  secondarily  teachers  of  the  people.  The 
prophets,  again,  whue  joining  in  the  rites  of  ths 
tabernacle  and  temple,  were  primarily  and  mainly 
teachersL  Their  function  was  moral,  and  not  ritual ; 
they  upheld  the  ethical,  spiritual,  end  etenul 
side  of  religion,  apt  to  be  obscured  under  tiie 
hardening  tendencies  and  ambitious  officialism  of 
an  influential  priesthood.  They  were  the  great 
preachers  of  a  righteous  government  of  the  vorid, 
and  of  future  retribution  amidst  the  oonfusions  and 
evils  of  their  time;  and  prophecy  was  the  eve^ 
renewing  and  reforming  element  in  the  constantly 
comiptinff  and  decaying  policy  of  Judaism.  More 
particulany,  the  prophets  were  both  the  national 
nistorians  and  poets  of  the  Jewish  people,  the 
narrators  of  its  past  deliverance,  the  heralds  of  ite 
coming  glories.  The  books  of  Joshua,  Judgei^ 
Samuel,  and  Kings,  are  included  among  the  pro- 
phetical books  of  the  Old  Testament  in  9ie  Jewish 
canon ;  while  the  acts  of  David  by  Gad  and  Nathan, 
of  Solomon  and  Jeroboam  by  Nathan  and  Iddo^ 
along  with  other  historical  and  biographical  pieces^ 
have  unhappily  perished.  It  is  neealees  to  point  to 
the  splendid  collection  pf  the  later  prophetic  books, 
beginninfj^  with  Joel,  as  containing,  along  with  much 
direct  historical  matter  also,  the  most  exalted 
specimens  of  poetry  to  be  found  in  any  language. 

But  that  which  by  many  has  been  supposed  to 
be  the  distinctive  character  of  prophecy,  and  the 
special  function  of  the  prophets,  remains  to  be 
noticed.  According  to  the  general  view  of  theo- 
logians in  modem  times,  prophecy  is  peculiariy 
p^xlictive,  and  the  essential  cnaracteristic  of  the 
prophet  is  supposed  to  be  the  power  of  foretelliKg 
future  events.  This  view  is  not  warranted,  we  have 
seen,  either  by  the  etymology  of  the  word,  or  a 
comprehensive  survey  of  the  racts  ;  but  it  is,  neve^ 
thdess,  undeniable  that  the  Hebrew  prof^Mti 
directed  their  attention  especially  to  the  fatore, 
and  *  made  predictions  concerning  the  fortones  of 
their  own  and  other  countries,  which  were  an- 
questionably  fulfilled.*  'There  can  be  no  reason- 
able  doubt,  for  example,'  writes  one  of  the  most 
liberal  of  modem  theologians, '  that  Amos  foretold 
the  captivity  and  return  of  Israel,  and  Micah  the 
fall  of  Samaria,  and  Ezekiel  the  fall  of  Jerosaiem, 
and  Isaiah  the  fall  of  Tyre,  and  Jeremiah  the  limits 
of  the  captivity.  It  was  the  distinguishing  mark 
of  the  Jewish  people,'  adds  the  same  writer,  *  that 
their  golden  a^  was  not  in  the  past^  hot  in  the 
future;  that  their  greatest  hero  (as  they  deemed 
him  to  be)  was  not  their  foander,  but  their  founHer's 
latest  descendant.  Their  traditions,  their  fancies, 
their  glories,  gathered  round  the  head,  not  of  a 
chief,  or  warrior,  or  sage  that  had  been,  but  of  i 
king,  a  deliverer,  a  prophet,  who  was  to  come.  Of 
this  singular  expectation,  the  prophets  were,  if  not 
the  diief  authors,  at  least  the  chief  expooenta.'* 
The  reality  of  a  succession  of  Messianic  predictioBS, 
is  admitted  by  even  very  advanced  theologians ;  and 
the  more  usuial  opinion,  it  is  well  known,  nigaidi 

*  Dean  Stanley,  JewiA  Ckurek^  voL  i  p^  46i^ 


PROPOLIS  -PROPORTION. 


these  predictions  from  the  time  of  Moses  to  the 
time  ot  Malachi  as  admitting  of  no  qnestion,  from 
the  supposed   oleamess,  fulness,  ana  particularity 
with  wnich  they  announce  a  ddiverer,  and  describe 
his  functioDiL   '  That  salvation  should  oome  through 
the   family    of   Abraham,    Isaac,    Jacob,    Jndjui, 
David;  that  at  the  time  of  the  final  absorption 
of  Jewish  power,  Shiloh  (the  tranouilliser)  should 
gather   the  nations  under  his  rule  ;   that  there 
should  be  a  great  prophet  typified  by  Moses,  a 
kin^    descended    from   David,  a   priest   for  ever 
typified   by  Melohizedek  ;    that  tnere  should  be 
born  into  the  world  a  child,  to  be  called  Miehty 
God,  Eternal  Father,  Prince  of  Peace ;  that  there 
should  be  a  righteous  servant  of  God  on  whom  the 
Lord  should  lay  the  iniquity  of  us  all ;  that  Messiah^ 
the  Prince,  should  be  cut  off,  but  not  for  Hinaelf ; 
that  an  everlasting  kingdom  should  be  given  by  the 
Ancient  of  Days  to  one  like  the  Son  of  Man.    It 
seems  impossible  to  harmonise  so  many  apparent 
contradictions.     Nevertheless,  it  is  an  unaoubted 
fact,  that  at  the  time  seemingly  pointed  out  by  one 
or  more  of  these  predictions,  there  was  bom  into 
the  world  a  child  oi  the  house  of  David,  and  there- 
fore of  the  family  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  and 
Judab,  who  claimed  to  be  the  object  of  these  and 
other  predictions ;  who  is  acknowledged  as  Prophet, 
Priest,  and  King,  as  Mighty  God,  and  yet  as  God*s 
righteous  servant,  who  bears  the  iniquity  of  all ; 
who  was  cut  off,  and  whose  death  is  acknowledged 
not  to  have  been  for  His  own,  hut  for  othen^  gsod; 
who  has  instituted  a  spiritual  kingdom  on  earth, 
which  kinffdom  is  of  a  nature  to  continue  for  ever, 
and   in  whose  doings  and  sufferings  on  earth  a 
number  of  specific  predictions  were  fulfilled.     Then 
we  may  say  that  we  have  here  a  series  of  prophecies 
which  are  so  applicable  to  the  person  and  earthly 
life  of  Jesus  Chnst»  as  to  be  thereby  shewn  to  have 
been  designed  to  apply  to  Him ;  and  if  they  were 
designed  to  apply  to  Him,  prophetical  prediction 
is  proved.* — Smith's  DicUonary  of  BiMe,  art  Ph>* 
phecy. 

Such  is  the  common  view  of  prophecy.  It  has, 
indeed,  been  maintained  by  certam  writers  that 
lUeral  prtdieUon  has  no  place  in  prophecy;  that 
Isaiah  did  not  foretell  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  or 
the  fall  of  Tyre,  nor  Jeremiah  the  Seventy  xeaxif 
Captivity,  nor  Nahum  the  ruin  of  Nineveh;  and 
that  the  Messianic  prophecies  wero  merely  '  ardent 
hopes  and  poetical  descriptions '  of  a  glorious  future, 
into  which  the  prophetic  mind  naturally  projected 
itself.  Such^  deuneations  were  '  in  essence  nothing 
Ymt  forti)oding9 — efforts  of  the  spiritual  eye  to  bring 
up  before  itself  the  distinct  form  of  the  future: 
to  make  such  presentiments  into  historical 
dtjclaraiions,  is  to  mistake  their  character.'— David- 
■on*s  Infroductum,  voL  iv.  But  this  is  not  the 
ordinary  theory  of  prophecy,  either  amon^  Jews  or 
Christians.  Both  alike  recognise  the  reahty  of  the 
predictive  element,  however  differentiy  they  may 
interpret  and  apply  the  prediction.  Ijiey  contend 
not  only  for  a  special  spiritual  elevation  in  the 
prophet — an  intenser  degree  of  the  same  divine 
intuition  which  God  gives  to  all  who  worship  Him 
in  love  and  reverence— but  for  a  gift  of  light  vouch- 
safed to  him  different  from  any  ordinary  endow- 
ment. Prophecy  is  not  merely  the  effluence  of  the 
divine  Spirit  enriching  and  exalting  all  the  natural 
faculties,  but  it  is  the  direct  communication  of  God 
Himself,  to  the  prophet  unveiling  the  future  for 
the  guidance  of  Wm  church,  and  the  glory  of  His 
name. 

The  further  study  of  the  subject  may  be  pursued 
by  readers  in  numerous  volumes,  amonost  which 
the  following  may  be  recommended :  John  Smith, 
SeUct  DUcoursu  on  Prophecy;  Lowth,  I>e  Sacra 


Poesi  Ilehreeorum ;  Davison,  ZHseourfies  on  Pro- 
phecy; Butler,  Analogy  qf  Beligion;  Horne, 
Introduction  to  Holy  Scripture;  Eichhom,  Die 
Hebraischen  Proj^eten;  Ewald,  Die  Propheten  dee 
Alien  Bundee;  Hengstenberg,  Chrietology  of  the 
Old  Teatament;  Fairbaim,  Prophecy;  Davidson, 
Introduction  to  the  Old  Teetament;  Stanley, 
Lectures  on  the  Jewish  Chur^ 

PROTOLIS,  a  substance  used  by  bees  in  the 
construction  of  their  combs,  to  give  to  the  fabric  a 
strength  which  it  could  not  have  if  made  of  wax 
alone.  See  Bkb.  It  is  also  used  for  closing  up 
chinks  of  the  hive.  It  is  a  resinous  unctuous  sub- 
stance of  a  reddish-brown  colour,  a  somewhat  bitter 
taste,  and  an  agreeable  aromatic  odour,  and  is  col* 
lected  from  the  buds  of  trees.  Huber  found  bees 
eagerly  to  appropriate  the  viscous  exudation  which 
abounds  on  poplar  buds.  P.  probably  differs  a 
little  in  chemical  composition  according  to  the  tree 
it  is  obtained  from,  but  it  consists  chiefly  of  resin. 
It  in  brought  to  the  hive  on  the  legs  of  bees,  and 
adheres  to  them  so  strongly  that  tiie  aspistance  of 
other  bees  is  necessary  for  its  removal  The  name 
is  from  the  Greek  pro^  before,  and  polis,  a  dty; 
because  the  most  exposed  parts  of  a  bee-hive  exhibit 
this  substance  in  greatest  abundance.  Foreign 
bodies  introduced  into  a  bee>hive,  and  which  the 
bees  are  unable  to  remove,  are  covered  with  pro* 
polis. 

PROPO'RTION,  in  Arithmetic  and  Geometry,  is 
a  particular  species  of  relation  subsisting  between 
groups  of  numbers  or  quantities.  NotwiSistanding 
that  the  idea  of  proportion  is  found  to  exist  in 

Serfection  in  the  mind  of  every  one,  yet  a  good 
efinition  of  it  is  a  matter  of  extreme  difficulty. 
The  two  definitions  which,  on  the  whole,  are  found 
to  be  least  objectionable  are  that  of  Euclid,  and  the 
ordinary^  arithmetical  definition.  The  latter  states 
proportion  to  be  the  *  equality  of  ratios,'  and  throws 
us  t>ack  on  the  definition  of  the  term  Batio  (q.  v.) ; 
which  may  most  simply  be  considen»l  as  the  relation 
of  two  numbers  to  each  other,  shewn  by  a  division  of 
the  one  by  the  other.   Thus,  the  ratio  of  12  to  3,  ex- 

12 
pressed  by  -^,  or  4,  denotes  that  12  contains  3  four 

times;  and  the  ratio  of  8  to  2  being  also  4,  we 
have  from  our  definition  a  statement  that  the 
four  numbers,  12,  3,  8,  and  2,  are  in  proportion,  or, 
as  it  is  commonly  expressed,  12  bears  to  3  the 
same  ratio  that  8  does  to  2,  or  12 : 3  :  :  8  :  SL    In 

the  same  way,  it  is  shewn  that  3:8::  13( :  36 ;  for 

o 

2  expresses  the  ratio  of  the  first  to  the  second,  and 

o 

'qa  ^  79  "  ft*    ^^  ^'"^  ^  gathered  from  the  two 

arithmetical  proportions  here  siven,  and  from  any 
others  that  can  be  formed,  that  *ihe  product  of 
(he  firet  and  laai  terms  (the  extremes)  ts  equal  to 
the  product  of  the  second  and  third  terms  (the 
means) ;'  and  upon  this  property  of  proportional 
numbers  directly  depends  the  arithmetical  rule 
CjUled  'proportion,*  &o.  The  object  of  this  rule  is 
to  find  a  fourth  proportional  to  three  civen  num- 
bers— L  e.,  a  number  to  which  the  third  bears  the 
same  ratio  that  the  first  does  to  the  second,  and 
the  number  in  at  once  found  by  multiplying 
together  the  second  and  third  terms,  and  dividing 
the  product  by  the  first.  Proportion  is  illus- 
trated arithmetically  by  such  problems  as,  'If 
four  yards  cost  six  shilhnga,  what  will  ten  cost  ?' 
Here,  15  beine  the  fourth  proportional  to  4,  6,  and 
10,  fifteen  shillings  ia  the  answer.  The  distinction 
of  proportion  into  direct  and  inverse  is  not  only  nuite 
unnecessary,  but  highly  mischievous,  as  it  tends  to 

797 


PROPOSITION— PROROGATION. 


crsftte  the  idea,  that  it  is  possible  for  more  than  <me 
kind  of  proportion  to  snbsiat.    Continued  proporiian 
indinates  a  property  of  every  three  consecutire  or 
equidistant  terms  m  a  *  Geometrical  Progression' 
(q.  V.)-  -for  instance,  in  the  series  2, 4,  8, 16,  32 ... , 
2 : 4 : :  4  :  8,  4  :  8  : :  8  :  16,  Ac.,  or  2  :  8  : :  8  :  32,  fta 
In  the  above  remarks,  all  consideration  of  Ineomr- 
mensurable  Quantities  (q.  v.)  has  been  omitted. — ^The 
definition  given   by  Euclid   is  as  follows :   Four 
magnitudes    are   proportional,   when,    any   equi- 
multiples whatever  being  taken  of  the  first   and 
third,  and  any  whatever  of  the  second  and  fourth, 
according  as  the  multiple  of  the  first  is  greater, 
equal  to,  or  less    than  that  of  the    second,  the 
multiple  of  the  third   is  also  ^ater,  equal  to,  or 
less  tnan  that  of  the  fourth — l  e..  A,  B,  0,  D  are 
proportionals,  when,  if  mA  is  greater  than  nB,  mO  is 
greater  than  nT> ;   if  mA  is  equal  to  nB,  mC  is 
equal  to  nD;  if  mA  is  less  than  nB,  mC  is  less 
than  nT> ;  m  and  n  being  any  multiples  whatso- 
ever.    The  apparent  cumbrousness   and   circum- 
locution   in   tnis    definition    arise    from   Euclid's 
endeavour  to  include  incommensurable  quantities; 
throwing  them  out  of  account,  it  is  sufficient  to 
say   that   four   magnitudes    are    proportional,    if, 
like  multiples  being  taken  of  the  first  and  tliird, 
and    like   of  the  second  and  fourth,   when   the 
multiple  of  the  first  is  equal  to  the  multiple  of  the 
second,  the  multiple  of  the  third  is  equal  to  the 
multiple  of  the  fourth.    Abundance  of  ulustrations 
of  the  general  definition  will  be  found  in  the  Fiftii 
Book  of  Euclid,  and  oi  the  particular  one  in  the 
notes  appended  to  some  of  the  later  editions  of  the 
same  work ;  it  will  be  sufficient  here  to  give  an 
arithmetical  instance  of  the  working  of  the  partion- 
lar  definition.     Taking  the  four  numbers  of  a  pre- 
vious example — 12, 3, 8, 2 ;  of  12  and  8  take  multiples 
by  4j  and  of  3  and  2  by  16,  then   12  x  4   (the 
multiple  of  the  first)  s=  3  x  16  {the  multiple  of  the 
second),  and  8x4  (the  multiple  of  the  third)  a 
2x16  (the  multiple  of  the  fourth).  In  this  example, 
the  two  multiples  were  so  taken  that  the  multiple 
of  the  first  would  be  equal  to  the  multiple  of  the 
second,  and  when  it  was  found  that  the  multiple  of 
the  third  was  also  equal  to  the  multiple  of  the 
fourth,  the  proportionality  of  the  four  numbers  was 
established. 

PBOPOSI'TION.  This  is  the  technical  name 
for  the  final  constituent^  or  ultimate  element,  of 
whatever  we  call  knowledge — what  we  can  believe 
or  disbelieve.  'Fire  melts  wax;'  'the  harvest  is 
good ;'  '  Rome  stands  on  the  Tiber ; '  '  the  moon  is 
not  inhabited ' — are  propositions.  All  information, 
whether  historical,  scientific,  or  practical,  may  be 
re<K)lved  at  last  into  simple  statements  such  as 
tuese;  and  all  such,  statements  are  propositions. 
In  every  proposition,  there  are  two  parts:  some- 
thing spoken  about,  called  the  Subject ;  and  some- 
thing said,  affirmed,  or  declared  of  what  is  spoken 
about,  called  the  Predicate.  In  the  first  example 
given,  'Fire'  is  the  subject,  'melts  wax'  is  the 
predicate  or  affirming  part,  to  which  a  verb  is 
necessaiy.  In  the  second  example, ' Harvest'  is  the 
subject,  'is  good'  the  predicate.  But  sometimes 
this  last  part  is  resolved  further  into  Predicate 
(good)  and  Copula  (is).  The  predicate  then  simply 
means  the  quality  or  fact  affirmed,  while  the  copula 
gives  the  affirmation.  In  the  previous  case,  the 
copula  is  contained  in  the  predicate  (melts). 

J^ropositions  are  affirmative  or  negative,  according 
as  we  declare  that  a  thins  is,  or  that  it  is  not ;  '  the 
moon  is  (not)  inhabited'  As  some  propositions 
cofitain  the  form  of  a  condition,  and  some  the  form 
of  an  alternative,  these  are  called  hypothetical,  in 
opxtosition  to  which  the  rest  are  called  categorieaL 
Ii  A  is  B,  0  is  D,  is  the  conditional  form  of  tiie 

798 


hypothetical  class.     Either  Aia  B^orOisD,  ii 
called  the  disfuncUtfe  form. 

Propooitions  are  further  divided,  aooordmg  to  their 
quantity,  or  according  to  the  extent  of  the  sabject^ 
mto  universal,  particular,  singular,  and  ind^iuU: 
'  all  the  moving  powers  are  originally  derived  from 
the  sun*  (universal);  *some  men  are  wise'  ({larti- 
cular);  *  Socrates  is  wise'  (singular).  The 'inde- 
finite '  means  the  uncertain  or  ambiguous  in  {orm, 
as  '  wine  is  good ; '  many  of  this  form  are  known  to 
be  universal  as  '  man  is  mortal' 

In  inquiring  into  the  ultimate  import  or  meaning 
of  propositions,  Mr  John  Stuart  Mill  has  come  to 
the  conclusion  that  they  £all  under  five  chsea, 
distinguished  according  to  the  nature  of  the  quality 
predicated.  The  five  universal  and  oomprebensiw 
predicates  are — ^Existence,  (^o-existence  (sometimes 
taking  the  form  of  Order  in  Place),  Succession 
(Order  in  Time),  Causation,  Besemblance.  £?eiy 
fact,  or  piece  of  information,  consists  in  the  affirms* 
tion  of  some  one  of  these  five  general  attribates. 
Existence  by  itself  exi>res8es  a  very  limited  clasi^ 
since  we  usually  specify  circumstances  of  time^ 
place,  &a,  in  the  same  assertion:  'There  is  sa 
ether  for  oonveving  light  and  heat,'  is  a  proportion 
of  Existence ;  but  it  would  be  more  usually  stated 
as  having  locality  (Order  in  Place,  or  Co-existenoe), 
'an  ethereal  medium  is  diffused  over  all  space.' 
Existence  is  the  only  one  of  the  five  attribates  tbt 
can  be  affirmed  of  one  thing ;  all  tiie  rest  require  at 
least  two  things.  The  attribute  of  Ck>-ezisteDoe 
appears  in  a  very  large  number  of  nropositions :  all 
geographical  statements  and  local  descriptions ;  all 
the  natural  conjunctions  ol  properties  (the  animal 
frame  consists  of  digestive  orvans,  a  nervous  system, 
ftc.),  affirm  oo-existeno&  The  attribute  of  Sno> 
cession  is  seen  in  history,  and  in  all  the  efaao^ 


aspects  of  things.  The  attribute  of  Caosation  is  a 
special  case  of  Succession,  so  important  as  to  be 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  first-dass  predicate.  The 
facts  of  physical  and  mental  science  involve  not 
merely  succession,  but  cause  and  effect:  'Heat 
expands  bodies;'  'practioe  imrat>ves  the  hnman 
faculties.'  The  concluding  attribute — ResemblanoB 
— ^is  of  very  wide  occurrence.  The  prepositions  of 
numerical  or  mathematical  science  aU  involve  some 
assertion  of  equality  or  inequality,  proportion  or 
disproportion:  'Twice  three  is  (equal  to)  six;' 
'  tnancles  in  the  same  base  and  between  liie  same 
parallels  are  equaV  Throuj^out  fdl  oar  knowledge^ 
the  afi^irmation  of  Itkenesa,  or  oi  unHkeaess,  is  a 
fimdamental  fact;  but,  in  mathematir^  it  oon* 
stitutes  the  charaoteristio  predicate,  or  .he  sols 
affirmation. 

PROROGATION,  the  oontmuanoe  of  parliament 
from  one  session  to  another.  Parliament  is  pro* 
rogued  by  her  Majesty's  command,  signified  in  bet 
presence  by  the  Lord  Chancellor,  or  Speaker  of  the 
House  of  Lords,  to  both  Houses,  or  when  her 
Majesty  is  not  personally  present^  by  writ  onder 
the  Great  Seal,  or  by  Commission.  Prorogation  not 
only  suspends  all  business,  bnt  quashes  afi  proceed- 
ings pending  at  the  time,  except  impeadbments  by 
the  Oonmions,  and  writs  of  error  and  appeals 
before  the  House  of  Lords.  A  bUl  must  be  renewed 
after  a  prorogation,  as  if  it  had  never  been  intro- 
duced. A  prorogation  for  a  single  day  has  sometimes 
been  resorted  t^  to  enable  a  bill  to  be  brooj^bt  in  a 
second  time,  it  bein?  a  rule  that  no  second  hill  of  the 
same  substance  wiw  a  prior  one  can  be  introdnoed 
in  the  same  session.  Thus  pariiament  was  no- 
rogued  by  WUliam  IIL  from  the  2lBt  to  the  23d  of 
October  1689,  in  order  to  renew  the  BOl  of  Rights, 
regarding  which  a  difference  had  arisen  between  the 
Upper  and  Lower  House  that  was  fatal  to  it  By  SI 
Geo,  IIL  c.  127,  after  parliament  haa  been  prorogoed 


HtOSECUnOK— PBOSEGUTOIL 


to  a  ]Mriicn1ar  day,  ber  Majesty  may,  by  nro* 
clamatioD,  or  11  it  together  on  any  other  day,  not  leaa 
than  14  days  distant,  to  which  day  parliament  then 
stands  prorogued.    See  Paruambnt. 

PBOSEOU  CION,  thoo^  often  used  in  a  general 
sense,  as  applicable  to  all  kinds  of  litigation,  is  also 
nsed  technically  to  denote  the  institution  of  criminal 
proceedings  against  a  party.  There  are  two  ways  in 
which  a  prosecution  commences  in  Enfland.  One  is 
to  summon,  or,  in  the  graver  cases,  to  arrest  and 
bring  the  offender  before  a  justice  of  the  peace, 
when  the  witnesses  are  examined,  and  if  the  justice 
thinks  a  primd  facie  case  is  made  out,  he  commits 
the  offender  for  trial  Another  way  is  without  any 
such  preliminary  inquii^  before  a  justice,  for  the 
prosecutor  to  go  with  witnesses  before  a  grand  jury, 
and  in  all  cases  this  is  a  step  in  the  prosecution. 
The  grand  jury  hear  the  witnesses,  and  if  they 
think  there  is  a  primd  facie  case,  they  find  a  true 
bill ;  if  otherwise,  they  ignore  the  buL  The  bill 
means  an  indictment  When  the  indictment  is 
found,  the  prisoners  are  arraigned  at  the  bar,  and 
asked  by  the  judge  whether  they  plead  guilty  or 
not  guiltv;  and  in  general  they  plead  not  guilty. 
A  jury  of  twelve  are  then  sworn,  and  try  the  case, 
and  fmd  a  verdict  of  guilty  or  not  guilty,  where- 
upon the  judge  sentences  the  prisoner  to  punish- 
ment, which  varies  according  to  the  enormitv  of 
the  offence.  In  general,  a  new  trial  cannot  be  held 
in  criminal  caaes,  though,  if  an  error  is  committed, 
the  conviction  is  often  quashed. 

PRCySEOnTOB  is  the  person  who  takes  the 
initiative  in  punishing  Crimea  In  England,  there  is 
no  public  prosecutor,  and  the  prosecution  of  crimes 
is  left  to  the  spontaneous  action  of  the  injured 
party.  Hence  it  often  happens  that  many  crimes 
CO  unpunished,  for  the  mere  want  of  its  being  any- 
body's business  to  attend  to  this  part  of  the  pubnc 
interest.  It  is  true  that  the  attorney-general  is  some- 
times the  prosecutor  on  behalf  of  the  public,  but  this 
only  happens  in  rare  and  exceptional  cases  connected 
with  political  government  or  some  monstrous  and 
abnormal  crime.  In  all  cases,  therefore,  it  may  be 
accurately  stated  that  it  is  left  to  the  uncontrolled 
discretion  of  anybody  to  commence  a  prosecution, 
however  great  a  stranger  to  the  circumstances.  But 
though  he  may  take  the  initiative,  vet  in  the  ordi- 
nary course,  a  stranger  seldom  unaertakes  such  a 
duty,  and  for  very  sufficient  reasons.  If  a  party  is 
robbed  by  a  servant  or  clerk«  or  by  burglars,  he 
naturally  desires  to  prosecute  them ;  if  a  person  is 
murdered,  some  one  of  the  relatives  naturally  prose- 
cutes. Therefore,  there  is  in  most  cases  a  sufficient 
motive  impelling  some  partv,  or  friend  of  the  party 
injured  by  the  crime,  out  of  mere  revenge,  if  tor  no 
ouier  reason,  to  commence  a  prosecution.  But  it  fol- 
lows that,  as  there  is  no  pubhc  prosecutor,  and  as  he 
who  acts  as  such  is  a  volunteer,  he  does  so  more  or 
less  at  his  own  expense,  and  in  the  first  instance  must 
always  do  sa  He  must  employ  his  own  attorney 
and  counsel,  who,  of  course,  require  to  be  paid  for 
^eir  services.  It  is  true  that  tne  expenses  of  pro- 
secuting most  crimes  are  supposed  to  be  ultimately 
repaid  by  the  county  in  whicn  the  trial  takes  place ; 
but  this  idlowance  is  a  wretched  pittance,  and  is 
seldom  one-fourth  of  the  real  expenses  incurred  by 
the  private  prosecutor.  Hence,  in  the  end,  the  pro- 
aecutor  finds  that  he  loses  a  great  deal  of  money  as 
well  as  time  in  carrying  on  a  prosecution.  Indeed, 
in  practice,  the  result  is,  that  no  person  to  whom 
his  money  is  of  much  conse^iuence  ever  prosecutes  a 
second  time,  and  the  first  time  he  almost  invariably 
does  80  in  ignorance  of  the  pecuniary  result,  there 
being  a  vague  kind  of  popular  belief  that  the 
expenses  are  repaid*     Few  people,  indeed,  fail  to 


repent  of  embarking  in  such  a  litigation;  and  ths 
prudent  and  experienced  are  in  the  habit  of  remark* 
inOf  that  prosecutions  are  only  kept  going  by  the 
unbroken  succession  of  young  and  inexperienced 
persons  who  do  not  know  better.  A  person  who 
prosecutes  a  small  larceny  of  five  shillings  mav  incur 
expenses  of  from  five  to  fifteen  poundis,  which  is 
money  out  of  pocket  when  his  attorney's  bill  is 
paid.  But  not  only  is  there  great  expense  and 
loss  in  the  mere  prosecution  itself ;  there  are  far 
more  ^evous  consequences.  If  it  happen — and  it 
seems  in  about  half  of  the  cases  it  really  does 
happen^-that  the  priscmer  is  not  found  ^illy,  or 
the  case  breaks  down  from  defective  evidence  or 
otherwise,  the  first  thing  that  the  prisoner  does 
is  to  bring  an  action  for  false  imprisonment  or  for 
malicious  prosecution,  against  the  prosecutor.  It 
is  said  that  attorneys  infest  all  the  police  courts 
and  petty  sessions,  by  keeping  an  organised  service 
of  watchers  to  pick  up  cases  of  this  kind,  which 
are  called  speculative  actions.  The  speculative 
attorney  promises  to  take  ths  chance  of  gaining 
the  action,  and,  of  course,  as  it  costs  the  prisoner 
nothing,  he  readily  lends  his  name,  and,  out  ol 
revenge,  joins  keenly  in  the  attempt  to  recover 
huge  damages.  It  is  true  that  in  all  such  cases  the 
prosecutor  ought  not  in  theory  to  lose  the  verdict,  if 
ne  acted  under  a  reasonable  and  honest  belief  that 
a  crime  had  been  committed;  but  however  plausible 
this  defence  may  be  in  theory,  it  is  a  very  different 
thing  to  establish  it  in  practice.  At  the  trial  of 
the  action,  counsel  on  such  occasions  enlarge 
on  the  monstrous  oppression  of  having  given  am 
innocent  man  into  custodv,  blasting  his  character 
and  reputation  for  life,  ana  attributing  the  prosecu- 
tion to  spite  or  malice ;  and  as  the  presumption  is 
always  in  favour  of  innocence,  it  is  astonishing  how 
easily  a  jury  may  be  led  away  by  a  spurious 
sympathy  in  favour  of  the  quondam  prisoner.  It  is 
thus  entirely  a  lottery  in  such  cases  how  the  verdict 
will  go,  and  verdicts  of  ten,  fifty,  or  a  hundred 
pounds  of  damages  are  often  obtained,  simply 
because  of  the  aocidental  defect  of  some  oon<na* 
sive  pieoe  of  evidence,  with  which  the  defendant  in 
the  aiction  had  probably  no  more  to  do  than  any 
other  person,  when  ue  quondam  prosecutor  is  a 
person  of  substance  and  position —and,  of  course,  a 
speculative  attorney  will  not  sue  those  who  are  not 
so — ^he  often  finds  it  prudent  to  compromise  ths 
action  by  paying  a  lump  sum,  rather  than  run  the 
risk  of  a  triaL  Many  attorneys  in  the  metropolis 
and  large  towns  of  ^gland  carry  on  a  large  and 
lucrative  business  by  systematically  bringing  these 
speculative  actions  against  unsucceasful  proeecutors. 
The  evils  of  this  state  of  the  law  have  been  often 
complained  of,  but  have  not  yet  been  remedied, 
probably  because  other  systems  of  prosecuting  crime 
are  open  to  objections.^In  Scotland,  a  well  settled 
system  of  public  prosecutors  has  long  been  in 
operation,  which  avoids  most  of  the  evils  already 
described.  The  Lord  Advocate  is  ex  offido  the 
pubUo  prosecutor,  and  there  aro  counsel  called 
advocates-depute  who  assist  him,  besides  a  \octl 
functionary  called  a  Procurator-Fiscal  (q.  v.)  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  The  public  prosecutor's  duty 
and  business  is  to  act  on  all  reasonable  suggestions 
that  a  crime  has  been  committed,  but  he  is  not 
compelled  to  prosecute.  If  he  rofuse  to  do  so,  a 
private  party  mav  at  his  own  risk,  with  the  con- 
course of  the  Lord  Advocate,  insist  on  the  prosecu- 
tion ;  but  he  may  be  called  on  to  find  caution  or 
give  security.  The  usual  course  is  for  the  procura- 
tor-fiscal to  take  the  precognitions ;  i  &,  the  exami- 
nation of  witnesses  before  the  sheriff,  a  copy  of 
which  is  laid  before  the  crown-counsel,  and  if  they 
are  satisfied  that  a  prmd  fade  case  is  made  ouL 

7W 


PROSELYTESt-PROSTrrUTBS. 


the  proceeding  is  carried  on  to  trial ;  but  if  there  it 
not  Buffictent  evidence,  the  prisoner  is  ordered  to  be 
at  once  diecharsed.  The  entire  expense  of  prose- 
cuting crime  in  Scotland,  whether  at  the  higher  or 
local  tnliunals,  is  borne  by  the  public ;  the  persons 

riadly  injured  haying  nothing  whateyer  to  do  in 
matter  except  to  appear  as  witnesses  when 
called  upon.  This  system  has  worked  for  three 
centuries  with  entire  satisfaction. 

PRO'SELYTES  (Gr.  pro9-^luto»,  one  who  comes 
from  without,  a  stranger;  Hebr.  Oerim)  was  the 
name  given  by  the  Jews  to  those  heathens  who 
became  converts  to  Judaism.  There  were  two 
kinds  of  proselytes  distinguished:  *  Proselytes  of 
the  Gate,*  that  is,  heathen  strangers,  who,  in  order 
to  be  allowed  to  reside  in  Palestine,  had  undertaken 
to  submit  to  the  'Seven  Commandments  of  the 
Sons  of  Noah,'  that  prohibit  blasphemy,  idolatry, 
murder,  incest,  theft,  disobedience  to  the  authori- 
ties, and  the  eating[  of  flesh  with  the  blood  on  it : 
commandments  which  probably  had  grown  out  of 
certain     restrictions     ori^^nally    put    upon    the 

*  strangers'  by  the  Mosaic  Law  (Exodus,  ziL  19; 
xz.  10,  &a).     These  *  Proselytes  of  the  Qate,'  or 

*  Sojourners,*  could  not  claim  all  the  privileges  of  an 
Israelite,  could  not  redeem  their  first-born,  and,  at  a 
later  period,  were  not  allowed  to  live  in  Jerusalem ; 
yet  tney  were  permitted  to  offer  whole  burnt- 
offerings,  and  otherwise  contribute  towards  the 
religious  wants  of  the  commonwealth.  The  second 
class  of  proselytes  was  formed  by  the  Oere  haUedek 
(Pious  Proselytes),  or  Oere  haherith  (Proselytes  of 
the  Covenant).  These  accepted  all  the  dogmas  and 
customs  of  Judaism  to  their  fullest  extent,  and  were 
called  '  Complete  Inrae]ite&'  The  new  candidates 
were  first  strictly  asked  for  their  motives,  and  the 
<das8ification  of  those  who  were  not  to  be  admitted 
runs  as  follows:  tliose  whose  motive  is  love 
(husband  for  the  sake  of  following  his  wife's 
faith,  or  vice  ver&d) ;  Proselytes  of  the  Tables  of  the 
Kings  (L  e.,  those  who  covet  court-favour) ;  Esther- 
Proselytes  (who  wish  to  escape  some  threateniDg 
danger,  cf.  Esther,  viiL  7) ;  and  Lion -Proselytes 
(those  who,  from  a  superstitious  fear,  wish  to  enter 
Judaism,  like  tiie  Samaritans,  2d  Kin^,  xviL  26). 
If,  on  the  other  hand^  the  motives  were  satisfactory, 
the  candidate  was  further  cautioned  against  attach- 
ing himself  to  a  persecuted  people,  and  warned  that 
sufferings  of  aU  kinds  would  be  his  lot  in  this  life. 
If  all  this  did  not  deter  him,  he  was  '  brought  under 
the  wings  of  God.'  He  was  fully  instructed  in  the 
religion  and  history  of  the  people,  and  shewn  the 
special  Providence  that  guiaed  them  and  watched 
over  them.  If  a  male,  he  was  circumcised,  and,  in 
case  of  his  being  circumcised  already  (for  instance, 
if  he  belonged  to  another  nation  practising  this 
rite),  a  few  drops  of  blood  were  drawn  '  from  the 
blood  of  the  covenant,'  a  special  prayer  was  said 
for  him,  and  a  new  name  was  given  to  him,  while 
for  that  of  his  father,  Abraham  was  substituted. 
After  the  healing  of  the  wound.  Baptism  (Tebilah) 
followed,  and  he  had  further  to  offer  up  a  Sacrifice 
(Korban).  Females  had  likewise  to  imdergo  baptism 
and  to  bring  a  sacrifice.  All  natural  relations  were 
then  cancelled,  the  Proselyte  was  considered  like  *a 
new-bom  child,'  and  the  Holy  Ghost  was  supposed 
to  come  upon  him. 

The  desire  to  p^roselytise,  which  became  strong 
among  the  political  leaders  during  the  Maoca- 
bean  period,  and  which  led  to  the  *  bringing  into 
the  CoD^^rregation'  of  entire  nations,  such  as  the 
Idumffians  under  John  fijrrkan,  the  Iturians  under 
Aristobulos,  contrasted  strongly  and  most  char- 
acteristically with  the  utter  contempt  in  which  the 
new-comers  were  held  by  the  people,  and  with 
the  suspicion  with  which  they  were  regarded,  and 

S90 


their  (after  all)  limited  social  rights  and  amb^goooi 
position.  The  Talmud  speaks  of  them  in  no 
measured  terms,  and  there  n  no  doubt  tha^  on  the 
whole,  they  must  have  acted  a  yei:y  dubious  parL 
They  wera  called  the  Leprosy  oi  Israel;  it  was 
the  Proselytes  and  other  reprobates  who  stood  in 
the  way  of  the  coming  of  the  Messiah ;  and  op  to 
the  twenty-fourth  ^neration  were  they  to  be  dis- 
trusted. Yet,  notwithstanding  all  this,  conversions 
were  very  frequent,  especially  amcng  the  better 
classes — and  here,  again,  among  women  mineipaUy 
— in  Damascus,  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Bome;  so 
much  so,  that  even  the  Roman  legislation  was  com- 
pelled, in  the  1st  c.  b.  a,  to  provide  for  cases  of 
Jndaisers.  It  is  a  curious  fact,  worth  remember* 
ing,  that  one  of  the  main  features  of  the  times  of 
the  Messiah  was  to  be,  according  to  Jewish  tradi- 
tion, the  utter  abolition  of  proselytism,  and  the 
entire  ceasing  of  all  distinctions  of  an  opprobrious 
nature  among  men.  The  evil  repute  into  which  tiie 
term  Proselyte  had  fallen  in  tne  times  of  Christ 
also  caused  the  early  converts  to  Christianity  to 
adopt  tiie  name  of  Neophytes  (newly  planted 
instead. 

PROSE'RPIKA,  the  Latin  form  of  the  Greek 

PeBSEPHOKB     (also      PkRSEPHATTA,     PERSEPHiLaSA, 

Pherephassa;  in  Homer,  pEBSEPHOinsiA),  was, 
according  to  the  common  myth,  the  daughter  of 
Zeus  and  DemSter  (Ceres)  or  of  Styx.  The  story  of 
her  abduction  by  'gloomy  Dis,'  while  gathering 
flowers  on  the  plains  of  Enna,  in  Sicily,  in  company 
with  Artemis  and  Athena,  does  not  occur  in  Homer, 
who  simply  represents  her  as  the  wife  of  the  king 
of  Hades,  and  as  the  maiortic  queen  of  the  Under^ 
world — a  subterranean  Hera  (Juno).  It  is  firrt 
given  by  Hesiod,  and  is  manifestly  an  aU^oiy  of 
the  seasons.  See  Cerebl  In  the  mystical  Oipiiie 
Hymns,  P.  appears  as  the  all-pervading  goddess 
of  nature,  who  produces  and  destroys  everythins, 
and  she  has  been  mixed  up  and  identified  wiUi 
other  mystical  goddesses,  Rhea,  Artemis,  He* 
kate,  Ac  She  was  generally  worshipped  under  tiie 
name  of  Kore^  'maiden,'  alons  with  her  motber 
Demfiter.  The  chief  seats  of  her  wondiip  were 
Sicily  and  Magna  Gmcia;  but  she  had  also  temi^ 
at  Corinth,  MeganK  Thebes,  and  Sparta.  In  worka 
of  art,  P.  is  represented  sometimes  as  the  grave  and 
earnest  spouse  of  Pluto,  sitting  on  a  throne  beade 
her  sombre  husband,  with  a  sceptre  and  a  little 
box ;  but  more  frequently  as  a  blooming  virgin,  the 
picture  of  her  mother,  in  the  act  of  being  carried  off 
to  Hades. 

PRO'SODT  (Gr.  proaOdkt^  literally,  '  bdmiging 
to  song  or  hymn ')  is  the  name  given,  both  by  the 
ancients  and  modems,  to  that  part  of  grammar  which 
treats  of  the  rules  of  rhythm  in  metriostl  oomposi- 
tion.    See  Metre,  Rhyve,  Bulnk  Vebsbl 

PROSPECT,  in  Roman  Law,  was  recognised  as  » 
legal  incident  of  a  house,  or  an  urban  servitude,  so 
that  no  adjoining  owner  was  entitled  to  obstnict 
the  prospect  or  view  of  a  man's  house.  But  if  this 
meant  more  than  that  the  light  should  not  be 
sensibly  obstructed,  it  is  not  recognised  in  English 
or  Scotch  law.    See  Light. 

PRO'SSNITZ,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Austria, 
in  Moravia,  in  the  fruitful  plain  of  PTftun^^^  stands 
on  the  Rumza,  12  miles  south-west  of  OlniUtz. 
It  contains  a  convent,  and  a  linen,  and  several 
cloth  factories.  Brandy  is  extensively  distilled. 
Pop.  11,400. 

PRO'STITUTES,  Law  as  tol  It  is  not  m 
offence,  in  this  country,  for  a  person  to  cany  on 
a  course  of  prostitution  in  his  or  her  own  peisoD : 
but  when  others  are  incited,  or  forced  to  that  oourae; 
it  may  become  so,  in  certain  oiroumstancea     Thw^ 


FROSTTLE-FROTETN  AKD  THE  FAOTEm  BODIES. 


for  a  penon  to  keep  »  disorderly  hoose,  w  an 
indictaDle  offenoe,  which  it  poBuihable  by  fine  and 
impriaonment,  and  the  pariah  offieen  in  England 
ara  bound  to  institate  the  proaeootion,  the  ezpenaea 
of  which  are  paid  out  oi  the  poor^iatea.     It  i% 
howoTer,  only  the  penon  who  keepa  ihe  house 
who  18  panishable^  and  no  pnnishment  can  be 
hnpoaed  on  the  frequenters  of  the  house  in  any 
circamstanoea.     The   law    may    be    said   to    m 
pwBive  80  far  aa  the  mere  fact  of  prostitution  or 
immoral  intercourse  ia  ooaoemed,  and  ^ves  neither 
party  any  remedy  against  the  other,  civil  or  crim- 
inal, arising  out  of   that  state   of  the   relations 
between  man  and  woman.    Thus,  if  a  man  give  a 
woman  a  bond,  providing  her  an  aanuily  in  con- 
aideration  of  her  Jiving  with  him  in  oonoubinage,  the 
law  will  not  enforce  it,  because  it  is  an  immoral 
consideration.     So,  if  a  woman  take  lodgings,  or 
buy  dreaaes,  for  the  nuvpoae  of  carrying  on  a  ooune 
of  prostitution,  the  law  will  not  enforce  the  jmy* 
meat  of  rent,  or  the  price  of  the  goods  sold,  because 
the  tendency  is  immoral      In  some  oountnea,  as  in 
France,  the  law  takes  direct  oo^^uzanoe  of  the  fact 
of    prostitution,  and   deals   with   prostitutes   for 
various  sanitary  purposes;  but  in  this  country,  the 
subject  was  entirely  ignored,  except  indirectly  in 
the  oases  above-mentioned,  and  until  1864^  m'hen 
a  statute  was  passed,  which  to  a  oertain  extent 
introduced   the  Frendi   procedurei      The  statute 
27   and   28  Vict.  o.  85,  applied  only  to   certain 
naval    and   military    stations — viz.,    Portsmouth, 
Pl^nnoath,  Woolwich,  Chatham,  Sheemess,  Alder- 
sbot,  Colchester,  Shomcli^  the  Ourragh,  Cork,  and 
Quecnstown,  but  not  to  Scotland.    In  those  places 
a  justice  of  the  peace  may  now,  on  information, 
order  a  woman  to  be  taken  to  a  certified  hospital 
for  medical  examination;   and  if  she  is  found  to 
have  a  contagious  disease,  she  may  be  detained  in 
the  hospitaJ  for  medical  treatment  during  not  more 
than  three  months.      A  woman  who   refuses  to 
submit  to  examination,  or  leaves  the  hospital  with- 
out being  duly  discharged,  is  liable  to  be  minrisoned 
for  one  or  two  months;  and  occupiers  oi  houses 
alluring  prostitutes  to  frequent  their  houses  when 
having  a  contagious  disease,  incur  a  penalty  of  £10, 
or  three  months*  imprisonment. 

PBO'STTLR  A  temple  with  a  portico  in  front 
When  it  had  a  portico  at  both  ends,  it  was  termed 
amphi-prostyle. 

PROTA'GOR  AS,  the  Greek  Sophist,  was  a  native 
of  Abdera,  where  he  was  bom  of  mimble  parentase^ 
probably  about  480  B.C.  He  was  the  first  who 
took  the  name  of  'Sophist,'  or  taught  for  pay. 
When  he  went  to  Athens,  i»  not  preciselv  known ; 
but  he  is  conjectured  to  have  gone  thither  about 
the  middle  of  the  oentury,  and  he  seems  to  have 
enjoyed  the  friendship  of  Perikks.  Accused  of 
atheism  by  one  of  his  own  scholars,  he  was  ban- 
ished from  Athena,  and  his  writinffs  were  ordered  to 
be  publicly  burned.  He  died,  probably  in  411  b.  a 
The  basis  of  his  speculation  is  the  proposition, 
that  '  man  is  the  measure  of  aU  things,  which 
was  developed  by  him  in  a  way  that  involved  the 
most  thorough-going  scepticism.  The  Theatetus 
and  Protagonu  of  Plato  are  devoted  to  a  refutation 
of  P.'s  doctrines,  which,  as  delineated  by  the  great 
plilloeopher,  appear  shallow,  confused,  and  unten- 
able. All  P.'s  works  are  lost,  though  some  were 
extant  as  late  as  the  time  of  Porphyry. 

PROTEA'CR^  a  natural  order  of  exogenous 
planta,  containing  about  650  known  species  of  atirubs 
and  small  trees,  chiefly  natives  of  South  Africa  and 
of  Australia,  and  forming  a  remarkable  feature  of 
the  vegetation  of  these  rmona  Some  ctf  them,  as 
•peoies  of  JProiea  and  Batuctia  (q.  v.k  axe  frequently 
363 


cultivated  in  gardens  and  greenhouses,  being  prized 
for  their  singular  and  ele«^t  appearance,  ana  their 
ourious  and  often  beaat3ul  flowers.  They  have 
usually  umbellate  branches ;  their  leaves  are  ever- 
green, and  remarkably  hard,  dry,  and  woody, 
divided  or  undivided,  and  without  stinules.  Th» 
perianth  is  four-leaved  or  four-deft;  tne  stameni^ 
four,  one  of  them  sometimes  sterile,  periffynous, 
opposite  to  the  ssj^pnents  of  the  periantu;  tiie 
ovary  superior*  consisting  of  a  single  carpel ;  with 
one,  twOk  or  many  ovules;  the  style  simple,  the 
stigma  undivided ;  the  fruit  dry  or  succulent,  and 
opening  or  not  opening,  many  fruits  often  collected 
in  a  kind  of  eone.  The  timbcor  of  some  of  the  largei 
species  is  used  for  various  purposes  ;  others  supply 
much  of  the  firewood  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  aud 
Australia.  The  nuts  or  seeds  of  some  are  eaten,  as 
those  of  Brabejum  sUUatum  in  South  Africa,  and  of 
Quevina  AveUana  (also  called  Qucuhia  lieitrophyUa) 
in  Chih.  Those  of  the  latter  are  much  esteemec^ 
and  are  called  AveUans  and  ^tsbu, 

PROTE'CTION— PROTECTIVB   DUTY,   in 

Political  Economy,  tenns  applied  to  a  practice,  now 
in  disuse  in  Britain,  of  cuscouraging,  bv  heavy 
duties  and  otherwise,  the  importation  of  foreign 
goods,  under  the  notion  that  such  a  practice 
increayBod  the  prosperity  of  the  country  at  large. 
See  Freb  Trabb. 

PBOTECTOR,  a  title  which  has  sometimes  been 
conferred  in  England  on  the  person  ^-ho  had  the  care 
of  the  kingdom  during  the  sovereign's  minority. 
Hie  Earl  of  Pembroke  was  Protector  in  1216,  m 
the  minority  of  Henry  IlL  Humphry,  Duke  of 
Gloucester,  neld  the  same  office  in  the  minority 
of  Henry  VL,  from  1422  to  1447.  Richard,  Duke 
of  Gloucester,  was  Protector  in  1483,  prior  to  his 
ascending  the  throne  as  Kichard  IIL  The  Biike  of 
Somerset,  one  of  King  Henry  VIIL's  sixteen 
executors,  was  in  1548  constituted  Protector  durine 
the  minority  of  Edward  VL,  with  the  assistance  (3 
a  council,  consisting  of  the  remaining  fifteen 
executors ;  a  dignity,  however,  which  he  enjoyed 
but  a  few  months.  Oliver  Cromwell,  in  December 
1653,  took  the  titJe  of  Lord  Protector  of  the  Com- 
monwealth of  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland.  In 
1658,  his  son  Richard  succeeded  to  his  title  and 
authority,  but  was  never  formally  installed  in  the 
Protectorate,  which  he  resigned  in  the  following 
year. 

PROTTEIN  AND  THE  PBOTEI W  BODIES. 

Under  the  term  Protnn  Bodies,  chemists  include  the 
following  substances:  Albumen,  Fibrin,  Svntonin 
or  Musde-librin,  Casein,  Globulin,  and  ilsamato- 
crystaUin.    Albumen,  fibrin,  and  csaein  are  common 
both  to  the  animal  and  v^etable  kingdom  ;  while 
the  three  others  occur  only  in  the  animal  kingdom 
(namely,  in  muscular  tissue,  in  the  crystalline  lens 
of  the  eye,  and  in  the  blood-cells).     The  most- 
careful  analyses  have  shewn  that  in  their  composi- 
tion, these  substances  are  almost  identical,  and  that, 
they  all  contain  about  63*6  per  cent,  of  carbon,  7'1 
of  hydrogen,  15*6  of  nitrosen,  and  22*1  of  oxy||eii,. 
with  a  varying  quantity  of  sulphur  not  exceeding 
1*6  per  cent      These  substances  are  as  similar  in 
many  of  their  properties  and  in  the  products  of* 
their  decomijosition,  as  in  their  ultimate  composi- 
tion,  and  hence   chemists  were  natiurally  led  to» 
entertain  the  view  that  they  possessed  a  common, 
radical    Mulder  (Q.  v.)  announced,  in  1838,  that 
he  had  disco vered  this  radical,  which,  from  its- 
importance,  he  named  PitOTHur  (Gr.  proteuo,  I  hol<l 
the  first  place),  and  that  he  had  found  that  albu- 
men, fibnn,  casein,  &o.  (which  at  that  period  were 
known  as  the  a/6uiiit/ious  bodies,  the  albuminoid 
group,  or  the  cUtrnminates),  were  oombinatioos  of 

Ml         - 


PROTEST— PBOTEUB, 


tbit  ptotfflB  wHh  inlphnr  and  pho«{Aoraa,  or  timpijf 
with  inlphnr.  The  cnmpontiou  of  thit  protein  » 
repreeented  aocordiDg  to  the  diKWVerer,  hy  the 
fonnnla  CmH^40,,,2HO.  Liebig  and  Mveral  of 
his  [injiilB  have,  boirever,  shewn  that  Mulder's 
protein  slwayi  oontains  a  small  bat  Tsriable  amount 
of  snlphur ;  and  they  deny,  on  what  are  ceDtrallj 
deemed  sufGcient  Tronnds,  the  exirtence  in  protein 
aa   a  Beparate  bodjr.      The  term  proliMt  boaiet,  or 

aria  eompovndt,  is,  however,  commonly  retaiiied 
by  {ihysiologiata  and  chemiita,  a«  being  the 
most  convenient  one  for  repreaentins  a  class  of 
compounds,  which,  whethar  Mnlders  theory  is 
oorrect  or  not,  deserve  their  came  from  their  oon- 
(tJtutiDg  the  gronp  which  form  the  most  easential 
articles  of  fooil 

The  Protein  Boons  may  be  ^erally  described 
u  nearly  ooloarleas,  neutnil,  mtrogennos  bodies, 
soluble  in  potash  solution,  and  not  yielding  gelatin 
when  boiled  with  water.  They  ^I  preaent  two 
modiRuations,  differing  essentially  from  one  another ; 
in  one  of  which  they  are  soluble,  and  in  the  other 
nearly  or  qatte  insolublo.  They  exiat  naturally 
only  in  the  soluble  modification,  althanch  not 
necessarily  in  a  state  of  solution.  Uost  iH  them 
are  transformed  into  the  insoluble  state  by  boiling, 
by  the  mineral  acids,  and  by  oumeroiu  salU;  and 
one  of  them,  fibrin,  undergoes  this  modification 
on  simple  removal  of  the  blood,  or  other  fluid  cos' 
tainiDg  it,  irom  the  organism.  This  passage  hota 
the  soluble  into  the  insoluble  form,  i*  termed 
eoagutalion,  but  we  do  not  know  vhat  ehemical 
change  takes  place  in  the  process. 

The  tolubU  prolan  bodia,  in  their  dried  itate, 
form  pale  yellow,  translucent  maaaea,  devoid  of 
smell  and  taste,  which  are  soluble  in  water,  but 
insoluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  They  are  pre- 
cipitated from  their  watery  solutions  by  alcohol,  by 
the  mineral  acida,  by  tannic  acid,  but  not  by  the 
vegetable  Bcids  geoeraJly  j  aod  by  many  mineral 
oxides  and  salts.  The  inaoluW*  protein  bodia, 
when  freshly  precipitated,  are  of  a  white  colour,  in 
flakes  or  small  clots,  or  viscid  and  ^oe-like  ;  when 
dried,  they  may  be  reduced  to  a  whitish  powder. 

The  prodacta  of  the  dcoompositioa  of  the  protein 
bodie*  are  very  numerous,  and  the  itady  of  these 
products  is  of  great  importance,  as  tending  to  eluci- 
date the  changes  which  the  tissues  undergo  in  the 
body  during  their  disintegration. 

PSOTE'ST  is  in  law  a  legal  docoment,  dnwn  np 
by  a  notary-public,  giving  notice  of  some  act  of 
A  public  nature,  aa  the  protest  of  a  bill  of  exchange. 

PROTESTANT,   a  term  flr«t  applied  to   the 


adherents  of  Luther,  from  their  ]irot»tiiig  anii 
the  decree   paned  by  the  Catholic  states  m  1 


the 


i  Speier 

bidden  any  further  innovations  in  religion,  and 
enjoined  those  states  that  had  adopted  the  Befor- 
mation  ao  far  to  retrace  their  Ktei>s  aa  to  reintro- 
duce the  Mass,  and  order  their  minister*  to  avoid 
disputed  questions,  and  to  use  and  explain  the 
Scriptures  ooly  aa  they  had  hitherto  been  nsed  and 
explained  in  the  chnrch.  The  CMenttal  principles 
. Evolved  in  the  protest,  and  in  the  Mvnment*  on 
which  it  was  grounded,  were :  1.  That  the  Catbidic 
Church  cann^  be  the  judge  of  the  Beformed 
dtarcbea,  which  are  no  longer  in  oommunion  with 
ber.  2.  That  the  anthority  of  the  Bible  is  supreme, 
and  above  that  of  conncils  and  bishoja.  3.  That 
the  Bible  is  not  to  be  interpreted  and  used  according 
to  badition  or  use  and  wont,  bat  to  be  explained 
by  means  of  itself— its  own  Unsusfre  and  con- 
nection. As  this  doctrine,  that  tbe  Bible,  espUined 
independently  of  all  external  b^dition,  ii  the  sole 
knthority  in  all  matter*  of   faith  and  discipline, 


n  stone  of  Ok  Brf  amatiia, 


system  rd  dootrins*  and  diMipli     .     .    

from  which,  and  the  way  in  which  it  i«o|iaK«  Is 
•eek  for  the  tmth  in  alt  n»tt«n  of  futh  tsd 
practice ;  and  tiina  *  ehcndt  migfa^  in  tbs  prcgms 
of  research,  see  rewon  to  depart  frrai  special  potuli 
of  ita  hitherto  received  creed,  withont  thosb; 
ceasing  to  be  Proteatant.  He  Symbd*  ot  Coofo- 
■iont  of  the  Proteatant  chorobea  wera  not  inlsMM 
a*  rules  of  faith  for  all  time,  but  a>  expression  of 
what  was  then  believed  to  be  the  sense  of  Scriitim, 
When,  at  a  lat«r  time,  it  was  sought  to  erect  Uun 
into  unchangeable  Maadard*  c<  tme  doebriM.  this 
was  a  i«nuneiation  of  the  flist  principle  of  Pnto- 
tantism^  and  a  r«tom  to  the  Catbolic  priiiGi{^i  hr, 
in  making  the  eenie  nut  npoo  Scriptare  br  f» 
Reformers  the  standard  of  tmtb,  all  further  inViMi- 
ition  of  Scriptnre  ia  arreated,  ttie  antbotityaftlit 
eformersis  set  above  that  of  the  Bible,  and  a  ne* 
adition  of  dogma*  and  inteipretation  is  crsttel, 
which  differs  from  tfae  OathiMia  bidition  onl;  ii 
beginning  with  Lnther  and  Calvin,  instead  of  with 
the  apostolic  fathers.    See  Ruobiiatioh. 

PRO'TECS,   in  the  Homeric  or  oldest  Gnk 

ytholog^,  appear*  as  a  prophetic  *  old  man  of  the 

a'   {hcuMf  gerSn),  who  t^ids  the  seal-fiocki  of 

MeidSu  (Ifeptune),  and  has  the  gift  of  endla 

ansformation.    ^s  favourite  re*i£nce,  acconliu 

Homer,  is  the  island  of  Pharos,  off  the  month  n 

the  Nile;   but  according  to  Virgil,  the  iiLud  d 

Karpatlio*   (now  Starpanto),  between  Krets  laL 

Bhodes.     Here  be  rises  at  mid-day  from  tbc  fiooda, 

and  sleeps  in  the   shadow  of   Ue  rocky  ihoici, 

surrounded  by  the  monsters  of  the  deepL    Thii  wu 

the  time  when  those  who  wiahed  to  mate  tun 

prophesy  soaght  to  catch  him.     But  it  was  no  axj 

task.      P.,  unlike   most  vaticinal  personages,  su 

very  unwilling  to  prophesy,  and  tried  to  escK«  t? 

~  ^  pting  alt  manner  at  shapes  and  disguises.   When 

found  his  endeavoura  hopeless,  he  reminai  lu> 

proper  form,  and  then  spoke  out  unerringly  tlmt 

Uie  future 

PBOTEUS,  a  ^aam  of  perennibnncbiite 
Batrachia  (q.  v.),  having  a  long,  amocdh,  uakol, 
eel-like   body;    four   small   and   weak  1^;  tb* 


Froteni  (P.  onpvjisli^ 

foK-feet  tiiree-toed— tlie  hinder,  four-toed ;  tte  bi 

compressed  and  formiiu  a  kind  of  fin ;  the  hod 

thened  and  flattened;  the  eyea  extrainelT mull 

covered  by  tile  skin ;  the  rnxa  conoealed  in  tha 

flesh;  the  gills  external  and  pennanent,  reddiik 
very  conspicuous,  between  the  bead  and  th*  fa» 
leg*.      Notwithstanding   the   pennaneet   eitml 


KIOTBUS-PROTO-KOTART. 


{[ills,  there  are  lito  Iudcs  in  the  fonn  of  nmple 
■lender  tubea,  tenoiiUited  by  ft  vesicular  dilatstioD. 
The  only  known  speciea,  P.  attguiiuu,  ia  foond  in 
iubterrtmean  Ukee,  in  the  gr^^t  limeatone  caverns 
in  Camiola.  It  seems  to  live  chiefly  in  the  mud 
vrluch  forma  the  bottom  of  th«  Ukes  or  pools ;  bat 
almost  nothing  is  known  of  its  habits.  It  ia  of  a 
pale  rose  or  ^eeh  colour,  10  or  12  inches  long, 
seldom  above  half  an  inch  in  thickness.  Specimens 
have  been  kept  alive  in  continement  for  several 
Tears,  in  a  darkened  aquarium,  apparently  withoDt 
food.  One  which  ate  a  worm  died  soon  after, 
lilood-coipnsclea  of  the  P.  are  extremely  large. 


PROTEUS,  a  o 


lany  naturalist* 


if  form  ;  on  which  account  also,  at  the  name  P.  has 
beeD  otherwise  appropriated  in  science,  tbtf 
receive  tha  generu  name  Aatt^a  (Qr.  Tieisaiti 


Kofen*  or  Annba  {vsiy  highly  magnUEed^ 

They  are  Protoxoa,  and  ranked  among  the  JiAt'zo- 
poda.  See  theae  heada  They  are  found  in  fresh 
water,  and  are  generally  from  -^Qi  to  T^th  ot  an 
inch  in  diameter,  when  they  aaaume  a  somswhat 
globose  fonn,  which,  however,  they  exchange  for 
almnrt  every  imaginable  shape,  «o  tnat  they  caonot 
be  described  aa  having  any  proper  or  definite  shape 
whatever.  They  are  of  a  soft  gelatinous  substance, 
and  in  their  movemeote,  seero  to  flov  over  objects 
rather  than  to  crawl,  or  even  g1id&  Yet  when  one 
of  them  ia  divided  by  a  knife,  there  is  no  perceptible 
escape  of  any  fluid,  but  each  part  shrinks  np,  and 
becoiiJM  a  separate  individuaL  They  multiply  by 
spoDtaneoui  division,  or  by  detaching  a  lobe  from 
the  bod^ ;  bat  a  true  repn>dnction  by  ova  has  also 
becQ  discovered,  the  parent  becoming  a  mere  sao 
for  the  ova,  and  perishing.  Their  organisation  is 
very  imperfectly  tinderstood.  The  diaphauous  sub- 
■tanoe  of  which  they  eoosist  (nrcoi^)  is,  eicept  in 
young  individuals,  full  of  minute  corpueclea  or 
graniSea ;  there  are  also  to  be  seen  in  it  empty 
spaces  Imcuola]  of  no  very  definite  form.  For 
locomoUon,  a  portion  of  the  aubetaooe  of  the 
creature  is  protruded,  often  to  a  very  considerable 
length,  and  the  rest  of  the  body  teems  to  be  drawn 
after  it.  There  is  no  mouth,  stomach,  or  alimentary 
cell ;  but  the  organic  iHUticles  or  minute  animalcule* 
which  serve  for  food  are  snrrounded  by  the  jelly- 
like  anbstance,  and  speedily  absorbed  into  it,  every 
part  being  apparently  equally  adapted  for  finding 
and  nsing  food  in  this  way,  as  well  as  for  loco- 
motion. 

FROTOCO'OOUS  (Or.  llrat-grMn].  a  genus  of 
PalnuUacms  (q.  v.),  to  which  Bed  Snow  (q.v.)  is 
commonly  referred. — Another  spedes  is  P.  patviaiit, 
tint  nnfrequent  in  stagnating  rain-water.  It  passes 
through  various  stages  of  growth,  in  which  it  has 
been  described  under  various  generic  and  specitii 


Inst 


eofit 


t*  of  two  long  oiha,  it 


for  an  aninulcnle.  Its  colonr  is  usually  green,  bn^ 
sometimes  red  ;  and  the  red  matter  often  appears  aa 
a  mere  central  nncleua,  which  has  been  mistaken 
for  the  eyt  of  the  animalcule.  In  its  ordinary  form, 
it  consists  of  a  mau  of  colonrless  proloplatm  (see 
CsLU),  with  red  or  green  granules  diffused  in  tt, 
suTTonnded  bv  a  primordial  ulrklt  (see  Glx-La),  and 
nndergoioK  division  into  halves,  which  are  soon 
ButTonnded  by  separate  envelopes,  and  undergo 
division  again ;  the  new  cells  thus  formed,  and 
they  are  £rmed  with  great  rapidity,  being  soma- 
times  set  free  by  the  diasolntion  of  the  original 
enveloping  membrane,  more  frequently  remaining 
imbedded  in  a  gelatinous  substance  formed  from 
it.  The  new  cell*  often  send  forth  two  vibratile 
filaments  or  cilia,  which  spring  almost  from  one 
point,  often  a  kind  of  beak ;  ood  move  with  con- 
siderable rapidity ;  and  in  this  state  also,  they 
multiply  by  binaiy  subdivision;  or  they  rest, 
become  enqiited,  and  divide  into  four.  If  slowly 
dried,  the  P.  ptuvialu  retains  life,  and  resumes  ita 
funotions  when  ogaiu  moistened. 

PHOTOCOL  (Or.  prStot,  first,  and  loBa,  rfoe),  » 
wrd  used  in  two  tenses  :  1.  The  rough  draft  of  an 
instrument  or  traasootiou ;  and  more  particularly 
the  original  copy  of  a  govermnent  dispatch,  treaty, 
or  other  document.  2.  A  record  or  register.  In 
Scotland,  every  notary,  on  admission  to  offioa, 
foimeriy  received  from  the  Clerk -register  a  book 
oalled  ms  protocol,  in  which  he  was  directed  to  insert 
copies  of  all  the  instruments  which  he  might  have 
occasion  to  execute,  to  be  preserved  as  in  a  record. 
At  one  time,  these  protocols  were  attempted  to  be 
mode  available  at  recordt  of  sasinea,  t>at  many 
causes  operated  to  prevent  their  being  thus  used ; 
they  have,  however,  often  been  found  serviceable, 
when  regularly  kept,  to  supply  the  loss  of  a  missing 
deed. 

PROTTOGENE  (Or.  Brat-bom),  a  grauitdc  took, 
oomposed  of  the  same  ingredients  as  true  gmnite, 
except  that  the  mica  ia  replaced  by  talc  It  received 
its  name  because  it  was  supposed  to  have  been  tbe 
Artt-farawi  granito.  It  abonnda  in  the  Alps,  and  is 
Ionn4  also  m  ComwalL     The   clay  produced  by 


PROTO'GENES,  a  odebrated  painter  of  ancient 
Greece,  was  bom  at  Kaunus  in  Cuia,  and  practised 
his  art  at  Rhodes.  Very  little  ia  known  oouceming 
hi"",  except  that  he  waa  a  contemporary  of  Apellea, 
who  wa«  tha  means  (see  ArcLLBB)  of  tiiat  drawing 
the  attMition  of  tbe  Rhodiana  to  his  extraordinaiy 
its.  Pliny  t»]n  tliat  when  Demetrios  Poliorke'tM 
endeavouring  to  conquer  Rhodea,  ha  took  the 
ost  preeauttont  to  jovvent  any  injury  from 
happening  to  the  studio  of  P.,  who  then  lived  in  a 
'  cottage  {eaatla)  on  the  outakirta  of  the  ci^, 
iven  stole  away  at  timet  fn»n  the  tnimoilt  of 
iege  to  visit  the  fainter,  quietly  and  earneaUj 
pnnuing  hia  woik  amid  '  the  din  of  arms  vid  tM 
thunder  of  the  bsttering- engines.'  P.  died  about 
300  KO.  He  was  a  careful  and  elaborate  pointer, 
sparuig  DO  paint  to  secure  a  brilliant,  natural,  and 
miish<Kl  piece  of  workmanship ;  and  was  ^iparently 
held  in  the  h^hett  estimation  by  the  ancieott. 
Cicero  san  that  his  pictures  ware  peHeet  in  ererr 
respect  The  principal  were  'A  Satyr  resting  and 
hdding  his  Pipeai'  ' Tbe /'araJtw  aad  ^ntimmia*' 
for  aaci«d  ahipa  of  tb*  Atiieniatw,  executed  fcr  the 
Propylna  at  Athens) ;  and '  Tbe  Theamothetn '  (foi 
the  Athenian  Senate-honae  of  the  Five  Hundred). 

PROTO-NOTART  (Or.   prMo*.  flrtt,  and  Lat, 

notEirivs,  notary),  tho    name   given   to   a   notary 

ipointed  by  the  Hdy  8e&     Among  the  officials  c/l 

■  court  A  Bome  la  a  body,  twelve  in  numlier, 


FBOTO^IYTES^FBOUDHON* 


ealled  the  CbUege  of  Notaries,  who  are  to  be  diittin- 
gaished  from  honorary  or  extnunrdinanr  apostolic 
.notaries.  The  fonner  are  said  to  datb  nom  a  very 
early  time,  and  are  charged  with  the  official  regis- 
tration of  all  the  solemn  acts  ol  the  pope,  whence 
thej  have  a  very  apedal  duty  in  relation  to  canoni- 
sations of  saints,  &c.  Their  number  was  fixed  by 
fiixtus  V.  at  twelve,  and  they  enjoy  many  privileges. 
An  apoBtolio  notary-extraordinary,  although  ca&ed 
jMToto-notary,  does  not  enjoy  the  same  privilegeSi 
The  proto-notary  extraordinaiy  may  be  named  not 
only  oy  the  pope,  but  also  by  a  Lsoati  (q.  v.),  and 
onder  certain  restrictions,  by  the  Roman  College  ol 
Notaries. 

PROTOPHYTES  {Protophyta,  Gr.  first  plants), 
a  name  now  frequently  employed  to  designate  the 
lowest  or  simplest  organisms  in  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  corresponding  to  the  Protozoa  of  the 
animal  kingdom.  They  are  regarded  as  among  the 
Aigcs  (q.  v.).  Many  of  them  are  mere  simple  cells, 
which  multiply  by  division,  although  perhaps  they 
may  yet  be  found  to  have  also  another  mode  of 
reproduction;  others  consist  of  cells  united  by  a 
gdatinous  substance,  and  the  agmregate  in  some  is  a 
shapeless  moss;  in  others,  a  plant-like  structure, 
the  form  residting  from  the  mode  in  which  the 
division  of  cells  tuLCS  place.  In  none  of  them  do 
the  cells  assume  determmate  charactere  in  any  part 
of  the  structure,  so  as  to  constitute  different  organs ; 
in  which  they  differ  from  all  higher  plants.  It  is 
sometimes  very  difficult  to  distin^ish  P.  from 
Protozoa;  and  jterhaps  the  surest  distinctive  char- 
acter is  the  nature  of  their  food.  Some  of  the 
Protozoa,  having  no  mouth,  as  the  Proteus^  or 
AmaAaj  might  be  regarded  as  plants  rather  than 
animals;  but  they  subsist  by  consuming  organic 
particles,  vegetable  or  animid,  whilst  P.  live  by 
appropriating  inorganic  substances,  chiefly  from  the 
atr  or  water  around  them.  Among  the  P.  are 
Palmdlacea  (q.  v.). 

PBO'TOPLASM.    SeeCELiA. 

PROTOZO'A  (6r.  proton,  first,  and  zofh%  animal), 
constitute  the  lowest  animal  subkingdom,  and  in- 
clude a  large  number  of  animal  beings  of  the  Iqwest 
and  simplest  type  of  organisation.  Their  bodies 
consist  either  of  a  simple  cell  or  of  an  agg^resation 
of  cells,  each  of  which  seems  to  retain  its  inaeptn- 
dent  existence.  In  none  ol  the  P.  can  a  nervova 
system,  or  organs  of  sense,  be  detected ;  and  except 
in  one  group  (the  Injusoria),  there  is  no  trace  of  a 
mouth,  ihccepting  the  sponees,  they  are  generally 
of  very  minute  size,  and  only  to  be  observed  witibi 
the  microscope ;  and  excepting  a  few  that  inhabit 
the  bodies  of  other  animals,  all  are  aquatic  animals. 
They  generally  present  the  appearance  of  a  tran- 
sparent gelatinous  cell,  containing  a  nucleus;  in 
addition  to  which,  one  or  more  olear  pulsating 
spaces,  termed  contractile  vestefes,  may  be  frequently 
seen.  Excepting  the  infusoria,  none  present  true 
reproductive  organs,  reproduction  bein^  usually 
accomplished  by  fissure.  They  are  divisible  into 
the  following  groups  or  classes,  each  of  which  is 
noticed  in  a  separate  article :  (I)  OreffonnidcB,  (2) 
Rhkopoda,  (3)  SpongifB,  and  (4)  Infuwria;  to  which 
Green,  in  his  Manual  of  Protozoa^  adds  Polycyttinar 
and  Thalaa$iooUkUB  (both  of  which  are  commonly 
included  in  the  Rhixopoda). 

PROUD-FLESH  is  the  popular  term  lor  ooarse 
and  too  luxuriant  Granulations  (q.  v. |  springing  up 
on  wounds  or  ulcerated  surfaces.  Such  granulations 
must  be  treated  with  nitrate  of  silver  or  sulphate 
of  copper,  either  in  the  solid  form  or  in  strong 
solution. 

PROX7DHON,  PiERBK  JossPH,  a  noted  French 
publicist  and   speculator   on   social   and  political 


subjects,  was  bom  July  l£s  1809^  at  Benuaicon,  in 
which  town  his  father  was  a  poor  cooper.    Throng 
the  good  offices  of  charitable  friends,  he  received 
the  rudiments  of  his  education  at  the  coUege  of  liii 
native  place,  and  from  the  first  gave  great  prDinise 
of  talent.     While  still  very  young;  however,  he 
quitted  the  institution  in  order  to  aid  his  funilT, 
which  had  fallen  into  great  distress,  and  soodit 
employment  in  a  printing  establishment    Here  os 
was  noted  for  the  most  punctual  discharge  of  daty ; 
and  in  the  hours  not  occupied  in  work,  he  conthved, 
by  a  rare  exereise  of  resolution,  to  complete  and 
extend  his  education.    In  1830,  he  dedmed  an  offer 
of  the  editorship  of  a  ministerial  journal,  preferring 
an  honourable  independence  as  a  workman,  to  thd 
career  of  a  writer  pledged  to  the  stipport  of  authority. 
He  became  partner  in  ISIH  with  MM.  Lambert  and 
Maurice  in  the  development  of  a  new  typograjihical 
process ;  was  engaged  on  an  edition  of  the  Bible,  to 
which  he  contributed  notes  on  the  principles  of  the 
Hebrew  lan^age ;  and  in  1838,  published  an  Euai 
de  Grammatre  OinSrale;  in  approval  of  which,  a 
triennial  pension  of  1500  francs  was  awarded  to  lum 
bv  the  Acadtoie  de  Besanoon.     On  this  accession 
of  funds,  he  paid  a  visit  to  Paris ;  and  subsequentlr 
contributed  to  the  Etieyclopidie  Catholique  d  XL 
Parent  Desbarres  the   articles  Apostasie,  Apoca* 
lypse,  and  others.     In  1840,  he  issued  the  work 
entitled  QvHett-ce  que  la  ProprUti  f  which  afttfwaids 
became  so  famous.     The  nature  of  the  doctrine 
announced  in  it  is  sufficiently  indicated  in  its  bold 
paradox,  soon  to  be  widely  popularised — La  Pro- 
priitSf  c^eet  le   VoL    At  the  moment,  it  attracted 
little  notice ;  and  the  sole  results  to  its  author  wctd 
the  withdrawal  of  his  pension  by  the  Academy,  on 
the  score  of  his  noxious  opinions,  and  the  threat  of 
a  prosecution,  which,  however,  was  departed  from, 
at  the  instance  of  M.  Blanqui,  the  political  econo* 
mist,  to  whom  reference  in  the  matter  was  inad& 
In  1842,  for  a  repetition  o£  offence  in  his  Avertiat- 
ment  aux  PropnStaires,  he  actually  was  prosecuted 
before  the  Cour  d' Assises  of  Besanoon,  but  sncceeded 
in  obtaining  an  aoquittaL    From  1843  to  1847,  F. 
was  employed  at  Lyon,  under   MM.  Qauthier,  in 
the  superintendenoe  of  a  scheme  of  water-transpoit 
on  the  avers  Sadne  and  Rhdne ;  publishing  during 
this  time  at  Paris  the  two  works  entitld  Dt  Ha. 
Creation  de  VOrdre  dans  VHunnanUi^  and  Sffstime  det 
Contradictions  JSconomiques. 

With  the  outburst  of  the  Revolution  of  Fe{)nxuT 
1848,  the  opportunity  of  P.  had  arrived,  fie 
instantly  repaired  to  Paris,  and  on  the  1st  of  April, 
he  came  before  the  public  as  editor  of  the  Bqiri' 
sentat  du  Peuple,  instantly,  by  his  fierce  and  vigorooi 
advocacy  of  extreme  democratic  and  socialistie 
opinions,  making  his  mark  as  a  leading  figure  of 
the  hour.  His  paper  was  suppressed  m  August 
following ;  but  meantime,  on  Jime  4,  no  loss  toaa 
77,094  enthusiastic  admirera  had  voted  him  into 
the  Constituent  Assembly  as  representative  of  the 
department  of  the  Seine.  His  career  as  a  senator, 
if  brief,  brought  him  at  least  notoriety.  La  Pro" 
prUti,  c^est  levol,  though  a  maxim  much  commend- 
ing itself  to  the  moral  sense  of  the  hungry  masses, 
naturally  failed  to  find  like  acceptance  with  an 
audience  mostly  with  some  sous  in  the  pocket 
P.  soon  ceased  to  address  the  Assembly,  for,  so  soon 
as  he  ascended  the  tribune,  the  indignaut  roar  which 
saluted  him  rendered  audible  speech  impoanUa 
Under  these  cirenmstanoes,  P.  onoe  more  betook 
himself  to  his  pen,  and«  as  editor  of  three  daily 
journals  in  succession,  avenged  himself  on  the  adro^ 
saries  who  declined  vivd  voce  to  listen  to  him,  the 
chief  victims  of  his  savage  personalities  being  M)L 
Ledru  RoUin,  De  Lamartine,  Louis  Blue,  Gons> 
deranty  Gavaignac,  ftc.  All  three  pi^iesi— j«<  Pi»l^ 


PROUT— PBOVliRJBS. 


(Ko^emUr  23,  184g— April  IMd),  La  Fbts  du 
PeupU  (October  1849— May  1850),  Le  PeupU  de 
1850  (June  15 — October  13)  -were  in  torn  sap- 
pressed  as  anarchic  and  obnoxious.  During  their 
continuance,  he  was  repeatedlv  subjected  to  fines, 
which  were  defrayed  for  him  by  popuhtf  subscrip* 
tion. 

In  January  1849,  he  attempted  a  reduction  of  his 
theories  to  practice  by  the  institution  of  a  Banque 
du  PeupU.    This  project,  which  had  for  its  obiect 
ta  suppresahn  du  capital,  speedily  experienced  at 
the  hjmds  of  *  capital'  the  fate  it  had  intended  to 
inflict.    The  bank  was  closed  by  authority,  and  its 
originator  fled   to  Genevai  to   escape   threatened 
imprisonment.    In  June,  however,  he  returned,  and 
his  next  three  years  were  passed  in  the  prison  of 
St  Pelade^    While  shut  up   there,   he    married. 
During  his  imprisonment,  he  gave  to  the  world 
the  works  entitled  Cof^fesshtut  dun  Bivolutlonaire 
(1849),  Actes  de  la  Revolution  (1849),  Orataiti  du 
Credit  (1850),  and  La  Rivoluiion  SodaU  dSnumtr^ 
par  le  Coup  dEtat  (1852);  the  last  of  which  is 
remarkable,  in  the  fight  of  subsequent  events,  for 
the  clearness  with  which  it  states  the  alternative  ol 
Panarchie  ou  le  Cimrieme,  as  pressed  on  Louis 
Napoleon,  then  president     In  June  1852,  he  was 
set  at  liberty ;   and  quitting   Paris,  no  longer  a 
desirable  abode  for  such  unquiet  sx>irit8,  went  to 
Belgium,    where    he    continued  to    publish    from 
time  to  time  on  his  favourite  subjects  of  specula- 
tion.    He  died  in  obscurity  at  Paris,  January  19, 
180& 

Monstrous  as  are  the  social  theories  with  which, 
in  the  history  of  his  time,  the  name  of  P.  remains 
connected,  his  power  as  a  writer  is  not  to  be  denied. 
It  may  be  oucstioned  how  far  he  was  at  any  time 
the  dnj)e  of  nis  own  paradoxes,  or  blind  to  the  utter 
insufScieno^  of  the  premises  from  which,  with  a 
show  of  scientific  rigour,  he  evolved  his  portentous 
results.  It  is  related  that  in  the  negjotiation  of  his 
marriage,  he  was  veiy  sharply  solicitous  as  to  the 
disposal  of  certain  property  possessed  by  the  lady ; 
and  that  on  her  notary  venturing  some  surprised 
allusion  to  the  famous  La  ProprUti,  c^eet  le  Vol, 
the  philosopher  gravely  replied :  *  Be  pleased,  my 
dear  sir,  on  such  an  occasion  as  the  present^  to  be,  & 
possible,  a  little  serious^' 

PROUT,  Sahvxl,  painter  in  water-colours,  was 
bom  at  Pljrmouth  in  1783.  He  evinced  a  strong 
love  for  nature  at  an  early  age.  Mr  Britton,  when 
about  to  collect  materials  for  his  Beaufiee  of  England 
and  Wales,  engaged  his  professional  aid;  and  his 
drawin|^  made  for  Britten's  work  attracted  so  much 
notice  m  London,  that  he  was  induced  to  take  up 
his  residence  in  that  city.  In  1818,  having  been 
advised,  on  account  of  his  health,  which  had  always 
been  delicate,  to  try  a  change  of  air,  he  went  to 
Rouen  by  Havre ;  and  the  picturesque  street-archi- 
tectoi^  and  fine  Gothic  remains  there  made  so 
strong  an  impression  on  his  mind,  that  afterwards, 
his  principal  works  were  those  in  which  architeo- 
tare  had  a  prominent  place ;  and  from  time  to  time, 
in  bis  after-career,  he  made  excursions,  ransacking 
every  corner  of  France,  Ckirmanv,  the  NetherUmds, 
and  Italy,  for  picturesque  aronitectural  remainsL 
P.'s  name  is  dear  to  all  tne  artists  and  amateurs  of 
this  generation,  for  there  are  few  who  have  not 
been  incited  or  instructed  by  his  numerous  ele- 
mentary drawing-books,  in  the  slightest  of  which, 
talent  and  feeling  for  art  are  coiisi>icuons.  His 
water-colour  drawmgs  are  characterised  bv  decision 
^  handling,  great  breadth,  and  clear  and  pleasing 
oolonring ;  good  specimens  are  highly  valued.  He 
died  at  Oamberwell  on  Februaiy  9,  1852L  His 
eharacter  was  amiable,  and  he  was  highly  respected 
by  his  professional  brethren. 


PROVENOB,  formerly  a  maritime  povinoe  ol 
France,  in  the  extreme  south-east  of  toe  country, 
was  bounded  on  the  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and 
comprised  the  modern  departments  of  Bouches 
du  Rhone»  Var,  Basses- Alpes,  and  the  east  part  ol 
Vanduse.  It  included  a  portion  of  the  territory 
belonging  to  the  Roman  province  of  Oaul  generally 
called  simply  Provmda  {*  the  Province*),  whence  it 
derived  its  nam& 

PRO'VERBS  (Lai  prooerMifm,  a  common  saying 
or  vrordf  Or.  paromion^  a  way-side  saying,  corre- 
sponding to  £ng.  byeword)  are  ^ithy,  practi^^ 
popular  sayings,  expressive  of  certain  more  or  less 
general  convictions.  The  definitions  of  the  proverb 
are  almost  as  numerous  as  its  own  varieties  of  fonm. 
Aristotle  speaks  of  them  as  *  remnants,  which,  on 
account  of  their  shortness  and  correctness,  have 
been  saved  out  of  the  wreck  and  ruins  of  ancient 
philoso[)hy.'  Agricola  considers  them  'short  sen- 
tences, into  whicn,  as  in  rales,  the  ancients  have 
compressed  lif&'  Erasmus  holds  them  to  be  '  well- 
known  and  well-used  dicta,  framed  in  a  somewhat 
out-of-the-way  form  or  fashion.*  Cervantes  explains 
them  as  'short  sentences  drawn  from  long  expe- 
rience.' Johnson  talks  of  them  as  '  short  sentences 
frequently  repeated  by  the  people.*  Less  defini- 
tions of,  tiian  general  opinions  on  the  proverbs,  are 
sayings  like  that  of  Howell,  that  'sense,  shortness, 
and  sSt*  form  their  component  parts.  They  are  '  the 

fenius,  wit,  and  spirit  of  a  nation,'  according  to 
(aeon.  '  The  wisdom  of  many,  and  the  wit  of  one,' 
according  to  Earl  RusselL  In  them,  it  has  be^i  said, 
is  to  be  found  an  inexhaustible  source  of  precious 
documents  in  re^;ard  to  the  intmor  lustory,  the 
nmnners,  the  opinions,  the  beliefs,  the  customs  of  titie 
people;  and  their  use  has  been  strikingly  pointed 
out  oy  Georse  Herbert,  who  entitled  his  ooUection 
of  proverbs  Jaeukt  Prudentium  (Darts  or  Javelins  of 
the  Wise),  a  term  probably  derived  from  Plato's 
Protagoras, 

Yet  there  have,  on  the  other  hand,  not  been 
wanting  those  who,  like  Lord  Cheeteibeld,  have 
deprecated  their  use  in  polite  society,  on  aooount 
of  their  occasional  vulgarity,  and  recommended 
stilted  sentences  It  la  Larochefoucauld  instead. 
Of  these  soUtary  voices,  however,  no  more  notice 
was  ever  taken  than  they  deserve.  From  the 
earliest  historical  times,  proverbs  have  been  house- 
hold words,  not  merely  among  the  peopk  at  hu^e, 
but  among  the  greatest  and  wisest  of  men.  Tkt 
prodigious  amount  of  sound  wisdom  and  good 
common  sense  they  contain,  the  spirit  of  justice  and 
kindliness  they  breathe,  their  prudential  rules  for 
every  stage  and  rank,  their  poetry,  bold  imagery  and 
passion,  uieir  wit  and  satire,  and  a  thousand  other 
qualities,  have,  by  universal  consent,  made  them  the 
most  fiavonrite  mode  of  imparting  hints,  counsds, 
and  warnings. 

Being  emphatically  sayings  originated  within  ot 
commonly  adopted  by  the  pMvple,  and  handed  down, 
in  most  cases,  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  the 

nition  as  to  their  origin  and  age  is  an  exceedingly 
cult  one.  Some  of  their  sources  have  been 
pointed  out  in  the  reenonsee  of  oracles,  in  the 
allegorical  symbols  of  Pythagoras,  in  the  verses 
oi  tne  ancient  poets,  in  mythological  tales,  in  his- 
torical events  to  which  they  allude.  That  they 
existed  to  a  great  extent  before  the  times  of  which 
written  records  have  reached  os,  is  clear  from  the 
number  of  them  which  lie  imbedded — as  a  kind 
of  well-known  quotations— in  these  reoords  them- 
selves ;  and  what  tends  still  further  to  increase  the 
difficulty  of  giving  them  a  kind  of  fixed  habitation 
within  a  certain  country  or  age,  is  the  circumstance 
that  the  same  proverbs  are  found,  as  it  were,  among 
all  nations  and  at  all  agea    From  the  East  they 

MR 


PROVERBa 


were  for  the  meet  perfc  imported  into  HeUea,  thence 
to  Kome,  and  from  thence  they  were  scattered  all 
orer  Enrope,  and  partly  brought  back  again, 
slightly  altered,  to  the  East.  Eren  certain  Jewish 
proverbs  (^  loted  by  Christ  and  the  apostles,  which 
hitherto  dul  not  seem  to  offer  an^  analogy  in  other 
langnages,  might  be  traced  bacK  to  India,  where 
they  had  existed  for  many  long  centuries  before 
they  found  their  wav  into  the  popular  speech  of 
P^estine  and  Babylonia,  and  thence  mto  the 
Talmud.  That  the  names  of  their  authors  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  lost,  is  not  surprisinjg;  yet  we  do 
meet  with  single  instances  in  which  either  the 
auUior  of  a  proverb  is  well  known,  or  others 
whose  nationality  and  birthplace  are  easUv  recog- 
nised. In  the  former  case,  it  is  generally  some 
memorable  event  in  a  celebrated  man's  life  which 
is  remembered  in  dose  connection  with  a  certain 
striking  sentence  he  then  uttered.  In  the  latter, 
the  scenery,  the  circumstances,  the  history  el  a 
special  country,  may  so  unoiistakably  be  pointed, 
that  they  leave  no  room  for  any  doubts  on  the 
Inrthplace  of  the  special  jiroverb ;  and  more  than 
that,  even  the  special  period  which  £|ave  it  birth, 
may  be  recognised  by  some  trace  of  its  character, 
manners,  fashions,  and  occupations.  *What  is 
nearest  and  dearest  to  the  heart  of  a  nation,  the 
aspect  under  which  they  contemplate  life^  how 
honour  and  dishonour  are  distributed  among  them, 
what  is  of  good  or  of  evil  report  in  their  eyes,' 
as  a  recent  writer  has  it,  will  surely  be  apparent 
in  their  national  proverbs.  Thus,  for  instance, 
the  Greek  proverbs  may  be  designated  as^  being 
fraught  witn  a  thorough  knowledge  of  their  own 
mywology,  poetry,  and  history,  bearins  testi- 
mony to  the  high  intellectual  training  that  ran 
through  all  classes.  The  Roman  ones—fewer  in 
number,  as  far  as  they  are  the  genuine  growth  of 
their  own  soil— have  much  less  poetry  about  them, 
and  are  also  deficient  in  the  refinement  and  delicacy 
which  were  indigenous  to  Hellas.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  character  of  the  people  comes  well  out  in 
the  constantly  reiterated  lessons  of  frugality, 
patience,  perseverance,  independence  they  incmcate ; 
the  practical  hints  as  to  marriage,  education ;  and 
the  various  pursuits  of  that  busy,  vigorous,  ener- 
getic nation — and  among  which  agriculture  played  a 
prominent  part  Of  the  proverbs  now  in  use  among 
European  nations — caloulatedat  about  20,000 — ^the 
Spaniards  are  supposed  to  have  a  very  largOi  if  not 
the  lar^st  proportion.  They  may  be  reoosnised  by 
a  certain  grandezza,  a  stateliness  and  thoughtfulness, 
blended  though  they  be  with  humour  and  irony; 
and  by  the  spirit  of  chivalry,  honour,  and  freedom 
with  which  they  are  filled.  The  Italian  proverhMs, 
which  oome  next  as  to  quantity,  are,  to  a  certain 
extent,  replete  with  a  certain  shrewdness  and 
selfishness;  and  while  ihey  are  frau^t  with 
unbridled  i)a8sion,  teach  doctrines  of  cyniciam  and 
general  distrust ;  yet,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
many  of  the  noblest  stamp,  of  a  delicate  refinement 
of  beauty,  of  a  subtle  wisdom,  teaching  honour  and 
honesty,  plain-dealing  and  uprightness.  In  the 
same  way,  the  French  the  Gkrman,  the  English,  as 
well  as  the  Chinese  and  the  Hindus,  and  every 
nation  under  the  sun,  impart  a  certain  distinctive 
type  and  stamp  to  their  homely  saying  which  teUs 
a  distinct  tale  respecting  their  own  inner  life  and 
national  peculiarities.  Of  the  Scotch  proverbs,  of 
which  Kelly  collected  .3000,  it  has  been  said  that 
there  is  a  shrewdness,  although  deficient  in  delicacy, 
%bout  them;  that  they  are  'idiomatic,  facetious, 
md  strike  home.' 

Of  the  generel  utility  of  the  proverb,  it  is  need- 
less to  speak,  after  what  we  have  said;  we  will 
only  adonce  the  well-kuown  frequent  use  made 

836 


of  them  for  ethical  purposes  in  Scripture^  wlndi 
contains  an  entire  book  of  them,  ascribed,  !w  tlie 
freater  part,  to  the  Wise  King  himself;  in  ths 
Midrash  and  Talmud,  which  contains,  likewiae,  s 
whole  collection  of  pithy  sayinp  of  ti^  '  Fathen,' 
or  Mishnan  teachers,  and  out  of  which  several  later 
collections  have  been  compiled  ;  in  the  patristic  ud 
later  theological  writers,  who,  like  Lather,  drew 
vMj  largely  upon  these  popular  treasures. 

Erasmus  lays  claim  to  oe  the  first  modem  collectci  i 
of  proverbs,  although  Polydore  Vergil,  and  not 
without  a  certain  amount  <n  truth,  accuses  him  of 
plagiarism.  His  >i(fa^ia  (Par.  1600)  fired  the  leaned 
m  Europe  with  a  desire  to  collect  and  to  pobliah 
proverbs  of  their  own  countries.  F.  Nones  sod  the 
Marquis  of  Santellana  edited  Spamsh  Brfratm; 
Florio,  an  Italian,  Oiardino  di  RicreaHom  (1591); 
which  was  followed  by  the  Italian  collections  d 
Angelus  Monozini  and  Julius  VarinL  On<hn  pab- 
lished  French  proverbs  as  CurioeiUs  Frcunffme*,  The 
first  real  German  (Nether-Saxon)  oollection  is  doe 
to  Johann  Agricola,  whose  Oemeine  Spiihooerde 
appeared  in  1528.  In  England,  Camden,  Hethett, 
Howell,  Fuller,  Bay,  Kelly,  Bohn,  and  othen;  in 
Qermany,  Weber,  Sailer,  Nopitzsch,  ftc.,  ha?e  iasned 
national  coliections.  Freytaa  and  Burkhardt  pab- 
lished  Arabic  Proverba;  Dukes,  a  small  colIectioD 
of  Neo-Hebrew  proverbs,  &c.  Thus,  it  may  easily 
be  seen,  there  is  bv  no  means  a  lack  of  material; 
and  yet  very  little  has  been  done  towards  the 
investigation    and    elucidation    of    the    numeroos 

g)iuts  of  interest  connected  with  this  subject 
israeli^s  CurioMeg  qf  Literaiure  contain  a  ^• 
able  essay  on  the  *  Philosophy  of  Provetbs,*  froa 
which  (as  also  from  Eiselein's  SprickwMer  uiid 
Sinnreden,  1840)  Archbishop  Trench  has  denred 
a  great  deal  of  information  for  his  excellent  litUe 
book.  On  the  Leswrn  in  Proverbs,  Freyt^s  intro- 
duction to  his  collection  of  Arabic  Proverb»t  and 
that  of  Le  Boux  de  lincy  to  his  French  collection, 
make  honourable  exceptions  to  the  oeneral  ran  of 
vapid  prefaces  to  most  modem  ooUectionsL 

PROVERBS,  Thb  Book  of  (Heb.  MiskU,  LXX. 
Paroimia  ScUomontos,  Vulg.  Prover^ia),  a  oanonieai 
book  of  the  Old  Testament,  containing  an  anthology 
of  gnomes  and  sentences,  the  fruit  of  refiectioBS 
on  the  Mosaic  law  and  on  the  divine  guidance  of 
the  people  of  the  Israelitea.  It  is  also  caUed 
the  '  Book  of  Wisdom,'  in  as  much  as  it  embneea 
the  doctrines  of  the  old  covenant  crystaUisad 
into  reliffious  maxims  of  thought,  will,  and  actioiL 
Practdcal  piety  is  enjoined  under  the  name  of 
'Life,'  while  *  Death'  represents  sin  throu^^ioiii 
The  form  of  these  proverbs  is  manifold— amilei, 
enigmas,  theses  and  antitheses,  wise  ^T^ 
gnomes,  comnarisons,  &c.,  vary  constantly.  I%s 
book  is  divided  into  three  sections,  to  which  the 
two  last  chapters  form  an  appendix.  The  fint 
section  (chaps.  L — ix.)  contains  a  description  and 
a  recommendation  of  Wisdom  as  the  hi^est  ffood 
obtainable,  and  is  further  subdivided  mto  uree 
portions.  The  second  (x.— xxiv.  34)  is  equally  ia 
three  portions,  in  the  first  of  which  tiie  sentenoei 
are  very  loosely  strung  together;  while,  in  the 
second,  they  are  joined  mto  more  continuous  ntta- 
ances,  sometimes  ruuning  through  several  wsea; 
and  tiiie  third,  which  has  the  inscription:  *TheM, 
too,  are  of  the  wise  men,'  contains,  again,  some 
single  sentences,  principally  in  the  form  of  com- 
mandments and  prohibitions.  The  third  sectioD 
(XXV. — xxix.)  is  inscribed :  *  These  are  also  proverbs 
of  Solomon,  which  the  men  of  Hezekiah  king 
of  Judah  copied  out,'  and  is  somewhat  different 
from  the  former  by  the  more  predominant  fism  of 
theses  and  antitheses,  oatch-worda  by  which  as 
association  of  ideas  is  produced,  and  aimiksk    Tlw 


PB0yi]>SN0B^FB0VI180R& 


firot  olispter  Appended  (xxz.)  emitMiis  the  proverbs 
of  Agnr,  which,  in  »  yeiy  artificial  sarb,  teach  .the 
true  wiedom  and  its  practice  in  life;  the  second 
(zzzL),  inscribed  t  '  Words  of  Kins  Lemuel,  the 
prophecy  that   his  mother  tanght  nim/  contains 
from  verses  1—9  wise  maxims  for  a  king  anent 
chastity  and   temperanecp  and  from  10 — 31,  the 
praise  and  properties  of  a  good  wife,  in  the  form  of 
an  alphabetical  song.    Tradition  has  ascribed  the 
authorship  of  this  book  to  Solomon, '  the  wisest  of 
nien;*  but  although  neither  the  language,  nor  the 
structure^  nor— as  nas  principally  been  urged — the 
contents,  are  of  a  nature  to  convince  us  of  the 
absolute  necessity  of  assumih«[  various  authors  and 
various  epochs,  there  is  no  doubt  a  strong  presump- 
tion   in    favour   of    this    hypothesis.      Who  the 
Agnr  was  that  is  mentioned  as  the  author  of  the 
last  chapter  but   one,  is  not  easily  conjectured. 
Equally  unsatisfactory  are  the  results  of  the  specu- 
lations about  the  reputed  author  of  the  last  chapter, 
Lemuel,  by  some  supix)sed  to  be  the  brother  of 
Agnr.    Probably  it  is  nothing  more  than  a  S3rm- 
bolical  nama    The  last  section  (xzxi  10-— 31)— an 
alphabetical  acrostic— probably  belongs  to  the  7th  a 
B.  c,  and  by  its  language  and  form,  does  not  appear 
to  belong  to  the  author  of  the  preceding  part  of  the 
chapter.    The  nucleus  of  the  book  is  formed  by  the 
second  section  (x.— zxiL   16),  to  which  the  first 
(L — iz.)  was  added  by  way  of  introduction,  and  tiie 
third  as  the  concluding  portion.     Whether  that 
first  anthology  (from  the  3(i00  proverbs  of  Solomon 
mentioned  1  Kings,  iv.  32)  was  collected  and  re- 
dacted (into  section  two)  during  Solomon's  Kfetime, 
is  very  doubtful ;  so  much,  however,  is  certain,  that 
the  learned  men  at  the  time  of  Hezekiah  undertook 
their  additional  collection  with  a  view  to  a  then 
already-existing  portion.    It  may  not  be  superfluous 
to   ftdd,  that  Jerome,  misled  by  1  Kings,  iv.  32, 
erroneously  states  our  Book  of  Froverbs  to  contain 
the  3000  proverbs  there  ascribed  to  Solomon.    The 
canonicity  of  the  book  is  matter  of  controversy  in 
the  Talmud;  there   seems  to  have  been   at   one 
time  an  objection  to  receive  it  amon^  the  number 
of  sacred  books,  on  account  of  certain  cbntradic- 
ti<ms  contained   in   it ;    this    objection,  however, 
was  overruled,  and  it  occurs  in  the  oider  of  the 
HagioCTapha  (Kethubim)  of  the  Masoretio  Code, 
generally  between  Job  and  Eoclesiastes.    The  order 
followed  in  the  Authorised  Version  had  been  adopted 
already  in  the  time  of  Jerome. — Principal  writers 
on  P.  are  Ewald,  Berthean,  Hitzig,  Elster,  Rosen* 
mailer,  Hirzel,  Umbreit,  M.  Stuart,  and  Dr  Noyea. 

PRO'VIDBNCE,  a  ci^,  semi-capital,  and  seaport 
of  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  U.S.,  situated  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  on  an  ann  of  Nanaganset 
Bay,  at  the  month  of  Providence  River,  35  miles 
from  the  ocean,  43  miles  south-south-west  from 
Boston,  and  173  east  of  New  York.  It  is  the 
second  city  in  New  England,  covering  nine  square 
miles  on  both  sides  of  the  river,  which,  above 
its  two  bridges,  expands  into  a  oove,  a  mile  in 
circuit,  on  tne  borders  of  which  is  a  handsome 
fiark,  shaded  with  elms.  It  is  a  city  of  large 
commerce,  manufactures,  and  wealth,  abounding 
with  beautiful  villas  and  gardens.  Two  small  rivers 
afford  water-power  to  extensive  manufacturing 
establishments.  There  are  three  daily  and  weekly 
papers,  the  oldest  of  which  was  established  in  1762; 
53  <^urohes,  amon^  them  the  oldest  Baptist  church 
in  America,  established  in  lfi38  by  Roeer  Williams, 
when  banished  from  Massachusetts ;  hospitals  and 
aayloms;  a  state  prison,  which  had,  in  1860,  67 
•onvicts,  making  cabinet-work  and  shoes,  and 
erning  3000  dollars  a  year  over  their  expenses. 
Amovg  its  institutions  are :  Brown  University ;  an 
Athen»um,  with  a  library  of  20^000  votnmes;  a 


liberally-endowed  oolloge  of  the  Society  of  Friends ; 
a  Roman  Catholic  Institute ;  Historical  Society ;  4 
grades  of  free  schools;  38  banks;  18  insurance 
companies ;  several  railways,  uniting  in  one  central 
station;  several  lines  of  steam-boats;  6  ootton 
factories,  3  woollen;  26  iron  works;  7  bleaching 
and  calendering  mills;  3  screw-factories,  makins 
6000  tons  a  year ;  and  86  manufactories  of  gp\d  ana 
silver  ware  and  jewellery.  P.  was  settled  m  1636^ 
by  a  colony  of  refugees  from  Massachusetts,  under 
Roger  Williams.    Pop.  in  1860,  60,666b 

PROVI'NCIAL  OP  AN  ORDER  is  the  snpo- 
rior  of  all  the  houses,  and  all  the  membcon  of  A 
monastic  order,  within  any  particular  province.  The 
office  is  genenJly  held  for  a  stated  term  of  years, 
and  in  most  orders,  the  appointment  to  it  rests 
with  the  General  (q.  v.). 

PROVINS,  an  old  town  of  Fianoe,  in  the 
department  of  Seine-et-Mame,  59  nules  east-south- 
east of  Paris,  occupies  a  valley  irrigated  by  two 
streams,  the  Dartem  and  the  Voulzie,  whose  waters 
are  employed  to  turn  60  or  60  corn-mills  in  the 
district.  It  is  surrounded  by  ancient  walls,  flanked 
by  ruined  watch-towers^  and  is  divided  into  the 
high  and  low  towns.  In  the  former,  is  an  ancient 
tower  built  during  the  middle  ages,  but  vulgarly 
called  the  Tour  tU  Cisar.  The  vicinity  was  long 
famous  for  its  roses,  which  are  still  cultivated  to  * 
considerable  extent    Pop.  6609. 

PBOVI'SION  (Lat  prtmrio,  from  prwidert,  to 
provide),  in  Church  Law,  means  the  bestowing  an 
ecclesiastical  benefice,  and  involves  two  stages — the 
designation  of  the  person  on  whom  it  is  bestowed* 
and  the  actual  collation  (Lat.  coUatio)  of  the  bene* 
fice,  which  is  completed  by  his  taking  possession* 
Both  these  acts  fall  properly  to  the  ec^esiastical 
authority ;  but  by  usage  of  a  very  early  date,  1^ 
state,  and  often  individuals,  are  admitted  to  a  share 
in  the  provision  of  ecclesiastical  beneficea  In  tb» 
medieval  ohurch,  the  daim  of  the  sovereign  to  the 
provision  of  vacant  bishoprics,  was  often  tiie  sulneol 
of  contention  with  the  popes  (see  iMViafHTUMK),  out 
at  all  times  the  right  of  final  and  complete  provision 
was  admitted  to  Mbng  to  the  pope^  in  later  times^ 
this  claim  has  commonly  be^  r^^ulated  by  con- 
cordat.  In  most  Roman  Catholic  countries,  the 
crown  elects  to  bishoprics,  and  the  pope  is  bound 
to  confirm  the  nominee  of  the  crown,  unless  oano* 
nical  cause  of  rejection  should  appear.  In  the 
Rosso-Greek  Church,  the  candidate  are  presented 
by  the  Holy  Synod,  and  the  czar  names  the  bishop 
from  among  them.  In  Protestant  countries,  the 
election  to  oenefices  and  dignities  in  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  is  ||enerally  by  the  chapters ;  but 
in  some  of  them,  as  in  Holland,  Prussia,  Hanover* 
a  qualified  veto  is  permitted  to  the  crown.  In  the 
Church  of  England,  the  bishop  is  nominally  elected 
by  the  chapter ;  but,  in  reality,  the  members  of  the 
chapter  are  only  permitted  to  name  the  particular 
person  whom  the  crown  presents  to  them  for  election 
with  the  eongi  ijTSlire,  In  the  Roman  CathoUo 
Church  of  England  and  of  Ireland,  the  parochial 
der^,  together  with  the  canons,  recommend  three 
candidates,  one  of  whom  is  commonly,  althou^ 
not  necessarily,  appointed  by  i^e  pope.  The  con- 
ditions and  usages  of  provision  to  parochial  and 
other  benefices,  have  been  explained  under  the 
head  iKsnrunoK  (q.  v.).     The  completing  act  of 

Srovision  is  the  installing  in  possession,  which  is 
escribed  under  the  head  iNDrcnoir  (q.  v.). 

PROVrSORS,  Statute  of.  The  object  o!  this 
statute,  25  Edward  III.  st.  6,  was  to  correct,  and 
put  an  end  to,  the  abuses  which  had  arisen  in  the 
exercise  of  tiie  papal  prerogatives  as  to  the  rVisposal 
of  benefices  in  England,    i^  Bssbof  ;  Patboitaob. 


SBOVOnV-PBUimOlQIES. 


PBCyVOST  (Lttt  prtrpoaUuM,  wt  over),  in 
Chtirch  Law,  the  chief  dietary  of  a  cathedral  or 
collegiate  chnrch,  from  which  un  the  title  haa  alao 
heen  tranaferred  to  the  heads  of  other  aimilar 
hodiei^  whether  relisona,  litenxy,  or  administratiTB. 
Properly,  however,  tae  name  ia  given  to  the  hi^ieat 
d^itanr  in  the  raetropolttan  or  dioceaan  chapter, 
and  ia  often  held  conjointly  with  the  arohdeaconrr. 
The  provost  ia  the  next  in  dignity  after  the  ardn- 
biahop'  or  biahop,  a  position  which  is  also  the  right 
of  the  provoat  of  a  collegiate  chapter.  The  name 
is  also  given  to  the  superiors  of  certain  religious 
houses  ox  lesser  rank,  and  the  relation  of  which  to 
the  more  important  houses  is  analogous  to  that  of 
the  i^riory  to  the  abbey.  It  was  also  given  to 
certain  lay  officials,  whose  duties,  in  relation  to  the 
church  and  the  maintenance  of  its  material  condi- 
tion, were  similar  to  those  of  the  modern  church- 
wurden.  In  the  Protestant  Church  in  Germany,  the 
name  provost  is  sometimes  used  as  eynonymous 
with  that  of  dean  or  arch-priest ;  and  occasionally, 
where  several  minor  churches  or  diapels  are  attached 
to  one  chief  church,  the  minister  of  the  latter  is 
called '  provost' 

la  England,  the  heads  of  several  colleffes  in  the 
university  of  Oxford,  and  the  head  of  Kin^s  Coll^;e, 
Cambridge,  are  designed  provost.  The  h^ul  of  Eton 
College  is  also  so  ciuled.  The  Provost  of  the  Mint 
Is  a  judge  appointed  to  apprehend  and  prosecute 
false  coiners. 

In  Scotland,  the  chief  municipal  magistrate  of 
a  cit^  or  burgh  is  caUed  Provost,  the  term  corres- 
ponding to  the  English  word  majror.  The  provost 
presides  in  the  eivic  courts  alon^  with  the  Dailies, 
who  are  his  deputies.  The  chief  magistrates  of 
Edinburgh  and  Glasgow  are  styled  Lord  Provost, 
and  the  same  designation  haa  long  been  po|»ularly 
given  to  the  Provost  of  Aberdeen,  and  his  right  to 
It,  which  has  been  oontested  by  the  Court  of  Session, 
seems  lately  to  have  acquired  some  sanction  from 
royal  usages  It  haa  been  said  that  the  Provost  of 
Perth,  from  having  been  on  one  occasion  addressed 
by  Queen  Victoria  as  Lord  Provost,  is  entitled  to 
the  same  style.  The  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh  is 
entitled  to  t^e  prefix  '  Right  Honourable,*  which 
may  be  attached  not  merely  to  the  name  of  his 
office,  but  to  his  Christian  name  and  surname,  a 
usage  which  probably  originated  in  the  circum- 
stance, that  the  Lord  Provost  of  Edinburgh  was 
ex  officio  a  member  of  the  old  Soots  Privy  OounciL 
Within  the  city  and  liberties  of  Edinburgh,  the 
Lord  Provost  takes  precedence  next  after  members 
of  the  royal  family.  The  Lord  PrOvoet  of  CMasgow 
is  generally  styled  the  '  Honourable,'  a  prefix,  how- 
ever, which  belongs  only  to  his  office,  and  cannot 
be  attached  to  his  name. 

In  France,  there  were  formerly  various  de- 
seriptioDs  of  inferior  j]J[<lges,  known  under  the  name 
of  provost  {prSvdt).  The  Grand  Provost  of  France 
had  jurisdiction  in  the  king's  house  and  over  its 
officers. 

PBOVOST-MARSHAL,  in  the  Navy,  U 
a  person  appointed  to  have  chaige  of  a  prisoner 
before  a  court-martial,  and  until  the  sentence  of 
the  court  is  carried  into  execution.  In  the  Army, 
the  provost-marshal  is  an  officer,  with  the  rank  of 
captain,  appoint^  to  superintend  the  preservation 
of  order,  and  to  be,  as  it  were,  the  iiead  of  the 
police  of  any  particular  camp  or  district  He  has 
cognizance  of  all  camp-followers,  as  well  as  of 
members  of  the  army.  His  power  is  summary, 
and  he  can  punish  an  offender,  taken  flagrante 
delictOt  on  the  spot,  according  to  the  penalties  laid 
down  in  the  Mutiny  Act. 

PBOW  (from  the  Latin  prcra)  means,  generally, 
lot 


the  fore-part  of  *  ship,  or  mors  csMoially  tiis  bdk 
or  pointed  cut>water  of  a  galley,  polacre^  or  xebec. 

PRO'XY  (contracted  for  Procuracy),  the  maxj 
of  one  person  who  acts  aa  substitute  for  aaother. 
Every  member  of  the  House  of  Lords  can  (by  fioenec^ 
in  theory  supposed  to  be  obtained  from  me  sor^ 
reign)  appoint  another  Lord  of  Pariiament  his  proxy 
to  vote  tor  him  in  his  absence.  A  sptiitaal  loraeui 
however,  only  be  proxy  for  a  spiritual  lord,  sod  i 
temporal  for  a  temporal  lord,  and  no  peer  csn  hold 
more  than  two  proxies  at  the  same  time.  Proxiel 
cannot  be  used  in  judicial  cases,  or  ^ere  the  Houn 
is  in  committee,  nor  can  t^  proxy  sign  a  protest 

PRUDE'NTIUS^  AuRBLTOB  Clbksns,  aChristiaB 
poet  of  the  4th  a,  was  a  native  of  Spaio,  sod  wm 
horn.  348  ▲.!>.     Nothing  is  known  regaiding  him 
except  what  he  has  hiniMlf  told  in  a  poetical  auto- 
biography prefixed  to  his  works.     From  ttui  ve 
learn  that  he  reoeived  a  liberal   education,  wai 
admitted  to  the  Roman  bar,  practised  as  a  oleader, 
dischaiged  the  functions  of  civil  and  criminal  joda, 
and  was  ultimately  i^pointed  to  a  high  office  at  ue 
imperial  court.   The  year  of  his  death  is  not  koova. 
In  his  youth,  P.  was  fond  of  Treasure,  snd  ?ery 
dissipated ;  but  as  he  grew  olo,  he  became  very 
devout,  and  his  writings  (which  are  all  ia  Latia 
verse)  reflect  the  latter  phase  of  his  character.   Tbe 
principal  are— 1.  Cathemaition  lAber  {Book  [ie^d 
nymns]  for  Daily  Use),  being  a  aeries  of  twdfi 
hynus,  the  first  half  ol  which  were  reckoned  bj 
the  author  suitable   for   devotional   purposes  at 
difierent  parts  of  the  dav ;  2.  ApoiheoeU  (a  defeaoa 
of  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  Mainst  heretics) ;  & 
Hamartigaieia  (On  the  Origin  of  Evil,  a  polemic,  is 
verse,  agaiust  the  Marcionites) ;   4.  Payo&omaohaa 
(The  Triumph  of  the  Christian  Graces  in  the  Sosl 
of  a  Believer) ;  6.  Contra  Symmachum,  Liber  1  (a 
polemic  against  the  heathen  gods) ;  6.  Contra  Sifm^ 
mocAum,  Xt^er  2  (a  polemio  agsinat  a  petition  of 
Symmachus  for  the  restoration  of  the  altar  and 
statue  of  Victory  cast  down  by  Qratian) ;  7-  Ptn 
StefhatU^n  Liber  (14  poems  in  praise  of  Spaniah 
and  other  martyrs  for  the  faith) ;  8.  DiptyAm  (48 
poems  of  four  verses  each,  on  Scriptural  incidenti 
and  peraonaffes).     Bentley  calls   P.   *the  Horaei 
and  Viisil  S.  liie  Christians,'  which  may  be  traa 
enough  u  the  critic  only  meant  to  say  that  P.  ii 
the  first  of  the  early  Christian  verse-makers;  but 
is  ridiculous  if  he  intended  to  hint  at  a  oompazinD 
witii  tiiese  mssters  of  poetic  elegance  and  grace. 

PBT70*H0MMBS,  Oovnoil  or  (from  I^tin  horn 
|N^cIeM),  municipal  tribnnala,  which  existed  iint 
m  the  middle  ages  at  Marseille,  Lyon,  and  jperiu^ 
elsewhc««  in  France,  exeroiaing  an  equitaUe  jan» 
diction  as  arbiters  of  disputes  between  masten  and 
workmen.  Similar  tribunals,  under  the  same  naa^ 
were  reintroduced  by  Napoleon  L  in  18(M,  and  have 
bem  found  of  great  praotical  utility.  They  nov 
exist  in  two  loodities  in  Franee,  Lyon  and  Fans 
They  were  instituted  in  the  former  town  in  1806, 
in  favour  of  the  silk-trade  and  other  trades  imm^ 
diately  connected  witii  it.  The  council  consists  of 
manufacturers,  mercera,  master-worknEKii,  foresMa, 
dyers,  and  common  workmen,  elected  among  them- 
selves.  The  oouncil  is  empowered  to  dispose  fiasl^ 
of  all  difierenoea  between  manufactnreis  and  tiwff 
wwkmen,  or  between  master^ workmen,  oompanioss, 
and  apprentices,  where  the  sum  in  dispute  does 
not  exceed  200  francs;  and  it  mav  also  take 
oognisancei  subject  to  an  appeal  to  tlie  Tribaaal 
of  Commerce  or  Tribunal  <xf  First  Inntsafe,  of 
similar  disputes,  whatever  their  amount  Other 
functions  ii  a  misoeUan^oua  nature  bdopg  ta 
the  Council  of  Prud*hommea»  including  ^* 
inspection  of  the  workahopa,  in  order  to  obtui 


PRUNELLA-PBXTBIGO. 


ttfonBtttioQ  regarding  the  nmiber  of  looms  And 
of  workmen,  and  the  giving  an  opinionf  when  re- 
quired by  the  adminietrative  autaorities,  on  any 
qaeetion  sabmitted  to  it  In  1844,  a  Counoil  of 
Frad*homme8  was  eetabliBbed  in  Paris  in  favour 
of  tike  metal  trsde,  and  all  trades  oonnected  with 
it ;  and  three  new  eonnoils  of  the  same  kind  were 
institated  in  Paris  in  1847— one  oonnected  with 
the  mannfacture  of  tissnes  of  all  kinds,  another 
with  the  mamifactore  of  ohemirals,  and  a  third 
having  jurisdiction  in  all  other  trades. 

PRXJNB'LItA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  Labiata,  having  the  upper  lip  of  the  ^yx 
3-toothed,  the  lower  lip  bifid ;  the  upper  lip  of  the 
corolla  arched  and  nearly  entire;  the  lower  lip 
3-lobed ;  and  four  filaments,  each  with  two  teeth 
at  the  extremity,  of  which  one  bears  the  anther. 
Several  species  are  natives  of  Europe ;  one  only  is 
found  in  Britain,  P.  vulffaris,  popularly  known  as 
Sblf-hsal,  a  plant  very  frequent  in  moist  and 
barren  pastures,  as  it  is  also  throughout  most  parts 
of  Europe,  Central  Asia,  North  America,  and  New 
Holland.  It  has  oblong-ovate  stalked  leaves,  and 
violet-blue  flowers,  very  densely  whorled,  so  as  to 
form  an  imbricated  oblong  spike.  It  was  at  one 
time  in  considerable  repute  as  a  febrifuge.  It  is 
mildly  aromatic  and  sligntly  astringent. 

PRUNES  are  dried  fruit  of  the  plum-tree  {Prunus 
damestica),  of  the  variety  called  Jttliana,  which  is 
so  largely  cultivated  in  France,  that  not  only  is 
that  country  supplied,  but  Britain  also  imports 
from  thence  over  400  tons  per  annum.  They  are 
much  used  in  the  manufacturing  districts  of 
England  by  the  operatives,  who  make  puddings 
ana  pies  of  them  when  fresh  fruit  is  out  of  season. 
The  very  fine  kind  which  are  sold  in  highly  onia- 
mental  boxes  are  called  French  Plums  or  Table 
P. ;  these  are  a  much  finer  variety,  vi&,  Catherinea, 
which  are  much  larger,  and,  when  ripe,  are  much 
sweeter.  They  are  more  carefully  [prepared,  being 
gathered  by  hand,  and  separately  dried  They  are 
used  chiefly  as  a  dessert  fruit.  The  imports  of  these 
into  Britam  amount  to  upwards  of  200  tons  per 
annum. 

PRUNINO,  the  removal  of  branches  from  fruit 
or  forest  trees,  in  order  to  the  greater  production 
of  fmit,  the  improvement  of  the  umber,  or  pnr|K)ses 
of  ornament.  In  pnming  for  ornamental  purposes, 
taste  must  chiefly  he  consulted,  but  reference  most  be 
made  to  what  has  been  too  litUe  regarded  in  pruning 
of  every  kind — ^the  nature  or  habit  of  the  tree  itsell; 
Some  trees  will  bear  clipping  into  fantastio  forms, 
vrbioh  would  be  utterly  aestniotive  of  others.  Such 
fonns,  once  esteemed  as  the  finest  ornaments  of  a 
pleaanre-gTonnd,  or  the  neighbourhood  of  a  mansion, 
are  releoted  by  the  simj^er  taste  of  the  present  age, 
and  the  topiarian  art  has  few  admirers.  Much 
may  be  done,  however,  by  the  removal  of  branches, 
to  give  a  finer  form  to  ornamental  trees;  but  in 
this,  as  in  the  pruning  of  trees  grown  for  the  sake 
of  their  timber,  a  great  mistake  is  very  genendly 
committed  in  jiermitting  branches  to  jpo^r  to  a 
oonsiderable  sise  before  they  are  out  o£  It  may 
be  accepted  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  branches 
removed  should  be  small  in  proportion  to  the  whole 
bulk  of  the  tree.  The  removal  of  twigs  and  small 
bnmches  is  attended  by  no  bad  effeets,  and  may  be 
•^<*neflcial ;  but  the  removal  of  large  branches  is 
hangeroQs.  The  leaving  of  stumps  or  snags  is  an 
aggravation  of  the  eviL  They  rot  away,  sad  spoil 
tbe  timber  of  the  stem ;  indeed,  a  hole  ii  not  untre- 
qnently  formed.  Bat  as  to  forest  trees,  pruninff 
may  with  great  advantage  be  in  great  part  avoided 
by  taking  oare  to  plant  at  proper  distances,  and 
thinning  out  the  plantatioiMi  aimoiently  in  early 


periods  of  their  growth.  In  this  way,  better  timber 
ss  obtained,  ana  a  mater  produce  from  the  land. 
Pines  and  firs  scarcely  ever  require  pruninff,  and  aie 
probably  in  almost  all  oases  the  woise  of  tmtt  whMs> 
they  get,  except  in  the  removal  of  those  lower 
branches  which  have  aotnally  begun  to  decay.  In 
other  trees,  it  is  sometimes  of  importance  to  watoh 
for  branches  that  would  divide  the  trunk,  and  to 
prevent  the  division,  causing  the  main  stem  to 
ascend  higher  before  it  forms  a  crown ;  but  to  be 
of  any  use,  this  must  be  done  whilst  the  branches 
are  still  verv  young.  Plantations  should  therefore 
be  examined  with  a  view  to  pruning,  at  intervals  of 
not  more  than  two  years,  after  they  are  six  or  eight 
years  old. 

In  orchards  and  fruit-gardens,  pruning  is  neoes- 
aary,  the  object  beins  not  to  produoe  tinioer,  or  the 
utmost  luxuriance  of  trees,  but  fruit  in  the  greatest 
perfection  and  abundance.  The  habits  of  each  kind 
must  be  studied.  Even  in  the  pruning  of  goose- 
berry and  currant  bushes,  regard  must  be  had  to 
natural  diversities,  the  gooseberry  and  black-cur« 
rant  producing  fruit  chiefly  on  younff  wood,  whilst 
the  red  and  white- currant  produce  fruit  chiefly  on 
spurs  from  older  branches.  And  so  it  is  amoncst 
trees ;  apricots,  for  example,  producing  fruit  chiefly 
on  young  wood;  cherries  mostly  on  spurs,  whilst 
plums  produce  both  in  the  one  way  and  in  the  other. 
The  object  of  the  gardener  in  pruning  is  to  bring 
the  tree  into  the  condition  best  suited  for  producing 
fine  fruit  and  in  the  jgreatest  abundance ;  and  to  this 
the  training  of  Wall  Trees  (q.  v.)  must  also  be  accom- 
modated. Sometimes,  in  order  to  produce  particu- 
larly fine  fruits  for  the  improvement  of  the  variety 
by  seed,  or  for  the  sake  of  a  prize  at  a  horticultural 
exhibition,  the  gardener  dimmishes  the  number  of 
branches  likely  to  bear  fruit,  beyond  what  would 
otherwise  be  desirable. 

The  general  seasons  of  pruning  are  winter  and 
spring;  but  some  trees,  particularly  cherries,  are 
advantageously  pruned  in  summer,  as  they  then 
throw  out  less  gum. 

Pruning  instruments  are  of  Various  kinds— knives, 
axes,  saws,  biUs  of  veiy  various  forms,  &c.,  and  the 
aoerunoaior,  which  may  be  described  as  a  pair  of 
scissors,  one  blade  hooked  or  crooked,  attached  to 
a  long  handle,  and  working  by  a  cord  and  pulley. 
It  is  searoely  used  except  for  standard  trees  m 
gardens  and  orchards. 

PRU'NUa    SeePLUiL 

PRURFGO  is  a  non-contagious  affection  of  the 
skin,  in  which  intense  itching  is  the  most  prominent 
symptom.  Sometimes  the  parts  affected  present  no 
marked  deviatioa  from  the  normal  type,  but  most 
commonly  they  are  covered  with  papulW,  which  are 
nearly  of  the  same  colour  as  the  skin.  Hence  P.  has 
been  placed  among  the  pt^wlar  diseases  of  the  skin. 
William  makes  three  varieties  of  this  disorder — viz., 
P.  mMff,  P.ybrmioans,  andP.  seni^M.  This  affection 
seldom  affects  the  whole  surface ;  its  favourite 
seats  beinff  the  neck,  the  shoulders,  the  back,  the 
outer  suimoe  of  the  limbs,  the  anus,  &c  In 
P.  formieans  there  is  not  only  intense  itching  but 
patients  complain  of  a  feeUng  like  the  cree])ing  of 
ants  (hence  the  specific  name)  or  the  stinging  of 
insects,  or  as  if  hot  needles  were  thrust  into  the 
skin.  All  the  forms  of  this  disease  are  aggravated  by 
exposure  to  the  air,  and  by  heat,  and  the  sensations 
are  often  so  distressing  after  the  patient  has  become 
warm  in  bed,  as  to  prevent  sleep  for  many  hours. 
P.  seniUt,  occurring,  as  its  name  implies,  in  old 
persons,  is  characterised  by  the  extreme  severity 
and  permanence  of  the  itching,  and  by  the  obstinacy 
with  which  it  resists  every  kind  of  treatment  The 
diffiurent  varieties  of  this  disorder  may  probably  ba 


PRUSSIA. 


of^n  tTHoed  either  to  dlMaae  of  the  digeitive  flyitem, 
ot  to  ^ant  of  penonal  cleftoUneai;  bttt  in  most 
Oiiiee  thuir  origin  is  obsoare. 

In  the  treatment  of  this  disease,  attention  thould 
be  TMtid  to  the  diet  All  stimnlating  condiments 
anci  drinks  should  be  forlndden,  and  only  a  plain, 
easily  digested  food  allowed.  Internal  remedies 
are  seldom  of  use  excepting  opiam,  which  in  severe 
oases  is  required  in  free  or  large  doses,  in  order  to 
procure  rest  The  local  applications  that  have  been 
recommended  are  very  numerous.  Lotions  of  spirit, 
diluted  vinegar,  solution  of  acetate  of  ammonia^ 
glycerine,  prussio  acid,  ftc.,  and  ointments  con* 
tainine  creasote,  iodide  of  sul|^ar,  aoonitine,  ftc., 
have  Deen  advocated  by  various  physicians  of 
eminence.  Unless,  however,  the  greatest  attention 
is  paid  to  personal  cleanliness,  no  remedy  is  likely 
to  be  of  permanent  benefit 

PRU'SSIA  (Germ.  Preussen)  is  a  kingdom  of 
Northern  Germany,  consisting  of  two  large  tracts 
of  land,  separated  from  one  another  by  other  states. 
The  eastern  or  larger  portion  is  bounded  N.  by 
the  Baltic ;  R  by  Russia  and  Poland ;  S.  by  Austria 
and  Austrian  Poland,  Saxony,  Reuss,  and  Schwarz- 
burg ;  and  W.  by  Electoral  fiesse,  Hanover,  Bruns- 
wick, and  the  Mecklenbuig  duchies.  The  western 
or  smaller  half  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Ketherlands 
and  Hanover;  K  by  Schaumbuig-Lippe,  Lippe- 
Detmold,  Brunswick,  Hanover,  the  Hesse  territories, 
Waldeck,  Nassau,  Oldenbure,  and  the  Rhenish 
Palatinate ;  S.  by  France ;  and  W.  by  Belgium,  and 
the  Netherlands.  Besides  these  two  larse  sections 
of  territory,  P.  owns  various  detached  domains 
lying  within  the  boundaries  of  other  states,  the 
laivest  of  which  are  the  Principality  of  Hohen- 
collem  (q.  v.)  and  Jade,  in  Minden.  ^ 

The  folio  wins  table  gives  (according  to  the  Alma- 
naeh  de  Qotha  for  1865)  the  areas  and  populations 
of  the  8  provinces  into  which  P.  is  divided : 


1.  PraraU,  •      •      • 

5.  Posen,  .       •       •       • 
t.  Pnmeranla,      •       • 
i.  SileMa,  •       • 

6.  Brandenbnig,  •       • 

6.  S'lxonr,         •       •       • 

7.  Westpnulia,  « 

8.  Bhenish  Pninia, .       • 
DUtrict  of  HohenxoUern, 

»         Jade,        .        • 

The  troo])s  quartered  beyond  the  Prussian  boun- 
dary number  14,720;  giving  for  the  whole  of  P. 
a  popuhition  of  18,491,220,  with  an  area  of  107,183 
square  miles. 

Physical  Character^  Ac — The  eastern  and  larger 
nortion  of  P.  is  a  part  of  the  great  table-hmd  of 
Eastern  Bhirope,  and,  except  in  the  sonth,  on  the 
Bohemian  boundary,  is  an  almost  unbroken  plain, 
only  600  or  700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
Sndetic  Mountains,  whose  northern  ranges,  known 
as  the  Riesengebirge  (q.v.),  lie  between  the  Oder 
and  the  Elbe,  divide  r,  from  Bohemia ;  while  tiie 
Thiiringerwald  and  the  Hars  Mountains  (q.v.) 
intersect  the  line  dividing  it  from  Saxony,  Hanover, 
and  some  of  the  lesser  German  states.  None  of 
these  ranees  rise,  even  in  their  highest  summits, 
above  50(M)  feet.  The  surface  of  the  great  plain  of 
Eastern  P.  is  marked  bv  two  distinct  tracts  of  more 
elevated  land,  one  of  which  belongs  to  the  elevation 
which,  running  generally  paralfel  to  tiie  Baltic, 
may  be  traced  from  the  month  of  the  Elbe  to  the 
source  of  the  Volga,  and  which  in  P.  rises  about 
400  feet  above  the  sea-leveL  This  tract  is  diver- 
sified with  numerous  lakes,  none  of  which  is  more 
than  20  square  miles  in  extent,  but  which  altogether 
oocupv  an  area  of  more  than  300  square  mileSb    The 


AfMta 

Popiatfli* 

•q-nUcf. 

•kwof  IML 

S4.7S9 

9,866,866 

11,960 

1,488.550 

19,111 

l.SH9,789 

1M77 

8,890,605 

15,417 

9,467,760 

9.673 

1,976,417 

7,797 

1,618,065 

10,930 

8,915  784 

M 

•4,675 

0 

950 

soil,  consisting  chiefly  of  loose  sand  interspened  witii 
a  laiige  number  of  eiratio  blocks  of  granite,  ii  sterile, 
covered  in  many  places  with  heaths  and  belts  of 
stunted  pines^    On  the  northern  slope,  tenniasliBf 
on  the  shores  of  the  Baltic,  these  are  serod 
fertile  districts,  mofe  espeoiaUy  along  those  riven 
which   have   been   caronllT    embimked,   ss  tiis 
Niemen  and  the  Vistula.     The  southern  elevtiios 
of  the  Prussian  plain,  running  between  the  Fbikh 
mountains  of  Sandomir  in  the  south-east,  sod  tiM 
Elbe  between  Magdeburg  and  Bure  in  the  north- 
west, attains  a  height  of   about  1000  feel  neu 
Breslau  on  the  Oder,  where  it  is  known  ss  tiis 
Trebnitz  Heighta     Its  gen«ral  character  is  man 
fertile  than   the   northem  elevation  ;   while  ^ 
country  between  the  two  is,   for  the  most  par^ 
extremely  sterila    It  includes  the  sandy  waste  is 
which  Berlin,  the  ca^ital»  is  situated.    South  of  this 
tract,  and   in   Silesia  and  Prussian  Saxony,  the 
coontry  is  fertile,  including  some  (tf  the  most  pro* 
dttctive  grain-growing  districts  of  Prussia.    Easten 
P.  has  four  larffe  rivers— the  £lbe,  Oder,  YisUiIa^ 
and  Niemen ;   the   numerous  affluents  (^  which, 
running  east  and  west,  together  with  many  smaller 
streams,  between  the  two  elevated  tracts  of  the 
plain,  contribute  largely  to  the  facilities  of  inte^ 
course  throughout  the  country,  as  many  of  them  are 
navigable  for  vessels  of  sevc^  hundred  tons. 

Western  P.,  which  includes  the  Rhenish  distridi 
and  Westphalia,  is  divided  by  the  Rhine  into  tiro 
portions,  each  of  which  has  an  elevated  and  a  low 

f>lain.  On  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  the  level 
and  terminates  in  the  northem  extremity  of  the 
Vosges,  or,  as  they  are  here  called,  the  Hardt^ 
Mountains,  and  extends  northward  as  f ar  ss  Aix-la- 
GhaiieUe.  This  table-land  is  broken  alone  the  banks 
of  tne  Moselle  bjr  ranges  of  the  Hodiwald  and  the 
Soonwald,  the  highest  summit  of  which,  WaJdeih- 
senkonf,  attains  an  elevation  of  about  8700  feet 
The  plain  north  of  the  Moselle,  whi<^  is  known  as 
the  Eifel  and  the  Hohe  Veen,  has  a  mean  elevatioB 
of  1600  feet,  with  a  few  higher  hills.  The  lerd 
countrv  between  the  Rhine  and  Bdaas,  borderisr 
the  Eifel,  is  extremely  fertile.  On  the  east  side  of 
the  Rhine,  the  table-land,  rising  along  the  banks  of 
that  river  and  the  Main,  terminates  in  the  rid0  of 
the  Taunus,  whose  highest  summit,  the  FeldMigi 
attains  a  height  of  more  than  2800  feet»  or  about 
800  feet  more  than  the  mean  elevatioiL  In  the 
north,  the  plain  ends  in  the  Westerwald  betweea 
the  Lahn  and  the  8ieg,  and  in  tiie  Saaerisod 
between  the  Sieg  and  the  Ruhr.  The  soil  is  geDe^ 
ally  poor  in  these  districts,  which,  however,  posMSi 
special  sources  of  wealth  in  tiieir  iron  sjid  oosl 
mineSb 

The  narrow  valley  of  the  Rhine  is  noted  ss  oos  of 
the  most  picturesque  and  beautiful  parts  of  Oersuny. 
The  Rhine  (q.  v.)  is  navigable  throughout  its  cotirs 
course  in  P.,  which  it  traverses  from  south  to  aoith, 
receiving  nnmerous  other  rivers — as  the  Lahn,  Wied, 
Sieg,  Wnpper,  Ruhr,  lippe,  Berk^  and  Veckte  oa 
the  right ;  and  on  the  left,  the  Ahr  and  the  Moselle, 
the  latter  of  which  is  navigable  for  more  than  IM 
miles  within  the  Prussiso  dominions.  The  rivcM 
of  P.  are  connected  by  numerous  canals,  the  prin* 
cipal  of  which  are  the  Neuer  or  Seckenboii^, 
the  Friedriohgraben,  the  Finow,  Bromberger,  sad 
Friedrich  WiUielms,  which  unite  the  important 
districts  of  the  Oder  with  the  Vistula;  the  Spns> 
and  the  Havel ;  and  the  Planssohe,  which  coanectf 
the  latter  river  with  the  Elba 

Climate,  ProdueU,  ^--The  dimateof  P.  pressatr 
great  dififerences  in  the  esstem  and  western  pro- 
vinces—the former  being  exposed  to  heavy  snow- 
storms in  the  winter^  and  great  drought  ia  the 
summer^  and  with  a  mean  aannal  tempente'e  of  tT 


VBXJBSiA. 


has  a  tummer  mean  temperature  of  61%  and  winter, 
26*- F. ;  while  the  laUer,  which  have  milder  winten^ 
and  a  laroer  fall  of  rain,  have  a  mean  annual  tem- 
perature m  49*''5 — summer,  63",  and  winter,  36**  F. 

Agriculture  and  the  rearing  of  cattle  constitute 
the  principal  sources  of  employment  and  wealth  of 
the  rural  population  of  the  entire  monarchy,  and 
the  state  has  hitherto  directed  its  unremitting 
attention  to  the  furtherance  of  the  one,  and  the 
improvement  of  the  other;  abrogating  onerous 
land-taxes,  advancing  money  to  limdowners, 
encouraging  affricultund  institutions,  introducing 
approved  breeds  of  animals,  and  improved  farm 
instruments,  &a  Wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley,  peas, 
millet,  rape-seed,  maise,  linseed,  tobacco,  flax,  hemp» 
hops,  chicory,  are  extensively  cultivated,  and  largely 
exported.  The  finest  grain  districts  are  the  Bdrde, 
near  Magdeburg,  the  low  lands  on  the  Wartha  and 
Netsse,  and  on  the  Pl5ne  and  MadUe  lakes,  the 
north-eastern  parts  of  Pomerania,  the  island  of 
Rilffen,  the  valle3rB  of  the  Oder  in  Sileaia,  of  the 
Saale,  Moselle,  and  Saar.  Potatoes  have  of  late 
^ears  been  largely  grown.  Western  P.  is  noted  for 
its  excellent  fruits  and  vegetables,  and  the  Rhenish 
provinces  stand  pre-eminent  for  their  wines,  yield- 
mg  on  an  average  an  annual  quantity  of  about 
26,700  gallons.  The  forest-lands,  which  are  chiefly 
in  East  P.,  Posen,  Upper  Silesia,  and  Westphalia, 
are  of  great  value  and  considerable  extent,  occupy- 
ing an  area  of  nearly  10,000,000  English  acres. 
The  mineral  prod|icts  of  P.  include  coal,  iron,  lead, 
zinc,  copper,  cobalt,  antimony,  manganese,  arsenic, 
sulphur,  alum,  nickel,  black  lead,  barjrta,  gypsum, 
slate,  lime,  freestone,  salt,  amber,  agate,  jasper,  onvx, 
&c  All  metals,  saJt,  precious  stones,  and  smber 
belong  to  the  crown.  The  latter  substance  is  found 
almost  exclusively  along  the  12  or  14  miles  of  sea^ 
coast  on  the  Baltic,  l^ween  Pillau  and  Diisch- 
kemen,  where  it  is  dug  up,  or  dredged  up  close  off 
the  ehore,  P.  has  upwards  of  100  mineral  sprines, 
of  which  the  most  noted  and  efficient  are  uie 
•alpbur  baths  of  Aix-la-Chapdle,  the  iron  springs 
of  Ihriburff,  and  the  hot  and  saline  baths  of  Keinea^ 
lAndeck,  Flinsbeig,  Freienwalde,  and  Lauchstadt. 

The  statistical  tables  of  P.  for  1863,  give  the 
following  numbers  of  domestic  animals  for  all 
the  provinces:  horses,  1,680,663;  homed  cattle, 
6,634,510;  sheep,  17,428,017,  of  which  more  than 
one-third  were  of  improved  breed;  swine,  2,709,709; 
|(oats,  805,808;  mules  and  asses,  779a  East  P. 
u  noted  for  its  royal  studs,  and  the  excellent  breed 
of  horses  which  it  now  raises,  and  of  which  laige 
numbers  are  annually  exported.  Westphalia  enjoys 
a  special  reputation  for  the  excellence  of  its  hams 
and  pork,  Pomerania  for  its  smoked  geese,  and 
Branaenburg  for  its  honey  and  wax. 

Fish  of  aU  sorts  are  abundant  in  the  rivers  and 
numerous  lakes ;  seals  are  taken  in  the  Baltic  The 
wooded  districts  abound  in  game  of  every  kind; 
pheasants,  partridges,  snd  wud  ^pese  being  often 
found  in  enormous  quantities.  Besides  stags,  fallow- 
deier,  wild  boan,  foxes,  otters,  weasels,  polecats, 
martens,  badgers,  hares  and  rabbits,  the  lynx,  bear, 
ea^e,  and  beavers  are  occasionally  met  with. 

Metnu/aciures,  Oonukeree. — The  principal  manu- 
factures are  linens,  for  which  certain  districts  of 
Silesia,  Prussian-Saxony,  and  Brandenburff  enjoy  a 
Buropean  celebrity,  while  of  late  years  the  cotton 
manufactories,  worked  by  steam,  in  which  there  are 
about  3300  engines  in  operation  in  the  Rhemsh 
provinces,  and  as  many  more  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  state,  have  maintained  a  successful  rivalry 
with  the  older  linens,  worked  by  hand-looms,  of 
which  there  were  264,1^  in  operation  in  1863b 
Besides  these,  there  are  numerous  manufactories 
of    ailk,  wool    mixed   cotton  and  linen   fabrics; 


including  fine  shawls  and  carpets  in  Brandenbuigi 
stockings  and  ribbons  in  the  Rhenish  provinces, 
where,  as  well  as  in  Westphalia,  the  flax,  hemp,  and 
silk  and  cotton  thread  is  mainly  prepared  for  the 
manufacturera.  These  districts,  moreover,  stand 
foremost  in  regard  to  the  preparation  and  manu- 
facture  of  iron,  steel,  and  other  metallic  wares^ 
paper,  leather,  soap,  oil,  ci£|ars,  and  tobacco,  and 
for  the  number  of  their  distilleries  and  breweries ; 
while  Saxony  and  Silesia  have  the  largest  number 
of  chicory,  stareh,  beet-root,  gunpowder,  and  glass 
worka  Berlin  and  Elberfeld  rank  as  the  two  most 
important  centres  of  manufacture  in  the  continent 

The  commerce  of  P.  is  materially  facilitated  by 
her  oentral  European  position,  and  the  network  of 
river  apd  canal  navigation  (measuring  in  ail  nearly 
4000  miles),  which  makes  her  territories  the  con* 
necting  medium  between  several  of  the  great 
European  states,  and  which,  with  3340  miles  of 
railway,  17,000  miles  of  public  roads  (all  formed 
since  tiie  time  of  Frederics  the  Great),  and  a  sea- 
line  of  nearly  500  miles  on  the  Baltic,  cive  her 
a  free  outlet  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  Prussian 
mercantile  marine  numbered,  in  1863,  1471  sea- 
going, and  35  steam-vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of 
nearly  194,000  Utfts  (the  last  »  lii  tons),  and 
11,805  river-sailing,  and  180  steam- vessels  with  a 
tonnage  of  about  482,000  lasts.  The  chief  harbours 
of  P.  are  Memel,  Danzig,  SwinemUnde,  Peenemunde. 
StraJsund,  and  Barth.  Its  principal  commercial 
towns  are  Berlin,  KiSnigsberg,  Breslau,  Barmen, 
Elbeif eld,  Danzig,  Stettin,  Cologne,  Magdeburs,  and 
Aix-la-Chapell&  Annual  fairs  are  ^ill  h^d  at 
Breslau,  Magdebura,  and  Frankfurt-on-the-Oder. 
The  commerce  of  P.  oonstitutes  a  very  important 
branch  of  the  great  ZoUverein,  to  the  organisation 
of  which  the  Prussian  government  gave  the  first 
impulse  in  1819;  and  owing  to  the  intricate  and 
complicated  nature  of  the  trade  relations  of  the 
country  with  the  other  members  of  that  union, 
we  must  refer  to  the  article  Zollverein  for  tiie 
statistical  tables  of  the  value  of  Prussian  imports 
and  exports,  which  include,  imder  the  head  of  the 
former:  raw  and  crystallised  sugars,  coffee,  tea, 
spices,  wines,  spirits,  tobacco,  cotton,  raw  silk,  hops, 
colouring  matters,  tin,  quicksilver,  saltpetre,  glass, 
cattie,  fish,  traia  oil,  furs,  kc  ;  and  under  the  latter, 
wool  and  wooUen  goods,  thread,  yarn,  flax,  rape  and 
linseed,  sUk  and  cotton  and  linen  fabrics,  wines, 
wood,  salt,  amber,  coal,  iren,  lead,  zinc,  metal 
wares,  dye-stuffs,  books,  leather,  com  and  bread- 
stuffs,  &c 

Of  the  990  cities  of  P.,  three  only  had,  in  1861,  a 
population  exceeding  100,000 — ^viz.,  Berlin,  with  a 
population  of  about  525,000;  Breslaui,  with  138,000; 
and  Cologne,  113,000.  Of  the  six  cities  which  have 
between  50,000  and  100,000  inhabitants,  KSnigsberff 
has  the  lar^^est  population — ^viz.,  87,000;  while  (n 
the  remaimng  thirty,  whose  populations  exceed 
15,000,  haH  fiOl  below  20,000. 

The  money,  measures,  and  weights  of  P.  are  those 
in  use  throughout  the  German  Zollverein,  whose 
central  bureau  is  located  at  Berlin.  Accounts  are 
kept  in  thalers  (q.  v.)  and  silbergroschen.  The 
Bank  of  Berlin,  founded  in  1765  with  a  capital  of 
19  million  thalers,  and  HI  branches  in  the  provinces, 
has  the  right  of  issuing  notes  of  a  fixed  value, 
according  to  the  demand  required. 

Beligiont  <bc — ^The  dominant  religion  is  Protes- 
tantism, and  since  1817,  the  Lutheran  and  Reformed 
Churches  have  been  united  under  the  head  of  one 
common  evangelical  church.  ^  All  matters  con- 
nected with  the  external  administration  of  church 
matters  are  under  the  control  of  the  minister  of 
the  theological  and  medical  department,  but  everv 
religious   oommunity   manages   its   own   internal 


FRITSSIA. 


ooneerna ;  the  Protestant  cbnrclies  acting  in  con- 
{anction  with  a  consiitory,  one  of  which  ezisti  in 
each  province,  under  the  direction  of  the  up|per 
president,  or  proTincial  governor,  and  a  clerical 
snperintendent-ffeneral,  who  in  Poeen  and  Pomeranta 
bean  the  title  o?  bishop ;  while  the  Roman  CathoUo 
Cbnrch  is  directed  by  the  two  archbisho|)s  of  Posen 
and  Qnesen,  and  Cologne,  under  whom  stand  the 
four  bishoprics  of  Culm,  Milnster,  Paderbom,  and 
Treves.  The  two  episcopal  sees  of  Breslau  and 
Brmeland  are  directly  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
pope,  while  the  district  of  Olatz,  in  Silesia,  belongs 
to  the  archbishopric  of  Prague,  and  Katscher,  m 
tipper  Silesia,  to  that  of  Olmutz.  At  a  rough  esti- 
mate, there  are  about  11)  million  Protestants  to 
nearly  7  million  Soman  Catholics,  and  upwards  of 
250,000  Jews,  the  rest  of  the  population  belon^ng 
to  the  Qreek  Church,  and  other  religious  denommi^ 
tions.  The  Protestants  have  rather  more  than  9000 
licensed  places  of  worship,  with  6500  ordained 
clergymen ;  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  nearly 
8000  churches  and  chapels,  with  upwards  of  6000 
priests.  There  are  183  monastic  or  oonventnal 
establishments,  with  neariy  4000  inmates,  the 
creater  number  of  which  are  more  especially 
devoted  to  piuposes  <rf  education,  or  nursing  the 
■ick. 

Education, — Education  is  compulsory  in  P.,  and 
its  manAgcment  and  direction  under  the  control  of 
the  state.  In  no  country  are  better  or  ampler 
means  supplied  for  the  difiusion  of  knowledge 
among  all  classes  of  the  community.  P.  has  seven 
nniversi ties ^ viz.,  KSnxgsberg,  Berlin,  Oreifswald, 
Breslau,  Halle,  Mttnster,  Bonn,  and  two  colleges 
tor  the  Catholic  priesthood  at  Branneberff  and 
MUnster;  which  together  number  6600  students. 
At  the  close  of  1861,  there  were  in  P.  28,546  schools 
and  educational  establishments  of  every  kind, 
exclusive  of  the  universities ;  and  of  these  300  were 
higher  schools  (gymnasiums),  about  1000  classical 
private  schools,  58  normal,  and  about  700  art, 
trade,  and  handicraft  schools,  and  about  25,000 
public  elementary  schools,  with  35,000  teachers, 
and  about  2,700,000  scholars.  The  management 
of  the  elementary  national  schools  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  local  communities ;  but  the  state  appoints 
the  teachers,  and  in  part  pays  their  salaries,  the 
remainder  being  supphed  by  the  public.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  libraries  of  the  several  universities, 
there  is  the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin,  with  500,000 
volumes  and  about  10,000  MSS.  Among  the  num- 
erous scientific,  artistic,  and  literary  schools  and 
societies  of  P.,  the  following  are  some  of  the  more 
distinguished:  the  Academy  of  Arts,  founded  in 
1699 ;  the  Royal  Museum  of  Arts ;  the  Academy  of 
Sciences;  the  Natural  History,  (Geographical,  and 
Polytechnic  Societies  of  Berhn ;  the  Antiquarian 
Society  of  Stettin ;  the  Breslau  Natural  History 
and  Historical  Societies ;  &c. 

CfiaritJes, — P.  has  a  large  number  of  benevolent 
institutions,  towards  the  maintenance  of  which 
the  state  gives  annually  about  £16,000  sterling.  In 
1861  there  wei-o  about  1000  public  civil  and  muitary 
infirmaries,  in  which  upwards  of  170,0(X)  patiente 
were  under  treatment,  and  between  7000  and  8000 
poor  and  almshouses ;  while  800,000  poor  received 
sup[)ort  through  these  institutions  or  by  extraneous 
relief.  P.  is  supplied  with  asylums  for  the  deaf  and 
dumb,  the  blind  and  the  maimed,  and  has  good 
schools  for  training  midwives,  nurses,  &c 

Justice. — ^The  highest  court  of  law  is  the  Up|>er 
Tribtmal  in  Berlin,  and  each  province  has  its  special 
court  of  appe^  Besides  these,  there  are  125  magis- 
terial, 7  commercial,  and  numerous  military  courts. 
In  the  Cologne  district,  the  Code  NapoWm  is  in 
force,    and    in    Hither-Pomeraniay    the    common 


Qermaa  law ;  but  in  other  parti  of  the  kiBgdeni 
the  Prussian  code,  compiled  under  FVsdoick  the 
Great's  direction,  and  introdnoed  in  1794,  is  follomi 
A  new  penal  code  was  promnl^ted  in  1850,  bf 
which  all  pre-existing,  seignional,  munidpai,  or 
eodesiastioat  rights  of  decreeing  minishmentB  wen 
unconditionally  abrogated.  Memners  of  the  nyil 
family  are  amenable  to  special  laws  and  oourta 
Lesser  courts  for  the  settlement  of  minor  driyts  ud 
disputes,  and  juries  have  been  introdnoed  in  efoy 
province  of  late  ycjan,  and  publicity  is  denumded 
by  the  oonstitntioB  in  tiie  oondoct  of  criminal  csaei 
lliere  are  44  civil  prisona  The  administration  of 
military  matters  is  under  the  control  of  the  minister 
of  war ;  military  courts  are  presided  over  by  two 
civil  and  three  military  officen,  and  are  snboraiBats 
to  the  local  provincial  courts  of  appeal. 

Army^  Navy^  <f<e. — The  army  numben  on  a  pesos 
footing  191,033,  and  in  time  of  war  356,532 ;  besides 
8265  garrison  troops  in  the  former  case,  and  in  the 
latter  153,966  garrison  troops,  and  12^923  mes  it 
the  d^pdts.  The  cavalry  contributes  37,561  of  this 
number  in  war  time.  The  aimy  consists  of  tfas 
regular  troops  and  the  landwdir,  and  in  time  of  wir 
an  extra  contingent  can  be  called  up  under  the  titis 
of  the  landsturm.  Every  able-bodied  male  Pmsiis 
is  liable  to  be  called  upon  to  serve  between  20  and 
39  years  of  age.  Mennonites  (see  ANABArnsisi, 
clerg3rmen  of  tiie  Roman  Catholic  and  Evangdioi 
churches,  and  indis|iensable  supporters  of  families 
are  exem])t  The  time  of  active  aervice  is  thres 
years  for  some  branches  of  the  service,  and  two  for 
the  others.  P.  has  30  fortresses,  of  which  Dantag 
on  the  Weser,  Magdebni^,  Cologne  with  the  fortifi* 
cations  of  Deutz  on  the  opposite  ri^t  bank  of  tiie 
Rhine,  and  Coblentz  with  the  opposite  rocky  hdghli 
of  Ehrenbreitstein,  rank  in  the  first  dsss  as  the 
strong|est  Great  care  is  bestowed  on  the  edncatiaa 
and  nulitary  iawnin?  of  officers  and  men,  and  besides 
numerous  admirabw  academies^  there  are  several 
ffood  schools  of  operative  and  veterinary  surgery, 
oa,  connected  witn  the  educational  department  cf 
the  army.  The  Prussian  navy,  in  1864,  nnmboed 
119  vessels  of  all  descriptions,  carrying  416  gam 
and  3504  men.  There  is  a  harbour  for  the  coast- 
flotilla  on  the  island  of  Danholm,  near  Straksod, 
where  there  is  a  navigation  school  and  a  naial 
academy.  The  territory  on  either  side  of  the  moath 
of  the  Jahde  was  purchased  in  1853  from  Olden- 
burg, with  a  view  of  obtaining  a  port  on  the  Genua 
Ocean. 

OonMihUhnj  dse, — P.  was  an  absolote  monaicby 
till  the  crisis  of  1848,  when  the  decided  movemeii 
in  favour  of  liberal  views  compelled  the  late  king  te 
convoke  a  national  assembly  and  submit  to  tfas 
establishment  of  a  constitutmnal  form  of  govern* 
mcntb  The  national  representative  body  now  con- 
sists of  an  upper  chamber  or  JSferrenhatu,  with  230 
members,  which  is  composed  of  the  princes  of  the 
royal  house,  elected  by  the  king,  and  of  members  of 
14  mediatised  princely  houses,  the  great  noble  land- 
owners, hi^  cifioial  dignitaries,  5  representativeB  of 
the  universities,  and  27  representatives  of  cities.  The 
lower  chamber  has  3fi2  memben,  diosen  by  electm, 
whose  numbers  bear  the  relation  of  1  to  every  250 
of  the  populatioiL  In  addition  to  tiiis  genenl 
house  of  assembly  there  are  representative  bodies 
for  the  provinces,  communes,  and  eireles,  whidi 
debate  and  legislate  in  regud  to  load  mstteis 
within  their  several  departments.  The  eooncil  of 
state  is  oomposed  of  10  ministsts,  nnder  wboss 
ministries  are  numerous  departnsnts,  embtaemg 
almost  every  conceivably  snbdivision  of  foiciga 
policy  or  internal  legislation,  sinoe  notiiiiig  eaa 
be  done  in  P.  independently  of  the  states  Bf 
the  modified   oonstitation  of  1850^  all  exdosiis 


PBUSSIA* 


privileges  ariiing  from  titles  or  sfefttion  are  abrog* 
ated,  and  perleot  equality  in  the  eyes  of  the  law 
folly  recognised  ;  liberty  of  the  subject  ffosnuiteed 
in  re^^ard  to  religioos  persuasion,  the  right  to  hold 
meetings  unarmed  within  closed  doors,  and  become 
members  of  societies ;  immunity  from  domiciliary 
▼isits,  and  inviolability  of  letters,  Aa  The  mon- 
archy is  hereditary  in  the  male  line^  The  sovereign 
and  royal  family  must  profess  the  evangelical  con- 
feasion  of  faith.  The  Kii^,  who  is  not  responsible 
for  the  measures  of  his  government^  and  whose 
decrees  require  the  oouuter-signatureB  of  his 
ministers,  ezeroises  the  executive  power,  nominates 
and  dismisses  the  ministry,  summons  and  dissolves 
the  chambers,  orders  the  promulgation  of  the  laws, 
is  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces,  has  tiie  right  of 

frodaimins  peace  and  war,  erantin^  reprieves,  fta 
[e  bears  tne  titles  of  King  ol  Prussia,  Mark^E  of 
Brandenbui^,  Sovereign-duke  of  Silesia,  Pnnoe  of 
Orange,  Grand  Duke  of  Pomerania  and  the  Lower 
Bhine,  besides  a  host  of  lesser  titles.  The  arms  ol 
P.  are  composed  of  four  central  shields,  borne  on  the 
great  shield  of  48  fields,  representing  the  different 
territories  incoiporated  in  the  Prussian  monarohy. 
The  black  eagle  on  a  field  argent,  surmounted 
bv  the  open  crown,  is  the  special  oognizaaoe 
of  P. -Proper.  The  national  colours  are  black  and 
white ;  the  standard  is  white,  bearing  the  Prussian 
crowned  eagle  and  an  iron  cross  in  the  right  comer. 
The  eldest  son  of  the  king  bean  the  title  of  Crown- 
Prince.  The  ordinary  royal  residences  are  the 
Salaces  at  Berlin,  Potsdam,  and  Gharlottenburg. 
'he  royal  domains  were  ceded  to  the  state  by  Fred- 
crick- William  IIL  in  1820,  on  condition  of  a  rental 
of  24  million  thalers  being  paid  first  from  them  for 
the  king  and  his  family.  Among  the  numerous 
military  orders,  the  following  desorve  notice:  the 
Order  of  the  Swan,  founded  in  1443 ;  and  that  of 
the  Black  £s^e,  founded  in  1701,  regarded  as  of 
the  highest  dignity.  The  king  is  a  member  of  the 
German  Oonfideration  on  behalf  of  his  German 
territories  (that  is,  exclusive  of  P.-Proper  and 
Posen),  and  has  four  votes  in  the  pienum  and  one 
in  the  limited  coimdL  P.  supplies  a  contingent  of 
9.%638  men,  with  a  reserve  of  40,131  men  to  the 
federal  army. 

According  to  the  budget  of  1864»  the  reeeipts 
were  141,333,738  thalers  (a  thaler  s  3a  sterlins) ; 
and  the  expenses  for  the  same  period,  137,19<^bd8 
thalers ;  with  extraordimuy  expenses  amounting  to 
6,639,100  thalers;  while  the  funded  natioftal  debt 
in  that  year,  in  addition  to  debts  for  railways,  &o», 
amounted  to  261,836,704  thaleia. 

Taxation. — The  indirect  taxes  are  derived  from 
tolls  and  duties  at  ports,  harbours,  roads,  bridges, 
city -gates,  Ac,  duties  on  malt,  spirits,  stamps, 
tohtyooo,  salt,  &a,  at  the  rate  of  about  eight  thalers 
a  head ;  direct  taxes  arise  from  land-ralws,  income, 
trade  and  property  taxes,  railways,  ko. 

Population^  i^ocea— About  five-sixtbs  of  the  popa- 
lation  of  P.  are  (Germans.  Of  the  Slavonio  mbes, 
the  most  numerous  are  Poles,  numbering  2^ 
millioos.  In  Brandenburg  and  Silesia  there  are 
about  80,000  Wends;  and  in  East  P.,  upwards  of 
136,000  lithuaaians ;  while  Western  P.  has  rather 
more  than  10/)00  Walloons,  using  the  French 
languafjpe;  intermixed  in  its  generally  Qerman 
population,  Silesia  has  nearly  69,000  Bohemians  or 
Moravians — ^making  in  all  24  nultiona  who  do  not 
use  the  Grerman  langua^  or  who  employ  it  only 
as  secondary  to  their  native  tonguea 

Manka,  Classes. — ^Three  distinct  hersditary  classes 
are  reoognised  in  P.,  vis.,  nobles,  burghers,  and 
peasants.  To  the  first  belong  about  177,000  per- 
aons,  inohidii^  the  higher  officials  of  the  state, 
although  that  number  (toes  not  oon^irise  the  varioss 


mediatised  houses,  of  which  17  are  Prussian,  and 
others  belonging  to  different  states,  but  conncxited 
with  P- by  still  existing,  or  former  territorial  posses- 
sions. The  burffher  cI&sb  includes,  in  its  nigher 
branches,  all  public  office-betters,  professional  men, 
artists,  and  merchants;  while  the  peasantrv— to 
which  belong  all  persons  engaged  in  agricultural 
pursuits — are  divided  into  dames,  depen£ng  on  the 
number  of  horses  employed  on  the  land,  ftc 

iriSk»>~The   lands    bounded   by   the   BalticL 
which  now  form  part  of  P.,  were  early  occupied 
by  Slavonio  tribes,  nearly  allied  to  the  Letts  and 
Lithuanians.     It  is  conjectured  that   they  were 
visited  by  Phcemciaa  navigators  in  the  4th  a  B.a  i 
but  beyond  the  fact  of  their  having  come  into 
temporary    conflict   with   the   Qoths    and    other 
l^eutottio  hordes^  prior  to  the  great  exodus  of  the 
latter  from  their  northeni  homes,  little  is  known  of 
tile  people  till  the  10th  a,  when  they  first  appear 
in  history  under  the  name  of  Borussi,  or  Prussiaasi 
In  997,  Bishop  Adalbert  of  Prague  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom   at  their  hands,  while   endeavouring   to 
convert  the  people  to  Christianity.    Boleslas,  Duke 
of  Poland,  sncoeeded,  however,  about  1018,  in  oom- 
pelling  them  to  submit  to  baptism  and  subjection 
After  many    futile  att^npts  on  the  part  of  the 
pe(^e  to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Christianity  and 
toremn  domination,  they  finally  made  a  successful 
stand  against  Boleslas  IV.  of  Poland  in  1161,  and 
for  a  time  maintained  a  rude  and  savage  kind  of 
independmoe,  which  the  disturbed   condition  d 
PoUuid  prevented  its  rulers  from  breaking  down. 
The  fear  of  losing  tiieir  freedom  if  they  adopted 
Christiaiiity,  made  the  Prussians  obstinately  resist 
every  efiEbrt  for  their  conversion;  and  it  was  not 
t^  the  middle  of  the  Idth  a,  when  the  knights 
of  the  Teutonic  ordtt  entered  upon  their  *  famous^ 
crusade  against  them,  that  the  Uhristian  faith  was 
formally  established  among  them.    The  aggressive 
inroft^t  of  the  pagan  ftussians  on  the  territories 
of  iheir  Christian  neighbours,  and  their  advance 
into  Pomerania,  were  the  exciting  causes  of  this 
inqtortant  movenoenl     The  knights  of  the  order, 
when  appealed  to  by  Conrad,  Duke  of  Masovia, 
to  aid  in  the  subjection  of  the  heathen,  glsdly 
promised   theb   services,   on   condition   <rf   Deins 
permitted  to  retain  possession  of  the  lands  which 
they  might   conquer;   and    having    entered   the 
Pruasiaa  territories  in  considerable  numbers,  they 
entrenched  themselves  at  VogelBang  and  Nessau 
in  1290,  and  at  once  entered  upon  the  conquest 
of  Prussia.      For  half  a  century  the  belligerent 
brotherhood  were  engaced  in  war  with  the  people- 
winning  lands  and  soius  by  hard  fighting— until  at 
length,  in  1283,  they  found  themselves  undisputed 
masters   of  the   country,  which   they  had   both 
civihsed  and  Christianised  after  a  fashicm,  namely, 
by  almost   extenninating  the   paoan   population. 
During  this  period  of  straggle,  the  Knights  founded 
the  cities  of  Thorn,  Knlm,  Msrienweraer,  Memel, 
and  Kdnigsbeig^  repeopled  the  country  with  Ger^ 
man  colonists,  enooun^ed  agriculture  and  trade, 
aid  laid  the  foundation  of  a  well-ordered,  pros- 
vo'us   state.     The  unhappy  wars   between    the 
nmhts  and  the  Poles  and  Lithuanians,  tocher 
iw  the  moral  degeneracy  of  the  order,  led,  m  the 
14th  and  16th  centuries,  to  the  gradual  decline  of 
their  supremacy.    In  1454,  tiie  mniiiciiMd  and  noUe 
classes,  with  tlie  co-operation  of  Poland,  rose  in  open 
rtMlion  against  the    knights,  who  were  finallT 
compelled  to  seek  peace  sA  any  cost,  and  obliged, 
in  1466,  to  accept  the  terms  offered  to  them  by  the 
Tnskty  of  Thorn,  by  which  West  P.  and  ETmland 
were  ceded  by  them  unconditionally  to  Poland,  and 
the  remainder  of  their  territories  decUred  to  be 
fiefs  of  that    kingdom.     In   1611,   the  knights 


FBUSSIA. 


elMtod  M  their  gnad-niMter  the  Marksnl  Albert 
of  An^pach  and  Baireuth,  a  kinaman  en  the  kmg 
of  Polaad,  and  a  ecion  of  the  Frankiah  line  of  the 
Hohenzollem  family.  Althoo^  hia  eleotion  did 
not  immediately  reault,  aa  tiie  Juiighta  had  hoped, 
in  Becaring  them  allies  powerful  enongh  to  aid 
them  in  emancipating  themselvea  from  Polish 
domination,  it  was  frausht  with  important  oonse- 
quences  to  Germany  at  Jarffe,  no  lees  than  to  the 
order  itsell  In  1625,  the  ^and-master  was 
acknowledged  Dake  of  P.,  which  waa  converted 
into  a  secular  dnchy  (afterwards  known  aa  East 
P.),  and  renoonced  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  for 
Iintheraiu8m,*his  euumple  being  followed  by  many 
of  the  knights.  The  coantnr  made  rapid  advances 
imder  the  rule  of  Albert^  who  improved  tiie  mode 
of  adminiiterinff  the  law,  restored  some  order  to 
the  finances  of  the  state,  established  schools,  founded 
the  university  of  K5nigsberg  (1644),  and  caused 
the  Bible  to  oe  translated  into  Polii^  and  several 
books  of  instruction  to  be  printed  in  German, 
Polish,  and  Lithuanian.  His  son  and  successor, 
Albert  Frederick,  havins  become  insane,  a  regency 
was  appointed.  Several  of  his  kinsmen  in  turn 
enjoyexl  the  dignitj^  of  regent,  and  finally  his  son- 
in-law,  Johann  Sigismund,  elector  of  Brandenbuiv, 
after  having  held  uie  administration  of  affairs  in  his 
hands  for  some  years,  was,  on  the  death  of  the 
duke  in  1618,  recognised  as  his  successor,  both  by 
the  people  and  by  the  king  of  Poland,  from  whom 
he  received  the  investiture  of  the  duchy  <rf  P.; 
which,  since  that  period,  has  been  governed  by  the 
Hohenzollem-Brandenburg  House; 

Here  it  will  be  necessarv  to  retrace  our  steps  in 
order  briefly  to  consider  the  political  and  dynastic 
relations  of  the  other  parts  of  the  Prussian  state. 
In  the  12th  c  the  northern  Mark,  comprising  pro- 
bably the  territory  between  the  Elbe  anil  the  Oder, 
as  far  as  its  confluence  with  the  Spee,  waa  held  by 
the  immediate  descendants  of  Albert  the  Bear  of 
Luxemburg,  its  first  hereditary  markgraf,  who, 
during  the  next  two  or  three  centuries,  extended 
their  dominions  eastward,  beyond  the  Oder  into 
Further  Pomerania.  On  the  extinction  of  this  line, 
known  as  the  Ascanian  house,  a  remote  kinsman, 
Frederick  VL,  count  of  Hohenzollem,  and  markgraf 
of  NUmbei^,  became  possessed,  partly  by  purchase 
and  partly  by  investiture  from  the  emperor,  of  the 
^tmdenburg  lands,  which,  in  his  favour,  were  con- 
stituted into  an  electorate.  This  prince,  known  as 
the  Elector  Frederick  L,  received  his  investiture  in 
1417.  He  united  under  his  rule,  in  addition  to 
his  hereditary  Franconian  lands  of  Anspa(di  and 
Baireuth,  a  territory  of  more  than  11,000  square 
miles*  His  reign  was  disturbed  by  the  insubor- 
dination of  the  nobles,  and  the  constant  inenr- 
sions  of  his  Prussian  and  Polish  nei^bours,  but 
by  his  firmness  and  resolution  he  restored  order  at 
home  and  enlarged  his  boundaries.  We  are  told  tiiat 
he  gained  possession  of  the  castles  of  his  refractory 
nobles  by  the  aid  of  a  24-pounder,  known  as  the 
Faule  Grete;  but  even  this  unwonted  auxiliary 
WM  of  no  avail  in  a  long  war  which  he  waged 
against  the  Hussites,  who  devastated  the  land,  and 
rued  many  of  hia  cities  in  revenge  for  the  part 
which  Frederick  had  taken  in  acting  as  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  imperial  army,  which  had  been  sent 
against .  them.  Under  Frederick's  successors  the 
Brandenburg  territory  was  augmented  by  the 
addition  of  many  new  acquisitions,  although  the 
aystem  of  granting  appanages  to  the  younger 
members  of  the  reigning  house,  common  at  that 
time,  deprived  the  electorate  of  some  of  its  original 
domains,  as  for  instance  the  markgrafate  of  Anspaoh, 
which  passed,  on  the  death  of  the  Elector  Albert 
Achilles  in  1486^  as  an  independent  state  to  his 


younger  sons  and  thev  descendants.    The  mo«t 
considerable   addition  to  the  electorate  ins  the 
one  to  which  reference  has  already  been  msde,  and 
which  fell  to  the  Elector  John  Sigismund  through 
his  marriage  in  1609   with  Anne,  daughter  aid 
heiress  of  Albert  Frederick,  tiie  InMBe,  dake  of 
Prussia.    In  consequence  of  this  aUisaoe,  the  dnchy 
of  Oleyes,  the  conntehips  of  Ravensberg,  the  Mak, 
and  limburg,  and  the  extensive  dnchy  of  P^  taw 
known  aa  £iat  P^  became  incorporated  with  the 
Brandenburg  territories,   which  were  thus  men 
than  doubled  in  area.     The  reisn  of  John  Sip>- 
mund's    successor,    Georg-Wilh&    (1619—1640), 
was    distracted   by  tiie   miseries  of  the  Th^ 
Years*  War,  and  the  country  was  fldteraatdy  the 
prey  of    Swedirii  and  impenal   armies;  sod  oo 
the  aooession  of  Qeoiv-'Wilhelm's  son,  the  grnt 
Elector   Frederick -William    (q.  v.),    in  1640,  the 
electorate    was    sunk   in   the    lowest   depths  of 
social  misery  and  financial  emharrsssmeiLt    Bat 
so  wise,  prudent^  and  vigorooa  was  the  goTen* 
meat  of  this  prince,  that  at  his  death  in  1688  he 
left  a  well-filled  exchequer,  and  a  furly-cqmmed 
army  of  38,000  men ;  while  the  electorate,  iriiieh 
now  possessed  a  popoUtion   of    one  and  a  half 
million,  and  an  area  of  42,000  square  miles,  had  bees 
raised  by  his  genius  to  the  rank  of  a  great  Euro- 
pean power.     His  successors,  Frederick  HL  (a  ▼.), 
(1688—1713)  and  Frederick-William  L  (1713-1740^, 
each  in  his  own  way  increased  the  power  and  credit 
of  P.,  which  had  been  in  1701  raised  to  the  rank  of 
a  kin^om.    The  latter  monarch  waa  distingimhed 
for  his  rigid  economy  of  the  poblio  money  and  ao 
extraordinary  penchant  for  tell  soldiers,  and  left 
to  his  son,  me  great  Frederick  IL  (q.  v.),  a  compact 
and  (Mtieperotts  state,  a  well-disciplined  army,  and  a 
sum  of  nearly  nine  million  tfaalen  in  his  treasmy. 
Frederick    ll    (1740—1786),   dezteionsly  availed 
himself   of   the   extraordinary  advantages  of  his 
position  to  raise  P«  to  the  rank  ol  one  of  the 
ffreat  political  powers  of  Europe.     In  the  intervab 
between  his  great  wars,  he  devoted  all  his  moffia 
to  the  improvement  of  the  states  by  enooangiBg 
M;riculture,  trade,  and  oommeroe,  and  reotgaBisme 
the  militaiy,  financial,  and  judicwl  departments  d 
the  state.    By  his  liberal  views  in  re^gaird  to  retigioB, 
science,  and  government,  he  inauffurated  a  sy^em, 
whose  results  reacted  on  the  whole  of  Borope; 
and  in  Gennany,  more  especially,  he  gave  a  aev 
stimulus   to   thought,   and   rooaed    the  donnaat 
patriotism  of  the  people^    Frederick  was  not  ore^ 
scrupulous  in  his  means  of  esdai^ging  his  domiaiooB, 
as  he  proved  by  sharing  in  the  first  psitition  of 
Poland  in  1772,  when  he  obtained  as  nis  partioo, 
nearly  all  West-P.,  and  several  other  districts  in 
East  Prussia^  His  nephew  and  successor,  Frederick* 
William  IL  (1780—1707),  aggrandiaed  his  kingdom 
by  the  second  and  third  partitiona  ol  PobuBa  iu 
1793   and  1795.     Frederiok-William   IIL  (q.  ▼.), 
(1797—1840),  who  had  been  educated  oader  the 
direction  of  his  srand-unde,  Fredoiek  the  Great, 
succeeded  his  fauier  in  1797,  at  a  time  of  extreme 
difficnltv,  when  continental  rulers  had  no  chdoe 
beyond  being  the  opponents,  the  tools,  or  tiie  vietimt 
of  French  republican  ambition.     By  endeavtmins 
to  maintain  a  neutral  attitude,  P.  lost  her  poiiticu 
importance,  and  inined  no  teal  friends,  but  rnuiy 
covert  enemies.    But  the  oalamitiea  which  thia  line 
of  policy  brought  upon  P.  rooaed  Frederick- William 
from  his  apathy,  and  with  an  energy^  perseveranoe, 
and  self-denial,  worthy  of  all  praiae,  he  devoted 
himself,  with  his  minister  Ooont  Haodenbeii^  to 
the  reorganisation  of  the  state.    In  the  ten  yean 
which  succeeded  the  battle  of  Waterloo^  P.  usder- 
went  a  complete  reorganisation.     T^cade  reocind 
a  new  impulse  throng  the  varioas  couunereial 


PBXrSSIA. 


treaties  made  witb  the  maritime  nations  of  the 
world,  the  formation  of  exoellent  roads,  the  estab- 
lishment of  steam  and  sailing  packets  on  the  great 
ri▼en^   and   at   a  later  pencil   the  ormnisation 
of  the  oustoms-treatjr,  known  as  the  ZoUverein 
(q.  v.)>  between  P.  and  the  other  states  of  NorUtem 
Gennany,  and  through  the  formation  d  an  extended 
network  of  railways.    The  most  ample  and  libersl 
provisicn  was  made  for  the  diffusion  of  edneation 
over  every  part  of  the  kingdom,  and  to  every  dass. 
In  like  manner,  the  established  Protestant  Chorch 
was  enriched  by  the  newly-inaugurated  system  of 
government  supervention,  churohee  were  built,  the 
emoluments  of  the  clergy  were  raised,  and  their 
dwellings  improved ;  but  not  content  with  that,  the 
kins  wished  to  legislate  for  the  church  in  accordance 
with  a  set  plan ;  and  when  the  various  Protestant 
churches  remsed  to  be  joined  in  the  Utopian  union 
prescribed    for    them,    difficulties    arose.      This 
tendency  to  over-legislation  has  long  been  the  pre- 
dominating evil  feature  of  Prussian  administration, 
and  the  state,  without  regard  to  the  incouffmous 
elements  of  which  it  was  composed,  was  mvided 
and   subdivided  into   governmental   departments, 
which,  in  their  turn,  under  some  head  or  other, 
brought  every  individual  act  under  governmental 
supervision,  to  the  utter  annihilation  of  political 
or  mental  independence.     The  people,  when  the^ 
gradually  began  to  comprehend  the  nature  of  this 
administottive  machinerjr,  saw  that  it  made  no  ntovi- 
sion  for  political  and  civil  liberty,  and  demanaed  of 
the  king  the  fulfilment  of  the  promise  he  had  given 
in  1815  of  establishing  a  representative  constitution 
for  the  whole  kin^om.    Tms  demand  was  met  with 
the  most  hjrpocritical  and  despotic  insincerity  on 
the  part  of  the  king,  who  professed  to  ti^e  ni^ 
religious  views  of  his  duty  as  a  sovereign,  and  its 
immediate  fruits  were  strenuous  efforts  on  his  part 
to  check  the  spirit  of  liberaliam.    Every  roeasore 
taken  by  other  sovereigns  to  put  down  poUtical 
movements  was  vigoroucuy  abetted  by  him.    Siding 
with  the  pietists  of  Germany,  he  introduced  a  sort 
of  Jesuiti«il  despotism,  which  has  been  continued 
by  his  sons,  the  late  and  the  present  kin^    The 
Liandst&nde   or    provincial    estates,    omnised   in 
ftooordance  with  the  qrstem  of  the  mmdle   ages, 
were  the  sole  and  inadequate  mode  of  representa- 
tion granted  to  P.  in  this  reign,  notwdthlBtandinff 
the  p&dge  made  to  the  nation  for  a  full  and  generu 
representative    government.      An    attempt   made 
f ordbhr  to  unite  Lutheran  and  Reformed  t^urohes 
excited  universal  indignation,  while  the  imprison- 
ment^ at  *  later  period,  of   the  AxchbiBhops  of 
Cologne  and  Gnesen  for  their  conduct  in  regard  to 
tiie  vexed  question  of  mixed  marriages,  involved 
the  kiuff  in  a  lonf;  and  fruitless  dispute  with  the 
pone.     The  accession  of  Frederick-William  IV.  in 
1S40  seemed  to  open  a  better  prospect  to  the  friends 
of  constitutional   freedom,   but  the   reality    was 
•caicely  equal  to  the  expeotations  which  had  been 
^^arranted  by  the  professions  of  the  government. 
8tiU  new  hopes  and  reouirements  had  teen  excited, 
and  a  new  life  was  infused  into  every  department 
of  the  state.    Every  branch  of  science^  art^  and 
literature  was  understood  to  receive  the  att^tive 
oonsideration  of  the  sovereign,  who  professed  to  be 
actuated  by  a  love  of  univenal  pn^^ress.    He  made 
similar  professions  in  regard  to  rehgioos  toleration, 
but  the   pietistio  tendendea   of  nis  government 
exerted  a  forced  and  prejudicial  influence  in  eve^ 
department  cl  the  state;  while  the  bureancratio 
spirit  of  over-governing  which  characterised  the 
amninistration  was  becoming  daily  more  and  more 
irksome  to  the  nation,  and  gave  rise  to  the  f onna- 
tion  of  free  chuzohes  or  Protestant  oommunities ; 
whiW  a  oontempoianeoqa  ezsileiiMnt  which  had 


arisen  in  the  Boman  Cathc^c  Ohuroh  of  P.,  as  the 
result  of  the  schismatic  movement  due  to  the 
stand  taken  by  the  chaplain  Eonge  (q.  v.)  on  the 
exhibition  of  the  so-caued  Holy  Coat  ot  Treves 
(q.  v.),  further  complicated  the  relations  between 
church  and  state.  The  king  and  his  advisers, 
undernting  the  importance  <n  the  movement  of 
1848  in  Germany,  thought  they  had  satisfied 
the  requirements  of  the  hour  by  granting  a  few 
unimportant  reforms,  and  making  equivocal  pro- 
mises of  further  concessions.  When  at  len^^ 
however,  the  citizens  and  troons  came  into  collision, 
and  blood  was  shed,  Freaerick- William  came 
forward  as  the  professed  regenerator  of  his  counti^, 
offering  to  lay  down  his  royal  title  and  merge  his 
kingdom  in  the  common  fatherland,  for  the  salva- 
tion of  which  he  recommended  a  cordial  union  of 
all  German  princes  and  people  in  one  bond,  and  pro- 
posing himself  as  the  guide  and  leader  of  this  new 
Germany.  His  own  subjects,  and  at  first  many 
Germans  in  other  states,  were  carried  away  by  these 
Utopian  schemes.  The  publication  of  a  political 
amnesty],  the  nomination  of  .a  liberal  ministry,  the 
recognition  of  a  civic  guard,  the  retirement  of  the 
Prince  of  Prussia,  the  heir-presumptive— with  whom 
every  arbitrary  measure  of  government  was  believed 
to  originate— and  the  summons  of  a  representative 
chamber  to  discuss  tlie  proposed  constitution — all 
tended  to  allay  the  general  discontent.  Bat  when 
the  national  assembly  at  Frankfurt,  in  disregard  of 
the  wishes  of  the  Prussian  king,  declined  to  accept 
Iris  proffered  services,  and  dected  the  Archduke 
John  of  Austria  lientenant-ffeneral  of  Germany, 
his  ardour  in  the  cause  erf  the  ratherland  coded,  ma 
pledges  to  his  own  subjects  were  evaded  as  long 
and  as  completely  as  the  occasion  permitted,  ana 
Iris  policy  became  more  strongly  tinged  than  before 
with  a  jealousy  of  Austria.  His  powerful  co-opere- 
tion  in  putting  down  the  insurrection  in  PoIaad» 
and  the  democratic  party  in  Baden,  ^ye,  however, 
ample  proof  of  his  detennined  opposition  to  every 
popular  demonstration  against  absolutism.  In  the 
war  of  the  Slesvig-HolBtein  duchies,  the  PmssiaiMi 
acted  in  concert  with  the  disaffected  against  their 
sovereign,  the  king  of  Denmark,  occupying  the 
ducal  provinces  in  the  name  and  on  the  bemdf  of 
the  di^  The  latter  years  of  this  reign  were  charao* 
terised  by  great  advance  in  the  material  prosperity 
and  intmial  improvement  of  the  country*  £xten« 
sive  lines  of  railway  and  post-roads  were  opened, 
the  river  navigation  greatiy  facilitated,  treaties  of 
commerce  fwmed  with  forei^  countries,  and  great 
expansion  given  to  the  Prussian  and  North  Gennan 
Zollvereia  (q*v.),  the  army  put  upon  a  footiniff 
of  hitherto  unprecedented  efficiency  of  arms  ana 
artillery,  and  the  educational  system  of  the  country 
still  further  developed*  The  political  freedom  of 
P.  cannot,  however,  be  said  to  have  made  equal 
advance.  The  chambers  which  met  for  the  discus* 
sion  and  framing  of  a  constitutional  mode  of  govern* 
ment,  were  oonstanthr  interrupted  and  obstructed 
in  the  ])rosecution  of  their  task,  and  the  constitu- 
tion, which  is  now  established  by  law,  was  modified 
every  year  between  1850  and  18^7,  until  it  may  be 
said  to  retain  few  of  its  original  bases ;  while  the 
practical  despotism  of  Frederick-William  IV.,  and 
of  his  brother,  the  present  king,  who  succeeded  him 
in  1861,  has  lutherto  put  an  effective  check  on  ail 
measures  proposed  by  the  body  of  representatives, 
which  might  have  a  tendency  to  intenere  with  the 
absoluteness  of  the  regal  power,  or  to  promote  the 
advance  of  thought  and  the  progress  of  political 
freedom  in  the  Prussian  domimons.  It  was  believed 
aenerally  throughout  Europe  that  the  Liberals  of 
Prussia,  whose  refwesentatives  formed  a  large  majo* 
rity  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  weie  resolutely 


PRUSSIA-^PSALMANAZAR 


bent  on  resistinff  the  encwdimwite  of  tbe  eove- 
zeign  on  their  Bbertiee;  but  partly  throng  the 
unconstitutional  andaci^  of  too  Praaeian  prime- 
minister,  Count  Ton  Biamaik,  and  ^rtljr  thcongh 
the  outburst  of  national  enthusiaam  in  the 
Slesvig-Holstein  war,  their  'oppontion'  has  as  yet 
produced  no  effect,  nor  eren  originated  a  policy. 

PRUSSIA,  one  of  the  eight  provinces  into  which 
the  kingdom  of  the  same  name  is  divided,  is 
bounded  on  the  S.W.  by  Pomerania  and  the  Baltic 
Sea,  and  on  the  K  and  8.  by  Russia  and  Poland. 
Ai«a,  24,739  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1862)  2,866,866.  It  is 
divided  into  two  distaicts  or  sub-provinoes — East 
Prussia  (14,833  sq.  m.)  and  West  Prussia  (9906 
sq.  m.).  About  two- thirds  of  the  soil  consists  of 
good  land,  the  remainder  beine  chiefly  sandy.  Agri- 
culture is  by  far  the  most  imoortant  branch  of 
industry,  manufactures  being  confined  to  such  articles 
as  supply  merely  local  wanto.  Wheat  is  extensively 
cultivated,  especially  in  the  district  of  Gumbinnen ; 
and,  as  the  inhabitants  live  chiefly  upon  r3re,  the 
larger  half  of  the  wheat  crown  is  exported.  P. 
possessed  a  larger  number  of  hones  than  any  other 
province  in  the  kingdom.  For  tbe  history  of  the 
province  of  P.,  and  for  its  principal  physical 
features,  see  Prttssia,  Kutodom  ot. 

PRUSSIAN   BLUB.      See  Blue,   Ctaitooek, 

FSBBOCYAirOOEN,  and  FER&rDCYAKOQKir. 

PRUSSIO  ACID.    See  HTDaocTANio  Acm. 

PRUTH,  an  important  affluent  of  tbe  Danabe, 
rises  in  the  south-east  of  the  Austrian  orown-land  of 
Galiaa,  on  the  north-east  mds  <^  the  Carpathian 
mountains,  and  near  the  base  of  Mount  Rosky  in 
that  rang&  It  flows  in  a  deep  valley  eastward 
past  Kolomea  and  Csemowits,  and,  forming  the 
lx>undary  between  Moldavia  and  the  Russian  terri- 
tories from  Bojana,  passes  liptehany,  then  flows 
aonth-south-esst  to  Eatamon;  after  which  its 
oonrse  lies  south  through  MoUavia  to  the  Danube, 
whK^  it  enters  at  Reni,  about  12  miles  below  Oalati. 
Total  length  about  500  miles.  Ite  affluents  are 
very  numerous  but  are  inconsiderable. 

PRTNNE,  William,  noted  as  a  pamphleteer  and 
active  politician  during  the  reign  of  Charles  L,  and 
the  subsequent  period  of  the  Commonwealth,  was 
bom  near  jBath  in  the  year  1600.  He  received  his 
early  education  there,  and  was  afterwards  trans- 
ferred to  Oriel  College,  Oxford,  wher&  in  1620,  he 
took  his  bachelor's  degrea  Selecting  the  law  as  his 
profession,  he  enter^  himsdf  at  Lincoln's  Inn, 
where  he  became  a  bencher  and  reader ;  but  it  does 
not  appear  that  he  ever  very  seriously  endeavoured 
to  obtain  practice  at  the  bar.    He  was  early  drawn 

"into  the  vortex  of  ecclesiastical  controversy,  and 
flpeedUy  made  himself  heard  of  as  a  champion  of  the 
Puritan  party.  In  1632,  appeared  his  HUtriO" 
fno^Me,  or  a  Scourge  for  Stage  Players,  a  tasteless 
«nd  scurrilous  attack  on  the  popular  amusements 
of  the  period,  which  procured  him  tiie  attention  of 
the  authorities.  For  this  performance  he  under- 
went prosecution  in  the  Star  Chamber,  with  results 
sufficiently  unpleasant.  His  sentence  involve  him 
in  a  fine  of  £3000,  degradation  from  the  bar,  expul- 
sion from  Oxford  and  lincoln's  Inn,  Hie  loss  of  botli 
his  ears  in  the  pillory,  and  the  shock  to  his  vant^ 
as  an  author,  of  seeing  his  book  burned  in  pubtio 
by  the  hangman.  He  was,  moreover,  condemned  to 
perpetual  imprisonment,  and  immured  in  tiie  Tower 
accordingly.  If  the  severity  of  the  punishment 
seems,  at  first  sight,  astounding  in  its  disproportion 
to  the  nature  and  amount  of  the  offence,  it  is  |)er- 
haps  sufficiently  explained  by  the  fact,  tiiat  P.,  by 
his  previous  issue  of  a  series  oi  anti-prdatical  tracts, 
as  by  other  indications  of  hostility,  had  made  himself 

'  jnoet  obnoxious  to  Arehbishop  liaud  and  tiie  clergy. 
tte 


Three  years  after,  the  pertinaoioiis  offender  fnmd 
means  to  publish  from  his  prison  another  p^mp^ti^ 
in  which  he  fiercely  attack^  the  hiorarehy,  aod 
was  unsparinff  in  his  personal  abuse  of  Laud  and 
certain  other  bishops.  jFor  this  he  was  again  pross* 
euted ;  a  fine  of  £5000  was  imposed  upon  him ;  he 
was  onoe  mote  pilloried,  losing  audi  stumps  of  em 
as  the  executioner  had  before  spared;  snd  vai 
Itfanded  en  both  cheeks  with  the  letters  &L 
(Seditions  Libeller).  He  was  then  removed  to 
Caernarvon  Castle,  and  afterwards  to  that  of  Moot 
Orgneil,  Jersey,  where  he  remained  a  close  pnsoncr, 
till,  in  1641 — the  Long  Parliament  then  aittiug— be 
was  released  by  a  waiiant  of  the  House  ol  Commooa, 
and  a  tumultuous  ezi>reseion  of  popular  sympathy 
celebrated  his  restoration  to  liberty.  Shortly  after 
wards,  he  was  sent  to  parliament  as  member  for 
Newport  in  Cornwall,  and  for  some  veais  wai 
actively,  and,  at  times,  even  prominently  esAged 
on  tbe  popular  side  in  the  proceedings  of  the  Hoom 
of  Commons.  In  the  extreme  measures,  however, 
leading  to  the  deposition  and  death  of  the  kin^  he 
declined  all  share ;  and  being  one  of  those  of  whom 
Cromwell  shortly  after  'puiged'  the  House  of 
Commons,  be  proceeded  to  assail  him  in  print  with 
an  asperity  not  inferior  to  that  with  whidi  he  had 
before  made  war  up<m  the  bishops,  as  a  oonse^oeace 
of  which  imprudence  he  was  once  more  subjected  to 
several  years'  imprismimentb  On  Cromwdl's  (katii 
he  returned  to  his  jUaoe  in  parliament,  sealooaly 
interesting  himself  m  the  royal  cause;  and  after 
the  Restoration,  tiie  office  was  bestowed  on  hia 
of  Keeper  of  the  Beoords  in  the  Tower.  Subse- 
quently, his  inveterate  habit  of  envanoimed 
pamphleteering  involved  him  in  difficulties  wi& 
the  House  of  Ounmons,  from  which,  on  a  chaige  of 
seditious  libel,  he  nanowly  escaped  expukioQ.  E» 
died  at  Lincodn*a  Inn  in  October  1669.  The  con- 
tinuoua  stream  of  writings  on  the  perilous  tofka  d 
the  day,  which  brought  him  so  constantly  iato 
trouble,  represents  but  a  fraction  of  P.'s  hteniy 
activity.  He  busied  himself  chiefly  as  a  compiler  i 
matter  illustrative  of  constitutional  and  psrlia- 
mentaiy  histoiy.  His  most  valuable  works  m  thit 
field  are  the  Calendar  cf  ParUamentary  Writi,  sod 
his  Pecords,  both  of  which  o<Mit4>in  much  tl^  ii 
useful  and  important. 

PSALM  AN  AZAR,  Qborgx,  a  somewhat  nmaik- 
able  impostor,  was  been  about  the  year  1680.  Hii 
real  name  and  the  place  of  his  birth  are  nnkaowiw 
but  he  is  presumed  to  have  been  a  native  of 
Switzerland  or  the  8oi^  of  Franoe.  He  received  t 
good  education,  and  gave  early  indication  of  tskot, 
more  especially  for  the  acquisition  of  laagnsgea 
Impellea  by  a  restless  and  impatient  temper,  wmeh 
indisposed  him  to  any  regular  pnrsuit,  for  sobk 
years  he  roamed  over  Europe  as  a  mere  vsgsbood 
adventurer,  assuming  at  first  the  Hii^gniM*  of  aa 
Irish  pilgrim,  exiled  on  account  of  his  rSigiea ;  asd 
afterwaras  as  soldier,  teenial,  preceptor,  beggsr,  <r 
vagrant  nondescript,  living  on  his  wits  as  he  oould, 
according  to  the  \raim  or  necessity  of  the  hour.  Is 
the  course  of  his  wanderings,  he  was  thrown  into 
contact  with  a  Colonel  Lauder,  commanding  s 
Scotch  regiment  at  Slnys,  on  whom  he  first  paM 
the  imponure  to  which  he  subsequently  owed  Im 
notoriety,  assuming  tiie  name  by  whidi  he  is  since 
known,  and  representing  himself  as  a  J^Mmese 
convert  to  Christianity  and  native  of  ^be  isbod 
Formosa.  The  good  oolonel  seems  to  have  bees 
completely  deoe&^rad  by  him ;  not  so,  however,  the 
cha^ain  of  the  regiment,  one  Innes,  a  man  emai^ 
acute  and  unprincipled,  who  speedily  detseted  the 
deception,  but  was  not  the  less  willing  to  me  it  lor 
the  furtherance  of  his  own  enda.  By  innes,  P.  wii 
btou^t  to  E^ikad,   and  iMtenUy  beoaae  tb 


PSALMODY. 


reUgiooB  lion  of  the  day,  hk  patron  akilfnlly  avail- 
inff  himself  of  the  connection  to  aecnre  for  him- 
Ben  preferment  in  the  church.    Dignitaries  of  the 
chnrch   contended   for  the  honoar  of  being  ser- 
viceable to  him ;  and  through  the  influence  of  the 
Bishop  of  Oxford  apartments  were  assigned  him 
at  the  nniversity,  in  order  that  he  might  prosecute 
his   studies    therei     The   talent^   ingenuity,    and 
resource  which  he  displayed  in  keeping  up   the 
deception,  go  far  to  account  for  what  may  seem  to 
ns  the  strange  credulity  with  which  his  story  was 
received.   He  published,  in  lAtin,  a  fabulous  account 
of  the  island  Formosa,  the  oonsistenoy  and  veri- 
similitude of  which  imposed  upon  the  learned  world. 
He  also  invented  a  languaoe,  compact  and  somewhat 
complex  in  structure ;  ana  was  able,  in  virtue  of  a 
memory  not   less  than  astonishing,    to  defy  the 
ordinary  methods  of  detection,      ui  the  midst  of 
his  success,  however,  at  the  a^  of  about  32,  he 
became  the  subject  of  religious  mipressions,  and  his 
conscience   awoke  to  the  isnominy  of  the  deceit 
which  he  was  practising.    Ilrffed  by  what  seems  to 
have  been  a  genuine  feeling  m  penitence,  he  with- 
drew himself  from  public  notice,  and  for  the  rest  of 
his  long  life  honourably  earned  his  livelihood  by 
literature,  in  which  he  had  a  moderate  success. 
Besides  much  assiduous  compilation  for  the  book- 
sellers,   of  historv,  geography,   and  the    like,  he 
published    several    works    anonjnnonslyy    one    of 
which,  An  Essay  <m  Miracles,  by  a  Layman,  was 
for  some  time  exceedingly  popular.    On  his  death 
in  London  in  1762,  it  was  found  that  he  had  also 
busied  himself  in  preparing  for  posthumoiui  publica- 
tion an  accoiut  of  his  curious  career,  whicn,  under 
the   title    Memoirs   qf  ,  commonly  known  as 

George  Psalmayiazar,  a  reputed  naJtixe  of  Formosa, 
written  by  kimself,  was  some  yean  after  given  to  the 
world. 

PSAXMODT,  in  its  widest  sense,  is  the  singing 
of  the  Psalms  of  David  and  other  sacred  son^ ;  but 
from  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation  period,  the 
term  has  been  restricted  to  the  sin^ng  of  metrical 
versions  of  the  Psalms  to  short  simple  airs.  Psalm- 
singing  was  of  ancient  date  amono;  tne  Jews,  and  was 
practised  from  the  first  ages  of  Christianity ;  the 
charge  of  Pliny  the  Younger  against  the  Christians 
was,  that  they  suns  psalms  to  Christ '  quasi  Deo.* 
"So  authentio  record,  however,  exists  of  the  kind  of 
melodies  sung^  to  the  psalms  by  the  primitive 
Christians.  The  practice  of  singing  psalms  in 
antiphony,  or  by  two  choirs,  as  still  practised  (see 
Antiphont),  was  introduced  at  an  early  period ;  it 
is  said  to  have  been  begun  in  the  Eastern  Church  by 
Icrnatius,  Bishop  of  Antioch,  in  the  2d  c. ;  and  in  the 
Western  Church  by  Ambrose,  Bishop  of  Milan,  in 
the  4th  century.  At  first,  the  whole  congregation, 
clergy  and  laity,  joined  in  the  psalm ;  but  cQfficulties 
and  abuses  arose  from  the  growing  neglect  of  musical 
cultivation ;  and  with  a  view  of  reatoring  public 
decency  and  order,  the  Council  of  Laodicea,  m  the 
year  363,  considered  it  necessary  to  forbid  the  laity 
to  sing  in  church  at  all,  except  in  certain  simple 
chants  of  a  popular  description.  Down  to  the 
Beformation,  the  music  of  the  church  was  sur- 
rendered to  the  clergy  and  trained  musiciana 

Psalmody,  in  the  more  modem  sense,  began  in 
the  16th  a,  when  Clement  Marot,  the  court-poet 
ot  Francis  L  of  France,  translated  52  of  the  Psalms 
into  French  verse,  dedicating  them  both  to  his  royal 
master — whom  he  likened  to  the  Hebrew  psalmist — 
and  to  the  ladies  of  France.  The  sacred  son^-book, 
on  its  first  appearance,  not  being  accompanied  by 
music,  it  became  the  practice  to  sing  the  psalms  to 
favourite  tunes— often  those  of  popiuar  ballads,  and 
for  a  considerable  time,  psalm-nnging  became  a 
f Avonrite  fashion  among  tiie  gay  ooortias  of  Francis, 
ooa 


Marot's  collection  was  continued  and  concluded  by 
Theodore  Beza,  whose  psalms  had  the  advantage  of 
beii^  set  to  music,  Beza  having  in  this  the  assistance 
of  (^vin,  who  engaged  the  nest  composers  of  the 
day  to  unite  his  sacred  songs  with  beautiful  and 
simple  airs  of  a  devotional  character.  Psalm-singing 
was  token  up  by  the  Reformers,  first  for  private 
devotion,  ana  soon  as  part  of  the  service  of  the 
church,  Luther  and  Calvin  restoring  to  tiie  people 
their  share  in  the  musical  part  of  public  worship, 
and  furnishing  them  with  the  means  of  performing 
it.  From  the  time  that  psalm-singing  was  adopted 
by  the  Reformers,  it  was  discountenanced  by  the 
Boman  Catholics,  and  soon  came  to  be  re«irded 
as  a  badffe  d  Protestantism.  Luther  and  Calvin 
differed,  however,  in  their  ideal  of  psalmody ;  the 
former  was  fovonrable  to  harmonv  m  parts,  while 
the  latter  confined  himself  to  the  bare  unaccompa- 
nied melody.  Once  taken  up  by  the  Calvinists  and 
Lutherans,  psalmody  spread  over  France,  Germany, 
and  the  Low  Countries,  and  reached  England  at  the 
moment  of  her  embracing  the  Reformation.  The 
first  English  metrical  version  of  the  Psalms  was 
made  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VIIL  by  Thomas 
Stemhold,  a  native  of  Hampshire,  groom  of  the 
robes  to  King  Henry,  aided  by  John  Hopkins  and 
William  Whyttinghame.  Vocal  psalmody  was  soon 
after  introduced  into  the  church-service,  the  choral 
mode  of  singing  being  still  retained  in  cathedrals 
and  coUegiats  churches,  and  the  liturgic  hymns 
being  retained  in  the  prayer-book.  Of  the  psalm* 
tunes  which  came  into  use,  some  have  been  attri- 
buted to  Claude  Goudimel,  Claude  Le  Jeune,  and 
Guillaume  Franc,  and  a  few  owe  their  origin  to 
Luther.  The  weU-known  100th  Psalm  is  an  adap- 
tation of  Gregorian  phrases  by  Guillaume  Franc. 
The  first  important  collection  of  psalm -tunes  for 
four  voices  published  in  England  was  made  by 
Thomas  Ravenscroft,  Mus.  Bao.,  and  appeared  in 
1621 ;  it  was  entitled  *  The  wfiole  Boohe  of  Psalms, 
ftc,  composed  into  four  parts  by  sundry  authors,  to 
such  several  tunes  as  have  been  and  are  usually 
sung  in  Iceland,  Scotland,  Wales,  Germany,  Italy, 
France,  and  the  Netherlands.*  In  this  coUection 
were  included  contributions  by  Tallis,  Morley, 
Dowland,  and  all  the  great  masters  of  the  day,  as 
well  as  by  Ravenscroft  himself,  who  contributed 
the  tunes  St  David's,  Bajigor,  and  Canterbury.  The 
name  of  John  Milton,  father  of  the  poet,  appears 
as  composer  of  the  tunes,  York  and  Norwich. 
According  to  the  then  prevalent  usage,  the  subject 
or  air  was  civen  to  the  tenor  voice.  This  custom 
was  first  departed  from  in  the  Wliole  Book  qf 
Psalms,  in  Three  Parts,  published  in  1671,  compiled 
and  arranged  by  John  Playford — whom  Sir  J* 
Hawkins  calls  the  'father  of  modem  psalmodv^ — 
where  we  have  the  more  proper  practice,  which 
has  sinoe  obtained,  of  making  the  melody  the 
soprano  part  Crofl^  Courteville,  Cary,  the  Bachs^ 
and  Handel  have,  since  that  time,  contributed  to 
the  psalmody  in  use  in  Britain.^ 

Amons  other  metrical  versions  of  the  Psalma 
produced  was  one  of  doubtful  origin  which  was- 
attributed  to  James  I. ;  and  which,  notwithstanding 
a  strong  recommendation  by  his  son,  was  never 
much  used  in  churches.    The  version  of  the  Psalms, 
by  Stemhold  and  Hopkins  came  to  be  supplanted 
in  Eufl^nd,  towards  the  beginning  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, by  that  of  Nahum  Tate,  poet-laureate  under  - 
Wuliam  IIL  and  Anne,  and  Dr  Nicholas  Brady,. 
le«  literal  in  its  renderings  than  its  predecessor., 
and  somewhat  commonpliu^   as    regards   poetical 
character.    This  New  Version  qf  the  Psalms  first, 
appeared  in  1696,  with  the  royal  authority  allowing 
its  use  in  churchea    Of  late  years,  modern  hymns, 
I  selected  according  to  the  taste  and  at  the  will  of 


TSALlia 


the  inctimbent,  hare  to  a  lam  extent  taken  the 
place  oi  metrical  psalms  in  the  Church  t>f  Engbuid. 

In  Scotland,  tne  early  Reformers,  while  they 
banished  instrnmental  music  from  churches,  paid 
great  attention  to  singing.  In  John  Knox's  Psalter, 
arranged  for  use  in  churches,  the  metrical  psalms 
are  set  to  music  in  harmony  of  four  parts.  Several 
early  translations  of  the  Psalms  were  produced  in 
North  Britain,  but  that  of  Stemhold  and  Hopkins 
was  used  in  worship  from  1564  down  to  the  middle 
of  the  17th  century.  In  1632,  an  attempt  made 
by  Charles  L  to  supersede  it  by  Kine  James's 
Tersion,  was  more  resolutely  and  decided^  opposed 
than  in  England.  The  version  now  in  use  in  Scot- 
land was  introduced  during  the  Commonwealth  by 
the  General  Assembly,  and  founded  on  the  metrical 
translation  of  Francis  Rous,  a  member  of  Crom- 
well's council,  which  parliament  had  in  vain  endea- 
voured to  bring  into  general  use  in  England.  This 
new  version  was  in  1649  appointed  by  the  General 
Assembly  to  be  the  only  paraphrase  of  the  Psalms 
sung  in  the  Kirk  of  Scotland,  and  all  other  versions 
were  prohibited  to  be  made  use  of  not  merely  in 
congregations,  but  in  families,  after  1650.  Though 
somewhat  roush  and  uncouth,  it  is  sometimes 
expressive  ana  forcible,  and  perhaps  nearer  the 
onanal  than  any  other  metrical  translation  of  the 
Psums.  A  few  Paraphrases  and  Hymns  have  since 
been  added,  by  authority  of  the  General  Assembly, 
and  form  tocher  the  psalmody  in  use  in  Presby- 
terian worship  in  Scotland. 

PSALMS  (Heb.  TehiUim,  Songs  of  Praise, 
or  Tefillothj  Prayers;  Jerome,  Liber  ffymnorum), 
the  well-known  canonical  book  ^nerally  ascribed  to 
David.  The  single  hymns  contained  in  the  book  are 
variously  designated  either  as  *  Prayer'  (Tefilla),  as 
*  Praise '  (Tehulah),  or  from  some  special  character- 
istic 'Song'  (Shir),  or  a  song  of  deeper  meaning, 
(Michtam),  *  Instruction '  (Maskil),  or  a  dithyrambic 
poem  (Shigayon).  Respecting  the  general  con- 
tents of  the  book,  it  may  be  said  that  it  com- 
prises, in  the  form  of  pious  lyrics,  written  for  and 
on  behalf  of  the  congregation,  the  quintessence 
of  the  dogmatical,  ethical,  historical,  and  theo- 
cratical  portions  of  the  Old  Testament.  The  divine 
essence  and  qualities,  providence  and  its  guidance 
— especiallv  of  Israel — ^the  rule  of  the  universe,  the 
nature  of  the  human  heart  and  its  relations  to  €k>d 
and  His  revelation,  the  blessings  of  the  theocratic 
community:  these  and  similar  reflections  form 
the  themes  of  its  ever-varyins  modes.  A  certain 
more  spiritual  conception  of  me  ordinances  of  the 
Pentateuch  is  visible  throughout,  and  although  the 
strictest  adherence  to  these  is  enjoined,  yet  their 
deeper  meaning  is  impressed  more  stronsly  stilL 
Used  as  a  liturgical  hymn  book  in  the  Temple,  it 
has  been  bodily  received  for  the  same  purpose  m  the 
Christian  church;  and  certain  additional  hymns 
which  occur  in  the  Greek  and  Syriac  Psalter  have 
not  been  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  the  general 
church.  There  are,  in  all,  150  canonical  hymns  or 
psalms,  which,  after  the  model  of  the  Pentateuch, 
nave  been  divided  into  five  books — ^thus :  L — xh.  $ 
xlii — IxxiL ;  IxxiiL — Ixxxix. ;  xc.— cvL ;  andcviL — cL 
The  Syriac,  the  LXX.,  and  the  Vulgate  Versions 
differ  in  some  respects  in  their  countii^.  The 
Autiiorised  Version,  however,  follows  strictly  the 
Masoretic  Jewish  text,  except  with  regard  to 
the  numbering  of  the  verses ;  for  while  the  latter 
includes  the  superscriptions  among  the  verses,  the 
former  does  not  reckon  those.  This  division  into 
five  books  is,  as  it  is  traditional,  also  the  most 
natural;  and  the  doxologies  at  the  ends  of  psalms 
xli.,  IxxiL,  Ixxxix.,  and  cvi.,  further  mark  authori- 
tativdy  the  respective  ends  of  the  special  divisions. 
A  further  division,  or  rather  dassifieation,  has  been 

tl8 


attempted  aooording  to  the  contents ;  but,  oodd- 
dering  the  constancy  channng  variety  of  moodt 
and  sentiments  of  manner  and  oontents  wfaidi  then 
songs  e^bit,  it  is  a  most  precarious  one. 

Tne  Psalms  have  generally  —  thiity-foar  only 
excepted — supersoriptions  more  or  less  expreaiTe  k 
the  contents  of  the  special  hymn,  and  tometunei 
with,  sometimes  without,  the  name  of  an  antiior.  In 
some,  certain  notes,  referring  to  the  muaical  and 
liturgical  part,  are  added,  which  are  far  from  being 
quite  dear  now,  e.  g.,  'On  the  octave,'  ' For  tin 
chief  musician,'  *0n  Machalath'  (illness?),  'In  tbe 
time  of  death  to  the  son,'  *  The  hind  of  Aaron,' 
'  Lilies,'  *  Dumb  dove  of  the  far  ones,'  fta  One  of 
the  greatest  puzzles  is  the  word  Selah,  which  ooeun 
several  times  at  the  end,  or  in  the  middle  of  some 
psalms,  and  which  the  LXX.  render  Dispnlna, 
'Interlude,*  but  about  the  real  signification  of 
which,  numerous  yet  verjr  unsatisf aotoiysaggestioM 
have  been  made  at  various  times.  Thus,  it  bu 
been  identified  with  amen,  hallelujah,  mano,  Aa 
So  much  seems  certain,  that  it  was  a  kind  of  catch- 
word or  sign  for  the  performers.  These  headings 
belong  very  probably  to  the  individual  poeta 
themselves,  and  not  U>  the  collectors,  as  has  Wn 
surmised. 

The  authorship  of  the  Psalms  is  ascribed  by  tibe 
headings  of  the  various  chapters  as  foUoiHfB :  Pnlm 
xc. — one  of  the  most  ancient  in  form  and  oontenti^ 
is  attributed  to  *  Moses,  the  man  of  God.'  Sereoty- 
three  psalms  are  inscribed  with  David's  name ;  two 
with  Solomon's ;  twelve  with  that  of  Asaph,  the 
Levite  and  sineer,  of  which  five,  however,  belong  to 
the  times  of  Jehoehaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  the  b^in- 
nine  of  the  Babylonian  exile  respectively.  Beva 
psahns  go  under  the  name  of  the  Sons  of  Eonh,  er 
the  Korahites — ^a  family  of  stivers  descended  fnni 
the  Levite  Korah,  known  from  the  PentateucL  Ther 
head  at  the  time  of  David  was  Heman.  Part  of 
these  psahns  belongs  to  the  time  of  David ;  otben,  to 
that  of  Solomon,  and  others  are  of  an  nncertaia 
later  period.  Respecting  the  psalm  inscnbed 
'Prayer  of  Moses,'  there  seems,  indeed,  to  be  lo 
valid  reason  against  its  authenticity ;  it  is  qmte 
worthy  of  the  great  l^;iBlator,  and  to  a  oeiiaia 
extent  similar  to  other  compositions  of  which  he  is 
reasonably  reguded  as  the  author.  The  nomeioiis 
body  of  psalms  attributed  to  David,  manifest  (thow 
at  least  which  can  fairly  be  believed  to  be  hia  work) 
a  vivid  and  profound  feeling  and  rare  poetical  gifts. 
The  singer  abandons  himself  entirely  to  wbaterer 
feeling  of  joy  or  grief,  repentance  or  revcaige,  pietf 
or  despair,  sweeps  over  his  aouL  Ijus  ako 
accounts  to  a  certain  extent  for  the  violent  manitfr 
in  which  he  caUs  down  at  times  the  vengesnoe  of 
God  upon  the  heads  of  his  adversaries ;  while  at 
others,  he  humbles  himself  to  the  dust  on  aocoont 
of  his  own  iniquities.  On  his  style  and  naaner, 
we  cannot  enlarge  here ;  sufiice  it  to  add,  that  bis 
lyrics  have  deservedly  been  counted  among  tbe 
gems  of  all  human  hterature  for  well-ni^  3000 
years — quite  apart  from  their  sacred  htargical 
character.  Asaph's  psalms  shew  their  aothor  to 
have  been  a  didactic  poet  <^  high  order ;  but,  as  we 
said  before,  many  of  those  ascribed  to  him  bdoog 
to  poets  later  than  the  schism,  and  even  posterior  to 
the  Exile.  The  Eorahite  hymns,  althouAh  all  more 
or  less  fraught  with  the  same  depth  of  feeling,  the 
same  conciseness,  the  same  grandeur  and  lyrical 
exaltation,  exhibit  signs  of  being  written  ptfUy 
during  the  time  of  Solomon,  or  even  durinff  the 
Exile.  Of  the  anonymous  psalms,  some  may  uiriy 
be  added  to  the  number  of  those  that  issaed  froD 
the  hand  of  the  royal  singer  hinuself ;  otheis,  hov* 
ever,  belong  to  the  post-exilian  times.  Scne  « 
these  (the  hallelujahs,  for  instance,  or  the '  SOO0  ' 


PSAMMETICHUS-FSOBALEA. 


Degrees')  were,  in  xdl  probability,  pilgrim-songs, 
chanted  during  the  ascent  to  the  sanctuary. 
Whether  other  psalms  belong  to  the  Maccabeiui 
period  or  not— a  question  notly  disputed — ^we 
cannot  discuss  here. 

There  is  a  great  deal  in  favour  of  the  opinion  that 
the  collection  and  redaction  of  the  book,  such  as  we 
have  it  now,  is  owing  to  one  man,  who  arranged  the 
single  hymns  according  to  their  contente  and 
tendency.  Thus,  following  all  the  while  the  law  of 
analog,  the  redactor  eftve  the  first  place  to  David^s 
and  his  contemporaries^  (Asaph,  Ethan,  Heman)  com- 
positions. These  were  further  classitied  according  to 
the  prevalent  use  of  the  peculiar  divine  name  ( Jdio- 
vistic  and  Elohistic),  and  were  divided  into  three 
books — the  first  of  which  contains  the  Davidic 
Jeh-tvistic  psalms ;  the  second,  the  Ellohistio  ones  of 
the  Korahites,  of  Asaph,  David,  Solomon,  and  some 
unknown  poets ;  the  third,  the  rest  of  Asaph's  and 
the  Korahite  psalms  of  a  mixed  (Jehovah-Elohistic, 
or  purely  Jenovistic)  nature.  The  arrangement 
within  these  larger  classes  was  made,  again,  accord- 
ing to  the  inner  nature  and  relation  of  these  hynms 
to  each  other,  and  by  a  certain  Ukeneas  in  phrase- 
ology, similes,  &c  Psalms  i.  and  ii.  were  then 
prefixed,  on  account  of  their  generally  introduc- 
tory matter  and  manner.  The  same  laws  have  also 
been  followed  in  the  remaining  portions  of  the 
collection. 

It  is  difficult  to  ^x  the  period  of  the  redaction. 
Assuming,  however,  the  collecting  and  editing  to 
be  the  work  of  one  man,  he  oould  not  possibly 
have  lived  before  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  even 
according  to  those  who  affirm  the  non-existence 
of  Maccabean  psidms  in  our  canon.  If,  on  the 
other  hand,  various  single  collections  are  assumed, 
out  of  which  our  present  book  has  grown,  there 
is  no  reason  why  some  of  those  should  not  be 
placed  at  a  much  earlier  date.  We  forb<»r  to  add 
a  list  of  writers  on  the  subject  of  psalms.  Nearly 
all  the  principal  authorities  in  biblical  literature,  in 
the  Jewish,  Koman,  and  Protestant  churches,  have 
contributed  their  ^lare  towards  the  elucidation  of 
the  Psalms;  and  to  the  individual  works  of  the 
chief  biblical  commentators,  the  reader  is  referred 
for  special  information.  Le  Long,  in  his  BiMiotheca 
ScLcra^  enumerates  more  than  500  commentators  on 
the  Psalms,  and  Calmet  carries  the  number  up  to 
a  thousand.  Of  these,  some  are  very  voluminous, 
that  of  Le  Blano  filling  no  fewer  than  six  folio 
volumea 

PSAMME'TIGHUS,  the  name  of  three  kings  of 
Egypt,  of  the  26th  dynasty,  distinguished  on  the 
monuments  by  different  pnenomens,  and  of  two 
other  persons  of  ancient  histonr.  The  first  and 
most  notable  P.  was  the  son  of  Necho  I.  After 
the  defeat  and  death  of  his  father,  he  fled  into 
Syria,  and  thence,  by  means  of  foreign  aid,  appears 
to  have  established  himself  as  one  of  the  twelve 
monarchs  who  then  reigned  over  Egypt,  with  the 
rest  of  whom  he  was  connected  in  a  Cud  of  federa- 
tion. An  oracle  having  declared  that  the  monarchy 
of  the  whole  country  should  go  to  that  one  who 
made  a  libation  out  of  brass,  r.  fulfilled  the  con- 
dition by  pouring  it  out  of  a  brazen  helmets  By 
the  answer  of  another  oracle,  be  was  told  that 
he  should  succeed  by  means  of  brazen  men  who 
would  appear  from  the  sea.  Some  Carian  and 
Ionian  pirates  who  appeared  soon  after  in  panoplies 
of  brass  on  the  shores  of  Egypt,  answered  the 
response  of  the  oracle.  P.  engaged  them  in  his 
service,  and  by  their  means  finiQly  subdued  his 
rivals  at  Momemphia,  after  a  struggle  of  fifteen 
years*  duration.  He  stren^ened  nis  power  by 
employing  Greek  mercenanes,  whom  he  settied 
at  l>aphnon  and  Pelusium,  to  protect  the  eastern 


borders  of  Egypt,  and  whose  headquarters  were 
subsequenUy  transferred  to  Memphis.  To  them 
he  assigned  the  right  wing,  or  post  of  honoui; 
in  the  army — their  arms  and  discipline  being  fai 
superior  to  that  of  the  native  troops.  This  proceed* 
ing  ^ve  greftt  disgust  to  the  Egjrptian  army,  and 
on  his  refusing  to  send  the  Greeks  home,  after 
their  term  of  service,  the  Elephantine  ^rrison,  of 
240,000  men,  deserted  the  country,  and  marched 
into  Ethiopia  beyond  Mero&  Although  exhorted, 
they  refused  to  return.  To  protect  Egypt  from  the 
Svrians,  he  besieged  Azotus,  which  he  nnidly  took, 
after  29  years'  siege.  P.  fostered  in  every  way  the 
Greek  influence  in  Egypt,  divided  amongst  them 
lands,  encouraged  the  study  of  the  language,  and 
contracted  alliances  with  the  Athenians.  He  also 
facilitated  the  commerce,  and  opened  the  ports  which 
had  been  hitherto  closed.  Under  P.,  the  arts 
revived,  the  sculpture  and  architecture  imitated  the 
older  prototypes,  and  the  government  was  remodelled 
on  the  plan  of  the  ancient  dynasties.  In  literature, 
a  new  handwriting,  the  demotic,  was  introduced. 
Egypt,  however,  had  fallen  into  a  national  deca- 
dence, and  its  old  polity  and  institutions,  subverted 
by  the  foreign  influence  prevalent  in  the  country, 
could  not  be  restored.  JP.  reigned,  according  to 
Manetho,  54  years;  his  reign  closed  about  609 — 
610  B.  c.  The  other  personages  of  this  name  are  of 
little  importance. — Herodotus,  ii  154 ;  Pliny,  NaU 
HisL  vi  35 ;  Diodorus,  L  67 ;  ChampoUion-Figeac, 
UEgypte,  pp.  367—370 ;  Sharpe,  HUL  Erjypt,  p.  Sa 

PSrDIUM.    SeeGQAYA. 

PSITTA'CID^.    See  Parrot. 

PSKOV  (Ger.  Ph!skau\  a  government  in  the 
north-west  of  European  Russia,  lies  south  of  the 

fovemments  of  St  Petersburg  and  Novgorod.  Area, 
7,845  square  miles ;  pop.  723,834,  almost  all  Rus- 
sians, except  in  the  western  districts,  where  there  is 
a  small  number  of  Finns.  The  climate  is  temperate, 
the  surface  is  hilly  in  the  west,  and  the  soil  is  of 
average  fertility.  Lake  Pskov  and  Lake  Ilmen 
receive  almost  all  the  drainage  of  the  government^ 
the  river  Velikaia  falling  into  the  former,  and  the 
Shelon,  the  Polista,  and  the  Lovat  into  the  latter. 
The  rivers  are  navigable  for  rafts,  and,  nearer^  their 
mouths,  for  barges  and  ships.  Lakes  abound  in  the 
eastern  and  south-eastern  districts.  A/^jiculture  is 
the  staple  employment ;  fiax-growing  being  the  most 
remunerative  branch.  The  manufactures  carried 
on  in  the  government  are  inconsiderable.  The  St 
Petersburg  and  \ycir8aw  Railway,  by  which  ready 
access  is  afforded  to  the  metropolitan  market  for  the 
agricultural  productions  of  P.,  is  expected  to  have  a 
beneticiid  innuence  in  developing  the  industry  and 
resources  of  the  goveijimentk 

PSKOV,  a  town  in  the  north-west  of  European 
Russia,  capital  of  the  government  of  the  same  name, 
stands  on  the  banks  of  the  Velikaia,  180  miles 
south-south-west  of  St  Petersburg  by  railway. 
During  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  it  made  one 
in  the  confederation  of  the  Hanse  Towns,  and  had 
then  a  population  greater  than  at  present.  In  1510, 
it  was  annexed  to  the  kingdom  of  Moscow.  During 
the  wars  with  Lithuania,  P.  was  a  stronghold  ol 
great  importance.  It  contains  a  cathedral,  41 
churches,  and  4  monasteries.  Fish,  obtained  from 
Lake  Peipus,  and  flax,  are  the  principal  articles  of 
a  foreign  commerce  which  is  not  extensive.  Pop. 
15,457. 

PSORA'LEA,  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  natural 
order  LegtiminascB^  sub-order  PapUionaeece,  having 
the  calyx  permanent  after  flowering,  and  its  tube 
sprinliled  with  callous  pdnts;  the  I^JUao  one- 
seeded,  sometimes  ending  in  a  beak.    The  flowers 

919 


PSOMASIS-PTABMIGAN. 


■re  blue,  pnrple,  ot  irhite.    The  leaves  ftre  of  Tant 
fomu,  buC   in  general  abruptly  pinnate.     Some 
the  species  tie  native*  of  loiiia  ;  others  of  other 
warm  countries.—/'.  tKuleiila,  the  BnEiD-KOOT 
North  America,  and  Prairie  ApjiU  of  the  Canadian 
boatmen,  is  an  herbaceous  perennial,  about  a  foo^ 
hi(;b,  with  a  carrot-like  root,   swollea  a)>OTe  thi 
middle,  and  abounding  in  farinaceoui  matter.     Ii 
is  used  OS  an  article  of  food,  both  boiled  and  raw 
Id  Britain,  it  requires  the  protection  of  a  frame 
in  order  to  produce  an  abundant  crop  mt  largi 

paORI'ASIS  (from  the  Greek  word  two™,  which 
signifiea  a  cutoneoos  eruption,  supposed  by  some  to 
be  the  itch)  is  now  employed  to  si^ify  a  disease 
characterised  by  slight  elevations  of  the  surface  of 
the  skin  covered  with  whitish  scales.  There  are 
various  forms  of  this  disorder,  such  as  P.  guttata 
(which  is  the  simplest  kind,  and  derives  its  specific 
name  from  the  scales  not  coalescing,  but  remaining 
distinct,  like  isolated  drops  of  water  on  the  skiu) ; 
P.  diffusa,  when  the  diacosa  Bju-eads  over  large 
nortions  of  the  skin,  and  often  rendirs  the  patient 
hideous  to  look  at,  the  scaly  incrustations  being 
often  intcTBjKraed  with  bleeding  Crocks  and  fissures 
in  all  dii-ectiQos  ;  P.  invtterala,  which  is  merely  the 
•Cverest  phase  of  the  preceding;  form,  and  occurs 
cbieHy  in  aged  persons  of  broken-down  constitu- 
tion ;  and  P.  gymta,  a  rare  form,  in  which  the  dis- 
ease occurs  in  narrow  stripes  or  nogs.  The  causes 
of  psoriasis  are  very  obscure.  It  is  certainly  not 
contagious,  bat  there  appears  to  be  in  some  fainilies 
an  hereditary  tendency  to  it  It  is  occasionaliy 
associated  with  gcrnt  and  rheumatism.  Persons  of 
both  sexea,  of  ollaeea,  and  of  ail  conditions  of  life, 
are  liable  to  it,  although  it  is  more  common  in 
middle  and  advanced  life  than  in  childhood.  The 
trealiiifnt  varies  with  the  condition  of  the  patient. 
A  middle-aged,  vigorous  patient  should  be  purged 
two  or  three  times  a  week  with  sulphate  of  mag- 
nesta,  should  be  restricted  in  his  diet  to  vegetables 
knd  milk,  should  be  debarred  from  all  stimulants, 
and  should  take  a  warm  bath  daily.  The  internal 
remeilifs  of  most  repute  for  this  disease  are — 1. 
Decoction  of  dulcamara,  from  half  a  pint  at  fint 
to  a  pint  being  taken  in  divided  doses  throDgh 
the  day  ;  2.  Liquor  potossffi,  in  doses  of  from 
half  a  drachm  to  a  drachm,  three  times  a  day,  in 
•  gloss  of  milk  or  beer;  3.  Liquor  arscnicalia,  in 
doses  of  from  three  to  fonr  minims,  three  time*  ft 
day,  ia  be  t:kkeii  after  meals ;  4  Iodide  of  potas- 
sium, in  five-grain  doses,  three  times  a  day ;  and 
5  Pitch  pills.  In  very  inveterate  casea,  tar  oint- 
mflnt,  first  diluted  with  lard,  or  a  weak  ointment 
oE  iodide  of  sulphur,  should  be  ap])lli.-d  locally ;  bat 
these  ahould  not  be  tried  unless  intenial  treatment 
faila. 

PST'CHfi  (Or.  breath,  or  soul),  a  creation  ot  the 
later  mythology  of  Greece,  or  perhaps  n-e  should 
rather  say,  a  personification  of  the  human  soul, 
devised  by  the  later  poets.  Appuleins  (q.  v.) 
Tulatea  the  following  etoiy  about  her,  which  is 
obviously  allegorical  P.  was  the  youngest  of 
three  daughter*  of  a  king.  She  was  so  exqui- 
sitely beantif ul  that  mortals  mistook  her  for  Venus, 
and  did  not  dare  to  love,  but  only  to  worahip 
her.  This  excited  the  jealousy  of  the  goddess, 
who  sent  Eros  (Cupid)  to  inspire  P.  with  a  pas- 
sion for  the  most  contemptible  of  all  men;  but 
Eros  was  himself  wotmdcd  aa  dcc[>ly  by  her 
oloncea  aa  ever  he  had  wounded  others  with  bis 
darts.  Meanwhile,  F.'s  father  wished  to  tee  his 
daughter  married,  and  inquired  about  her  at  the 
orade  of  Apollo,  by  whom  he  was  told  to  bear  the 
muden  in  fnneral  robes  to  the  summit  of  a  htU,  and 


to  leave  her  there  alone,  u  she  was  destined  to  W 

the  bride  of  a  huge  oil-destroying  snaky  moutn, 
that  terrified  both  gods  and  men.  AmM  M 
wailing  and  lament,  P.  was  bame  to  the  fatal  ipol^ 
and  left  trembling  in  horrible  sc^tade,  wbn 
auddenly  a  light-winged  zephyr  Hew  ronnd  her,  and 
bore  her  off  to  a  heaiitifol  palace  of  pleasure  belong, 
ing  to  Eros,  who  vioited  her,  unseen  and  ankainni, 
every  night,  and  left  her  before  moniini;  broka 
Here  P.  would  have  enjoyed  perpotual  delight,  hsd 
she  remembered  the  advice  of  her  anknown  loret, 
who  warned  her  not  te  seek  to  know  who  he  na 
But  her  jealous  sisters,  whom,  against  Enis's  iDjiiae- 
tion.  she  hod  allowed  to  visit  her,  woiking  upon  her 
curiosity,  jiersuaded  her  that  ohe  was  cmbndD;  s 
monster  in  the  darkness  of  night;  ondhsTinglighMl 
a  lamp  when  Eroa  waa  atlerai,  she  saw  with  taptors 
that  she  was  the  mistrsn  of  the  most  banducnc  of 
goda.  In  her  excitement,  she  let  a  drop  oE  hot  oil  Ul 
on  the  sleeper's  shoulder,  who  awoke,  uplnaided  ha 
for  her  mistrust,  and  vanished.  P.  gave  way  to  tbe 
most  passionate  grief ;  she  even  thought  of  dniwiiliig 
if.  After  wandering  about  for  some  time, 
»me  to  the  palace  of  Venns,  where  she  th 
seized  b;  the  goddess,  and  kept  as  a  slave.  En^ 
hoirever,  who  stUl  loved  her,  invisibly  helped  sad 
comforted  the  hapless  maiden,  reconciled  ha  to  hit 
mother,  and  was  finally  united  to  her  in  immntal 
wedlock.    All  critics  have  agreed  to  oonsuter  the 

ory  an  allegory  of  the  progress  of  the  human  unl 

irough  earthly  passlcu  and  miafortune  to  port 

ilestial  felicity. 
PSYCHCLOGY.    See  Mind. 

PTA'RMIGAN  (Lagopta),  agenus  ot  Tftraiyvda, 
differing  from  the  true  Grouse  (q.  v.)  chiefly  is 
having  the  toes  thickly  clothed  with  short  feadto) 
" — ilas  thelecrs(ear«i}.  Hence  the  name  LoiNpti^ 
le  Dsed  by  Pliny,  from  the  resemblance  of  tlu 


Common  FtsTmigin  {Lofopiu  mtMf. 

foot  to  that  of  a  hare.  The  bill  is  very  short  ami 
clothed  at  the  base  with  feathers.  The  species  sn 
natives  of  the  northern  parts  of  the  worid,  and 
either  of  elevated  Or  of  strictly  arctic  regions. 
They  are  not  polygamous,  like  the  tme  grouie,  oar 
do  the  males  strut  with  erected  and  expanded  tail 
Most  of  the  species  change  colour  very  much  os  tbs 
approach  of  winter,  assuming  a  white,  or  nearly  vhila 
plumage ;  and  the  diversities  of  colour  have  caiued 
some  confusion  and  difficulty  conceminfftiienL  Th'f 
all  much  esteemed  for  the  table.     The  CoHMUX 


PTEBICHTHY8— PTEBODACTYI* 


P.,  OT  Guv  P.  (L.  vulgaru  or  L.  muttu), »  t  oative 
of  the  rniMt  northern  pftrta  both  of  the  Old  and  New 
Worlda.  In  Britain,  it  ii  now  aeldom  leen  mncb 
fnrther  couth  than  the  Gnunnians,  uid  occun  only 
on  high  mountUDB,  It  was  formerly  ui  inhabitant 
of  those  of  Oamberluid  and  Walea.  It  ia  not  found 
in  Irelaod.  It  is  abundant  in  Norwaj,  from  whii^ 
gnat  nombera  are  annually  brought  to  the  London 
market.  In  arctic  conntriea,  the  haunt*  of  the  P, 
Are  not  mountain -tops,  but  low  valleys  and  plains 
even  to  the  sea-shore.  In  form  and  babiti,  it  inucli 
resemblea  the  Moorfowl  (q.  v.),  but  is  rather  smaller. 
The  winter  plumage  Is  pure  white,  except  a  black 
band  above  the  eye  of  the  male,  and  some  p^rts 
of  the  quill  and  tail  feathers.  The  summer  plumage 
il  as  beautifully  adapted  to  the  conctalment  of  ^e 
bird  from  enemies,  by  iti  harmony  witli  the  general 
aapect  of  the  ground,  as  that  of  winter ;  tbe  nude 
beiQ);  mostly  brownish- gray,  with  undulating  lines 
of  black  ;  the  winga,  middle  tail-feathers,  and  under 
parts  of  the  body,  white ;  tbe  female  similar,  but 
with  a  prevalent  yellow  tinge.  The  pliunage,  how- 
ever, varifa  very  much,  according  to  age,  sei,  and  the 
season  of  the  year.  Ftarmi^;ans  seem  to  trust  very 
much  for  safety  to  the  facility  with  which  they  are 
able  to  elude  onservation,  whether  among  the  tnowa 
of  winter  or  the  lichen- covered  rocka  in  summer, 
and  an  unaccustomed  sportsman  is  often  startled 
by  a  covey  apringing  up  close  beside  him,  of  which 
be  had  not  previously  observed  one.  The  P.  is 
capable  of  bems  tamed,  and  baa  even  been  found 
-to  breed  in  connnemenl.  The  voice  of  the  P.  is 
ft  low  croaking  cry.  The  name  P.  is  a  modification 
«f  tbe  Gaelic  name.  The  Sod  P.,  said  to  occur 
in  tbe  north  uf  Scotland,  and  to  be  common  in 
Uorway,  seema  to  be  merely  the  common  species 
in  a  particular  state  of  plumage. — The  Moorfowl 
fq.  V.)  ia  a  species  of  Ftamugan. — Another  is  the 
WiiLOw  P.,  or  WiLWW  Grouse  (L.  taliedi),  of  the 
northera  ports  of  tbe  world,  abundant  in  the  arctic 
parts  of  America,  and  in  Norway,  from  which  great 
Dumbers  are  brought  to  the  London  market  Its 
summer  plumage  much 'resembles  that  of  the  moor' 
fowl;  but  its  winter  plumage  is  white.  It  does' 
not  inhabit  regions  so  cold  or  lofty  as  the  common 
P.,  but  loves  thickets  of  willow  and  dwarf-birch. 
It  is  fouud  in  Europe  oa  far  south  as  the  valleys 
of  the  Alps.  In  North  America,  it  is  partially 
migratory. —There  are  other  species  in  Siberia, 
IcHand,  the  Bochj  Mountains,  the  mountains  of 
Mexico,  &C. 

PTERI'CHTHTS  (Gr.  wing-lisb),  a  genus  of 
ganoid  fishes,  peculiar  to  the  beds  of  the  Old  Ked 
Sandstone  measures.  Fragments  of  the  bony  case 
bad  been  found  in  Russia  as  early  as  1313 ;  in 
1840.  they  were  described  aa  belonging  to  a  tiah  to 
-which  the  generic  name  Aaterolepia  was  given.  In 
the  same  year,  the  late  Hugh  Miller  euiibited  to 
tbe  members  of  the  British  Association  the  first 
B)tecimen  which  gave  an  idea  of  the  form  of  the  fish, 
and  to  this  ARasaiz  applied  the  geoerally -received 
name  of  P.,  from  the  wing-like  appearsoce  of  the 
-pectoral  spines. 

The  head  and  anterior  half  of  the  body  wero 
oovered  with  hard  ganoid  platea,  fitting  closely 
to  each  other,  and  forming  a  strong  protecting  case. 
Ibe  remainder  of  the  trunk  was  flexible,  and 
(wvered  with  small  scale*-  The  fish  was  furnished 
-with  a  small  dorsal  da,  and  the  body  terminated 
in  a  heteroceroal  tail ;  but  neither  of  these,  from 
their  soft  texture,  ia  common  in  the  fossil  speci- 
mens. The  creature  was  not  fitted  for  rapid 
motion.  The  [lectoral  spines,  which  were  at  first 
«iToneoasly  supposed  to  be  fins,  were  more  probably 
'   '  '  '       '    "B  they  were 


■  of  defence,  and  perhaps  tl 


e  along  the 


Pteriehthyi  UOleri  [Doisal  SntfMe).— I^om  Owsn. 

with  tubercles  like  the  trunk.    Twelve  specie*  ui 

the  genua  have  been  described. 

PTE'ROCLES.    See  Gakoa. 

PTEKODA'CTTL  (Gr.  wing-finger),  a  remark- 
able  genus  of  fooil  liiarda,  peculiar  to  the  Secondair 
strata.  Its  anomaloua  atructure  was  long  a  puxzw 
to  comparative  anatomists.  Blumenbach  consi- 
dered it  a  palmipede,  or  web-footed  bird ;  while  it* 
original  deacriber,  Collini,  and  other  more  eminent 
naturalists,  referred  it  to  the  mammalia,  finding  it* 
nearest  allv  in  the  bat  The  careful  investigatioua 
of  Cuvier,  however,  shewed  that  the  P-  was  a  true 
lizard,  but  possessed  of  the  power  of  flight,  which  it 
performed,  not  by  a  membrane  stretched  over  its 
ribs,  like  the  living  dragons,  but  more  as  in  the  bats, 
exceptthat  tbe  wing  WEis  attached,  not  to  several,  bat 
only  to  a  single  finger — the  fifth — the  others  being 
free  and  short  The  bones  of  the  fifth  finger  were 
very  greatly  elongated,  and  the  last  joint  terminated 
in  a  long,  slentur,  unguarded  aj;ex ;  the  terminal 
joints  in  tbe  other  hogers  were  furnished  with 
strong  claws.  Monttll  mis  gnphically  deacribea 
tbe  geuus :  *  With  a  long-snouted  head  and  long 
neck  much  resembling  that  of  a  bird,  bat-like  wings, 
and  a  small  trunk  and  tail,  with  hKertian  afiinities 
in  its  sknil,  teeth,  and  skeleton,  and  «-itb  a  bird-like 
Btructure  of  sternum  and  acapular  arch,  these 
creatures  present  an  anomaly  of  structure  as  untik« 
their  fossil  contempororiea  as  tbe  duck.billed 
ornithorbynchus  of  AusCraJia  to  bving  mammalT', 
The  cranium  ia  small ;  the  jaws  are  long,  and  eith<  r 
armed  with  numcrona,  sharp-pointed  teeth,  or  tooth- 
less, like  those  of  a  bird-  The  eye-orbit  is  very 
large ;  the  sclerotica  consists  of  a  ring  of  bony 
plates,  and  the  nostrils  are  placed  near  the  orbits. 
The  cervical  vertebrn  are  large  and  strong,  and 
capable  of  great  flexibility  backward*  and  forward*, 


PTEROUTS— FTOLEUAIO  STSTEM: 


protiaUy  to  allow  the  hnul  to  tall  bank  to  the  centoe 
of  gravity  daring  flieht.  Tbi  dorsal  vertebne  are 
from  IT  to  20  in  number.  The  wurum  u  fonned  hj 
the  ooaleaceuoe  of  two  vertebne  ooly,  m  io  exUting 
nptilea,  and  not  ol  many,  as  in  birdi  and  certain 


FtarodaotyL 


tail  ii  generally  short, 
an  uniuual  character 
with  saariani  i  but  a 
■peciea  with  a  long 
tail  occura  at  Bolen- 
bofcD.  There  are  live 
tola  or  <ligit»  on  each 
foot ;  the  outer  finger 
of  the  foreana  is  ini- 
menaely  elooeated  for 
I  the  Bupport  of  a  mem- 
I  bnnouB  expaneion  (the 
I  impresaioa  of  which  ia 
I  Jireaerved  in  tome 
I  uutaaces) ;  and  the 
[  other  digits  of  fore 
and  hind  feet  tennin' 
ated  in  long  curved 
cUwa.  The  size  and 
form  of  the  eKtremitie*  thew  that  the  Pterodactyl 
wae  capable  of  perching  mi  trees,  of  hanging 
against  perpendicular  turf  aces,  and  of  staniiiug 
firmly  on  the  ground,  when,  with  its  wings  folded, 
it  might  crawl  on  all-foun,  or  hop  like  a  bird.'  The 
famous  quany  of  lithographic  stone  at  Solenhofen, 
of  Upper  OoUCe  age,  nai  supplied  a  great  vanety 
of  these  flying  liurds;  but  the  latest  epecies 
have  been  found  in  the  Secondary  beds  oE  this 
eoantry.  In  the  Upper  Oreeosiuid,  at  Cambridge, 
the  remaiDs  of  a  8[>ecics  that  must  hare  had  a 
apread  of  wing  of  25  feet  acroea.  have  been  foand; 
aid  in  the  Kentish  Chalk,  another  has  been  met 
with  very  little  short  of  this  in  its  dimeosionB.  The 
various  species  vary  ai  much  in  structure  as  in 
fonn,  M>  that  the  original  genus  has  been  lately 
raised  to  tlie  position  of  an  order,  under  the  name 
of  PTTRnsiTTRiA,  and  the  spedea  have  been  arranged 
under  the  following  genera,  cbaracteri«ed  princi- 
pally by  the  structure  of  tbe  jaw  and  teeth  ;  Pttro- 
dactglut,  in  which  the  jaws  are  fDmiahed  with  long 
■lender  teeth  along  their  wiiole  length ;  ffamp/ior- 
k]/acku*,  with  the  extremities  of  the  jaws  smooth, 
probably  furnished  when  living  with  a  homy  bill, 
and  towards  the  hasea  of  the  jawu  having  four  or 
^ve  strong  teeth  ;  and  Dimorpliodon,  with  laroe 
Btronz  teeth  in  front,  and  small  shorter  ones  behind. 
Near^  30  gpedee  have  altogether  been  deactibed. 
PTE'ROMTS.  Sae  Fliiko  SqciKBBi. 
PTEROTODA  {Gr.  wing-footed),  a  cU«  of 
inolliiscs,  faaving  for  their  ooly  organe  ot  locomotion 
wing-like  fins  attached  to  tbe   sides  of  tbe  head 

or  QBck,   one   to  each 

^^^:-J^ZSt=r-.':-'--  '^^>    by   which    thev 

=^  tirH  — ".  '~.  ~      mnke  their  way  throngn 

tbe  water, flapiung  them 

docs  its   wings   in  the 
air.    They  are  allied  to 
Oanteropoda,    but    are 
infurior     to     them      in 
orgaoisition ;  and  their 
wings    aie   not    at    all 
homolugoiia  to  the  /ool 
Example  of  the  Pteropoda    of  that  clasa.    They  are 
iCteoderapj/ramidata).        henuophtxMlite.         The 
bead    u  perfectly   dis- 
tinct in  some,  bnt  obscurely  distinguished  from  the 
bodjr  in  others.    Thoee  which  have  the  bead  most 
distinct,  aa  Clio  (q.  v.),  have  no  shell,  and  form 


the  order  Oynmotomata ;  those  with  Qte  bed 
indistinct,  the  order  TVucofomala,  have  i  tlui 
eztemal  shell,  which  in  some  ii  gk^nilar,  with  iliti 
for  the  wings  to  pass  through,  in  some  triugnla 
and  pyramidal,  in  some  corneal,  in  aoms  dippcp 
■baped,  to.  All  the  species  are  marine  ;  tbej  in 
■mall  and  delicate  creatures,  vety  lively  and  K6n, 
always  in  quest  of  food,  and  afTonUng  food  ta 
fished  and  cetaoeana.  They  are  found  in  sll  puti 
of  the  world,  aome  of  them  in  imowase  namben 
in  tropical,  and  some  in  arctic  seas.  None  U  thtn 
ara  commoo  on  the  British  ooaath  Tbe  genera  sid 
tpeciea  are  few, 

PTOLEMA'IO  STSTBM  of  Astronomy,  n 
called  from  Ptolemy  (q.  v.),  its  chief  expouniler, 
was  originated,  however,  long  before  his  tune,  sud 
was,  in  fact,  merely  an  attempt  to  reduce  to  t 
scientific  form  tha  common  and  primitive  notiitti 
qoneerning  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies.  B 
was  implicitly  adopted  by  Plato,  Aristotle.  Hif- 
parcbus,  and  (with  the  exception  of  tbe  Pjlliuc- 
reans,  and  probably  of  Pythagoras  himself)  sll  Uh 
eminent  physicists  and  pbiloenphen  of  snnat 
times)  passing  from  them  to  the  Byzsntina  ud 
Arabs,  who,  especially  the  latter,  were  tbe  araiii 
of  disseminating  it  through  Western  Europe,  «ben 
it  continued  to  be  the  univerBally  ntabUahal 
doctriuB  till  tbe  I6th  centnry.  The  primsry  ud 
fundamental  doctrines  of  this  system  ate  thit  tb 
earth  is  tbe  centre  of  the  universe,  and  thit  tba 
heavenly  bodies  revolve  round  it  in  circles,  ind  it 
a  uniform  mtc  These  notions,  which  are  nitnnllf 
suggested  by  the  first  general  aspect  of  tbingi,  tir- 
ing, previous  to  any  accurate  observation,  estibliibcJ 
themselves  as  nnquestionable  axioms,  phenoi«ns 
which  were  found,  on  closer  examination,  to  ts 
inconsistent  with  them,  were  explained  by  tbe  intn- 
duction  of  additional  hypotheses.  Hie  belief  tint 
the  earth  is  the  centre  of  the  universe,  w»»  isp- 
cordance  with  the  lelitios 
ts  of  which  the  mstetid 
world  was  supjiosed  to  be  composed.  Thus,  earth, 
the  most  stable  of  the  elements,  held  the  lonA 
]ilace,  aud  supported  water,  the  second  in  onler; 
above  water  was  placed  air,  and  then  fire,  etlier 
being  supposed  to  extend  indefinitely  above  tbt 
others.  In  or  beyond  the  ether  element  were  «^ 
tain  zones  or  heavens,  each  heaven  containinj:  a 
immense  crystalline  spherical  shell,  the  BBtDeit 
enclosing  the  earth  and  its  superincumbent  de- 
ments, ud  tbe  larger  spheres  enctoaiDK  the  aDlDer. 
To  each  of  these  spheres  was  attach^  a  hesveoly 
body,  which,  by  the  revolution  of  the  ciyttaUiii^ 
was  made  to  move  round  the  earth-  Tbe  tint  or 
innennost  sphere  was  that  of  the  moon,  and  ifta 
it  in  order  came  those  of  Mercury,  Vomi.  tlie 
Sun,  Mars.  Juuter,  Saturn,  and  the  li^  ttUK 
eight  in  alL  To  this  system,  later  astroooBm 
added  a  ninA  sphere,  the  motion  of  which  dmnld 
prodnoe  the  precession  of  the  Eqaiooies  (q-v.), 
and  a  f«nfA,  to  oause  ths  alternation  ot  day  sal 
night  This  tenth  aphete,  or  priautm  mo/iiU,  wM 
su)>posed  to  revolve  from  east  to  west  in  S4  bean, 
and  to  carry  the  others  along  with  it  in  its  mctim ; 
but  the  Ptolemaio  astronomers  do  not  ventnra  to 
explain  how  this  was  done,  although  sines  tbe  axn 
of  motion  of  the  printum  laMie  waa  that  of  tb* 
equator,  its  extremities  being  the  poles  of  tbe 
heavens,  while  that  of  the  nmtb  sphoe  *a>  tks 
axis  of  tiie  ecliptic,  some  explanation  was  oeriaislT 
necessary.  As  observations  of  the  heavant  becsM 
inereased  in  accuracy,  it  was  found  1^  tbl 
heavenly  motions  were  apparentlj  not  nnifon 
and  tjiis  was  exj^ned  as  follows :  TIm  accdf 
ration  of  tbe  sun  on  one  side,  and  t 
the  other  aide  of  hia  orbi^  is  only  ■ 


PTOLEMAIS-FrOLEMY  IL 


resulta  £ram  the  euih  not  being  in  the  centre  of 
hie  sphere,  0  (see  fig.),  but  at  £,  and  oonaeouently 
bit  motion   appeals  to   be    slowest    at   f »  and 


quickest  at  R  The  alternate  progression  and 
regression  of  the  planets  was  accoonted  for  b^ 
supposiog  them  to  move,  not  directly  with  their 
crystallines,  but  in  a  small  cirde,  whose  centre  was 
a  fixed  point  in  the  ciyrtalline,  and  which  revolved 
on  its  axis  as  it  was  carried  round  with  the  latter; 
thus  (fig.)  the  planet  was  earned  round  the  small 
circle  ABD,  as  that  circle  was  carried  round  PQR 
(now  supposed  to  represent  the  planetary  crjrstal- 
line).  The  planet,  while  in  the  outer  portion  of 
its  small  cii^e,  would  thus  have  a  forward,  and 
in  the  inner  portion  a  backward  motion.  The 
larger  cirde  was  called  an  tooentrie^  and  the  smaller 
an  ephyde.  This  theory  of  eooentrics  and  epicycles 
aatisfied  the  early  astronomers ;  but  further  mvesti- 
g^ation  shewed  its  incompleteness,  and  in  later 
times  it  was  found  necessary  to  explain  newly- 
discovered  discrepandes  by  heaping  epicyde  upon 
epicycle,  till  sucn  a  complication  of  the  system 
liad  been  produced,  as  drew  from  Alfonso  X  of 
Castile,  to  whom  the  P.  S.  was  beins  explained,  the 
humorous  though  somewhat  blasphemous  remark, 
that  *if  the  Deity  were  now  to  reconstruct  tiie 
world,  he  (Alfonso)  could  give  him  a  few  useful 
hinta'  As  soon  as  astronomers  came  to  understand 
and  test  the  Ooperniean  Theory  (q.  v.),  the  venerable 
and  disorderly  pile  of  hvjx>theses,  the  then  repre* 
aentative  of  iLe  P.  S.,  which  had  reodved  the  papd 
aeal  of  infallibility,  and  had  in  various  forms  held 
enpreme  sway  over  the  minds  of  men  for  twenty 
centuries,  at  once  crumbled  to  atoms,  and  sunk  into 
oblivion. 

PTOLEMA'ia    SeeAdtK. 

PTOXEMY  I.,  son  of  Lagus,  is  also  known  by 
his  surname  Sotbr,  or  the  Preserver.  He  was 
believed  by  some  to  be  the  son  of  Philip  of 
Maoedon,  because  his  mother,  Arsiuoe,  had  oeen 
a  concubine  of  that  kiug,  his  father  being  a  Mace- 
donian of  humble  station.  P.  acted  as  one  of 
Alexander's  generals  in  his  eastern  campaigns ;  and 
when  the  possessions  of  the  great  conqueror  were 
divided,  after  his  death  at  Babylon,  323  b.  a,  Egypt 
fell  to  tbe  lot  of  the  son  of  Lagus.  Troublee  soon 
followed  such  an  acquisition ;  out  P.  was  a  man 
of  energy  and  valour,  and  not  only  warded  off 
danger  from  his  own  realm,  but  also  extended  his 
dommions  by  the  addition  of  Phoenicia  and  Ccde- 
Byria,  capturing  Jerusalem,  too  (most  probably  in 
this  expedition),  by  assaulting  it  on  the  Sabl>ath- 
day.  In  316  B.a,  war  again  broke  out  between 
P.,  Lysimacbus,  and  Casaander  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Antigonus  on  the  other.  (See  these  nameaj 
It  lasted  tdl  301  B.  a ;  and  at  its  condusion  P.  was 
left  in  noesession  of  almost  the  same  territory  as 
be  ruled  at  its  commencement*  with  the  exception 
of  Cyprus,  which,  by  the  naval  battle  off  Saleunis 
in  tbat  island  (306  B.  a),  was  gained  by  Antigonus. 
P.,  however,  recovered  Cyprus  in  295  B.  a,  and  it 
was  thereafter  attached  to  tke  Egyptian  kingdom. 


After  said  battle  of  Salamis,  in  306  b.  a,  Antigonus 
assumed  the  title  of  king,  which  example  P.  and 
the  other  successors  of  Alexander  foUuwed.  In 
306  B.  a,  P.  compelled  Demetrius,  the  valiant  son  of 
Antigonus,  to  raise  the  siege  of  Bbodes,  for  which 
deliverance  the  Rhodians  were  so  grateful  that  they 
worshipped  him  as  a  ddty,  and  conferred  on  him 
the  title  of  Soter,  or  Preserver.  The  latter  part 
of  his  rdgn  was  peace.  He  governed  his  kingdom 
with  an  enlightened  and  vigorous  policv,  and  so 
laid  the  foundation  of  that  prosperity  whic^  ^GTP^ 
enjoyed  for  many  succeeding  generations.  He 
encouraged  commerce,  and  soon  made  Alexandria 
the  great  mart  of  the  Mediterranean.  He  fostered 
literature,  science,  and  art ;  and  not  only  founded 
the  famous  Museum  and  library  of  Alexandria,  but 
also  entertained  at  his  court  the  votaries  of  the 
Muses ;  Eudid,  the  geometrician ;  Stilpo,  the  phi- 
losopher ;  Philetas,  the  elegiac  poet ;  Zenodotns,  ^ 
grammarian  ;  Antiphilus  and  Apelles,  the  painters ; 
with  many  others.  The  history  of  Alexander's  wars, 
by  P.,  is  the  basis  of  Arrian's  work  on  the  same 
subject  Two  vears  before  his  death,  wluch  occurred 
in  283  B.a,  he  abdicated  in  favour  id  his  son, 
Ptolemy  Pluladelphus.  His  idgn  extended  from 
323to285B.a 

PTOLEMY  XL,  sumamed  Prtladelphus,  was 
the  son  of  Ptolemy  I.  and  Berenice.  He  was  bom, 
309  B.  o.,  in  the  island  of  Cos.  His  reign  is  remark- 
able rather  for  the  successful  cultivation  of  the  arts 
of  peace  than  of  the  practice  of  war.  Except- 
ing a  contest  with  his  naif-brother,  Magas,  for  the 
province  of  Cyrene,  his  wars  against  Syria  are 
almost  the  only  military  exploits  which  interfered 
with  the  prosecution  of  those  designs  for  the  im- 
provement of  his  kingdom,  which  have  rendered  his 
name  famous  among  wise  and  enlightened  sovereigns. 
He  carried  on,  witii  even  increued  zeal,  the  good 
work  which  his  father  had  besun.  He  enriched 
the  library  of  Alexandria  with  aU  the  literary 
treasures  of  his  own  and  of  earlier  times,  and  the 
museum  was  crowded  with  the  learned  from  all 
conntries — ^with  such  men  as  Theocritus  and  Pbile- 
tas,  the  poets;  Eudid,  the  geometrician ;  Aristarchus 
and  Aratns,  the  astronomers;  Tbeodorus  and 
Hegesias,  the  philosophers ;  and  many  more.  Tradi- 
tion alleges  tnat  it  was  by  his  orders  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures  were  translated  into  Greek,  and  the 
version  called  the  *  Septuagint '  (q.  v.)  thus  formed. 
He  induced  Manetho  to  write,  in  Gredc,  a  political 
history  of  Ejgypt,  and  an  account  of  the  rdi- 
gious  tenets  of  the  EWptians.  He  encouraged 
the  study  of  natural  history;  and  to  facilitato 
the  pursuits  of  those  who  devoted  themselves  to 
it,  he  formed  a  collection  of  rare  and  curious 
animals  in  the  preserves,  which  we  mav  call  the 
'  Boyal  Zoological  Gardens '  of  i^gyptk  He  founded 
many  colonies  in  those  parts  of  nis  empire  which 
seemed  specially  suited  to  become  centres  of  trade 
and  of  emightenment,  and  thus  spread  more  widely 
the  seeds  of  civilisation  and  Greek  culture ;  amonff 
these  was  Ptdemais  (Acre),  in  Palestine.  He  ruled 
over  i^cypt,  Phoenicia^  and  Ccde-Sjyria,  Lycia, 
Caria,  ^prus,  and  the  Oydades,  with  parts  of 
Arabia,  Lioya,  and  Ethiopia^  His  son  Ptolem> 
married  Berenice,  the  daughter  of  Magas,  and  tbe 
province  of  Cyrene  was  thus  peacefmly  brought 
oack  to  his  empire.  Under  P.  Pniladdphus,  Egypt 
rose  to  a  hish  rank  among  the  nations  in  power 
and  in  wealuu  The  surname  of  Philaddphus  was 
assumed  by  P.  to  indicate  his  great  affection  for 
his  sister  ArsinoS,  whom  he  married  after  the 
death  of  her  husband,  Lysimachns.  His  former 
wife,  Arsino^,  daughter  of  Lysimachns,  was  banished 
by  bim ;  and  two  of  his  brothers  were  put  to  death. 

It  is  with  reference  to  this  last  circumstance  that 

823 


PT0LE5MY  nL-PTOLEMY  VIL 


aome  have  explained  the  name  Philadelphns,  as  in 
irony.  By  hia  first  wife,  he  had  two  sons,  Ptolemy, 
his  successor,  and  Lysimachos ;  and  one  daughter, 
Berenice,  mairied  to  Antiochus  IL,  king  of  Syria. 
He  reigned  from  285  to  247  b.  a 

PTOLEMY  III.,  somamed  Kueboetk,  succeeded 
his  father  Philadelphus,  and  reined  from  247  to  222 
B.a  He  made  war  on  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  to 
avenge  tiie  death  of  his  sister  &renice,  who  had 
been  murdered  at  the  instigation  of  Laodice,  former 
wife  of  Antiochus.  He  overran  all  the  provinces  as 
far  south  as  Babylon  and  Susa ;  those  on  the  north 
and  east  as  ^  as  Bactria  and  India,  offered  him 
homa^ ;  and  he  might  have  extended  the  bounds 
of  his  empire  much  further,  had  not  domestic 
troubles  compelled  him  to  hasten  back  to  Egypt 
The  treasures  he  brought  with  him  were  immense ; 
and  amonc  the  things  most  highly  prised  were  the 
statues  ox  the  Egyptian  ^ods  which  Cambyses  had 
carried  off  to  Babylon  m  525  B.  a  It  was  the 
restoration  of  these  to  their  proper  temples  which 
gained  for  P.  the  title  of  Euergetes  (the  Benefactor). 
His  fleets  gained  many  possessions  on  the  coast 
of  the  Mediterraneaii,  such  as  Pamphylia,  Cilicia, 
and  Ionia,  which  remained  for  a  long  tune  subject 
to  Egypt,  though  the  eastern  provinces  recently  con- 
quered soon  returned  to  their  former  sovereign.  He 
pushed  the  limits  of  the  home-empire  further  soutib, 
by  conquering  part  of  Ethiopia,  where  he  formed  a 
colony  and  centre  of  trade  at  Adule.  P.,  like  his 
predecessors,  patronised  learned  men,  and  encour- 
aged the  study  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  He  added 
80  largely  to  the  libraiy  of  Alexandria  that  he 
has  by  some  been  called  its  founder.  Among  the 
celebrated  men  who  adorned  his  court,  and  kept 
up  the  fome  of  the  'Museum,*  were  Apollonius 
Khodius,  Eratosthenes,  and  Aristophanes,  the 
grammarian.  In  his  reign,  the  Egyptian  kingdom 
reached  the  hichest  point  of  military  glory,  pros- 
perity, and  weiuth. 

PTOLEMT  IV.,  somamed  Philopator,  leigned 
from  222  to  205  B.  a  He  was  the  unworthy  son  of 
the  preceding  kin^  His  reign  bc^an  in  blood 
by  the  mn^er  of  his  mower  Serenioe,  his 
brother  Maras,  and  his  uncle  Lysimachus ;  and  it 
ended  in  blood  by  the  violent  death  of  his  wife 
Arsino^  He  abandoned  himself  to  debauchery, 
and  intrusted  the  management  of  his  kinodom  to 
favourites.  Antiochus,  Kins  of  Syii%  profiting  by 
his  indolence,  wrested  from  nim  in  war  some  of  the 
provinces  which  his  father  had  gained ;  but  P.,  at 
length  roused  from  his  lethargy,  took  the  field  in 
person,  and  defeated  Antiochus  at  the  battle  of 
Itaphia.  When  peace  was  concluded,  P.  returned 
to  his  capital,  and  plunged  with  increased  zest  into 
every  vice  and  indulgence.  He  died  in  205  B.  a ; 
his  death  being  hastened  by  his  excesses.  He 
followed  the  example  of  his  father  and  grandfather 
in  patronisinff  arts  and  letters,  and  cultivated 
friendship  wim  the  Romans,  to  whom  he  sent  laige 
supplies  of  grain  during  the  secoud  Punic  War,  but 
persecuted  uiu  Jews,  against  whom  he  had  con- 
ceived a  hatred  in  consequence  of  being  refused 
admittance  to  the  sanctuary  at  Jerusalem  by  the 
high  priestb 

PTOLEMY  v.,  EpiFHAinss,  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  his   father  Philopator,  when  only  ^ye 

5 ears  of  age,  and  reigned  from  205  to  181  B.O.  His 
omioioDS  were  invaded  by  Antiochus,  king  of 
Syria,  and  Philip,  king  of  Macedonia,  while  he  was 
still  an  infant,  and  several  provinces  were  severed 
from  the  Egyptian  kingdom ;  but  the  Romans  at 
length  interbred,  and  peace  was  concluded,  it  being 
arranged  that  P.  should  marry  Cleopatra,  daughter 
td  Antiochus,  and  receive  as  her  dowry  those  parts 


of  his  empire  in  Syria  which  had  been  taken  from 
him.  He  was  declared  of  a^  in  196  B.a,  and  his 
coronation  was  performed  with  unusual  splendoar. 
The  decree  ^ubhshed  on  this  occasion  is  that  wUch 
forms  the  mscription  on  the  far-famed  BomUs 
Stone  (q.  v.).  P.  married  Cleopatra  in  193  B  a  His 
affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  managed  by  tiie  wise  and 
virtuous  Aristomenes,  and  so  long  as  P.  followed 
his  counsels,  all  went  welL  But  the  king's  ear  was 
gxudually  opened  to  insinuations  against  his  ereat 
minister,  wnom  he  ultimately  compelled  to  oiuik 
poison.  While  P.  was  preparing  for  an  expedition 
against  Syria,  he  was  poisoned  bv  some  of  his 
followers,  whom  he  had  alarmed  for  tneir  own  safety. 
Under  him,  Egypt  rapidly  sank  in  prosperity,  power, 
and  reputation. 

PTOLEMT  VL,  Philometob,  reigned  from  181 
to  146  B.a  He  was  very  young  at  his  Other's 
death,  and  the  affairs  of  the  kingdom  were  therefore 
directed  by  his  mother  Cleopatra,  who  acted  with 
remarkable  prudence  and  eneigy.  When  she  died 
in  173  B.a,  the  administration  fell  into  the  hands 
of  two  worthless  ministers,  Euheos  and  Leoeos, 
who,  engaging  in  war  with  Antiochus,  bronght  the 
kingdom  to  the  brink  of  ruin.  The  young  king 
was  taken  prisoner  by  Antiochus  (170  &  a),  who 
hoped  to  obtain  possession  of  the  whole  of  £^t; 
but  his  younger  brother,  also  called  PtxMemy, 
immediatdy  declared  himself  sovereign  under  the 
title  of  Euergetes  IL,  and  took  vigorous  measoies  to 
defend  the  kingdom.  By  the  intervention  of  the 
Romans,  Antiodius  was  compelled  to  return  to  his 
kingdom.  The  brothers  reigned  jointly  for  some 
time,  but  at  length  quarreUed,  «nd  a  civil  war 
ensued  in  which  Euergetes  IL  was  ultimately 
worsted.  The  deputies  ot  the  Roman  Senate^  wb 
now  did  as  they  pleased  in  E^jrpt,  ammg^d  that 
P.  Philometor  should  retain  ^gypt  proper,  while 
Euergetes  IL  should  obtain  Cyrene  as  a  sepanfe 
sovereignty.  This  settlement  substantially  held 
during  the  lifetime  of  the  former,  P.  reigned  35 
vears,  and  died  in  146  b.  a,  from  injuries  reoaved 
by  a  fall  from  his  horse  in  a  battle  against  the 
Syrian  usurper  Alexander  Balaa  He  is  celebrated 
for  his  mild  and  humane  disposition,  which  was 
strikingly  evinced  in  his  magnanimous  treatment  of 
his  unworthy  brother. 

PTOLEMY  VIL,  or  EUERQETES  IL,  best 
known  by  the  nickname  Pbtsoon,  or  Big-beUj/, 
ascended  the  throne  after  the  death  of  his  brother. 
He  married  his  brother's  sister  and  widow,  Cleopatia 
(who  was  also  his  own  sister),  and  on  the  same  day 
murdered  her  infant  son  P.  Eupator,  whom  she 
had  at  first  declared  king.  The  history  of  his 
reign  is  one  unbroken  recora  of  murder  and  blood, 
whence  his  subjects  nicknamed  him  Kahergdei  ('the 
malefactor').  Not  only  relatives  who  sttxxl  in  his 
way  to  the  throne,  but  those  who  opposed  his  acces- 
sion, and  even  innocent  persons,  were  butchered 
with  savage  cruelty.  His  private  vices  and  de- 
baucheries were  equally  infamous.  He  divorced 
his  wife  and  sister  Cleopatra  to  marry  her  daughter 
by  her  first  husband — ^his  own  brother ;  and  when 
temporarily  driven  from  his  throne,  130—127  b  gl, 
b^  the  indignation  of  his  subjects,  who  chose  the 
divorced^  Cleopatra  in  his  room,  the  monsto-  took 
a  diaboUcal  revenge  by  murdering  his  own  and 
Cleopatra's  son,  and  sending  the  head  and  hands 
as  a  present  to  the  latter  on  her  birthday.  One 
is  almost  ashamed  to  add  that  he  retained  the 
hereditary  taste  for  learning,  and  patronised  leaned 
men.  He  himself  wrote  a  work  of  24  books,  cdled 
MemxAr%  {Hypamnimata),  He  reigned  £ram  146  to 
117  B.0, 

Besides  these^  there  are  several  Ptolamies  of  \m 


PTOLEMY-PTYCHODUa 


note— OB,  tor  example,  Ptolimt  VIIL,  or  Sotkb 
IL,  otherwise  called  Lathtrus  or  Lathurus^ 
who  reigned  first  from  117  to  107  B.a,  and  again 
from  89  to  81  B.a ;  also  Ptolvmt  IX.,  or  Alex- 
AKBER  I.,  youngest  son  of  Ptolemy  YIL,  who 
reigned  from  107  to  90  B.a ;  Ftolbmy  X.,  or  Ai^x- 
Aia>BR  IL,  son  of  Alexander  L,  81 — 80  B.a; 
Ptolemt  XI.,  or  Dionysus,  or  Aulktes,  an  illegi- 
timate son  of  Ptolemy  Lathyrus,  who  reigned  from 
80  to  51  B.a  ;  Ptolemy  XII.,  who  reigned  for  some 
time  in  conjunction  with  his  sister  Cleopatra,  and 
who  was  ultimately  drowned  in  the  Nile,  after 
being  defeated  by  Caesar;  and  lastly,  Ptolemy 
XIII.,  younger  brother  of  the  preceding.  Caesar 
appointed  him  joint  ruler  with  Cleopatra,  his  sister 
and  intended  wife.  He  died  by  violenoe  in  43  B.a, 
at  the  instigation  of  Cleopatra. 

PTOLEMY,  a  celebrated  astronomer  and 
geographer,  whose  proper  name  is  Claudiob 
FroLKMicus,  was  a  native  of  Egypt,  though  it  is 
uncertain  whether  he  was  bom  at  Pelusium  or 
Ptolemais  in  the  Thebaid.  Nothing  is  known  of  his 
personal  history,  except  that  he  flourished  in  Alex- 
andria in  139  A.D.,  and  there  is  probable  evidence 
of  his  having  been  alive  in  161  a.  d.  The  chief  of 
his  writings  are:  MegalS  Syntaads  Us  Aatronomiaa, 
which,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  next-mentioned, 
was  probably  denominated  by  liie  Arabs  megirti^ 
the  greatest,  whence  was  derived  the  name  Almagest 
(Arab,  article  al,  the),  by  which  it  is  generally 
known ;  TetralMos  SynUtxis,  with  which  is  combined 
another  work,  called  Karpos  or  CentHoqumm^ 
from  its  containing  a  hundred  aphorisms,  both 
works  treating  of  astrological  subjects,  and  held  by 
some  on  this  account  to  be  of  doubtful  genuine- 
ness; Phaseis  aplanOn  asterdn  hai  synagdgg  episi- 
nuudSrif  a  treatise  on  the  phenomena  of  the  fixed 
Btars,  or  a  s])ecie8  of  almanac;  the  OeSgraphiki 
HypheglsiSf  his  great  geographical  work,  in  eight 
books.  The  rest  of  his  works  are  of  inferior  import- 
ance, and  consist  of  descriptions  of  various  kinds 
of  Projections  (q.  v.),  the  theory  of  the  musical 
scale,  chronological  and  metaphysical  treatises,  and 
a  summary  of  the  hypotheses  employed  in  his  creat 
'work,  the  AlmctgesL  Others  of  P.*s  works  have 
been  lost,  and  it  is  still  a  moot-point  whether  or 
uot  they  contained  a  treatise  on  Optics,  as  a  Latin 
version  of  what  is  said  to  have  been  an  Arabic 
translation  of  P.'s  original  treatise  on  that  subject 
is  still  in  existence. 

P.,  both  as  an  astronomer  and  geopapher,  held 
supreme  sway  over  the  minds  of  almost  all  the 
scientific  men  from  his  own  time  down  till  about 
the  15th  0. ;  but,  and  in  astronomy  specially,  he 
seems  to  have  been  not  so  much  an  independent 
inve8ti<;ator  as  a  corrector  and  improver  of  the 
'work  of  his  predecessors.  In  astronomy,  he  had  the 
labours  of  Hipparchus  to  guide  him;  and,  indeed, 
scTupulouslv  distinguishes  between  Hipparchiis's 
labours  and  his  own.  To  P.  belongs  the  mvention 
of  a  planetary  theory,  the  discovery  of  the  moon's 
£vectiun  (q.  v.),  and  the  singular  distinction  of 
being  the  sole  existing  authority  on  the  subject  of 
ancient  astronomy.  From  this  last-mentioneid  fact, 
the  system  of  astronomy  which  he  sets  forth  in  the 
Almagest  received  his  name;  and,  as  the  Ptolemaic 
System  (q.  v.),  obtained  the  homage  of  snooeeding 
generations  till  the  time  of  Copernicus.  His  grenS 
work,  the  Almagest^  is  divided  into  13  books.  P. 
seems  to  have  been  little  of  an  independent  observer, 
trusting  implicitly  to  his  predecessor,  Hipparchus ; 
but  his  geometrical  powers  were  of  a  very  high 
order,  unfcss,  as  Delambre  suggests^  but  with  little 
probability,  the  elegant  demonstrations  here  and 
there  occurring  in  the  Almagetlt  were  borrowed  from 
other  sources. 


As  a  SQOgraidier,  P.  occupies  a  sinular  position 
to  what  he  holos  in  astronomy ;  he  appears  before 
his  readers  as  the  corrector  and  improver  of  the 
works  of  a  predecessor,  Msrinus  ot  Tyre,  about 
whom,  except  from  P.*s  writings,  little  is  known. 
P.  here  appears  to  more  advantage  as  an  inde- 
pendent investigator,  and  his  improvements  and 
suggestions  are  at  once  more  valuable  and  correct ; 
but  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to  separate  his  data 
from  those  of  Marinus.  His  geography  is  divided 
into  eight  books,  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of 
the  first,  eighth,  and  a  portion  of  the  seventh,  are 
nothing  more  than  a  catalogue  of  places,  with 
their  latitude  and  longitude  (to  12ths  of  a  degree), 
with  a  brief  general  description  prefixed  to  each 
continent  and  country  or  tribe,  and  interspersed 
here  and  there  with  remarks  of  a  miscellaneous 
character  on  an^  point  of  interest.  The  rest  of 
the  work  contains  details  regarding  his  mode  of 
noting  the  positions  of  places — by  latitude  (mikos) 
and  longitude  {platos) — ^with  the  calculation  of  the 
size  of  the  sphere  of  the  earth,  and  of  the  extent 
of  surface  then  known.  He  also  describes  the  mode 
adopted  by  him  of  projecting  the  surface  of 
a  hemisphere  on  a  flat  surface,  and  shews  its 
superiority  over  the  projections  of  Eratosthenes, 
Hipparchus,  and  Marinus.  He  also  constructed  a 
series  of  twentv-six  maps,  tt^ether  with  a  general 
mM>  of  the  world,  in  illustration  of  his  work. 

The  Almagest  and  the  Qeofpuphy  were  the 
standard  text-books  to  succeeding  ages,  the  first 
till  the  time  of  Copernicus,  the  second  till  the  great 
maritime  discoveries  of  the  Idth  c.  shewed  'its 
deficienoiesL  They  have  passed  through  numerous 
editions,  the  beet  of  which  are,  for  the  Almagest 
and  the  most  of  P.*s  minor  works,  that  by  Halma 
(Paris,  1813— 16-- 19— 20,  quarto)  ;  and  for  the 
Oeographyf  the  Latin  versions  of  li82  and  1490, 
published  at  Rome,  the  editio  prmceps  of  the  Greek 
text  by  Erasmus  (Basel,  1533,  4to),  and  the  Elzevir 
edition  (Lugd.  Bat  1619,  fol).  The  catalogue 
of  stars  has  been  frequently  reprinted  separately, 
the  last  and  best  edition  being  that  of  Francis 
Baily,  in  voL  xiiL  of  tiie  Memoirs  of  the  Eoyal 
Astronomical  Society  (London,  1843). 

PTCysIS  (from  the  Gr.  pipto,  I  fall)  signifies 
a  drooping  or  falling  of  the  upper  eyelid,  and 
arises  from  palsy  of  the  third  or  motor  oculi  nerve. 
It  may  arise  either  from  debility,  in  which  case 
it  may  be  removed  by  tonics;  or  from  conges- 
tion of  the  brain,  when  it  is  usually  accompanied 
with  giddiness,  heiEulache,  &c,  and  should  be  treated 
by  bleeding,  purgatives,  and  low  diet;  or  from 
organic  disease  of  the  brain,  in  which  case  remedies 
are  of  little  use.  If  it  occurs  without  an^  apparent 
cause,  and  resists  medical  treatment,  it  may  be 
removed  by  a  surgical  operation,  by  which  the 
eyeUd  is  brought  under  the  action  of  the  occipito- 
frontal muscle,  which  receives  its  nervous  power 
from  another  source. 

PTY'CHOBUS,  a  genns  of  cretaceous  fish, 
foimded  on  large  square  crushing  teeth,  which 
occur  in  considerable  quantity  in  the  Chalk  beds. 
The  crown  of  the  teeth  are  raised  in  the  centre  into 
a  number  of  parallel  transverse  ridges,  and  the  fiat 
margin  is  finely  granulated.  They  were  set,  as  in 
the  Fort  Jackson  shark,  like  a  pavement  on  the 
borders  of  the  mouth,  and  were  admirably  adapted 
to  crush  the  shells  of  the  Crustacea  and  moUusca  on 
which  they  fed.  Larce  dorsal  spines  have  been 
found  associated  with  the  teeth ;  but  as  no  materials 
exist  for  the  restoration  of  the  external  form  of  the 
fish,  the  analogy  of  their  modem  representative,  the 
Port  Jackson  shark,  alone  suggests  that  they 
I  bdonged  to  the  Ptychodus. 


PUBLTCANT— FUBLTC-HOUSBS. 


PUBLIOA'NI  (from  Lat  publicum,  that  which 
is  pnblic  or  belongs  to  the  state),  the  name  sivea 
by  the  Eomaus  to  those  persons  who  farmed  the 
pnblic  revenaes  {veeti(faUa),  These  revenues  were  pat 
up  to  anction  by  the  censors,  and  were  '  sold '  for  a 
period  of  hve  years.  They  were  derived  chiefly 
iTom  tolls,  tithes,  harbour-duties,  scriptura  (the  tax 
paud  for  tibe  use  of  public  pasture-lands),  mining  and 
salt  dnties.  As  the  state  required  the  publicani  to 
give  security  for  the  sum  at  which  they  had  par- 
chased  the  collecting  of  the  taxes,  and  as  this  sum 
was  usually  much  greater  than  the  wealth  of  anv 
single  individual,  companies  {aoeittatfs)  were  formed, 
the  members  of  which  took  each  so  many  shares 
and  were  thus  enabled  to  carry  on  conjointly  nnder- 
takinss  far  beyond  the  capabilities  of  the  s^Mirate 
diarenolders.  Their  contract  with  the  Uoman 
government  was  made  in  the  name  of  a  single 
person,  who  was  called  mancepB^  and  who  was  held 
responsible  for  his  «octi  to  the  state.  Every  Bocietas 
baa  also  a  head-manager  {magiMter\  who  resided  at 
Home,  and  transacted  all  foreign  correspondence  with 
the  inferior  officers  who  directly  superintended  the 
ooUection  of  the  taxes.  In  general,  a  societas  farmed 
only  one  branch  of  the  revenue,  but  exceptions 
occur.  Only  Roman  citizens  were  eligible  as  publi- 
cani, and,  as  a  matter  of  oonrse,  only  the  wealUiiest 
among  these  could  become  such.  After  the  middle 
of  the  2d  c  B.t3.,  the  farming  of  the  pnblic  revenues 
fell  into  the  hands  chiefly  of  the  Equites  (q.  v.). 
By  a  wise  regulation,  no  governor  of  a  Roman 
province  was  allowed,  during  the  period  of  his 
governorship,  to  have  anything  to  do  with  these 
tax-sathering  companies.  The  design  of  this  was 
to  place  the  governor  in  such  a  position  that  he 
could  afford  to  act  justly  towards  the  people,  who 
were  often  cruelly  oppressed  by  the  exactions  of  the 
provincial  underlings— the  'publicans'  of  the  New 
Testament 

PUBLTC  BURDENS  is  a  phrase  in  Scotch  law 
to  denote  the  usual  taxes  or  chains  on  land,  in 
respect  both  of  its  ownership  and  possession.  Such 
are  the  land-tax,  minister's  stipend,  manse  assess- 
ments, Bchoolmastei^s  salary,  poor-rates,  ros;ne- 
money,  road  and  bridge  assessmenta  Public  bur- 
dens, where  no  stipulation  is  made  to  the  contrary, 
f aJl  upon  the  landlord,  and  not  on  the  tenant,  except 
in  the  case  of  schoolmaster^s  salary,  which  is  equally 
divided  between  landlord  and  tenant. 

PUBLIC  HEALTH  ACT  is  an  important  act 
in  England  regulating  sanitary  matters  (II  and  12 
Vict.  c.  63).  It  enabled  local  boards  of  health  to 
be  created  all  over  England.  The  initiative  was 
eiven  to  one-tenth  of  the  rated  inhabitants  of  cities, 
boroughs,  parishes,  and  places  having  a  defined 
boundary,  to  take  proceedings  to  have  the  act 
applied  to  their  district,  whereupon  and  so  to  deal 
systematically  with  sewerage,  drainage,  water- 
supplv,  pavins,  lighting,  watching.  The  General 
Boitfd  of  Healtii  first  send  an  inspector  to  report,  and 
afterwards  direct  the  act  to  appW.  The  act  has 
been  further  supplemented  by  a  family  of  kindred 
acts  called  the  Local  Government  Acts,  the  Nui- 
sances Removal  Acts,  and  the  Prevention  of  Diseases 
Acts.  The  state  of  the  law  produced  bv  these 
combined  statutes  is  very  complicated,  but  the 
result  is  greatly  to  extend  sanitary  improvements. 

PUBLIC- HOUSES  in  England  are  known  under 
two  classes,  viz..  Ale-houses,  also  called  Inns  (q.  v.), 
and  Beer-houses.  The  former  give  board  and  looging 
to  travellers,  while  the  latter  are  mere  shops  for  the 
sale  of  beer  to  be  consumed  on  the  premises. — 1. 
An  ale-house  must  be  first  licensed  by  the  justices, 
before  the  keeper  of  it  can  sell  excisable  liquors  to 
be  consumed  on  the  premises.    The  granting  of  the 

896 


licence  may  be  opposed  by  any  inhabitant  The 
justices'  licence  is  not  enough  to  enable  thepdblicui 
to  sell  liquors,  but  it  is  absolately  essentisl ;  snd  ta 
excise  licence  must  follow,  and  not  preoede  the 
justices'  licenosL  The  licence  is  in  force  tor  one  yeir; 
and  if  any  offenoe  or  misconduct  is  oommitted,  the 
renewal  of  the  licence  may  be  opposed,  and  refued 
on  the  next  meeting.  The  licence  conpelB  the 
keeper  to  keep  unadulterated  liquor,  to  use  only 
\esiX  measures,  not  to  permit  drunkenness  or  unhtv* 
ful  eames,  or  bad  characters,  to  keep  goodotder, 
and  lastly,  not  to  open  his  house,  except  to  tnvellen, 
on  Sundttys  during  the  morning  and  aftersoos 
divine  service.  The  law  as  to  the  opening  of  public- 
houses  during  Sunday  has  been  altea:ed  consioBrably 
of  late  yean ;  but  the  present  state  of  the  law  is  u 
follows :  no  public-house  can  be  opened  for  the  sale 
of  fermented  or  distilled  liquors  before  half-put  12 
at  noon  on  Sunday,  or,  if  the  morning  divine  service 
is  not  then  terminated,  before  such  tenninatbo.  It 
must  be  again  shut  between  3  and  5  p.m.,  and  shut 
altogether  at  11  p.bl,  until  4  A.M.  of  the  folloirio£ 
morning.  Christmas-day  and  (3ood  Friday,  sua 
publio  fast  or  thanksgiving  days,  are  treated  u 
Sundays.  The  same  law  applies  to  beer-hooaes  and 
all  nlaoes  of  publio  resort  where  fermented  ud 
distilled  liquors  are  sold.  Travellers  are  expressly 
excepted  from  the  above  rule,  and  the  decisions  i 
courts  of  law  have  settled  the  point  that  a  traTeUer 
iaa  person  who  walks  or  drives  a  few  miles  ont  of 
town,  whether  for  pleasure  or  on  bosinen.  As 
regards  public-houses,  constables  have  the  power  of 
entering  them  at  all  times,  and  it  is  an  offence  in  the 
publican  to  refuse  them  admission. — 2.  Bee^holl9e8 
are  subject  to  the  same  rules  as  ale-houses  on 
Sundays.  They  do  not  require,  however,  to  be 
licensed  by  justice&  Any  person  who  can  pro- 
duce a  certificate  of  the  overseers  that  he  is  the 
occupier  and  tenant  of  a  house  paying  above 
£8  in  the  country,  or  £11  in  large  towns,  and  £15 
in  London  of  rent,  can  demand  a  licence  from 
the  excise,  which  is  renewable  each  10th  of  October. 
A  board  must  be  put  over  the  door,  and  state  that 
it  is  a  licensed  beer-house.  The  keeper  of  a  be^^ 
house  can  only  sell  beer,  porter,  ale,  cider,  or  peny, 
but  not  wine  or  spirits,  though  he  may,  if  he  chooee, 
obtain  a  separate  wine  lioenc&  In  London,  he  mnit 
dose  his  shop  between  midnight  and  5  a.il  of  the 
next  morning ;  and  in  towns  of  at  least  2500  inhabi- 
tants, at  11  P.M.,  and  elsewhere  at  10  p.)L  on  wieek- 
days.  Constables  have  free  access  to  beer-hoosn  as 
well  as  ale-houses.  Though  beer-houses  are  thns 
restricted  as  to  the  hour  of  closing  at  night,  there  is 
no  restriction  on  ale-houses,  except  on  the  Sunday 
nig^t,  aAd  therefore  ale-house  keepers  may  keep 
open  their  houses  all  the  night  long  on  other  days  oif 
the  week,  if  they  think  fitb  But  there  was  a  restric- 
tion imposed  in  1864  by  27  and  28  Vict  c.  H 
whereby  all  public-houses  and  refreshment-hooses 
in  tiie  metropolitan  poUoe-district  must  he  ckieed 
between  1  and  4  a.  if.  Publicans  are,  as  already 
stated,  prohibited  from  allowing  games  in  tiieir 
houses;  and  it  has  been  held  ^at  a  publican 
cannot  even  aJlow  his  friends  in  his  own  hack- 
parlour,  though  it  is  separated  from  the  rest  of  the 
house,  to  practise  this  gaming,  provided  it  is  a  game 
for  money.  There  was  a  restriction  imposed  by  the 
Tippling  Act,  24  Geo.  IL  a  40,  on  l^e  keepeis  of  ale- 
houses as  regards  debts  for  siurita  under  2(k,  by 
which  they  could  not  recover  payment  of  these 
small  scores;  but  that  enactment  was  repede^ 
except  only  as  regards  spirits  sold  to  be  oonsomed 
elsewhere  than  on  the  premises,  and  delivered  to  the 
purchaser  in  less  quantities  at  one  time  than  a  qoari 
So  that  publicans  are  still  prohibited,  by  25  snd» 
Vict  c.  38,  from  suing  for  debts  due  for  um 


PT7BLIC  PROSECUTOR— PUERPERAL  FEVER 


qtumtititti  of  spirits  sent  oat  of  the  hoase  to  pnr- 
cbaseia. 

In  Scotland,  the  law  afifecting  pnblic-hoiues  has 
been  considerably  altered  of  ute  years,  and  the 
ffoveming  statute  is  now  25  and  26  Vict,  a  35. 
Uertificates  for  the  sale  of  excisable  liquors  must  be 
applied  for  to  the  justices  of  t^e  neace,  who  meet  for 
the  purpose  in  April  and  Ootooer.  The  justices 
have  a  discretion  m  particular  localities  as  to  fixing 
the  hours  of  dosing  within  certain  limits.  Certificates 
to  sell  wines  and  spirits  include  power  to  sell  beer 
and  cider  also ;  but  they  muy  be  granted  for  the 
sale  of  wine,  porter,  ale,  beer,  dder,  and  perry  only ; 
or  for  beer,  porter,  ale,  dder,  and  perry  omy ;  so  tliat 
there  are  three  kinds  of  certificates,  corresponding 
to  what  exists  in  England.  The  justices  certifi- 
cate also  must  be  obtained  for  the  spirit  and  wine 
licence,  before  application  for  the  excise  licence.  The 
justices  have  power,  in  special  circnmstances,  to 
regulate  the  hours  of  dosing;  but  the  general  hours 
of  dosing  in  all  cases  are  as  lollows :  the  houses  shaJl 
not  be  open  for  sale  or  drinking  before  8  A.if.,  nor 
after  11  kil,  with  the  exception  of  refreshment  to 
traTellers,  or  to  persons  lodging  in  the  premises: 
and  the  house  shall  not  be  opened  for  tke  sale  of  any 
excisable  liquors,  or  drinking  thereof,  on  Sunday, 
except  for  the  accommodation  of  lodgeiB  and 
traveilera  Though,  however,  on  Sundavs,  travellers 
and  lodgers  onlv  are  to  be  supplied  witn  drink,  this 
is  onlv  so  in  the  case  of  inns  and  hotels ;  for  with 
regard  to  public-houses  proper,  and  spirit  or  beer- 
ahops,  these  are  not  allowed  to  be  open  on  Sundays 
even  to  travellers  or  lodgera  The  certificate  of 
justices  is  granted  on  the  same  conditions  as  to 
good  order  as  in  England.  The  owner  of  any  pro- 
perty in  the  neighbourhood  may  object  to  the  grant- 
mg  or  renewing  of  the  certificate;  Constables  may 
enter  at  any  time  eatins-houses,  if  they  mapwt 
excisable  liquors  are  unmwfully  sold  there.  The 
chief  officer  of  police  is  to  report  to  the  procurator- 
fiscal  the  places  where  intoxicated  persons  are  seen 
frequently  to  issue.  Persons  keepmg  shebeens,  or 
uncertificated  places  where  spirits  or  excisable 
liquors  are  sold  or  drunk,  are  punished  heavily,  and 
also  the  persons  found  drunk  there  may  be  fined 
lOa  The  main  difference  between  English  and 
Scotch  inns  and  public-houses  is  the  shutting  up 
these  for  the  whole  Sunday  in  Scotland.  In  both 
ooimtries,  travellers  are  excepted ;  thoush  the  same 
definition  will  and  ought  to  be  given  to  wat  word  in 
both  countries,  still  there  is  a  penaltv  imposed  in 
Scotland  of  £5  on  any  person  who  f  alsdy  represents 
himself  to  be  a  traveller,  so  as  to  procure  entertain- 
ment and  drink  in  an  inn ;  whereas  no  such  penalty 
is  imposed  in  England,  the  only  person  who  runs  the 
risk  there  is  the  mnkeeper  himself,  and  he,  of  course, 
cannot  be  convicted  unless  it  is  shewn  he  actuaUy 
knew  that  the  party  representing  himself  to  be  a 
traveller  was  not  so.  The  policy  of  these  restrictions 
on  the  closing  of  inns  and  public-houses  on  Sunday 
has  been  much  discussed  of  late  years. 

PUBLIC  PROSECUTOR.    See  Pbosecutob. 

PUBLIC  SCHOOLa    See  S0HOOL& 

PUD,  or  POOD,  a  Russian  wdght  which  contains 
40  Russian  pounds — almost  equivalent  to  36  Englidi 
pounds  avoirdupois. 

PUDDING,  although  a  word  in  such  common 
use,  and  so  generally  understood,  is  very  difficult 
to  define,  for  there  are  few  preparations  of  cookery 
so  varied.  It  may  be  considered  one  of  the 
national  dishes  of  Great  Britain;  in  no  other 
country  is  it  used  so  extensivd^  by  all  classes  of 
the  people.  The  plum-pudding  is  the  glory  of  an 
Engush  table,  and  is  regarded^  as  an  essential 
on  all  festive  occasiona    biddings  are  dther  made 


of  dough  simply  boiled  in  a  cloth  or  basin,  and 
with  or  without  other  materials;  or  they  may  be 
made  of  a  batter  of  flour,  or  other  farinaceous 
material,  and  water,  and  poored  into  the  pudding- 
doth  and  boiled ;  or  into  a  dish  and  bak^  It  la 
common  also  to  make  fruit  and  meat  puddings,  by 
roiling  out  dough  or  paste  into  large  flat  sneets, 
and  enolonng  the  fruit  or  meat  entirely  in  them, 
and  then  tymg  them  up  in  the  pudding-cloth  and 
boiling  them.  These  are  the  genera)  characters  of 
this  <fish,  but  the  redpes  for  varying  the  details 
are  innumerable. 

PUDDING-STOKE,  a  rock  composed  of  water- 
worn  pebbles,  cemented  together  by  a  firm  paste.  It 
is  now  more  generally  known  as  Conglomerate 
(q.  v.). 

PUDDLING,  a  process  by  which  wells,  ponds, 
canals,  &&,  are  linea  with  clay  or  loam  impervious 
to  water.    See  Embakkmbztt. 

PUE'BLA,  or  PUEBLA  DE  LOS  ANGELES, 
a  city  of  Mexico,  capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name, 
stands  on  a  fruitful  plain,  7381  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  76  miles  east-south-east  of  the  city  of  Mexico. 
In  the  vicinity  are  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  and  other 
lofty  mountains.  It  was  founded  in  1531,  and,  aiter 
the  capital,  it  is  not  only  the  most  populous,  but 
also  the  most  industrious  dty  in  the  empire.  Its 
streets  are  r^uhur,  broad,  and  well  paved.  The 
houses,  which  are  frequently  three  stones  in  height, 
are  flat-roofed,  covered  with  varioudy-coloured 
tiles,  and  profusely  ornamented,  both  inside  and 
out,  with  fantastic  paintings  resembling  frescoes. 
There  are  44  fountains,  and  the  water  ub  supjdied  by 
means  of  an  aqueduct  It  contains  69  churches,  9 
monasteries,  13  convents,  and  23  theological  coUeges. 
On  the  great  square  stands  the  cathedral,  an  impos- 
ing buiMing,  the  interior  of  which  is  decorated  in 
the  most  sumptuous  manner  with  ornaments  of 
gold  and  silver,  paintings,  statues,  fta  Ajnong  the 
numerous  educational  institutions,  there  are  several 
of  the  highest  class.  There  are  also  hospitals,  tbe 
government  and  the  bishop's  palaces,  chariW  schools, 
and  other  -  benevolent  institutions.  Tlie  more 
wealthy  inhabitants  are  accomplished,  refined,  and 
benevolent ;  but  the  lower  dasses  are  esteemed  the 
most  demoralised  in  the  empire.  Glass,  earUien- 
ware,  soap,  woollen  fabrics,  and  sword-blades  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  (1862)  85,000.  After  a  siege 
of  three  months,  the  Mexican  troops  surrendered  to 
the  French,  May  1863.    See  Vsba  Obuz, 

PUE'RPERAL  FEVER  is  the  most  fatal  disease 
to  which  women  in  childbed  are  liable.  It  has 
been  described  under  various  other  names  than  that 
which  is  now  assigned  to  it— as  Childbed  Fever^ 
Peritoneal  Fever ^  &c  A  careful  investigation  of  the 
records  of  more  than  two  centuries  shews  that  the 
disease  prevails  epidemically,  and  that  it  is  more 
virulent  m  lying-in  hospitals  than  in  private  practice. 
The  essential  nature  01  the  disease  is  a  subject  that 
has  led  to  the  expression  of  many  different  opinions. 
The  views  that  it  is  (1)  inflammation  oftheuteruSf 
(2)  inflammation  of  the  omentum  and  intestinea,  (3) 
peritonitie,  either  alone  or  connected  ioith  eryeipdae^ 
(4)  fever  if  a  special  nature,  (5)  disease  of  a  putrid 
character,  or  (6)  a  disease  (fa  complicated  nature,  have 
all  been  advocated  by  physicians  of  high  reputation ; 
and  Professor  Scanzoni,  one  of  the  highest  German 
authorities  in  the  department  of  miowifery,  main- 
tains that  the  disease  originates  in  an  altered 
condition  of  the  blood,  and  consists  mainly  in  the 
presence  of  pus  in  that  fluid.  This  variety  of  views 
IS  doubtless,  in  a  great  measure,  due  to  the  varied 
characteristics  of  different  epidemics.  When  * 
disease  is  epidemic,  it  is  always  difficult  to  ascer^ 

tain  whether  it  is  contagious;  but  in  the  case  d 

8S7 


PUEBPEBAL  FEYEB-^FUERPERAL  MANIA. 


puerperal  fever,  there  is  an  orerwhelming  amonnt 
of  evidence,  not  only  that  the  virus  can  be  carried 
by  the  practitioner  from  one  parturient  woman  to 
another,  but  from  vaiious  otner  morbid  sources; 
the  peculiar  condition  of  childbirth,  and  possibly 
certain  atmospheric  conditions,  rendering  the 
mother  peculiarly  susceptible  of  such  contagion. 
Kumerous  series  of  fatal  cases  have  been  traced 
back  to  the  medical  man  or  nurse  having  imme- 
diately before  been  in  attendance  on  a  case  of 
erysipelas,  of  sloughing  sores,  of  gan^ne,  or  of 
typhus  fever.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Kokitansky  and 
others  that  the  morbid  matter  acquired  by  the 
dissection  of  subjects  not  dying  from  this  disease, 
may  excite  the  disease  in  a  patient  shortly  after- 
wards delivered  by  the  dissector ;  and  there  is  no 
doubt  that  any  one  who  assists  at  the  paat-mortem 
examination  of  a  puerperal  patient,  becomes,  as  it 
were,  a  focus  of  intense  contagion.  Considering  the 
extreme  severity  and  undoubted  contagious  nature 
of  this  disease,  the  practitioners  and  nurses  who 
come  in  contact  with  it  should  wash  their  hands 
either  with  a  weak  solution  of  chlorine  (which  has 
been  found  of  great  service  in  destroying  the  con- 
tagion in  the  great  lying-in  hospital  at  Vienna),  or 
in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime,  as  well  as  with  soap 
and  water.  Moreover,  persons  much  engaged  in 
midwifery  would  do  weU  not  to  take  any  part  in 
pMt-moriem  examinations,  especially  when  the  death 
resiilted  from  this  disease ;  and  when  of  necessity 
they  are  present,  they  should  wear  a  special  dress  for 
the  occasion,  and  take  every  precaution  as  to  ablution. 

Puerpoal  fever  occurs  in  such  varied  forms  that 
numerous  divisions  or  species  of  it  have  been 
suggested.  The  late  Dr  Gooch,  one  of  the  highest 
authorities  on  this  subject,  divided  puerperal  lever 
into  (1)  the  it^mmatoryaad  (2)  the  typioid  ;  while 
Dr  Robert  Lee  and  Dr  Ferguson  (two  of  the 
Idlest  living  authorities)  make  four  divisions. 

Inflammatory  puerperal  Jever  is  most  commonly 
due  to  peritonitis,  but  may  depend  upon  inflamma- 
tion of  the  uterus,  the  ovaries  and  uterine  ap})end- 
ages,  the  uterine  veins,  &c.  The  ordinary  symptoms, 
in  the  most  common  form  (namelv,  when  there  is 
peritonitis),  are  rigors,  followed  by  heat  of  skin, 
thirst,  flushed  face,  quickened  pulse,  and  hurried 
respiration.  The  abnormal  heat  of  the  skin  soon 
subsides,  and  is  followed  by  nausea,  vomiting, 
pain  in  the  region  of  the  womb,  commencing  at  one 
spot,  and  extending  over  the  abdomen.  This  pain 
increases  as  the  mfiammation  extends,  till  the 
patient  presents  the  i^mptoms  described  in  the 
article  Peritonitis.  Tne  pulse  is  uniformly  high ; 
the  tongue  coated;  the  urinary  secretion  dimin- 
ished, and  often  passed  with  difficulty:  while  the 
intellectual  faculties  are  rarely  affecteo.  Five  or 
six  days  are  the  avera^^e  duration  of  this  disease, 
which  may  prove  fatal  on  the  first  day,  or  may 
extend  to  ten  or  eleven  days.  In  some  epidemics 
(as,  for  example,  in  Paris,  in  1746 ;  in  Edmburgh, 
in  1773 ;  and  in  Vienna,  in  1795),  none  recovered. 
Dr  Ferguson  states,  that  *  to  save  two  out  of  three 
may  be  termed  good  practice  in  an  epidemic  season.' 
The  treatment  so  closely  resembles  that  which  is 
required  in  ordinary  acute  Peritonitis  (q.  v.),  that 


it  is  mmecessaiy  to  enter  into  any  details  raid- 
ing it. 

Typhoid  or  maUgnaiU  puerperal  feoer  may 
oommence  in  various  ways,  but  is  always  accom- 
panied with  fever  of  a  low  typhoid  character,  and 
with  the  symptoms  which  usually  are  associated 
with  such  fever.  Treatment  is  of  kttle  or  no  stsII, 
and  the  patient  usually  sinks  at  the  end  of  a  few 
days,  or  even  hours. 

PUERPERAL  MANIA  comprehends  many 
forms  and  degrees  of  mental  derangement  In  the 
experience  of  Esc^uirol,  these  forms  presented  the 
following  proportions:  of  92  cases,  49  eidiibited 
symptoms  of  mania ;  35,  those  of  monomania ;  and 
8,  tnose  of  dementia.  The  points  of  agreement 
between  these  widely-differing  moral  phenomena 
are,  that  they  occur  during  some  stase  d  child- 
bearing,  and  that  they  can  be  traced  to  physiod,  but 
not  necessarily  common  physical  causes.  Insanity 
is  developed  either  during  pregnancy,  shortly  after 
parturition,  or  during  nursing.  Under  whatever 
circumstances  the  malady  may  arise,  it  is  one  of 
exhaustion,  debility,  and  prostration;  and  this  is 
nearly  equally  true,  whether  it  be  characterised  by 
depression,  languor,  and  pasdvenesa,  or  by  extreme 
excitement  and  violence.  The  latter  are  the 
features  by  which  it  is  generally  recognised,  and 
which  have  justified  the  name  by  which  it  is  gener^ 
ally  known.    The  similarity  to  ordinary  frenzy  is 

great :  there  is  the  same  watchfulness,  fury,  inco- 
erence,  the  same  vitiation  of  the  secretionB,  and 
emaciation;  and  the  chief  differoices  between 
these  affections  consist  in  puerperal  insanity  being 
invariably  traceable  to  disturbanoe  of  the  drcnla- 
tion,  or  to  animal  poisoning,  and  in  the  short  dura- 
tion of  the  great  majority  of  cases.  The  protasis 
is,  in  fact,  so  favourable,  recourse  to  sedosion  in 
an  asylum  so  painful,  that  it  has  been  proposed 
to  treat  all  sucn  cases  at  home,  or  that  a  distinct 
hospital  or  sanatorium  should  be  established 
exclusively  for  them.  When  it  is  stated  that 
a  physicu  cause  may  be  detected  in  tiie  ipaet- 
peral  condition,  this  must  not  be  oonstru<^  as 
excluding  the  psychical  elements  which  enter  into 
the  production  of  all  such  affections;  Thus,  it  was 
found  by  Macdonald,  that  of  66  cases,  only  6  could 
be  attributed  to  a  purely  physical  origin ;  and  that 
in  the  majority,  fright,  or  anxiety,  or  anger  had 
formed  the  last  or  principal  of  that  series  of  con* 
ditions  which  culminated  in  alienation.  It  not 
merely  affects  feeble  and  hysterical  females  more 
than  others,  but  in  a  marked  manner  those  belong- 
ing to  tainted  families.  Of  66  patients  in  the 
Bloomingdale  Asylum,  17  laboured  under  a  heredi- 
tary  tendency  to  mental  disease.  As  connected 
witn  this  point,  it  may  be  mentioned  that  unmarried 
are  more  Hable  to  the  disease  than  married  women, 
in  the  proportion  of  11  to  2.  This  great  disparity 
may  partly  be  explained  by  the  fact,  that  tiie  fallen 
and  imfortunate  are,  more  than  any  other  dass  of 
females,  compelled  to  seek  shdter  in  Uiose  institn- 
tions  from  which  such  statistics  are  obtained. 
— Reed  on  Symptoms,  Catises,  and  T^renimat  of 
Puerperal  Insanity;  Marc^  Folie  des  Feminet 
£neeinkSt  de»  JfcuveUes  Acoouch6e9  et  des  Novarrkes. 


SND  OF  TOL.  TIL